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 .\foniN,f'^ Hiiuratiottal Snri 
 
 fn 
 
 A Modern 
 English Grammar 
 
 nv 
 
 HUBF.R (iRAV BL l.lflJ.R 
 
 '^ ►K'.LIsm" 
 
 •*«' 111 M. nxtt 
 
 EDITED FOR CANADIAN SCHOOLS WITH A 
 HISTORICAL AI'l'LNIilX 
 
 ■V 
 
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Rntiir*<l ■I't-nntinK l<> An nf lh«> Parlianirnt of I'Mtiailii in Itir \rar 
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 M 
 
EDITOR'S PKEFACH 10 THE 
 CANADIAN HDITION 
 
 Th> etiitor has lift-n c.irfful to dinturh in no way the 
 .Mlniirahlc arranni-nunt of Mr. Huelilcr'h "MiKkrn 
 Knylish (Jramniar.' To hritij; it int.. haniionv with 
 our malrimlation rt<|uinincnts Ik has in a few plans 
 Kivcn additional infonnation, an in the treatment of the 
 conJi>oun(l noiuj. and ..f inTinitives and participles, and 
 haK nuule minor alterations where it steme<l advis4d)le. 
 In writin^r the historical apjiendix he has l>een careftd 
 not to enter into too ^reat detail, hut has rather sought 
 in a snjj^jestive way to interest the stndent in the jjreat 
 laws which determine the ^'rowth and decay of Ian 
 iiWii^v. Vet the editor can affirm from his ex|x.'rience 
 as an examiner fr»r the Province that while the hist;)r- 
 
 ical account is free from burd 
 
 ensome detail it contains 
 
 all that is essential f 
 
 or matriculation and for thi 
 
 advanced examinations in the department. 
 
 Toronio, May. 1901. 
 
 'mK KlMlftK. 
 
t' I; 
 
 'ft. 
 
 K^Tiij 
 
 !k.- l-i 
 
 ¥ J 
 
 ^ W 'IB?*^. 
 
 ■.«> ■■ ■< #: 
 
 f„..„^ 
 
 _■?*►! 
 
 -!«iW^^wjpii|^llfcifllj|Sg 
 
teili:\li-llF»_ 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 T[ns book is an attempt to present the jrrammar of 
 tnoilern luiKlish in the manner preseribed by modern 
 methods of instruetion. 
 
 The jfeneral treatment of tlic subjeet has been deter- 
 mined by two eonsiderations. The first is that when 
 pupils be^nn the study of j;Tamniar, they not only are 
 able to understand the lang^tuiKe of standard English 
 literature, but ihey are eontinually usin.i,^ sentenees of 
 their own with considerable fluency and accuracy. The 
 second is that, though pupils have considerable skill in 
 the use of lanj^uajje, they have little knowled^'c of the 
 nature of sentences and little insight into the funda- 
 mental relations of subject, predicate, complement, and 
 modifier. 
 
 The second consideration makes unsuitable for class- 
 instruction those formal treatises that take for granted 
 a knowledge of the elements of sentence structure, and 
 begin v^^ith the discussion of single words. The first 
 consideration discredits the methfxJ of those text-books 
 which, following the line of progress of a child's first 
 efforts at language, begin with single words, and 
 require pupils to build up the mother tongue bit by 
 bit, as if it were something new and strange. The 
 pupils whom we set to .study grammar learn to use the 
 parts of speech and the various types of the English 
 sentence when they are very young; and they naturally 
 find dry and unprofitable a study which ignores the 
 power and knowledge already acquired. When a new 
 language is to be learned, a synthetic treatment is 
 
VI 
 
 PR K FACE 
 
 natural and interesting Hut when the mother tongue 
 is the subjeet of eritical study, tlie aim is, not t<j learn 
 new forms of speech, hut to investij^ate the nature of 
 forms that are already familiar; therefore the treatment 
 should be analytic. 
 
 With rejjard to arranjj^emcnt, the starting point is the 
 sentence; for surely the first months given to the formal 
 study of the mother tongue should be spent, not in ex- 
 amining the proix'rtics of nouns and the other parts of 
 sixiech, but in learning to separate sentences into sub- 
 ject, predicate, complements, and modifiers, whether 
 these be single words or groups of words, and whether 
 the sentences be long or sliort. These larger elements 
 of sentence structure are the foundations of grammar, 
 and they must be familiar before the pupil is ready for 
 the study of separate words. They influence both the 
 classification and the inflection of the parts of speech; 
 therefore neither the classification nor the inflection of 
 the parts of speech can be effectively studied until these 
 are mastered. 
 
 With regard to method, the presentation is as far as 
 possible inductive, taking familiarity with English for 
 granted, and leading the pujnl to observe, compare, 
 and classify grammatical facts for himself. But while 
 the author has avoided dogmatic instruction, he has, 
 on the other hand, shunned with equal care that vague- 
 ness which results from merely asking the pupil ques- 
 tions and leaving him to answer them for himself. 
 The pupil is not only led to observe for himself ; he is 
 also guided to the right inferences. Whenever, as in 
 discussing some points of usage, it has been necessary 
 to employ dogmatic teaching, care has been taken to 
 speak no more strongly than tlic facts of usage warrant. 
 The forms employed to exhibit graphically the logical 
 

 PREFACE 
 
 VII 
 
 structure (»f sentences — in many books a hindrance to 
 the pupil rather than a help - have received the united 
 attention of the printer and the author in an attempt to 
 make them appeal throujfh the eye directly to the under- 
 stand injf. 
 
 The fund of knowledjfc that pupils brin^f into the 
 class-HMjm has also determined the limits which the 
 author has set to his work. Many things often elabo- 
 rately set forth in text-books may be safely taken for 
 },n-anted as already known. To explain them is a vio- 
 lation of the pedagojfic maxim, " Teach the pupil what 
 he does not know. " Even the analysis of sentences, 
 important as it is, has its limits as a means of instruc- 
 tion and training. In going beyond the general analysis 
 which brings into relief the logical structure of a com- 
 plex sentence we do not help the pupil, but present him 
 with Imguistic riddles that make his native tongue of- 
 fensive to him.' 
 
 As to inflections and the uses of the various parts of 
 speech, these are already known empirically, and the 
 business of the grammarian is simply to help the pupil 
 to systematize his knowledge and to avoid common 
 errors. Distinctions and classifications, if they are too 
 minute or numerous, confuse the mind and loosen its 
 grasp of important things. The author has tried to 
 make a book that will help teachers to awaken in boys 
 and girls what is sometimes called the language sense, 
 and strengthen their grasp of their mother tongue. 
 
 Perhaps the greatest difficulty that confronts the 
 author of a school grammar is the diversity of opinion 
 among grammarians as to the proper classification and 
 nomenclature for certain locutions. Anyone, for ex- 
 ample, who undertakes to present the English verb 
 
 • S, S. Laurie: " Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method in the School," 
 
viii 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 b^xlv H I T '""''= " " '" "y '" Pl-^"* every. 
 My. H,«h an.' reverend authorities lift „., t,,e^ 
 
 Sc"" Th "'?. ""' ""■■" '-^ "" »"^'= '-•■"« "he 
 niiuaic. The authoi can only siiv that h.. k . • , 
 
 t.. fon„w .h„. phi,„I.„ists wh'o I:,'! : it, ;=^ 
 influence current opinion. ^ 
 
 With regard to the exercises, the sentences for analy- 
 
 MS have been chosen as far us possible with rc^'rJ^L 
 
 to ftne literary aualitv Sivr-Jii , ^iv-itnce 
 
 J ^liuiiiiy. v-»j)ecial exercises have ht-.-n 
 
 Mudtnti. The n.,merou8 exercises iK-aring on nues. 
 Uo,,s of Ko,Ki u.sagc have been made practical No 
 sentences for correction have been admi.Ll. M„s, „f 
 he exerctses have been made fuller than usual, since" 
 .s much eas,er to shorten an exercise that is Jlon" 
 ■ I-an to lengthen one that is too short 
 
 The author acknowledjjes his indebtedness for hel„. 
 hl'liTKl'™'.'" *"■■ '^''"""■'' "■ ^'"y- "eadn,aster if 
 
 Professor ;"p^"'' •*'"■ '"-"* "• ^"""*.'. A-istant 
 ZJ ,. c ^^^^^''fy '" 'he Vniversitv of Chicag,, ■ 
 and Mrs. Sarah Ellen Andrew. Teacher 'of En.disMn 
 the Detroit (Mich.) Public High School 
 
CONTFNTS 
 
 IntrcHluction ''*<"' 
 
 I 
 
 PAKT I 
 
 c.MrT.« 'SKVIKNChS AM. IMlik SiKt.T.KK 
 
 I. Of Sciitiiuis ill ( Ifiieral 
 
 11. Of Siil)j(cl .iiul rudic.itr 
 
 21 
 
 III. Of Sul)si;intivc and Veil) 
 
 I\'. Of Coinplcmtnts 
 
 \'. ( )f Mofiititrs '^^ 
 
 VI. or .Suhstanliv,- I'lirascs an.i Clauses ' ^'^ 
 
 \'II. Of Iiulepeiuient KIcmt nts 
 
 \-|| I. Of .Sen.ences as Simple. O mplex. .•,„.! Con,po,'„ul' . .' ." " c/! 
 
 IX. Of Elliptical Sentences 
 
 'OS 
 
 PART II 
 Thk I'aris ok SI'KKCH 
 
 I. Of the Recoj;nition of the Parts of Speech , , , 
 
 II. Of Inflection, Derivation, ami Coii.|)osition , .q 
 
 III. Of Nouns 
 
 147 
 
 IV. Of Pronouns , 
 
 V. Of Adjectives 
 
 VI. Of Articles J'^ 
 
 VII. Of Verbs J'' 
 
 VIII. Of Adverbs. . "^ 
 
 283 
 
 IX. Of Pieposilions. . , 
 
 289 
 
 X. Of Conjunctions 
 
 205 
 
 XI. Ot Interjections. 
 
 . 297 
 
 Al'PKNDIX 
 
 HlSn.R.CAI. SKKICH ... THK EVC, ,kh LaNcIA.^F " ' t, 
 
 Index ^ 
 
 337 
 
Mm: ' 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 1. T^iiiKtiaffo. — Everybody has an instinctive 
 desire to tell his thouj^dits and feelings to others; 
 indeed, exchange of ideas is necessary in social 
 life. One way of expressing thoughts is to make 
 motions with the hands or other parts of the body, 
 as children and deaf and dumb persons do. But the 
 usual and very much better way is to make with the 
 tongue and adjoining organs certain combinations 
 of sounds which by common consent have certain 
 meanings. These combinations of tongue-sounds, 
 by which people express their thoughts and feelings,' 
 form T4in>ruu«re (from Latin lingmx, "tongue"). 
 Combinations of sounds that stand for single ir^'-as 
 are called AV'ords. These are in turn combined into 
 thought-groups called Hentences. 
 
 2. Why Our T^nffuaffo Is Called Kn^llsh. — Our 
 
 language is called English because it is the language 
 that has been spoken for more than fifteen hundred 
 years in England, whence it has been carried to 
 America and other parts of the world by English 
 colonists. 
 
''.' at 
 
 "I "> '*' 
 
 *^i » '* 
 
 |l' " ' 
 
 >"ipi|r'» 
 
 ^..' 
 
 .mM^ 
 
 n 
 
 ■^ <?<; 
 
 
 - 'MKUDL'CTlUN 
 
 3. '»'»»«' *'«rly Homo or KiiKllMi—Iiut the Kiurlish 
 
 lauifuaifc did not have its bcginniuir i., Kn^land It 
 wasearricd there in 449 A. I), by people whoinigraled 
 from the banks of the river !■ Ibe and the sotuliwest 
 coasts <, the Baltie Sea. These pe<,ple were from 
 threetnl,es.calledAnjik.s. Saxons, and Jutes. Ofihe 
 J'^ns who moved to Enghind nearly all trace has been 
 
 MAP SHOWING THE EARLY HOME OF ENGLISH, 
 
 lost. The An^As and the S.r.vo,is drove the onVinal 
 mhabUants--the Britons-into the mountain,^;, 
 parts of the island, and in course of time founded 
 he .lj/o.Sa.on race. They called their new coun- 
 try ' Angleland." or -England;" themselves and 
 their language they called " English " 
 
 The wonderful way in which the English lan- 
 gruage has spread over the world is shown by the 
 accompanying maps. The map cm this page shows 
 
" ..■■■■ r 
 
 v«r»>-- 
 
 iNTKODlcriox 
 
 llic early homo <.f ICnulisi,. when it was a mere 
 dialect of German, spoken by a few tribes. The 
 shaded ix.rtions of the map below show the reiriuns 
 of the world in which English is now used. 
 
 "!C T 
 
 I. ^«> yja^ 
 
 *>^ .» t. 
 
 MAP SirowiNP. THE SPREAD OF THE KNOIIsH LANGUAOt 
 
 How far English has outstripped other languages 
 may be seen from the following table, which shows 
 the number of people speaking the principal Eu 
 pean languages in 1890: — 
 
 ro- 
 
 Knjjlish . . . 
 (leinian.... 
 
 Russian 
 
 FreiK h 
 
 S|)anish 
 
 Italian 
 
 Tortuguese , 
 
 IH.TOO.CXXJ 
 
 75,200,00) 
 
 75.<XX),0O(J 
 
 5 1 , 200,000 
 42.800,000 
 33.400,000 
 1 3.000,000 
 
 4. OM Knsrll.-.h I>inroroiu f,^„„ Modern Kn^Ilsh. 
 
 — Ihe language carried to England by the Anglo- 
 
* INTkODUCTlON 
 
 S.ixo„s wan so unlike ih. iCn^.,.-,,, „f ^,,,, j,,,^^ 
 »«st glance ,t .seems tc be quite a di/Terent tongue. 
 Here, for ex^unple. is the Lord's Prayer in Anglo. 
 Saxon, or C^ld English, with the o>rres,K>nd!ng 
 modern Ivnghsh words printed underneath L 
 
 F«tler ftr.-. ^n p^ c.rt on hr«,frnum 
 /■,i/A,r oHt. thou lh.,1 art /» MiavtHt 
 
 SI ^In n.ini.i k'-IiiIk'oU 
 /// /Ay HiitMi- /i,i//i>wf,/ 
 
 To becurnr Miln rice 
 Arrive thy linj^.fo,,, 
 
 m^<i0H, thy u„ll OH ,arth. u.„s in h,.vuns 
 
 Urne (hpshwamlican l.laf s\ 1,. us to .I.i ,; 
 Our ,/,„fy /,.,,/^i,., ,„ ,^^,,^,y 
 
 W«'/W /W M.« «, '"rote^iptution.fiut/oos.uso/Lv 
 
 SC)>lice. 
 
 Sooth/y {Amen). 
 
 ft. Rcliitlon of 01«1 KnirlUli «« xf . « 
 
 -.Stra„;j«.l,.,k„,j. as this OIJ Kn^lish is, it Tu^ 
 -.ne lanjftUHc as that which wc „se. T,c differ 
 once between it an.l „,„der„ IC.Mish is no more to 
 lc.w,.n<lerc>latthan the difference between a yonnr 
 en, and the same child when ^rnwn to manUT 
 Some knowledge of A„„ ,„„ y has ^rown 
 
 and changed is helpful to the study of it as Ms 
 
^^wiw^m"^.: 
 
 ^ 
 
 ia 
 
 * 
 
 INTKOIJUCTION I 
 
 «. How Our J4iii»iiiiirc lui* <jmwii. — When our 
 language was earned tu Knglaml. it eonsisted ni 
 probably not more than two thousand w«)rd.s, now 
 it contains more than two hundrc»l thou.s;itul— a 
 much larger number than any «»iher language. 
 These new words have come into the language in 
 many interesting ways: — 
 
 (I) /Iri/iiA //'.^'r*A.— When the Anglo-Saxons set- 
 tled in Kngland and drove off the Britons, they 
 adopted some British words, just as the Americans 
 have adopted some Indian words. Of these words, 
 adopted from the Uritons, e amplesare: "cradle" 
 and "crock." 
 
 ROMAN WAIl, IN TIIR NORTH (>K KNCI.AMK 
 
 i'.uilt by ihc KomaiiH as a ilcfense against native tribes. 
 
 (2) Lafi'n Words Found in Britain. — For several 
 hundred years before the arrival of the Anglo- 
 S.ixons. England had been in the possession oflhe 
 Romans. When the Romans withdrew f.um the 
 island in 410 A. I)., they left behind a few Latin 
 
?7^ji:yii 
 
 iMKoni ( Hon 
 
 l--''^ ana ..wall- a.aUu.C/W '""'"' 
 
 78 fen 1.,,,., ,.. f„., ,„ , ,. ""'* '•*»" o^ OABH. 
 
 (3) J//W,,.n. //•..,A.-AI,o,u the year r>oo A n 
 ^-nristiaii tv hicriM . 1 '*' ^'■•'r f>oo A. I). 
 
 i.um> iKjr.ui to l>c rcte veil bv th.. ^i 
 
 i,«« i\«»man missionares- in*! «.;»i .1 
 
 F-xan,, , ;r. "!•: , ,t: ;-f.» f"""' 'he La.i„. 
 •■^•i-k",I.a,i,;,/,„:':f ^'""" """""'""> ''"" 
 
 (-.. /W, 11 W,._T„war<l Iho c„.l.,f ,|,e cVh.h 
 cen „n- X„r«.,„.„ „r r.a„...s ..v.rr.u, par. If t' 
 
 '-"«'"-''• '•••"^""Ples .„,■ : sky ■■ a,„| .. „glj.." 
 
 Norman,,,. c„n„„„c.,, I.:n,.la„<, i„ .he JllZZ 
 men. kncwn as .he X„rn,a„ Invasion.*^ T e Nor" 
 mans, who lamo fr.un Pnn,.,. .„ ■ -,, 
 
 1. n., ., \,a.% f>,r the m.,si part m<>,li(ie<l Utin 
 
IMKuDlcJIuN 
 
 In i:n«I.in.l tluy sci/d the laml an.I all ilu- |>..liiivMl 
 IKiwcr. filk.l all llK ..mccs. an.I nwulc Hair laiiKUaK'e 
 ihc- laiiirviagc ..f the court, the law, thy m,]uhAh, ,uu\ 
 the church. Wc cannot tjwill oti the particulars *,( 
 the trcincnilouM chancre in our lanj(ua«e which was 
 wrought hy this Norman Inva.si.ui. It is cn..u^jh to 
 .H.iy that after thac hundred yearn of e.mtact with 
 Norman-I'rench the ICi^jlish lanKUa^e was very 
 much richer in vocal.ulary an«l si.fter in sound. ( i( 
 the many hundreds of Norman French words in 
 our lanjruajr,. examples are: ••battle." "forest" 
 "duke," and " family." 
 
 (0} ll'onh/roni/.atn,. .Is. -In the .sixteenth een- 
 
 tury, Ihrouj^dj the in/lue 
 
 !ice of what is calle.l il 
 
 keviv.-d of Lv^itmu^. the .study of Latin Ueame 
 very jn.pidar in ICn^d.md. X 
 
 o one w.is considered 
 
 well educated unless he culd read L.uin ; near! 
 
 all 
 
 Lat 
 
 and 
 
 important hooks were written in T 
 in words l>e^ran to api)ear in Knj^lish c. 
 writinjf. Since these Latin-Knglish \n ....is were 
 
 and 
 '.ion 
 
 learned from books, they closely re.scmbled 
 in«: the oriifinal Latin words. Kxamnl 
 
 n spell- 
 
 pies arc 
 
 'ex- 
 
 imple" (Latin r.u„.phnu\ " fact" (Latin >//.,//) 
 
 and 
 
 'quiet" (Latin t/uutus) 
 
 (7) Import,, f Won/s.—Thii descend 
 Anglo-Saxons have alwavs I 
 
 ints of the 
 )ecn great travelers and 
 
 traders; and in their traveling nn,! trad 
 
 have collected words f 
 
 1 n V- 
 
 th« 
 
 •y 
 
 Kxamples are: from Spain 
 
 i-om all parts «.f the world, 
 
 nap 
 
 pian 
 
 f 
 
 mosquit<.;" from 
 
 Germany, "zinc;" from Afri 
 
 rom ifolland. ••sk.nte;" fr 
 
 om 
 
 ca, "gorilla;" from 
 
8 
 
 INTRODt'CTION 
 
 B 
 
 the American Indian, •• hammock " and - tomato" 
 from Arabia. ..sofa- from China, '.silk;'* from 
 India. ..suijar;- from Persia, ''awning;- from 
 lurkey, '.tulip." ^ 
 
 (8) New Words for New 77//V...--Ncw discoveries 
 and inventions, as they have occurred, have given 
 n-^w words to our language. Examples are : ' . pho- 
 tograph •• and ' ' telephone. " 
 
 Kn«il.sh.— The proportion of words in modern Juu- 
 lish which have been drawn from the sources just 
 described maybe roughly represented as follows :- 
 
 Old En-,'Iish WonJs I 
 
 Cireek Words 
 
 Latin Word- 
 (including Norman- French) 
 
 Iiali.in Spanish. Dutcl). HdJfesv. Arabic" 
 r^''S''»"' A'lierican Indian, etc. 
 
 8. Changes In Our r^iiKuuKo.— Our language has 
 not only grown ; it has changed. 
 
 (I) y>/ ////..//.;;,.._01d English was what is called 
 a highly inflected language. An inflected langua<re 
 IS one that joins words together in sentences Sy 
 means of "inflections" or changes in the words 
 themselves. For example, in Old English ova'. 
 meant "oxen " oxena meant "of oxen." oruut meani 
 with oxen. Accordingly, instead of saying is 
 we do " tongues ./oxen." our Anglo-Saxon ances" 
 
-. iNrkoi)rcrn)N 9 
 
 tors said " tiinKuii osvivr." Traces of these word- 
 clianyesor inlkctions still remain in our language: 
 as, "sin^f," "singj." 
 
 (2) /// Ort/ir of Words.— 'Y\\K^ order of words in ( )ld 
 English was clumsy and involved. For example, 
 instead of saying as we do, — 
 
 When Darius saw tlial he would be overcome, 
 
 our Anglo-Saxon ancestors would have said, 
 
 When Darius saw that he o\ercume be would. 
 
 (3) /// Sound.— K )ld English was a guttural speech, 
 full of harsh, ehoking sounds. For exami)le, our 
 •' holy" was once "halig," our •* bridge" was once 
 " ^^njjg" (as in Scotland to this day), our " day " was 
 once "dacg," our "light" was once pronounced 
 like the Scotch "licht." 
 
 9. How Chansres Cnmo About. — The greatest 
 changes in our language occurred between 1 100 and 
 1500 A. D,, that is to say, during the four centuries 
 that followed the NormanfMuquest. Tiie storyof the 
 changes is too long to be told here; but some idea 
 of how they came about may be gained by noticing 
 what happens to-day when a foreigner who has only 
 half learned English tries to speak it. lie mispro- 
 nounces the words, arranges them after the manner 
 of his own language, neglects the inflections. In 
 somewhat the same way, when the Anglo-Saxons 
 and the Norman-French became one people, and 
 their languages were fused into modern English, 
 sounds were modified, iiic order was changed, and 
 inflections were dropped. 
 
AftsdnasiKir w. 
 
 lO 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 7.1 
 
 lO. UinvcxiaKo Htm Hubjet't to Chan^e.-Sinte 
 
 the invfiuion of priritinif, chancres in English have 
 not been numerous; for the vast number of printed 
 
 EARI.V PRINTINT. PRESS. 
 
 books and papers, and the immense spread of the 
 ability to read and ^.vrite, have given to our lan- 
 guage a rigidity of form which it could not have 
 so long as it existed chiefly on men's tongues. For 
 example, the language of the English Bible, which 
 is sixteenth-century English, differs little from the 
 English of to-day. But some change is still going 
 on, for modifying i ^fluences are still at work. Eng- 
 lish-speaking people in different parts of the world 
 do not talk exactly alike ; new words are coming in ; 
 old words are dropping out; the forms and uses of 
 other words are changing. An example of this 
 modern change is found in the word ' ' whom. " The 
 
L Kiiifmm^'i^. ..m. 
 
 T«i^N^ 
 
 INTROnLCTlON ,, 
 
 "m" in this word is an inflection, once useful in 
 I conveying meaning:; and wu still say, when we wish 
 .t to speak very accurately, "Whom did you see?" 
 m But since the "m" is no lony^er necessary to the 
 
 meaning-, people have become very careless about 
 
 using it, and even good speakers often sav, " Who 
 
 did you see? " 
 
 11. CJooil KnKll!=«h. — Good English is the English 
 used by the best speakers and writers; and the use 
 of such F'lglish is " only a phase of good manners." 
 Bad English, that is, English unlike that which is 
 used by well-informed and careful writers, produces 
 in the mind of a well-informed reader an impression 
 of vulgarity or ignorance similar to that which w.; 
 get from seeing a person eat with his knife. It 
 with language as with clothes and conduct. Persons 
 who wish to be classed as cultivated people must 
 not only dress and act like cultivated people ; they 
 must also speak and write like them. A help toward 
 this end is the study of grammar. 
 
 18. Crammar. — Grammar is an account of the 
 relations which words bear to one another when 
 they are put together in sentences. An understand- 
 ing of these relations requires some knowledge of 
 the nature, the forms, and the history of words, but 
 only so far as these bear on the uses of words in 
 sentences. The proper starting point of English 
 grammar is the sentence. The discussion of words 
 considered by tiiemselves belongs to the dictionarv. 
 
2^'^'vil,* - 
 
 13 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 13. Vmm of Oramnmr.-ii is not by grammar 
 however, that we learn lo .s,«ak or wrL Sc 
 •ng and writing our mother tongue are S' 
 ormeU by imitation long before tx- aequire thai 
 knowledge whieh is the .subject.natter of gn^mmar 
 l.e o bjeet ,,f the s.u.ly of gramn.ar is to learn U.e 
 .ses of wonis in .sentences, so that we may test the 
 habits of speeeh which we have already acquired 
 and make them conform to the best m.Klels.^T^! 
 dentally the study of grammar affords invaluable 
 mental training. 
 
 14. CJmn,mai^,oiaft„ci New.— Among English- 
 speaking peoples grammar was first studied as a 
 step toward the learning of Latin, and the first 
 English grammar was ealled an " Introduaion to 
 Li y s Latin Grammar." The author of t >at first 
 English grammar, keeping his eye on Latin rather 
 than on English, and making his work conform to 
 Latin models, treated English as if it were in all 
 important respeets like Latin and Greek, with no 
 history or laws of its own. As a matter of fact. 
 English differs greatly from other languages. In 
 structure it is essentially Anglo-Saxon. Yet the 
 mistake of the first English grammar was followed 
 by succeeding books for nearly four hundred years. 
 Now we have learned better, and study our language 
 ^^ ith reference to its own nature and history 
 
PART 1 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 

 itJ 
 
 I 
 
twm ^T tiF ' 
 
 I 
 
 If 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 OF SKNTKNCES IN (JKNKkAL 
 
 15. Meiwun.l IMimMi-M.— -The word "clog," when 
 heard or scon, instantly creates in the mind a men- 
 tal picture of a well-known animal. This mentil 
 picture is called an ii.ka. The idea may be made 
 more definite by the addition of other words as 
 "The bijr bulldo^r i„ Mr. Smith's yard; but thouifh 
 the Idea is now complex, that is. has several parts, it 
 still remains a single mental picture. 
 
 Dcfinition.^K group of related words e.xpressintr 
 a single idea is called a PhiniHe. 
 
 10. ThouKhts ana Hentences.— The phrase "The 
 
 b,g bulldog in Mr. Smith's yard " is satisfactory as 
 an expression of a mental picture or idea ; but as a 
 remark made by some one it is incomplete, for we 
 at once find ourselves asking. •« Well, what about 
 hat dog ? We are satisfied when we hear thai 
 I he big bulldog in Mr. Smith's yard W.v/." 
 trom this group of words we get more than a 
 single Idea. We get. first, the idea of a certain 
 dog, and secondly, we get an idea of what the dog 
 dd. Of these ideas, the second is an assertion 
 about the first Two ideas of this kind-somethlg 
 though of and an assertion about it-together form 
 a complete thought. 
 
 Definition.-K group of related words expressin^r 
 a complete thought is called a Hentenee. 
 
•^7zmi 
 
 ■ i 
 
 l6 SENTENCKS AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 17. H€>iitenc'CM uiid lMirtU4«>M DlHtlniruliihcHl. 
 
 "The big bulldog barking in the yarU" is not a 
 sentence, for it contains no assertion. •• Barking" 
 does, indeed, imply action ; but it does not assert. 
 It is merely a descriptive word, like •' big." helping 
 to nil out the mental picture of a certain dog. about 
 which as yet no assertion has been made. •• Big" 
 shows the size of the dog. -barking" shows his 
 occupation, " in the yard " sh.)ws his whercabo'its; 
 what the big dog barking in the yard did, we have 
 yet to learn. The ^sords as they stand express a 
 single complex idea, not a thought; that is. they 
 form a phrase, not a .sentence. The phnise will 
 become a sentence if we add ana.ssertion : as, "The 
 big' bulldog barking in the yard/r/^V/Amv/ ;//,/" or 
 if we connect "dog" and "barking " bv an assert- 
 ing word like " is." which turns the w,/>/fh/ action 
 into an asstrtcd action: as. "The big bulldog is 
 barking in the yard." In either case we .shall 
 have two separate ideas, one of which is an asser- 
 tion about the other. 
 
 Qmry : What other asserting words might be 
 used in the la.st .sentence instead of "is"? 
 
 EXERCISE 1. 
 
 I. Ti-n tv/iich of the folUnvitig groups of ti'ords are 
 phrases and ivhieh are sentences. Make sentences out of 
 the phrases by adding appropriate asserting -words: 
 
 1. The man in the moon. 
 
 2. The man in the moon came down too soon. 
 
 3. The boy in blue. 
 
,„-i.^.-ii- 
 
 - . . AiiSL,J5J&^i. flO ■■.^aiLix 
 
 OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL 
 
 4- The f)oy rtt.ting his Icsgon. 
 
 5. The fxjy in blue rtcitinir his lesson. 
 
 6. i he »H,y reciting his lesson u n.y brolher. 
 ;. Mis attempt to catch the Iwll. 
 
 «. A |)riiiirosc hy tlic rivers biim. 
 
 9. A rolhi.g sK.iu- gathers no moss. 
 10. 1 he chiUIrn, playiny ,„ ,1,,. street. 
 II Wssels carr>mjrc«)al. 
 
 12. I he apples hai.Kint. on the trrp. 
 
 13. W.nnuls made by wor.ls are hard to heal. 
 
 14. Chiirlcs. s«-,i„y a crowil in th- stre.t. 
 
 •S- Th.. Kirl at the sprinji. having hiinf he-r pi.cher 
 l^>. To play fofitliail well. 
 
 rm,,, mdshou' lliat tluy arc sailcm.s. 
 
 • , , »»M«intu.— Kxan ie tlie sentences 
 
 in tiic followin^r conversation :_ 
 
 nomU: I found these big apples i„ «ra„dfather's barn. 
 Dorothy: Show us where you jjot them. 
 J'tik: Are there any more left ? 
 //^/<-«.- Aren't theybcauti s! 
 
 Yo„ obsen-e that. , the f.rst sentence, Donahrs 
 
 thought ,s a r.(,„„, or a co„„„a,„i : f„ ,he third 
 Jacks thought is a «.„„,/„„, i„ „,e f„„,„,, ,r,.len's 
 hought .seems at first glance to be a question about 
 
 iwrrtht::;^'^''"' ?""'<=-«-- 
 
 that th. r 1 ^ V ' •"""'-' "''^^ *'^^''^''^''^' '^•""^s 
 
 t.iat the apples are beauties. As a matter of fact 
 
 I? 
 
•a SENTENCES AND TJIEIK STKUCI UKE 
 
 Hhc is merely cxprcssinif her delight by an rxt/ama. 
 tioM, which ha.s the interrojfative form. 
 
 /^^A^'/'^'WJ— Sentences that iu«»crt are called 
 AMM<«rtlvv NontoiiccM. 
 
 Sentences that iisk are called Ii,t..rn»«.»ilv.. h,.|i- 
 Sentences that command are called im.H.mtlvo 
 
 H«>llt«>||Ct>M. 
 
 When assertive. interr<.K:ative. an<l imiK-rative 
 sentences are used as exclamations expressinir 
 stronfiT feelinjr. xhvy are called V.xvUxuuxu^ry 
 
 H4'lltl'lUM»»4. 
 
 EXERCISE 2. 
 
 I. We iill do f.u|c as a leaf. 
 
 a. Fear Ciinl. Honor ihc king. 
 
 .1. The kiPK' is dead ! Ung live the king » 
 
 4- A living dojr i, better than a de.id lion. 
 
 5. Can a man take fire in his lx.som.and his clothes not Ik- burned? 
 
 6. 
 
 Half a 1. M^ri,,.. half a ie.igue, 
 
 H.ilf a leayfue onward. 
 All in the valley of death 
 Ro<le the .Six Hun<lr.d. 
 " ^■orward. the Light Hri(jade! 
 Ch.irge for the guns ! " he s;iid. 
 Into the valley of death 
 Rode the .Six Hundred. 
 * ♦ • ♦ 
 
 When can their glory fade ? 
 () the wild charge they made I 
 
 All the world wonder'd. 
 Honor the charge they made ! 
 Honor the Light Urigade. 
 Noble Six HundrcU! 
 
Jm^r 
 
 ^1^' ..;»ilii^^l -^^jj^: 
 
 OF SKNTKNCKS IN GKNEKAl. ,, 
 
 n». Wrlii*.,! Ht.|.i,.,u..^.- In writing, llic firsi 
 wor.l uf every .sentence Ix^ins wul, a cajMlal klUr 
 
 I he end of an a.Hsertive or an inii,erative senienec 
 .H nurked hy a iK..ri.xl (.). The en.l of an u.u.rro.ra. 
 .yc sentence rs marked by an interroKalmn ,...nt . >, 
 U hen the sentences are exclamatory, thene markn 
 are changed to exclamation iH.inis (!;. 
 
 EXDRCISE 3. 
 
 I. /Fr/y. ruv assrrrnr s.nUmus about noUd nun. 
 2. lint, two tnurro^-atnr snUnucs. ^. Write two hn 
 hratr.c ,aUa,as, 4. //>//.' an ..ulamatory scntauc. 
 
 «o. A.M.rtIvt, H«.nton,.o. M.»«f ro.nn.on.-Nfost 
 
 sentences are a.s.sertive in character. Internuralive 
 and jmiH^rative .sentences are like as.scTtive sen- 
 tences ,n fundamental .structure, the diflerence be 
 niK often only a difTerence \n the order of words- 
 as. Can he sing? - •< H,. can sin;,.- Therefore' 
 m our .study of sentence-structure, we .s lld^ p^^^k 
 ch.eny of the a.s.sertive sentence, takin,. i aT^he 
 tyi>e-form. ** "^ 
 
 not yet sai^ „ htn^ eH, i^/"" 'f 7'"" "^^' ^--- ^^ V- f^-' 
 
 >'.u yourself ^^^^:::^TJ:':t^:::^:''^'"^-^ 
 
30 
 
 SKNTKNCF.S AND THF.IK SIRUi lUKE 
 
 :l 
 
 a i^-H^k. whH h Im.| ,m, p«rt. ^..h. hUm .,( ,1,. ,«.rv.n who h4d 
 .4u^. .1. ,vu„. ..,., .,.e HI... or wlM. ,..., p,.r^,. ,!..., .K,..r. tV. 
 '»HM.Kl.i ,.n, ,H.,h..,„ r,,»rr».c.l |» ,h« wor.U. " I cul my,^!!''. . 
 MMtr.uc wlMch h.u iu.> ,Mru t.»rrr,,,..„,|l..« i., ihc two ,Mru ol 
 
 ...nHKKlyrou, my«lf -,. A per-m h.anng .h.«. wor.U wou 
 
 .Ml. ihc ,i,,ftn,m in other w..r.U. ihr „. t.„ .,n,| ihe ,f. / 
 
 Wh..p, >«u were o,ue fr,«(„.-nc.l by .» „..,^ ,„ , .,,,k r.K..... If 
 ^ .he ex. l..m.u.or, • Oh f • probably e,pre,,r.| yo„r (car. -a KlinK 
 wh,ch W.U ,.„m«l,n,cly followed in your min.l by . ,hon«h. co,* 
 ^..n.nK .wo ,Mr.,. •• Th.u ^wha. u i. ? • ,4,in« ufj- u^ 
 IMrU .UKCher an ,.lea of «,„K-.h.nK. a„,| a ,u. ry ..bo... ., J" 
 iHrha,,. e,pr.,«..I your ihouKb. in .he .p.eM.on. •• Wlu, i, ,ha, > " 
 Smnlarly. .f you .b.„.,.| ^ a .h.l.l aln.u. ,o e... a ,H,iv.nou. 
 herry you w..ul.l .ay ,,u,. kly. ..Throw ,ha, away." I,, ' h., ca«: 
 the .houBh, arou.t.l by wha. you M^e .ake, ,h. fo,r„ «f ., co,„. 
 nunc!, u „h .wo .ar.. as l^-fore wha. K u, be .lone. an<l ,hc ,Hr,o„ 
 -»'o „ .o .U, ..; bu. ,he lat.er i, no, non,-!. Ucau..- yiu .ve 
 »|)eakmK «" h'm. and to name huii u unmccMary. 
 
wj^^' m.£MMmj^^tj0 
 
 ClIAI'TKk II 
 
 or sinjKi T AM) IkKIHiATK 
 
 «tf. Two \tM.,.^irv l^iMH lo Kyvry H«.„t,.,...».. ^ 
 
 hxatninc the followinj^ .sciUcnccM: 
 
 
 NwiiihiK I'lirt, 
 
 AwH-rlliiif I'Mrt, 
 
 ^ 
 
 Kirc burns. ~^ 
 
 I nit tiusrif. 
 
 Thr vho«)l Ik-II hin Jum riinji 
 
 The biK buIUIoK m Mr.SmithHyanl b.irk.-.l at iiir. 
 
 Y.»u ohscrve that each sentence has two parts- 
 tl.e nam.njc pari an.l an assunin^ pari-and thai 
 lx)th parts are necessary. 
 
 a:j. 8ulUt'c.t H...I PrtHlieut,. i>,.«,KMi._The part 
 of a sc.ntence which .ktmles that about which an 
 ■isscrtu.n is made is ealle.l the Hnhjcc-t. 
 
 ...Ktri 'M"^ :« vnVK sentence ,h. pn-elicnte o.««.«,A. «,, ,h. 
 s-'rv . a^, LiM^n (yc) ; •• Don't |youJ fortjct." 
 
22 SENTKNCKS ANI; THF.IK STRUCTURE 
 
 EXEBCISE 4. 
 
 irn/v out a thou^^ltt or a /a/i,i^^r s,^^r^r,sf„i /y, ,,,,;, ,^ 
 t/ic Jollo-u'ing sitbji'its : — 
 
 1. I'lowcrs 
 
 2. Lions -. 
 
 3. Indians . 
 
 4. Stars . 
 
 5. Chalk . 
 
 6. Fanners . 
 
 7. Chicktns 
 
 «. IkTS . 
 
 EXERCISE 5. 
 
 9. I . 
 
 10. He . 
 
 11. Who ? 
 
 12. My desk . 
 
 With ,vhat subjects t.'ould the Jolloiviug predicates be 
 otpropruiie^' 
 
 1. sinj,'. 
 
 2. clinik 
 
 3- spin. 
 
 4- trot. 
 
 5- grow. 
 
 6. arc playing. 
 
 7- • will be here soon. 
 
 o. [s < oniinjr .> 
 
 9. C.in ride a bicycle? 
 
 10. Iwice was thrown. 
 
 11. What larj,'e muscles h<is ! 
 
 12. will help me.' 
 
 84. Position of the Siibjoc-t— The subject does 
 not always come first. Thus: 
 
 IV«>«II<'nte. 
 
 Sii!).|o<.t. 
 
 Up went the balloon. 
 
 Then burst his mij,dity heart. 
 
 There was a little man. 
 
 The last of all the bards was he. 
 
 In the shade of the great elm trees stands a weather-beaten house. 
 
 Sometimes the subject is put l^etwcen parts of 
 the predicate like a wedjre. I„ the followincr sen- 
 tences, for example, the subjects are printed in 
 italics: — 
 
 Is Fred coxxxm^} 
 
 Where do fiincafiphs grow .' 
 
23 
 
 OF SI'IJJIXT ANF) rkKDICATE 
 
 Hinv f.ist the smno falls ! 
 
 .^I.mly and s.ullyarl,,ulhi.n down. 
 
 :y ""■ ^"''* '"' ""'^' '^- •V''"'^-/"- .narched into ,I,e arena 
 
 Has --iury/>,p,na r/u- .u.ss ..rought l.i.s i,ook ? 
 
 4^ E; EFCISE 8. 
 
 EXERCISE 7. 
 
 y './ nc a o/ iiu following sentences :— 
 
 „'• '^\'''i^'^^vaydoc.s the wind comr > . Un fl..v»; .», • , 
 all. 3. I>ownwent,lu.Roval(;eor.e a "Fh , . .' -""''"^^ 
 '""•• 5. (;r..at is I,.ana;.f thr? phet,' ' ^T "" "'"^ 
 su.pt wilhin his rrasi, 7 ()„. n '"'*'"■' '^^ T^* " •'>|H^^ars he 
 
 .S. WluTc are those H,,.. "'^^'""■'"'•-" '"°""«> ' ''•'w dose by. 
 
 ->pp-st thou ti^rr a , :;;r r" ':• ,^- ^- ^^--'^- 
 
 -A dainty plant is ^-.^^^^'^T^'^'^^tf'' 
 
 I Mannionofthewave. .3. DouLlS ^le ^h t Ue ^ T 
 
 arc ail Hs wnvs i- Ti, ., it .. ' "^ "•""^- '4- Wise 
 
 «l..l vou find y"u hook r , a"^ ' T" ^"""'■''^^- '^^ ^^hcre 
 ' u iiMu join Dook .-' 17. Arevourfrcndscomin.r? iS tk 
 
 and ,h,s,l..s shall ,he earth brin,. forth ,0 M V.stl!" . k'"""' 
 "line office -'o rv.-f \. ^" restored he to 
 
 ^ ir(. .0. (,reat is your rewan in Heaven -i Of t,- 
 
 I -riy hfe few particulars have reached us. .. oJ^^aJl l!^ \'" 
 
 ;;::::^:::h::tr;r:'''fs^^-"'-'^'''^'-^ 
 
 26. At the door, on suinmer evenings 
 •"^at the little Hiawatha. 
 
 "'■ ,^ t)n the car 
 
 I^rops the light drip cf the suspended oar. 
 
24 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 28. Her wing shall the eagle Hap 
 O'er the falsehcirted. 
 
 29. To seek thee did I often rove 
 Throuj'h woods and on the green. 
 
 30. Stormed at with shot and shell 
 Boldly they rode and well. 
 
 Cm'Tk.n Consl.ler tarefully whether ".lormp.I at wiO, vl.oi .,„( 
 shell belong, ,„ ,he s„l,jecl or to ll,c predicate. l(e on yoi.r b„ .r.l 
 against mi^t;^ke» in similar cases. 
 
 31. The pavement damp and cold 
 No smiling courtiers tread. 
 
 33. Under ihe walls of Monterey 
 
 At daybreak the bugles began to play. 
 
 33- Meanwhile, from street and lane, a noisy crowd 
 Had rolled together, likt- a summer cloud. 
 
 34- In the courtyard of the castle, bound with many an iron 
 
 band. 
 
 Stands the mighty linden planted by Queen Kunigunde's 
 hand. 
 
 35. In the Acadian land, on tlic shores of the Hasin of Minas 
 Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Prc 
 Lay in the fruitful valley. 
 
 36. The castle's bound 
 I wander round, 
 Amidst the grassy graves. 
 
 37. Up and down the dreary camp 
 
 In great boots of Spanish le.it her. 
 Striding with a measured tramp. 
 These Hidalgos, dull and damp, 
 
 Cursed the Frenchmen. 
 
 8.-,. Compound Subjects.— Very often the .same 
 predicate i.s used with two or more connected sub- 
 jects: as, 
 
OF SUMJIXT AND I'KtI.lCATE jj 
 
 ///*• present s< t,u, l/ujuturc lol, his toils, 
 /us -wants, ;ill ' , 
 
 Here lorgottcn. 
 
 JhJutition.-'Wvo or more connected subjects 1,-iv 
 ing the s.une predicate form a O....,.,,....,, «„.,„,:,. 
 
 ««. Co,ni,o,.,ui P|.cMlleutos._Very often the same 
 subject lias several eoiiueeted predicat' s: as, 
 
 Subject. 
 
 CoiliH.t.Ull I'lVllliutf^. 
 
 States /-Ataiul /,?//. 
 
 Charity -v/(^,.,,M ^,^, an. I /v /•/«,/. 
 11- K,„g of Hearts ../A.//,, ,,, ,,,,, ^.„, ,^.^^^ ^^^ , ^^^^^^ 
 
 sore, -' 
 
 ICLJ. ""^ ""^^■^■' '""■■" ^' <•""'«'-> 
 
 t..nc. both .s„hjectan,l predicate ar. compounj ^ as. 
 
 CoillpoillDl S||h.|».«.t, 
 
 S/iri/iLr and 
 
 suinincr 
 
 <>m|M>iiii,I fiVMlIeate. 
 
 ^ 
 
 came and ucnt. 
 
 EXERCISE 8. 
 
 
36 
 
 SLNTtNLKS AND THKIR STKUdUkE 
 
 EXEBCISE 9. 
 
 In the folloxving sentences separate the subjects from 
 the prcdtcatcs. If a subject or a predicate is compound, 
 separate it into its parts :— 
 
 I. She ami her bioilicr were thirc. 
 
 M..I.EI. K.)R Oral Exkrcisk.- The predicate is •w.rc- th.rt •• 
 tl... subject is "Sl.e a.ul her i>r<.ihcr.' a cu,„|,.,un,l sul.ject cons<Jt- 
 in- of "She ■• and -licr hrotlitr."' cuiinected by "and." 
 
 Model for Written Exercise.— 
 
 i». 
 
 ) 
 
 8. 
 
 She 
 
 and \ were there. 
 
 Iier brother ) 
 
 2. Copper and tin are found in Knj;land. 
 
 3- Spring and summer, autumn and wmter. rush by in (luiek 
 succession. ' 
 
 4. Sceptre and crown 
 Must tumble down. 
 
 5. Jack and Jill went up the hill 
 To fetch a pail of w.iter. 
 
 6. The lion and the unicorn 
 Were fighting for the crown. 
 
 7- The stranger came with iron hand 
 And from our fathers reft the land. 
 
 8. Little Ho- Peep fell fast asleej) 
 
 And dreamt she heard them bleating. 
 
 9. Then my heart with pleasure fills 
 And dances with the daffodils. 
 
 10. Only the foolish and the dead never change their opinions. 
 
 11. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the 
 eyeball, and there spreads out. 
 
 12. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables 
 and were fcti .il the same time. 
 
3 
 
 OF SLKJKc T AND I'KF.DICATK 
 
 27 
 
 13. The natives of C, ylon hu.l.l housrs of ,1,,- trunks of cocoa 
 • nue ,,al,«s and thatch the roofs w.th the h-avcs. 
 
 14. In the- lH.st books, nw.a mtn talk to us. ^Wv us their most 
 pncous thoughts, and pou. tlu-ir souls .nto outs 
 
 'y rndrr the benignant influence of peace an.l iilu-rty science 
 Jus tlotmshed. and has been applu.l ,.. prac.cal pur,H.s..s 
 
 .6 I„ Kngland. two hun.lr.vl y.-ars ago. tlu- s.-.us of the gentry 
 nn-niK. ,a.g... f,..,„houses wnc fortdled against .ov.ng U.'JsZ 
 
 21. The common law of Kn<'lari(l kn..^. «,^,i ■ / 
 
 •iai. a„„ .a,.,. „„ „.„„„,„„ nt zi' ;r 'z,: L.::''-'.'',"- 
 
 and any other subjrct. uetweui a soldier 
 
 o'.I.Ts. by sloepinjr on tmn I " ,'''' "'^>' •^'''' ''> -"efusitig to obey 
 no legal penalty at all! ' "" "^' '""""« '^'^ ^•"'-^- "— d 
 "^' The thunder. 
 
 plrhf T'^K '■''' "^'^'"'"^ •''"^' '"'P^'"""^ rage 
 Perhaps hath spent his shafts, and ceases now 
 
 To bellow through the vast and boundless <leep 
 
 24. The t^ind is ,ts own place, and in itself 
 
 Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell c.f Heaven. 
 
 setulc^^r:"""' «»»>Jec.t.-Exami„e the following 
 
 ft rains. 
 
 It is snowing. 
 
 It is growing dark. 
 
38 
 
 SKNTKNCKS AM) TIIKIR STRlCTUKE 
 
 I 
 
 If we try t.> fnul the subjects of these sentences 
 by asking. "What rains?" .-What is snowing?" 
 •• What IS yrowing dark? - the only answer is -It * 
 Hut -If does not here den..te any person or thinjr 
 Ihcrefore it is called an l.u,KM>.onuI s„,u...,, and 
 tae sentence is an Inipei-Honul (StMiteiu-t.. 
 
 EXERCISE 10. 
 
 Makefile itnpcrsonal Si-ntiHCis of your own. 
 
 i?". -It" Kxplc.flvc..-Comparc the foUowinjr 
 sentences: — ** 
 
 OO To find f.uih is easy. 
 
 {/') It is easy to find fault. 
 
 In mcaninjr these sentences arc exactly alike- 
 bnt they dirtcr in (,) form and (2) emphasis! 
 Uuh recrard to form, tlie first sentence beirins 
 with the subject, -to find fault.'" which is followed 
 by the predicate, "is easy;" the second sentence 
 begins with "it." followed immediately by the 
 predicate, which in turn is followed by the subject 
 T he eflfect of the second form is to shift the em- 
 phasis from the predicate to the subject. The .sen- 
 tence tells us. not so much that something is easy 
 as that what is easy is /. fin./ fault. In such sen- 
 tences the introductory word " it " has no meaning 
 and IS therefore commonly called an Expletive 
 (Latin, "fdling up"). Other examples are: " // 
 IS doubtful whether he will come;" " // is certain 
 that the .sun spins like a top." 
 
 In .such sentences, and indeed in all .sentences. 
 
OF SUBJF.CT AND PRFJ)lLAri: 
 
 29 
 
 'M 
 
 the subject is invariably the answer to the (lUcstiuii 
 formed by putting "who- or "what" bef<.re the 
 predicate: as. in the sentences above, "What is 
 certain ? " " What is doubtful ? " 
 
 EXERCISE 11. 
 
 /i // ///«• sitfijW/ ,}mi I III- pndUati- of cocli of tlw fol- 
 lowiufi siHtiniis : — 
 
 1. 1 1 IS ^oo<l to Ik; here. 
 
 2. It (Iocs not pay to worry. 
 
 3. It is not all of life to live. 
 
 4- ll will not suit us to go with you. 
 
 5 ll is easy to see where the fault lies. 
 
 6. Ii is more blessed to give than to i< reive. 
 
 7 It is a goo<l thinjr to jjive thanks unto the Lord. 
 
 8. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 
 
 9- It is said that Paris uses one million oysters a day, 
 
 10. It is said hat in Alaska ho-ses and .ows eat salmon. 
 
 11. ll is not generally known that camels are found in Texas. 
 
 12. It is hard to believe that the finest railway station in the 
 World is in India. 
 
 13- It is excellent to have a giant's strength . but it is tyrannous 
 to use it likr a giant. 
 
 14. It has b.-rn proved by actual measuremei.. th.it ,he ihrtad 
 forming the cocoon of the silkworm is eleven miles long. 
 
 EXERCISE 12. 
 
 Construct five scnteuccs that begin zvith " tt " expletive, 
 and tell the subject and the predicate of each. 
 
 30. "There" Expletive.— Compare the follow- 
 ing sentences: — 
 
 ia) A gust of wind came. 
 
 (b) There came a gust of wind. 
 
y> SKNTF.NCF.S AM) THIIR SIRLcUkE 
 
 Y(,u ..hscrvc that these sentences, too. arc alike 
 m mcaninK^ l)Ut differ in ( ,, f.,rm and (2, emphasis. 
 I he second sentence henins with '• there." and 
 like the sentences bcKnnninjr with "if expletive' 
 shifts the emphasis from the predicate In the sul,' 
 jcct. which is pnt last. The second sentence tells 
 us. not so much that a gnst of wind .>„„.. as that 
 what eamt was ./ j^ns/ 0/ r..i,„L The use «,f the word 
 " there - .s precisely like that of the word " it " de- 
 scnl>ed in the l.nst secti.)n. Having no meaning l.y 
 Itself. ,t ,s an Kxpl.tlvo. Other examples are: 
 llwrc was water in the well;" •• Tlurv are two 
 sides to every question." 
 
 The expletive '.there" is rejrularly used before 
 the various forms of -he" when they denote ex- 
 istence: as. ../>i.., ,, ^ Ood;" ..y>i... ,,,, ^^^^^^^^ 
 in those days. 
 
 EXERCISE 13. 
 
 Tell the suhjeet and the predicate of each of the fol- 
 lo-u'ttig senteitees : 
 
 1. There is no one here. 
 
 2. There w.is no help for him. 
 3- Is there no hope? 
 
 4. May there he enough for all J 
 
 5. There is no peace to the wicked. 
 
 6. Is there anythinj? more to do ? 
 
 7. There was a jolly miller once. 
 
 8. There was silence deep as death. 
 9- There is no royal road to learning. 
 
 10. There came a voice from heaven. 
 
 11. There's a aivinity that shapes our ends. 
 
OF SrriJFXT AND I'kr.DlCATE 
 
 91 
 
 12. There is a rcifH-r whose name is I>c.ilh. 
 
 13, I h«re wast a sikiiuI of rcvi-Iry by niyht. 
 
 14 There is a higher law than the LOnshUilion. 
 15. There is no j{(hh| in artfuin^; uh tin i,,. \ it ihlr. 
 !<".. There rime to ih.- Iwach a pcM.r «\ilr „f Krm. 
 
 17. Ihere is no « itherinK ihe roM- without Imimk pricked hv the 
 
 thiiiiis. ' 
 
 18. There Is no-v less tloKjinjj in the srcat Ki.jjh.h schools ilun 
 lornKrl). 
 
 E^^EBCISE 14. 
 
 Construct five snittncts that bci^m xvitli ''there " rr- 
 //-Y/rr. mn/ tell the suhjeet and the f>redieate of eaeh. 
 
 To III,. 'IViK-hoi-. -Power .0 «lis.in«i,ish the logical snl.iert 
 from the pre.juaie must precede all efforts at grammatical analysis 
 ai'<l until the pupil has acquire.l this power, nothing' else shoul.l ^^ 
 att.n.pte.l. The end to Ik- kept in view in the following exercise'i, 
 no, the m.istery of .lef,nitions-a comparatively easy thing-hut 
 .he.levelopment of power tosee instanth ,he fun.hmental stiurture 
 nfjentences. In other words, the en.l in view is not knowle.lge hut 
 
 EXEBCISE 15. 
 
 (KtVIKU ) 
 
 /// the follo'u'ins: sentences separate the subject from 
 the predicate:— 
 
 I. 
 
 1. Come with me. 
 
 2. Our revels now are ended. 
 
 3- r.ive me your attention. 
 
 4- Whom (lid the old man .nsk for? 
 
 5- Sweet are the uses of .adversity. 
 6. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 
 7- The way of transgressors is harrl. 
 
 8. Adown the ^ien rode armed men. 
 
 9. The aged minstrel audience gained. 
 
t* 
 
 SKMTKNCKS AND TIII.IK srKDC. ..KiC 
 
 lo. The mrniory o( Ihr Juu |, l,lc.«,l, 
 
 "■ '■■''"'• '■■""■ ■' I'""! "I lliu..dcr.iou,„|. 
 "■ Wl,.,i |«,.u.,c of your l„y ,i„„,|„„, , 
 
 ■ J. A n,.rr> h„rt m.kcth a .h.cr(ol co,mi,„,,„„. 
 14. I li.- ptcci,,,,, „,„„„„„ h„„„ ,,,^^,,1 ^^_^^ 1^ ^^^^^^_^ 
 
 ' ' 'I" ""■ '"7''"« ' "I ""■ V-l. ""«!" :i >o„„„ n,l,ln. 
 
 occ. ni,,. , '"' "' '°'"' '"*" "'""' '" <>- -■••"« „f ,00 o„,.. 
 of a'tl'Zr' '""""" '" "-"""^K"- -- »"")-.l hy .he Vic. 
 
 '.is-ryif';,'^:?: °' "• *"'"°-'' -■'■ - ""i*''-'«y <>. 
 
 11. 
 
 1. Here stands the mnn. 
 
 2. Wirle open stood ihe doors. 
 
 3- Overhead I heard a murmiit. 
 
 4- Great and marvellous are Thy works. 
 
 5- In those days came John the Baptist. 
 
 6. In my Father's house are many mansions. 
 
 7. Into the valley of death rod,- ,he six hundred 
 
 8. A little boy with cri!i!!!!c ^f !,rc;H! 
 Many a hun^^ry sparrow fed. 
 
M 
 
 OY SUhjKCI AM) rklhlLATK 
 
 9, rrnrn flr>«)r In ceiling 
 
 1-ikf .» Iiuj{e orjj.in iisr «hr btirni'khr*! arrnn. 
 
 10. L'nwoumlrtI lr««ii Uir (lrr:u|(ul t lov. 
 Hut liie.ithtciui all, Kit/-Jaiiir!» aroMr. 
 
 ( *i riDM ( otmittrr whvlhor " t'nWHimlr.l fntm th« ar*4jf,i| , !,»« 
 Il»t l.ir ilhir-. .ill " Iwluiiiit 10 |h« >iilija:il of I,, ||,r (tivtlttdlt. Ilv .,n 
 V 'iir i:ii4i>l III ^lmll.lr t j<«*. 
 
 1 1, rnilrrncilh this vihlc hr.irse 
 I. US llu! sul»)fi t of alt vtrv. 
 
 I.' \\ iiliin a winilovved nichr of ihal hij;l» hall 
 Sail- Hnmsvvliks falnl i hit llaiii. 
 
 13. On ilu- Itrilish hctrt wi-rr lost 
 Till- Irrrors nt thr c har|{in^ host, 
 
 M ^"<lll many a ),'rin of puirst ray srrfnr 
 
 llif .1 uk uiifathonud ravrs «>f ocran In-ar. 
 
 15 Down the sirrct with latijjhtrr an<l sh.»ul. 
 <il t(l in thf frrciloni of school let out, 
 Come the boys. 
 
 ify. Somewhat apart from the village, nn.l nearer the Ilasin .,f 
 Minas, 
 
 I«.iu<lict HellHontaine. the wealthiest farmer of Cran.l-I'u'. 
 Hwelt on his jjfHMlly acres. 
 
 17 Far down the lieaiitiful rivi ,. 
 
 Past the Ohio shore and past the mouth of the \V,,!,,sh 
 Into theKolden stream of the broail and swift Mississippi 
 Unated a rumhroiis boat. 
 
 iX. Meanwhile, apart, at n- head of thr hall, th.- pri.-sl and the 
 herdsman 
 Sat. conversing together of past and present and fntu.e. 
 
 III. 
 
 I. Down went the CundM-rland all a wrack. 
 Wish a suddrn shuddti uf Uciiii, 
 And the cannon's breath 
 For her dying gasp. 
 
» »> NCKS AND THKIK SIKUCILkE 
 
 a. Serin, in chf MjUgrrHH ihmnif, 
 f iiinovr.l Uy ihc ru»h of the wmtf, 
 With «7c» umm|)a»»Mmr«l .m.l »low. 
 
 .S.mit.»l|>h.>r» tlamU lislrniMK I"«..iIiIcihi. 
 l llcinnt; hi% ini|Mrw| i,.,,,,^ 
 
 foupltil with ihuw vvor.U u( ni.'ilice. 
 Hall in ,,n,{.r, half In »han..-. 
 FriMli ihr i^rrM catupaiKnrr came 
 Sl<>v\ly (rem hi« canvas |inlacc. 
 4. To rnnrirni his wokUoui-M, w 
 
 SUUnn. .,( Hanung ,«or.U. draw,. f,o„, „,. .h.^h, of mi.hly 
 
 ?• Satan, alwvr ihr rrM 
 
 In shapr and ^rMurr pr.Hicll) rniinrnt. 
 SummI hkf a tower. 
 
 ^- His f.icr 
 
 Drep scan of ihun.l. r had inir.nchwl. 
 7 Him the Altniijhiy P iwir 
 
 Hu. Ir.l hearllonp ♦lamm^ from the rtherr.nl ,ky 
 
 N\ nil hideous niin and romhusfion. .lown 
 
 To IxJllondess |)er«lition. 
 
 On each hand the flames 
 Driven b.irkvv.ird ,|op<. th.ir pointinR spires. 
 9. The ittiiwrial ensiKo. fidl hi^h advanced. 
 Shone like a meteor streaminj; tn the vviml. 
 n ith jjems an.l ^'olden lustre rich emhiaml. 
 10. Anon out of the earth a fabric hupe 
 Hose like an exhalation, with the sound 
 Of dulcet symphonies and voices sweet. 
 Hiiilt like a temple. 
 
 From the arched roof. 
 INndent hy subtle maj,'ic. many .n row 
 01 starry lamps and hl.izin;,. cressets, fed 
 
 W'ilh ninlitK-i -jr>«l -» = . '- !i - s 1 ■ - 
 
 ' '"" -^sptiaitus. yi, idcU Iiuht 
 
 As from a sky. 
 
 8. 
 
 11 
 
OF sunjr.CT and iridic a tk 
 
 ii 
 
 IV. 
 
 l.oNiMiN .Sii<>rr> IV iiu Sivr.NirKNiii Ckmukv. 
 
 TItc hwU»c»H«ri not niittilirri'tt ; Ihcrr woiilfl, rmkiil, h;nr Ucn 
 tiilk- .i.lvaniiKc III iiurit»H'rlm{ tliiiii, for' »( ihe luathmm. i lulr. 
 ituii |MHirr%. .ukI »ir,»,Ml Im*)*.)! Umilmi. a \,iy Mn.tH |Miriiun (i*tit<l 
 riM'l. it was ncct !»vir) Id um- nurk» whith iIh- m<»>i iyhurinj 
 tuuM unckrMaml. I he »ho|Hi were ilienfmt' iliMiii^;.ii»lii-.| hy 
 |Mml. <l Mjjti'*. -vlikh ij.ive .i yay aiul j;t<)trv|Ui akjM . 1 1<> \\w slmm. 
 
 Wluii ihc CMimig clovil in, ihr dilJuull) aiul tlinm r uf wilkiMy 
 lUfut Lmi«Iuii iRtaiiif Mriuu'» rnWctd. Thi- j;a(rri wuuImw, win- 
 ..|Knril. ami paiU were < rnpilctl, with htltr rrj;ar»l ii. thoM- who 
 were |w>MiH{ Iwlow. Kails, hrulses ami broken rHiiirs were ul 
 tuiiNtanl occurrence, f-ii'. till th,- j.im y,..,r of ihi- rrijjn of (.li.iiUs 
 tlw .S<ion,l. rn«»sl of the ttretls were lifl m profound d.irknes*. 
 Tliieves ami roblHTi plied lluir iraile-* witlj Irnpunily; ytl'they weic 
 har-liy s«) terrible to |»edCi-alilr i'iiMiit«. .i> another cI.ish of ruHians. 
 It wan a fav'utiie amusenirnt of rtissoluie young grniltincn to 
 swa^'j-rr by nijrht alnnit llu town, breaking; windows, ripM'tiIng 
 M-.!ans. iHMtinK «|iii«'t n»en. md offrrinjj rude caressen to pretty 
 women. — ,IAi<fi«/rif. '• lli<>tory nl Kngl.tntl." cha|)ler iii. 
 
 ' ,\ .iitiiiciliiiK wofil, lietonglni: neither ti. iht <iil<j«i:i n<ir l<i llic |irrilicatc. 
 
CIIAPTI'R III 
 
 OK SUnST.\\TI\ , AM) VKRIJ' 
 31. I.oKlt. 7's. <;mnit„ur.— The distinction be- 
 tween subjeet and predicate belongs to tliought as 
 well as to the expression of thought. It exists 
 in a si>eaker\s mind before he expresses his 
 thought in words. The distinction is therefore a 
 logical distinction rather than a grammatical one • 
 for grammar has to do only with the expression of 
 thought, that is, with words. We come now to 
 consider the words used in forming t! subject 
 and the predicate, and here we enter the held of 
 grammar proper. 
 
 3a. Siilwtantlvo nml Verb Deflned.— Compare 
 the following sentences: — 
 
 HUl>.|««tt. 
 
 I*r»'«Ilfnto. 
 
 Stars twinkle, "" 
 
 ThLlH..-u,tiful.vA„-.. which arc really /nv«//. brightly on fros.y 
 suns alK)i.t a million niiUs in di- nights, 
 anictcranci trillions of miles away, 
 
 You ob.serve that one .sentence is composed of 
 two words, the other of many; but the fundamental 
 structure of both is the .same. Both make assertions 
 about s/crr s, and in both ca.ses the assertion is that 
 
OF sunsTANTivr: an'd vi.rb 
 
 37 
 
 stars /It'/ »/X7<. I3ut in the second sentence the fun- 
 chimenlal worils, "stars" and "twinkle," are ac- 
 companied by words and groups uf words called 
 AdJiiiielM (" joined to"). 
 
 DtJiHitioii. — A word used (with or without ad- 
 juncts'! to denote an object of thought is called a 
 ISiiltstiiiitlve. 
 
 Dijiniticn. — A word used ( with or without adjuncts) 
 as the predicate of a sentence is called a Verbl^Latin, 
 "the word." so named because of its supreme im- 
 portance). 
 
 When we say that a sentence must contain a sub- 
 ject and a predicate, we speak logically. Speaking 
 grammatically, we say that it must contain a sub- 
 stantive and a verb. 
 
 '\\\. (•niiiiiniitlcal and Liosflctil Terms Dlstln- 
 wriilshod. — In the sentence " The beautiful stars, 
 which are really .suns about a million miles in diam- 
 eter and trillions of miles away, twinkle brightly on 
 frosty nights," the substantive "stars" is called the 
 Hiinplo Hulijeet to distinguish it from the Com- 
 plete Siibjeet, which consists of the simple sub- 
 ject and its adjuncts. "Twinkle" is called the 
 Verb to distinguish it from the Pivdleiite, which 
 consists of the verb and its adjuncts. Other e.\- 
 amples are : — 
 
 C'oiiiplctu siibjott. Prt>dltMti>. 
 
 usually j^,it/irr before a storm. 
 
 Vcib. 
 
 Low black i/oui/s 
 
 Simpl' 
 Sul>jeci. 
 
 The conififioiis of w.ir i>iipy from ajjt- to afje with the 
 sl'bj«t. '^"''^' [progress of weapons. 
 
38 
 
 SENTKNCKS AM) TfJEIR STRL'CTUKL: 
 
 EXEECISE 16. 
 
 Co,^.tnut four sentences .n ..huh tlu sunple snhjeet 
 t <Ufferent Jnnn the eon.pleie suhjeet , and iUe ,erb fro,, 
 tlie predicate. •' 
 
 EXEECISE 17. 
 
 /// Ihc folhn.'inir sentences point out. in the order 
 nnme,i t/u- co,np/,te snhjeet, the preduate, the simple 
 snbject, and the verb :~ ^ 
 
 1. The ripest fruit falls first. 
 
 2. She dwelt on a wild moor. 
 
 3. The goo<| news arrived yesterday. 
 4- A soft answer turnelh away wrath. 
 
 5. A hot fire of coals burned in llie j,'rate. 
 
 6. A fox jumped up on a moonlight night. 
 
 7. The sudden splash frightened the nurse. 
 
 8. Bright-eyed daisies peep u>) everywhere. 
 
 9. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
 
 10. Three wise men of Gotham went to sea in a bowl. 
 
 H. Waldo, playing on the bank of the brook, tumbled into -he 
 water. 
 
 12. The master of the district school 
 Held at the fire his favorite place. 
 
 34. Verbs of Action, Belnsr, and State.— Com- 
 pare the meaning.s of the verbs in the followin-r 
 sentences : — ** 
 
 Birds sing. 
 My lady sleeps. 
 He loves children. 
 There is a flaw in the metal. 
 You observe that ' ' sing " as.serts action .■ ' ' sleeps " 
 asserts state or condition; " loves " asserts /.r//,/^,- 
 
OF SUnSTANTIVi: AND VKRB 
 
 39 
 
 IS asserts ixisttn r or A/z/^.^ It is sometimes 
 said, therefore, that i verb is a word that asserts 
 action, beinjr, or stat — feelin^rs being looked on as 
 mental actions. 
 
 Most verbs assert aciion. 
 
 EXEBCISE 18. 
 
 1. /// Exercise 7 tell xchetlur the verbs assert ac- 
 tion, Ihin^, or state. 
 
 2. Construct three sentences in which the verbs assert 
 action; ti^'o in which they assert state or comiition ; 
 one in which the verb asserts existence or being. 
 
 a.'). The Verli ** To Be/*— "Am," "is," are," 
 "was," "were," and the less common "art!" 
 "wast," and " wert "— all of them forms of tlie 
 verb "to be"— are -o peculiar in their use that 
 they require special notice. The peculiarity will 
 appear if we carefully compare the predicates in 
 the following sentences: 
 
 The \\^\x\\x\g flashed. 
 Lightning is clatricity. 
 
 In the first sentence, you observe, the predicate 
 consists of the verb "flashed," which does two 
 things: first, it calls up in the mind an idea of 
 sudden brilliance; secondly, it asserts this bril- 
 liance of the lightning. In other words, it has 
 both meaning an(\ assertive poxver. 
 
 In the second sentence, the predicate consists of 
 two words, " is " and ' ' electricity, " each of which is 
 
I 
 
 i 
 
 40 SENTENCES AND T.MEIR STRICTURE 
 
 necessary. Hut mark the difference between them 
 •• Electricity" is a word of definite ,yuaHi,,j;, eallinjr 
 up instantly a mental picture or idea of that some- 
 thin^r of which it is the name. liut it has no assrr/- 
 tvepoxvcr, as appears when we try in vain to make 
 a piedicate with it alone: as. " Lii^htninj,^ elec- 
 tricity.' The assertive part of the predicate is 
 supplied by the verb ",s." which connects the two 
 names, " lij^htning - and "electricity." in such n 
 way as to declare that the objects named are iden- 
 t.cal. But th(.U|rh "is" has this assertive pcnccr. 
 It has no mcaniug ,^i its own, that is, it calls up no 
 mental picture. The predicate jrets its meaninjr 
 from the idea-word " electricity." 
 
 It appears, therefore, that "is," "arc," "was " 
 "were," and the other forms of "be,"'are mere 
 tnstrumetits of assertion, conveying in themselves 
 no Idea at all, except in those cases in which 
 they express existence. Meaningless themselves 
 they are used to make predicates with words that 
 have meanings, but cannot by themselves make as- 
 sertions. They link together two difTerent ideas in 
 such a way as to predicate one of the other For 
 this reason the verb "be" is often called the 
 Coimla (Latin, "link"). It often resembles in 
 force the mathematical symbol of equalitv or 
 identity, "=." -^ j 
 
 The following verbs, in some of their uses re- 
 semble "be": ' 
 
 } i 
 
 seem 
 feel 
 
 become 
 Liste 
 
 Jook 
 smell 
 
 sound 
 continue 
 
 appear 
 remain 
 
 I 
 ♦1/ 
 
OF SrhSTANTIVK AND VKRH 
 EXEBCISE 19. 
 
 4> 
 
 1. Construct five .uiitnas in t.'hich forms of the 
 verb " to be " are used witli assertive potver only. 
 
 ■# 
 
 2. Construct two sentences in 'a'liich foru.s of *' to 
 be " are used to denote existence. 
 
 3. Construct sentences tn xchich the folUm'injr ^^.f^bs 
 are used, like " /'< ," to form predicates U'hose meanin^i^ 
 is determined by a follo'win^ i^'ord : — 
 
 ftel 
 
 Income 
 taste 
 
 look 
 smell 
 
 .nppear 
 remain 
 
 30. VtTli PhniMfs. — Examine the following pred- 
 icates: — 
 
 Mubjt'tt. I'rpdlcato. 
 
 studies. (<i) 
 does study, {b) 
 has studied, (c) 
 Dorothy J ^^^ '"^^^ studyinjj. (//) 
 
 will study. {,•) 
 may l)e studying. (/) 
 may have been studying, {g) 
 . should have been studying. (//) 
 
 Here we have eight different assertions about 
 Dorothy. One of them contains a single "everting 
 wr.rd. others two words, others three, still others 
 f(nir. All of the predicates refer to a single action, 
 namely. Dorothy's studying; but they refer to it in 
 different ways. Predicates {a) and {b) assert it as a 
 customary act, with a difference in emphasis; {c) 
 and iil) as a completed act ; {e) as a future act ; '(/) 
 and [cr) as a po.ssibility, with a difference in time; 
 (//) as a duty. In other words, the eight predicates 
 are alike in expressing a single action, denoted by 
 
42 SENTKNCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 one or another form of the verb -study- they 
 dilfcr in representing this action under various as- 
 pccts, as the speaker happens to view it 
 
 Now examine the predicates that contain two or 
 more words, and see whether any one of the words 
 can iHJ omitted without altering, or destroyinij the 
 assertion. You observe that in each ease every 
 word IS necessary. 
 
 Finally, consider whether the helping ^vords 
 '•does. - has." .. has been." etc.. taken by them- 
 selves, are of the nature of substantives or verbs. 
 1 hey do not denote objects of thought; therefore 
 they are not .subs'.antives. They do have assertive 
 power, as in " Dorothy ^/ocs embroidery." - She /ms 
 a book ; " therefore they are verbs. 
 
 From all this it appears that frequently, to ex- 
 press varying shades of thought, we empl<,y in 
 our predicates several words which together have 
 the force of a single verb. 
 
 Definition. -K group of words >^hich together 
 form one verb is called a Verb Phr,v.e. 
 
 37 Verb Phra-sesln Interrogative, Negative, and 
 Emphatic Sentences—In interrogative and neira- 
 tive sentences modern usage requires verb phrases 
 Compare, for example, the following sentences:-' 
 
 Assertive : She sings. 
 Interrogative : Does she sing ? 
 Negative : She does not sing. 
 
 Sometimes a verb phrase has the force of an em- 
 phatic affirmation, implying that the thing which is 
 
OF SlJHSTANTIVi: AND VI.KH 
 
 43 
 
 
 a.vscrted has Ix'cn doubled. Compare, for example, 
 llic foUovviiiij sciUcnccs : — 
 
 Assertive : She j;/>/j,m-. 
 Kriiphatic : She i/ois iin^. 
 
 EXERCISE 20. 
 
 Point out tlu'Vtrb f>lirasis in the followiut^ scHtiHius: 
 
 I. I ;im rt.ulinj,' "Ivanhoc." 2. K;ithcriiie has tinishttl the 
 book. 3. 'ro-inorrosv I shall have finished it, 4. John h.is cut his 
 liiiK* r. 5. Who will help him ? 6. Swallows were twittering' round 
 the eaves of the general's lieadquarters. 7. Father may he in his 
 study. 8. Carrie nmst h.ive lieen di earning this morning. 9. Von 
 will have pai<! too dear for the whistle. 10. Hy this time he should 
 have learned more caution. \\. Vou might have told me before. 
 12. I did tell you. 13. A large eagle was soaring overhe.id. 
 14. F.alicr has i)een writing all morning. 15 The child would 
 play by himself for hours. 16. She would have her own way. 
 17. He mij;ht h.tve b( en doing something useful. 18. This ring 
 may have been worn by a Roman dandy. 19. Hy to-morrow I 
 shall have had enough of this. 20. They had had a hard day. 
 
 EXEBCISE 21. 
 
 Change the sentences in lixercise 17 {page 38) into 
 negative, interrogative, and emphatic form, and point 
 out the verb phrases which yon use in the new sentences. 
 
 38. Caution.— In .such .sentences as "The sun is 
 shining" and "The .sun is hot,'' beginners often 
 find it hard to decide at this stage of their work 
 whether the italicized word, coming after a form 
 o*" the verb -be," is or is not a part of the verb. 
 A good working test is this: If the predicate of the 
 sentence expres.ses action, the word in question is 
 part of the verb. If the predicate expresses a con- 
 
i ■ 
 
 IS, 
 
 'i .\ 
 
 \ 
 
 44 
 
 SKNTKNCKS AND IMKIR STRLCTURK 
 
 'iition ur .,,u,/ay of the subject, the word in <,„cstio„ 
 .snot a part of the verb. For example, i'^ 
 lowu,,. .eatcnees the verbs are printJd in italics -l 
 
 "The sun /.r sAiHiMj^r ' (.„ tion). 
 
 " The sun /j hot " (comhtioiu. 
 
 EXZBCI8E 22. 
 
 '^'i^''^<'^'f as toris of iUc verbs 1 ''"^"' '''' '' ^*' 
 
 8. The Ii,a.ne„.s Le /..I , 'o Th " ''"' ''^ "'•"^■• 
 
 foo,b..I| ga.ne las. Saturd y io XV h'^ 7"'" 'f'"'"'' '" "'*^ 
 
 .3. The house is,/.....;/;:,. n\.r2Lwbir "°' "''^''• 
 
 years after it was /J«/// , ' tI 1 n ^ ' """"" '^" 
 
 has been ')d ^t. 'J, ^Ir^^ ^ 'X^. 7' :^;'C" 
 
 a nas<ipr.liv tt w * "^ *-'y w.is ^jvir,/ by 
 
 I'-'f-ser-oy. 23. Were you canfulf ■>a tk» „ ^ 
 
 ^'ausn.f. 35. They ha., Len ..;{:;>^ a'ltn^hl '* ""^ ^■^• 
 39. Verb Phra*..s 8oparatcd.-The parts of a 
 verb phn.o are often separated by other words. 
 
 IZ "^''^"^P'^'' ''}- verb phrases in the following 
 sentences are printed in italics :— 
 
 I AuTt' just returned. 
 
 Have you not hmrd? 
 
 I do not yet >f-«tf7t/. 
 
 //'» the man in the moon ken //,^rr/W/ indeed ? 
 
 EXEECISE 23. 
 
 Pov^ nut the verb phrases in the foUounng sentenees.- 
 t. ^\hat ok! you see? 2. The leaves are slowly chinirin.r 
 3. He w,.I certainly lose h.s place. 4. I have not seL ^7;!' 
 
OF SUIiSlANIIVh AM) VKKH 
 
 4$ 
 
 J. She will sciniciimcs bsc her Uni|H;r. 6. Wny b he runiiiiig 
 away? 7. Have you tinishrd your k!>sop ? 8. We are now i cat !• 
 iiij; "'I'diii Ilrowns Schixjj iJays.. * 9. lJnl ihf man in the l>oat sec 
 the ihiif* 10. May not tlur coal liavr h«( » takrti hy <somi- one 
 «Kf? II. A K'«ii*;i''l < «'r<l» rs *hoiilil alwa)-* Ik- prcMnpily olH-ytd. 
 12. IK- h.itl a frw clays before been elected captain of the team. 
 
 •10. VtTliM TniiiHltlvo or IntmiiMltlvc. — Compare 
 llic verbs ill the following .sciUence.s: — 
 
 Joha fri^jhtfned Helen. 
 John lauglu-d. 
 
 In the first sentence, " frij;htenetl " denote.s an 
 action which, from its nature, involves two f)er.sonsr 
 John, the doer of the action; and Helen, on whom 
 the action falls. In other words, the action which 
 originates with John passes over, as it were, from 
 him to Helen, who is affected by it. 
 
 In the second sentence, "laughed" denotes an 
 action which involves only one person. The 
 laughing ends with John, where it began. It does 
 not pass over to any other object. Nothing else 
 is affected by it. 
 
 Definition. — A verb that denotes an action or 
 feeling that passes over from the doer of the action 
 to an object on which it falls, is called a Tmiisl- 
 tlve Verb (Latin transirc, " to pass over "). 
 
 Definition. — A verb that denotes an action, 
 feeling, or .state that involves only the subject, is 
 called an IntmiiNitive Verb. 
 
 Verbs like "have," "own." "possess." "inherit." etc.. thonjjh 
 tluy do not c.\prc>s action or feeling, are nevertheless called tran- 
 sitive, because they involve two o!)jects, the possessor and the 
 thing possessed. 
 
I. <i 
 
 -r-r: 
 
 I I 
 
 I s 
 
 f 
 
 46 
 
 •StNIKNCtSANU milk Slki/CTURE 
 EXERCISE 84. 
 
 
 Irar 
 
 i.ilch 
 «.irn 
 use 
 ari.se 
 
 hear 
 find 
 
 w.iit 
 
 f..|l 
 iMik 
 rry 
 Mrikr 
 
 He walked. 
 
 He walked his h(jrsr. 
 
 You observe that some verbs mav in ,>ne sentence 
 '>e trans.t.ve and in another intransitive. 
 
 EXEBCISE 25. 
 
 Construct ten saitnias, iishi.r .,,,/i ,>f ,1, . r „ 
 
 break 
 
 fly 
 
 move 
 
 return speak 
 
 John frij,rhtencd Helen. 
 Helen was frightened In John. 
 
 These sentences varv in form h„f „^f • 
 In both of them t..« V 'v ' ; ° "'"'"""'"S^- 
 thev denote ...fi "-' ^''^'"•^'I've, beeau.se 
 
 ncy denote aetion pa-sstno; fro„, one person to an- 
 
OF SI IKSTAMIVi: AM) VfKII 
 
 4; 
 
 othir. iJiit in ihc first Sftitcncc tlif Nt-rb tvpri'scntH 
 ihu .siit»jtit as tfoiHj^' ihc action ; in the .second sen- 
 tcncv. as til iii'in^i^ it. 
 
 />,//////i'//.— Atran.siiivc verb which represents the 
 .subject a.s doing an action is in the A««ilv». form. 
 
 Ay//////r///.- -A transitive verb which represents the 
 subject as receiving an action is in Ww VuhhUv f«»rni. 
 
 (Jit.ry: Can an intransitive verb have a p.issivc 
 b)rni ? Ciive tlie rea.s«»n fc»r your answer. 
 
 EXERCISE 26. 
 
 Con St nut two scutum s in 'which the verbs ,\rc in the 
 nil lie form ; two in which they arc in the pnssive form. 
 
 EXERCISE 27. 
 
 Tell whether the verbs in the folhrwing selection tire 
 tn the active or the fussii e form : 
 
 A.'PI.KS IN AN( .KNT TiMKS. 
 
 It .ippe.nrs tli.it ..pplcs in.ulc .i p.irl of K.e food of that unknown 
 piiniilivi- pt«iplr whose tiaccs li.ive l.ilcly Ikcii foim.l .it ihf fx.tioin 
 of tlu- .Swiss l.ikis.siipposed to l)c oldtr th.in the foundation of Romr, 
 so old that they had no rm-taliic impli-nunts. An entire hiack and 
 slui\«l.'d cr.d) .T|)plr h.is Iwcn riTovcrcfl from thtir stores. ♦ • ♦ 
 
 Thf appl.- tr.-c has ht-rn cvlchr ttod l)y tlu- Hfhrc-ws. (;rc.ks. 
 Romans, and .Scandinavians. Some have thou^jht that the first 
 Ittiman pair were tempted by its fruit. C.Mldesses are f.ibled to 
 h.ive contended for it. drajjons were set to watch it. ;ind heroes 
 were employed to pluck H.-rAonuiu : "The History of the 
 Apple Tree." 
 
 EXERCISE 28. 
 
 (r.i-Ni..KAr. Review.) 
 Point out the simple subjects and the verbs in Exer- 
 cise I 5 {pai-c 3 I ). and tell whether the verbs nr. transi- 
 live or intransitive ; if transitive, tell Xi'hether the form 
 IS active or passi've. 
 
CILM'TICk IV 
 
 «>K t <»M|'| |;Mi;.\rs 
 
 Iv the last chaplcr wc learned that some verbs 
 caiiiiul form cmipkic pndicalcs wiihoiu the help „f 
 -thcr w„rtls (aa, 40). VVc must now hn.k more 
 tluscly at such verbs antl the w.rds which are used 
 with them lo complete the predicate. 
 
 4.1. Vvrlm of Complete I'rtMlIcaf |„„. _ ICxamine 
 
 the followinif sentences: — 
 
 NulUfft. I'rtHMinto. 
 
 The wimi aroMr. 
 
 The lightning (lashed. 
 
 The Ihumlcr rolled. 
 
 The r.iin fell. 
 
 In each of these sentences the predicate consists 
 of a verb which makes a complete assertion 
 
 /)r/i,uno,i.-A verb that by itself can form a 
 complete predicate is called a Verb of (omplote 
 Preilleatlon. 
 
 44. VorliM of Incomplete Predlc-utlon.— Now let 
 
 u« try to make assertions with the verbs "are " 
 
 ■■^■, :^camc, '•fngiiiened," ••built," -have" 
 thus, 
 
49 
 
 Mult|«M-i. V*>rfo. 
 
 TticK men arc 
 
 \Vi«[iington W.I4 
 
 Tcniiystm Ixi.iiiic 
 
 Yuu rn^hu-nid 
 
 The Koiiiuns built 
 
 Uatlk»hi|>s tuve 
 
 V«»u .sec at once that something' is wanting 
 Tlioiijrh wc have in each ca>c pni lo}rcther a sub 
 ject ami a verb as before, we have nt>t in tliesc 
 groups of words said anything, for the idevis ex 
 pressed by the verbs are not complete in them 
 iielves. 
 
 DifiHtlwn.—\ verb that does not by itself convey 
 a c«»mplcte idea is called a Verb of Incoinph.i,. 
 Predleutiuii. 
 
 45. roiiii>h>tii«>ntH IH'fliiml. _ In order to f,>rni 
 a predicate with a verb of incomplete predication 
 we must add a completing wt)rd : thus, 
 
 Hll^Jt'Ct. 
 
 - — PrtHHcMtP. — . 
 
 
 Verb. 
 
 Complcraenl. 
 
 " - * — ^ 
 
 . — ^- -— — , 
 
 ■ _, 
 
 These men 
 
 are 
 
 so! fliers. 
 
 Washington 
 
 W.19 
 
 |)resi(l«'nt. 
 
 Tennyson 
 
 became 
 
 |H)ct-laureate. 
 
 You 
 
 frijjhtcned 
 
 m«'. 
 
 The Romans 
 
 built 
 
 ships. 
 
 Battleships 
 
 have 
 
 armor. 
 
 Definition. — The completinjr word added to a verb 
 of incomplete predication in order to form a predi- 
 cate is called a Complement (" complc*-'ng part "). 
 
s 
 
 50 SENTKNCKS ANF) TIIKIR STkUCTL RE 
 
 CiUltloii.-Con.ple.mnts. whi. I, ,««,/ Ik.- ;.,I,K..I to nuke the 
 I>'< 'luau- cmpku, arc ,0 be car.fully .I,s,.„ku.sIu..| fron, w.,r,ls 
 t ..U ,»..j. I,c a.l.lc.l to ,„akc the meaning nu.re ,„..c.Sf. K..r txa,n- 
 pl<-. ... llu- sc„UM,cc •• The ram fell fas,." ,he wor.l •• fas, " is not a 
 cuinplcue,,,, for wc should have a complete scnletKc without it. 
 
 4«. Atti-Ihuto <<mi|,UMiuMitH.— Are all comple- 
 ments <,f the sa.ne kin.!? I„ order t.. answer, let us 
 examine .s.„ne typical sentences, takittg first the 
 lollowinif: — 
 
 NiilUwt. Verb. Coin,,|,„iM.|it. 
 
 Tabby 
 Tabby 
 
 IS 
 
 lo«)ks 
 
 a cat. 
 wise. 
 
 In both of these sentences the verbs arc intran- 
 sitive, and the oniplcnients .serve to ^/.scnfic t/u 
 subject. In the first sentence the complement • • cat *• 
 describes Tabby by attributin<r to him in a sin^de 
 word all the qualities or marks that di.stinjruish cats 
 from other objects. In the second sentence the 
 eomplcment "wi.se" describes Tabby by attributing 
 to him a single quality, wi.sdom. 
 
 To understand more clearly what is meant by qualities or attri- 
 butes, compare an oranjre and a nail. An orange Is yellow, round, 
 soft, eatable, juicy, sweet, etc. A nail is gray, thin, hard, tio, ea,- 
 nble, juiceless, tastel. ss, etc. These distinguishing characteristics 
 are qualities or .ittnbutes. When we say of an object " This is an 
 orange," or " This is a nail." we describe it by asserting of it the 
 various attributes of oranges or of nails, as the case may be ; when 
 we say "This orange is suwtr or "This nail is fuird," we describe 
 It by noting a single at,ribu,e; when we say "This is Tabby," we 
 describe i, by naming it. 
 
 Dcfinition.—K complement that describes the sub- 
 ject is called an Attribute Compleiucut. Other 
 examples are: — 
 
OF CO.MI'I.F.MKN rS 
 
 SI 
 
 'I'lu-se men 
 
 Washington 
 
 Roses 
 
 His name 
 
 Altrlhiito 
 >'«'rl». < oiii|ilfiiiciit. 
 
 are 
 was 
 smell 
 is 
 
 soldiers, 
 president, 
 sweet. 
 John. 
 
 47. ObJtH't C'fH ploinontH. — Let 
 
 now. the following suntcnce : — 
 
 MulU«'ot. V»«rl». romplcimmt 
 
 Tabby catches 
 
 US examine, 
 
 mice. 
 
 In this .sentence you observe that the verb 
 "e.'iiehes" is transitive, denotinjf an action which 
 involves two thinjrs, the doer of the action, and the 
 object on which the .iction falls. The doer of the 
 action is named by the subject "Tabby;" the com- 
 plement "mit ■• names the object on which the 
 action falls. 
 
 Definition.— K complement that denotes the ob- 
 ject on which the action of a transitive verb falls is 
 called an Object Complement, or, more briefly, an 
 Objeet. 
 
 Since an object complement denotes the object 
 directly affected by the action of the verb, it is often 
 called a Direct Object. (Xher examples are : — 
 
 Snbjoot. 
 
 ~I 
 I 
 
 Battleships 
 The Roiiians 
 
 Vi<rh. <>ltji>ct. 
 
 see 
 cut 
 have 
 built 
 
 you. 
 myself, 
 armor, 
 ships. 
 
 . '^" **'*: T^t-«<'»»«>r. As ,,!! uachor. : l.n.Kuape know, the 
 important distinction lietween objects and attribute complements is 
 
5» SENTENCES AND IHEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 cau«7'^'l:'h"°'M K '"""'' '""'"'• "»"' """»^" "»« been 
 
 Answer " SnUli^r. •• n . ... ' ""'^ '"^" •""■« what ? • 
 
 has learned in Sections 46 and 47. ' ' "'^ 
 
 EXEBCISE 29. 
 
 1. Squirrels crack . 
 
 2. Grocers sell . 
 
 3- Lincoln l)ecan>e . 
 
 4- Raden- Powell was . 
 
 5. Charles saw . 
 
 6. The sun gives . 
 
 7- Columbus discovered 
 
 8. Farmers raise . 
 
 9- The sky is .. 
 
 10. The air grew . 
 
 1 1 . The room looks . 
 
 12. I feel . 
 
 EXERCISE 30. 
 
 I . To each of the follozving subjects add an appropriate 
 Pyduatecons^tin, of a rerb and a co^npleZe/t. ad 
 
 1. Hens 
 
 2. Jewellers - 
 
 3. Cats 
 
 4. We 
 
 5. Birds 
 
 6. Elephants 
 
 7. Carpenters . 
 
 8. Monkeys . 
 
 9- Clouds . 
 
 10. Mary , 
 
 11. Soldiers , 
 
 12. Trees 
 
 pUmenls; lt,o canlammg allrihutc mnplcmcnU. 
 
 
OF COMJ'LEMENTS 
 
 S3 
 
 EXERCISE 31. 
 
 Pbint out the complements in the folio-win/r sentences, 
 ami tell lohether they are objects or attribute comple- 
 ments : — 
 
 I. Tom broke a window. 2. nriino bit the tramp. 3. Chaucrr 
 was a poet. 4. Who killed Cwk Kobin .> 5. Who will toll the 
 l>ell ? 6. Saul was made kin};. 7. (iiadstone became prime min- 
 isttr. 8. Some one took my Ijicycle. 9. Denmsthenes and Cicero 
 were orators. 10. Do you study Latin .> 11. None but the brave 
 deserve the f.iir. 12. My father remaine«! secretary for the rest of 
 his life. 13. Righteousness exaltelh a nation. 14. A man's house 
 is his castle. 15. The bird forsook her nest. 16 She looked a 
 goddess. 17. Gladstone turned lilwral. 18. She turned her back. 
 19. Joan of Arc seemed a holy woman. 20. Sir Samuel Baker was 
 a fjreat hunter. 21. He killed many lions, tigers, and elephants, 
 and innumerable smaller animals. 22. Britannia rules the waves. 
 23. Augustus was made emperor. 24. Comparisons are odious. 
 25- Kmg Alfred was called Truth Teller. 26. Who wrote "The 
 Maple-leaf for ever?* 27. To-night no moon I see. 28. To 
 Lord Byron Venice seemed a sea-goddess. 29. The laws of 
 nature are the thoughts of God. 30. Washington was elected the 
 first president of the United States. 3,. The two roads run par- 
 allel. j2. The kings of Egypt are in the Bible called Pharaohs 
 33. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 34. He came a foe and 
 returned a friend. 35. Ethel grew tall. I,eautiful. and queenly 
 36. The dove found no rest for the sole of her foot. 37. A wise 
 son maketh a glad father. 38. A foolish son is the heaviness of his 
 mother. 
 
 48. Objective Attribute Complements.— Exam- 
 ine the following group.s of words: 
 
 Snbjoct. 
 
 ^-Prodloate.— , 
 
 Verb. Object. 
 
 The Hebrews 
 This 
 
 made 
 made 
 
 Sa«I 
 him 
 
■^. ' - 
 
 
 « SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 "WL, r,.!- " ""''■■'=«"' make SaulJ'an.l 
 
 What did this make hiin ? • Ti, i i 
 
 in .he following sentence" L " '"'* " ™""""' 
 
 The Hebrews 
 This 
 
 rr i*r€Hiic«to.- ^ 
 
 •''•• Object. Second Coniplemcnt. 
 
 made 
 niade 
 
 Saul 
 him 
 
 king, 
 vain. 
 
 
 sentence 
 
 'i 
 
 Subject. 
 
 The Htljrews 
 This 
 
 ^'•^'•- oi.j«.,. 
 
 made-king 
 [crownedj 
 
 made-vain 
 f spoiled J 
 
 Saul, 
 him. 
 
 From this we .see that " l-i'nr. •> i 
 'he verb "made" .„ ex'e,; ?. T "™'"" '"-'^ 
 •■'l the same time tl,„.. 7 '''■'"" ''"«'""■ ••""! 
 
 -..ting from ;rt action "°"= """""'"-"■" " '-" - 
 
 ••.ctfoi^td^rttT' "■■:' ''^""' •'' ^^^^ •" -'^•p-- 
 
 the object rest^ut^^T T "'""'"^ ''"'"'""- "' 
 
 an oM-onCer ^ ^-np'oment, or, more brieflv, 
 ""J* c tM e Complement. 
 
OF COMILKMKNTS 
 
 ss 
 
 Objective complements cotiiplete the predicate 
 and a!s(j describe tlic object. Or, if you prefer, 
 they assist the verb to express the action which 
 falls up<jn the object. Other examples are: — 
 
 Muljject. 
 
 Verb. 
 
 — I'rtMlluatis 
 
 Objetl. Objcclive tuiiipUmciii. 
 
 We tiected 
 
 Swinging makes 
 
 dot! struck 
 
 The Persian army drank 
 
 I consider 
 
 Harry 
 me 
 
 Ananias 
 the rivers 
 him 
 
 captain. 
 
 giddy, 
 
 dead. 
 
 dry, 
 
 honest. 
 
 EXEBCISE S2. 
 
 I , Fill the blanks li'ith objective complements, ami 
 show that they belong both to the verb and to the 
 object : — 
 
 r. They named the boy — -. 
 
 2. The people made Washing- 
 
 ton . 
 
 3. Henry painted his house 
 
 4, They called the state , 
 
 5, Let us appoint her . 
 
 6. Uo you think him ? 
 
 7. Why did you choose me ? 
 
 • 8. I consider her . 
 
 2. Construct three sentences containing objective com- 
 plements. 
 
 EXEBCISE 33. 
 
 Point out the objective complements, and shoio that 
 they belong both to the verb and to the object : — 
 
 I, Victoria made Tennyson a baron. 2. They sang themselves 
 hoarse. 3. Tell the carpenter to plane the board smooth. 4. Cra- 
 dles rock us nearer to the tomb. 1;. You think him humble. b«t 
 God accounts him proud. 6. We cannot pump the orp.nn <!p'. 
 7. Attention held them mute. 8. One touch of nature makes the 
 whole world kin, 9. Get the horses ready immediately. 10. Time 
 
s« 
 
 SENTKNCKS AND THKIK STKUCTURE 
 
 maker the w.)rst tncmiis frunds. ii. Dr. Holmes call««l IJoMon 
 the hill) of tin: imivtrse. 12. Kiiij; tMor^t-- II .■)|i|Miinti(l Franklin 
 I'oMui.islcr-dciitral of ihe Itiiiiiih Colonu«i iii Aintrka. 13. Cus- 
 tom renders the fctlinjjs lilunt and t illous. 14. Madame do Stall 
 called architecture froz.n music. 15. Cromwell made the poet 
 Milton Secretary of State. 16. C.ml called the light day. and the 
 darkness he called night. 17. All Napoleons (on(|ue5ts did not 
 make him ha|)py. 18. She carries htr head high. 19. A cnimb 
 of bread thrown m jest made I'rescott. the historian, blind for liff. 
 
 20. Whosoever m.iketh himself a kinj,' spcakelh against Casar. 
 
 21. Make the memory a storehouse, not a lumber room. 
 
 40. Complements with PftHHlve FormH.— Compare 
 the uses of the word "captain" in the following 
 sentences: — 
 
 {Aittvi) We elected Harry captain. 
 (fiissivf) Harry was elected captain. 
 
 You observe that in one sentence the verb is 
 active, in the other it is passive, and in each "cap- 
 tain " expresses attributes bestowed on Harry by 
 the election. In the first sentence, where " Harry" 
 is an object y "captain" is an objective complement 
 describing? the object; in the second sentence, 
 where "Harry" is the subject, "captain" is an 
 attribute complement, describing the subject. 
 
 EXERCISE 34. 
 
 Chau}rc the follo-ivinc; sentences into the passive form, 
 and sho7v the use of the italicized zcords in the nezc 
 sentences : — 
 
 1. He kept me laa/'/tni,': 
 
 2. This made him nn^ry. 
 
 3. God called the light day. 
 
OF COMPLEMENTS 
 
 4. They p.iinird the \wiifx xrfi-n. 
 
 5. \ uu ciiiiu)! |)uiii|> llif tjccaii i/r^. 
 (>. Viclori.i mailt: rcnuyMin a dtiroH. 
 
 7. I'trscveraiH i; keeps honor highl. 
 
 8. A thuuderhtoriii often turns milk umr. 
 
 $7 
 
 ftO. N«>vi>nil <'<>iiipl<>iiu>iitM to On«» Vorh. — Some 
 times a sinjrly verb has several ct)mj)lemeiUs: as, 
 
 Miihji'ft. Vorb. 
 
 C'OllipllMIICIIlM, 
 
 \Vc study arithuuth AwSf^ritinmttr. 
 Atldisun was a i^enlhman and a siholar. 
 
 51. Hijverul VerlwwIthOnoCompIcMm'iit.— Some- 
 times a single complement belongs to several verb;,; 
 as, 
 
 MllULHt. VoHm. ( oiiip|,.„H.„t. 
 
 Noble ininils loathe and despise falschwld. 
 
 5«. Summary of Henteiu-c T.v|K'!s.— Gathering 
 together the different kinds of sentences that we 
 have been studying, we find nine rudimental types 
 of the simple assertive sentence: 
 
 (1) Dogs bark. Grace is singinj;. (Intransi/ive verb of 
 (oniplctc predication:) 
 
 (2) Tabby is a cat. Alice was feeling ill. (Intransitive verb 
 with attribute complement.^ 
 
 (3) John frightened Helen. Dorothy is studying arithmetic. 
 ( Iransttive verb, 7uith object.) 
 
 (4) The Hebrews tna.ie Saul king. Mr. .Smith is painting his 
 house yellow. ( Transitive verb, -^ith object and objective comple- 
 ment.) ^ 
 
58 
 
 SENIKNCKS AND IflKIR STKUCIURE 
 
 (5) Harry was hurl, (/'iistiiv ivri.) 
 
 (6) Saul was made king, (/'tttshv wrh, wilk allrihtiU iompit- 
 mtHt.) 
 
 (7) It rains. It is snowini;. {/tM/krstmtil su/^Jut.) 
 
 (8) It is wrong to steal. ("// " exphtivt.) 
 
 (9) There was water in the well. ("Tktrt" txpUlivt,) 
 
 EXEBCISE 35. 
 
 Illustrrttc inch of the types of the simple sentence 
 XKHth a sentenee of your oxvn. 
 
 To tlio Tt'Ufhcr. — Indirect objrrts. which are moditicrs 
 rather than cuinplenients, are treated in the next chapter. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 OF MODlFIKkS 
 
 From our previous study it is clear that the essen- 
 tial parts of languajfe arc Hul0«>ct, V«»rl», and Coin- 
 plomonr. They arc, as it were, the bones of every 
 sentence, jfJvinij sha|H; to the thoujjht, and holdinjr 
 it tojrcther. But these essential parts are seldom 
 used alone. (Jenerally they arc accompanied by 
 expressions that, without beinjr essential, fill out 
 the thoujjht and give it definiteness and accuracy, 
 something as flesh rounds out the human form. 
 
 53. MtMlinerN Doflneil. — Many words have mean- 
 ings so wide that they must be narrowed before they 
 exactly fit our thought. For example, the word 
 " horses " applies to all the horses in the world ; but 
 we .seldom wi.sh to speak of all horses. To bring 
 the meaning of the word down to the mea.su re of 
 our thought we add to it some word, or words, by 
 way of limitation or description : thus, 
 
 RIack 
 
 Rig 
 Fast 
 
 Beautiful 
 GotHi 
 
 Trottin<j 
 
 Our 
 
 Your 
 
 These 
 
 Two 
 
 Some 
 
 Both 
 
 horses. 
 
SENTF.NCES ANI> THKIK MKUCTUKE 
 
 Similarly there arc many varieties of the action 
 fxprcsHcU by the verb •' went:" as, 
 
 He went 
 
 Klowty. 
 thfcrfully. 
 U%%t. 
 ihrre. 
 Ik* (ore. 
 
 AIHIII. 
 
 iiiiiiMMlialrl). 
 )<stcr4lay. 
 I v\ kc, 
 lilllr. 
 oflrn. 
 
 as, 
 
 Often we use several litnitinj>: '"" <lescrit)inp words : 
 
 )'i>ur hcauli/u! Hiuk trotti'rt; horses. 
 He oJttH went thrr,- h,fore. 
 
 Definition. — A word joined to some part of the 
 sentence tt) qualify or limit the meaninjf is ealled a 
 M(Mlin4>r. 
 
 Modifiers may be attached to any or all of the 
 prineipal parts f)f a sentenee: as. 
 
 The 
 Some 
 These 
 Five 
 
 Littir 
 
 Spanish 
 American 
 Smith's 
 Our 
 
 Mod I nod Verb. 
 
 Mo4lin« il Corif 
 |ili'tn«nt. 
 
 Ik)vs 
 
 yesterday 
 
 to-«lay 
 
 often 
 
 never 
 
 there 
 
 a^'.iin 
 
 once 
 
 sehloin 
 
 qtiit kiy 
 
 surely 
 
 founci 
 
 some 
 
 many 
 
 twelve 
 
 big 
 
 small 
 
 rosy 
 
 swret 
 
 Sfuir 
 
 ri|)e 
 
 green 
 
 apples. 
 
 i 
 
?si 
 
 >n 
 
 * 
 
 OK MODIFIERS 
 
 6i 
 
 EXEKCISE 36. 
 
 i.iin a/*/*rof>riitfi mtnitjUrs to I hi /oihwiMf^ 'wortis : — 
 
 I -" — nr.iiit(r», 
 
 J. ~ iniiMC. 
 
 J. L-liiu<U. 
 
 4. — riMtTH. 
 
 J. wiml. 
 
 6, l.M- — . 
 
 7. kiiu — . 
 
 8. riiiitk — . 
 
 9. Sil — . 
 
 10. h.ilU. 
 
 II, — . rlutrrhr<%. 
 
 U. chair. 
 
 IV - — 
 
 14. 
 
 ,5. 
 
 16. Cnliie _ 
 
 17. do — 
 
 18. Siny 
 
 19. Strp 
 
 20. Kiw - — 
 }|. SIrrp 
 22. S|rak — 
 2V Writf — 
 24. Wiirk - 
 
 — lllHIM'll. 
 
 • amly, 
 
 iU>gft. 
 
 :in<l 
 .-I III I 
 
 51. Ciiiitlnn. — Cnrc must \)c t.ikcn not to con- 
 found iiKHlificrs f>f the vcrl) with coniplcmcnls. A 
 uituiijUr shows the time, plaee. manner, or degree 
 of the .lotion, being, or state expressed ]>y the verb. 
 An ifhjtit comf>/ct>h lit denotes tlie object on which 
 the action expressed by the verb falls; an attrihutt 
 (ouiplmtiui points b.ick to the subject, mentiuning 
 o!ie or more of its attributes. 
 
 EXERCISE 37. 
 
 /// ///«' fi'i/iKi'iiii^ siHtfims till li'lullur the italicizfi 
 wonh arc objects, at tribute coiitplcmcnts, or modifiers 
 
 of the verb: — 
 
 I. Father called „%'"///. 2. Some snvagps .ire <'rt«»r//»rtA". 3. The 
 rej^inunt maroheiiyc/-//,. 4. (id. i/i \v«nt out a/<// a-. 5. Sh«' sanjf 
 7i Ihillad. fi. Ilisinan kwasa 0/rw»<///. 7. She sanjj ztv//. 8. The 
 ship saiU-il y.',*Ar</,n'. 9. The pohreman ]nuke<\ sur/y. 10. Lot's 
 wife- inokcil ^/f, -{•. II. Thev went /V/f»r.'. 12. Ti'. (iraeons horse 
 ran a /(f<v. 13. Th' deacon's hors»' ran <ittvi»'. 14. X'esuviusisa 
 
6a SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURK 
 
 Vicama 15. \U\*nmf9kt y,tltr,iay. lA. She wrote .1 c«mp«»i. 
 iMm. 17. Shr wrttm nv//. 18. Moihc-r i« M-wiitg At// l^^^Hij^'kt. 
 19. She U M-wiiiK my</rm. 30. T«».morrow will Ik- Salnr,iay. 
 ai. Ihc mm turnr<l ht» 4/rt,/. ai. The men lurnetl fii>,,t.i 
 aj The mm lumnl r,.wW. 34. Mr walk.1l 4 /«//,■. 35. He walked 
 \\i%M,»r%t. if,. The Roman* were j{realW.//«r.. 37. Whu|.Hj|;ht 
 /^rr^r 38. WhofouKhl Aim,: A't.Aartf* 39. Who f.Hjghl StUf 
 JO. I he »hi|) mruck a r^/. 31. The thip struck kt,t.t-ifH. 
 
 ■\ 
 
 4- • 
 
 .Ik 
 
 *s-*t\ 
 
 V ,f 
 
 
 '1 
 
 I 
 
 EXEBaSE 38. 
 
 Si/tttrd/t the fo/liKi'in,^ stntoun into simfU subject, 
 XH-rh, compUiHi'His, ami iiUHiifitrs .— 
 I. Have you much time ? 
 
 M..|,M. M)R OKAI. Ex»K('i,sr..-~An interrogative fw-ntence. 
 The subject ih •' you." unm.H|ilie.l. The preil cat.- ih •■ have n.u. h 
 time. consiviuK .»f the verb '• have " and the object " time." which 
 is moihiieil by "much." 
 
 O. 
 
 ti me? 
 murh 
 
 Model kok Writtkn Kxkrcis«.— 
 
 h.ni r.'l^""'.*''"' 3- F-.very dog h.-,, hi, day. 4. M.nny 
 handH make hght work. 5. Li„|c broken fell great aik,. 6 An 
 undt'vout astronomer i, mad. 7. When shall I see you .-.gain? 
 8. I he postn,an comer, twice daily. 9. We often meet nowadays 
 somcumes wo exchange a few wonh; we seldom converse long' 
 10 Here he comes. M. They walked up and down. 13. Where 
 Clyou find those apples? ,3. I have nearly finished n.y work. 
 14. We shall surely expect you t.^morrow. le. IVrh.ips your 
 s.stcr will come too. ,6. To an.I fro an.l in and out the wan 
 stars d.-mced between. ,7. Why d,.I y.,u con.e here to-day .> 
 18. Slowly an.l s.-«lly we lai<l him down. ,9. Meanwhile we did 
 our nightly chores. 20. The old horse thrust his long he.nd out 
 21. This e*K..I news arrived y.^^rdaj . -, Thr first carriage con - 
 tamed four |)ersons. 23. A large black <log carried the basket 
 

 4 %■ 
 
 'iiM if- . ' "■ ^ '''■■J, 
 
 i. • •• <. <*. [■= i 
 
 '%/- 
 
 ,i'MR|i. 'b - w , 
 
 i 
 
 or MoDiniRs 
 
 ft} 
 
 J4. rh«- |)ltMH{hm.in homrwarfl pltMU hi% weary w.ij, n Thr mUl 
 Novriiibcr rsiin U falling (Immally. jf.. Ihe m>bic»l niimi ilir l»r»» 
 tonlenifH€-ni h.»», 
 
 37. G.uly the iriMjlMikiur 
 
 'lOutlKTil \n% guii.ir. 
 
 38. The c«K.I( hi* crcM(«l lirlmrl brtit 
 
 Ami ituwii hm qurruluus* c li.tli<'tit;r srnt. 
 
 ftft. Mo<iir>iiiir iMiniM'M iiiHi rhm.*4H«._o»mparc 
 the iiKKlilicrs in the folluwiin; cxprw ,m,iis: 
 
 (J) (lirU u't/A fi/ui- fyti. 
 
 (J) ^'tvt\% wko^* fyts art- blm*. 
 
 In (!) the iTKHlifier of -'g is" i a .'in^'c a'( -d 
 ("bluc-cyed"); in (2) it is agruuj . , \ id "vv,th 
 bhie eyes *■) havinjf the force of a si-» -'^ v, d in 
 (3> it is a K'r'nip of words havin^r the ." . ..f .1 sin- 
 j(le wonl. and containinjf a subject (" whose eyes") 
 and a predicate ("are blue "). 
 
 Definition.— 1\ jrroup of words used as a sincrle 
 word, and containinjr neither subject nor predicate, 
 is called a I*h nu«(>. 
 
 Other examples of modifyinjf phrases are : — 
 
 He stayed at home. 
 
 Phnue. 
 
 Stunnct by thf soutiit. he I.iy urconsrioiis, 
 
 Ftirasr. 
 
 Having; finhh,;t hiiU'ork, John w.nt home. 
 
64 
 
 SENTKNCES AND TMKIR STRUCTURE 
 
 Definition. — A group of words containing a sub- 
 ject and a predicate, and used like a single word 
 OS part of a sentence, is called a CIuunc. 
 
 Other examples of clauses are : — 
 
 CUUM. 
 
 1/ it rains, wc cannot go. 
 
 ClaiKC. 
 
 They slartctl u/u-n the sun tosr. 
 
 ClauM. 
 
 ly/iethi'r hf will come is uncertain. 
 ^lall^e. CI.1UW. 
 
 Ilr ///(»/ is f^iilily thinks tlit wor It! turns round. 
 
 Phrases and clauses are alike in being groups of 
 
 words used as single words. They tiiffcr in this: a 
 
 clause contains a subject and a predicate, a phrase 
 
 docs not. 
 
 T<i th<» Tc'iU'hor.— Phrases and clauses used as substantives 
 are treated sep.irately in Chapter VI. 
 
 EXERCISE 39. 
 
 I. Narroii' the mcnnitii^ of tJie fothn^'iiig words by 
 addint:^ to them uiodifyitii; phrases : — 
 
 1. Ciciuds — 
 
 2. A ride - 
 
 3. A house 
 
 4. Hoats — 
 
 5. News — . 
 
 6. Wind . 
 
 7. lie went -. 
 
 8. We walke.l --- 
 
 9. .Sit . 
 
 10. Write , 
 
 1 1 . The fox ran 
 
 1 2. Ships sail — 
 
 2. Construct four sentences containiui!; uiodifyiuj^ 
 phrases. 
 
 EXERCISE 40. 
 
 I. Narro7V the meanini^ of the folhnvini^ words by 
 addinj^ to them modifyini^ clauses, and point out the 
 subject and the predicate in each clause : — 
 
OF MOUIFIKRS 
 
 6$ 
 
 II. The jjrounil is wrt 
 
 1 3. The brook 
 <lef|). 
 
 IS 
 
 I. Mrn . 6. Tht- Stales . 
 
 3. The pictures — . 7. Those . 
 
 3. Children . 8. He came . 
 
 4. The train . 9. Stay . 
 
 5. The book . 10. Make hay . 
 
 2. Construct four sent inns lonttxiniui^ modifyin(r 
 clauses. 
 
 EXERCISE 41. 
 
 1 . Construct a sentence in which the subject is modi- 
 fied by siui^le words : one in which it is modified by a 
 phrase ; one in which it is modified by a clause. 
 
 2. Construct a sentence in which the verb is modified 
 by sintrle words; one in 'which it is modified by a 
 phrase ; one in which it is modified by a clause. 
 
 EXEBCISE 42. 
 
 To tho TeaolUT. -This fortn.il exercise is intrmlctl only for 
 pupils who are slow to ilistinguish phrases and clauses. Ordi- 
 narily it m.iy be omitted. 
 
 Tell whether the follo'winf^ groups of words are 
 phrases or clauses : — 
 
 I. How he got home. 2. Whether he is ready. 3. To tell the 
 trnih. 4. Doomed for a certain time to walk the night. 5. Stand- 
 ing by the door. 6. Where Shakspere was Iwirn. 7. IL-f- ; 
 le.uing the city. 8. Ilcfore we leave the city. 9. lUisied w,in 
 pu!)lic affairs. 10. That you have wronged me. 11. Ignorant of 
 his duty. 12. Having m.ide his fortune. 13. Made by Indi.in. 
 14- Till on dry land he lights. 15. H.aving struck t\v«lve. 
 ifi. Where the gray birches w.ive. 17. The train h.a\inr^' started. 
 18. To better his condition. 19. Darl.ness coming on. 20. Where'er 
 the navy spreads her canvas wings. 21, The left wmg having been 
 repulsed. 22. As soon as the hri<lge was loweref!. 23. The bridge 
 having been lowered. 24. Having lowered the bridge. 25. Before 
 he had lowered the bridge. 
 
 i 
 
 m 
 
66 
 
 SKNTENCES AND THEIR STKUCTURt 
 
 EXERCISE 43. 
 
 In the following sentences point out the modi/yinjr 
 phrases, and tell tvhat they modify : — 
 
 1. We s|H(l the lime wilh slories old. 
 
 2. A baski-l of fruit stood on the table. 
 
 3. He.iring a shout, she ran to the door. 
 
 4. The borrower is servant to the lender. 
 
 5. We saw a brirk sthoolhouse standing by \\\v ro.nd. 
 
 6. Surrounded by familiar faces, she breathed Inely again. 
 
 7. A comfortable old age is the rew.ird of a well-s|)cnt youth. 
 
 8. I»ins were first m.ide by m.ichinery in New York, in 1835. 
 
 9. The author of the " 0«le to a .Skylark " was born in a stable. 
 
 10. The first submarine telegraph was laid in New York harlH)r. 
 in 1843. 
 
 11. Cd.iss windows were intro<Iuccd into Ei>gland in the eighth 
 century. 
 
 12. Icel)ergs fall into the ocean from Arctic glaciers, and drift 
 slowly toward the south. 
 
 13. The winter palace of the Czar of Russia is lighted by twelve 
 tiiousand electric lamps. 
 
 14. General Cronje, hemmed in by the British army, surrendered 
 to Lord Roberts. 
 
 1 5. Flocks of binls. wheeling round the lighthouse and blinded 
 by the light, d.ished themselves to death .ag.ainst the glass. 
 
 16. Unw.armed by any sunset light 
 The gray day darkened into night. 
 
 17. We piled with care our nightly stack 
 Of wood against the chimney back. 
 
 18. The moon, above the eastern wood. 
 Shone at its full. 
 
 19. Down in the green and shady bed 
 A modest violet grew. 
 
 20. Two robin redbreasts built their nest 
 Within a hollow tree. 
 
OK M()J)II IKRS 
 
 67 
 
 £X£ACI8£ 44. 
 
 /// the foilinuiiiir stutiiii. < />i, k out the modifyiu^ir 
 tliiiisis, tilt 'iv'liat tluy inotiijy, and ^ivc the suhjut and 
 lilt' praiuate of each clause : — 
 
 1. Me lay whcrt: he fill. 
 
 2. A glutton lives that he may eat, 
 
 3. Where the bee sucks, there suik I, 
 
 4. Just as I awoke, the cltxk struck six. 
 
 5. The evil that men do hves aftt r tlu m. 
 
 6. tloil helps those who help thenistlvcs. 
 
 7. Blessed is he that considereth the |K)or. 
 
 8. The task which yi>ii have to du is easy. 
 
 9. .\ teinperate man eats that he may live, 
 itx Fools rush in where aiiijels fear to tread. 
 I!. They that govern must make least noise. 
 \z. I'neasy lies the head that wears a crown. 
 
 ' 3- ^^y t'yt^s make pictures when they are shut. 
 
 14. The city to which I refer is Constantinople. 
 
 I 5. When the heart stops beating, life stops too. 
 
 16. People who live in glass houses must not throw stones, 
 
 17. Rex found a young robin, which ha<l fallen from its nest. 
 
 18. The average age of those who enter college is seventeen. 
 
 ly. The man who wanted to see you went away an hour ago. 
 
 20. The fur which now warms a monarrfi once warmed a Inar. 
 
 31. He that loses his c<Miscience has nothing left that is worth 
 keeping. 
 
 22. W^here the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered 
 together. 
 
 23. Kindness is the golden cliain by which society is bound 
 together. 
 
 24. The moon, that onre was round and full, 
 Is now a silver boat. 
 
 f*: 
 
68 SI:N IKNCES AND TMI.lk SlkUCTUKE 
 
 35. My heart leaps up when 1 Ix-huld 
 A r.iinljow in the sky. 
 
 26. Me who iisceiulh to inounlain tups sh.i!! find 
 
 The loftiest peaks must wrapped in cluuils and snow. 
 
 56. M(Mlif>liiM: clatiM(>H C'hiHHimMl. The principal 
 ideas expressed by modifying clauses are the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 (1) Dkscription : Water t/uU is sf,ii^nant in unwholesome. 
 
 (2) TiMK : He started 7i'//«7i ///<• sun ros,: 
 
 (3) IM.ACK : WAfmur I went was my p(Mjr <log Tray. 
 
 (4) .Mannk.k : He did as he wtis lold. 
 
 (5) Condition : Rob will yo if Ktfuf ^ws. 
 
 (6) C0NCE.SSI0N : T/iouiL,'/i pain is not Hn\i;reatest nil, yet it 
 is an evil. 
 
 (7) CAUst:: \ zavcw: kcause you lalUd me. 
 
 (8) IM KPusR ; A j^lutton lives ///,// he may eat. 
 
 (9) I)K«;kki- : Ralph is stronj;er than Katherine \is\. 
 (10) Rksllt : I am so tired ///.// I cannot stand. 
 
 EXEBCISE 46. 
 
 Till ivhat i(i((i is exprisscd by each of tlif inotii/yinji^ 
 fliinus in lixcrcisc 44. 
 
 67. Indirect Object**. — Compare the following 
 sentences: — 
 
 00 Jack gave a penny. 
 {h) Jack gave me a penny. 
 
 In each of these sentences the word "penny" 
 is an object complement, indispensiible to the pred- 
 icate. Giving, however, involves a receiver as well 
 as a thing given, and in the .second sentence this 
 
OF MUl>IMLkS 
 
 receiver is indicated by the sinjjle word "me," 
 placed immediately after the verb. Hut " me '" is 
 less closely related to the verb than ••|)enny," 
 because (i) it is m>t indispensiible, and (J) if we 
 change its place, we must indicate its relati()n by 
 prefixing "to:" as. "Jack gave a {wjuny to mi." 
 Moreover, the action of giving reaches the receiver 
 only indirectly through the thing given. "Me" 
 in .sentence (/') is therefore called an IiulirtH't 
 Objoi't, in distinction from " penny," which is 
 called the Dlrt-ft oiijt'ct. Other examples arc: — 
 
 Mother l)ouglit Alue a doll. 
 
 She made Kulh a new dress. 
 
 Dtfiuition. — A word uscfl to denote the object in- 
 directly affected by the action of a verb is called an 
 Indirect l)l»J<'rt. 
 
 The indirect object of a verb denotes the object 
 to or for whom the action is performed. But not 
 ever)' word answering the question " to whom t>r 
 what'" or "for whom or what?" is an indirect 
 object. For example, the italicized words in the fol- 
 lowing .sentence are not indirect objects: "Mother 
 went to toivn and bought me a doll for a iMlnr." 
 
 The verb "ask "' takes an indirect oljject in a r< l.itK^n Sdnu-timrs 
 .xpressed by 'of:" as, "He asked mc a queslion ; " " He ai,k. .1 
 a (|uestion of inf." 
 
 EXERCISE 46. 
 
 I. //'//// f/ii' folfo'ii'iiijr verbs form ten sintcnas, mch 
 containini^ on indirect object : — 
 
 ask forgive make pnirnise t. k h 
 
 bring get p.iy send tell 
 
'«»■ '■=» 
 
 T ■'^■' 
 
 ;o SKNTKNCKS AND THKIk STKUCTURK 
 
 2. Change your stutttms so that indirut objects that 
 Win- stHgU' words shall now be expressed by phrases, and 
 vuf versa. 
 
 EXERCISE 47. 
 
 Point ont the indirect objects in the following sen- 
 tences: — 
 
 1. Will you <lo me a favor? 
 
 2. He paid I he men I heir wages. 
 
 3. (iive me Iil>crty. or give me ileath. 
 
 4. He wrought the castle much annoy. 
 
 5. Riches certainly make themselves wings. 
 
 6. C.ive every man thy car. but few thy voice. 
 
 7. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends. 
 
 8. Owe no ma^ anythiny, but to love one another. 
 
 9. Th. God who jjave us life gave us lilK-rly at the same time. 
 
 10. If hine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give hhn 
 drink. 
 
 11. I3 Id thee more stately mansions. O my soul, as the swift 
 seasons (t-il. 
 
 58. Iii'"pcct ObJoctM In PuHHlvo 8entence«.— 
 
 When .scM nccs containinjr a direct and an indirect 
 object ar( !.-ncd into the passive form, it would 
 seem that the direct object should become the .subject 
 of the passive verb, bccau.se it denotes the object 
 which directly receives the action expressed by the 
 verb; and that the indirect object .should remain 
 unchanged: thus, 
 
 I ml. Obj. 
 
 {Aitt'-'e) He handeil Avr a chair. 
 
 Iml. Obj. 
 
 (Passi'vi) A cl>air was handed Acr. 
 
OF MODIFIKRS 
 
 n 
 
 Asa matter at fact, however, not the direct ob- 
 ject, but the indirect is often made the .sul)ject of 
 the passive verb: as, 
 
 SAi- was h.indcd a chair. 
 
 This cannot Im lojjically explained, but it is 
 accepted as ^o<h\ Knglish. "Chair" is f,.r con- 
 venience called a lU>tulii«Ml (>l^i><>t. 
 
 EXEBCISE 48. 
 
 Cli(Vis:;i' the folUncing suttcnccs into thv passive 
 form : — 
 
 1. H.irry gave mo a jM-nny. 
 
 2. She promised nw a Inmk. 
 
 3. I K-ive him a rrcript in full. 
 
 4. Mother iMJiighl Alice a doll. 
 
 5 He paid the men their w.-ijjcs. 
 
 6. He wrought the rastle much annoy, 
 
 7. Nature teaches leasts to know their friends. 
 
 8. He told them many strange stories of the sea. 
 
 5». AppoHltlveH. — Compare the following sen- 
 teiices: — 
 
 Paul was behea<led in the reign of Nero. 
 
 I'aul. thi- apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero, emperor 
 of Rome. 
 
 In the .second .sentence, you observe, the mean- 
 ing of "Paul" and of "Nero" is made clear by 
 .setting next to each of them a modifier consisting 
 of another name for the .same person or thing. 
 
 nifimtioti.—K name set next to another name 
 by way of explanation, and denoting the .same per- 
 
»-•.». Iir_., 
 
 .%•;•._ ., V 
 
 
 7a 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 son or thing, is called an Apponltlvv (Latin, "set 
 next to "). 
 
 The two namcH set next to each other are said 
 to be in App<Niltlon. 
 
 If an appositive is accompanied by adjuncts, it 
 is usually set off by commas. 
 
 In the (IrAnitbn ut an apiiotitive, the words "tJrnoiinij »he tame 
 IH-rson or tliiiit; " are neetlecl to ilistii){{ubh an appoutive from a 
 fwisesMvc m«Mlifier. like " Johns' in the expression "John's hat." 
 In this expression the wor^ls are not in apposition because they do 
 not denote the same |>crson or thing. 
 
 EXEBCI8E 49. 
 
 /n tlw /oiiou'iHj^ itntemrs point out the rvoriis in ap- 
 position : — 
 
 1. Hail. iM.ly light ! offspring of heav'n first-liorn. 
 
 2. The meek ey'd Morn ap|)ears. mother of «lews. 
 
 3. Come, gentle Spring • ethereal Mildness ! come. 
 
 4- The |K)stman comes, the herald of a noisy world. 
 
 5. Lal>or to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celes- 
 tial fire— conscience. 
 
 6. Let not women's weapons, water drops. 
 Stain my man's cheeks ! 
 
 7. A famous man is Robin Hoo<l, 
 The English ballad singer's joy. 
 
 8. Aurora now. fair daughter of the dawn, 
 Sprinkled with rosy light the dewy lawn. 
 
 9. The sp.icious firmament on high. 
 With all the blue ethereal sky. 
 
 And spangled heavens, a shining frame. 
 Their great Original proclaim. 
 la She dwelt among the untro<lden ways 
 
 Beside the springs of Dove - 
 A maid whom there were none to praise 
 
 And very few to love. 
 
OF MUDIKIKKS 73 
 
 II. In Xanadu did Kubia Khan 
 
 A »Ulely picasurc-duiiic decree. 
 Where Alph, the Mcrcd river, ran 
 Through caverns nieasurelcM to nuui 
 Down to a sun leu sea. 
 
 "• O ifotMl Cum lalo. 
 
 My true prMrrvrr an<l a loyal sir 
 To him thou follow'sl. I will pay thy 1,'raccii 
 Home, ixiih in wortl an«l dceil. Mom cruelly 
 Didst thou. Alonzo. uht rnc and niy daughter: 
 Thy brother was a furthcrcr in thr act ;— 
 Tlwu'rt pinch'd (of t now, Sebastian. 
 
 EXERCISE 60. 
 
 Construct four sentences containing nppositrt'es. 
 
 «0. M(Mlinf>rM of MrxlincrH.— Thus far wc have 
 considered only mixlifiers of subject, verb, and 
 c«)mplement. But mcxlifiers arc themselves often 
 modified, and wc find phrases attached to phrases, 
 clauses attached to clauses. Thus: 
 
 (a) Fanny sinjfs very well. 
 HuUI<H>t. 
 
 Fanny 
 
 Verb. 
 
 sings 
 I well. 
 
 Ijrry 
 
 {f>) The widow of the fishrrm.in who was drowned lives in a cot- 
 tajje by the sea. 
 
 Mnhjppt. Vorh. 
 
 widow lives 
 
 T*^^ I in a co ttage 
 
 of the fis herman | hy'the sea. 
 
 1 who was drowned ~~ 
 
74 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIR HTRI tfURI 
 
 (r) Thh is the rai that «tr the nwli that lay in the houM that 
 Jack buUt. 
 
 i 
 
 U II 
 
 This is the rat 
 
 that ate the m alt 
 
 |D»nt lay in t he houM 
 
 ( ihat Jack htitlt. 
 
 01. Annl>'ntn. — When, in order to show its strtic- 
 ture, we sepjirato a sentence into its parts, we are 
 sail! to Analyze* it. 
 
 /h/ini/ ion.— The process of separatinjj a sentence 
 into its parts in order to show its structure is called 
 Anal.VHiN (f Jreek, "a takinjf apart "). 
 
 In order to analyze a sentence we must tell — 
 
 (1) The kind of sentenre. 
 
 (2) The romplcte siil>ject. 
 
 (3) Tie predicate. 
 
 (4) The simple suhji-ct. 
 
 (5) The verb. 
 
 (6) The • omptement, if any. 
 
 (7) I'he modifurs of subject, verb, and complement. 
 
 (8) The subordinate modifiers. 
 
 03. Dlii,|iri*>un»4. — It is .sometimes convenient, as a 
 time-savinj; <levice, to .show the fundament.il .struc- 
 ture of a .sentence by me.ins of a jjraphic repre.sen- 
 
o^" Momnt.Rs 
 
 75 
 
 tation called a iHuirmtn. l'*t>r example, ihc Mtruc- 
 turc o( thu (ivntcncc, 
 
 All iNiyn like llic k^hic u( ImwImU, 
 
 may bv exhibited iIuik: — 
 
 V. Ob 
 
 of Imachail. 
 
 M. 
 
 like 
 
 This diajfram Hhowsal a jjlanw that thu sentini-c 
 has three princi|>.d parts, and that the subject has 
 one m<Klirier, the oliject two. 
 
 Similarly, the stnicture nf tlie Kcntcncc, 
 
 The lion ami llu- unicorn 
 Were liKhtnig '"' »''« crown, 
 
 may be whown thus: — 
 
 linn 
 Thr| 
 
 V. 
 
 unicorn 
 
 Wrrr fiKhlinf; 
 
 1 f'»r tlif cr«»wn. 
 
 Ihr 
 
 Phrases and clauses. Iwing used with the force 
 of sintflc words, are best treated as units and not 
 broken up into parts. 
 
 For other examples sec <M>. 
 
 To the Teacher.— The chief value of the cllagram is that it 
 enables the teacher to test a pupil's in .ight inlu sentence-structure 
 with a minimum of time and effort. The chief olijection to It is 
 that, being niechanical. it is unnatural as an expression of Inpfral 
 relations, reilucing the iH'autifuI subtlilirs of Iinfjui^e to hard and 
 fast lines. wresttnt{ *'>c words out of their order, and fostering »n 
 
me'-m:. =m ^' 
 
 ib 
 
 ''■^~-'^'^i-^y^-0i^, 
 
 Mictocory resoiution tbt chaut 
 
 (ANSI .nd ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 
 
 1.0 Ifia I 
 
 Itt 
 u 
 
 140 
 
 P'" "II 
 
 2.5 
 2.2 
 
 2.0 
 1.8 
 
 A APPLIED IIVMGE 
 
 inc 
 
 1653 Eost Moin Street 
 Rochester. New York U609 
 (716) 482-0300- Phone 
 (716) 288- 5989 -Fax 
 
 USA 
 
«.. Y 
 
 «?f1 
 
 '^ 
 
 76 SENTENCKS AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 the pupil mechanical ideas of the English sentence. Used occasion- 
 ally and in moderation, it is a help; hut it should not attempt to fjo 
 iK-yond the graphic separation of subject, verb, complement^,, and 
 modifierh . and it should never In: allowed to usurp the place of 
 oral analysis, which remains the chief instrument of the teacher 
 for developing quick perception and easy expression. 
 
 The author doubts the expediency of ever extending the use of 
 the diagram beyond the expression of the fundamental %/iv,/struc. 
 ture of the sentence. To attempt to show graphically all grammal. 
 Hill relations leads to niceties of detail in the diagram which turn it 
 into a puzzle requiring a key. When a pupil becomes concerned 
 not so much with the use of a word as with how to express that use 
 graphically, the purpose of the diagram has become perverted, and 
 the real object of analysis is lost sight of. 
 
 EXERCISE 51. 
 
 Analyze the follozving sentences : 
 
 I. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower 
 And trimmed the lamps as the sun went down. 
 
 Model for Oral ANALvsLs.-The subject is "Three wives." 
 There are two predicates, "sat up in the lighthouse tower " and 
 "trimmed the lamps as the sun went down." The simple 
 subject is "wives," modified by "three." The verb in the first 
 predicate is "sat." a verb of complete predication, modified by 
 "up "and the phrase "in the lighthouse tower." In the second 
 predicate the verb is "trimmed." with " lamps" as object comple- 
 ment. " Trimmed " is modified by the time clause " as the sun 
 went down," and "lamps " is modified by "the." 
 
 Model for Written Analysis.— 
 
 s. 
 
 wives 
 
 Three 
 
 V. 
 
 sat 
 
 up 
 
 in the lighthouse tower 
 
 and 
 
 trimmed 
 
 as the sun went down. 
 
 O. 
 
 lamps 
 "Jthe 
 
OF MODIFILRS 
 
 n 
 
 2. Hright the lamps shone o'er fair wotijtn ami liravc men. 
 
 3. Animals that live in the Arctic reyions among snow and ice 
 have white fur. 
 
 4. Near the " bonny Vioon ' stands the Utile clay-built cottage 
 in which Robert Hums was born. 
 
 5. Rip Van Winkle assisted at the children's sports, niade their 
 playthings, and told them long stories of ghosts, witches, and 
 Indians. 
 
 6. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a soldier 
 
 lay, 
 
 Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his 
 life away. 
 
 7. Between the andirons* straggling feet 
 The mug of cider simmered slow. 
 
 8. The house dog on his paws outspread 
 Laid to the fire his drowsy head. 
 
 9. Sharply clashing horn on horn, 
 Impatient down the stanchion rows 
 The cattle shake their walnut bows. 
 
 10. A little nonsense now and then 
 Is relished by the wisest men. 
 
 11. I stood on the bridge at midnight. 
 As the clocks were striking the hour. 
 
 12. Forth into the forest straightway 
 All alone walked Hiawatha 
 Proudly, with his bows and arrows. 
 
 13. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought. 
 Whene'er is spoken a noble thought. 
 Our hearts, in glad surprise, 
 
 To higher levels rise. 
 
 14. In my study I see in the lamplight. 
 
 Descending the broad hall stair. 
 Grave Alice and laughing Allegra 
 And Edith with golden hair. 
 
 < 
 
78 
 
 SENTKNCKS AND THKIK STRUCTURE 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 EXEBCISE 52. 
 
 (Gknkkal Kevikw.) 
 Analyze the fol Unci ii}^ sentences : — 
 
 1. I cnmc to a shady spot where the grass was wet with tiie dew 
 that still lay u|M)n it. 
 
 MuDKl. FOR Oral ANAl.vsrs.-The sul)jcct of this sentence 
 IS '• I." without adjuncts. The predicate is the rest of the sentence. 
 The principal verb in I he predicate is "can.e." a verb of complete 
 predication, modified by the phrase " to a shady spot." " Spot " is 
 nuHlihed by " a " and " shady " and the clause of place. •• wKere the 
 grass was wet." in whiJ. .he -rass " is the subject. " w.is " is the 
 verb, and " wet " is an altrd)ute complement. '• Wet ' is modified 
 by the phrase " with the dew.' •• l)c\v " is modified by •• the " and 
 the descriptive clause "that still lay upon it," In which "that " is 
 the subject and " lay " is the verb, modirted by " still " and the phrase 
 " upon it." 
 
 Model for Written Analysis.— 
 8. V. 
 
 I came 
 
 I to a shady spot 
 
 I where the grass was wet 
 
 I with the dew 
 
 TThat. etc. 
 
 2. Nearly all dogs like the water. 
 
 3. My bosom's lord sits lightly in his throne, 
 
 4. The man in the moon came down too soon. 
 
 5. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 
 
 6. Trust that man in nothing who has not a conscience in 
 everything. 
 
 7. When I look upon the tombs of the great every emotion of 
 envy dies in me, 
 
 8. Pompeii was suddenly buried beneath a shower of ashes 
 from Mount Vesuvius. 
 
 9. People will not look forward to posterity who never look 
 backward to their ancestors. 
 
m^l^mSt'.'*^. 
 
 <)« M()|)ihi:ks 
 
 79 
 
 
 1 
 
 10. Hooks that you may carry to the tire aticl hold rta<li!y in your 
 hanil arc the most ustful after all. 
 
 11. The deep cave amonj,' the rocks on the hillside was lonji 
 the secret home of a family of foxes. 
 
 12. In HcMand the stork is protected hy law, because it cats the 
 frogs and worms that would injure the dikes. 
 
 13. The water of our brook, after llowiiifj under the bridge and 
 through the meadow, falls over little precipices of rock till it reaches 
 the level of the lake, fifty feet below. 
 
 14. When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterward b«came a 
 distinguished st.itesman and philosopher. Karncd his trade in the 
 printing olticeof his brother, who published a paper in Boston. 
 
 15. A king sat on the rocky brow 
 Which looks o<t sea-born Salaniis. 
 
 16. At the doorway of his wigwam 
 Sat the ancient Arrow-maker, 
 In the land of the Dacotahs, 
 Making arrowheads of jasper. 
 
 17. At his side, in all her beauty, 
 Sat the lovely Minnehaha. 
 Plaiting mats of flags and rushes. 
 
 18. Soon o'er the yellow fields, in silent and mournful procession. 
 Came from the neighboring hamlets and farms the Acadian 
 
 women, 
 
 Driving in ponderous wains their household goods to the 
 seashore. 
 
 19. In the Old Colony days, in Plymouth, the land of the Pil- 
 
 grims, 
 To and fro in a room ot his simple and primitive dwelling. 
 Clad in doublet and hose, and boots of Cordovan leather. 
 Strode, with a martial air, Miles Standish. the Puritan captain. 
 20. Shut in from all the world without, 
 
 We sat the clean-winged hearth about, 
 
 Content to let the north wind roar 
 
 In baffled rage at pane and door. 
 
 While the red logs before us beat 
 
 The frost line bark with tropic heat. 
 
■'7r\«*t":" 
 
 80 
 
 S1:N TKNCKS ANIJ TIILIR STKUCI UKK 
 
 21. Tlial orlK.cl maiflcn with white fiic l.nltn. 
 
 Whom mortals call the moon. 
 Gliilfs KliiiimcrinK o'lr my' fkrce-hlvi: lloor, 
 liy the miilnnjht breezes strewn. 
 
 22. He.iring the lm|)erial name 
 
 Ci ipled with these words of malice, 
 {{alt ill anger, half in shame. 
 Forth the great campaigner came 
 
 Slowly from his canvas palace. 
 
 23, When { see kings lying by those who deposed them ; when 
 { consider rival wits placed side by side, or the holy men th.ii di- 
 vided the world with their contests and disputes. { reflect with 
 sorrow and astonishment on the little competitions, facti )ns, and 
 debates of nhinkind.—At/tf/son .- '• Visit to Westminster Abbey." 
 
 *A cloud U kitppuied to be i( ;aking. 
 
mmpr^Msmmi^t^**''. lEisiw^nr Ji^i-i^- 
 
 CHAPTKR VI 
 
 OF SUHSTANTIVi; PIIKASKS AM) C I.AUSKS 
 
 In the last chapter we learned (55) that j,^r()ups of 
 words are often used with the force of single words, 
 and that such t^roups are iMiniHi'H if they contain 
 neither subject nor predicate. Clauses if they do 
 contain a subject and a predicate. The illustrative 
 sentences and the exercises contained many such 
 groups used as modifiers. We aie now to learn 
 that phrases and clauses are also used as substan- 
 tivt's. 
 
 03. PhroHcs OS HubjcctH. — Examine the subject 
 of each of the following sentences, and, if possible, 
 pick out the single word that may be used as the 
 simple or bare subject : — 
 
 Subjt'ft. 
 
 Verb. Complement. 
 
 Over the fence 
 
 To jump across the chasm 
 
 Tom's being there 
 
 IS 
 
 was 
 saved 
 
 out. 
 
 impossible, 
 the house. 
 
 You observe that no single word can be taken as 
 the bare subject. The assertion is made about the 
 idea expressed by the entire phrase used as a sub- 
 stantive. 
 
 To the Teacher — The internal structure of substantive 
 phrases is discussed in Part II. 
 
a I •• I 
 
 83 
 
 SKNTLNCKS AND THi:iR STKUCTURi: 
 
 EXEBCISE 53. 
 
 Construct assirtions about the ii/nis iXprnsai by the 
 follo't<nng phmsiS : — 
 
 1. To die for one's country — 
 
 2. Skating on the |K)ntl . 
 
 3. Writing compositioriH . 
 
 4. I'laying football . 
 
 5. To write a sttiry . 
 
 6. Chopping wood . 
 
 7. To Jintl a horseshoe — 
 b. To tell u lie . 
 
 EXEBCISE 54. 
 
 /'■/// the blanks with phrases used as subjeets: 
 
 I. is dishonorable. 
 
 2. annoys nie. 
 
 3. is bad luck. 
 
 4. IS hard work. 
 
 5. was great fun. 
 
 6. woidd make you laugh. 
 
 7. is inipossdile. 
 
 8. Does make you tired ? 
 
 i 
 
 04. PhniMC'H tiM CumplemtMitH. — Examine each of 
 the following complement.s, and determine whether 
 any single word may be taken as the bare comple- 
 ment: — 
 
 8ub,tt*et. 
 
 He 
 I 
 
 ViTb. 
 
 Objpft C'oniploinctit. 
 
 comtnanded 
 saw 
 
 the bridge to be lowered, 
 him do it. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 Th^ 
 They 
 
 Subject. Verb. 
 
 Verb. Attribute Complement* 
 
 They 
 They 
 
 danced 
 kept 
 
 IS 
 
 were 
 Object. 
 
 themselves 
 us 
 
 out of bounds, 
 in no danger. 
 
 Objective Complement. 
 
 out of breath, 
 waiting an hour. 
 
 From this it is clear that phrases are often used 
 substantively as complements. 
 
OF SUBSTANTIVK PKRASKS AND CLAUSES 83 
 
 EXEBCISE 56. 
 
 Compute the folUnvin^r snitencs by adding ideas ex- 
 pressed by phrases, and tell -.whether the phrases are used 
 as objeets, attribute eomplements, or objective eomple- 
 ments : — 
 
 1. Our ' 1USC is 
 
 2. We ititcnti — 
 
 3. Up m:u\v us 
 
 4. He seemed - 
 
 5. What I want is . 
 
 6. LonI Roberts forced Croujc 
 
 7. The Alps are . 
 
 8. I like . 
 
 EXERCISE 56. 
 
 /// the folhnviug snifeiiees point out the phrases, and 
 tell hoiv they are used : — 
 
 1. Study to Im' quiet. 
 
 2. The vessels were of oak. 
 
 3. Out of sight is out of mind. 
 4- <>iJt of debt is out of misery. 
 
 5. I found the book growing dull. 
 
 6. I did not enjoy crossing the ocean. 
 
 7. The price of wisdom is alwve rubies. 
 
 8. A man should learn to govern himself. 
 
 9- To break a promise is a breach of honor. 
 
 10. Giving to the poor is lending to the Lord. 
 
 1 1 . England expects every man to do his duty. 
 
 12. This .norning Carrie seemed in good spirits. 
 
 13- Men called the first steamboat "Fulton's Folly." 
 
 14. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. 
 
 IS- The true university of these days is a collection of books. 
 
 16. The greatest of faults. I should say. is to be conscious of 
 none. 
 
 17. Being in a ship is lieing in a jail, with the chance of beine 
 drowned. * 
 
1 
 
 put on 
 
 :'f«^^"f V',*^^" 
 
 •4 SKNTKNCKS AM) THlllR STRlCTUkt 
 
 18. To l)c lonwious that you are ijjnoram \% .1 grmt sUp toward 
 kriowiccl^e. 
 
 19- The wincl<i and waves arc always on the side of the ablest 
 navigators. 
 
 20. The only arjjumrnt available with an east wind is to 
 your ov<'rroat. 
 
 21. To \h' prrparrd for war is one of the most effectual means 
 of preserving; peace. 
 
 22. Early to b<'d. and early to rise. 
 
 .Makrs a man hrallhy. wr.ihhy. and wise. 
 
 23. Immodest words .idinit of no difrnse. 
 Kor want of tieccncy is want of sense. 
 
 EXERCISE 67. 
 
 U'ri/r n sintcucc contninini:^ n pftrnsr used as siih- 
 Jut ; OS object ; as attribute eoiiiplement ; as object he 
 complement . 
 
 05; CIaiiM(>H iiM HnLjeotH.— Examine the following 
 sentences, and consider whether any .single word 
 can be named as the bare .subject. 
 
 Consider, also, whether the groups of words ex- 
 pressing the subject are phra.ses or clau.ses. Give 
 the rea.son for your answer: 
 
 Sul|iJ«'Ct. 
 
 PrcMllcRto. 
 
 Wh.nt they say 
 
 That you have wronged me 
 
 Whether I can go 
 
 is not to the point, 
 doth appear in this, 
 is uncertain. 
 
 From this it is clear that a clause may be used 
 substantively as the subject of a sentence. 
 
OF SIJHSTAN TIVi: PHRASES AND C LAirsiS 
 EXEBCI8E 58. 
 
 «5 
 
 AnUr nsstrtions about the uii,ii ixprcssai by th,- Ul- 
 I. Wh; • - w.inti . 
 
 3. Whrll) you go or slay . 
 
 3. That two and iw«» in.ikr four . 
 
 4. Whom it Iwlunj's lo . 
 
 5. What hr docs - .. 
 
 6. Where hf \v«nt . 
 
 7. When we shall start . 
 
 8. '• Charge for the guns " . 
 
 EXERCISE 59. 
 
 /•■/// t//r Ntvds -u'it/i i/aitsts used as subjects .•— 
 
 is unknown. 
 
 will never l)e discovered. 
 
 pleases nie. 
 
 is doubtful. 
 
 5. is of no importance. 
 
 6. \v IS forel«)ld. 
 
 7- were his words. 
 
 8. has been proved. 
 
 EXERCISE 60. 
 
 Review Exereisc 1 1 { f^a^^e 2y), and tell whether the 
 subjects art: phrases or clauses. 
 
 00. Clauses as Complements.— Examine the fol- 
 lowing sentences, .ind consider whether any single 
 word can he named as the complement. Consider, 
 also, whether the groups of words expres.sing the 
 complementary idea are phrases or clau.ses:— 
 
 SuHloct. Verb. OI.J..t.t. 
 
 Galileo 
 
 He 
 
 She 
 
 I 
 
 tau),'ht 
 asked 
 showed 
 doubt 
 
 that the e.irth moves, 
 who I was. 
 where she had put it. 
 wiiclhcr i can go. 
 
f ■»* 
 
 86 
 
 sENr::NCEs and tmk.ir stri ltire 
 
 i:l§?'' 
 
 B!!% ■!».. ■ 
 
 tirr chief fault 
 lie 
 
 Thw 
 
 V«»rb. AltrlUulti ( »ni|il«>fii(«at. 
 
 
 what i want. 
 
 thai »hc would not rracl. 
 Mriiiid what Uc prctmtlcd u> Iw. 
 !• where the arbutus ({rown. 
 
 From tilis ii is clear that clauses may be used sub- 
 HtatUively as object or attribute complements. 
 
 EXEBCI8E 61. 
 
 //// ///,• fi/ituh with thust's iis,,/ as cfiuiplnnents, and 
 till wliithtr liny art' nsoi ns oif/Wts or altnhutt- ami. 
 
 f>i, IHiHlS : — 
 
 1. Do you kn.iw ? 6. Have you hrani ? 
 
 2. I («ar , 7_ I'l,,. qiif^i,,,,, j^ 
 
 3. My ho|H- Is , 8. Thinj-s an- srKlom . 
 
 4. UV saw . 9. Let u^ n%k . 
 
 5 His cry was . lo. I ihiiik . 
 
 in. ('laiiM4>M tw ApiM>«ltlv<»H.— Examine the fol- 
 lowiuij sentence: — 
 
 The Arabs have a superstition l/t,il Ihf slork Am n hiwmn 
 htarl. 
 
 Here the clai'sc "that the stork has a human 
 heart" is in apix»sition (5i>) with the word "super- 
 stition." 
 
 From this we sec that clauses may l)e used sub- 
 stantively as appositives. 
 
 EXEBCISE 62. 
 
 Fill the blanks with clauses in apposition with the 
 italicized ivords : — 
 
I 1 
 
 OF NUliSTANTIVE PMKAsKS ANU CI.AL.SKi 
 
 I. The rtfHHl I, Mill rue. 
 
 a. I hf tt^in |i.i„ ji,,i com^, 
 
 y \Sk have Ju»l Itaiiu,! the y.i,/ .^ 
 
 4. I chcri»h ihc hof*^ . 
 
 $. He ntiuJe the at)>*rtim . 
 
 «7 
 
 EXERCISE 63. 
 Point out tlw apposith^s iu tlw folUnoh^r sen- 
 
 h.,:.;;:;r,;:,:;r '"•"" -•"—'••/. 1-. 
 
 ohi .11x1 of rxcrlltfiit wit. 
 
 5 Hooks have this n.lv.uu..Ke ov.t travel, th... they convey 
 inforniaiion from rcmot« times. ^ c.m\.y 
 
 6. It w.-,s .1 ,„axi,n with H, ,„ley that no man was ever written 
 out of reputation but hy himself. " 
 
 a umteTurn;::!: °' ^^"'^" '''"""' ^''""''•"'^^^' '^^ '^^ ''^^ — 
 
 «. In the armory of Venice is this inscription : " Hanpy is that 
 cty which in time of pe.icc thinks of war." 
 
 9. The theory that the earth revolves aroun.l the sun was not 
 K«neratly accepted till after the invention of the telesco,>e 
 lu. Know th.n ihis truth renouRh for man to know).~ 
 ' Virtue alone is happiness below." 
 
 EXERCISE 64. 
 
 U'ri/r a scntnue amtahtifti^r „ snhsfanthr clause usoi 
 ^s subject ; as objeet ; as attribute eomplement ; as an 
 iippositive. 
 
 \ 
 
 .3\ 
 
88 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 FXEBCISE 65. 
 
 In the folh'ving sentences point out the clauses, 
 and tell hoio i.iey are used .-— 
 
 1. Ask if you may go too. 
 
 2. Life is what wc make it. 
 
 3. What he does is well done. 
 
 4. What you want is not here. 
 
 5. Take whichever you choose. 
 
 6. Show us where you found it. 
 
 7. This is not what I asked for. 
 
 8. What he promises, he will do. 
 
 9. No one can tell how this will end. 
 
 10. A servant must do what he is told. 
 
 1 1. No man can 'ose what he never had. 
 
 12. "I am going a-milking, sir," she said. 
 
 13. Whether you go or stay is of little account. 
 
 14. The village all declared how much he knew. 
 
 15. He acknowledged that he had made a mistake. 
 
 16. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. 
 
 17. Reputation is what we seem ; character is what we are. 
 
 18. Lawrence's dying words were, " Don't give up the ship." 
 
 19. That the earth is round is proved by the shape of its shadow. 
 
 20. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a continent. 
 
 21. What a man puts into his head cannot be stolen from him, 
 
 22. The war cry of the Crusaders was, " It is the will of God ! " 
 
 23. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" was God's question to 
 guilty Cain. 
 

 OF SirHSTANTIVi: I'MKASKS AM, CKAUSKS 89 
 
 can'Jou^b ."'"'' ""'" ""' ""^"■"" ^''" ^"" ''''■ '' ^^"' ^'=*'<- " ^Vhat 
 
 26 Philosophers are stiU debating whether the will has a„v 
 control over dreams. "^ 
 
 sta's'isThrr''"'!;"" "^ ^ n "''''"'"' '"'>' '"""*^" -^ ^^e sun and 
 stars IS that the earth spins like a top. 
 
 28. I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls, 
 With vassals and serfs at my side. 
 
 To the Teiu.Hor.-Substantlve phrases and clauses used as 
 the objects of pre|)ositions are treated in Part II. 
 
K^mmm'w^' 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 
 
 08. IndcpotMleut Klementw Denned. — Examine 
 the following sentence : — 
 
 1 am going a-milking, sir. 
 
 Here, you observe, the subject is " I ;" the pred- 
 icate is "am going a-milking." The word "sir" 
 belongs neither to the subject nor to the predicate, 
 and therefore is not really a part of the sentence. 
 It is merely attached to the sentence to show to 
 whom it is addressed. 
 
 Definition. — A word or group of words attached to 
 a sentence without forming a grammatical part of it 
 is called an Iiulependent Flement, 
 
 60. Vocatives. — Independent elements are of 
 several kinds. In "I am going a-milking, sir," the 
 independent element "sir" indicates the person to 
 whom the sentence is addressed. 
 
 Definition, — A word used to call to or indicate 
 the person or thing addressed is called a Vocative 
 (Latin voco, " I call"). 
 
 Care must be taken not to confound vocatives with 
 the subjects of imperative sentences. In " Come 
 on, boys," "boys" is a vocative. The subject of 
 the command "come on" is omitted as usual; if 
 expressed, it would be " you :" as, "Come [you] on, 
 boys." 
 
■lililTWllllWaftyfr>3t . i-ir ..M^^jmrnt-. 
 
 OF INDKI'ENDKNT ELEMENTS 
 EXERCISE 66. 
 
 91 
 
 Poinf out the vocative icords in the foU(Kving sen- 
 tences : — 
 
 1. Drink, pretty creature, drink. 
 
 2. Give ine of your balm. O fir tree. 
 
 3. Mr. President, my object is peace. 
 
 4. O Child of Nations, giant-liml)ed. 
 
 5. Ye crags and peaks. I'm with you once again. 
 
 6. Wave your tops, ye pines, in sign of worship. 
 
 7. Roll on, thou dark and deep blue ocean, roll ! 
 
 8. Sir, I would rather be right than be president. 
 
 9. My son, If sinners entice thee, consent thou not. 
 
 10. There are more things in heaven and earth. Horatio, 
 Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. 
 
 1 1. To arms ! To arms ! Sir Consul, 
 Lars Porsena is here. 
 
 70. Exclamatloiis.—Examine the following sen- 
 tence: — 
 
 What ! are you going ? 
 
 Here the subject is "you;" the predicate is '^-ire 
 going." -What!" is an independent word at- 
 tached to the sentence as an outcry or sudden ex- 
 pression of feeling. 
 
 Definition.— A word or group of words used as an 
 outcry or sudden expression of feeling is called an 
 Exclamation. 
 
 EXERCISE 67. 
 
 Point out all the independent elements in the follow- 
 iniC sentences, and tell whether they are vocatives or 
 exclamations : — 
 
92 
 
 SKNTENCKS ANIJ THEIR STRUCI URL 
 
 III 
 
 
 1. Oh, hurry, hurry! 
 
 2. Well, let us try it. 
 
 3. Why, that is strange ! 
 
 4. The boy, oh, where was he? 
 
 5. I'oor man ! he never came back. 
 
 6. Mortimer! who talks of M<>rlim«r? 
 
 7. Ha. ha, black sheep, have you any wool ? 
 
 8. Ha! laufjh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? 
 
 9. Alas! poor creature I how she must have suffered I 
 10. Ay me ! what perils do environ 
 
 The m.an that meddles wilh cold iron ! 
 
 71. Parent hot leal KxpivMHloiiH. — Examine the 
 following sentence : — 
 
 This, to tell the truth, was a mistake. 
 
 Here the subject is "This;" the predicate is 
 '* ' .; a mistake." '* To tell the truth " is a phrase, 
 forming no part of the sentence (which is complete 
 without it), but attached to it as a sort of comment 
 or side remark. 
 
 Definition. — A phrase or a clause attached to a sen- 
 tence as a sort of .side remark or comment is called 
 PartMithetleal (Greek, •' put in beside "). 
 
 EXERCISE 68. 
 
 Pick out the parenthetical expressions in the follow- 
 ing sentences : — 
 
 At all events, he did his best. 
 
 In f.ict, there was nothing else to do. 
 
 Consi-' -injT his .ige, he did very well. 
 
 I felt, .y the least, a little nervous. 
 
 So f.. . can see, there is nothing more to do. 
 
 Her conduct, generally speaking, was admirable. 
 
 Properly speaking, there is no such thing as luck. 
 
 8. The ship leaped, as it were, from billow to billow, 
 
 9. To speak plainly, your manner was somewhat rude. 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 
 4- 
 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
"I 
 
 .^u'r: 
 
 OF INDKI'I: NDKNT ELEMKNTS 
 
 9J 
 
 10. To the best of my recollection, she was not there. 
 
 11. Let there be no strife. I pray thee. iKtwecn thee and me. 
 
 12. The arniy o.' Xerxes, to put it in round nuniln:rs, comprised 
 2.500,000 persons. 
 
 7«. IMooiiRHm.— Examine the following sen- 
 tence: — 
 
 Thy rod ;ind ihy staff, thty comfort me. 
 
 Here the words •• Thy rod and thy .staflf" name 
 
 the .subject of the thought, but are independent of 
 
 the .sentence •' they comfort me." which is complete 
 
 m Itself, the grammatical .subject being "they" 
 
 and the predicate "comfort mo." It is as if we 
 
 used two subjects denoting the same thing: thus. 
 
 Thy rod and thy staff ) 
 
 They f comfort me. 
 
 Definition. ^T\\Q use of more words than are 
 needed is called Pleonasm (•' more than enough"). 
 Other examples of pleonasm are:— 
 
 The smith, a mighty man is he. 
 My Imtik's, they are furnished with bees. 
 
 This construction was once very good English, 
 but it is now uncommon, and as a rule should not 
 be imitated. 
 
 73. Punctuation of Indci>enclent Klements.— It 
 
 IS customary to .separate independent elements from 
 the rest of the sentence by commas or (in the case 
 of exclamations) by exclamation points. 
 
 EXERCISE 69. 
 
 Write txvo sentences of your oxvn tvith vocatives at- 
 tached: tzoo with exclamations; t^o with parenthetical 
 expressions. 
 
 ii 
 
ii(F. 
 
 ■»'^'4JL2flfc:*^iL''t^^#^ 
 
 94 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 74. Uummury of thv PartH of a Sentence. — The 
 
 parts of a sentence, which we have now studied, 
 may be summarized as follows: — 
 
 il 
 J 
 
 Ui 
 U 
 
 Ui 
 H 
 
 U 
 
 f Word (32). 
 
 \ Clause (65). 
 
 Intransitive f Cottplcte predication (43). 
 (40) I Copulative (35) with attrib 
 
 Verb 
 
 (32) 
 
 or 
 
 Verh I'hrask 
 
 (36) 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 Transitive j 
 (40) 
 
 Complements 
 (45) 
 
 Attribute 
 (46) 
 
 jpulative (35) with attribute 
 complement (46). 
 
 f With object (47). 
 Active J With object and ob- 
 (42J I jective complement 
 (48). 
 
 Complete predication 
 (43)- 
 
 Passive J With attribute com- 
 (42) plement (49). 
 
 With retained object 
 (58). 
 
 Word (46). 
 Phrase (64). 
 Clause (66). 
 
 ■ Ohjcct 
 
 km: 
 
 Word (47). 
 Phrase (64). 
 Clause (66). 
 
 Objective ['^ofiX (48). 
 (48) I Phrase (64). 
 
 r Word (53). 
 Phr 
 
 Modifiers , ... , . 
 (53) 1 hrase (55). 
 
 [Clause (55, 67). 
 
 f /ocative (69). 
 Independent Expressions J Exclamatory (70). 
 (68) 1 Parenthetical (71). 
 
 I Pleonastic (72). 
 
OF INUEI'ENDENT ELEMENTS 
 
 95 
 
 EXEBCISE 70. 
 
 (Gcnekal Kkvicw.) 
 
 1. Reproduce from memory the preceding summary, 
 omitting the numerical references. 
 
 2. Define and illustrate each of the terms used in the 
 summary. 
 
 To the Teacher — The nominative absolute, which is in- 
 dc|)enilcnt in form, tlmuijh it is really a motliticr. is treatetl in 
 Part II. 
 
1^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 <»!•■ sF.NTi:\ri:s as simi-lk, complkx, and cDMrfurxn 
 
 WiTir respect to uuanini;, sentences are classified 
 as ANM<M-tlv(s Iiit<>rn>tfutlvo, or Iin|K>nitlv<>. With 
 respect to form, they are either Hlinplc, Complex, 
 or ConiiMtiiiid. 
 
 75. Hlmplo HontonroH. — Examine the following 
 sentences: — 
 
 Miiltject. 
 
 a. Tlif horses 
 l>. T\\v horses ) 
 
 and V 
 
 the cattle S 
 C. The horses 
 
 PrtMlU'Hte. 
 
 were in the stable. 
 
 were in the same stable. 
 
 i took fright 
 
 ■' and 
 
 d. The horses j 
 
 .ind 
 
 the cattle ) 
 
 \ S 
 
 f ran away, 
 were fastened in t' same stable 
 
 -V and 
 
 ( were led at the same time. 
 
 Each of these sentences, you ob.serve, consists of 
 but one subject and one predicate, though several 
 of the subjects and predicates arc compound. 
 
 Definition. — A .sentence wliich contains only one 
 subject and one predicate, either or both of which 
 may be compound, is called a Klmplc Kontoneo. 
 
 In a simple sentence with compound subject and predicate, 
 every verb belonjjs to every jrrammatical sut>ject. and every gram- 
 matical subject belongs to every verb. 
 
 Some grammarians hold thai there are as many sentences or 
 clauses in anything we say as there are verbs. According to them. 
 
"V'^"' 'm^ s A 1\> cm ^. " ■ JJ m-yF-7i' 1 ■ 
 
 I ''J:^^^ ^:f^':^3l^^ limMi r %■ .ik* ■ 
 
 W'*- 
 
 SIMl'LK. COMPI.KX. AND COMPOUND ,^; 
 
 sentences (O nn.l (,/) nre not si,,,,,!, scntnuin. hut two separate 
 
 sentences uMitcl. with v„ne words u.nitte.l : as. " Th. I.orsel t.n.k 
 
 riKht and [ the horses) ran away f •• The horses .n.l the cattle wne 
 
 astened in thr same stable and [the horses and the caltUI were 
 
 led at the same time. " 
 
 70. C'omplox Ht.iiteiu.eH._Rxaminc tlic followiiur 
 
 ntf>tii>(>u • ^ 
 
 sentences 
 
 NulUtwt. 
 
 PrtHMoiitn. 
 
 ll'A^n t/u- ,ucid,nt iKcurr^ii is not known. 
 
 Stili>tanliv>- Clause. 
 
 The spot where ihr .ua\U»t occurred is not known. 
 
 Mutlirying Clause. 
 
 In each of these sentences a clause, performinj,^ 
 the office of a single word, forms an indisiK-nsablc 
 part of the whole. It cannot be removed without 
 injury to the meaning of the sentence. 0,i the other 
 hand, it depends on the rest of the sentence for its 
 own significance. It is clear that the subject and 
 the predicate of .such a clause are suhorMnah- to 
 that IS. of lower rank than, the subject and the 
 predicate of the sentence of which the clause is 
 only a part. 
 
 Definition.~h clause used like a single word as 
 a dependent or subordinate part of a sentence is 
 called a Dependent or Kubomllimto Clauso. 
 
 Definition. ~K sentence containing a principal 
 clause and one or more subordinate clauses is called 
 a Complex Sontoneo (Latin. " woven together") 
 
 The "principal clause" in the first illustrative 
 sentence is the entire sentence; in the second sen- 
 tenceitis. " The spot . . . is not known." 
 
^f... ,:■ 
 
 } r 
 
 '/' 
 
 9a SKNTKNCKS AND TIII.IR SIKLCTUKE 
 
 Sul)<)nlinatc clauses xirc cither m«Klifyinj«[ nr sul). 
 stantivc clauses; ami all incHlifying or mtbstantivo 
 clauses arc subordinate. 
 
 It is sometinu'» saiil that fiulioriliiintf cI.iumh cnn Ik» rrcoKni/c«| 
 by the fact that tht-y do nt)t by thcinsclvr;! make complete scum*. 
 Thin is not a sure test ; for — 
 
 (1) Some siilM)r<linatc dausrs make rnmplrt«« !irn*r by them- 
 selves ; for example. " / ,im goin^ ii-hiiU/h,;, sir,' she sanl." 
 Here the direct <|iic)tation is clearly th«' object of "said."' and is 
 therefore a dependent clause ; yet it makes complete sense hy iisilf. 
 
 (2) Some principal clauses cannot stand by themselves; for 
 example, " As a man lives, so must //.- <//«•." 
 
 77. Componntl 8entcncH>M. — Examine the fol- 
 lowing sentences: — 
 
 The rain descended. | and [ the flooils came. | an<l | the winds 
 blew. I and | |lhey| smote upon that house; | antl 1 it fill: [ and | 
 great was the fall thereof. 
 
 The way was long, | the wind was cold, j 
 The minstrel was infirm and old. 
 
 In these .selections we .sec united into one .sen- 
 tence .several that are complete in themselves. 
 Although clo.sely related in thought, they could be 
 separated without injury; therefore they are indc- 
 pendent of one another. Not being dependent one 
 on another, they are said to be coordinate, that is, 
 of equal rank. 
 
 Definition. — A sentence consisting of .several in- 
 dependent or coordinate sentences joined together 
 is called a Compound Sentence. 
 
 The iiuljjKiidiiil scnlcntt-s joined together may themselves be 
 complex. 
 
iiLM4.,^iL 
 
 
 
 SIM PI i:. COMPI.I: X. AND COM POUND 
 
 99 
 
 EXEKCI8E 71. 
 
 lompiix, or ioin/*oNUit :~-' 
 
 I. Ill till- iiiuhituik ofcounicHors there it Micty. 
 
 3. A tiiw U a viry y.xj«| itinmat in tlic tit Ul ; but we lum her 
 out uf agiirilcn. 
 
 3. WluTf the Imi- Mickn. there suck I ; 
 In a cowslip's liell I lie. 
 
 4. Flow mntly. sweet Alton. .iinonK «•'>' K«"'t'n liraeft; 
 Fl«.w gnilly. Ill sing tlice a soni,' in thy praisi-. 
 
 5. My htaii'-. in the Ili>:' .amis, my hrart is n..l here ; 
 My hearts in the H alamls n-chasinj; the deer. 
 
 6. The mos* marbles rest 
 On the lips that he has prest 
 
 In their bloom ; 
 And the names he loved to h»ar 
 H.ive Iwen car\td for many a year 
 On the tomb. 
 
 7. Mont HIanc is the monarch of mountains; 
 
 They crowned him long ago 
 On a throne of rocks, in a roln: of clouds. 
 With a diadem of snow. 
 
 8. The mountains look on Marathon, 
 
 And Marathon looks on the sea ; 
 And musing there an hour alone. 
 
 I dreamed that Creece might still Iw free. 
 
 9. He who fights and runs away 
 May live to fight .mother day ; 
 But he who is in iKittle slain 
 Can never rise and fight again. 
 
 (lod moves in a mysterious way 
 
 His wonders to perform ; 
 He plants his footsteps in tiic sea 
 
 And rides upon the storm. 
 
 10. 
 
'Kji^4;in'X L»"l!|||""''' 
 
 .^fc;J 
 
 i i 
 
 loo SENTKNCKS AM) TMIIR SFKI CH KK 
 
 7H. (omiHMIIMl H4*||U*llt>«>M <iHMM|ttf«l. — If wi- 
 
 cxaminu ci»m|M)urul scnlcnccs closely, wc linU thai 
 Ihcy arc t»f four kinds : — 
 
 (i) Copulative scnlcncc.H, in which ihc separate 
 Hiiyings arc united because <if a sumlnnly of mean- 
 \\\)^ux liiOHtiHuatuffiKA the same line of thoujjht: as, 
 
 He callf.l ror his pi|)c, | ami | he called Tor hi> tjowl. | anil | 
 hv called fur hii ttdtllcr» three. 
 
 Fear God | and | keep his comnmndmenu. 
 
 (j) Adversative sentences, in which the separate 
 Siiyings are united because they stand in iontnul : as, 
 
 He ran to the sfation. | inil | he missed the train. 
 Wc called at ihe house. | but | we did not see htr. 
 
 (3) Alternative sentences, in which tli. separate 
 s.'iyinjrs are united l>ecause they present thoughts 
 between which one must make a cltoUc : as, 
 
 The book is lost | or | some one h.is taken it. 
 
 (4) Causid .sentences, in which the separate .sayin^;S 
 are united because they express cause and effect : as, 
 
 Carl was tired. | therefore ( he went to bed. 
 
 7». C'oiint'ftliifr VVoinIm. — In the sentences given 
 in the last section as illu.strali ns, the connecting 
 words are "and," "but." "or," and "therefore." 
 These arc the mo.st common joining words in the 
 four kinds of compound .sentences; but other con- 
 nectives are frequently u.sed. .such as "also," "more- 
 over," "nor," " nevertheless." "for." Often there 
 are no connecting words at all. the connection 
 
 1 J i 
 
SIMI'l.t. COMH.KX. ASI* l.oMli>LNIi 
 
 lOI 
 
 Itciwccn Ujc uniud Hcnitntcs H:\nir in«Iicatnl 
 nnly by the puiuui ilion. To till, ihcrcfort.. how 
 the .Ht'iKimtc partH of ., com|)otin.l Ntniuntx' arc 
 rulated to one anoilur. Wf nntsi consider, not the 
 conncclivca, but the lucaniny of the iwrtj*. 
 
 EXERCISE 72. 
 
 Siparnt,' tlh follox^ini^ ion,f*onn,t s,nt,Hi,s info tlhir 
 tiiihf>ituUnt />„rts, .in,/ t./Uiowt/u />.irts .m n/n/,,/.— 
 I. M.ui pro|M)M.-s. hut (hnI ilisnowv 
 
 Mul.K.,. M.k OKU V .., vs,s. Tl.., i, .iCnmp.H,M.| vnlrmr. 
 
 forme! I.y uiulinK. I.y .v ..f (.mtr.is.. ihr s. jur-.u- s,m..„.,.s 
 •Nlan pro|K)scs" ami -Gu*] Uisijccv" The tunm f.u.i: wor.l i% 
 "but." 
 
 3. She mu%t wrrp or shr will ilic. 
 
 3. Thty toil not, neither «lu lh»y spin. 
 
 4. It r.-»ine«| on S.iturilay, so wc put off I, 
 
 5. He says wh.it he mcms. .in<l he incat.H ..,■ h.- say*. 
 
 6. The leaves arc falling ; therefore the swallows will !»...,« |>c 
 none. 
 
 7. The words of his mouth were smwithcr than huttt r. hut war 
 w.is in his heart. 
 
 8 The fool ,Ioth think h. is wib<-. but the wise man knows 
 lumsclf to l>e a fool. 
 
 9. The heavens declare the glory of (;o<l ; and the firm.iment 
 showeth his handiwork. 
 
 JO. .Some are born great, some .-.chieve greatness, and some 
 nave greatness thrust upon "ciu. 
 
 II. Trill V fhfr#> ic 1 •;.!.. ;.. .t... _/r.:_. / i_ t 
 
 -" •■ '•' •■■"- •'n.tiir, u{ men; but llicic is no 
 
 K'Uir stream setting forever in one •lirection. 
 
 i 
 
 i* 
 
I 
 
 ,|3f<J*#Y'4"'ffe|,/!!5; 
 
 M* 
 
 ^•^^jtaBfi: m 
 
 loa 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 
 12. There were Kent Icmen and there were seamen in the navy 
 of Charles II; but the seamen were not gentlemen, and the gentle- 
 men were not seamen. 
 
 13. Meagre were his looks, 
 
 Sharp misery had worn him to the bones. 
 
 14. Suspicion always haunts the guilty mind ; 
 The thie' doth (tar each bush an officer. 
 
 n. Cowards die many times before their deaths; 
 The .aliant never taste of death but once. 
 
 16. My words fly up, my thoughts remain below ; 
 Words without thoughts never to heaven go. 
 
 17. Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow; 
 
 He who would search for pearls must dive below. 
 
 18. Through tatter'd clothes small vies do appear; 
 Robes ai.d furr'd gowns hide all. 
 
 19. When beggars die, there are no comets seen ; 
 
 The heavens themselves blaze forth the ticath of princes. 
 
 20. Night's candles are burned out, and jocund day 
 Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. 
 
 21. I have found out a gift for my f.iir ; 
 
 I have found where the wood pigeons breed. 
 
 22. A thousan<l years scarce serve to form a state ; 
 An hour may lay it in the dust. 
 
 23. He reads much ; 
 He is a great observer, and he looks 
 Quite through the deeds of men. 
 
 24. This castle hath a pleasant seat ; the air 
 Nimbly and sweet'y recommends itself 
 Unto our gentle senses. 
 
 25. The rude sea grew civil at her song. 
 
 And certain stars shot madly from their spheres 
 To hear the sea-maid's music. 
 
 26. But yesterday the word of Ca?sar might 
 
 Have stood against the world ; now lies he there, 
 And none so poor to do him reverence. 
 
nk« 
 
 103 
 
 SIMPLE. COMPLEX. AND COMI'OUND 
 
 27. The ylorics of our blood and stale 
 
 Are shadows. „ot substantial things; 
 There is no armor against fate ; 
 Heath lays his icy hands on kings. 
 a8. Doubt thou the stars are fire; 
 
 Doubt that the sun doth move; 
 Doubt truth to be a Har; 
 But never doubt I love. 
 
 29. Arms on armor clashing bray'd 
 
 Horrible discord, and the madding wheels 
 O bra^en chariots rag'd ; dire was the noise 
 0» conflict. 
 
 80. ImpropoPCom,.o„„,i Sentcnoes.-Untrained 
 speakers and writers sometimes unite in one Z 
 pound sentence thonghts that are not related • as 
 
 person. There ,s no connection at all between the 
 
 should be mdicated '-y putting them in separate 
 
 ■sentences. Other examples are :— 
 
 ,„,i' h'^^^ '^'°"^"' '° "'" "f"- f"™' ••""! h' ".-.s l.TEa for his •,„ 
 
 EXERCISE 73. 
 
 I . r.;../n.r/ ^ ./,;,;^/, sn;,c.rc unth compound subject • 
 ^/Z. compound predicate; .ait, totk subject and predl 
 cate compound. ' 
 
 f I 
 
..^'^.JiL:^,:^*' *^^A 
 
 V 
 
 104 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 
 
 |i 
 
 2 . Constriici a complex sentence containing a modify- 
 ing clause ; a substantive clause used as subject; a 
 substantive clause used as complement. 
 
 3. Construct a compound sentence in which the sepa- 
 rate sayings are related by similarity of meaning; by 
 contrast; by alternate choice ; by cause and effect. 
 
 i 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 OF THE RECO<;.N,T,ON OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 Hav.n-,; in Part I studied sentences as wholes and 
 become fam, harwith their general structure, welre 
 now prepared to study the uses and forms of singb 
 
 88 W„„m cin«.|fl„i Aocor.ll„« to Function 
 
 Our language contains more than t^o hunZ thotZ 
 sand words; but when we examine the ays I'L 
 vh.ch these words are used in sentences, wrfind 
 that we can arrange them all i„ a few gene a 
 
 i n: "Tf ;,"^ '° "^'^ ^'"'^"■"«- "-at is, ! coi 
 
 called the Parts of Speech.' 
 
 83. Noun.s.-Examine the italicized words in the 
 followmg .sentence :_ 
 
 ^.u'pZ!'"' "'" °' '^= "•'""'■■f ^-"^«- w- under perf«. 
 
 The italicized words, you observe, are names. 
 
 Dcfim„on.-K word used as a name is called a 
 Noun. 
 
 w..r.,s as .hey occur' In '.h-s chT . ' S: 'f'^ '" "T'" ""^ '"'""' ^'"'^^^ 
 exercises. cfap.cr, thcrrfarc, ni..ci. space has been given to 
 
IC/) 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTUKE 
 
 M 
 
 (l) This is important if [it is| true. 
 
 (3) He fell while [he was] bravely leading his men. 
 
 (3) Who (lid that? Jack [did it]. 
 
 (4) I can't come. Why [can you] not [come] ? 
 
 (5) He has gone, no one knows where [he has gone]. 
 
 (6) She has a pink gown, I [have] a blue [gown]. 
 
 (7) Do you promise? I do [promise]. 
 
 (8) I have never seen her, but Blanche has [seen her], 
 
 (9) You may stay if you want to [stay].' 
 
 (10) The sun gives light by day, the moon [giveslight] by night. 
 
 (11) He is not so tall as I [am tall]. 
 
 (12) She put him off as long as [it was] possible [to put him off]. 
 
 (13) You are wiser than 1 [am wise]. 
 
 (14) He looks as [he would look] if he were tired. 
 
 (15) Speak so as [one speaks in order] to be understood. 
 
 (16) [They being as] poor as they are [poor], they will not beg. 
 
 (17) She is seventeen [years old]. 
 
 (18) It is half past ten [o'clock]. 
 
 (19) School closes on the twenty-second [day of the month]. 
 
 (20) [I] thank you. 
 
 (21) Why [is] this noise [made] ? 
 
 (22) [God give you a] good morning, sir. 
 
 (23) O [I long] for a glass of water. 
 
 (24) If [it] you please.* 
 
 (25) [If it] please [you] lend me your book. 
 
 (26) Broadly speaking, [I should say that] the objec*. of educa- 
 tion is to train the faculties. 
 
 (27) You are the man [whom] I want to see. 
 
 « This _r.tnk^!.-in nf th.- verh after " to" i= nut ap;. 
 * In this sentence the subject is " it." 
 
 by careful writers. 
 
ILa^ 
 
 OF ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 
 
 >"7 
 
 a fall. 
 
 EZEBCISE 74. 
 What words. ,uccssary to srammatical completeness 
 but not to the meanin^r^ are omitted m the JoUoiotn. 
 eUtptteal sentences / ^ a 
 
 1. I walk when I can. 
 
 2. He is witty but vulgar. 
 
 3. I treat him as a friend. 
 
 4. Slid is as pretty as ever. 
 
 5. She loves Fido as well as L 
 
 6. She loves Fido as well as me. 
 
 7. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 
 
 8. I love my mother more than he. 
 9- I love my mother more than him. 
 
 10. Who steals my purse steals trash, 
 n. You have known her longer than L 
 12. She is more generous than prudent. 
 >3- Father made and I painted the boat. 
 
 14. Are you dumb ? If not. speak to me. 
 
 15. Either a knave or a fool has done this. 
 •6. If the day be fine, and I can go. I will. 
 «7. All seems as calm as an infant's dream. 
 18. A greyhound can run faster than a hare. 
 19- He has never seen the ocean, but I have. 
 
 20. You should not imitate such a girl as she. 
 
 21. John is at the door. Dnvid at the window. 
 
 22. He was seen before the battle, but not after it 
 
 23. He said that he had found his book and lost it again 
 
 24. Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his s,>ols » 
 -5. tndegoeth before destruction, nnd an- haughty spirit before 
 
 Eng;iK,i;>:i-t.XLt:?.ij7;-'-ion of .he Bible .,dc .„ .6,.. I„ modern 
 
io8 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIK STRUCTURE 
 
 26. There is nothing so powerful as truth — and often nothing 
 so strange. 
 
 37. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and 
 writing an exact man. 
 
 28. Some books are to be tiisted, others to be swallowed, and 
 some few to be chewed and digested. 
 
 29. Histories make men wise ; poets, witty ; the mathematics, 
 sul)tle ; natural philosophy, deep ; moral, grave ; logic and rhetoric, 
 able to contend. 
 
 30. We must take the current when it serves. 
 Or lo>c our ventures. 
 
 31. Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind; 
 And therefore is winged Cupid painted blind. 
 
 32. Six hours in sleep, in law's grave study six. 
 Four spend in prayer, the rest on nature fix, 
 
 33. I dare do all that may become a man ; 
 Who dares do more is none. 
 
 34. Trifles light as air 
 Are to the jealous confirmations strong 
 As proofs of holy writ. 
 
 35. IJlow, blow, thou winter wind ! 
 Thou art not so unkind 
 
 As man's ingratitude. 
 
 36. Think naught a trifle, though it small appear ; 
 Small sands the mountain, moments make the year, 
 And trifles life. 
 
 37. Who dares think one thing, and another tell, 
 My heart detests him as the gates of hell. 
 
 EZEBCISE 75. 
 
 Construct Jive elliptical sentences, and tell ivhat 
 words are omitted. 
 
 End of Part I. 
 
♦ ••A'-* 
 
 ■Ji^.lk'^.. 
 
 ing 
 M 
 iiiU 
 
 iCS, 
 
 ric, 
 
 I 
 
 PART ri 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 m 
 
 tat 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
m,'!^'\mi'tf^" 
 
 
 lu. 
 
 : i 
 
 ^v:iL 
 
 ^h.J A.< 
 
ClfAI'TKR IX 
 
 OF KI.UI'TltAI. SKNTKNCKS 
 
 81. Elll,,tl..Hl Hc.„tc.„„.» IH.|..„.,I. -Kanpnagc is 
 an mtc-nsely practical matter, designed „„|y ,^ 
 express t,..,„«,U, „,,,, „„,„.,y^.j ,^^ .^JJ- 
 
 «kc In „sm»f .t wc very proj^rly thinic far more 
 of clearness and force than we do of grammatic'^ 
 completene.s.s. It is, therefore, both nat "r" an 
 proper that we should from time to time lu f^^^ 
 our .sentences grammatical parts which it is un^ 
 nece.s.,ary to use, our mcani^ - being well uJZ 
 •stood without them. Such o,,. .ssion.s'arrcpc'il,, 
 oommon m familiar e-onversation. where la'^nmge 
 as the a,d of toae and gesture, and in lively or 
 ..npa,ss.oned .s,«ech, where from haste or strength 
 of fedmg we express only the most important idct■,.s^ 
 
 ne^™'~ ' '"""""" "' P'^ '" ••' *"'onee 
 neccs.sary to grammatical completeness but not to 
 
 the meanmg is called K„,p«,« (,;reek, •■ . leaving 
 
 antm" «"'? '" *'"''' ^" °'"'««'°° °<^"'>-'' i« called 
 an Klllptieal Sentence. 
 
 The following examples of ellip.sis should be 
 carefully studied. The words incloL in brackei^ 
 arc u.sually omitted :— "racKets 
 
 I 
 
jl i,:,X 
 
 :^.TJ^jC 1. 
 
 *, '^* 
 
 I 
 
 
 f 
 
 ►*• f 
 
 ry\ i) I 
 
 1 1. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 f 1 
 
 113 
 
 Tin: I'ARTS OK hl'LICH 
 
 Olhvr uxampluH arc* :— 
 
 A'«i/«.j i>/ objn is : Wolfe. Quebec, army, tron. 
 Ntimts of atlioH$: walking. I.iut;h(cr. rctrt.ii. tkl.iy. 
 A'liwci of ijtutlttit% : twcrtiicM, w.imith. Iicauly, vac. 
 Xttmts of tonditiims : sicknr<i!i, sleep, jlt-alli, (.«li;;uf. 
 Nautis of thoH^hti; idea, doubt, belief, opinion. 
 
 EXEBCISE 76. 
 
 Write the names of txvo things that you eitn see ; of 
 two that you can hear but not see ; of two that you ean 
 feel but not see ; of two that you ean taste but not see ; 
 of txvo that yon ean smell but not see ; of two that you 
 ean neither see, taste, feel, hear, nor smell. 
 
 £Z£BCIS£ 77. 
 
 Point out the nouns in the following sentences : — 
 
 I. Brevity is the soul of wit. 2. Misery acquaints a man with 
 strange be<l-fellows. 3. They that die by famine die by inches. 
 4. Nothing Is im|)ossil)le to diligence and skill. 5. The music 
 of the great organ sometimes sounds like the roll of thunder. 
 6. The length of the journey and the dif>iculty of the road over the 
 mountains discouraged the soldiers, though the general spirit of the 
 army remained excellent. 7. Sailing on this lake Is somewhat 
 dangerous, because the wind comes through the gaps of the moun- 
 tains in sudden and uneven puffs. 8. Pride goeth before destruc- 
 tion, and an haughty spirit btforc a fall. 9. Solitude is as needful 
 io the imagination as society is wholesome for the character. 
 
 10. The tongues of dying men 
 Enforce attention like deep harmony. 
 
 11. 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
 And robes the mountain in its azure hue. 
 
 To the Teacher, 'f more drili in the re-rogniiion of nouns 
 is needed, Exercises 15 .inu / : will be found suitable. 
 
RECOCNITION OK TMK .-ARTS OF SPEECH ,„ 
 W. I'r..il..i..,.. - - X„ „„„ ^„„,j 
 ••CharU. l,,UKh, Charles a top; ,h.. ,.., ChaXs 
 aftcrwar, gave ,„ Charl.,., »(.„„ Pranccs Krr^s 
 wanted the t..,,. • Such a .sc-ntenec w„„H JI ,, 
 d..sa«reeablc to the ear and ob.,c„re. it „,i«^ ,, ' 
 to one Char es a„,l „„e Kranee.s or to more h „ 
 ■me We should probably .s-.y in.stea.l : ..Cha le" 
 bought /»«„ ,y a top. which /„. „ft,,«,„d ^^"^ 
 ^« MS ter Frances. ../. wanted ,/. - lu .his se.Uenc^ 
 he obscuruy and the monotonous repetition are 
 ...th avcMded by using ,he wonls "^h nself " 
 ••wuch"y,,,v-.Mns/'..wl„,rand..it'!!., i„ 
 
 In asking a question almut some object the name 
 
 of wh<eh we do not know, we represent the ob^' 
 
 by>vho"or..what:"a.s, .•;,'/,. is there.v ..l^, 
 tlitl you say ? " " 
 
 c-^Uc^lT'^ ^""^ "'*" '" '"»"'' f"^ » "°"n is 
 taucu a Prr)iioitii. 
 
 called the Antooodcnt of the pronoun. 
 
 prised'"''''"^'""' '^ ^'""^""' ^'^' "^^^" "«' -^• 
 
 EXEBCISE 78. 
 
 «Jw "■^""' "''"'' ' "'^'''^^^ sufisn-funs for your 
 
 'jyf^s/or names do you use in speaking of yourself 
 and others toiretier ^ IVh^f ^.^^ / / ^-^'"^^^'f 
 
 tutesfn-rfl. ^ ' ■ ^^"''f ^^""^f^ <io you use as substi- 
 tuUsfor the names of persons to -u^hom you artspeaki.^ 9 
 of a boy about whom you are speaking} of a firn 7f a 
 ^/-.^/ off .boys, of three girls f of fou^hug^'' 
 
lU 
 
 Tin; PARTS OK SI'KKt H 
 
 EXERCISE 78. 
 
 l\HHf OMt I hi f^rOHOHHS, itNii ^tii t/uit HHtHtiifMtS, if 
 
 tlw itHttiiiiiHls iirt- txprtssti/ :-^ 
 
 I. 
 
 Hut honnrablc ^cnllrtncn say, "This may lir .ill vrry w« 'I. hut 
 you art- lakint; an iMi|>orlanl iwwcr «mu uI ihc liaiith •»( iht t»plr, 
 whuh ihcy miw ikmimm." Now. tliU is a mistake. \Vc .|o mu( 
 |irt>{>u!»c lo (lu aii>ltiiii|{: of llu- kind, 
 
 Hon. (iiiiiKdr IIhown. 
 
 Speech un CunfcdtralioM. 
 
 II. 
 
 Thrn *pake the chief butler unto f»haraoh. saying. I <fo rc- 
 memhrr my fau'in this d.iy : I'hamoh was wroth with his wrvantv 
 ami put me in •...in! in the house of the captaitj of the Kuard. me 
 anil the chief baker : and we dreamed a dream in one nij{ht, I 
 and he ; we dreamed each man according to the interpretation of 
 his drean). And there was with us there a young man, an Hebrew, 
 servant to the ciptain of the guard ; and we told him. ami l.v 'i.r- 
 preted lo us our dreams; to each man according to his dream he 
 did interpret. And it came to pass, as he interpreted to us. so it 
 was; me he restored unto mine oflTire. and him he hanged. Then 
 Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they brought him hastily out 
 of the dungeon : and he shaved himself, and changed his raiment, 
 and came in unto Pharaoh. (Genesis xli, 9-14.) 
 
 To the Touchor. — If further drill in the recognition of pro- 
 nouns is desired. Kxercises 20,44. 52. and 65 will be found suitable. 
 
 85. AiljectlveH. — Many nouns have very wide 
 meaning.s. The noun "horses," for example, ap- 
 plies to all the horses in the world ; and to bring 
 the meaning of the word down to the mea.sure of 
 our thought we add to it one or more distingui.sh- 
 ing words or modifiers: as, 
 
RKOh;v,,,onoF TMF PARIS OK. SIKtUI 
 
 »»$ 
 
 ItU. k 
 
 Trolling 
 
 Two 
 
 Thrsi* 
 
 Stimr 
 
 I)oih 
 
 No 
 
 hurnri. 
 
 J "w look ^,///^. 
 
 The/,',j.rr that you laid .-iwiv »....- i 
 There. r/Avr/ and still, lay ,hc ,ir«;,. 
 
 S'>mc adjectives show a ^,,,,/,>, ^r ottrih.t, of th. 
 ; ;j-t we have in mind; others show I^^^^,;^^^^ 
 -thcrs show luno vuuty or /..:.. ,„;,,/,. "''J''*'' 
 
 EXEBCISE 80. 
 
 '• Hoiis,.. 4. Soldiers. 7. Grass. 
 
 2. not.I. . p..^., ; „ «o. Flowers, ,3.0-nts. 
 
 •■^f"Hs. 9. Inches, l.^ Dollar.. 15. Rua.J. 
 
 
ii6 
 
 THF. I'ARTS OF SI'EFXH 
 
 I. 
 
 EXERCISE 81. 
 
 Point out the adjectives, and tell what each shows .•— 
 I. Little strokes fell great oaks. 2. I'kase make no noise. 
 3. Where did you find those big apples? 4. I found them in the 
 third bin. 5. Let us climb yonder mountain. 6. Certain women 
 were there. 7. All men must die. 8. Most lioys like football. 
 9. There are several sailboats on the like. 10. Kvery dog has 
 his day. 11. No school to-morrow ! 12. He has enough money. 
 13. Along both banks .ire Ijeautiful shaded walks; and near the 
 mill are two little islands covered with ancient trees. 
 
 EXERCISE 82. 
 
 Point out the adjectives, and tell ichat each modifies :— 
 
 \. 
 The stately homes of Kngland, — 
 
 How beautiful they stand 
 Anfid their tall ancestral trees. 
 O'er all the ple.asant land ! 
 The castled crag of Drachenfels 
 Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine. 
 Up from the meadows rich with corn, 
 Clear in the cool .September morn, 
 The clustered spires of Frederick stand, 
 Green-walled by the hills of Maryland. 
 Night, sable goddess! from her ebon throne, 
 In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
 Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. 
 
 How beautiful is night ! 
 A dewy freshness fills the silent air ; 
 No mist obscures; nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain. 
 Breaks the serene of Heaven : 
 In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine 
 Rolls through the dark blue depths 
 Beneath her steady ray 
 The desert circle spreads 
 Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky. 
 How beautiful is nieht ! 
 
 3. 
 
RECOGSITIOS OF Tin- PARTS 
 
 ..v:it!!:;::i:--Xt;;iir;:=-"'-i- 
 
 f>F SPKKCII ,,7 
 
 roco^'nition 
 l>e found suitable. 
 
 thrn'o^nT;;;^---/:^''"^"^ ^^^ -^-^-^ attached to 
 mc nouns in t ■ lonowiv,: selection .-_ 
 
 // man and ^ 7 MCf hi.r , ava ^ 
 quishod «,«. ' Th W ' ,','1 ^r"-'- "-<li"K »v..r „ van. 
 
 Every noun in .h,s ,e,ection is accompanied .„• 
 a, an, or ..the," of which ..a" and ..J" 
 are merely different forms of thl 
 These remarkable little wLs.n.T" "■"''''• 
 by way of limitation ^re:' 1,:' t:' ^^ Tr "^ 
 t.ves; but they are .so peenlinr "„ 1 / J"'" 
 
 and so frequenUn recurrence th'tth^"' '"'""" 
 put in a cLisQ K„ ,1, ,"*■'• '"■^' 'ney are usually 
 
 own ^ themselves, with a name of their 
 
 J^i'finition " A " nv *< o« »• i 
 
 Articles. ''^ ^"^ " the " are called 
 
 EXEECISE 83. 
 
 (Review.) 
 
 '• Facts are stubfjorn things. 
 2. O'cler is Heaven's first law. 
 3- Time rolls his ceaseless course. 
 
 4. No mate, no comrade. Lucy knew. 
 
 5. The groves were God'H first temples. 
 
iiS 
 
 TIIF. PARTS OF SPKECH 
 
 ^ 
 
 i i 
 
 ft i 
 
 
 87. Vcrl>H.— 'J'ho nature aiul importance of verbs 
 have already been studied in Part I, Chapter III. 
 
 To tlio ToiU-hor.-Whr-thor or not it is desirable at this 
 point to review Chapter III of I'art 1 must f«. dettrmmtd by the 
 teacher. 
 
 88. Aaverl>H.— The action or state denoted by a 
 verb may vary in time, place, manner, or degree. 
 For example, a person may laugh now or to-morrow, 
 here or there, loudly or quietlv, much or little. 
 Words joined to verbs to express such modifica- 
 tions of time, plu-e, manner, or degree are called 
 Adverlw. Other examples are : — 
 
 A<lv«»Pbs. 
 
 ag.iin. 
 
 soon. 
 
 yesterday. 
 
 there. 
 
 yonder. 
 
 He went J ''^^"'■^• 
 
 cheerfully. 
 
 fast. 
 
 thus. 
 
 twice, 
 
 often. 
 
 little. 
 
 I 
 J 
 
 Time. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Manner. 
 
 Degree. 
 
 A few adverbs denote affirmation, negation, em- 
 phasis, or uncertainty : as, 
 
 He certainly went. 
 He did not go. 
 Yes, he went. 
 He went indeed. 
 
 Perhaps he went. 
 
RECOCiNIIION „F TMl.: PARTS OF srKIXH 
 
 119 
 
 The at! ibulcs or qualities denoted by many „</ 
 y<-/,.« may vary lik,. „,„ actions denoted by "-^rbs 
 e ,H..e,ally ,n degree; therefore a.lverbs, esCI^ 
 of degree, are often attached to adjectiv^.s- as 
 
 He is 
 
 very 
 
 exceedingly 
 
 rather 
 
 somewhat 
 loo 
 
 Ajljeotlvo. 
 
 shy. 
 
 Similarly, the ideas denoted by mmv ,,/-.• /i 
 may vary in decree; therefore adverbfo' d^rej 
 are often attaehed to adverbs : as. ^ 
 
 AdvfpbM. Adverb. 
 
 f very 
 
 He writes 
 
 ' rather I ^'°^'y- 
 more 
 
 rauier I 
 [ more | 
 
 Gathering together these different u«s of ad- 
 verbs, we have the following definition 
 ,/f'''T~^" Adverb is a word joined by way 
 advert! " '" " """'• '''" ^''J^^"™' - -"'her 
 
 EXEBCISE 84. 
 
 • 6. We heard the noise . 
 
 2. He came » t-l i- 
 
 7. The pohcenian looked 
 
 3. He will come . 8. The tired traveler slept _. 
 
 4- The ship sailed n Thr --'!;. 
 
 • 9- 1 ne =u.dtcr was wounded. 
 
 5 1 he agent called . lo W*>rpvn.. fi, r 
 
 " . lo. were you thrown from a horse? 
 
 f 
 
i 
 
 I20 THE FARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 EXEBCISE 85. 
 
 Pick out the adverbs in the Jolloioing sentences, and tell 
 what they modify : — 
 
 I. She sanK' WfM. 2. I w.is ;ii,'riral)ly disappointed. 3. IL.w 
 is it <lonc? 4. You have spoken truly. 5. I can hanlly liclieve it. 
 6. He was ill pleased. 7. Cut it knjjiluvise. 8. Tear it apait. 
 9. I'ut them together. 10. He was pitched licadlonj; into the se.i. 
 II. I never saw her. 12. We catne to school lite yesterday. 13. 
 Once or twice we have met alone. 14. Ambition urj;es me for- 
 ward. 15. Where is your hut. > t6. Are you yoiiij; far.> 17. We 
 are going abroad. 
 
 EXERCISE 86. 
 
 Join af^propriate adverbs to the folioxviiiir adjectives :~ 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 good 
 
 more. 5. 
 
 tired 
 
 7- 
 
 sick. 
 
 happy. 4. rich. 6. famous. 8. d 
 
 iscouraged 
 
 EXERCISE 87. 
 
 Point out all the adverbs, and tell what they modify :— 
 
 I. Are you quite sure.? 2. He was a very tall man. 3. He 
 was wholly unfit for the position. 4. Iron is much heavier than 
 aluminum. 5. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 6. The sky was 
 nearly black. 7. Mother is somewhat better. 8. We were drip- 
 ping wet. 9. The wide fringe is too dear. 10. The Alps are f.ir 
 grander than these mountains. 11. Trout are exceedingly shy. 
 12. The walk was rather long. 
 
 EXERCISE 88. 
 
 Join appropriate adverbs to the adverbs in the folloiv 
 ing sentences : — 
 
 I. He ran - 
 
 2. She sings — 
 
 3. She reads - 
 
 4. They come 
 
 fast. 
 
 — well. 
 
 — more. 
 
 often. 
 
 5. Write carefully. 
 
 6. I must go soon. 
 
 7. Don't go far. 
 
 S. I went before. 
 
4!'"*!A' 
 
 m 
 
 ^M,ro- 
 
 RECOGMTIOX OF T„K ,,^k,.^ „^ 
 
 EXEBCISE 89. 
 
 SI'LECH 
 
 (Jl 
 
 rJ-ir;::„::L^:?7rL;,/^"'''~;'^^' • ^- v™ 
 
 5. n.. „,„ „„, „„„, J, j,^, , -^'-Y-r '.vl...^ ,„„ ,„.,„„,, 
 
 - -.-, 7. W. arc i.ulecl .I,,,.: „, .t ' »'" --'y 'l-'-l- yu 
 
 ... V.».wcu„r„r,„„.,a-lyaniv.,l,„„ ' ■ ,^' ' , :;;'"-" "-- 
 
 '■'-"...rrmv. , ,. Th. currau runs very !..» Cn "":'>"'":' '"" 
 
 "" llii- di.il never ,,„^.s |,.ick,v ,r,l . , • ' '"■ *''■"'"»■ 
 
 ■5. He is n„, „,„el, ,li„re«„,,: j"' p ^ rr\"-'7 "^" ""'•"I- 
 
 ""■cr ;„„ .icnr.: H, '-./'vhtl ; :" "^"•'"^ ^'' » "<- '- 
 
 "HI very «.„. iL , ,„„,;':';""/ ' "^ '» '- -lUUe 
 
 "'•'V .lu .hat „„ee ,«, „f,e„. J7 T, it ""''■''■ ''■ ■*■"" 
 
 "1 Ihe world. 21 He\ -.r^ i , '* ""iriiini; somewhere 
 
 M- "i"--.oshai,'-,h": „ e .: "r,i:':"' rr-', - ■ 
 
 proud waves l,e stayed. ' ''"'' ''''''^' ^''''" «''y 
 
 *^" never be a mouse oCany soul. 
 
 . i^xerc.scs 23. 38. and 52 will be found suitable. 
 
 EXEECISE 90. 
 
 '• 'T'lou Shalt surely die. 
 
 2. There he was quite safe. 
 
 3. My Sister will come presently. 
 
 4. This child was very little hurt. 
 
 5. Little white lily smells very sweet. 
 
 liii 
 
132 
 
 THr. I'AIMS OK SI'EKCH 
 
 HJ». riv|K>NltloiiH.— Compare the following ex- 
 
 [)rcssions: — 
 
 (/I) Last year. 
 
 (/') Ilic last year of I he century. 
 
 In the first expression we tleseribe the year by 
 the adjective " last." In tiie second expression we 
 further describe it by telling its relation to the 
 century. Tc. express this relation we use the word 
 "of," whi.,h unites with the words "the century" 
 to form an adjunct or modifying phrase. 
 
 JhJif:itioN.—i\ word placed before a noun or a 
 pronoun to show its relation to some other word, 
 and forming with it a modifying phrase, is called a 
 '•vfposltloii. 
 
 Ihjinition. — The noun or the pronoun used with a 
 preposition is called its Object. 
 
 l\finitiou. — A phrase consisting of a preposition 
 and its object (with or without modifiers) is called a 
 I>i*ei>o»itiuiml Phrase. Other examples are : — 
 
 The book 
 
 I'rt'posltl 
 
 niiiil 
 
 IMirawM 
 
 IlMfHl ilH 
 
 AclJ. 
 
 't'tlVOH. 
 
 Preposition. 
 
 Niiiin or 
 Pronoun, 
 
 on 
 
 
 the table. 
 
 in 
 
 
 the desk. 
 
 under 
 
 
 the seat. 
 
 l)ehin(I 
 
 
 the door. 
 
 by 
 
 
 the window. 
 
 beneath 
 
 
 the cover. 
 
 at 
 
 
 the top. 
 
 below 
 
 
 the di( lonary 
 
 beside 
 
 
 the lamp. 
 
 between 
 
 
 us. 
 
 near 
 
 
 you. 
 
 behind 
 
 
 me. 
 
RKCU(.NITloN OK IIIK par IS (,h sii:,;( 
 
 il 
 
 •23 
 
 The precedins: prcp<.siti<.nal phrases are attidud 
 
 I>rf>|M»Mitlnniil IMirnoMM 
 "'Mil liM Ailvt.rhH. 
 
 I'rep'nitici,. 
 
 \Ne walked 
 
 It is long 
 
 Niiiin or 
 I'ronoiin. 
 
 thr village. 
 
 Ihf fickls. 
 
 tli«- lake. 
 
 tlx- street. 
 
 tlie l)ri«|j>c, 
 
 the S( lioollioiise. 
 • Ii<' IuiiikI. 
 tin- storm, 
 him. 
 
 sunset. 
 
 dark. 
 
 niorniiijr. 
 
 hough the word " preposition - means '< placed 
 efo re a preposition and its objeet are often sen 
 ';ted by other words; and sometimes the prepo' 
 sition eomes after its object : as. ^ ^ 
 
 He came 7^/M at least two thnt,san<l ;;;.„. 
 The top o/yon high eastern /////. 
 
 '^//rt/ are you looking ,1/ p r, r At -,/,./ 
 
 i> "' • II. e., w/ 7.'//,;/ are you looking.') 
 
 EXEBCISE 91. 
 
 Show relation between the following words bv 
 appropriate prepositions:.- ^ 
 
 prepositions , 
 
 1. Clouds us, 
 
 2. Men wealth. 
 
 3. Train Boston. 
 
 4. Born Savannah. 
 
 usmcr 
 
 o 
 
 5- Aoierp 
 
 6. Talk- 
 
 7. Dust - 
 S. Travel 
 
 sermon. 
 
 — nothmg. 
 
 (Ifxii- 
 
 England. 
 
 i 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 il 
 
134 
 
 Tilt: PARTS OF SPEKCH 
 
 £X£BCIS£ 82. 
 
 Point out t hi preposition:! nndtluir objects, and teil what 
 the prepositional phrases modify .• - 
 
 THK IUiILK of I'LASSKV. 
 The (lay brokr-ihe day which was to (l.clc the f.itr of Incha 
 At sunr.v. the army ..f the Naln*!,. ,K,urm« thr.,uj.h many o,,.n...Ks 
 '>f the camp. I«-k •^ t.. ,„.,vc tow.,r.l the ^rove wht-re the Knghsh 
 ••y. F,„ly th.,u.a.ul i„.'a.,try. arnud with firciocks. p.kt-s. svvor.U 
 bows an.l arrows, cov.rc.l th.- ,,I ,i„. Thty were a.n.,„pa,m-c| by 
 hfty pieces of or.h.a.Kc of the largest size, each tun«...| |,y a lon« 
 t.a.n ol white oxen, and each pushc.l on from l)chi.ul by an ele- 
 I'l-ant. .Si.me smaller Riins. im.kr the direction «f a few French 
 .'iixiliari.-s. were p.rhaps more formidable. The cavalry xvere 
 hfie..n thousand. Tlu- force which Clive had to oppose to this 
 Kicat muliiiiide consisted of only three thousand men. * ♦ * 
 
 The- battle commenced with a cannonade, in which the artillery 
 of the Nabob did scarcely any execution, while the few ful.l pieces 
 of the Kn^hsh pro,luced great effect. Several of the most dislin- 
 KU.shed ofhcers in Sur.ijah Dowlah's service fell. Disorder began 
 to spread through his ranks. * * * Clive snatched the moment, and 
 OH tied lus troops to a.lvance. The confused and dispirited mulli- 
 lude gave way before the onset of disciplined valor. In an hour the 
 forces ol Surajah Dowlah were dispersed, never to reassemble * * ♦ 
 With the loss of twenty-two soldiers killed and fifty wounded. Clive 
 had scattered an army of n.arly sixty thousand men, and subdued an 
 cini)ire larger and more populous than C.reat lJritain.-J/,rr,i///,it' • 
 " hss.ay on Lord Clive." 
 
 To tho Teachor.- If further drill in the recognition of prep- 
 os.tions is needed. Exercises 9. ,5. 5,. and 52 will be found suitable. 
 
 00. Conjunctions.— Examine the following: — 
 
 C'ompniiiul SontfiU'CH. 
 
 T I , -, Connecting 
 
 Independen^use. Word. Imlependent Clause. 
 
 The wind blew. 
 
 I ran fast. 
 
 and 
 but 
 
 the rain fell. 
 
 I missed the train. 
 
RECOr.N.TIO^ OF Till- PARTS OF .SPF.:CH ,.,, 
 
 (onifilov M«.iit|.|u.,Hi. 
 
 Principal CU,te. 
 Kol) will go 
 
 (iuy is older 
 
 C"nn«t ting 
 
 if 
 
 that 
 Ih.m 
 
 Klhrl JACK'S, 
 '»«• will com,-. 
 Lewis (i-.oliJ]. 
 
 < oiuifttiHl IMiriiH*^. 
 
 ( uiiiirciiiiii 
 
 By the f>co|.|,. f,n,| 
 
 U>r the pe«»j)|f.. 
 
 ('<>iiii«.ci,^l n„e,|H. 
 
 Sink 
 
 t'l'lilirriinn 
 Wo,.|. 
 
 or 
 
 swim. 
 
 From this it appears that some words .ro ,.« i 
 
 I^i'finition. — A word in:«,i ♦ 
 t.!,- "■^^" *'* connect sentence^j 
 
 When .subordinate clauses ennie first ih,.v 
 
 w,. .^mt..o., .junction .hic/r„;eZn 
 NMth the principal clause: as, 
 
 Conjunction. Subonlin^.e Clattse. 
 
 If 
 
 Unless 
 
 That 
 
 Whether 
 
 Kthel goes 
 it rains 
 '>e will come 
 lather can come 
 
 Principal Clause. 
 
 Rol) will jT„. 
 we shall ail go. 
 is certain, 
 is doubtful. 
 
 Conjunctions .sometimes occur in p.-,irs tl,e first 
 o he pa,r Lcng: not really a connective, k , . so 
 
196 
 
 THE I'ARTS OK SI'EECH 
 
 ^' 
 
 
 if 
 
 EUktr yoM or \ munt |{«. 
 
 It •» Hiitkfr UHrful wiv ornamental. 
 
 The king wa» weak ^V^ in IkmI) ,iW in mind. 
 
 Sometimes a eonjiinction is used at the twginninjr 
 of a separate senteiiee, or even of a ixiragrapli, to 
 eonncct it with what preeedcs. 
 
 I'ltposiiions conned words, but not iu ihe s.nnie way as ron- 
 junciions. When wonls are connecte«l by |»r»|H)»iii«.ns. one alw;i)s 
 t>ear» a modifyinK' relation to the other. When words are con- 
 netted by conjunctionv they are Kranimatically on an nju.d.ry. ihc 
 conjunction merely indicating that they arc to Ik* taken toKeiher. 
 
 EXERCISE 93. 
 
 Fill thv blanks with appropriate conjunctions .•— 
 
 1. Poor honest. 
 
 2. Heautiful KO* ''■ 
 
 3- I wonder he will come. 
 
 4. I could buy borrow it. 
 
 5- I cannot deny he means well. 
 
 6. He was punished, he was guilty. 
 
 7. We cannot go we finish our task. 
 
 8. I le was punished, he was not guilty. 
 
 9- I do not know I shall walk ride. 
 
 10. There is no doubt the earth is round. 
 
 11. Scarcely h.id I thrown in my line I felt a nibble. 
 
 12. She could dance sing. she played the pi.mo. 
 
 EXEBCISE 94. 
 
 Point out the conjunctions, and tell what they connect :— 
 
 1. She was gooo as she was fair. 
 
 2. Handsome is as handsome does. 
 
 3. Neither a borrower nor a lender l)e. 
 
KKCcxi.NI r.ON ,y^■ TIIK ,.ARIS .,► srhtLII ,„ 
 4. Il.li.r „„, l„„| ,„ |,,„„| „„„ ,^„ ,^ „^_, ^^^1 
 S- Ki. h Kih. »..» ,»-„ .vl„„ !»„„„, prove unkm.l, 
 *• ' '^'""" »•" ' I""«. >v..y. ch.,„„ ,„,, ,„,„ „„. 
 
 ..™m„^„r::::,:,v """'"" '■" "•"••«" > -^i'."')' 
 
 to. Dost ihoU loVf ||f(> Thfiwlrt n^. . I 
 
 H .he M.ff life ,H ,na.lc of. ' '''"'"''" """' ' ''"^ "'" 
 
 ' '• Mend your speech a liulf. 
 
 Lest it may mar your loru,w%. 
 
 12. When sorrows come. ,h.y come not Mn^\, spie,. 
 iJut m battalions. ^ 
 
 13- O what a t^nj.|.-,| w. I, we weave. 
 When fust we practice to .leceive ! 
 
 J7. 7- and 74 will \w foun«| suitable 
 
 01. Intvi.joc.tIonH.-Examinc the use of the itil 
 icized words:— 
 
 r;//<-// / I cut myself. 
 linivo! that was well done. 
 
 You olxserve tl at "Ouch!" and •• Bravo r- u^vm 
 no part of the accompanying sentences (vhichTr" 
 complete wtthout them), but are sudden outcries 
 mered as condensed expressions of some .ind ^f 
 
 Definition. — A word used as i <:iw «« « 
 /./■,. y^y^^Kx a.s a sud aen exnression 
 
 " eel.ng. but not forming part of a sent'enTe ?, 
 
 called an InttM-Jec'tlon. 
 
m 
 
 rHK I'ARTS m SI'KECH 
 
 ill 
 
 I I 
 
 EXEBCISE 95. 
 ^^a^"''"" ^'" "'''•''>*^'*'-^ '^^ff^r.^^ from thos. ^ivrn 
 
 EXEBCISE 96. 
 
 (K» VUH.) 
 
 />// / V A,r/ of spnr/t to xohuh each urn J in the fol 
 lox.'iHguHtiHus hi loners :^ '" '"* /*''• 
 
 1. I'riKrisiiii ni.m is thr liiirf of ,i,„p_ 
 
 2. CiiMoiii recoiuilr-i UH lo rvci)i|iinj{. 
 
 \. Mu- in.ir. I) of \\w huiii.iri muiuI i^ %Iow. 
 4 I'.ilinur iH .1 nrcrssat) iiiKi,-,|,..„i of grniu-l. 
 5. K irth Willi h.r llioijvuiil y.mvn pr-iiMs C.hI. 
 ^.. How |,|..HMiiKS l..ijrhtrn .15 ihry |.,kr ihnr fliKhl ! 
 7. AHsa,si„;u,on ha, Wv.r chanK'.-.l tl..' h,.i.,ry of .he- world 
 «. I-...r manner, n.-d ,h.. su,,:,o,t .{ .ine maimers ,„ otlurs 
 y. Il..imr ami slunie from no •o.uliiioii rise; 
 An well your part, tlu-r.- all th.- honor lir's. 
 
 »s-*. V,.|.|miH. -Besides these nine parts of st)eech 
 just dcscrilK.l. there are tNv<, important kinds of 
 words that are intermediate between verbs on the 
 one hand, and nouns and adjeetivcs on the other 
 rhey are formed from verbs and retain some of the 
 characteristies of verbs, with whieh ihey are nsuallv 
 classed: but they differ from verbs in bcinjr used 
 not as predicates of sentences, but as nouns or ad- 
 jectives. They arc called VerlmlH, and they are of 
 two kinds: noun-verbals, called Infinitives, and 
 adjective-vcrbals. called Purtlc-lplcs. These words 
 are, in a sense, forms of the verb; but they arc so 
 peculiar in their nature and frequent in their oc- 
 currence that they require separate description now 
 
Hi:c.H;NrrioNc,K rHK..ARTs.,KsH:Kc„ ,„ 
 
 IK, I„,i„,t,v..._|.:xami„c tlH. itauci.c.I wo,.|.s in 
 the following HciUfiKc:-™ 
 
 
 '**. 
 
 .x,.hjec,. .. Hill, ,■,,,,,,, ,,.,^^.^,^,,^,'^; 
 
 take also .,f,l,^,„;„„r,..,f,„„„„ ""•> l"'" 
 
 "f ".th ^crl, a„.l „„„„,.< .alk.,1 an |.„„„„v... 
 
 ••> >..U. .he same co,„pl..,„e,„s an.l n, fi.rs ,,' 
 
 ""•• ^•'■•■•'' f^""' "''i^l' i' i^ .Icrivcl ; „, i, is „;. r ■ s 
 a noun. " *•'* 
 
 With rc«:anl to/.r,„. i„n„i,ivos are of two prin 
 
 to so called because ,t is thes^une as the r.n.t or 
 sn;nWeronn.oftheverb;(.)the,nnn,t.v., .'J 
 
 of I ; "'?'"'^" "'^'^ "^''" -'»^'^''»- i«as the f.. e^; 
 
 of an adjective or an adverb : as. • • Water /. ./.,., • '• 
 He came /. s.r us." I„ such cases '. to " is a rJd 
 
 P'eposmon with the infinitive as its object, tie w 
 
 f-rni.njr a prepositional phrase 
 The root infinitive without "to- is seen in '.Vou 
 
 need not rtv///,'* where *• w-.if - i ,i . • 
 
 ♦xi . . «««^.ic w.ut IS the object com. 
 
 plement of "need " Oilw.,.. i 
 
 "»^cu. ^Hlicr exampK s are • 
 
 'You ilarp not ,/o 
 
 it 
 
 now ; 
 
 I had rather ,//> than //, 
 
 ' I saw 1. .n /"•// 
 
 rl: 
 
 ^i f !nii-,t 
 
 ' It. 
 
 A''* 
 
iy> 
 
 I ill: I'ARTS OF Sl'EKCH 
 
 " I 
 
 EZEBCISE 97. 
 
 Point out the infinitives in the followin^^r ^entenees, and 
 
 luZ ^"'^''^'' '^ *'" "''^"^'' "-^ ^''^'' ''''^' ^'*'^ 
 
 1. Always take time to do your best. 
 
 2. It is hetler to wear out than to rust out. 
 
 3. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 
 
 4. It is much easier to be critical than to be correct. 
 
 5- One can show his mor.il courage by (Liring to d„ right. 
 
 6. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being eminent. 
 
 7. If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do. 
 cl...p.Is h.ad been churches, and poor men's cottages princes' palaces 
 
 8. How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is 
 
 To have a thankless child ! 
 
 9. Of all those arts In which the wise excel 
 Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well. 
 
 10. Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway. 
 And fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 
 "• O, it is excellent 
 
 To have a giant's strength ; but it is tyrannous 
 To use it like a giant. 
 12. Unpracticed he to fawn, or seek for power. 
 By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour; 
 Far other aims his heart had lenrnetrto prize. 
 More skilled to raise the wretched than t(. rise. 
 13- Why so pale and wan. fond lover? 
 Prithee, why so pale } 
 Will, when looking well can't move her. 
 Looking ill prevail } 
 Prithee, why so pale } 
 
 
 EXERCISE 98. 
 
 Construet sentences illustrating the use of the root 
 tnfinitive and the infinitive in --ing" as subject; as ob- 
 Ji'ct; as attribute complement : as object of a preposition 
 
RECUGNITION OF THK PARTS OF SI'EKCH ,3, 
 
 04. P«Hlc.li.ioH.-Examinc the italidzcd words in 
 tlic lollowing sentences:— 
 
 The girl intently reaMn^^ a book is n,y cousin. 
 
 The plant commonly called Nightshade is poisonous. 
 
 In the first sentence -reading," formed from the 
 verb .. read •• has an object. '' book," and is modi- 
 fied by an adverb, -intently;" therefore it partakes 
 of the nature of a verb. But it is attached to the 
 noun -girl" by way of description, and therefore 
 It partakes also of the nature of an adjective 
 
 In the second sentence - called." formed from the 
 verb - call," has an attribute complement. - Ni-ht 
 shade. " and is modified by an adverb, ' ' commonfy • " 
 therefore it partakes of the nature of a verb But 
 It IS attached to the noun ■ ' plant " by way of dc 
 scnption, and therefore it also partakes of the 
 nature of an adjective. 
 
 Definilion.-K word that partakes of the nature of 
 both verb and adjective is called a Participle. 
 
 The distmguishing marks of a participle are 
 these: (i) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes, or 
 may take, the same complements and modifiers as 
 the verb from which it is derived; (3) it is used as 
 an adjective. 
 
 From simple participles arc derived Phni.s,ii Par- 
 ticiples: as, " Florence, //..z7V/^...^/./good.bye, turned 
 10 go. 
 
 Very often a participle is loosely attached to the 
 subject of a sentence, not so much to describe it as 
 to express some attendant action or condition : as, 
 
 Hearing a noise in the street. I went to the window. 
 
 
•32 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 EXEBCISE 99. 
 
 Point out the partktpUs in tlu following sentences, and 
 show that they partake of the nature of both verb and 
 adjective : — 
 
 1. I am going the way of all the earth. 
 
 2. The smallest worm will turn, being trodden on. 
 
 3- He rushed into the field, and foremost hghting fell. 
 
 4. Sweeping and eddying through the bridge rose the belated tide. 
 
 5- I'eter the hermit, dressed in a coarse rol)e. and bearing in 
 h.s hand a crucifix, traveled through Italy an.l France, preaching 
 the duty of rescuing the Holy Sepulchre from the Mohan,medans 
 
 6. A little fire is quickly trodden out ; 
 Which, being suffered, rivers cannot quench. 
 
 7. Now morn, her ro^y steps in the eastern clime 
 Advancing, sowed the earth with Orient pearl. 
 
 8. The world is too much with us ; late and soon. 
 Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers. 
 
 9- Sudden a thought came like a full-blown rose. 
 Flushing his brow. 
 
 A falcon, towering in her pride of place. 
 Was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed. 
 
 Morn. 
 Waked by the circling hours, with rosy hand 
 Unbarred the gates of light. 
 
 The cattle are grazing. 
 
 Their heads never raising ; 
 There are forty feeding like one ! 
 
 13. I have heard the mavis singing 
 
 Its love song to the morn ; 
 I've seen the dewdrop clinging 
 To the rose just newly born. 
 
 14. By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 
 
 Their flag to April s breeze unfurled. 
 Here once the embattled farmers stood. 
 And fired the shot heard round the world. 
 
 10. 
 
 II. 
 
 12. 
 
RECUGNITION OF THi: I'Ak TS OF SFEKCH 
 EXERCISE 100. 
 
 '33 
 
 Construct txi'o j. ntinccs ioiitaintn^r f^trti.,^/ c j- 
 '«i , t.co c . tauun^r other participles. 
 
 05 Cttutlou.-Not all words enclinij i" "-inir " ire 
 mfinmves or participles. Examine' for i s'ane 
 the itaheized words in the following, sentences - 
 
 (0 The child slept durm^ all the noise. 
 
 (2) Nolhing daunted, he began again. 
 
 (3) There is somet/iint^r j„ t|,g ^j„,| 
 
 (4) Thi, c„„s,a„. „.„,s,ns of su.,, ,„„, ,„,,,, „ ,,^.^,^ 
 
 (5) SpM„_,. ,s harder for so.nt- ,H.rso„, ,!,,,„ fo^ „,|Krs. 
 
 "n. In (2) ,t has the force of an adverb, modifyin., 
 th. parucple ..daunted.' In(3)it isanounde W "l' 
 not from a verb, .,ut from the vague noun •. thing • 
 In (4) t ,s a noun derived from a verb, and so far it 
 resembles an .nfinitive; but it differs from an n 
 fin.t ve ,n havmg completely lost its verbal charae- 
 .ensues, for it is modified by adjectives instead of 
 by adverbs, and mstead of taking a direct object like 
 the verb from which it came, it is followed by a 
 prepos.t.onal phrase. In (5) it is impossible to tell 
 
 hsld".s "T'.^'"''"^ '" "-■"^" should t! 
 cla.ssed as an infinitive or as a pure noun, for it has 
 
 tiont easy : 'ruf ^"-^'^ "" P^'^^^"' '"^ ^'-'«- 
 
 Good spel/ntg is easier for some than for others (Pure noun 
 because modihed by an adjective, "good -, ^ ""' 
 
 SfiMn^r long words is easier for some th..n for others rinfi. " 
 tive, because apcp„,panied by an object. " words •') " 
 
s'?f 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 'ii 
 
 fi 
 
 '34 
 
 THE I'ARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 £X£BCIS£ 101. 
 
 Classify the italichcd xoords tn the followinjr sen- 
 ti'nccs : — * 
 
 1 . A boy came sauntering along. 
 
 2. Do you call that being a soldier? 
 
 3. I have ^feeling that you may be right. 
 
 4. I found her reading " Idyls of the King." 
 
 5. Feeling one's way in the dark is slow work. 
 
 6. Acconiing to my watch, it is just ten o'clock. 
 7- His mother is opposed to \\\% playing football. 
 
 8. Feeling sure that he would come, I waited longer. 
 
 9. He was elected captain, notwithstanding his youth. 
 
 lo. Good writing is fostered by the reading of gooil books. 
 II. Unless the kettle boiling be. 
 Filling the teapot spoils the tea. 
 
 12. He would do nothing to relieve the distress of his stan>imr 
 tenants. "^ 
 
 13. Linnaeus knelt beside the mountain gorses. thankintr God for 
 their beauty. 
 
 14. '" the battle off Cape Vincent. Nelson gave orders for A;rt,7/- 
 tng the " San ]o^^{r exclaiming, "Westminster Abbey, or victory! " 
 
 15. I have done with expecting from her any course of steady 
 reading, for she will not submit to anything requiring industry 
 and patience or much exercise of the understanding. 
 
 16. Gladstone protested against people's going Xo Monte Carl,, 
 and putting down their five francs just for the fun of the //////./ 
 and so adding to the respectability of the place, and then thinkinl 
 that they are doing no harm. 
 
 EXEBCISE 102. 
 
 Construct a sentence containing an infinitive in 
 ''-tng:- a participle ending in ^^-ing;" a pure noun 
 ending in ^'-ing; " a preposition ending in ^'-ing " 
 
J m> -fk i\ *4. •■, F*s»« '- ...,,1 !■ ■■^^« 
 
 RKCOC.MITfON OF THK PARTS OF SPFKCH ,r 
 
 0«. Caution -It must not l>c si.p,.,sccl that tho 
 same word is always the same part <.f speech. Kx- 
 amine. for instance, the function of •• iron '• in the 
 following sentences: — 
 
 (<i) /ron is heavy, 
 
 (fi) An /ton keule hung on the crane. 
 
 (<•) Launchesscs t'/o/i clothes. 
 
 (</) An iro».bimm\ bucket hung in the well. 
 
 In C^*' iron;' is a noun: in (^) it is an adjective: 
 
 fore, that the function of a word may vary, requir- 
 in,^ us to classify it .sometimes as one part of spTl 
 sometimes as another. ^ 
 
 EXEBCISE 103. 
 
 I. («) The sun shines on rich and poor alike. (^) He is a ruh 
 man. but a poor scholar. "'* 
 
 queen. ^"^ ''"""'' "^'^ >°" ^ ^^'> "'^^'-'" '• "lacie for the 
 
 was^^:;^^-^'e^Vo^O:^-;e the ..,.., 
 ^^^6. I was about to sencl>. you./.. I have something to show 
 
 7. (</) Farmers ////the soil. (^, Look in the ////. (.) Sf.y /•// 
 the !;c.i nngs. (,/) Stay //// ,he next train. ^ 
 
I 
 
 136 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPKECFI 
 
 8. («) Do not lose a second, if.) \ stamd your motion. (.) She 
 woiwmWpruc. (//) You come javW. ^^ 
 
 9- (rt) We walke<U^„«/. {/» What did you talk afntutf u\ 
 We talked ,iW golf. (,/) ^^ a dozen girl, were the^ ^ ^ 
 »o. (a) The top, of many mountains are af>,w, the cloud, tM 
 The captam went^^v. (., Afm^e five hundrr.l were present 
 Ui) A voice came from af>^>c. (.) He room, on the floor I,Anv. 
 
 ol a card. (, ) Aii agreed with me. {d) That is aii right 
 
 (.) A;^':i.w:i;!: ^"^"'- ^^^ "^ -^-^^ -'''- --' - — 
 
 13. ('») He ran Ar/. (-J) He- was a/,.v/ runner. (.) They/,,./ 
 twice in a week. (,/) This/.«/ lasted forty days. ^^ 
 
 14. OO I like him. (<*) I shall not l(x,k u,H>n his hke aeiin 
 ic He look, //.. his gran,Ifather. (./) „e tails //.. hf mo hTr" 
 (.) Z,>6e. causes pro<luce Uke results. (/) Z/i. produces i^ke. 
 
 15. (^0 A /////. child shall lead them. (6) It matters/////, what 
 he says, {c) Give me a /////.. ^* 
 
 sun'^' (r^U^ ""'"' '"'"■'' '"'"• ^^^ ^''' "' ""'' 'he heat of the 
 sun. {c) Have you any imrc of this ? 
 
 you'mad'^ S Sh'^''' T "'"f, ''^ ''"*''' '"-"•"'"« ^^'^ '"^''e 
 )ou mad. (r) She made muc/t of him. 
 
 ic) '''Onl •'Z^ f " "''^ ''^'''"''- ^''^ "•^ ^^"» ""'^ »° the comer. 
 (^) O^/j' should come next to the expression that it modifies. 
 
 (A w ^"^ Tr '"'"■ .'I "''' ''^^- ^'^^ ^^^ "'"^ '^'*- the mountain 
 (f) We must have walked m/er six miles. 
 
 20. («) AWr^ that time I have not seen her. {b) Since it is 
 rainmg. we will not go. (r) I have not seen her since. 
 
 21. (a) The house sti/l stands. (^) All is still. U) A .//// 
 small voice, id) Alcohol is made in a .////. (.) With his inine 
 the mothers .//•// their babes. "n nis name 
 
 (c^ A It /f^^' *"'■'' " ' 'l!™'''- ^''^ ^ ^'^^"Sht //m/ it was a robin. 
 (0 A city that IS set on a hill cannot be hid. (./) That you have 
 wronged me doth appear in this. (.) That is what I me^m 
 
REC()(;n| riON of THF part*; nt- ... 
 EXERCISE 104 
 
 better jonn- 
 
 long wrong 
 
 7; ;^'^ -«"" ■'- „„ ,.^ 
 
 u.s a t oujuiiciion : 
 
 after before 
 
 ociore since 
 
 . im 
 
•3« 
 
 THi: PARTS OK SFMIXM 
 
 »T. Humiiiury „r ,|„. p.^^,^ ,,^ HihhhH — The 
 
 cla.s.ses of words described in this chapter c.nprisc 
 all the words of our lanjrua«:c. They may be sum- 
 marized as follows: 
 
 XoiiiiHi VVokIh used ns namps. 
 
 ITr.noin.H, W.,r,ls »sr.| to Man.l for no.m». 
 
 A.UectU'c^, Wor.ls joined t., noun, or pronouns by way of 
 liiintalion or descripiion. ^ ^ 
 
 ArtU'lfHi Tho words -a." "a„. • ,;r Mhe." 
 an,l'r„".""'""' '^•"■•"^"■■^'I"r.nkc.„f ,h,. „„,„,,■ „f lK„h vnl, 
 
 uses, or other adverbs. 
 
 l»ivi,«,«mc,„s: Words place.l before nouns or pronouns to 
 ing iVral"'""" '^ "^'" ^•""'^- ^''' ^"""'"^^ ^^'"> "- --Hf;! 
 
 orwo^r"""""' ''^"'^""' •'^ ^'""^^^ sentences, phrases. 
 
 Interjections: Words used as sudden expressions of feel- 
 «ng. but not forming part of a sentence. 
 
 EXEBCISE 105. 
 
 (Gknfrai, Reviv.w.) 
 C/nssi/y the 7vortis in the following sentences :— 
 
 1. Striving to better, oft we mar what's well. 
 
 2. If all the year were playinfj holidays. 
 To sport would be as tedious ns to work. 
 
 3- Imperious C.i-sar. dead and turned to clav 
 Mitrht stf . - - }> 
 
 >p a hole to keep the wind 
 
 away. 
 
RKCCKiNinON OK I MI. PARTS OF SF'KIXH 
 
 »3y 
 
 ^ , Heaven* ebt/ij vault 
 
 Seudiled with stars unutterably l.riKlit 
 mough which the moon's unchnnU-.i ,ran,I,.ur rolU. 
 bttnis hke a canopy which luvc has spread 
 To curtain her slee|>injr world. 
 
 5. He sung Darius, great and good, 
 Hy too severe a fate. 
 Fallen. falU-n, fallrri. f.ilhn. 
 Fallen from his high estate. 
 And wclfring in hishloo.l;' 
 I>cscrte<l. at his utmost need. 
 Hy those his former iM.unly fnj. 
 On the hare e.irth exposed he lit s. 
 With not a friend to dose his vyvl. 
 
 ^- I walk unseen 
 
 On the dry smooth-sh.iven green. 
 To behold the wandering moon ' 
 Hiding near her highest noon, 
 Like one that had been led astray 
 Through the heaven's wide pathless way: 
 And oft. as if her head she bowed. 
 Stooping through a tkecy cloud. 
 
 7. There was a jolly miller once. 
 
 Lived on the river Dee ; 
 He worked and sung fr,„n niorn till ni"ht • 
 
 No lark more blithe than he. ** 
 
 And this the burden of his song 
 
 Forever used to be,— 
 I care for nobody, no. not I, 
 
 If no one cares for nie. 
 
« V. . ,-t*. 
 
 CIIAITKR II 
 
 "K INH.KCTIOX, I.KKIVAIION. AM, („.M,.,.s,ti„n 
 Hkkokk i,n.ccuclin^r with the study of the parts of 
 
 •si>c'cch wc must learn to distinguish those changes 
 n the fonn .>f a word that arc made by ,nlU.,..,o„, 
 
 IKTlviiiioii, and ( omiN>Hltlon. 
 
 of w^rds"!!*''""'""^*'''"'"'"" ''^" ^"^'"^'"^^ «^""P« 
 
 Noun, 
 man 
 
 nian'M 
 
 l*n>iioiiii. 
 he 
 
 liltit 
 
 AiM««'tlvi«. 
 sweet 
 sWfc-Cc'i* 
 sweclt'Mt 
 
 V«>rl», 
 
 sinj;M 
 
 In each of tliese ^rroups we reeognizc the same 
 word under different forn.s. Thest variationsTn 
 form denote sli^^ht modiHeations in the meaning 
 and use of he word, but they do not ehange cither 
 the general meaning or the part of si>eceh ; the 
 noun remains a noun, the verb a verb. Moreover 
 most other words of the same elass. as ..boy/' 
 they, -siek." -hear." undergo similar altera- 
 tions ,n form, corresponding to similar ehanges in 
 meaning and use. 
 
 Deficit io„.-\ change in the form of a word to 
 show a slight change in its meaning or use is called 
 inflection. 
 
 EXERCISE 106. 
 
 Mention as many inflections as you can of the follow- 
 ing 7vords :~ '' 
 
 •-hiM do eat heavy move they teeth who 
 
OF INFLKCTION. DKRIV'ATION. ETC. ,4, 
 
 00. I>t.Hv«ti„u._Co,n|,arc the following words :^ 
 
 triif 
 
 truly 
 
 triilh 
 
 truthful 
 
 untruth 
 
 untrulhfuincM 
 
 Here «rc have six w.,r.l.s entirely different i„ 
 ".eanmg and use. Some bc.U.n^ to one nr 
 »l«-ed., ...hers to another: an.l tht... tha .X-l. 
 
 the same ,«rt of siKeeh.as-tnuh." ••untruth ■•„d 
 •;untruU.f„,ness, • h.ve distinctly diffcrel't mj! ' 
 "•g!.. But thouKh they arc tlius different in men, 
 m and „«, the last Hve words are elearl formed 
 from the first by attaehinjr a l.„.nx Cun '.rr , 
 
 />.*• , ^. ' •"«»■•<). or both. 
 
 /Ayi„„„„._The proecss of forming a new word 
 from another word by attaehing a prefix or a s.^f^x 
 or by chanKHng a vowel, is ealled jlrlvatlo.. The 
 new word is called a IHTlvutlve. 
 
 blet^blii:': "/ TTT ''^' ^■"=""^"= of vowel are = 
 Wes.s, blLss; feed, food; gild, gold; heat hot- 
 
 pnde, proud; rai.se, ri.se ; tale, tell ' 
 
 Myf«,„„«._The original form of a word in inflec- 
 tion or derivation is ealled the n.K.t. 
 
 EXEBCISE 107. 
 
 W .^<, „uu ,ne „«. f„r.„s are </,„W,„,,,, ^ J^ 
 
 \ 
 
 child friend 
 
 give 
 
 man 
 
 pure 
 
 wise 
 
*•'■ » ifc-JWf 
 
 aii:.. -rJ 
 
 u* 
 
 THE PARTS OP SPEF.c If 
 
 BlifSj^l'" i» 
 
 '"lliiil i|||i 
 
 lfN>. ('OII||NIM|li«»||. 
 
 wonl.s: — 
 
 Kxaminc lUc lulK)wmjr 
 
 hlick 
 iMMrd 
 bl.icklMMnl 
 
 Here wc have three .li/Tcrcnl wor.ls, vniirely .lis. 
 
 lira in na,,MiMK ami use; hut ,he lasl ,» fonnc.l l,v 
 
 wmbniiiiK tlic- lirst i»-,.. ' 
 
 n.Ji,uno„.-Vh^ Pr'>cx-».s„f forming' a ikw «r.,r.l i.y 
 
 c...nl.„„„„ ,wo .Hher w..r.lH is eallcj , ,„„„...,.. 
 
 1 he. new w.,r.l >s ealle.l a <•„,„,„.„„„ word. 
 
 I here are many eom|Hnin<l.s in the Kntrli.sh Ian- 
 K".-.Ke. an.1 we are c.nstantly erealin^ .,ew ones 
 1 he separate wonis fre,,»ently seen, to have .-rown 
 together ,n their natural order: as. ,,,X„r. 
 
 ":refore, to hx a definite line ..f division l-twee 
 
 rue and false eo.n,Knmds. Indeed, it fre,,,Kntly 
 
 ".•.l.|.e"s that what is treated in one lan«„aie . . 
 
 mr T"' " "'''"^•""' ''>• '"" -Parate'word 
 
 «L >'■ '■'■■•■" •■"' '*-"K'«l"nan says -the 
 
 "l7" ;,"; ^••'";--'y- '-.Hishman writes.. I.in,- 
 
 s'l>s. It .s owiUK to this confusion that we resort 
 
 1 e e.„„pro,„,se of writin,,. many i„,perfeetly 
 
 blende,U.on,pounds with a hyphen: as. s.^f.^suj, 
 
 iJllZ ''."^T" '""'•''' ""<^"'»i"'y in the use of 
 hyphens, whah serves further to show the indefi- 
 n.tene.ss whieh att.-,ches to compound words 
 
"t ISH.Kl IKiN. DIRUAIION. I;TC. .jj 
 
 II lias frc,|n..n,ly Uc ,|„„, ,„ ,, ^. 
 
 n-l l.y .he a. .mival i.lca ,., ■• „„|,|,/. \V|,jJ,; f 
 
 Z^Z " "^" •■' "•'•'"'-•'"•"'••■ — " that .hc'.K- - 
 
 *«>'-l>. AKain wu say •ThiTc i, a Hack l.ini " 
 «lMch ,„ay signify any l,Uk l.ir.l. as a rmw .'.r 
 r-vc... cc. I,„t ,f wc .say •• There- is a I.Mc^b i. • 
 -• su«,.csl .hat .he bi,., ,s .,f a .lefi.me s '■ t 
 here w,.„,., „. „,. i,,,,,,,^,,,, . ^,^^,„ ■; 
 
 I here- .s a white blaekhml. • if ,l,,,,ir,| in ,,,,,,': 
 li<m was an ail.ino. ' 
 
 est .,fae..n,i)o„„,I, for many e„n,,.„u„,I w.,r,lsmi«ht 
 he me,U,o„e.l ,n whieh Ihe aeeent is „,„ „,„,„ ^^ 
 
 firs .syllable. Thns the „an,e •• Xewf„n„.|,'a„ , ■ 
 
 YU the word ,., evulently a e„n,p,.n„.I, an.l ..ri«i. 
 nally the eqnivalent of •• lan.I.newlv-found • i,, ., 
 Kenume eo>n,H.,„„l twoori^rinally in',k|K-n<lent i,k-,s 
 are eomb.ne.I to ,,r,Hh,ee the impressi™ „! ^l^ 
 I'lea npon the min.l. The si,.«,e wor.ls „f whie U 
 
 K worus. 1 Ills isolation may occur in 
 Severn u'ri\rf.^ ^ "v»,ui m 
 
 <•!!•« 
 
 (') As in the word "Newfoundland, . 
 pound group may drift away from the 
 
 where the 
 ori;^inal 
 

 ■44 
 
 THK CARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 mcamng .,f thu comix-ncnt parts, and acquire a„ 
 
 land no longer means ■ • land-newly-found. " 
 
 (2) As m ••withstand," ./„„,/ „i.«,«,, where one 
 
 fron that wh.ch it ordinarily possesses. 
 
 (3) I he comiK-nent parts, or one of them miv 
 have beeome obsolete as .separate word.s rin^he 
 compound noun ..bishopric," where r' is the (^d 
 tnglish r/,r, power. 
 
 (4) The grammatical construction of the parts 
 may have become obsolete, and the compounlex 
 prc.s.s,on has thus become isolated. Thus, for ex- 
 ample, the genitive singular of feminine „oun.s "n 
 no longer be formed without -s;" hence /.„,/,.Z 
 IS now felt as a compound word.whilst M./ys./o/i 
 
 cXd .t *" '^" '' ™"-''- ^' ""«•" =" ""'^ be 
 ^lltd a !,„„«, Comp„„„,i, whereas Zrt,/,.,/,,^ would 
 
 be called a ci.»« Compound. 
 
 There are many words which are not felt to be 
 
 «>mpou„ds but which are really compounds result- 
 
 :"theTnguair"°'"°^°^'^^'"--^"-^^°<^ 
 
 pounds:!^' ^°"°'''''^ "" ''"'"y 'P^'^^'^e <^om. 
 Concealed Compounds. 
 
 barn (O. e. Sern = de're.er». place for barley) 
 
 daisy (O. E. (/a-j,rgs Sagc, days eye) 
 
 fortnight (for fourteen-night) 
 
 hussy (for housewife) 
 
 kerchief (Fr. ^^«7.r^-.74(/),/. head-cover) 
 
OF INKUXllON. DtKlVATION. KIC. ,,5 
 
 older stajrc „f th^ l.n T ^ ? ^■■"•■' "'•" '" "'« 
 
 first eom'i^:! p., r'^rr ;'" ••"■"^•"' ""-^ "" 'he 
 the first mrt is due ,n t ""'""' ^"""P""" of 
 
 not necei:;rd,Wstcr' ^•"""^'--^ ^"'^'' '^ '-^ 
 
 addr„:Cra -a tZr "'^ -^^ --'- •-- 
 
 Examples of thVare ^;,/ """-'" -"P"""''- 
 
 Plurals or tompo„n,I»._The ?ci,er-.l r„i • .c 
 compound nouns add the plural Xntol" 
 P-ts. or, when the compound is C^d of 7"" 
 nouns, the sign is added tn .h» ^ '*" 
 
 - to the nou^ ^niJ:t:[::^!:;ziz! r 
 
 exampe: blacksmith, c/ a "^-y '"^ other). I^or 
 i- ^/.rt /I JW////J, steamboats, golf. dubs 
 The exceptions to this rule are - 
 (0 Words which are scarcely felt to ho 
 
 pounds : as, moutnfnls, .as.oo.flls ^^ '^ ^'^"^• 
 
 word, .s .1! ^ ''^" ^' ^'^^^^^ ^« ^he last 
 
 "TO . as, runa-ways, casta7vays. 
 
 (3) Certain old-fashioned con.po„„,, ...ere both 
 
146 
 
 Tlii: PAR IS OF SI'EECH 
 
 words I,avc Ihc plural .sign, as, k„isn,..u,„pU,r., 
 
 The two modern compounds, men-servants, women, 
 servants, have the same peculiarity. 
 
 EXEBCISE 108. 
 
 Make a list of Jive eomponnd xvords, determining from 
 a dietionary hoic tliey should be x.'ritten. 
 
CHAI'TKR III 
 
 OK NOUNS 
 
 I. CIiAH8IFUATION. 
 
 A Xoun is a word used as a name (83). 
 
 narn'Ll^^ttTll """'^ "' ^-"—Examine the 
 uaincs in tlie follovvinir sentence: — 
 
 discipline IS the name of a condition. 
 
 108. PwperNouiia._Thenoun"ViVtnrio •• • 
 illustrative sentence is the IT ' '" '""' 
 
 battleship. "'""* °' '' particular 
 
 J,T''T"~^ """" "'•'" '« "'« "••""<= of some par 
 ot Its kind, 1. called a Proper N..„„. 
 Other examples of proper nn„ns are •_ 
 
 captritt::::^' :„"^:, -"r- "'-•'"^-^ "^^^ -'" 
 
 them- a Am; • f"" ''" """•'''' '^^""^'^ f™-" 
 tnem. as, America, American, Americanism. 
 
 is rnL?"?""" '""'T-'^''" "'"'" •• battleship" 
 ' """"^ ^"'"™"" '" «" '^hips of the .same class. 
 
:> F;ji -M*i^%. ^ ."Ji 
 
 148 
 
 THE PARTS OF SI'KIXH 
 
 Other examples of common nouns are:- 
 
 ^«'y day n.an niountain state 
 
 ^^ Commo. nouns, when written, begi„ ,uh small 
 
 EXEHCISE 109. 
 
 '->' -'y <log gir, „ev«p.,p,, «„„ ,,^„ ^,^^^ 
 EXEKCISF. !10. 
 
 BrocMy,, OUro.la „„„,„ ,„^,,„„ ^^,_,^^ ^^^ ^^^^ 
 
 '■ cZ ^t^T'lZ ''""'"'• - '^^^ ^o""""" noun 
 l^Zy '^'""' '° --^ ""'^^ "' ™- --il-ed J 
 
 0.her exa.p,esi;tr«ll^turar:-! """■'• 
 
 army (a collection of solciiers) 
 "eet (a collection of vessels) 
 herd (a collection of animals) 
 
 •-, •• it •• when w:s7;tr:t;':,rwr ''"^ 
 
 'H.n. o, the i„.iW<,„a,.s who e::,;,^ J LM: 
 
'^'«^*h. 
 
 OF NOUNS 
 
 My 
 
 pronoun -they/' Similarly wc sav "TU • 
 /^as retired.- thinkin^r of it as . sin'^T', , ^"'^ 
 
 j"^ /- ciined •• thitkin^ :; ;v:r.^>: ^ " '''- 
 
 ^XEBCaS 111. 
 
 audience Coir .,„„ „^, ^„^.,^„^ ^^^^ ^^^^ 
 
 together in the baU butt th. .''"•'''''''^ •""'"' 
 
 fer the. separatelVXaV" Wh"::;^ iHeri;"", 
 
 object that x:Lit''r,tLT;"f ''"''= '-- "■•^ 
 
 " separating ") ^'' ^'»"™<-<l«" (Latin, 
 
 acttf'^r„^,:ir:^r^j:;:;:---»-^"'>-. 
 
 ^^^'^^ an Abstract Noun ^ 
 
 Examples of abstract nouns are :- 
 
 i:... 
 
 ability 
 carelessness 
 
 <liscipline 
 faith 
 
 freedom 
 friendship 
 
 hardihood 
 influence 
 
 strength 
 velocity 
 
 '".lutiiy 
 
 EXEBCISE 112. 
 

 150 
 
 THK PARTS OK SI'KKCH 
 
 EXERCISE 113. 
 
 CAissi/y the nouns m lixvrcisv ;; (/^^r^ , ,2). 
 
 N..tms arc occasionally inflected to show c;..„„,.r 
 and regularly inflected to show N„mber and Calil.? 
 
 II. CJENDKR. 
 
 lOfl. fJender Dt-flucMl^Observe the distinction 
 between the following nouns :— "nciion 
 
 'ion lioness 
 
 Both nouns name animals of the same general 
 class, but one ,s the name of the male animal the 
 other of the female. This distinction is indicated by 
 the inflection "-css.7 The distinction between the 
 objects themselves is called 8.x. The distinction 
 between their names is called Goiulor. 
 
 Dcfinition.-iWuaov is a classification of nouns 
 and pronouns according to the sex of the objects 
 for which they stand. "' 
 
 Definition.- A word denoting a male object is in 
 the Masculine Oeiuler. 
 
 Definitwn.~K word denoting a female object is in 
 the Fomlnlno Gender. 
 
 Dcfinition.-K word denoting an object that has 
 no sex ,s in the Neuter Gender (Latin,- neither") 
 
 Words like - friend," •' child," - thief " " bird '"• 
 which apply without change to either male or fe- 
 male objects, are masculine or feminine according 
 to the sex of the particular object spoken of. 
 
 Words that apply to objects of either sex are said I>y some 
 grammanans to be in .he Common (lender; but most modem 
 grammarians reject this classification as useless 
 
[f'i 
 
 OK NOUNS 
 
 »5i 
 
 107. Ways or DenotInK OonUer.— Compare the 
 foJIovviug pairs of words : — i ^ 
 
 MhmciiIIiiu. 
 waher 
 
 nian-scrvant 
 brother 
 
 waitress 
 
 maid -servant 
 sister 
 
 You observe there are three ways of distinguish 
 ing gender:— ** 
 
 I. «ya Feminine Hnfllx, nMually "-eHK.-_i„ ,hc f,.i 
 lown,g l.st note the occasional changes i„ tf.o body of the woni - 
 
 MUMCtllltlU. 
 
 aI)bot 
 
 actor 
 
 adfninistr.Uor 
 
 a«lvcntiircr 
 
 b.iroi) 
 
 beiiclactor 
 
 count 
 
 czar 
 
 dfacon 
 
 (I like 
 
 e;ii|)eror 
 
 enchanter 
 
 executor 
 
 giant 
 
 K(kI 
 
 heir 
 
 hero 
 
 Fimiliiltiu. 
 
 abbess 
 
 nctress 
 
 adnijnistr.itrix 
 
 adventuress 
 
 b.ironess 
 
 l)enef actress 
 
 countess 
 
 czarina 
 
 deaconess 
 
 duchess 
 
 empress 
 
 enchantress 
 
 executrix 
 
 giantess 
 
 goddess 
 
 heiress 
 
 heroine 
 
 MUMCUllUU. 
 
 host 
 
 hunter 
 
 idolater 
 
 Jew 
 
 Irl 
 
 hon 
 
 marquis 
 
 master 
 
 patron 
 
 |)receptor 
 
 prince 
 
 prophet 
 
 shepherd 
 
 sorcerer 
 
 suhan 
 
 tiger 
 
 waiter 
 
 Kcitilniiie. 
 
 hostess 
 
 huntress 
 
 idolatress 
 
 Jewess 
 
 lass 
 
 lioness 
 
 marchioness 
 
 mistress 
 
 patroness 
 
 preceptress 
 
 princess 
 
 prophetess 
 
 shepherdess 
 
 sorceress 
 
 sultana 
 
 tigress 
 
 waitress 
 
 2. By a Prefix Denoting Gentler.-The following are 
 important examples:— ^ 
 
 MaHcallne. Feminine. 
 
 bull-elephant cow-elephant 
 
 cock-sparrow hen-sparrow 
 
 he-bear she-bear 
 
 MaRcullne. 
 
 he-goat 
 man-servant 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 sh?-Roat 
 maid-servant 
 
^1^1- -.A f 
 
 '52 
 
 Tin; lAkTS OK SI'KECII 
 
 Mh*mmiIIiiu, 
 
 bachelor 
 
 buck 
 
 bullock 
 
 drake 
 
 gatjiJcr 
 
 spinster, maid 
 
 doe 
 
 lifilcr 
 
 duck 
 
 goose 
 
 M«M<-ii||||o. 
 
 niunk 
 ram 
 
 SI.1J,' 
 
 Wizard 
 
 nun 
 «rwc 
 hind 
 wnth 
 
 SXDKCISE 114. 
 
 ^Giv^Uc,.n,.r of U. nouns in tke follo^oin, seUc- 
 
 Dk. Primrose and t„k fack Wash. 
 
 As we ex|)ectcd our l.mdlurd (he nex. ,1... 
 •"ake the venison i.isiv M.. *> '">' '^'^'^ ^^^*"« «" 
 
 '"tic ones. My hu'2s ." ^""'"'- ^^'"'^ ' '•'u«h, ,he 
 
 > observed .1. / i r at:cr:^^^^^^^^^^ ^"^T"^' ""^ """ "'*'' ^^^ •' -«' 
 I at first supposed th'v wl ^' ^^^'''^''''''^ ^^er .he fire. 
 
 'ace. Washes of all M ', ^ , ^"' ^'"f '"'^'^"'S •'' --'' ^-^ ^l.e 
 that, instead of men din " he "nnl "'"" •"'"'"'^ '"' '"^ ' "^^ - 
 
 P«'<cr. as if it wanted mendin. J" n '. "' '"'' ^'''^^f^'"^' ^^'^ 
 thewhole composition Tn.lhx? V '^^' ''^ "''"'^■"' "verturne.l 
 -M.- •• The Vici: oVwI^eS !"" '^ '" "^^'^ -other.-oV.A 
 
 II 
 
 EXEBCISE 115. 
 
 discretion. ^ ''" *^^"'' ^^°"' "'« f^regoinj; lists .t 
 
 '• ^^'''' ff'^'fnninine wont corresponding to :- 
 abbot bachelor bullock dr.ike earl «, 
 •■•ctor buck czar It T "^""'^ ""^ ''"'»«" 
 
 «ar duke hero monk sr;,g fi^^^ 
 
OK NOl'NS 
 
 •5J 
 
 2. Writ, till 
 
 •Joe ihitk 
 
 m,ni uluu word corrvsf>o,i,hn^ to .— 
 
 i-wc giKisc luiftr hiiui 
 
 s|im!itir \vii,f, 
 
 >/..■ M.m:S u^onls, consulting a .luMonary fo lui 
 
 108. Ciemlor and P«»n«..nH.-I)istinctin„s of .an- 
 cer are grammatically important because .>n them 
 <lei>c.ncls the ri^rht use of the proncmns .-he " •• h s 
 
 ;;him/' .. she.-, her/- ..hers.-, it.'- ami ..its'- 
 Ivxam.ne. for instance, the italicized nouns and pro. 
 nouns in the following selection :- 
 
 King Midas ai Hrkakkast 
 
 -rrt'T^ -'^™"...i"%fn:;;i;:;;.;::.:*: 
 
 keep in glass globes, as ornaments for .he parlor. No l,u. // ,s 
 rea y a metallic f.sh. and // looked ns if // Lul been ve;y , .;: 
 nude ,y the n.cest gold.nith in the world. Jts little L : : 
 now golden wires; //s fins and tail were thm plates of lm.I.I i 
 
 .l-e were the marks of the fork in /.. and JZ]^ u^ 
 
 ch.ir^n l" ' '.'"•''"''•'"^•" •'^""ffht /,.. leaning hack in An 
 
 c i nVr. t T ^';"'^--"-'y a. little Jf.r,,o/,f, who was now 
 t-ating //., bread and mdk with great satisfaction 
 
 And truly, did you ever hear of such a pitiable case in all your 
 If re .^"' "'' ""'"^ ''' ^"'"* '''"'^"^^ ''^"^ -'^"'' '- -t 
 nothmg. The poorest /nfi.r.r, sitting down to ///v crust of hreid 
 and cup of water, was far bette-r off than King M.das. who e de ' 
 ^r;r •■^^•"^ ''-'' "' '--^^'^ '" «old.-//...W.'^A 
 
 You observe that the Masculine Nouns, like • • King 
 
ILl'. 
 
 i4 
 
 Till-: I'AK IS ()^ siEhcii 
 
 I 
 
 [._.. 
 
 Midas," arc ri'furrcd t«i by •• he," •• his," or "him :" 
 Ffiiiliiiiic >oiiiiM, like " MatyjroUl, * by*'Nhc"(»r 
 "her;' >'futerNuiiiiM,iike "breakfast" ami "fiMKl." 
 by " it " or " its." " Trout,' which is cither mas- 
 cubnc or feminine, is here referred to by " it " 
 or " its," Ixicause the object named is thought of 
 as a mere tbinjr, without any reference to sex. 
 " Laborer," which is also either masculine or femi- 
 nine, but which denotes a person instead of athinj^, 
 is referred to as • he," in accordance with an estab- 
 lished custom of our lanj,aiage when there is no desire 
 to emphasize distinctions of sex. If the author )iad 
 thoujrht distinctions of sex were here imi:M>rtant. he 
 would have said. "The laborer .sitting down to //« 
 or /tir crust of brcul." 
 
 S<jmetimes animals are referred to as "he" or 
 " .she," even when no distinction of sex is intended. 
 Thus, " The /i^r,r steals .silently on At's prey;" " A 
 /mri' popped out from a furze brake, and ran for /ur 
 life." In such ca.ses the speaker uses "he" if he 
 fancies the animal to possess ma.sculine qualities, 
 .such as strength, fierceness; "she" if he thinks 
 the animal's qualities are rather feminine, such as 
 timidity, gentleness. 
 
 lOO. Cit>n(U>r In IVixonlflcutloii. —Examine the 
 
 following sentence : — 
 
 S/>nn,r han^^s A,r infant blossoms on the trees. 
 
 You observe that the writer refers to spring, which 
 has neither life nor .sex, by a feminine pronoun. 
 The explanation is that he imagined spring as a 
 

 OF NOUNS 
 
 '$S 
 
 gracious gmldess, and sixikc accordingly. When 
 we tliu.s siH.'ak of an oDJcet without life as if it were 
 a [KTson, we are saul to ivi>««miry it. (lender in 
 personifiealion is determined by the s;une principle 
 as in si)eaking ot animals without regard to sex : 
 things remarkable f.»r size, jxivver. strength, or 
 other manly qualities are referred to as masculine; 
 things remarkable f«)r Ix-auty, gentleness, grace, or 
 other womanly qualities are referred to as feminine. 
 < )ther examples are : — 
 
 (") The 'MM now TOM' u|M»i the right ; 
 
 Out ol the sea came A,: 
 (*) Now Morn. A,r rosy «»te|>s in the enslern « lime 
 
 Advancing, so\ve<l the earth with orient |Marl. 
 
 EXERCISE 116. 
 
 l ill the blmiks in tin- /ollmciH^ stn/iHiis x^'ith appro- 
 priate pronouns : — • 
 
 1. Can a leopard change spots? 
 
 2. Close in c«jvtrt covveretl the doe. 
 
 3. The ewe lamb Meated for mother. 
 
 4. The child w.is unconscious of danj^er. 
 
 5. The heiffr ruhl)ed — turn- ij^'.iinst the hars. 
 
 6. The goose had wandered frofn companions. 
 
 7. The hind knew the do.;s to he incirtal in«-mies. 
 
 8. The duck was plunnrjg feathers after swim. 
 
 9. Kven a fool, when holdeth peace, is counted wis,-. 
 
 10. Hanypersonin llie class needs a iMMicil. ! will l.nd — v „r. 
 
 11. Kvery witch, it was thought, kept a hrfximstick re.ady 1m liind 
 door. 
 
 12. The wild l)e.ast from cavern spranjj. t},,- \vil<l bird from 
 
 grove. 
 
 13. As for man. d.iys are rjs grass ; .is a flow, r of ihf fwU], 
 
 so tlourisheth. 
 
 :rfi 
 
I $6 
 
 Tin: lAkis OK M'KIXII 
 
 T'^, 
 
 EX£1CI8£ 117. 
 
 h t,rso„ij'u,i as masiHliHe . - ^ ^ *^""^ 
 
 •'""• >v;,r winter eUcmMy 
 
 III. XIMIIKH. 
 no. N„.„iH.r m.n,MMl.--|.:x;„„ine the difTerenct. 
 between the wonis i„ the fnllowinK^ pairs — 
 
 '-.^- f<.M. ....... „,,„ 
 
 The first word .>f e.neh pair su^Kcsts .. sin;,Ie ob- 
 cu the seeond word suj^jfests ,„ore than one. In 
 He r.rst three pairs the di/Terenee in meanin. is 
 
 bron,.htalK.uthythe addition ofasnffix. in the 
 last^ hy an internal chanjrc in the word. 
 
 Ay^////,.,„.-A difference in the form of a '.vord to 
 ;^^^st.n,nnsh ohjeets ..s one or more than one is e. Jd 
 
 • A/»,y,„„ The form of a wor,I that <k-n„,cs one 
 "I'jcet ,s called the Nl,,^,,,,.^ X„„„K.r. 
 
 m..e ,1 a„ one ol.jeet is ealle.I the ,.,..„„ x,u„,H.r. 
 
 ^cll.s, an.I the a.ljcetives "this " and •• that." For 
 example, we say:— 
 
 Tlih Ml ,..,„ rin„inK. '"/ // -»,..< sl„|,|w,l. 
 
 Ill Forma, I. r ,i,o I-.,,,,.,. - Xfost no,,ns 
 
 f'>rm the ,,I„raI I.y ad.ling ..s" to the singular, as' 
 
UV Nni?NS 
 
 »J7 
 
 Ixvik, Ixxiks. The following variations from this 
 rtjrular rule are im|)orlaiU: — 
 
 I. •• -4»»».**-Wlirn ihr MiiKulir rmln in a soim.l il,..i ,!,„., „,,! 
 unilr wilh "•' alonr. "r»" i» rt.|,|„|, f„rii,i„g .„, a.|.lMi«i,.i| „)||.,. 
 bit- ' aft, (ox, (i»«r«. 
 
 a IMiiml ofNoiinN Rmllnir In •»o.*' H the fm.ii ••(>•• 
 i* prwc.lr.| by .i vowel, ihr plural i<% fc.rn»r«l r.^iiLirly. t. r. by 
 a«l.lm« ••»:'• an. camm. c.im.-..^. If tl,. .,.,| •• „ ■• ,^ ,,„.. ^.i, .|' Uy 
 a r.Mit.m.in«. Ihr lr„.|rnry of ....hI. r,. . jo f„r,„ il,r p|.,r..l by 
 a.l.lM.,{ "ch:' a*, hrro. hrr.H-s; iH »., ,,ol .uv, I ' - folLminv; 
 ci»inmon worih. howrvir, iiiil f. 
 aiuiif* : — 
 
 tU>- Mltit .! I, Mu»){ 
 
 Innjo 
 burro 
 canto 
 
 casino 
 
 rhromo 
 
 r«)iitr.ilto 
 
 tiuixtci-iiiio 
 
 (iynaino 
 
 liili' 
 
 M.MtO 
 
 lahSr 
 nirfi! hill 
 
 Of t i', » 
 
 »r. . iso 
 
 Htitrllo 
 
 torso 
 
 tyro 
 
 3- Pliiml of XoiiiiM KmlltiK y.*' Ifthe'y'i, 
 
 precclril by a vowel, tl.r plural is regular ; as. Valley, valleys. 
 
 If the "y •• is precetled by a consonant. ' is changed to "i * 
 an<l " es ' is .icl.le.1 to form thr plural : as. la.ly. ladies; city, cities. 
 
 4. IMiiml orXoiiUM F:im1I„„ In »»!■/• -Th^ following 
 nouns vmUna wiili the sound ..f •• f " chanx"- " f ' «>r " fe " to " v " 
 an«l ad«l "es": 
 
 b«rf 
 caU 
 
 elf 
 half 
 
 knife 
 Uaf 
 
 liff 
 loaf 
 
 self 
 sheaf 
 
 shelf 
 thief 
 
 wife 
 wolf 
 
 5. Hur\'lvalH of Ancient PliimU. Fn old English there 
 were other ways of forn.inj,' th.- plural, traces ol which survive :- 
 
 (I) l'I.t;RAl,s IV "FN." -These were once in very conunon 
 use. 1 he only survivinjr examples are : ,>.ty,i, brithren. chiUren. 
 Kine (cows> is usetl in poetry. 
 
 (3) Pl.trkAI.S HV INWAKI. Clf ANGF.-t )f this method the 
 surviving examples are: foot. /,-,/.• tooth. U.lh : g.>ose. f^fcse; 
 louse./..,, fjian. w,7/, iiuni->r, ////<, .• woman. Ti'«»w/'«. 
 
 P' 
 
158 
 
 THK PARTS OF SPKIXII 
 
 ly 
 
 
 6. PliimlofPnuH.r Noun- i.. 
 
 Niros. ^ "Hcrnally. as. Jlcnry. Htnrys ; Nero, 
 
 iVopcr narms prtredcd by titles is •• \fr w .... ». 
 
 Mr S„„, ,,.- ..,1. Mrs. s ,„," ••„,.. M,", .s ,,•- 
 
 .Sn,i,.,.' ..,„.l ...hc Colonel, s,,,','... ' ''•'^"- ="" 
 
 We s.iy <• the 
 
 ' the Colonel 
 
 the Misses 
 
 fu.Hl..m,„,' I |^,r, „r he t. M ''™''"' ""[' "' ""■ l"'"-^" '" •'"• 
 
 «"Klc wor,l i, fun,Cm.; t rr;'''"' ■•"''"■''-'■•""I'' Wh™ „„ 
 P'"'..l is put a, .h. Z t L" '""^'■'-"'■"•"■" ■'- sign or ,1„. 
 
 ■■ Man...™,,." ■•,!, t , '•• ""^ "'■ T"°'"""' "'I'"'"- 
 
 "■"' "- ■•" »^- Ji.::r: »:;::.::;?';:■';'■■'■'-■■ ""-• 
 
 -I. ..«.r. „ro„se.';„ce„. :;',:::::'„,„i,'T:;r ""' ^"-'>'- -'• ^ 
 
 '■<"■-■.■■■ •■ Te„ ,!W of .aHfe ■ •• "Twr/ , ''« )c-.r, arc four 
 •• Three /,„v of hor,e, • •■ • T i , '"""''''■A"*''" "f iron ; " 
 
 «.lin«„umera ""'"*•' " -"i'-"")- inJi^uU-d l,y ,|,e pre- 
 
'L.,Jl: 
 
 OK NOUNS 
 
 •59 
 
 yi 
 
 EXEECI8E 118. 
 
 (r)lCTAIIr.V KXEH.ISK.) 
 
 // n/r the tlural of tlw follou'in^r ,,,,„,, ._ 
 
 ( I ) I>c<T, Inmi. Krniisf. 
 
 U) A|)|,l,.. |»,,c|,. rose, Ix,,. |,„s|,. ^,„„ 
 
 (31 »x. chiUI, too, I,. B.H,»o, ,„o„„., „.„,„„„ 
 
 »"i™n:o;;r:;,;::t;:;;: •"•-"-■ ""•""-. «« v,t. 
 
 (9) Man-of-war. L'(M>s(>.niiiit ^. » 1 
 law. s,q>-son. forgeU,„e.nc.,. l,„.of.far.. look.r-on. knight-errl, 
 
 in ^^^\ '^^^ ''»»'^l— Wc say .. There are big fi.n 
 
 " he lake." usin,. fish in a plural, colleetive .sen^/ 
 
 ami we also speak of .-The story of the three /./J'' 
 
 rom this ,t appears that some nouns b ve two 
 plurals, whieh differ in meaning. The folloJn; 
 
 '*''""••'"•• Pinral. 
 
 bmther brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society). 
 
 cloth cloths (Of different kin<ls). clothes (garments). 
 tlH'S (for coming or stamping), dice (f„r play), 
 fishes (separate objects), f.sh (collectiv,.) 
 Ken.uses (persons of great ability), genii "(spirits). 
 •n«l«xes (,n books), indices (in algebra) 
 pennu-s (separate c.ins.. pence (sum of money), 
 shots («lisrharg.-s). shot (balls). 
 
 die 
 
 fish 
 
 genius 
 
 index 
 
 penny 
 
 shot 
 
 % 
 
i6o 
 
 THE I'AK IS OK SI'EKCH 
 
 »^, 
 
 
 f 
 
 £ZEBCIS£ lie. 
 Distinguish hctxvecn .— 
 I. How many shot (shots) did you count ? 
 a. The story tells of two genii (geniuses). 
 3. He gave the l)egg.,r six |)ennirs (|)ence). 
 4- He showed nie some new cloths (riothcs). 
 
 5. r have two handfuls (hands fullj of gold dust 
 
 6. He was always kind to h.s brothers (hrcthr.-n) 
 
 7. rwo .lice (di.s) wer. foun.l in the prisoners ,KK-ket, 
 
 8. He carnH two pailfnls (pails full) of water up , he lull 
 
 onVJn* ir^'"'''" y''""^^--«onie nouns of forei<,n 
 "njjm have pecttl.ar foreij^n plurals. In the ilx- 
 lowtnghst of such nouns, when two phtral fonns 
 
 Stnirular. 
 
 alumna 
 
 (feminine) 
 alunmus 
 
 (masculine) 
 analysis 
 animalculum 
 antithesis 
 bacterium 
 
 bamlit 
 beau 
 
 cherub 
 
 crisis 
 
 curriculum 
 
 datum 
 
 Plnral. 
 
 alumuie 
 
 alumni 
 
 analyses 
 animalcula 
 antitheses 
 bacteria 
 j bandits 
 ^ banditti 
 K beaus 
 ( beaux 
 j cherubs 
 ( cherubim 
 crises 
 curricula 
 data 
 
 HIniruIar. 
 
 formula 
 
 genius 
 
 hypothesis 
 memorandum 
 
 oasis 
 
 parenthesis 
 
 phenomenon 
 
 jfo 
 
 s 
 
 Plural. 
 
 formulas 
 )rnnda? 
 
 );eniuses(persons 
 ^ of great abiliiv ) 
 ' genii (spirits) 
 genus C'class') gciera 
 
 liypotheses 
 
 S niemorandum ; 
 
 ' memoranda 
 oases 
 
 parentheses 
 phenomcM.i 
 1 seraphs 
 ( seraphim 
 
 strata 
 
 tableaux 
 
 theses 
 
 seraph 
 
 stratum 
 tableau 
 thesis 
 
("V & «""<x^ K^l^^MMf'W' '-m 
 
 OF NOUNS 
 FXEmcISE 120. 
 
 i6i 
 
 J.*K.n..,„cno„. s.rn,,h. s.ra, :.n,. sy.mj.sis. ,af.|.au. '••"^♦•""'^'•"'. 
 
 2. II riti ' the sini:;ular of :— 
 
 EXEKCISE 121. 
 
 Co,,s/nutsr„fr„r,.s- n>ut.„„/„^- //,, ^/,,^^/ ^^ ,/,^ .,/ 
 
 niiiitttiti; : — J J" ""ir 
 
 rounttrW T •■"'•• """••;'"■""""• -''I--, hncrium. can,.,, 
 touri marti.il. crisis, nirru uliim. ,!.,tuni ,If „p„„^ i..,. ., . 
 
 T., ,ho 'IVi...!,,.,-. Tlu, .....rnv „,;,v l„. o.„.,„le.l a, ,li, 
 
 ::;::„:„r""-^' ■■"■""" ^ '■■■ ■ '>«- '„".v';: 
 
 114 I>IvI.1<kH ,«w,.._s„me sinffiilar no„„s |,K,k 
 ■ke plnrals. c. g;., ...dins;" „„,l „„„„, ,„„., „„„„.^ 
 
 are smgiilar m sense, e. g., •■ .noasles." In rcifar.! 
 
 to snch nouns cstom is .livi.lcl. treating them at 
 
 one t,me as s,„(,n,lars an,l at another as plurals. 
 The follownitf are sjenerally treated as singular- 
 
 amends, gallows, news, the T'ui.e.l .States, m2. 
 
 em,ities. opties. .ami other w„r,ls in •• -ies " excent 
 
 •• athleties." ,vhieh is oenerallv pl„r.-,l ' ' ' 
 
 The folhnving ,ire generalU- Ireate-I as plural- 
 
 ashes, as.sets, dregs, eaves, nuptials, cats, ^inee'rl; 
 
 III 
 
'^- THE PARTS OF SI'KECH 
 
 proceeds, riches, .scissors, shears, suds, ton^s 
 trousers, victuals, vitals. ' 
 
 For further information on cases of doubtful 
 usage a large dictionary must be consulted. 
 
 EZEBCISE 122. 
 
 //7//V// o///ii' ttalicizai forms is prv/crablc ? 
 
 1. The (Irt-gs was (were) bitter. 
 
 2. Klhics is {(ire) the science of duty. 
 
 3- The assets of thr .•o,„p.-,ny /.• (an) $223,000. 
 4. I'l«-ase pour //i/s (//„u) su<ls on the rose \m\. 
 5- Where did you get ////v i/A,sr) pretty scissors? 
 r*. Why wax //us (wen- M^r,) .ishes dumped here? 
 
 7. In many schools .-ithietics ,s Um) carried too far. 
 
 8. His riches Aas (/i„7'e) taken to //se// U/,ems,lv,'s\ wings 
 ^^^^^^9. Mathematics /. (are) harder for some persons than for 
 
 ground.''''' """ "^ ""^ '""" '' ^'"'^ '""'^'y -' ••♦'-ve the 
 Asylum'*"* '"'"'''''' "^ "'" '"'*"'' '"-(-'-» K'iven ,0 ,h.- Orphan 
 
 12 The United States Aas (have) inforn.e.l Spain of its {their^ 
 intention regarding Cuba. ' ' » 
 
 13. Politics, in //. (their) widest extent, /r („..) l,o,h the science 
 and the art of government. 
 
 ih //;/7''1'' ^ir*'"'' ""''' ^"^""''^ celebrated at the same tin,e as 
 that (those) of Bassanio and Portia. 
 
 EXERCISE 123. 
 
 Construct sentences i//ustratin^r the nuwber of the fol- 
 unvinxr nouns : — 
 
 amends news oats physics pincers she; 
 
 irs tongs trousers 
 
OF NOUNS 
 
 IV. <'AHK. 
 
 I6j 
 
 115. Case. T>t.fl,uMl.-Iu the sentence -John has 
 |r.ven Henry Annies peneil." eaeh of the four nouns 
 l>ears a peculiar relation to other words. Three of 
 them are related to the verb: '.John," as subject, 
 pencil, as direct object. -Henry." as indirect 
 object. -Annie's - is related to - pencil "by showin. 
 ownership— a relation indicated by the suffix - 's " 
 In Old English these relations were often indi- 
 cated, as in Latin and (ireek. by special forms of 
 he noun, called c.^.. After the Norman Conquest 
 hese fV>rms fell into disu.se. and nouns in modern 
 ^nghsh retain only one relic of them, namely, the 
 Unm^lye. With the single exception of the " "s" 
 denoting ownership or possession, the relation of a 
 noun to the other parts of a sentence is now shown 
 mainly by its position. 
 
 But though most of the forms have disappcarcl, 
 he names of some of them have 1«en retained 
 to denote relations which the forms used to show, 
 tor example m the sc.ntenee •■ John has given 
 Henry Ann.es pencil," we still say -John " is ,n the 
 Nominative ease, referring to its relation as sul.- • 
 jeet; and some grammarians say that •• Henry" is 
 m the /)«/,>.,. case, and •• pencil" in the Arn.s,,. 
 '-■': But since the dative and .iccusative eases 
 are now never distinct in form, most grammarians 
 merge them into „„c c.ise called the <).,j,..-,lve 
 
 Ayi;„/,„„ _The form of a noun or pronoun 'that 
 shows ,ts relation to other words is called ,w. 
 /J.M',,„.^ih^ fonn of a noun or pronoun 
 

 mM 
 
 164 
 
 THL I'Ak rs OK SI'KECH 
 
 !■ J 
 
 •i 
 
 BlV. 
 
 
 I 
 
 that shows the relation of .subject is called the 
 Nomlniitlvo C'ttMc. 
 
 DiJinitioH.—'nm form of a noun or pronoun that 
 shows |)ossession is called the iNm^i^ivo Ciuh>. 
 
 Difiiiitton, -The form of a noun or pronoun that 
 shows the relation of object is called the OLjoctlve 
 
 CttHC. 
 
 The nominative and ol)jfctivc cases of nouns. IninK always alike 
 in nuKlcrn English, might be- merged ,nt., one if it were not for 
 the fact that 11. pronouns these cases have clistintt forms as / 
 lielp ///>//. and he helps me. 
 
 The function of case forms may be well illustrated by reference 
 
 to a line from (iray's " EifL'v • " "Ami ■!! il... .;.. .. 1 •• 
 
 , ' *'"Ky- ■'^'"' •'" the air a solemn stillness 
 
 Holds. Critics cannot .ngree as to whether "air " or " stillness " 
 IS the subject of this scntencd; that is. whether the pcH:t meant th ,t 
 the air contained stillness or that stillness hehl fast the air In 
 I.atin or Creek 1 1 ere could l)e no doubt, because the form of the 
 words would shoH which was subject and which object. 
 
 110. Form of the PoshossIvo Cost'.— In the Six- 
 c;ULAR nui ibcr the possessive of nouns is formed, 
 as a rule, by. -ling- an apostrophe and ••s" ('s): 
 as, "The boys -.it." Often the pronunciation of 
 the added "s" n. ikes a new syllable. If this 
 addkional .syllable makes an unpleasant .sound, the 
 **s** is omitted, but the aiK>strophe is retained: 
 as, •' For goodness .sake." If the "s" is sounded, 
 it is always written ; and if it is written, it should 
 be pronounced in reading. The putting in or the 
 leaving out of the "s" in such cases is chiefly a 
 matter of taste. Whenever there is doubt it is 
 well to add the "s-.- as, -Horacvs odes," ^^ Char less 
 ball," ^^Dickcnss • David Copperfield.' " 
 
, *m 
 
 OK NOUNS 
 
 .6} 
 
 e..d" r/;-.?'"- """"*'• "hc-n the plural already 
 "4 st^^.. -;?''' •^" -.--ophc' alone (■/•;: 
 
 a Idmg the pro,K.r sign of the iK,ssessivc to the end 
 of the compound: as, - That is mv / '"^/-"^ 
 pony;" "This is th. /. ^ .^/-^/^r./z/./rttt;', 
 
 Wh ^ '"'"''' "-^ '' ''/'•^•^ palace. •• 
 
 When two or more iK-rsons possess a ihin,, i 
 common, the siLm «,f th ^ I>*'''*»^J»s a thing m 
 the hst n^mV . Possessive is attached to 
 
 tliclast name only: as. "John and Marys home " 
 
 s-gn of the possessive to eacli name : as. "Alice^ and 
 Jessies dresses." -fviict & anU 
 
 s stent. The weight of g,„K| ...^ ,,,^.„, 
 clme to ..anybocly else's- but, on the other hand 
 we usuaUy say ' • whose else. ' • ' 
 
 EXESCISE 124. 
 
166 
 
 THK I'AK IS OF SI'KECH 
 
 2. Write tfw possissivi- msv o/-^ 
 
 Chirleji, Dickens. DuuKlas. KKglcMoii & Co.. f.H her-in-law. 
 Krctk-rick the (irtat, llar|Mr & iJrothtrs. Henry ihc Klijhih. hU 
 wslcr Mary. James, Jones, man of-war. Miss Austen. 
 
 117. 1K><*UmimIoii. — \Vc arc now prepared to draw 
 up a scheme of the inflection of any English noun 
 for number and case : thus. 
 
 Xominative 
 i'oistssi'vc : 
 Object we : 
 
 Dijinition. — The inflection of nouns and pronouns 
 f(ir numlx-T and case, arranged in order, is callcil 
 
 I>t>clt>llMloil. 
 
 VViien we give the declension of a noun or a pro- 
 noun we are said to Doi'llno it. 
 
 HtniriilHi*. 
 
 IMiirnl. 
 
 MluytilHr. 
 
 IMiirMi 
 
 man 
 
 men 
 
 doK 
 
 llo^'N 
 
 man's 
 
 nitn's 
 
 dog's 
 
 (|0K»' 
 
 man 
 
 nicn 
 
 doj{ 
 
 <lo«H 
 
 EXEBCISE 125. 
 
 To the Tea<'hc»r.-Since the only tliflTicuhv in derlininjj 
 nouns lies in the writin|r of the possessive case, declension i,l.ould 
 always be a written exercise. 
 
 Decline the folUmnng itouns : — 
 calf deer Henry king monkey 
 
 child fox James lady mouse 
 
 ox 
 
 prince 
 
 princess 
 wolf 
 
 V. PERSON. 
 
 118. lVi>Mni. — In the sentence, " I, John, was in 
 the isle Patmos," John names the speaker; in 
 "John, please come here," John names the person 
 spoken to; in "John has come," John names the 
 person spoken of. 
 
 Definition. — The distinction bet A-ccn nouns or pro- 
 
B."m-^«^ 
 
 ^--•M I't 
 
 OF NOITNS 
 
 167 
 
 nouns as denoting tlie person spcakin^r. spoken to 
 or spoken of, is called Vvnnm. 
 
 Di'JiHttion.-^\ noun or pronoun that denotes the 
 person siK-akintr is in the v\mv in-ph^.,.. 
 
 JhjinitioN.—A noun or pronoun th..t denotes the 
 person or thintr sjx,ken to is said to J>e in the h^ummmI 
 
 IhJimtwn^K noun or pronoun that denotes a 
 person or thing si>oken <.f is in the Thim iv^mu,. 
 
 Nouns .10 nol ch-.n^r In form to .lr„o,e prrson ; .,„.| ,no„ „oun, 
 ar. ,n .h. ,h,n ,,.rso,.. Th. .lis.inc.ion ha» „„,x,runcc uuU 
 conncctionvMtl, pronouns and verbs. "■«:«*»'> mi 
 
 VI. CONHTRIJCTIONS. 
 
 llf». CoiiMtruetlon IH-fiinMl. -^ In the study of 
 sentences the most important question alK»„t a 
 noun or any other part <,f six,.ech. is its relation to 
 the other words of the sentence. 
 
 /Ayi/////,;,/. . -The relation .»f a word to the rest of 
 the sentence is called its CouHtiMu.tlon (Latin, •• pm. 
 tuig together "). * 
 
 1«0. ConHtruetlonH of NounH 8unimarlze«l._lf 
 
 we examine the constructions of the word "day" 
 in the following sentences, we shall find that a 
 noun may he used in fourteen different ways: — 
 
 1. SMbject of verb : The rt'.iK is p.ist .iml gone. 
 
 2. Attribuw au,,pi,,„ent : To-morrow is ,hc ap,>ointe(l day. 
 
 3- Object compitment : I've lost a //<,».. 
 
 4- Objectivramipiement. (;o(l called the light .Aiy. 
 5. Pmsasnv . Another .iay's work is done. 
 
!<• 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPF.F.CH 
 
 ail'ii 
 
 i*J 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 r. ^^W//,.Wvf.... rhr,/.,M.r«ri^,„ your hear,.. 
 
 9. <^4^>./ 0/prepouUoH. Rom. wa. no. bull. In a ,/.,. 
 
 N. r,.a/nv.. Come. ,/.y,. and cha,<. ,hc .hn.low, of .he nigh.. 
 U. l.MU,malioH: () happy ,/.,,/ Jhr b-uile", won 
 J3. AW>.,M..MWW., The ,/.^,.,., ,,,„y. ,; ..^^^„ ^^ 
 
 ^^J4. ^W.>./ .//./.,//..,. I con..Uere.l ,he ./.^ .o be unfavor- 
 
 Of these constnictions the first twelve need no 
 explanation l^.y^nd what has U-en .said in p 1^ 
 ^-^ pages. The last two require explanation""'. 
 
 iow:!;:::r:;:L'"""*^^^^---^^"^p^- ^^^^ ^^- 
 
 (<») I think Mrt/ ^,. /., konfU. 
 ih I think ^//// fo bf honest. 
 
 In W the object of •• think " is the clause "thit 
 he ,s honest," in which •• he " i.s the M.bjecTof the 
 verb .. ,.,; • m (*, the object of •. thinl< " is the phr s^ 
 •• h.m to be hones,," in which the objective ..him" 
 has the same relation to the infinitive '• to \^ " thit 
 the nominative .. he," in the correspon.Iinjj clause 
 has to the verb " is " « ' f Jm •• ♦», / • "'*" 
 ^\^^^x^ ^ ^' ^^^'refore. is called 
 
 the Suljjoot of the luflrltlve. 
 
 The subject uf an infinitive is always In the 
 objective case. ^ 
 
 Other examples are: 
 
■i. ^"▼vw.Jit 
 
 
 OK NOUNS ,^^^ 
 
 " lie onlrrcfl ft,,- fo m.Kv on." 
 
 "Tlu- iratlur mw k,r j.„r 
 
 " The ct,lo.ul conimandcl ihr 3,-/,/^v /., A- ^i,ri,^^.- 
 
 " lie clcclarril tA,m to A couneirriii." 
 
 l«a. X.»..ln«tlv.. AI,N,»l,i,.,._Comparc the f,.l- 
 lowinjf sentences: — 
 
 (rt) /r>*^/, M^yA, ,„„„ „„ „,. 1,^,,,,^^, ^ j.^^ 
 
 (^) AVc^/ r../////,^. o,,^ ^c l.g|,u-.| a lire. 
 
 m f'Ttn In (-„ the tunc .,f i|„. principal action is 
 verb came. In ,A, the connective •• when " h ,s 
 
 N Kill IS th.is left without anv cramnnlic-.l con 
 
 oe m the N.„„l,„„Iv,. AI,«..|„„. (Latin. •■ free -, 
 Other examples of the nominative ab.sohue are ':- 
 
 The .,„ being jnioolh. we weni (or .i i.ij| 
 
 llruce I.,,- .I„»„. hi, ^,„,, |,,.,„^| ,,^,^.^. ^. ^ ^^^^^^ 
 
 The „r„„,„y, |h.-,vi„^, |„,.„| ,„,„|,|,,e.|. v..e ,|„,h.„„|. 
 
 With 'co„"rc; J,':;:";";'"' "'""";"■ '""" ■"" '" ">■"" '•" 
 
 Ml)- hat blew off." -crossinL' " s^.nL T . <-•»'''""« 'h.- fnry. 
 
 •s not intendcl. "^ '"' '" '" '''"''^'^"' «" ' »'•-«•.' which 
 
IL..U. 
 

 MiaoCOfY MSOIUTION TBT CHART 
 
 (ANS ond ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 
 1^ 1^ 
 
 1^ 12.2 
 
 116 
 
 UO 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 ^ APPLIED IIVHGE 
 
 1653 East Moin Street 
 Rochester, New rork U609 u<;a 
 (716) 482 -0300 -Phone ^^ 
 
 (716) 288-5989 -Fox 
 
 Inc 
 
* 
 
 
 I70 
 
 Tin: PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 'tS* 
 
 ■■Tf'i- 
 
 EXERCISE 126. 
 
 CoNsfrinf snttnucs illustratin^r ,ach of the ways in 
 wnch uoHNS way he nsof. (// „• ,n>t uenssary to ns, 
 till same noun. ) 
 
 laa. TThos of the Nominative (nMo.-A noun is 
 said to be in the nominative case when it is— 
 
 1. Tlu.' subject of a vt-rl). 
 
 2. An attrihut.. . on.pK-ment. (Often railed a /m//..,/. «,„/« 
 or prtitiiiil,' ttoi>iiHiitn-i\ ) 
 
 3. A vocative. (( )ft(n calle.l nom/natnr 0/ aa./nsO 
 
 4. An exclar„ation. (Often called mm,nai/ve of exclamat/o,,.) 
 
 5. A nominative absolute. 
 
 '- '.I.J-„v. . .,se. ..n,.l forms of „,e verb- ,o I.e." which resemble .he J •'- .k" 
 I he same, ase after them as before- them. '= me s.^,,, _., ,.,ke 
 
 124. iTscs of the Objcotive Oaso.-A noun is 
 said to be in the objective ease when it is 
 
 1. A direct object. 
 
 2. An objective coiriplement. 
 
 3. An indirect object. 
 
 4. The object of a preposition. 
 
 5. An adverbial modifier. (Often called an adverbial objective.) 
 
 6. The subject of an infinitive. 
 
 12.5. Use of the Possessive Case.— It is some- 
 times a question whether to use the pos.sessive case or 
 a phrase bej^inning: with "of," i. e., whether to say 
 "Arnold's treason" or "the treason of Arnold." 
 The tendency of tlie best modern usage is to con- 
 
OF NOITNS 
 
 171 
 
 fine the possessive ease to nouns denotinj,^ livin- 
 bein^rs, and with them to use it only in instanced 
 of aetual or imajrined possession: as, " Anu)ld\s 
 sword," " the treason of Arnold." Yet some short 
 phrases, like "a week's waires." "a day's mareh " 
 ••a dollar's worth," " at death's door." -for pity's 
 sake," arc supported by the best usajre. With pro- 
 nouns still greater latitude is allowed. X„ „ne 
 hesitates to write "on our aeeount." "in my ab- 
 sence," "to their eredit," "for my sake." "in his 
 defense." 
 
 The possessive ease and a phrase introdueed by 
 "of "are not always exaet equivalents. Fur in- 
 stance. "John's story" means a story told by 
 John; but a "story of John " means a story about 
 John. 
 
 EXEECISE J 27. 
 
 Express relation bctzvccn the nouns in the folhncin}; 
 pairs by putting one of them in the possessive ease or by 
 using the preposition ^Uf as seems best from what you 
 hare /earner/ in Section 125. Give the reason /or your 
 choice : — 
 
 Witness, testimony; horse, hoof; the Speaker, public rertp- 
 tion; Dehnonico. restaurant; battleship Victoria, <lestruction • 
 Charles the Second. reij;n ; Henry the Eighth, wives ; teacher' 
 advice; Paris, siege; book, cover; princess, evening gowns! 
 Spain, navy ; Napoleon, banishment ; Napoleon, camp chest • 
 Demosthenes, orations; Webster, orations; gunpowder, unen- 
 tion; conscience, sake; general, horse; cat. claws; enemy 
 repulse; Great Britain, army ; Ceneral Cronje. capture; mountain, 
 top; summer, end. 
 
^7^ 
 
 THE PARTS OF SI'KKCH 
 
 • lis. 
 
 EXERCISE 128. 
 
 Distini^uisli bctiVicn t/n /oiiowiii^ : — 
 
 1. Mother's love. Love uf iiiolhcr. 
 
 2. A sister's care. Care of a sister. 
 
 3. Kthfl's ilra\viii<r. A drawing of Ethel. 
 
 4. Charles am! Harry's toys. Charles's and Harry's fovs. 
 
 5. Lord Rolnrts's rcioptioii. The rtreptioii of Lord Rob- 
 
 6. Lei me ti II you a story of Doctor lirown. Let mc tell you a 
 story of Doctor Brown's. 
 
 180. Double PossoksIvc — Tlic .sentence, "Let 
 me tell yen a .story of Doctor lirown's," con- 
 tain.s a f/oi/fi/c /ossfssini'' of doctor Brown's"), in 
 which we u.se both the po.s.se.ssive ease, after the 
 manner of Old Rnirlish, and the prepo.sition "of." 
 after the manner of Norman-Freneh. Though this 
 double po.s.sessive cannot be logically justified, it is 
 nevertheless recognized by the best writers as good 
 English. Moreover, it is often convenient ; as when 
 it enables us to di.stingui.sh between "a .story of 
 Doctor Brown" and "a story of Doctor Brown's." 
 Other examples are : — 
 
 That boy of yours. 
 
 A friend of my brother's. 
 
 O speak good of the Lord, all ye works of his. 
 
 137. Case In Apposition. — Nouns in apposition 
 are said to be in the same case. But when the 
 nouns are in the possessive, the sign of pos.se.ssion 
 is u.sually attached only to one of them: as, "Jack 
 the (riant Killer's boots." 
 
OF NOINS 
 
 »7J 
 
 lsi8. HuliMthiiti'M for \«.niiM.— Words <.r jrroiips 
 i>i words that arc nut conimuiily to be cla.sscd as 
 nouns arc often used substantively in the construc- 
 tions of nouns, as follows; — 
 
 (1) Pronoun. / svc //////. 
 
 (2) Aiijcitive: I did xw^ best. 
 
 (J) Aih'irb: .Xmo is the accf|)te(l time. 
 
 (4) JnfmiliVi- : To ddoy is fatal. 
 
 (5) Phrase: 'Ay, ay, sir!" burst from a lliousami thruats. 
 
 (6) Clausr : What you want is not here. 
 
 ia». ll<»w t«» I»ai'sc NomiH.— When we descril)e a 
 word as it stands in a sentence, we are .said to i»a,>.,. 
 It. To jxirse a word we must give a description of 
 its class, form, and use. 
 
 To par.se a noun wc must give its — 
 
 (0 Cl.-iss. 
 
 (2) (lender. 
 
 (3) Number. 
 
 (4) Construction. 
 
 (5) Case. 
 
 EXEECISE 129. 
 
 Parse the nouns in the following selections : 
 
 I. 
 A Farkwell. 
 I\Iy fairest child, I have no song to jjive you; 
 
 No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray; 
 Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave you 
 For every day. 
 
 Be good, sweet maid, and Kt who will be clever ; 
 
 Do noble things, not dream them, all day long; 
 And so make life, death, and th.it vast forever 
 
 One -rand swcei Song. —Charles Kini^r^lcy, 
 
 "1 
 
m 
 
 IHL I'AR IS OK SI'l i:cH 
 
 II. 
 
 KVKNINC IN I'AKAIMSK. 
 
 Now came sl.ll KveninK' on. a.ul Twihyht jiray 
 Had III her solKT livery all thiiiys i|.,.| ; 
 Silence accompanieil ; for Uast and bird 
 1 hey ,o their grassy cuch. these to ihei^ nest,. 
 \Vfrc slunk, all '.ut the wakeful n.«htinKale • 
 She- all n.yhl lonji her amorous descant su,J • 
 Silence was pleased. Now glowe.l the firman.ent 
 With hving sapphires; Hesperus, that led 
 IMc starry host, rode l.riKhtest. till the moon. 
 Kisinjr in cloude.i majesty, at leiij-th 
 
 Apparent (|ueen. unveiletl he.- |)eerless light 
 
 And oer the dark her silver mantle threw • ' 
 
 When Adam thus to Kve : •• Fair consort, 'the hour 
 
 "f night, and all things now retired to rest. 
 
 Mind us of like repose, since (iod hath set ' 
 
 Labor and rest, as day and night, to men 
 
 Successive; and the timely dew of sleep. 
 
 Now falling with soft slumberous weight, inclines 
 
 Our eyelids. Other creatures all day long 
 
 Rove idle, unemployed, and less need rest , 
 
 Man hath his daily work of body or mind ' 
 
 Appointed, which declares his dignity. 
 
 And :he regard of Heaven on all his ways; 
 
 While other animals unaclive range, 
 
 And of their doings God takes no account." 
 
 —Milton : " Paradise Lost." 
 
 ^W 
 
 ■ 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 ■ 
 
 CIIAITICR IV 
 
 • 'I' I'koNoUNS 
 
 A Pronoun is a word used to stand for a noun (hi). 
 The noun for which a pronoun stands is called 
 its AntectjUeMt. 
 
 I. PERSONA r. PIlOXOl^XH. 
 130. PorHonal PfononnH IvIIntMl.— Examine the 
 pronouns in the fonowini,^ sentence: — 
 
 / liavc lost ///v pencil ; please- lend >/n- yours till you need // 
 yourst/f. 
 
 "I." "my." and "me" stand for the person 
 speakinjr, and cannot be used to refer to the person 
 spoken to or spoken of. -You," "yours," and 
 "yourself" stand only for the person spoken to. 
 ** It " is used only for a thing spoken of. 
 
 Ayf;////V;//.— Pronouns that distinguish between 
 the person speaking, the person spoken to, and the 
 person or thing spoken of are called Pei>K>nal 
 Pronouns. 
 
 Personal pronouns are so called, not because they stand fc. per- 
 sons, but because they mark grammatical i)erson (118). 
 
 £X£BCIS£ 130. 
 
 Point out the personal pronouns in Exercises 20 and 
 38, and tell of each li'hether it stands for the person 
 speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing 
 spoken of If It stands for the person or thing spoken 
 of give its antecedent. 
 
1 
 
 -'".^^ 
 
 •76 
 
 TMK lAK IS OF SI'F.KCII 
 
 H i the blanks with personal pn.nouns rcprcscnlin.r 
 a boy speaking. ^.>) a ^irl speaking., and note the 
 differences, if there are any: — 
 
 know Mary. \f.„y kn.nvs . Marv k 
 
 The pen she is usi„« is ^ " "^"'""• 
 
 Fill each of the followin^^ blanks with a pronoun 
 representing the speaker and some others :-- 
 
 love Carlo. Carlo lovch . Carlu i« i 
 
 he is '* ''"«• Vcs. 
 
 You observe that personal pronouns of the first 
 person are not infleeted to denote gender, sinee the 
 sex of the person speaking is always suppo.sed to be 
 ki^wn ; but they are infleeted to show number and 
 
 'labulating the forms used in fdling the blanks. 
 we find that the personal pronoun of the first per- 
 son is thus declined:— ^ 
 
 Nomhtathw 
 
 Posscssii'e : 
 Objective : 
 
 Sirn;iilar. 
 I 
 
 my, mine 
 me 
 
 riiir.il. 
 
 we 
 our, ours 
 
 US 
 
 These forms .re really fragments of .liUerenl word, a„,l „„, 
 .rue ,„„ec..,o„,. „„, ,„ev ser>e ,l,e s..,„e purpose as infl™: , 
 I IS always written as a capital letter. 
 The pUiral forms represent, not two or more speakers but the 
 speaker anci others for whom he speaks. Sometin is thc^'a^ u e, 
 l)> an echtor or a sovereign to refer to himself alone : as. 
 
 EniTOR : We are sure we voice th. sentiments of the people 
 KING DUNCAN : This castle hn.h a pleasant seat ; the air 
 Nnnbiy and sweetly recommends itself 
 Unto (Utr gentle senses 
 This is called the •• editorial - or " majestic " use of n>e. 
 
OF J'RONOrNS 
 
 •77 
 
 EXEKCISE 131. 
 
 Construct St'Mtfmrs nmtainini^ the diffvri tit forms of 
 tlw personal pronouns of the Jirst person. 
 
 13tf. rcrm>nal l*r<>iu»unM oftlio Hecoiul IVrnoM.— 
 
 In the followinjr selections examine the pronouns 
 that stand for the persons spoken to:— 
 
 HrHI.ICAK. 
 
 SiM^ru/„r. Rejoice, () youn« man, in t/iy youth; nm\ l«'t t/,v 
 hcarl thecr t/iee in the days of thy youth, and walk in the ways of 
 ttiine heart, and in the sight of t/iim- eyes hni know t/iou, thai for 
 all these thing;, (,od will bring t/wf into judgnit-fX. 
 
 I'/iini/. )V stand this day ;dl of you before tlu- I.oid your (lod. 
 . . . Blessed are^.' poor, for r<'«;ji is the kingdom of (iod. 
 
 FOKIIC. 
 Singular. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean— roll! 
 Ten thousand fleets sweep over ///<v in vain ; 
 Man marks the earth with ruin — his control 
 Stops with the shore;— upon the watery plain 
 The wrecks are all thy deed. 
 * ♦ ♦ * 
 
 Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow.— 
 Such as creation's dawn beheld, ///«;// rollest now. 
 
 Plural. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with /<;« once again. 
 
 ORDINARY PROSE. 
 Sint^^ulur. Young gentleman, your spirit is too l>old for your 
 years. I pray you, give over this attempt. It requires greater 
 strength than^t?//rj. 
 
 Plural Come early, girls; and \{ you feel like W.hr'xn^ your 
 mandolins; I want to h^nr you play. 
 
 These selections show that the pronouns used to 
 represent the person spoken to differ according to 
 the character of the language employed, in the 
 
Mi 
 
 Ml 
 
 i 
 
 >7» 
 
 TlIK lAKisof .sii:t;cii 
 
 i).bl....l and p,K..tK.al pa,.v,Kc-.s they arc. f..r the 
 ^'W.A.^ •• .h,m, • .. thy," .. thine," ami ..thee " .e 
 <.-.r.l,nK • . Ihe ea.se; f.,r the //„.„/, .. .., •■ ,''.••'': 
 ••yo«r.s,"a„cI..y.H," In the ..nlina ; .r„i :L 
 
 »«c« they are. f„r both «„,.,/„. „,„/ ;>/!/, .^Z-' 
 •your, and -yours." There is no inll eli.m ;, 
 
 denote render, beeanse the .se.x of the ,>er.so" L' 
 o ,s presnntably always known. Ta(,ul,ui„ 'these 
 
 forms, we may say that the .^..sonal pronoun of 
 
 'he seeond iwrson is thus declined :_ 
 
 BlbllfHl Ulltl I'iMltlu. 
 
 Xominativf , 
 Posse ssiff : 
 
 Sinfiilar. 
 
 Ihuu 
 
 thy, ihine 
 
 thee 
 
 i'lu.ul. 
 
 ye 
 
 your, yours 
 
 you 
 
 OrilliiHry. 
 
 •SiriKiilar ami IMiir .1. 
 
 you 
 
 your, yours 
 
 you 
 
 The forms marked " nibhr il nwl i» -. •• 
 "<)r(linarv" forms l.w ""''"•;'/""' ' '>ct'c were once the 
 
 -.Kutr fo; s r u e Hn T ■ " '"' 'T ''•""' ^"-'^ ''^- 
 "r sup,.riori,y ■ .heirn '1 T'''"*'^' "' ••'""^■^•'""•"c i"<i'"acy 
 
 nIurarfor.„s' ' 'nl S e^n 1^ '''"" °^ "=''^^'^' ^"""'oy-' 'f^' 
 now .. .hou." .. thy" ' t T'Tn 7- ' k" • °"^" *''"' ^'^'^"»^'^'-- """' 
 nary conversation exceth '' '■"'^' "° '«"K^''' "'^"l in onli- 
 
 "Ye"hL. . ' ^y '"<-''"''ers of the Society of Friends 
 
 ve has Iwen ( isn aced hv •• im, •• .k. i . mends. 
 
 naliv, and objcc.ivi (137, Not") ""^ " '■""''"""■' »' """•'■ 
 
 taken Edi.h ■• ,nu, ■■ You .,.,„ ■■,. ' ' ^"" '""'' "'«■ 
 
 EZEBCISE 132, 
 
 Constnu, sn,t,„c,s containing i/.„sc forms of tk.- 
 
 ordinary aiscoursi'. 
 
i''fii]"f!Jii 
 
 ■111 JiF 
 
 •»K I'KONol N'S 
 
 ro 
 
 i:»;i. IVi>MiMiil IMinHMifiMor thoThlni IVrnoii. -- 
 
 Kill the blanks witi, |K.r.s«»naI |.ron.mns represent, 
 injr ^,) a Ix.y spoken of. ^2; a girl sjj^.ken of. (j) a 
 tree s{K>ken of: — 
 
 i% ten yrarn ol.l. | .|o not know height. I .,f,en un 
 
 lo sec . *• 
 
 Fill the blank in the fo! .winjr sentenec with a 
 pron..un referring to (i) a boy spoken of, (j. a girl 
 spoken of: — 
 
 This fjook is . 
 
 Fill the blanks in the following sentences with 
 pronouns representing ( i) tw<. or more boys sjx.ken 
 of, {2) two or more girls s|H,ken of. (3; two or more 
 trees spoken of: — 
 
 arc «a(h ten years ol< 
 
 often iio to see . 
 
 I. I «l«» not know heights. I 
 
 Fill the blank in the following sentence with a 
 pronoun referring to ( 1 ) two or more boys spoken 
 "f, (2) two or more girls spoken of : — 
 
 These books are -. 
 
 You observe that personal pronouns standing for 
 persons or things spoken of vary with gender 
 number, and case. Tabulating the forms used m 
 filling the blanks, we find that the personal pro- 
 nouns of the third person are thus declined:— 
 
 I^'omhiaih't' : 
 Objtcth't- : 
 
 Masculine. 
 he 
 his 
 
 — StiiKnlnr. — 
 
 Keniinine. 
 
 she 
 
 Neuter. 
 
 it 
 
 -IMiirttl.- 
 
 All (ienilrr',. 
 
 they 
 
 her, hers 
 
 its 
 
 their, theirs 
 
 him 
 
 her 
 
 it 
 
 the 11 
 
lik} 
 
 Till. PAKTS OK SI'KIX'M 
 
 I 
 
 H 
 
 .1IIHC ni<i Was .Uv the iHtH^rMivr nf •• l.« •• f 
 
 "'-" '"- "'■ •"> ^- 'on---::, in.:^::::::";: !■,:::• 
 
 £Z£BCIS£ 133. 
 
 r../i.r/r//r/ .1,7//,,/,., , .;«/,!/ ;,,;;,, //,, Mff.rn,! forms of 
 t/ii Personal pronoum of t/u third person, 
 
 134. H|H.c.|,ii irH«.H or "rt.- The pronoun "if 
 has a variety of s|)ecial uses: — 
 
 (I) As suhstitnt, for n ,^roHp of words : as. 
 
 1 »>eartl that ^. n.M MV«^/^^ |,ui I .l,,!,,-, |,^iievc //. 
 {2) As impersonal subjiit (tfH) : as, 
 Is// wi-ll with thee? 
 // has In-cn raining. 
 
 (3) As impvrsonal object : as, 
 They rougheel // for two weeks. 
 
 Thy mistress leads thee a «' g"s hfc of //. 
 
 (4) As an cxplt'tivi' (ai>) : as, 
 
 What pain // was to drown .' 
 How is /■/ that you conic so srwn ? 
 
 EXEBCISE 134. 
 
 Dcscrihc the use of the pronoun " it" in eaeh of the 
 JolloiK'ini:: sentences : — 
 
 hav 
 
 •■ ' won-t K'o.an<l that's an end of//. 2. n is excellent to 
 - a gunts strength, but // is tyrannous to use// hke a giant. 
 
t»K TKONOC NS 
 
 iXi 
 
 J. There wan no,|„„g for // t„„ ,., ,. t,„„. 4. t:.,,,,,. aii.l 1..,, // .., 
 y'»iKO. 5 H- tl.Mrv..| lii> j,uriisliiiu.ni..ui.| h. kiifw // (, | / 
 far tu LumloM? 7, |..»w.lH,rn inr.. hk- to I .,.| // our ."h.Jr mle- 
 rior». 8. /tu I. 9. I sull light // out .... ilu', hne ,1 // i.»kri, ,|| 
 »u...n..r. i«, // w.ll MKm link., t. n. 1 ,. Tl.cy footed // thr.,Miil, 
 Ihc streets, U. //Ugniwingdafk (..%!. 
 
 I.IA. rN«.« of I ho ViwmH^u,, 1 orm^.— Kach r.f the 
 IKTsonal pronouns except " ho ' aiul "if has two 
 IK)ssessives in each ntimlxr: namely " mv " 
 -mine." ••our." ".ums;- .-ihy.- - ^\un^\" ..y,,,,'/- 
 ••yours;" -her." "hers;" -liKir." •• theirs " 
 
 "My," "our." "thy." "your." "her." ami 
 ••their' are always foll.,wccl l,y nouns in.licaliuK 
 the thin^^ pos:;esse«I: as. ".?/,- new sled." 
 
 In Hiblieal an.l iv)etieal lanjruaire "innu> " aii.l 
 ••thine "are used l>efore nouns beginniui,^ with a 
 vowel sound or " h:" as, 
 
 " If tAim- rnrmy hun^rr. f.-t-d hun." 
 "Stretch forth t/iin. hand." 
 
 In ordinary discourse " mine " and " thine." and 
 the forms endin^r in "s" (" ours." " yours." " i,c*rs." 
 "theirs"), are never f.»llowed by nouns, but ai'e 
 used only as substantives. They represent both 
 the ix)ssessor and the thinjr possessed, and are 
 equivalent to a noun in the nominative or the ob- 
 jective case modified by a possessive: as. "This 
 book is mine" {\. e.. "my book"); ^^ Yours (i. c. 
 ••your book") is on the table." "His" is often 
 used in a similar manner. 
 
 C'!mtlon.-No apostiophc is used in writing the possessive 
 case ui protiouns. 
 

 183 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 EXERCISE 135. 
 
 Construct stntaurs containing the possessive forms 
 oj lach of the personal pronouns, both singular and 
 plural, and tell hoxo each form is used. 
 
 130. Uhos of tho jS^omliiatlvo Forms.— The nom- 
 
 inative forms of personal pronouns ♦« I " •' we " 
 
 "thou." -he.- -she." "they '-are used mainly 
 in the following constructions : 
 
 ]■ ffjffto/a verb: as, "/am young." •• fF^ are coming;" 
 J/e fell ; " S/w laughed ; " " 77/,7 live in New Orleans." 
 
 2. Attribute compiemetit : as. "Is it /.?""It was not we-" 
 " Was it he? " " I think it was she .- " '• No. it was t/iejf." 
 
 J-Uc^/f, OH. --The a»rib.ite complement of the infinitive /o he is in the ohjtctirt 
 rase If the infinitive has a subject: as, " lie knew it to lie me" {1«3). 
 
 3. Vocative: as. "Qthou who hearest prayer." 
 
 4. Nominative absolute: as. " He being there, we said nothine 
 about it." * 
 
 137. Uses of the Objective Forms.— The objec- 
 tive forms of the personal pronouns " me," "us " 
 
 " thee," " him, " " her," " them,"— are used mainly 
 in the following constructions: 
 
 1. Direct object: as. " Help us, O Lord." 
 
 2. Indirect object: as, " Give me your hand." 
 
 3. Object of preposition : as. " Show it to them." 
 
 4. Subject of infinitive : as. " Did you see him fall? " 
 
 Exclamations.— \n exclamatio.is either the nominative or the 
 objective is used : as, " O. unhappy I ! " " O, wretched me ! " 
 
 NOTK.— In the middle of the sixteenth century the distinction 
 between the nominative and the objective began to break down 
 and " me," " thee." " us." " you." " him," " her." and " them " were 
 often treated as nominatives. In the case of " ye " and " you " 
 
OF I'KONOUNS g 
 
 The case of "you " and -ii." which h.v,. il, ,'"y- 
 
 ^.h „„,„i„atlv. a,„, „bj„c,lve, mu« bt deCr „ Lri r" "" 
 siructiou. "»-'cimineu iroiij the con- 
 
 EXERCISE 136. 
 
 , i^^irctsi 3»; /// hxcrcise 74. 
 EXEECISE 137. 
 
 To tho Teacher.-In order that both eye and ear may be 
 
 blanks ,n lus and s.m.lar exercises have been filled, to write on the 
 
 7Z ''?""' '' *-''"' ''"''"'^ "■""'^''^' ^"^ '° have them read 
 
 aloud again and again. 
 
 Another helpful exercise to tlu- same end is to Kt pupils repeat 
 rapidly such forms as ■■ It is I." •• It is he." •■ It is she ; •' ' • ,t is'^^^ot 
 ^N^-. •' It IS not they ; " - Is it I ? " etc.. using in succession differn.t 
 nommat.ve forms, and the affirmative, interrogative, and ne-^itive 
 forms of the verb. '^ 
 
 Insert the proper form of pronoun in each blank, and 
 give the reason for your choice : 
 
 I. /, me. 
 
 1. Who will go.? . 
 
 2. He is taller than . 
 
 3. She knew it to be . 
 
 4- He is not so old as . 
 
 5. Wait for Helen and . 
 
 6. She knew that it was . 
 
 7. She will come, and too. 
 
 8. You and will go together. 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
1 84 
 
 THK I'ARTS OK Sl'EECH 
 
 9. May Aiinir .Mul -go home? 
 
 10. It was - th.it j;ave the alarm. 
 
 11. If you were , would you j^o? 
 
 12. Will you go with John and ? 
 
 13. Jessie gave Koy and a kitten. 
 
 14. She let Annie and come home. 
 
 1 5. Yes, you and were both invited. 
 
 16. It makes no difference to you or . 
 
 17. She invited you and to go driving. 
 
 18. Everyone is going except you and . 
 
 19. The kite was made for Harry and . 
 
 20. Father expects you or to meet him. 
 
 21. Iktween you and , he is losing his mind. 
 
 22. Which do you think is the older, Carrie or ? 
 
 23. When you saw Mary and , we were walking home. 
 
 24. Dr. Holmes shook hands with the girls, anjong the rest, 
 
 II. fF"t', us. 
 
 1. He knew it was . 
 
 2. He knew it to be . 
 
 3. It was whom you saw. 
 
 4- I'oys are going swinmiing. 
 
 5. They play golf more than . 
 
 6. They know that as well as . 
 
 7. Everybody was late except . 
 
 8. Our parents are wiser than . 
 
 9. The Smiths are going, and too. 
 
 10. The Browns, as well as , are invited. 
 
 11. It isn't for such as to ride in coaches. 
 
 12. That is new doctrine among Canadians. 
 
 13. He took a picture of girls sitting in the boat. 
 
3- 
 
 4- 
 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 8. 
 
 9- 
 lo. 
 
 l(. 
 12. 
 
 >3. 
 
 '4- 
 
 '5 
 1 6. 
 
 '7. 
 1 8. 
 
 19. 
 20. 
 
 OF I'KONOCNs 
 
 "r. He, him. 
 
 I knew it was . 
 
 ' kfRw it to he . 
 
 Was it you saw? 
 
 • It must have hceii . 
 
 that is idle, reprove. 
 
 His sister is darker than . 
 
 If I were . I wouldn't jjo. 
 
 Whom can I trust, if not ? 
 
 and James played together. 
 
 Let who cat, answer this question. 
 
 W l.at were you and — talking about ? 
 
 Was It who objected to our going ' 
 
 To William and belongs all the credit. 
 
 It makes no difference to either you or 
 
 I shook hands with all. among the rest' 
 
 X-' many could have played as well as 
 
 Have you ever seen Fred and _ together .^ 
 
 What else can you expect from such as ^ 
 
 There .sn't much difference between you an,l __ 
 — that overcometh w.II I ,„ake a pillar in the temple 
 
 185 
 
 U 
 
 IV. She, her. 
 
 1. I am stronger than . 
 
 2. It was or her mother. 
 
 3- I wouldn't go if I were , 
 
 4- and Constance sang a duet. 
 
 5- Was it that came yesterday > 
 
 6. When will you and come again? 
 
 7. Father told you and to stay here 
 
 8- I invited them all, anmng the rest 
 
 9. With Edith and — I have no trouble' 
 ^o. Grace and n,et at a dancing school. 
 
 i .^.- 
 
l86 
 
 ! ! 
 
 I I 
 
 I i 
 
 ii 
 
 II. 
 
 12. 
 
 «3 
 
 ' i- 
 
 «5- 
 1 6. 
 
 «7- 
 18. 
 
 ii> 
 
 3- 
 4- 
 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 7- 
 8. 
 
 9' 
 lo. 
 II. 
 
 12, 
 
 13 
 14 
 
 THE PARTS OF Sl'KECH 
 
 Vtry few ^irls c.ui play as well as . 
 
 Wh.it can yuu cxprct from sinh as ? 
 
 I suppostd the lall, st.itrly 'uly was . 
 
 I supposed the tall, st.ilely lady to be . 
 
 Wliat is the trou!)le between you and ? 
 
 Gills like you and should know Iwt'er. 
 
 Everybody came except anil her brother. 
 
 H.ive you ever seen S.irah and together ? 
 
 Father is afraid to let you or drive the colt. 
 
 V. T/tty, i/uin. 
 It was — . 
 
 It must have been . 
 
 We are not so poor as . 
 
 I know it to h.ivi; been . 
 
 I n»'"cr saw Guy and together. 
 
 — ' :at talk must stay after school. 
 
 that (;dk I will keep after school. 
 
 It isn't for such as to dictate to us. 
 
 . None so blind as that will not sec. 
 
 Let nont touch it but that are clean. 
 
 Their opponents were heavier than . 
 
 It makes no difference to either you or . 
 
 It could not have been . for were at home. 
 
 Few school-teachers could have done as well as — 
 
 138. Use of Gender Forms.— In the very nature 
 of things pronouns should be of the same gender 
 and number as the nouns for whieh they stand. 
 The followinp :uliar uses of gender forms require 
 special menu ,iOH, lOO): — 
 
 I. Words like/n'«/ and c7///^/. which apply to both male and 
 female objects, are referred to by the neuter pronouns " it " and 
 " its " when the object named is thought of as a mere thing, the sex 
 
OF I'KONOUNS ,^, 
 
 f>cing unknown or unimportant • is •• k'in,r \ft i . i 
 reached oui //« litrk- h.uicl,.' »""».". IhccliiM 
 
 ^■^z'Xr^z ;;"" ^"'T "•'"^" ■"'* •" '■"■•■ ■"••■• -<i 
 
 . ";;. , ,:•"•" ""- '-- '■■ -"i.i.aLo ,i,.,„„ ,;, „ ' ; 
 
 3- Sometimes animals arc referre.l i,. I». .. i, •• 
 wl.. .. no „is,i„c„„n „f .,e, i, i„, ' , ' ^J^.-Z T" "'" 
 >'"<= pronoun is „se,l if ,1,^. ,„.,,.„ , " '"■'-'"• 
 
 ■"■■'-uline „u.,li,ie,, such t l^Z'Z^Z Tf '" ""'^'■^' 
 n-nn. H .he speaker ,„ink, ,h,. anin, a i ::;,':, ;■'"'"'"''. ""- 
 snch as .in,i.li,y, g,.„.lenoss. K,an,,,l " "re • r , '''■ 
 
 s.ie.,„y on /,/,„,,,■■ ••The hare r::;';!;;;.",,,,,.""- "'" ^'^•■* 
 
 ren,arl<al,le for J u,v 1,™ i '' '"•■""'"'"'" I'™'"""" ■ >'">^ 
 
 .-• - ^- Jr :rs::r;i::; :7:- ---y .,.h. 
 
 EXERCISE 138. 
 
 1. Rcvic7i* Exercise ii6. 
 
 2. /'/// r^./, /v^„/. ,.;>/, a pronoun, ami ^ire the rea 
 son for Us gender .•— '^ '^'^^ 
 
 1. Every author has faults. 
 
 2. A writer shoul.1 be careful with — pronouns 
 
 3. Ven.ce sat in state, throned on hundred isles 
 
 5. ^ mter had l.und the lakes and rivers fast in _ icy ,.,.„ 
 deli^Jmur^"""'"' ^'""^ f-n— laue throat tloods 1; 
 
 ^fl 
 
iHH 
 
 THK PARTS OK SPEECH 
 
 ' I 
 
 7. The " Orcanic " is a hugv stranxr. is lonjjcr ihan the 
 
 "Great Eastiin. " 
 
 8. A calf can (hstinguish mothers lowing' from that of a 
 
 hundred other cows. 
 
 9. When a eat conirs near a Hjjht contracts and elon- 
 gates the pupils of e-yes. 
 
 10. The polar hear suffers so much froin heat that cannot 
 
 live lonjj hi warm climates; therefore is seldom se«n in 
 
 menageries. 
 
 'sH 
 
 ■ 
 
 i;i!». Vho of NnmlK^r Forms. — Difficulties in the 
 use t)f the number forms of personal pronouns arise 
 mainly in connection with such expressions as 
 "anybody," "everybody," "each," "either," 
 " neither," and " nobody." Such expressions, in 
 spite of the comprehensive meaninj"^ of .some of 
 them, arc {^grammatically singular ; and in literary 
 English they are referred to by singular pronouns: 
 as, "If anybody calls, ask ////// to wait." If the 
 writer con.sidered n Terence to sex worth while, he' 
 would .say, "ask ////// or //rr to w\ait." Ordinarily, 
 however, he would use "him" only, taking for 
 granted the application to women. 
 
 In collo<iuial English such expressions as "anybody," "ever)-- 
 body," "each." "cither," etc., are referred to by the genderless 
 plurals "they." " their." " them: " as, "If .anybody calls, .ask 
 //it-m to wait." This usage is partly an attempt lo find a pro- 
 noun th.-it will stand for both "he" and " she," and partly a 
 reflection of the comprehensive meaning of "anybody," "every- 
 body," etc. It is shunned by those who have an ear for gram- 
 matical .accumcy. 
 
 • N'lite the :iiitlior's iinconsrioiis ihp of " he '' to refer t" " writer," which here in- 
 L'iulJc^ ill its iiieuiiiiig wui'ieii as weli u-. iiicii. 
 
¥'f'} 
 
 Ol I'KoNoi \s 
 
 189 
 
 EXERCISE 139. 
 
 1. Kach must take turn. 
 
 2. Anyone can do this if-- ,ri,.s. 
 3- M.i.sev,ryon«- fmislie.I — work? 
 
 4. J-»'«'ryjri,ican(lotl.isif _ ip,., 
 
 5. Kach .lay an.l each hour l,nn,s 1 own duty 
 ^>. I-..hc-r M.,ry or Li/zic- w.ll Icn.l you —,,,„,,,, 
 
 7.I^ch,,upi.wa.r..,uc.,.,,onanu._,.,o,^^ 
 
 «. rolKH.IyevoryI,o.lyisHo<,u..n,atI..as,oncoin.--.,ir.. 
 
 9. Man an.... n,an passe.1. ..arry.n, - go.f H..l>s ui.h --1 
 10. I-.u-h,.f,h,..irls„urrie-,lw.ll.;„ |,. ,s, :„ 
 If r-.<h ,.f .1 ... ..«ii..isiin own opinion. 
 
 sci,::, ,!,'!;:;;;;'""• — '^"°°' '"""'■' "■> — '- ... k.-,. i., 
 
 .he winr'S' Sp™" """ ""' ~ """' '" •^" "'-- -™.™' "' 
 
 14- Whoso kcopeth mouth m.l 
 
 soul from troubles. '""«'""• '^''*'P''"> 
 
 15- Kverybody believes the wo, 1,1 is v.a,chi„.r , » 
 
 17- The man an.l his wife were both jlu-m- 1 . ■ > 
 tell what had seen.' "'■'""'■ ''°"''' 
 
 140. Compound Po,^,onal Pronouns. 
 
 the form and uses of the italieized 
 following- .sentenees: 
 
 «"!.'•• t-'-i^cZ-'or-'S"^ "' "''- ■^"""" ^»'-«" according as w 
 
 Rxamine 
 pronouns in the 
 
 f'. 
 
 ••fill I he blank 
 
I9» 
 
 THF. I'ARTS i)t SPKKCH 
 
 I 
 
 1 I 
 
 (a) She herself told me. 
 
 (h) We saw the Quten herself. 
 
 (< ) FIc cut himulf, 
 
 (*/) I'hey thirtk too much of themselvei. 
 
 Yon observe that "herself." "himself." and 
 "thiinselves" are formed from personal pronouns 
 by addinjr the words "self" or "selves;" and that 
 they are used {n, b) for emphasis, or (r. ,1) after a verb 
 or preposition to refer baek to the subject of the 
 verb. 
 
 Dcfiintion,~K pronoun formed from a personal 
 pronoun by addinjr "self" or "selves" is called a 
 C'oinpoiiiKl IVrNonnl Pronoun. 
 
 Definition.— K compound personal pronoun used 
 after a verb or a prepositiim to refer back to the 
 subject of the verb is called a lloflexlv*. Pmnoun. 
 
 The compound personal pronouns are mysilf, 
 r>//r^.// (editorial or majestic), thysvlf, yourself , him- 
 self, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, v^w(\ themselves. 
 Notice that in the first and second person th* om- 
 pound is made from the possessive form of the simple 
 pronoun, a. 1 in the third person from the o1)jectivc 
 form. 
 
 The compound personal pronouns have the same 
 form for both nominative and objective, and have 
 no possessive. The place of a possessive is sup- 
 plied by "my own," "your own," etc. : as, "He 
 keeps his own horse;" "He has a house of his 
 own."' 
 
 In the last sentence the phrase "his own " is usetl substantively 
 as the ol)ject of the preposition "of." like the possessive " mine" 
 in " He is a friend of nihu- " ( 1 rj.'i). 
 
7:^-it*£J3^ 
 
 OF PRONOUNS „^, 
 
 141. rm^orthoCNuniKHMHl IVrM.,„nI Pn,„o„„.. 
 
 -The compound personal pronouns arc properly 
 used as follows:^ * ' ^ 
 
 1. For emphasis: as. " I will do it w/i-.r//" •< Tli^ t...., i i 
 .Av// shall .l,..,lvc; •• .. NV. ..w .1. k.„« /X;..//, "" ^"" «'"'" 
 
 2. As itji,xives: as, '• 1 cut wyu/f, •• \Vc lol.l hi... , 
 ///>«W/ plenty of time." '"'" "* ^'"^ 
 
 IJesi-irs thcM- wd|.estal,lisl,cd uses, tlw compoun.l ,Mrs.>n .1 
 pronouns are son.e.in.es e.npioyeU as sul.s.Uu.es'for s n. L ei- 
 -nal pronouns: .,s. ■' She n.v.u.l Kthel an.l /....v/ to «« .^iil" 
 I h.s usa;;e ,s avoide.l l,y the n.os. r.nfnl writers ^'^ 
 
 fl-.ul> . as. .N.>w I lay ,.. ,|..,n ,o sleep ; - .- „,. i^^e.l al.o»t 
 
 EXERCISE 140. 
 
 personal pro,unn,s, and tell ,.lutlur they are used rejle . - 
 tvely or for emphasis .— '' 
 
 I. I myself have seen him. 2. I think myself happy. 3 Thou 
 halt love t y nei,hl.or as thyself. 4. Qui! yoursel es li e nu" 
 . I . w. tell you himself. 6. Whosoever shall exalt Imnself • i 
 l>e .-.based. 7. Sinai itself tr.mhie.l at the presence of (Wxl 8 V. 
 .-ve yourselves heard .he report. 9. Why should you he so c " 
 to yourselves.:* ,0. It is usually best ,0 study by ourselves. 
 
 2. Const met sentenees illustratinj^ the use of eaeh of 
 the eouipound personal pronouns for emphasis; as 
 a reflexive. 
 
 II. DKMOXSTnATIVE PUON<)rX8. 
 142. DemoiiHtrntlvo Pronouns DoHikmI — Rx- 
 
 amine the italicized pronouns in the foliowinir sen- 
 tences: — 
 
 This is my book ; that is ynjir?. 
 These ^Xit my books ; those are yours. 
 
 Ill 
 
 }1 
 
ii?»^^ofiii;/ 
 
 lyj 
 
 Tin. I'AKTS Ol- SI'KKCH 
 
 In these sentences " this " (plural "these") and 
 " that *• (|)lural " those ") arc used to ix)int out cer- 
 tain objects. Kach is, in a way, eijuivalent to a 
 gesture. 
 
 Jhjinition. — A pronoun usc<l to point out is called a 
 l>('iiioiiMtnitiv(> l*n>noiiii. 
 
 The only demonstrative pronouns arc "this" 
 (plural " these ") and " that " (plural " those "). 
 
 " He." "she," "il,* •• ihry." are sometimes r.illnl \\\v Dt'iiioii- 
 Mtiiillv«>M oftlu* TlilMl IVi>M>ii. 
 
 "So ■ has occasionalK lU-monsiriiivf force . as, " ll*- said so." 
 
 I4:i. Um'M of tlio DcinotiHtnitlvo IVonoiiii!^.— 
 
 "This "and "these" are used to indicate pcrs<»ns 
 or things ne.ir in space, time, or thouj^ht ; "that" 
 and "those" indicate persons or thinjjs farther 
 away : as, " Tlusc arc my jewels." " Our ri\'ers are 
 larj»:cr than those of Kurope." 
 
 When "this" and "that" are follnwid hy n.nins th.y are 
 Pi'oiioinliiiil A«IJt><'tlveMi as." This book is mm. . "That 
 wortl\s harti to pronoum »?." 
 
 EXERCISE 141. 
 
 Construct sentences i/iiistrntinj^ the use of the tfeuwn- 
 strative pronouns, sini^ulur ami plural. 
 
 III. TNTKIlHOfJATIVE l»nON<)rNS. 
 
 144. Jnterfoirattvo 1*r<>n<>iiiis DcfliuMl. — Exam- 
 ine the italicized pronouns in the following sen- 
 tences: — 
 
 Who is he? Whom (Hd you see? Whkh is !>«• ? 
 
 Who is she ? What is that ? Which is yours ? 
 
 Who are they ? What are these? Which arr yours? 
 
 Whose is this ? What «iu ) ou want ? Whiih do you prelVr ? 
 
OK I'KONol Ns 
 
 m 
 
 These prr.nouns. you r,l,.scrvc. arc qucstioninir 
 words. .. who.' .. wh.».sc..- ami •• wh.mi - asking fur 
 names of ,H..rsons. •• what " asking for names of 
 tilings an.l •• which *' asking for a .selecti.,n from a 
 k'roupof |K;rsons or tilings. Kach stands fur tlie 
 noun or i)ronoun that answers the (|nesti.m. 
 
 n,/i,iitioN.~\ pron.um tised to ask »niestions is 
 called an liit«.ri-oHriillv.. I'mnoiin. 
 
 Tabulating the forms used in the illustrative sen- 
 icnees. we fin.l that the only interrogative ,,rono„n 
 wh.eh IS infleeted is .• who." and that it is declined 
 as follows: — 
 
 Sinculj' ii.il'luril 
 
 /•/M»r,j/?r.- .hose 
 
 Ohj.rtivv: whom 
 
 Tho i,U..rrojjativ. •■ulu.hrr.- meaning "wl.id, of ,ho ,uo." is 
 IJilHi- : as, " \\ hcthcr is t-asici ? " 
 
 Wlun •■uluch" an.l •• wh.t " an- follownl |,v n.M,„s tluv .r- 
 •.^rM,o,nI„uI AilJo,.tIv..M. as. >> UM AW is you s /' 
 // hut new ln\k is this ? " 
 
 EXERCISE 142. 
 
 Povit out the intcrrtitrativc prouotnis in the following' 
 sintntas, aim tell the eonstruetum of eaeh :— 
 
 I. Who ran to help n.e whon I frll ? 2. What an- tlu- uiM 
 ^vaves .ay.„«? 3. what care I how fair she W} 4 \vi. „ Z 
 you read, my lord? 5 Whit is s„ r.,-.. ■ i 
 
 '^^. What d.c you ask for? 7. Whos. .1,.^. ,s ,h:., ? S. \ |,..,„ 
 
 .Kyousp.? ..Whom wc-re you s,.aU.,,.... ,.,. W h 
 
 le sample, hav. yo. ..|rct«! ? n. Wi... .1., ,o„ .h,,., si..- is > 
 1 2. W horn do you fake h.-r to be ? 
 
 \-i 
 
 'III I 
 
', "a 
 
 • 04 
 
 Till; lAKTS OK SI'EKCII 
 
 145. lnt<>rrf»ir»tlvo Prtnioiiii*. IMMttniruiHiuHl.-. 
 
 Ordmarily ••who" ajikn for names of |H;r.H«mH, 
 
 '•what" for names of ihingH; but wmiclimcH 
 
 "what" haN a |K.r.H«.nal reference: a.H, " ll7t,t/ in 
 
 he?— a lawyer?" In Mich ctscs •• what"a«kH for 
 
 a t/,siri/*tum, in clisiinction fnun " who," which a-sks 
 
 for uliHtity: a.s. "/r//,* is he?— the new minister?" 
 
 ••Which" i.s .selective; that i.s, it implies that 
 
 the rijjht one is to l>e selecteil from a numlwr of 
 
 IH-rsons or thinj^^s: as. ••//•///,// is she?" ••//'///V// 
 
 of the pictures clc» y«m like best? " '-Whuk have you 
 
 ileciiled tt> take ? " 
 
 
 !l I 
 
 EZEBCT8E 143. 
 
 Constrmt Stnttttas illustrttting the use of the inter- 
 rojrathu fronoini "who," the on/hinrf use of the 
 interro}!:ative "u'h„t," the personal use of the in- 
 ter ro^t^ntive "what," the use of the tnterrojrative 
 ''whieh." 
 
 1*0. "Who" or "Whom."— In spoken Engli.sh 
 " whom," as an interrogative form, has been prac- 
 ticaliy abandoned by most persons as an unneces- 
 sary and cumbersome inflection: but in literary 
 Knglish, and in the conversation o. persons who 
 have a strong feeling for grammatical consistency, 
 "who" is used only in nominative relations, and 
 " whom " in objective relations : as. '*\Vho is that? " 
 "Whom did you sec > " •♦ By whom was this 
 written ? " " Whom are you making that sofa- 
 pillow for ? " 
 
 i^>j 
 
'^'^. ^;*- 
 
 
 i^tiji|) 
 
 r 
 
 ..■."■"*■* 
 
 OF I'koNiM NS 
 £XEBCI8E 144. 
 
 »9f 
 
 tnst'rt 
 
 in tih 
 
 noun y • ' ;,.//,/ ■' or ' ' u'/t0fH ") 
 
 tUttt 
 
 
 i^iVi t/u- rutsoH for your i/toin .-^ 
 
 I. — - «lu )o» MiraH? 
 >. — — hiivc wc here ? 
 
 wilt 
 
 you invite 
 
 4« — — «l»<l you give It lu > 
 
 $• <lo )«»• think I am } 
 
 6. ar« you writing' tu? 
 
 7. .-_ Hpre y„u i.ilkinK •"? 
 
 8. I lion t know \„ %t:nt\, 
 
 9- <l«» you i.ike iiic to \hi } 
 
 10. \ don't kn«»w to .,sk (or. 
 
 11. - 
 
 was that siH.iking to you? 
 
 12. I do not know 
 
 he has met. 
 
 tj- - «lul you say %i\\ lK«»|<le >..u ? 
 M. ~— do you think wdl \k elected .> 
 15. - 
 16. 
 
 <lo you cx|Krct to call on next } 
 do you think it was that c died .> 
 
 17- I «lo not know 
 18. Ml 
 
 will finish the work. 
 
 Ic IS jjoinjf to be married to I d.m't know . 
 
 19- should I meet yesterday but my old fii.n.l Jones' 
 
 1»r. lllivct niul Iiiilln.,.t QiHHtloiiH I)I.Htlii- 
 
 HrulMhetl.— Compare the followin^r .senteiice.s:— 
 
 Maude asked. •• IV/io is luf " 
 Maude ask«d to/io fw jiuis. 
 
 In the first .sentence Mande's question is jriven in 
 her exact words, and the qiieHtion is said to l>e 
 quoted. In the .second .sentence the question 
 
,is^^."Arf':.*'*iil«L#lrl£|3^- i£r-'Y^:M 
 
 196 
 
 THE PARTS OF SI'KKCn 
 
 blends with the principal clause, and the original 
 words are changed. 
 
 Dcjinition. — A questitin expressed in the exact 
 words of the speaker is called a Direct (jiioMtion. 
 
 Ik/in it ion. — A question used as a dependent 
 clause, with chanj^es from the original words of 
 the siKjaker, is called an IiuUreot QuoMtloii. 
 
 A direct lucstion may l)e (i) imhpcndetit : as, "Who is he?" 
 or (2) depcndittt : a,-,. " Maude asked. ' Who is he? ' " 
 
 Indirect (jucstions depend on expressions implying inquiry, 
 doubt, knowledi^e, ii^nonvut; or the like : as, " Maude wotuitred 
 who he was ; " '• Maude discmwrcd who he v/as ; " •' Maude did not 
 kiuw wlio he was ; " " Maude told us vvlio he was." (The direct 
 question presented to .Maude's mind was, *• Wlio is lie ? ") 
 
 EXERCISE 145. 
 
 Construct three direet questions, and then change 
 them into the indirect form. 
 
 IV. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 14. S. Relative Pronouns Defined. — Compare the 
 following .sentences: — 
 
 (<») 'i he man thinks tlie world turns round. The man is giddy. 
 {b) Tlie man that is giddy thinks the world turns round. 
 
 In {(i) we have two separate .sentences about** the 
 man," with nothing to ihow that they are related. 
 In (/') the two .sentences are brought into their 
 proper relation by the word " that," which takes the 
 place of the noun " man " as subject of the second 
 sentence, and also connects this sentence with 
 " man " in the fir.st sentence, as a modifying clause. 
 In other words, it is both pronoun and connective. 
 

 OF l'K(^NOUNS 
 
 D,Ji,ntion.~\ proiKMiii which attaches to its 
 antecedent a subordinate clause of which it is -i 
 part IS called a JU'lutlvc Pn,i,oui.. 
 
 A relative pronoun is so called because it relates directiv to •, 
 substantive in the principal clause. ^ '" ^ 
 
 EXERCISE 146. 
 
 Point out the relative Pronouns in lixereise 4 . and 
 give t/ietr anteeedeuts. '*"^' 
 
 140. Ilolatlvo CI,iusc.s.--A clause introduced by 
 a relative pronoun is called a Itolatlvo ciuusc. 
 
 Compare the reiutiv. clauses in the followin.r 
 sentences: — *» 
 
 {it) Water that is sfa^i^muit is un\vhoIcson)c. 
 
 Jfi^::::' '''"" '"" '""^"^ ^^- ^-^^ '">p-' "- 
 
 In the first sentence the relative clause, - that is 
 stagnant," limits or restricts the i;cneral meaning 
 of water to the particular sort that is in mind 
 Ihe clause cannot be removed without chan<n„,. 
 the meaning of the sentence. ** 
 
 In the second sentence the relative clause, ' ' which 
 was beautifully clear," describes the water which 
 the speaker has in mind, but does not restrict the 
 meanmg of the word - water." The clause miHit 
 be removed without injury to the sentence, being 
 in fact parenthetical. 
 
 In the third sentence the relative clause, -which 
 
 1 4 
 
",T .<! 
 
 198 
 
 T!IK I'ARTS OK Sl'KlXH 
 
 he drank eagerly," neither limits nor describes the 
 word ** water," but merely carries on the narrative, 
 like the second member of a compound sentence. 
 "Which "is, in fact, here equivalent to "and it," 
 and the relative clause, though subordinate in form, 
 is logically coordinate with the first clause. 
 
 Definition. — A relative clause which limits or 
 restricts the meaning of the antecedent is called a 
 llc'Htrlc'tivo Uelativo C'lauso. 
 
 Definition.— \ relative clause which describes the 
 antecedent without restricting its ueaning is called 
 a Descriptive Relative Clause. 
 
 Definition. — A relative clause which neither dc- 
 scdbcs nor limits, but merely carries on the narra- 
 tive, is called a Progressive Ilelatlvt^ Clause. 
 
 Descriptive and progressive relative clauses, being 
 either parenthetical or independent in their nature, 
 should be separated from the rest of the sentence 
 by commas. 
 
 Restrictive relative clauses should not be sepa- 
 rated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 
 
 EXERCISE 147. 
 
 1. Point out the relative clauses in Exercises 44 and 
 52, and tell luhcther they arc restrictive, descriptive, or 
 progressive. 
 
 2. Construct a sentence containing a restrictive rela- 
 tive clause ; a descriptive relative clause ; a progressive 
 relative clause. 
 
 ISO. Relative Pronouns Distinjjrulsliecl. — Exam- 
 ine the forms of the relative pronouns in the follow- 
 ing sentences: — 
 
OF I'ROXOUNS 
 
 Hepray.-tl, |M?st7.V/,>Iov,.thlM-st 
 
 The lady ,oho went out is ,„y aunt. 
 
 They ,oho will not work must starve. 
 
 The lK,y ze^W manners you likocl is my brother 
 
 I know the person oi whom you speak. 
 
 The letter T.>J/,/, came this morning was from Ruth 
 I S..1I have the letter W,/./. Ruth wrote last weT 
 
 This is the house //w Jack built, 
 "appy is the n,an //..,/ ti.Hk-th wisdom. 
 
 (I. e.. ///„/ jt,/ua) you say is true. 
 
 From these examples we .see thit fb« r 
 
 relative pronouns arc "who -• vh'ch • ' ^r^ 
 and " vvb'if " T* 1 1 . • "im-u, inat, 
 
 that o5 '•w,, J:;":: :^"v r ^^r "■'^ '"™^' - «■"• 
 
 as follows J '•"''• •'""' "'•-" " '■'' declined 
 
 », Singubr and Plural. 
 
 ^omtnatn>e: yvho 
 
 /r//^. 7£.//^jr. and «'/^„;« are u.sed chiefl v nf ^ 
 but sometimes of animals: as ' I^:'^;'~ 
 w/w lovethbest" "Th^ ..„k- t Prajeth bost 
 driving off the bl„e in ^ "^^ «»=^'--ed«i in 
 
 pines,-' .. Whose 'ir " ■" "?" '° ''""<' '" "'"• 
 (153). " "^•'^•-'«°n--'"y used of things 
 
 thil'Tf '^ " "f^'^'" P™"°""' i"* "«-l of animals or 
 mmgs. Sometimes t refers toon ;i "'^''-^f^r 
 
 expressed by a precedTnT i^ ''' ""^ '^^"S:ht 
 
 "Tbi-o 1 • P^^^edmg phrase or clau.se- is 
 This description may .seem much exaggerated' 
 ^^^'hich It certa nlv is nof-" ..t i- , ^scrateu, 
 --«/- made 1 .„ ^4 ;;;,f„,,? '''^'--I "- P-n. 
 
 '99 
 
f'^m 
 
 'h- r'; 
 
 200 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEFXH 
 
 T/iaf is used of cither persons or things. It is 
 always very closely connected with its antecedent 
 in both meaning and position, never being used 
 when there is any pause between the relative clause 
 and the antecedent. Hence it is never used to 
 introduce a clause that is merely descriptive or 
 progressive. We say, "Water //in/ [or, ri'///V7/| 
 is stagnant is unwholesome;" "The water, 
 ti>/iic/i was beautifully clear, lapped the sides of 
 the boat." Another peculiarity of //mt is that it 
 never has a preposition before it. We say, "The 
 hook o/':^J/lu'/i you told me," or, "The book //ia/ you 
 told me of," putting the preposition last when 
 "that" is substituted for "which." 
 
 IfV/rt/ is peculiar in that it combines the functions 
 of both antecedent and relative pronoun : as, 
 
 I mean 
 
 { what \ - 
 
 "Who," " which." and " that " introduce adjec- 
 tive clauses; clauses introduced by "what" are 
 substantive clauses. 
 
 To the Teacher.— Some grammarians would make "that" 
 obligatory whenever the relative clause is restrictive, reserving 
 " who " and " which " exclusively for clauses that are merely 
 descriptive or progressive. According to them. " He prayeth 
 best ivho loveth best " ought to be " He prayeth best that loveth 
 best." But this obligatory use of " that " in restrictive clauses has 
 never been a rule of English speech, and is not likely to become 
 one, partly because of the impossibility of using " that " after a 
 preposition, and partly because of the disagreeablt- sound of such 
 combinations as " That remark that I made yesterday." As ; rule, 
 euphony decides in restrictive clauses between " who " ^- " which " 
 and " that." 
 
OF I'KON'ocxs 
 
 30I 
 
 EXEBCISE 148. 
 
 c/toici:-^ ^ ' ^'" '''■'""" Jor your 
 
 '•Man is the only animal--, can talk. 
 
 2. 1 .me is lost is never foun.l a-ain 
 
 3. l-h^^o« ,, ,,, .,,,„ ,.,^ ^^^^^ ^_- 
 
 . !\^!'"'"'^ "'••*" -^'-^-o us yes.e.,ay. 
 
 i >Ve have a mastiff (..w 
 
 nasiiM. '^'""ws us everywhere 
 
 6. I met the boatman , i 
 
 .atman „.ok me across the ferry 
 
 7. I he crow .Iroppe.l the cheese the fox .hen.te 
 
 8. I worked six problems i. . 
 
 I rouicms ^vMs the best I could do 
 
 9- l>o you know that man • • 
 
 lo Qi L '^ J"''^ entering the car ' 
 
 'o- Sliakesneare wnc .!,„ ■" L.ir . 
 
 -•I'c.irc was the most exnressiir*. mn« 
 
 II. The cat , ^" ^^■^•' ''ved. 
 
 '4. Her hair „.„ ,|nrL. K «pecl«l. 
 
 l".*!. ''^ ''"''> ""own, ,v.i5 galhere,! in a CJrecian 
 
 ^__^.5. Why ,,h„uW we consul. Charle. -_ ,„_ „„„. ,^ „, ,^^ 
 
 «i,:tf "" ""'^ ' "■'' " P°"-™-. — c„„,en,c„ ,„ ,„ 
 
 '''• " P'p'iscd me most anfl i . 
 
 nientione<| by visitors to FlorenceTT ? , '"°'' frequentlv 
 one sees there. ^'"'^^"^^. was ihe profusion o, flowers 
 
 
 Iff 
 
 // 
 
 EXERCISE 149. 
 
 Construct sent, nccs illustrating the use of tl, • / 
 nil, I, t/iiU, find '' to hat." 
 
 wi-hl^S;;^"""*^' ■"'•'-""'"". -n.i prob..I,ly ,l.e choice of 
 
 pronoun, will v,,ry 
 
*j:' 
 
 ,»fi 
 
 303 
 
 TIIK l»AKTS OF SI'EKCii 
 
 151. Cicndor, Numlwr, mirt PerMon of lU'lutlvo 
 l*mii«>iiim. — In the nature of things the gender, 
 number, and person of a relative pronoun are the 
 same as those of its anteeedcnt, but they are never 
 indicated by the form of the rehitive. " Who," for 
 example, may be singular or plural, masculine or 
 feminine, and may refer to the person s|x.'aking, 
 siKiken to, or spoken of: as, " I, Ti'//<;am your friend, 
 would not pain you needlessly ; " " You, u'//o are my 
 trusted friend, should not deceive me ;" '* They iv/to 
 refuse to work must starve." Since relatives thus 
 agree in number and person with their antecedents, 
 it follows that the fol-m of a verb used after a relative 
 should be the same as that which we should use 
 after its antecedent. 
 
 EXEBCISE 150. 
 
 Ti'// tvhich of the italicized forms is right y and give 
 the reason : — 
 
 1. She is one of the best mothers that has {Jia7>€) ever lived. 
 
 Caution.— The antecedent of *" that " is " mothers." 
 
 2. My room is one of those that m'erlook {va>erlooks) the lake. 
 
 3. That is one of the best books that was (were) ever written. 
 
 4. She is one of the writers who/'v {are) di'stined to be immortal. 
 
 5. It was one of the best games that has {/lavt) ever been played 
 on our field. 
 
 6. You are not the first man that has {have) been deceived by 
 appearances. 
 
 7. He is one of those restless boys who j's {are) always wanting 
 to do something. 
 
 8. One of his many good traits that cotne {comes) to my mind 
 was his modesty. 
 
1 A T» ' 
 
 OK I'RONOUNS jQ^ 
 
 158. C'.»H«ornolHUvel»rououiw.^Thc. cisc of . 
 
 teatm, but IS determined by its use in t].,. i 
 >n whieh it stands. It may be- '""■■ 
 
 "keel ,s ,ny bruthcr.- "^'^ '^'^"'^*' "'•'""^^^ >"u 
 
 n^ T-/ J.- I """ "'"" '"^•''« 'S sick." 
 
 (4) * '"! object of a prt-bosition • i^ •• i i 
 
 I" Milton's expression ••^^•.■, .u ■ 
 "«-. is an idioma.ic .,„,,„„„ ^ hf ' " '' ^""'■^ '"" "' 
 
 «Hich i, s,;„;. . , " t"""'?'^ '""■• """'-"v cl-isc in 
 
 jec. or •■ v«„l." , .. k " ' r7/ " ""'■'' '"'" ■■ " '» 'l'^' -I- 
 
 "(Ihe preposi.io,, "for- ',, '' ^^ ''"I*'"!.' '<"• " is ll,. „|,j,,, 
 cause .s ..e o.^ec. „, L ^^^Z:J:i ?ZP'"- 
 
 EXEBCISE 151. 
 
 Ti// the construction and the case of each .ir 
 noun tn Exercises 44 and 148. "^ re/atnr />ro. 
 
 EXEBCISE 152. 
 
 ^"'^Jff^i^'/>roper/ornio/prononn(^^,,ho '•'-./,,., "^ 
 your ehoice : reason j or 
 
 '.She is a girl I know is trustworthy 
 
 2. She is a girl _ j k,,„, ,, j,^ trustworthy 
 
 3. We recommend only those — we can trust 
 
"4 #fli.4. 
 
 «H 
 
 THt TARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 ~i, 
 
 4. I met a man 1 have nu iluubl w.ts your uncle. 
 
 5. A lady cnicrcil, , 1 .ifltrward!» Icaiiu-ti, was his aunt. 
 
 6. lie gave the watcli tu Nurtnaii, he ihuik;* will take care 
 
 o( It. 
 
 7. They have found the woman they thought hail Ikch 
 
 niuiilered. 
 
 8. VVc like to l)c with those we love and we know 
 
 love us, let ihein be they may. 
 
 153. "Whow" or »M)f whifh." — "Who.sc," 
 which is properly the ix>sscs.sivc uf the ma.sculinc 
 or feminine "who," i.s .sometinies u.sed of neuter 
 objects as a substitute for the longer and harsher 
 "of which:" as, "The undiscovered country from 
 Xi'hose bourne no traveler returns." When .his sub- 
 stitution is not required by euphony it is avoided 
 by careful writers. 
 
 EXEBCISE 153 
 
 Till which of the italicizcil expressions you consider 
 preferable^ and give your reason: — 
 
 1 . She .-isked for a book -whose name {the name of luhu h) 1 ha<l 
 never heard. 
 
 2. The " White Captive " is a woman bound to a tree, in whose 
 bark (the bark of 'which) arrows are stickinj;. 
 
 3. Another side of one's education is the scientific — a side whose 
 importance {the importance of which) is fast being recogni/ed the 
 world over. 
 
 4. Through the heavy door n'hose bronze network {the bronze 
 net7i>ork of which) closes the place of his rest, let us enter the 
 church itself. 
 
 5. I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious ft\^' 
 \m\ons, on whose tops {f he tops 0/ which) the sun kindled all the 
 melodies and harmonies of light. 
 
OF PRONOUNS 
 
 prou.l c,l,c, „f ,1,.. |.l.,in, „-/(„„. ..^,„„, „L' '■''"": ""« 
 
 words •such and •• same ' the word "as " is used 
 as a relative pronoun: as, •• Tears, sueli ,„ ,„,„.,„ 
 weep, burs, forth." After ■• such' the re atTve 
 •"»-.y.s ••as." After ...same' it is ••as^'or- thV" 
 w.th a difference i„ ,„,a„i„^,. ..The s„„ e . ■• 
 ustml.y means • • „f the .san.e kitl ■ •■ as • Mv^r , ,, 
 i.s the w«,. ,„ vours •• ■■■r, Jly Irouhle 
 
 ••one and the IZ^ ,, Jl". 'r'""; '"'" " •"-» 
 'to his brother doe^ ■• Th , *' ""■' '""" ^""'^'^ 
 does not hold „ etiptie?::':^"""'""; ''""^"^" 
 same that • is never Cnd T"T '"^ " ""-' 
 books ,„ his brother " o/ • ,! '*" "''' '"""■ 
 
 -'.'^•h"isu.sed,tL.Xr.^;\^'^,;- 
 
 predeees,jhadr:;:';i-Tsc:\T""^'-^-^'*^^^ 
 
 Occasionally "-k" io ,. i 
 •• which " to r,.f . "' •'•■'' •'' ■•'"''stitute for 
 
 mch to refer to a preceding idea or thought • 
 
 polar ^^•o:':'^: "■•■'■^ '"'"'" '"■ '" "f- "appcns In 
 
 There is n..t:, wife in the west country 
 /'«/ has heard of tl,e well of St. Keyil 
 
11 
 
 ao6 THE I'AK lb UF bI'LLCH 
 
 EXEBCISE IM. 
 
 1 . Construit sintiMns Ulttstralni^ tin- usis of riia* 
 tivis a/tir *' smh " and •* sanu." 
 
 2. I'ili tlu blanks in tlu JoUox<Hng scntcnus with llu 
 pro/it r n/atixi {" as," *• i/ta/ " ), anU j^nf tlu- nason for 
 your I /toil I': — 
 
 1. Such I have give I tiac. 
 
 2. '\'\\\s is llic i:\\\\K book my (alhcr used. 
 
 3. 1 hold llif same {Hihucal upinions iii) father. 
 
 4. I hoUl ihf -vuiie |K}htk:al «i|iiiiioiis my lalhrr holds. 
 
 5. These are n«)t ihc siunc tramps were hire )iMer«lay. 
 
 6. She is the same merry girl since her marriage site w.is 
 
 before it. 
 
 155. Ilelatlvc PrfinoiiiiM OmlttiHl. — The relative 
 •• that" (or its substitute), when it would be the ob- 
 jeet of a verb or a prejKisition, is often omitted : as, 
 ••The book | ///<./ or w/iic/t] I left here is jrone:" 
 ••The girl [that ov luhom] you are looking for has 
 not come yet." 
 
 Occasionally a relative pronoun in the nominative 
 case is omitted: as, •• 'Tis distance {that\ lends en- 
 chantment to the view." 
 
 It is interesting to note that adverbial conjunctions are frequently 
 enjployed with relative force. Thus in the stnlence " He went to 
 a hotel where he might fuul gootl acccjmmmlation," where is the 
 equivalent of in which. Ag.'«in in the sentence " He came at a 
 time when it was impossible for me to see him," the word xchcn 
 may be resolved into at which, 
 
 NoTK.— The term Conjunctive Pitinoiin is frequently 
 substituted for the term * Relative Pronoun," to eniphasize the fact 
 that the conjunctive introduces a v.' 'use and joins it in adjectival 
 relation to its antecedent. 
 
0^ I'KOMM \S 
 
 *>7 
 
 '„■";■''■ "■ '■■ A"y tl„„„ winch, h,- .Iocs l„. .|,„, „,,1 
 
 With rtjianl i„ f„rm v.,,, ..u^^vi- il,a. .1 . ,• 
 
 equivalent .0 " my trU 1 ' J"^ '^■'"« 
 
 .. ft^fr-^ '''""""" f"rmc.l fr„m ..who '• 
 
 •■-ever" is called „^f '"'•''"« ""••™«-..x "ever •or 
 ,. '-•"iLU. With reference to its form •, 
 
 t«n.,K,u...i iu.l,.„v.. ,.„ „, „ijh refercn V to'i.s 
 
 mcantng. an ...a.„„,.„ ,^.,„.,t^. ,.„,,2T 
 
 .- wi;v.''r;u„".,tr;:uc;i';"''"'"' '"-'••■■■ ••^^■^= -*'^* 
 
 157. " MlHM-ver" or •• Whomever."— The onlv 
 
 .mcuUy ,i.ely to ari.- in connection wi.I tL" ^ 
 
 "f ndefin.te r,.|at,v<.« lies in the words ■•whoever" 
 
 and •• whomever." One is a n„n,in.-.tive form, the 
 
m * 
 
 aoS 
 
 nil. I'A.<IS Ol^ SPEKCII 
 
 other ail otjjcctivc. "(iivc it to Tt'//<>ij'ir comes to 
 'he (hM)r '* ancl ••(Vivo it to w/towiirr you «cc " are 
 both correct. ••Whoever" is the .subject of ••comes ;" 
 '* whomever" is the object nf ••.sec." In each sen- 
 tence the object of the |>rei>osition •• to " in the rela- 
 tive elauHc, used sub.stantively. 
 
 •• \Vh<»wcvcr " anti " whc»m?Micvcr " are uwd in the samr w;iy ; 
 as, "I'tJto xi'Mnmsihi'ir %uw\\ is j-ivfii, of hiiti sh.ill Ik- tiiuth re- 
 quired;" •* ir/iwrtirvr txallilh iunikcK nImII U: .ilwscU." 
 
 If f 
 
 EXERCISE 155. 
 
 Fill the blanks witl^ tlu />ropir forms (" whoivir," 
 " U'lioiHivcr "), and givt' tlw reason J or your clioue: — 
 
 I. Aik >«»u meet. 
 
 a. KIcct — you wish. 
 
 3, I will enicrtaiu you srnd. 
 
 4. Wc will Kivf it to yuu s.iy, 
 
 J, (lid it uughi to be .ishanietl o( himself. 
 
 6. We will give it to secinsk to need it inoM. 
 
 V. INDEFINITE PRONOUNH. 
 
 158. Imlonnttc PronounH IK'fliKMl.- Examine 
 
 the italicized words in the following .sentences: — 
 
 Sonw have gone. 
 Each took his turn. 
 
 You observe that •• .some " and *' each" are .sub- 
 .stitutes for names, but do not refer definitely to any 
 particular individuals. 
 
 Definition. — A pronoun that does not refer to any 
 
 particular individual is called an Imleflnlte l»ro- 
 notiii. 
 
■*# lp 
 
 ♦ I* f 
 
 
 /«# * ■■•*('.. 
 
 3- r*'«i/»,ir.i//TVf . Muh. othrr. ;innihcr. 
 r»h.,/s) : i, crriAin onr. itMny .i o,,.-. ^ 
 
 I'«-M»l«-. >uu. they etc f ' „ ! '{ '^''^ '''f '^''''/'''^'/r .-, m.,n. 
 
 rich." J. ^' • '^ "'•"' "'"*• ''*^' ' "«y»-y h. „ 
 
 Whrn lhr%e word, a. ro.npany n.-unn. ihry ,„„,, ,-. h«.^I 
 
 £2£&CI8£ 196. 
 
 6V«./r«r/ u,u,as iilustrating the use 0/ each of the 
 iHiieJimte pronouns. ^ 
 
 lao. How to Parn*. ITo,iouii».-To par«c a oro 
 noun one must give iu~ ^ 
 
 (U Class. 
 
 (2) Antecedent (if it has one). 
 
 (3) licndcr. 
 
 (4) Number. 
 (S> I'crson. 
 
 (6) Construction. 
 
 (7) Case. 
 
 EXEBCISE 157. 
 
 Parse the pronouns in the folloz.nn^^r sentences :- 
 \. I,nvc thy neighbor as tiiyM-lf. 
 2. Hod helps them that htip themselves. 
 
f 1 
 
 !IO 
 
 Tin: PAR IS OK si'r.i.cii 
 
 JNt 
 
 3- I-«t not liiin that girdcth on his harness Iwast himself as he 
 that pulteth it off. 
 
 4. I find the Englishman to be him of all nun who stands 
 firmest in his shoes. 
 
 5- Ye are the salt of the earth : but if the salt have lost his 
 savor, wherewith shall it l>e salted ? 
 
 6. I am monarch of all I survey, 
 
 My right there is none to dispute. 
 
 7. There's a divinity that shapes our ends, 
 Rough-hew them how we will. 
 
 8. What's in a name ? That which we call a rose 
 By any other name would smell as sweet. 
 
 9. 'Tis with our judgments as our watches.— none 
 Go just alike, yet each believes his own. 
 
 10. Go, lovely rose 
 
 Tell her that wastes her time and me 
 
 That now she knows. 
 When I resemble her to thee, 
 How sweet and fair she seems to be. 
 
 11. My mind to me a kingdom is; 
 
 Such present joys therein I find. 
 That it excels all other bliss, 
 
 That earth affords or grows by kind : 
 Though much I want which most would have. 
 Yet still my mind forbids to crave. 
 
 12. Some have too much, yet still do crave; 
 
 I little have, and seek no more : 
 They are but poor, though much they have, 
 
 And I am rich with little store ; 
 They poor, I rich ; they beg, I give; 
 They lack, I have ; they pine, I live. 
 
OF A\a: VlVE'i 
 
 An Acycetlve is a word joined hv iim,, «f i 
 fon or Imitation to a noun^ .r'Z:^^"^;''"''- 
 
 marba'a^;;":"';: »*" ^•"-"--Adicctives 
 lows:- *• **° S"'""^' '^'*'"''«=». as fol- 
 
 *»'<' much: a, "fwl" T'- " "'f '"'*'*• *"" •"••"'-. "' 
 
 «.;7>f,i(adioc.ive) Js"ta:^^?^;''f7""-'l-/'••"'-«.-.■ 
 Such words are pronouns wh,n .I, . 'l'™"""") « yours." 
 when ,hey acc„4a„;r:„:\\\;J7,;'-<',;- "ouns: adjecives 
 
 aCiv^X" r;: ~ f r "^"^-''•'^ -^ 
 
 and plural ,re tTJ ^ " *"''"■'' '<"• ••'ing»Iar 
 (Pl"-1 . thT:. 'L,~;:?^ ;f ^"-s ..fhi... 
 
 Mistakes in the use o the e fLl' " " ','"'" ">• 
 in connection with suchi T '""^''"^""y °'^«"- 
 ■•kind," which Trl '■''■'' ""' "■^'"•'■' '->"'' 
 
"^ THE PARTS OF SPKLCH 
 
 EXERCISE 158. 
 
 Insert the proper form {''this," ''these" "that" 
 • ' those ") /;/ each of the following blanks .— 
 
 1. I do not like sort of men. 
 
 2. We w^nt no more of stjrt of goods. 
 
 3. What do you think of kind of golf clubs? 
 
 4. Young gentlemen should let sort of thing alone. 
 
 5. I always delight in overthrowing sort of schemes. 
 
 loa. Comparison of Atljcotlves.— Examine the 
 
 adjectives in the following sentences:— 
 
 This is a high mountain. 
 
 That is a higher mountain. 
 
 Yonder is the highesi mountain of all. 
 
 " High," " higher," and - highest " are all forms 
 of the same adjective, and all denote the same 
 quality; but they denote it in different degrees. 
 *' High " merely denotes a quality; " higher" de- 
 notes that the object described has more of that 
 quality than another object with which it is com- 
 pared ; " highest " denotes that the object described 
 has the most of the quality. 
 
 Definition.— A difference in the form of an adjec- 
 tive to denote degree is called Comparison. 
 
 Definition.— T\vQ simple form of an adjective is 
 called the Positive Decree. 
 
 Definition.— The form of an adjective that rep- 
 resents an object as having more of a quality 
 than another object is called the Comparative 
 Degree. 
 
«F ADJFXTIVES 
 
 called the «upc.r.at.vo IH-^l '' "' " "'""">• '» 
 Sometimes the superlative deirree is „«.,i „.^ 
 
 ".e .m'e^::: :': th:rr:!.;r-!:°" ^- --^ 
 
 I never knew a \ nobler \ 
 
 \ tnore twble \ "^•''"• 
 
 He is the \ "('^'I'-^t { 
 
 \ most nohle \ '"'"'" ^ ^^'er saw. 
 
 two S;;:: tr;:i;^''^' •■"'" ■'"-"^ -'i-'-- -^ 
 
 of •• er •• and '. est '' ""'''''"""' '"' ""•' •■"""""" 
 
 4~:'t"rsL;v:^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .r-' - -- 
 
 and " most.'' ^^ompared by using: "more " 
 
 In general the method of comparison is . matter 
 "f taste, determined f.r the most part by the 2 
 
214 
 
 THK PARTS OF SPF.FCH 
 
 EXERCISE 169. 
 
 Compare the /o/lou>inj^r aiijectives : 
 
 Able, h.ippy. honest, fenrless. worldly, lively, careful, particular, 
 unkind, earnest, beautiful, virtuous, proud, ungrateful. 
 
 :, I, 
 
 104. Irroflriilar Comparison.— The comparison of 
 the following adjectives is irregular:— 
 
 POMltlVU. 
 
 bad i 
 evil [ 
 
 Coin par. 
 
 ■Superl. 
 
 POHIUVO 
 
 . Com pur. 
 
 Mn|M'rl. 
 
 worse 
 
 worst 
 
 late 
 
 later 
 latter 
 
 latest 
 last 
 
 ill ) 
 
 
 
 little 
 
 less 
 
 least 
 
 far 
 
 farther 
 
 farthest 
 
 many ^ 
 much S 
 
 
 
 fore 
 
 former 
 
 ' foremost 
 
 more 
 
 most 
 
 
 
 > first 
 
 
 
 \ nearest 
 ' next 
 
 (forth.^j'^/7'.] 
 
 further 
 
 furthest 
 
 near 
 
 nearer 
 
 gootI 1 
 well ( 
 
 better 
 
 best 
 
 old 
 
 ( older 
 ( elder 
 
 oldest 
 eldest 
 
 105. Adjectives Incapable of Comparison.— 
 
 Some adjectives denote qualities that do not vary in 
 degree: as, "straight," "perfect," "circular," 
 "daily," "square," " round," "untiring." Strictly 
 .speaking, such adjectives cannot be compared ; yet 
 cu.stom sanctions such expressions as " straighter." 
 " roundest," "more perfect." because they are con- 
 venient and their inaccuracy is of no consequence. 
 
 100. Use of the Comparative and Superlative 
 
 The comparative degree properly implies a com- 
 parison of two things or .sets of things; the superla- 
 tive, of more than two: as, " He is oMer than I; " 
 " She is the youngest of the family." 
 
OF Al;Ji:cTIVES 
 
 the ,su,«.rlative when only , v. hL ''""'' ""'"*•' 
 
 -. ■•Who was the >., 'l^nt ' T.^: """^7' ^ 
 the fits/ of the two •• T ^*'i"uc. lie is 
 
 or sets of th^^raVe tT^a^:^'""'''"'"'^' 
 degree is preferable ■ as "^vrf' • ^^ '•'"'" P»""ve 
 or Maude ?" ' ' ^^ ''"•'' '" "'^- '«'''''•'•■ Ruth 
 
 The words denotinj; the obi,.,.t„ . 
 called the ■• terms " of h ' '•"'"I«'-'-'<l are 
 
 '- objeets are o np^L ''';,:'';.;f;'"-''';- ^hen 
 exclude the for.ner- as / ' '"'"" "'"■'^' 
 
 «"^ «-//«•. ;«,.„/.■ vVhtn ,nor,;' """' "'''"'' '"•'" 
 ennipared, the lut.r ^"' '"" "''J'^'-''' "■■- 
 
 ..^ / , '"'■'^ '*-■"" """»' include the former 
 
 a^. ^'•""■s the most useful of «,./„/,.■■ "'• "'™--'-- 
 
 EXEKCISE 160. 
 
 3. Ma,ys red,.>io„s. ,he poorer reci,atio„s of her dass„,a.es 
 In .t w:,r'"'°" °' '°"''°" ■■ ">= ""P-'-iO" "f '-' »"." cues 
 
 167. S„l«,ltute8 for A.ljeetlves.-The function 
 o. an adjective may be performed by- 
 
 
 m 
 
ai6 
 
 rut lARTS OI SI'KECn 
 
 (2) Af>r./>o.uti,m.,//,/,nis,': as. ■• The pall,/.,. M^/.,/y ,s shady." 
 
 (3) An hiJiHilive ffhrasf: as. " Water to drink was scare*-. ' 
 
 (4) \p.n/,\ip,i/ phrau: as. "The Ix.y raitn,^ hn Usum is 
 my brother," 
 
 (5) A claiiw : as, " The jjirl li'/ioni you stnu is my sister." 
 
 (6) An iuiverb: as, "The then Emptror." 
 
 108. How to rai-Ho an Ailjootlvo.— To parse an 
 
 adjective one must tell — 
 
 tO Its class. 
 
 (1) Its comparison. 
 
 (3J lis use. 
 
 B i 
 
 EXEKCISE 161. 
 
 Parse the adject lies in Exercise 15. 
 
CIIAPTKR VI 
 
 ^t-' AkTICI.Ks 
 
 TjfK Articles are the words •• fi,,. •• i 
 "a." ^^ ^"^ ^nd "an "or 
 
 1«». OHhtIii of tho Article**—" TI,..' • 
 encd form of the deiiionsf r .r '' '^ '''^''^^- 
 
 " An •• /I "^'"^^"'Strativc pronoun - thit " 
 An (shortened to --i" Iwf 
 sounds) is a weakened form of iU "''""""''"^t 
 
 tive"one,-whiehw..f , ""meral adjee- 
 
 ;rener'il ,> oi ^"""erly written •' an " T„ 
 
 fifcncral it always implies oneness hut ,. .' • 
 
 vague, indefinite sense th.f ,i "'''">' '" '^ 
 
 numeral adjeetive "one •. '' "'' ^'^^""^^ ^" ^''^^ 
 
 170. "An" or "A " TU., ,.i, • i 
 
 ^-^nd "a," which nr ,T-/^^^^^^«'^'^'^^'twcH..i-a„.. 
 
 word, i; Jee^^c ?r„VT;' ""-■ -^- 
 
 sound "an" is u>;f.,l- i f "'''' " ^'""''••l 
 
 you: Ihereforewesayviuni, "... I, * "■ " >™r, " ami 
 
 •! ctflU accented on th*. e^-, i .. -' •• !K^i(i}iin;r 
 
 historical sketch " or ■■a ZoZ^^^^ ■■^'fr "'• ^''^ " '"' 
 
 ^••i sKetch. dccorcJing to taste. 
 
 If 
 
W ,'; 
 
 3l8 
 
 Till-: TAR IS OK SI'LIXII 
 
 1 
 
 EXIBCISE 162. 
 
 /•/// ///<• />ro/>ir Jorm of the articU '*an" or "a" 
 In Jon- null of tin- following ixpnssions : — 
 
 Article, onion, union, uniform, uninlormetl ic.tdir, univtrsal Iw- 
 hcf. useful invention. unipire, unfortun.ite mistake. luiot^y. Kuropean, 
 hour, honest m.uj. house, lunnble (Iwcliing. habitual drunkard,* 
 hotel, heroic pe-'plc, heredilar disposition. 
 
 171. ThoAi-tlc'UM j>i:4tliiKiiiHluMl.— Compare the 
 
 italicucd cxpruiksioiis in the following sentences:— 
 
 Afun is mortal. 
 The ihilit is dying. 
 A soldier stood on guard. 
 
 '•Man," unlimited by an article, applies to all 
 mankind. -Child," limited by -the," applies to 
 an individual, singled out as already before the 
 mind. "Soldier," limited by "a," applies to an 
 individual, singled out at random as a representative 
 of his class. -The" points definitely to a par- 
 ticular object ; - a " selects (me, no matter which. 
 
 Definition.—' • The " is called the IH-rinlte Artlclo ; 
 - an " or " a " is called the Imlettnlto Article. 
 
 17a. rxes of the Artie-It's.— In general both the 
 defmite and the indefinite article single out indi- 
 viduals from the rest of a class: the definite, a par- 
 ticular individual; the indefinite, any individual. 
 Ordinarily, therefore, they are used, not with proper 
 nouns or names of materials, but with nouns that 
 apply to many objects of the same class. Yet no 
 one principle covers all the uses of articles. These 
 must be learned chiefly through observation and 
 
»^' IhUnltv Artlole is used-. 
 
 wh,!,. //„ ,|„g „„ .,, ,,, ^^^ litcouw 1,"^° "•■" "" '""" •■""I '"■"'■>■ 
 til ''"<» ilcsijfnatt oliiccis IS •' A 
 
 •ri.is u«"T'iir" ""■ ""' ""*■ '•'"°" """'"'"'" • ■■ 
 
 The lii,l,.flnlt,. Artl,.|e is u.sci— 
 
 t//^/-A" .. u I , "~""iK"i.snts the numhns- .is •• H,. i, 
 iiieep , "He has j///v;^." "'• "t li.is <f 
 
 (2) In the vnjrue sense of ■• a arf,u„ ■ " ,s -. On • , 
 WImwith ,, ,Iog." (The wnnl " « -■ • ." ^"*^ "'«'i' " Wolf 
 '•iffersinfunction^„„.\he;;des/"' '" ^'"^ ^-'-^ '-r.lly 
 
 ^3) In the sense of '• nttu •• » • i 
 -prese„,a.i,.e of „ .,., ; as;.v;;arnf:„r,,"" '""'"""■" "' '^' 
 
 "^ ."ijeciive, instead of precedinjr it. 
 
 ■vlf 
 
rso 
 
 THK I'ARTS OK SI'EFXH 
 
 EXERCISE 163. 
 
 1. Conslriut SititiHui tllust rating the common uses 
 of the ife/initi nrtule. 
 
 2. tonslruct sentnices illustrating the common uses 
 of the inilejinite article. 
 
 EXEBCISE 164. 
 
 Distinguish between — 
 
 1. (iivf me a (onr) pen. 
 
 2. I have cauKlu (a) col«l. 
 
 3- A black ami (a) while, cat. 
 
 4- Hrinjj mc the (thai) camllc. 
 
 5. Crass (The grass) is grt-en. 
 
 6. Karlh (The earth) is heavy. 
 
 7. I sprang to ,i (the) window. 
 
 8. Hirds ( Ihe birds) are singing. 
 9- Men (The nien) admired him. 
 
 lo. He h.as (.i) i.out in his b.asket. 
 n. Bring me a (the) lighted candle. 
 12. Trees (The trees) are in blossom. 
 
 13- Man (The man) is a strange being. 
 
 14- Wanted a cook and (.a) housemaid. 
 
 15- Men (The men) ran to give the alarm. 
 i6. There were few (a few) friends with him. 
 
 17. He iKhaved with little (a little) reverence. 
 
 18. The (That) road crosses the (a) mountain. 
 19- A iTian (The man) on the shore rescued her. 
 30. Mr. Smith (A Mr. Smith) called to see you." 
 
 2r. If you wish to have virtue (a virtue), you must practice it 
 22. Shall I tell you a (the) story of a (the) wolf and a (the) dog > 
 
OF AH Tit I.ES 
 EXEKCI8E 165. 
 
 311 
 
 Insert the trof>,r nrtuh n, auft f,/.o,l if 
 3- My favorilr Howrr ii vioI»-f 
 
 ^A;;:,-;i::::;;;;;;:~:::;M....:t.. 
 
 »7.-|. C'uiition.— Not cverv " tlin •• ; 
 nor f very "a." »s an article. 
 
 in!l"..wf' "'''''' *^'^>' ^^^ '''' ni^re they w^nt " 
 ami snn.lar constructions. ..he" is Z\y , 
 «"rv,val of an old adverhi U c. e form / n '' ' ' 
 noun "that." <-ast-form of the pro- 
 
 In •• Who ^octh n borrov jnrr cmr^H, 
 and similar constructions .'"f.'.^^^^'^ -^"^rowin^.." 
 old preposition. '^ ""'^''^'-'^^ "^ *''" 
 
 one must tell— »t^.--To parse an article 
 
 (0 What it limits. 
 (2; Its effect. 
 
 EXEHcisE lee. 
 
 I'arse the articles in Exereises q2 
 
 • i 
 
 J 
 
 ^11 
 
 J '4 
 
 92 and 1 14. 
 
til 
 
 ClfAITKR VII 
 '»»• \h;kHs 
 
 A vorb iM a word used, with ,.r without adjuncts 
 as the predicate of a .sentence (;,»,, •'»^'J"n<.l«» 
 
 The verb is the instrument of a.^sertion. Tsually 
 't denotes act.on ; less often. U-in^. or state r 4)^ 
 sometimes it is without meaning, havin,/.^ ert^ve 
 I>-vcr only (:,., Sometimes it is a single C 
 Himietnnes a phrase (;i«). ** *^"' 
 
 I. CLAHHIFICATION. 
 
 A. ACCORDIN,; T(» MEANING. 
 
 Classifie.1 accoHling t., mcnni„K. verbs are either 
 TraiiHltlve or IntraiiHltlvc. 
 
 IW. .•ra„»i,ivo Vcrl«._A trnnsitive verb dc- 
 notes action that passes over from the .loer of the 
 action loan object on which it falls: as, •• A hunter 
 j//(>/a<lccr" (4o). ""nici 
 
 The action expres.,ecl by a transitive verb involves 
 two persons or things, either of which may be 
 m.a<le the subject of the .sentence. In one ca e we 
 represent the action as passing from the subject : in 
 the other, as pa,ssing to i,. r„ ot,,er words, we 
 may represent the subject either .as pcrf.,rmi„g the 
 action, or as receiving or .sufTerinL. it. ri,„. .1 
 
A man 
 
 OF VKklJS 
 
 •*3 
 
 
 / 
 
 S^»metimcs, when the .subject n( fh. . 
 tlie receiver c.f the aelu,„ t. ^erb names 
 
 -^-nisnotmenti: "b th^^"'''^^^••^''•^• 
 »''^• nature of the verb wh ch "" ^■^'*''"^'^* 
 Thus:— • '"''* '^'"aius transitive. 
 
 NMlU'H-t. Art Ion. 
 A (Jeer was sU,tt. 
 
 For such verbs .is •• hiv,. •• ..^ .. 
 see .10. ''•^^'^- '°^n. "P" »ess." •• ,„,,,,i,.. ,,,, 
 
 To fho TiMU'hor ~a .. 
 
 P-sivc voice, ,h. .l.(i„i„„„ r„;,™" ■ '' "'™ ">■■ vrl. is i„ ,l,i 
 
 c'eno.e,, action, ^in;, . ':~;^.;"'""-'''^'-' '■"'' 
 
 the subject:. .s,. .-/lie :;::;i.''':!:j"-';- •■">>• 
 
 ■• E"--"Kh « as g,^, ,, „ feast .•„„;"" ^'"" ^'"•^•- '^ 
 
224 
 
 THK PARTS OF Si'EECH 
 
 Intransitive verbs art- of two kinds; (i) IWds of Complete 
 PrcduatioH, which can be used by themselves as complete pred- 
 icates : as. " The rainbow comes and i^oes ; " (2) Verbs oj htcom- 
 plele I'rcUiati.m, which cannot by themselves ^e used as com- 
 pletp predicates : as. " Enough is as good as a feast " (43, 44). 
 
 177. Home Verlw KIther TmiiHltlvc or Intran- 
 sitive. — The distinction between transitive and in- 
 transitive verbs is based solely on meaning and use, 
 and if the meaning and use of a verb chani;e, its 
 classification changes too. Hence it happens that 
 some verbs are at one time transitive, at another 
 intransitive: as, 
 
 She 7vore a wreath of roses 
 The'niyht that first we met. 
 Never morning wore 
 To evening, but some heart did break. 
 
 A peculiar instance of change from one class to another oc- 
 curs when a verb usually intransitive becomes transitive through 
 the addition of a preposition used as an inseparable adjunct : 
 as. •• They lauf^/ud : " " They !au,^r/,ed at me." That the words 
 "laughed at" in the last sentence are to be taken together as a 
 transitive verb is shown by the fact that if the sentence is thrown 
 into the passive form, "at" remains attached to the verb: as. 
 " I 7i>as laui:;he(i at by them." 
 
 Sometimes the |)re|)osition is prefixed to the verb : as, " Cresar 
 oaercMw^ the enemy." 
 
 Causative Verl>s. -Another way for an intransitive verb to 
 become transitive is by being employed in a CaiiHtil sense: e. g.. 
 
 Transit n>e : 
 Intransitive . 
 
 IiitraiiHltlve. 
 Water boils. 
 
 (aiiMiil (or (niisatlve). 
 
 He boils the water 
 (i. e.. he causes the 
 water to boil). 
 
 The causative verbs are frequently formed from intransitive 
 verbs by vuuci change (see ijeciion 17»j. 
 
OF VKRHS 
 
 MS 
 
 akin ):t'.g., ^ "^ *«"' (Cognalc iiit-aiis 
 
 ■'o fight a go(Kl fi^'ht. 
 
 To fight a hard baitlc. 
 
 To laij^rh a hearty laugh. 
 
 Thty shoutt'd applause (i. e a shm.f ^t , . 
 
 He hK>ke.| daggers at ,„e (i. e.. a look of diggers 
 
 '>«• i)arse.l as an adverb. -'.Ijecuve may of eourse 
 
 A cognate object-noun must be abstract i, i. r 
 f'e noun idea implied in the verb. represents n.erely 
 
 ■s suppressed, as in •• He l<e„ ou, „r iV "'"" "" "''J'-^^' 
 
 is reciprocated by U e ob7e V vT h ''^r ''"°'"' '^>'^'^--'^ 
 ••"I>liecl. These verbs I ke seT^.v h " '^"'*^ '"^^ ^^'"■"-' '>r 
 the sentence '• These kie'S TT'' ""' '"'••"'^'■"-- '" 
 sitive With a reciprocri ol'ee? ^^'■'^ ''' •••- 
 
 aivvays scratch when they mce '" th. ''\^^"'^"- ^ ^'-se ki.tens 
 and intransitive. ^ ' ^^^ ""'''' "^"'''t^^h " is reciprocal 
 
 Pa-sslval or Middle Vorlis .n *u 
 
 papers sold well during the war "tr^T '^"'"""^ " ^'^^^•^- 
 
 without an object. If we 'vw ''^^ '""''"'^•^ ^-^--h ^^Z is used 
 shall see that the gnmm.tir!.? 1"^ construction carefully we 
 
 for the meaning is hTt • '1 '^^ ^'^'' " '"""""'' "" '''''^^^ "''J"'^' 
 war" c . ^ '^ '"'^t news-vemlors sold nanersu.ii I • l 
 ^var. Such a verb is called /WVv,/or J/'X "'' "'^ 
 
 •" "'^^edTaL^^j!'^- "^ - a -ile." •• . .ined a day.'' 
 oWeCsof an intr::!;!^;.^ :;;;;;;; '-'- ;-. '- -nsldered •. 
 -St be treated as adverb.a, m^ ^^:;'r ^b"''"^^'''^- '^'^^ 
 
 f; 
 
:;:i., 
 
 226 
 
 THK PARTS OF SPP:ECH 
 
 EXEBCISE 167. 
 
 1. Rri>ieti> Exercises 24 and 25. 
 
 2. Teii whether the verbs in Exereises 17 and 37 
 are transitive or intransitive. 
 
 3. /// the fo/hu'injr sentences state the kind of verb 
 and the nature of the object or objects, if any :— 
 
 1. He ran a mile. 
 
 2. She dresses well. 
 
 3. He dicfl a soldier. 
 
 4. lieauty is a snare. 
 
 5. Lemons taste sour, 
 
 6. Hi- ran over the hill. 
 
 7. She dresses the doll. 
 
 8. He was named John. * 
 
 9. He overran the mark. 
 10. He stayed two hours. 
 n. The tree stayed his fall. 
 
 12. He was paid his wages. 
 
 13. He died a soldier's death. 
 
 14. He walked over the links. 
 
 15. He went home to Toronto. 
 
 16. They accused him of theft. 
 
 17. He looks every Inch a king. 
 
 18. The day broke over the sea. 
 19- He proved to be incorrigible. 
 
 20. I never forgave him the insult, 
 
 21. They arrived at the conclusion. 
 
 22. His eyes flashed fire at his foes. 
 
 23. He hit me a rap on the knuckles. 
 
 24. They remained all day out of sight. 
 
 25. If you are a man prove yourself one. 
 
 26. It seemed that he recovered from his illness. 
 
 27. We shall of course give what you say due consideration, 
 
 178. Transitive and Intransitive Distinguished 
 by Form.— A few verbs in common use are distin- 
 
$f -Tj^' '111 ■ •iibJlHR' ''~* 
 
 ■'fft'**t j'....Vi' 
 
 OF VERBS 
 guished as transitive o ,«*^ 
 
 iniT. the tran»iti:rbci:~r r^'''*--'^ »•-•"• 
 corrc.,x>„di„,.„ura„»iti.: vX Tht'atrl'''^ 
 
 ■ .. « ... 
 
 lutruuMltlve. 
 
 Fall : as. " Divided we/a//:' 
 
 Z^/. fell .as. ..Great Ca-sar 
 
 '':/lf/';f ''■'•'//'•.' fallen: as 
 She has/rt//,.,/ asleep." 
 
 Lie: as. "Z/> still. •• 
 
 Transitive. 
 
 Fell ("cause to fall"); „ 
 ^Voodmen/e'// trees!" 
 ^<»-r/. felled: as •• ti, 
 
 Lay ("cause to lie") • as " / .., 
 
 /... deJd'." ''• '^^''°'^'' ^'-- ^-A l.-.id . as. .. He /././ ,he 
 ^"s/ I\irticit,/e I, in book down." "^ 
 
 '•Haclhe/./^,hereLg?'M <X'e h^T 'i'^/''' '•■"^' ^ -• 
 Risea. ..JP- -. "^'^•'^'''"'^the book down" 
 
 ^•se.as. iP«^ with the lark." Raise r-. 
 
 I Kaise ( 'cause to rise ") ; as 
 
 P^^st, rose : as. " Then up he \ pff'- ''T ^''''^'' 
 
 rose. "I' ne -^t"/. raised : as "Hp-..- j 
 
 P.r., ^..w....... . his head " '^'"•''''' 
 
 ^?JL{',T'^'>»''''. raised: as. 
 "e has ra/i^,/ his he.-,,! •• 
 
 i ne lark has r/j^«." 
 Sit; as. "Let us «•/ down." 
 
 Set ("cause to sit"): as "9,./ 
 Past, sat : as " We e^/ I « '""""P ''" ^^"^ ^ahle." 
 
 thepiazza." • '^" ^''^ °" ^«-A set: as. "She ../ ,he 
 Past Particift/e s it • -,» n^'^P °" ^'^^^ table." 
 
 "Hehas.a/tteaINny"' ^%le h''""*^'^'^' ^^» ^ ^s. 
 
 EXEBCISE 168. 
 
 I. Z/.f. /ay, /ying, /ayt„g, /am, /aid. 
 
 I- Let him there. 
 
 - ^- Jt has neve r smooth. 
 
 . 
 
asS 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 3. I found it on the floor. 
 
 4. Now I inc down to sleep. 
 
 5. Ireland s west of England. 
 
 6. Slowly anil sadly we liim down. 
 
 7. You had better down for a while. 
 
 8. Hush, my dear, still and slumber. 
 
 9. During the storm the ship at anchor. 
 
 10. He told me to down, and I down. 
 
 1 1. The carpet does not smooth on the floor. 
 
 12. I was so weary that I down in my clothes. 
 
 13. He told me to — it down, and I it down. 
 
 14. After he had down he remcml^rcd that he had left 
 
 his pocketbook ing by the open window. 
 
 II. Rise, rose, risen, raise, raised. 
 
 1. up, you lazy fellow. 
 
 2. The price of corn has . 
 
 3. Let them up and help you. 
 
 4. She cannot get her bread to . 
 
 5. Cain up against Abel, his brother. 
 
 6. Many are they that up against me. 
 
 7. Abraham up early in the morning. 
 
 8. He himself up liefore I could reach him. 
 
 9. " up," said I, "and get you over the brook." 
 
 III. Sit, sat, set. 
 
 1. Where do you ? 
 
 2. Have you there long.' 
 
 3. down and talk a while. 
 
 4. Let us a good example. 
 
 5. She had to up all night. 
 
 6. The calamity heavy on us. 
 
 7. Let us here and listen to tlie music. 
 
 8. Yesterday we round the fire telling stories. 
 
 9. He the basket on a rock, while he went to the sprmg. 
 
OF VKKHS 
 
 339 
 
 B. ACCokrHNO Tf) FORM 
 weak „,ay be poTuled ^■'"^'"■^'"" °^ ^""^ ^' -^'-^ «-' 
 
 Classified according to form, verbs are cither 
 
 17». Sti-onwr VcrbM—Examine the forms of tho 
 verb ..give- in the following sentences -!1 
 
 TI,.V.V..,,,e.U,y. T.ey,.,..,u.„„,, ,.,,;:::.^--;-;^^ 
 
 Y<ni observe that the past is formed from the 
 present by ehangin^. the vowel ..i" to "a' ami 
 the past participle lias the suffix ••-en " 
 
 I}.j!,Mo„-A verb that forms its past tense' by 
 an n ternal vowel change, without any suffix, is 
 called a Strong Verb. 
 
 All slronj; verbs originally h.i.l the emiing ".„ " or " ^„ •• ,„ 
 
 evr. always a sij'S' a sL" ve^ " ""' ''^"^^""' ''• ^■'"- 
 
 <ore''S' rro7^^„v."he"a:r.eTs^'" --^ '•^."'=-«' ■ '^"- 
 
 Old Conjugation. somenmes called ihe 
 
 180. Weak Verbs.-E.xamine the forms of the 
 verbs - obey," ■• hope," and ..mean • in the fo low 
 
 ing sentences :_ ioiiow- 
 
 ', See Section 180. 
 
230 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 PrtNM^nt. i»ui»t. l»H«t Participle. 
 
 I oh,y you. I obeyed you. , 1 have obeyed you. 
 
 VVc hope for the Ix-st. We hoped for the best. \Vc have hoped for 
 
 the best. 
 They mean well. They meant well. They have meant 
 
 well. 
 
 You observe that IkjIIi the past tense and the 
 past participle are formed by adding •*-ed," **-d," 
 or •• -t." 
 
 DiJiNition.—A verb that forms its past tense by 
 idding "-ed,* ••-d," or "-t," i.- called a Weak Vci-b. 
 
 The past participle of a weak verb is always like the past tense. 
 
 Many weak verbs undergo an internal vowel change, like strong 
 verbs; but they differ from strong verbs in having an addetl " -d " 
 or "t" in the past tense : as. Xc\\,Xo\d; le.ich. trf//gh/ ; buy, 
 bfwgh/. 
 
 In such strong verbs as " find," " ioum\," " fight," "ioughx." the 
 "-(I " or "-t " of the p.ist tense is not a suffix, but belongs to the 
 present form also. 
 
 Some weak verbs change "d" of the present to "t" in the 
 past : as, build, bull/; send, sen/; spend, spenA 
 
 In general, the test of a weak verb is the presence in the past 
 tense of a " d " or a " t " that is not in the present. 
 
 The following verbs, in which the past tense is like the present, 
 or merely shortens the vowel sound, have lost their suffix and are 
 known to be weak only from a study of Old English : bet, bleed, 
 breed, cast, cost, cut, feed, hit, hurt, lead, let, meet, put, read, rid, 
 set, shed, shoot, shut, slit, speed, spit, split, spread, thrust, wet. 
 
 Most weak verbs are of later origin than strong verbs. Hence 
 this mode df forming the past tense Is sometimes called the New 
 Conjugratlou. 
 
 181. Mixed Verbs. — Some strong verbs have 
 adopted the method of the new conjugation while 
 retaining also that of the old: as, crow, crew or 
 
OF VERBS 
 
 «3« 
 
 '■rowed; cli^. duf: or di^r^ed ; hang, hung or hanged ■ 
 thrive, Mrc/jv or thrived. 
 
 A few verbs form their past tense accorcling to 
 one eonjugation. and their past participle according 
 to another: as. hew, /.W, /.•:..; show. sho-.X 
 Sharon ; sow, so,ved^ so,on ; swell. s:.e//ed, st.ollen - 
 wake, 'u-ohe, leaked. 
 
 I8«. Principal Part« of « Verl,._The present 
 the past, and the past participle are eoL.oni; 
 called the PrlnoUu.1 I^.rtH of a verb, because from 
 them we can determine all the other forms or parts 
 
 The prmcpal parts of a verb are the forms used 
 in filling the blanks in the following sentences-- 
 
 Prf»H««nt. 
 
 I now. 
 
 Pn*4t. 
 J yesterday. 
 
 Pa«t I'nrtlfiple. 
 I have . 
 
 EXEBCISE 169. 
 
 lul^^erlfS'^'T' ^"'''^ ''///- >//...;V r^rh, tell 
 <o/uther the verbs are strong or weak, and give the 
 reason for the classification :— ^ 
 
 arise 
 
 bake 
 
 beat 
 
 begin 
 
 l)en(l 
 
 l)eseech 
 
 t)ir.d 
 
 blow 
 
 break 
 
 brill- 
 
 build 
 
 l)iiy 
 
 Itch 
 choose 
 
 come 
 
 cost 
 
 dream 
 
 eat 
 
 fall 
 
 feed 
 
 feel 
 
 fight 
 
 find 
 
 freeze 
 
 have 
 
 hear 
 
 hide 
 
 hold 
 
 hope 
 keep 
 laugh 
 lay 
 
 lead 
 lend 
 make 
 
 seek 
 
 send 
 
 set 
 
 sing 
 
 sit 
 
 teach 
 
 tell 
 
 To the Teaoher.-To require a pupil to learn by h-^.rt the 
 prmcpal parts of all the strong and the irregular weal verbs is 
 
 ;ive:"rr"''A ;^T'- '''''-''''' "'^ table! of suc^Vrlf are 
 
 Kivcri nere. A list, however k jsicprt- ! t- t 
 
 A 1- _i!r:i, s'v jjjsertrU lur referent c in rh* 
 
^33 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPF.FXH 
 
 C. ACCORIUNO TO I'SE. 
 
 Classified according to use, verbs are either 
 Notional or Auxllittry. 
 
 I ■» 
 
 III 
 
 183. Notlottul and Auxiliary Vorli« DonncMl. — 
 
 Compare the uses of the verb •• have " la tlie follow- 
 ing sentences: — 
 
 I have a ball. 
 
 i hii'i'f lost my 1 11. 
 
 In the first sentence •* have '* expresses a distinct 
 idea or notion of its own, namely, the idea of jkxs- 
 session. 
 
 In the second sentence it has laid aside this 
 meanmg and merely helps to express the meaning 
 of another verb, " lost." 
 
 Definition. — A verb that expresses a di.stinct idea 
 or notion of its own is called a Notional Verb. 
 
 Definition. — A verb hat merely helps to express 
 the meaning of another verb is called an Auxiliary 
 Verb. 
 
 The verb that follows an .'•uxiliary is always an infinitive or a 
 participle, and is sometimes called the Principal Verb in the 
 verb-phrase. 
 
 To the Teacher.— There is much divergence among gram- 
 marians in the treatment of can, let, may, musl, oisi^ht, should, and 
 would. These verbs cannot stand alone as predicates, but are 
 always followed by the infinitive of another verb; therefore they 
 are all often classed as auxiliaries. On the other hand, can, must, 
 and ought always have meanings of their own ; therefore many 
 object to calling them auxiliaries. According to the latter view, 
 which is adopted in this book, hi, may, should, and -ujould are 
 sometimes notional, sometimes auxiliary (2L0-S224). 
 
OF VERBS 
 
 231 
 
 SXEBCISE 170. 
 
 184. Vorl«l Innootl,.„B._Vcrbs undcrg,, many 
 mo.I,ficat,on.s m form, which add to their r.„,t mean- 
 mss ccrtam ideas of time, completion, uncertainty, 
 ntnnber person, etc. These accessory i.leas are 
 attached partly by inflections and partly by auiil- 
 lanes. ^ ^ 
 
 II. NI^MBKR AXD PKRHOX. 
 
 .nil?; '""^^''**" ^"'' ^y^r^X^v and Per«o„._I„ 
 
 some languages the form of the verb changes wi'h 
 the number and person of the subject, and the verb 
 IS «a>J to^.^r.. with its subject in number and per- 
 son. In Old English such number and person forms 
 were numerous; and in the case of the verb - be •' 
 we still say: -lam;- "Thou .;./.- '• He is;" - We 
 are; "I j.^. Z' '.You «rn/' etc. Other verbs in 
 modern English have lost all their inflections for 
 number and person, except in the second and third 
 persons of the singular number, as follows:— 
 
 \\ 
 
 ■i] 
 
 ti 
 
 i '1 
 
«34 THK PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 I'trsl P.rum . I tnakc. 
 Sttomt PtrsoH: Thou niak<i/. 
 Thint I\rum: He iiiakti (iiiak.//Sj, 
 
 The termination " -st ' (subject " thou ") is uwd only in liiblical 
 anil poetical language (I.ISi.) 
 
 The ti-rminatio., " -th " or " -rth." which was once uscil instead 
 "f "-s." survives only in IJiblical language and in |M>etry : as. '• He 
 that mak'Hh haste to be rich shall nut Ik: innocent ; " " Wk, hrayeth 
 well who /,»7'irM well. " 
 
 Therefor.-, except in the verb " be." the only inflection for num- 
 Ikt and j)crson in conunon use is".s " in the third jHrson singular. 
 
 IHfl. (onHtmctioii of XumlMr 1 nriiiM. Exam- 
 ine the verbs and their subjects iti the followini,^ 
 sentences: — 
 
 A s,n^.- of duty purmn us ever. (Singular subj.-ct ; singular 
 verb.) 
 
 TrouhUs never come singly. (Plural subject ; plural verb.) 
 
 Half of theni are gone. (.Subject singular in form but plural 
 m sense ; plural verb.) 
 
 "Gulliver's Traveh" was yfix\K\^t\ by Swift. (Subject plural 
 m form but singular in sense; singular verb.) 
 
 Tom and his sister were t here. (Two singular subjects together 
 formmg a plural ; plural verb.) 
 
 Bread and butler is good enough for me. (Two singular 
 subjects taken together as one thing ; singul.ir verb.) 
 
 Neither Fred nor his sister was there. (Two singular subjects 
 considered separately; singular verb.) 
 
 You okserve that, in general, a singular form of 
 the verb is u.sed when the subject is singular or re- 
 garded as singular; a plural form, when the sub- 
 ject is plural or regarded as plural. 
 
 The principle that a verb agrees with its subject 
 
Of \KKI)S 
 
 >ii 
 
 in m.,„lH..r is i„ ,„,«( ca.sc.s f„I|.,wc,l ,.„c„„sciuus|.- 
 
 wi;.n „.. „,„„„.„ „, ,„., :.x;,„r„ .:::;;„;',;;""•" -;'• 
 
 '"■"<.« i. Ibuu„lu <,r a, a l,„,lv, 't' • "' ""■ """■ 
 
 ""•■"■'■■• (TLc c„„u„i.,« a, 'L a?a b"';""l"" '"■"■ '■"""•' 
 
 pr.f;,!.::;';::::v'z;fv :'''"•■;''■' '^ •'''■^"' '"- "™" "■^• 
 
 sulistaniivc. The followin.r » numinruf tin- mar. s» 
 
 .. , loiiowin^ sentences are correct • •• Tiw. t 
 
 t«on of paragraphs /. very inmortm. " m \ The f„rma- 
 
 '• formation.") " Fvervone of 1^ I i J .''''' "'*' '"''J^*^^' '' 
 
 L- y "'-'*' "S^'^Jf had ths fet'lincr " /ii •■_ 
 
 subject is " Every one.") letting. (Here the 
 
 Words joined to a singul.ir subject l,v •• with "" f. , .. 
 " "« addition to." or " as Well -.. " l T ''>},'eth.r with." 
 
 level as the subject but . \ "" "'" '•'^'"^ Sranunatu-.l 
 
 affect the n:!:!:: iz:^^^^::' ^"" ''''"'"' "" ■- 
 
 .//Wj it." • •^"'''*-^*^' ^=* ^^'^" as mercy. 
 
 i <l 
 
 ! il 
 
 m 
 
 {I 
 
 v 
 H 
 11 
 
 EXEECISE 171. 
 
 Co 
 
 .,/"f"'' '''''■"'-'-' -Instmi^n^ rach of the special 
 <-ses of agreement nuntioned in Seetion ,86. 
 
 Oil 
 
ayv 
 
 THK I'AKls OF M'KKCH 
 
 EXERCISE 178. 
 iMSt-rt in iiu/i of ttu N,ini's t/u f*rof>,r form of t/u 
 virb " fii," iiHil ^ivf thi rmsoii for your ihoue :-^ 
 
 I. I know you there. 
 
 2 One of you mUlaktn. 
 
 3. One or iwu ■ rt-.uly now. 
 
 4- Iwo year* a loiij; nine. 
 
 5. U«Mjki — — n tuntniun noun. 
 
 6. Five years' interest ilue. 
 
 7. A hundred yar«U — — not f.ir, 
 
 8. Then- many thnl}•^ to do. 
 
 9. Itrcad ami milk j;tMMl «h« t. 
 
 10. The public c«>rdially invited. 
 
 11. Fl.icli o( the sisters — — iKrauliful, 
 
 12. Neither of the girls very much .nt c.tv. 
 
 I J. A numlRT of the iMiys waiting outNidc. 
 
 14. Manual and physical training necessary. 
 
 15. Hither the m.ister ur his servants to Id.imc. 
 
 16. Two thousand dollars a year - a gocxl salary. 
 
 17. Fluency and eloquence two difTennt things. 
 
 18. Neither the servants nor their master to blame. 
 
 19. Neither the painter nor his picture very famous. 
 
 20. She has one of the prettiest f.ices that ever seen. 
 
 21. "Talcs of a Tr.-ivelcr " published by Irving in 1824. 
 
 22. General Cusicr, with .ill his men. massacred by Imli.in.. 
 
 187. "Don't."—" Don't," which is a contraction 
 of •* do not," and which is proper cnougli in its 
 place, should not be misused for •♦doesn't" when 
 the .subject is in the third |)erson singular. The 
 followinjr sentences are correct : •• Why liocsnt she 
 come ? " *• Why don I you s^Hiak ? " 
 
OF Vr.RBS 
 
 »J7 
 
 £X£XCI8E 173. 
 
 I. Why he write? 
 
 ^- •• »t*cm |M>«i»i|>te. 
 
 J. Shi! hkc rrtK|Ucl. 
 
 5. The . aptam say* he know what it i^ lo Iht a/raid. 
 
 IHH. fonNtriictlon or IVmui ForiiiH.-A prac- 
 tical .l.mculiy in „.si„j. correctly the i,c.r.sonal 
 forms of verbs arises when the subject consists of 
 twc. or m.,re substantives of dilTerent jK^rsons con- 
 nccted by nt/ur~.>r, or ,uif/ur-^„or. Shall we say 
 for example. •• Kither he or I /. mistaken." or 
 *• hither he or I am mistaken ? " If driven to i 
 choice, wc usually, but by no means always, let the 
 verb a^ree with the nearest subject ; or. we ^nve the 
 preference to the f.rst i>erson over the second or third 
 But It IS far better to av(,id such dirtlculties (,) by 
 usmjr some verb that has the same form for ail 
 IKTsons: as. •• Either he or I ,nnst In- mistaken ;'• or 
 {2) by rearran^rinjr the sentence: as. " Kither you 
 are mistaken, or I am;" "One of us is mistaken," 
 
 Occasionally mistakes in person are made in 
 relative clauses, the speaker for^retting that the verb 
 should have the .same person as the antecedent of 
 the relative pronoun (151). 
 
 if 
 
■) -i 
 
 i 
 
 *3» THE I'ARTS OF SI'IJLCH 
 
 III. TKNHK. 
 
 1««. Tonw Defliu'd.— Compare the verbs in the 
 folluwing sentenees: 
 
 I ste the Mrooklyn Hridgc, 
 
 I sanf the Urooklyn IJridge. 
 
 I s/ia// .ut Ihv iJrcHiklyn Hridge. 
 
 Here we have three different forms of the same 
 verb, denoting the same action, but referriuLr a to 
 diffe^rent times-the present, the past, and the 
 
 Dcfinitums.-X difference in the form of a verb 
 to denote time is called Tcuh., (OM French 
 "time"). ^ ^ 'it-ncn. 
 
 A verb that denotes present action is in the 
 Present Tense. ' i /"^ 
 
 A verb that denotes past action is in the Pust 
 
 A verb that denotes future action is in the 
 Futui-e Tenwe. ^ 
 
 lOO. 8lmp,e Tenses.-The English verb has only 
 two simple tense forms : the r«.^„t Tense, which is 
 the same as the root-form of the verb- as "I 
 «-//..•• ..I noper and the Past Tense, which is 
 formed from the present by inflection: as -I 
 '^vrotc, -Ihopcdr To denote future action the 
 present tense was at first employed, as it still is 
 occasionally: as. " We ^.;^./„ practice to-morrow. " 
 ^ Jhe methods of forming the past tense are described in 170- 
 
 101. Phi^sal Tenses.-In course of time the two 
 simple tenses were found insufficient ; and to denote 
 
 t - ' t. Hi 
 
0^ VKkHs 
 
 239 
 
 further distinctions of time verl, nhr-.c 
 
 ll-f .nfinilivc U.SCCI i„ forming vcrb.,.hr-.scs k 
 the root nifiuitivc. without •• to " (,,•„ ' 
 
 Tho participles used in forn.injj C.^b.phrasc.s -.re 
 
 the present participle and the past partidp, "' 
 
 I he present participle ends in •• -ing • 
 
 The past participle of a weak veri- is the same 
 
 s^.e past tense and e -s in ...ed.'^ ■■.arZ "T. 
 
 iary followed ., the root iniitr;:Uo:rr^^^^ 
 
 as, i s/m// jon/i' to him" ''H^, •// 
 
 Tu ... ' t" nim. He wt// wnu to me." 
 
 ine distinction between shall ■%n,\ ,,..// r 
 given in 100. snail :,vi^ ^,11 ^ f^^^^^ auxiliaries is 
 
 EXERCISE 174. 
 
 Construct scntcnas contcuning; the Present h ,c/ / 
 future tenses of ^^ fi,,, '. ,„, .^ Ji""'''' ^'"^' '"''' 
 
 action' a? cTo'l"'""" ^-fect.-To represent an 
 use the present, past, or future of - have " as in 
 anxthary, followed bv the j>ast partid;,.:^ Z 
 
 m 
 
240 
 
 THE I'AKTS OF SI'KKCH 
 
 
 
 i i 
 
 i I' 
 
 ' t 
 
 •There, I Aatr i^'rittnt my exercise;" •' Yesterday, 
 when the clock struck nine, I had xvrittcn two 
 pages;" "To-morrow, by dinnertime, \ shall luivc 
 xoritten all my letters." Since these phrasal tenses 
 denote action as completed or perfect in present, 
 past, or future time, they are called the l»ei-fec-t 
 
 Tt'll>«CH. 
 
 The I'rcweut Perfoot Tciimo denotes action com- 
 pleted at the time of speaking. It is formed by 
 putting "have" (-hast." -has") before the past 
 participle. 
 
 The PjiMt Perfect Tense denotes action completed 
 at some point in past time. It is formed by put- 
 ting - had " (- hadst") before the past participle. 
 
 The Futui«o Perfect Tense denotes action that 
 will be completed at some point in future time. It 
 is formed by putting " shall have " or •* will have " 
 before the past participle. 
 
 Originally " have " in the perfect tense phrases was a notional 
 verb, and the participle described the object, as when we now say. 
 " I have my letters written ; " " I ha^ two pages ivrittm ; " " I 
 s/ia// /lave my letters written:' Moreover, " have " was used only 
 with transitive verbs, intransitive verbs forming their perfect tenses 
 with " be : " as, " Thy sister-in-law ts gone back unto her people." 
 In course of time the participle was transferred from the object to 
 the auxiliary as part of a verb-phrase, and the use of " have" was 
 extended to intransitive verbs also : as. " The sun has gone down." 
 
 EXERCISE 175. 
 
 Construct sentences containing the perfect tenses of 
 ''fight" and '^ St amir 
 
 104. Phra.sal Tenses: Progressive. — Compare 
 the verbs in the following sentences :— - 
 

 'MMmt ..Am 
 
 OF VERBS 241 
 
 I 7i>r//i' my letters carefully. 
 
 I ,t>ft lun/iftj; my letters carefully. 
 
 Both of these sentences refer to present time, 
 but wJtii a difTercnce. In the first sentence the 
 simple present •' write" does not necessarily mean 
 that the writinjr is jr<,i„^r on at the present moment ; 
 It merely asserts a present custom. In order to rep- 
 resent an action as going on or progressing, we usu- 
 ally put a form of "be "before the present parti- 
 ciple, as in the second sentence. Since such phrasal 
 tenses denote action as progressing in present, 
 past, or future time, they are called Progressive 
 Tenm's. 
 
 The Pivscnt Progrresslve Tenso represents an 
 action as going on at the time of speaking. It is 
 formed by putting - am " (- art," •• is," •♦ are ") be- 
 fore the present participle. 
 
 The Post Projn^sslve Tense represents an action 
 as going on at some point in past time. It is 
 formed by putting " was " ("wast," " were ") before 
 the present participle. 
 
 The Future Progressive Tense represents an 
 action as going on at some point in future time. It 
 is formed by putting " shall be " or •' will be " be- 
 fore the present participle. 
 
 Now compare the verbs in the following sen- 
 tences : — 
 
 I /ui7'e 7urittcn my letters. 
 
 I have been writtn^r my letters. 
 
 In the sentence " I /lave xvrittcn my letters" the 
 verb - have written " merely represents the action 
 
 t 
 
 H 
 
I'M.;.'^ 
 
 .^mmm ^]fmat. 
 
 242 
 
 THE I'AKTS OK bl'EECH 
 
 as completed. If wu wish to atUl to the idea of com- 
 pletion the idea of previous durati(,n or pro^rress we 
 combme the perfect tenses of •• be •' with the pres 
 cnt participle: as. - I A^r ban writin^r ,, composi- 
 tion. •• Yesterday evening my hand was cramped, 
 for I //,„/ ^,v,/ 7ir///V all day;" -When the clock 
 strikes ten I s/tail have been -an-iting twenty minutes " 
 Since these phrasiil tenses denote action as com- 
 pleted in present, past, or future time, after con- 
 tinuance or progression, they are called respectively 
 the Present Perfect Pro«roH»lvo Tenst,, the P«Ht 
 Perfect ProKrc'«8lvo TeiiMc, and the Future l»tr- 
 fect Pro|jrresMi\e TeiiHe. , 
 
 Logically the present participle in the progressive tenses is an 
 attribute complement, describing the subject ; but grammatically 
 It IS best to treat it as part of a verb-phrase. 
 
 EZEBCISE 170. 
 
 Const met sentences illustrating each of the six pro- 
 gressivc tenses of ''fight " and " stahd." 
 
 106. Phrasal TenscH: Emphatic, Interrogatlvcs 
 
 and Ne«ratlve.— In the sentences " I lorite my let- 
 tcrs carefully" and "I ivrote to her yesterday" 
 ••write" and " wrote " merely assert action. If we 
 wish to make the same assertions emphatically, in 
 the face of doubt or denial, we substitute for the 
 simple tenses certain phrasal tenses formed by put- 
 ting the present or the past of "do" before the root 
 infinitive of the principal verb: as, ''I do ivrite my 
 letters carefully;" ."I did write to her yesterday." 
 
OF VKKHS 
 
 243 
 
 These phra..«I tcn.sc-s are appropriately called U... 
 I'rc«,..t Ki..„h«,l<. Tenn.. and the ,'Jt K.„.... 
 
 emphasis on the auxihary that is already present 
 as, '. I A^,^ written my letters." ^ ' 
 
 In NcKtttlvo and Interro«„tive scntcnees th.. 
 same phra,sal tenses forn.cd with ••do' and fjid' 
 are substituted for the simple pre.sen and It 
 enses, without the effect of emphasis: as,'"!"^! 
 
 fully .. ^" • ^ou .//,/ not rt'r//r care- 
 
 The emphatic meaning of the auxilinn, .. ,i„ •• • 
 merly the phrasal tenses for, .- , wi^ " 1 ■' ^ TT.^ """■ 
 equivalent to the simnU «r . '^"'' " *'"J were 
 
 emphasis. "'^'^ P*^"*^"' ^"^' P'-^^t. and cli<| not imply 
 
 The use of the auxillorv <• /!^ •• • 
 ance with the tendencHf ,'" "^f ^'^'^ ''"«^"«s is in accor.l- 
 
 ablesu?.:^:Ji^,,^;;;;;^„;'''«•• in interrogative -tences en- 
 
 into a question rhchisTnlu^h'^K' °' '""'"^ ^" --^"- 
 
 and the principal verb as -r. l '""' ''''^^^" ^" ^"-'i-V 
 
 P vero . as. ^r^ you comi„^f " "Did you Aear ? " 
 
 EXEECISE 177. 
 
 Construct sentences illnsf rating the present n«rf ^ . 
 
 .etrr\rSnTterf:rd;;eXrr„^^^^^ 
 
244 
 
 THK PARTS OF SPEFXII 
 
 Pits/ 
 Jut. 
 
 Pres. Per/. 
 PiUt P.'rf. 
 I'm. P,rf. 
 
 Onllimry. 
 
 write 
 
 wrole 
 will write 
 
 have written 
 
 had written 
 
 will have written 
 
 «lo write 
 did write 
 
 am writing 
 
 was writing 
 
 will Ik: writing 
 
 have been writing 
 
 had lieen writing 
 
 will have l)ecn writinjj 
 
 N«)lE.— Besides these regular tenses, we sometimes employ a 
 son of future tense |)hrasc formed hy combining the progressive 
 tensesof "go" with the root infinitive of the principal verb: as. 
 •* I am going to write a composition . " "I huve been goin^ to 
 li'rite to him for a week." It is best to resolve such phrases into 
 their parts, rather than to classify them as parts of the tense system. 
 The sanie is true of such phrases as " I useii to write " and " I am 
 about to ivrite." * 
 
 EZEBCISE 178. 
 Give the tense of each verb in Exercises 23 and 38. 
 
 To the Teacher — A complete discussion of the uses of 
 English tenses is impossible here, nor would it be desirable ; for the 
 tenses and their uses are. for the most part, learned unconsciously 
 from conversation and reading. The following discussion is limited 
 to the few instances in which experience shows that special com- 
 ment is helpful. 
 
 197. Uses of the Simple Present.— The simple 
 present tense has the following uses: — 
 
 1. To denote action belonging to a period of time that includes 
 the present : as. " He goes to town every Saturday ; " " Two and 
 two make four." 
 
 2. As an occasional substitute for the present progressive, to 
 denote action going on at the present moment : as, " I see a robin ; " 
 "I^^rtr thebell." 
 
 _ 3. As an occasional substitute for the future : as. " We sail for 
 Europe next Saturday." 
 

 M: 
 
 \. '"'4ilK!l.. 
 
 .PI. 
 mi] 
 
 M..,yr:.^^iar-^ 
 
 OF VERBS 
 
 245 
 
 
 108. Uses of tho Pfcflent Pnwv.»* tu 
 
 perfect ten.., ^Ui^^TZ^lTrl^^^LV'::^' 
 
 •un,. as ,.„^/,.,,,/ „, .he time of .s^ali:!" ^^ 
 
 used, mstcid of a past ten«*. ♦« i^*''''"i». »>» also 
 
 -io„o,a.co„ti„r^?::/;rnr,:j;-:: 
 
 Its ccnstquences or^^inc k 1 • '"' *'^ »ta.st in 
 
 4"^»«-c.s, or (2) as iK'Ionginir to a oeriixl .»f 
 
 tunc not yet ended : as, *» ^ ^ > ^ period of 
 
 (•) " I >*-. /../ my fx><,k •• (so tha, now I am without i.). 
 U e /u,v. //.,v/ here five years - (we live here now). 
 {') " I Aaiw seen him three times to-dayr 
 (2) " We have had a great deal of rain this yec :" 
 
 The use of a past tense in any of these sen 
 tences would cut away the action fr'i.m all con nee-" 
 tion with present time: as, <-onncc- 
 
 "I lost my book " (it may have since been found) 
 *' We lived here five years " (we have moved away). 
 " I saw him three \\vc\^% yesterday." 
 " We had a great deal of rain last year." 
 
 EXEECISE 179. 
 
 J^istin^nish bctivccn : 
 
 He studies (is studying) now. 
 
 I came (have come) to see you. 
 
 I read (am reading) Thackeray. 
 
 She always goes (is going) to church. 
 
 He hved (h.s lived) her. a good n.any yeara. 
 
 We expected (were expecting) you yestenlay. 
 
 m 
 
 li, 
 
»4<^ 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPKFXH 
 
 You liiU not lit- (have nut tinl) it f.isl cnmijjh. 
 I have writlrii (have Ikcii vviitnig) letters all <lay. 
 What have you done (have you l>cci» doing) lo-tlay ? 
 I have received (have l)ecn receiving) letters from him. 
 I shall travel (shall Iw traveling) in Kurope next summer. 
 I wrote (had written, was writing) my letter when he came. 
 
 EXEBCISE 180. 
 
 Telltvhich of the it alichcd forms is pnfirahle, ami 
 give the reason for your answer : — 
 
 1. I 7ua% (havg ivrn) here yesterday. 
 
 2. Shakespeare snyi {sai,l) that love is blind. 
 
 3. I kni-w {Ain>f Anoiun) him since he was a child. 
 
 4. How far did you say it is {loas) from here to Chicigo? 
 
 5. The earth is .1 ball that always turns (/r tumin,:) round. 
 
 6. When we saio (h,ut snn) everything in Oeneva we went on 
 tv Paris. 
 
 7. As soon as the ships were within range the Admiral o/>,»s 
 (opt-ntd) fire. 
 
 8. IJy this time to-morrow I shall pass {shall have passed) my 
 exan)inations. 
 
 9. I shall finish {shall have finished) my letter l)y tite time 
 you come back. 
 
 10. Mr. Williams regrets that a previous engagement pm^er-fi 
 (will pniunt) him from accepting Miss Smith's kind invitation .or 
 Mond.-iy evening. 
 
 190. Shall or Will.— There i.s an important di.s- 
 tinction between the auxiliarie.s u.sed in forminjr the 
 future tenses. At fir.st ".shall'* and "will" were 
 notional verbs, ".shall" meaning "to be obliged." 
 and " will " meaning - to wi.sh." At pre.sent they 
 often retain some trace of their original meanings, 
 
 V, 
 
 
II ■ ♦■ 
 
 I < 
 
 or VERBS 
 
 ^ brought .o jusC • T'*-' >°''; ""« ^W/ 
 •• shall" and ••will" an, m '^ "°' ''»«-<-ver, 
 
 'race of their oril,, lr„"''' """"'''"'■•■•'■ with no 
 
 -»" ring, and I vw/ ;:.t';:"^" *"• "T'- i-.ii .,// 
 
 Modern u.sage .nay be ;xhibi.eda» follows:- 
 
 «lmpl« Future. i/"*"5*'' ^'«»« nilded 
 
 i (we) shall r °'***''«"-'"'n««loa. 
 
 You will ' ' <^^> wi.l 
 
 ii- (they) will ;;'°" f «" • 
 
 He (Jhey) shall • 
 
 in r/a,,srs introihced bv th^ 
 expressed or understo<Kl th, '""''J"''"''^*^ '' thatr 
 that would be used ttX^T """"^^ '^ "^^ 
 ent sentence: as. •. j f^.r 2' ' '" '"^^"P""^* 
 t-in .•• (Jn^I^P-dent: "wl^J? ^ the 
 
 s K ^ •^'"''' niiss the train ") 
 
 -"^--s;^::;— r••^"- 
 In questions "shall" ic fu 
 the first person:' in the 1 i^"""^" auxihar>' in 
 
 ' ^>omelimM useil I'n » - — 
 
 ■S ■=! 
 
^M 
 
 148 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 answer : as, ' 'S/mU wc go to. morrow ? " • • ll'i// you 
 • ? " {A nswcr .• • • I wUi go. ") • ^Shaii you be glad 
 A .jn to-morrow come»?' {Ansurr: " I s/m// be 
 glad.") 
 
 "Should "and "would" are the past tenses of 
 "shall" and "will/' and in general follow the 
 same rules. See, however, itm and ittftf. 
 
 EXEBCISE 181. 
 Distinguish bet u, en : — 
 
 1. He will (shall) not go. 
 
 2. Shall (will) you be there? 
 
 3. I j'^all (will) not hear you. 
 
 4. She will (shall) not see me. 
 
 5. He thought I would (should) go. 
 
 6. We will (shall) see you to-morrow. 
 
 7. What shall (will) the admission l)e ? 
 
 8. H he would (should) help, we could do it. 
 
 9. You will (shall) know my answer to-morrow. 
 
 10. If she disobeyed, she would (should) be punished. 
 
 11. Do you think I would (should) go under the circumstances? 
 
 EZEBCISE 182. 
 Insert the proper auxiliary ( * ' shall" « • will") in each 
 blank in the folloiving sentences : — 
 
 1. we go to-morrow ? 
 
 2. We have rain soon. 
 
 3- I be glad to see you. 
 
 4- you be able to come ? 
 
 5- we ask her to come too ? 
 
 6. I = — be twelve in December. 
 
 A t 
 
 
 \',W 
 
.JCS-it 
 
 7. How I»cmHl,c|M.kaKc? 
 
 ^^ IN ilo not hurry. I u- late. 
 
 9. I ho|)e you J,e able to come. 
 
 lo. I bring a chair for the l.i,|y ? 
 
 ". Ilr think, we soon have rain. 
 
 «3. I am afraid we „,iM ,he train. 
 
 •J. She, ays .he Ik- glad .o »e. ,.,. 
 
 14. We „ever forget this kindne,,. 
 
 15. vve have tirnr to gel our tickt-ts? 
 
 16. We — Ik- plfastd to have you call. 
 •7. I ho,,e we -^ not Ik. ho la . a, that. 
 '8- Hefe..rswe ^ have to .-.sk her too. 
 '9. I fear that I — not be. -.blc.o come. 
 =0. He thinks he _ not \>c able to come. 
 
 ^•- John thinks he _ Ik, sick to-morrow. 
 "• He a,k«J how he __ ^„,, ,he p.,ck..ge. 
 
 ^3- John thinks James- be s.ck tomorrow. 
 ^4. She wonders whether we — . go to-morrow. 
 J5. It .s probable that I -_,,,,,y,,,,^,^.^^ 
 
 26. you „,eet me at the corner in five minut.s ? 
 
 27. They declare they never _ forget this kindness. 
 M. _ we have another chance at this examination ? 
 
 EXEBCISE 183. 
 
 1. He thought I be hurt. 
 
 2. We be sorry to l)e late. 
 
 3- He thought he . be hurt. 
 
 4. He thought she be hurt. 
 
 5. He thought you |,e hurt. 
 
 6. I like to see a yacht race. 
 
 M9 
 
 II 
 
 fl 
 
 i?i 
 
 m 
 
3;n 
 
 Tin: I'AHTs OF sl»^:^:cH 
 
 her. 
 
 7. NVhrtl wr (to without c«M»k«? 
 
 8. At tirtt I di,|„t think I — hkc Ulin. 
 
 9 H I trirti to w.ilk a iight-roiic. I fall. 
 
 la I .i!,kc<| hirn whether he come again. 
 
 Ill ihink they have kmiwn Jietler. 
 
 12. I reel gla.| .r she tdl mc wherein I have offended 
 
 JWMJ. MlMiimMi Form«.~ The piist tense and the 
 past iKirticipIc of the verbs in the followinjf list arc 
 often eonfounded or incorrectly formed:— 
 
 l'r«HM>iit. 
 
 begin 
 
 blow 
 
 break 
 
 bur-It 
 
 come 
 
 dive 
 
 do 
 
 drive 
 
 eat 
 
 fly 
 
 flow 
 
 freeze 
 
 forget 
 
 «o 
 
 lay (" to cause to lie ") 
 lie (" to rcclint- ") 
 prove 
 ride 
 rise 
 
 raise (•• to cause to rise ") 
 run 
 see 
 
 set ("to put;" of the sun. set 
 moon, etc., "to sink ") 
 
 l»iii»l. l*mmt Pun triple. 
 
 *»«K«n t>egun 
 
 •>l'*w blown 
 
 ' broke broken 
 
 burst biirsl 
 
 came come 
 
 dived ,|ived 
 
 <J'd done 
 
 drove driven 
 
 a^e eaten 
 
 flew flown 
 
 flowed flowed 
 
 froje frozen 
 
 forgot forgotten 
 
 KOI got 
 
 went gone 
 
 laid laid 
 
 ••'»y lain 
 
 proved proved 
 
 foiic ridden 
 
 rose risen 
 
 raised raised 
 
 ran nin 
 
 saw seen 
 set 
 
l*lfMM«Qt. 
 
 show 
 
 •peak 
 
 •lay 
 
 steal 
 
 lake 
 
 throw 
 
 wake 
 
 write 
 
 OF VKKBS 
 
 l*IMt. 
 
 kit 
 
 ■hfM)k 
 
 showed 
 
 tpoke 
 
 slew 
 
 stole 
 
 lo<ik 
 
 threw 
 
 Woke 
 
 Wrote 
 
 »$• 
 
 l*a«t INirticipi,.. 
 tat 
 
 jh^ken 
 shown 
 spoken 
 stain 
 
 i.ik'-tj 
 
 ii .I'V .| 
 
 ' ri'.cu 
 
 f '<', >/.'' '■ %f>f tH 
 
 *»f. 
 
 In „s,„K ,hc- verbs ^.,^Jt. nn^, shrink 
 
 t Is fK.ner,oconhnc the forms ...■■..•,o,h., , . 
 »he form, in " u •• ,o ,he p.... ,«r,iciple • ^ -.,7 "^'' -"' 
 mmute, .go ; - - Yes. ,he bell ha. rulgr *•''"' ""'.' "^c 
 
 £X£SCI8£ 184. 
 
 A„?z: ..- """"■■"' '-"" '■' "••■"■ -"•« ' '" "•' 
 
 1. I i/o it myself. 
 
 2. Tortj iivtms very well. 
 
 3- Harry /^-^ me coming. 
 
 4- The sun waka me e.irly. 
 
 5. The wind b/ows furiously. 
 
 6. The guests %,>, to go home. 
 
 7. They «/ in the third pew from the front 
 
 8. The Susqueh.inna River ^urJi<rtos i,s hanks. 
 
 9. Helen comes in and /„ys her coat on a chair 
 'O. Both short-stop and pitcher run for the ball 
 ". The wild Koose Jiies southward in the autumn 
 
 ,'!' tI!''J"' '^"'" "''^^' '"^ '' ^'"-y ^^'^ ^-'^ ^'•^••vccl. 
 
 13. The Negro women ../ their baskets on thHr h..,.. 
 |4. George ^n.s l,e,.er than any other boy in the c^owd. 
 '5. The catcher often iAr<nvs the ball ,o the second base 
 
 n 
 
853 
 
 THK PARTS OF SI'KECH 
 
 16. The savages who livt on this island slay iheir captives. 
 
 17. The workmen lay the rails for the track wi.h Kmit care. 
 
 18. Obedient to the doctors directions, she //« down an hour 
 
 every day. 
 
 EZEBCISE 185. 
 
 Chancre the italichid verbs in these sentenees to the 
 perfect tense : — 
 
 I. lie writt's home. 
 3. l/ortftt his name. 
 
 3. The sleeper atuakes, 
 
 4. He stall- njy watcli. 
 
 5. Ethel hroir her arm. , 
 
 6. They.<.^<; by sle.imer. 
 
 7. Some one fairs my hat. 
 
 8. I sii the Premier often. 
 9- He.<,v/j .ilong fairly well. 
 
 10. They slay their prisoners. 
 J I. The enemy .opue in force. 
 12. The boys aiv,' three times. 
 »3- I J*-/ the lamp on the table. 
 1 4- A mist risis before my eyes. 
 
 1 5. The water in my pitcher/A-,;~<r. 
 
 16. Wtsficaks his decl.imation well. 
 
 17. The boys are mtini^r their supper. 
 
 18. He t/trmos cold water on my plan. 
 19- The Ohio River tn>,rJl,nos its banks. 
 
 20. He si/s by the hour talking politics. 
 
 21. Rab sAalYs the little dog by the neck. 
 
 22. This/r.;7VJ the truth of my assertion. 
 
 23. The wind f>lo7i>s my papers oflTthe table. 
 
 24. A robin yf/W to the vines by my window. 
 
 25. John Is driving the cows out of the corn. 
 
OF VERBS ajj 
 
 26. I lie on the couch twenty minutes to rest. 
 37. This fact clearly ihoxus the prisoru-r's ^w\\. 
 
 28. He loakes me every night by his restlessness. 
 
 29. He rules alone from his house to the town. 
 
 30. They lay burdens on me greater than I can bear. 
 
 IV. MODE.' 
 
 801. M(Mle ]>eniic(l. — Comparu the verbs in the 
 following scntence.s : — 
 
 He is here. 
 
 Would he were here. 
 
 Bt here at daylight. 
 
 In these .sentcnce.s we have three different form.s 
 of the verb " be," indicatinjr different way.s in which 
 the thoujrht is pre.sented to the mind. " I.s" show.s 
 that it is presented as i\ fad; "were" shows that 
 it is presented as a mere tlum};lil (he is not here) ; 
 *' be " shows that it is presented as a command. 
 
 Definilion. — A difference in the form of a verb to 
 show how the thought is presented to the mind is 
 called Mode. 
 
 Definition. — The form of a verb used to present a 
 thought as a fact is called the InfUcative Mode. 
 
 Definition. — The form of a verb used to present a 
 thought as a mere thought, uncertain or contrary 
 to fact, is called the Huhjunetive Mmle. 
 
 Definition. — The form of a verb used to present a 
 thought as a command or entreaty is called the 
 Impenitlve M(Mle. 
 
 ^ To the Tfa^htr. In mocnUing only three nuMles the author ha* followed the 
 bent mwlcrn phil,.lo«isiv I l,r forms often clled " potential " fall easily within either 
 llie inilicativc or the sulijunciive. 
 
 Ill 
 
254 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPKECH 
 
 i; the most c„mm.,„ C^Tsid /„ ""™*""''^ 
 fact, or What is assumed to tc a\ct andT^'^' •' 
 questions of fact. ' " *^ askin^r 
 
 uncer.ain.yoruntru.histxDrt.ssrL • '"' '" '^"^^ ^^''-^^^ 'he 
 
 ;*''/^itwi,,rain;"Mlc isTf^e e^>^^^^^^^^ -• - /'- 
 
 hand, of.en expresses unc.rt.inTj ,7 " {"""*'^' °" '^^^ ""'^••• 
 Without the help of other w^d? Ts "T"^ .^^ '^^ -- /-- 
 go wi.h us." "* • ^^' ^^^^ he here, he would 
 
 803 The Subjunctive Mcnle: Form In f 
 
 the subjunctive differs from fh *'',*^'"t^" ^''^"^ 
 following ways:- ' ^ indicative in the 
 
 I- In the single case of the verb - hr. •• ♦! 
 Jiinctive has distinct forms for f h. "" ''"^■ 
 
 tenses, namely • ^^ P'*^*^^"^ ^"^ Past 
 
 Present. _> 
 
 Indicative. Subjunctive. 
 
 I aw 
 Thou ar/ 
 Hew 
 We rtr/r 
 You are 
 They <?/■/• 
 
 Thou de 
 He<i^ 
 
 You de 
 They ^^ 
 
 Indicative 
 
 I ivas 
 
 Thou waj/ 
 He 7</rtj 
 We 7vt-re 
 You tt/e7-<? 
 
 Past.- 
 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 I ic/ere 
 Thou Wt'/-/ 
 He were 
 We 7€r/*^ 
 You 7i>ere 
 
 They wm- They o/^r^ 
 
 you. I would „„', sfy .ha, . •• wl, fl ^ll '""^■' ■■ " ' -- 
 "y inai , Would that Alice mm here ! " 
 
 2. In Other verbs the subjunctive ha, tl,» 
 form as the indicative excLt Vi ! u "'''""' 
 
 -d third persons singu "r ThJe are"n "'™'' 
 endings: as, ^^® "^ personal 
 
.lyitii. i-Aii,,'.-* 
 
 OF VERl 
 
 -Present. .^ 
 
 ImliMtivc. Suhj„„c,ive. 
 
 I wnte , ^rt,e 
 
 rhou writest Thou write 
 He writes He write 
 
 255 
 
 ~ PaMt.- 
 
 ^ul)/iinttive. 
 
 i^^o^c I wrote 
 
 Thouwrotcst Thou wrote 
 He wrote- He wrote 
 
 Examples of ihk Phra.:*. c. 
 a %h, ,ha, , „„,,„, ,vLT,^'v^:;"!7"'V^-" Bring „. 
 
 s.»r, early,,.., we ^W,/ ^l. fe " .';, tT, f '^ " " '- "s 
 *«v, scream.,/.- ^ "" *"'*"' "•« mouse, she j^.»/rf 
 
 «n.ences, for example .hey iTe' """r''"'- '" "" '"""wing 
 are therefore indicafi™ JTyoT 1;";,!"' '""""'"•'<>' '-,, and 
 now;" "You ./!<,»/,/ (i. e ouirh, J, ., L "■■■ f° ?"""•«'! to) go 
 no. (I. c, was unwillllg .o, si^g;"'"* ^'jr^i^^ ^ ■•'^""« W-' 
 
 804. The Subjunctive Mo<Ie • Use« Th» ,, 
 
 junctive inode exorews ,..,■ ', ,'^*^— ""e sub- 
 
 as a fact, but as «1T ' '''-■"'«• "' ''^"'- "°t 
 
 the mind ItTsZtl "k '""''^'^ ™"^"^^'' °f '» 
 from the fac. mode l°i^d'"T'' a.s distinguished 
 or disbelief in tl^l^^-ZTtTTIr 
 quently used to express- "'« most fre- 
 
 i 
 
 III 
 
256 
 
 THE I'ARTS OF SPEKCH 
 
 1. A wish : as. "Gotl forbi.l !" •• (), that I were a man." 
 
 2. A purpose, as. •• Ju<lge not. that yc Anot/W^v./. ' •• Urine 
 mc a light, that I may see what this is. " ' 
 
 3- A possibilily : as. "We were afr.iid wr m.)rht miss the 
 tram ; •' Stiike ere it be too late." 
 
 4. A supposition regarded as untrue or unlikely . as " If I were 
 you. I would go." 
 
 5. A conclusion regarded as untrue or unlikely . as •' If I were 
 you. I would go." " If my sister had seen that n.ouse. she would 
 nave screamed." 
 
 The subjunctive is much less used than it was 
 formerly; but it is .still common in the writings of 
 authors who are artistic and exact in expression.' 
 
 «05. The Hubjiiiutlvc M«Mle: TonneK -The use 
 of the ten.ses of the subjunctive is peculiar, the time 
 referred to not always correspondinjr to the name 
 of the ten.se. Frequently the present subjunctive 
 refers to future time, and the past .subjunctive to 
 present time: as, •' Strike ere it be too late;" •• O, 
 that I 7vcrf a man." (807.) 
 
 80«. The Imperative Mode.— The imperative 
 mode expresses commands, entreaties, or advice 
 addressed to the person .spoken to. It is used only 
 in the second person ; and it has the same form for 
 both singular and plural, namely, the root-form of 
 
 ' " Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is as ro-kI .,s lott that it 
 I. doomed, and that its retention i. hopeless. If i„ f„„e,io„ were generally Ippreci- 
 •ted. It m^ht even now l,e saved. . . . Ff we lone the suhjunctivc verb, it will 
 certainly be a grievous impoverishment to our literary language, wcrr It only for Its 
 vaue in giving variation to dictir and I make bold to assert that the writer who 
 helps to keep it up deserves public gratitude.* -7#,|« EarU : " English Prose Its Flc- 
 ments. History, and Us.ige," p. ,7?. ' 
 
or VKRItS 
 
 »S7 
 
 the verb: as. "/A- j,,,,, .,,„,, ^,.,„ . 
 
 mercy „„ u.,." It is usually distinguished from he 
 present md.cative by the omission of the subjl",! 
 
 tor "let " as an imperative auxiliary see tf 10. 
 
 EZEKCISE 186. 
 
 m/ the mode of each verb tn the follow tng sentences 
 andgne t/u- reason for your opinion:^ ' 
 
 1. God forbid. 
 
 2. Love mc. love my dog. 
 3- I could cry my ryes out. 
 
 4. Thy money perish with Ihec. 
 
 5- The law is good if a man use it lawfully. 
 
 6. He serves h.s party I,est whc. serves t i.e country best 
 
 7. Gather up the fragments that remain, that nothing be lost 
 
 of them.''' """^ '^'' '" '" '"' ^°"'' ^''"^ '^^'-^^ '«-. '" ^ seen 
 all men. " "" """'''• " '""^^ ^^ ''^^'^ '" y°"' "^ »— ^^'X with 
 a ^Cn^Xr^ftr ^' '-'"--- '- '^- •^"o- - what 
 
 not::.sr:;:r:he;^;;:;r°^'*^^ 
 
 over'in.nfh ''^'',' '''^''' ""'■■"" ^'^^'^ ^'^ '"'Ji^^ ^^'"J ^''oice grain 
 over mto this wilderness. * 
 
 his neck' aTcn^'"': '"■';" ^'"' ' -illstone were hanged about 
 nis neck, and he cast int(j the sea. 
 
 
:iJlii-JRAiLiil&£A.\r m- 
 
 J58 
 
 THE I'ARTS OF SPKECH 
 
 «.>• .r ::zT. i;:;r,' :;r, '"""•" ' •^^" -•"■' '-x "»- 
 
 T- , . Come what come m.iv 
 
 Time and ,he hour runs ihrough ,hc roughcs. day.' 
 •«. Shall 1, wasting in despair, 
 
 Die liecause a woman's fair? 
 Or make pale my checlis with care, 
 
 'Cause another's rosy are ? 
 Be she fairer than the day. 
 Or the flowery mcitls in May. 
 If she tjc not so to inc. 
 Wliat care I how (.air she be? 
 
 807. M.H1CS In Conditional SontcnocH—A sen- 
 once contain n^ , ,„pp„,i,i„„ „^ ^^^^.^.^^ . Aj - 
 
 refer to present, p, st. or future time. If it refers 
 o pre.sent or past =me, it may b.= viewed by the 
 
 with nothtng imi.hcl as to its truth ; if it refers to 
 he future, ,t may be .wed as either likely or u„! 
 likely. A supposition ^.i.i^h is as.sumed to be true 
 or whteh ,s made without any hint of its ineorreet 
 nes,s, ,s expressed by the indicative: as, -If it L 
 
 v3'b?thr"°' r" "" ■""pp''^"'"'' -"-'• - 
 
 viewed by the .speaker as untrue or unlikelv is 
 
 character of the supposition makes the conclusion 
 «nt™e or unlikely, the conclusion also is e.xpre^:d 
 by the subjunctive: as. "If I,„...y„u, U„Jnot^,, 
 In clau.ses that express conditions, the PrJLt 
 «"bj„net.vc refers to either/...™, „r /„/„.. Z" 
 and .suggests ,/Mit. ■' """• 
 
OK VKRHS 
 
 »S9 
 
 The rittt 8nhl,,n<flv„ rcrcrs to frcscHi //«.• a„,i 
 .mp .es that the suppasition is „o, „jj. " ""' 
 
 I he n«t IVrfoct B..IJ,.„i.„ve refers to f«u /,„,, 
 and .mphes that the .supposition «-,„ „o> //."> 
 
 which ,.,cr .otm. ;rr'; ,", r " ■'"""'r ■ ""•'"''•"'• 
 
 ever) ,i rants, I stay at home." " ^ - ''*'*'"" 
 
 Note 2. Sometimes there is no " if " o« ^ .k 
 l«'.ot,hcv.rl,prc.„.,e,,lK'uLct , ..,, J^'""' 7" °' ' 
 
 »>: ine same lorms as clauses inlroduced by " it." 
 EZEBCISE 187. 
 
 Z7Lt!l' ^ "■' """"'• "•••' ''■" ■'■'■ """'•■ -/ 
 
 go. M „ she L lone, . Jo^hav; g"ne '°"^- ' *°""' 
 
 2. («) If he follows my .idviee, he will succeed ffl irh. < i 
 
 lowed my advice, he would succee,] M H, T^ ,,, ^ '"'■ 
 advice, he would have succee W 7, I hlx , •"°""' '">' 
 advice, he would succeed. ' ''"'"''' '°"°* ""y 
 
 (« 'r'"he sp:.':;?^th'rwi,f:o;'°^' r "-"' =■" '"'"--■ 
 
 If 
 
26o 
 
 THE PARTS OK SPKF.CH 
 
 »"' . > o, ih.il he hiul liccu irulhful ? 
 
 6. (rt) Even though H i, raining. I will go. (M Kvcn thmiaK 
 .. ra.n. , .^U go. u) Kvcn though It .hould r.U. 1 wo hi go 
 
 WIN go (/) Kvcn though It rain«l. I w»ul<l go. (.,) Fvrn 
 Hough It has r«in«|. I w.II go. (4) Kvcn though it h. cl r.I.cd 
 1 would go. (/) Even though it had rained. I would have gollc 
 
 '-"1 
 
 I- 
 
 EZEBCI8E 188. 
 
 Ten which o/fhr iialuizal forms is preferable, ami 
 gtve the reason : — 
 
 1. I wish I nuts {u'fn) a man. 
 
 2. I wish she 'was (wt-re) at home. 
 
 3. H I mis {loern you. I would stay .it home. 
 
 4. The train could go faster if it ,oas («vr., nece«ar>- 
 ^^^^5.^Though a liar sp^als ^sp^ak^ the truth, he will not l>e |«. 
 
 ^^6. ^Though gold is (^.) more precious than iron, it is not «> 
 
 V. VOICE. 
 
 808. Voice DcllncMl.— We have already seen 
 (4a, 175) that a transitive verb may represent the 
 subject as doing the action expre.s.scd by the verb 
 or as receiving it: as, -fohn frightened Helen;" 
 ''Helen was frightened hy John." 
 
 Definition — A diflference in the form of a verb to 
 show whether the subject acts or is acted upon is 
 called Voice. 
 
 Definition.^ThQ form of a verb that represents 
 
OK vr.Rns 
 
 a«t 
 
 the subject as dointr an actum is called the a..,Iv.. 
 
 />yf«,W.«._The form cf a verb that represents 
 he subject as receiving an action is called the 
 
 PUHMIVO Volw. 
 
 800. Fomi or the Piu^ivo V«lc^.-Comparethe 
 following sentences:— 
 
 (Acttv,) i<roctt%sf/i\niixcr. 
 (Passtv,) JJuUcr h so/,/ by grocm. 
 iAitn.,) Tlu. Queen a//)<,/«M/ Lor.l Aber.lcrn. 
 {iassn^,) Lor.l Alnrnlcen u'.,^ appomi.j by ihr Ourrn. 
 UUtfvf) The manager Tt;/7/.^./7.^ y„u a ticket. 
 (/a«m) A ticket W// ^ ^,;>v« you by the mannjjrr- or(.Hrc-i 
 ».onally,. Vou ,.///^.,,^.,« ., .jeket by the manager.' 
 
 You observe that the passive voice of a verb is 
 formed by putting a form of the verb - be " before 
 the past participle. 
 
 You observe, also, that when a sentence is changed 
 from the active to the passive form, the object of the 
 active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb 
 
 1 he subject of the active verb becomes an ageni 
 after the passive vcrl>~a relation expressed by the 
 prc'iKjsition "by." ^ 
 
 An objective complement lH..comes an attribute 
 complement (4i>). ^^ 
 
 nht". '"«'"'' .''^^'"^"' "'"^">^ '^'"^""-^ ^^ indirect 
 object. Sometimes, however, it is made the subject 
 
 of the passive verb, the direct object then becom- 
 ing a "retained object" (58).' 
 
 ' Ihough this illoBical construck... is M.p,wte.l bv e..-.IU«. .w • . ■ 
 demneU by some gra».murians. ^ excellent aulhon.y. it „ con. 
 
ylj 
 
 TIIK PARTS OK SPKECH 
 
 I 
 
 UESCISE IM. 
 I . Rn'ia,. F.xmisf, 37, 34. „„,, ^g 
 
 «rok« fell »„« oaU , ;' h, . "°*" ' «'""' """''• '■ Li««« 
 
 ■..an made u. ci.Ucns mn. T, . Pl^nlinj.' „. |te,o„ 
 
 of br«.l Ihrow "ta iAf r..^;"° """'1' " """• 'J A crumb 
 
 ""->■ .7. She ,„|d m< ,„ , and „,f " ,t "."' ,'"'" '"^r ••""" 
 «n.l hav. „„, r,ferr«l ,„ i, "^^ "'" ''J'.' ''™''r' "" '"'')'"■ 
 
 - Mh. «, The «„„„d.d':;:v, ':ij.tk l'h rr"^ •"'"" 
 
 mat tongratulations av shdwert-.l ,,« .. i 1 newspaix-rs 
 
 >4S3 Co„„a„.i„„plc sa. cXd ; * ' 'VT '"'"''"• ■•• '" 
 capilal o( their empire. ' ' "" ^'"^' ""'^ "'"'I" 'h* 
 
 ire^«././ "utr • '""J^"- '^S ' Our reve s now 
 ^ ^^ •^""'^ • ^^"«-li constructions must 
 
 • Tki, planting, thr Colony of Plymouih. 
 
^atik^. 
 
 or VKRIIS 
 
 i^S 
 
 .;"«re«.vc .„„.„. Whirl rirt'^'::;''' 
 
 ,V." *"""■"• (' ™»fc«„vc.) •• The birds <„, sm^r. 
 
 ZZZSCI8S 1M>. 
 
 I- Ki-i'i.io /■jcereisc 22. 
 
 ■'■.ri.f/,r„s.,.-. ""<fl"-'»'s or p„ru o/ f„un, 
 
 w.i» well ,„/„^M/ „, „^i,^ J '" >"''"'">■ /• ri« »l*c.aclr 
 
 I. Annie is studyini; htr h ssnn ^ t i . 
 »'i» l^itf. 3. The lion nml ,h "' *'^"' '**^'^" '"'^"'""Jf 
 
 arc sh h nff briirhilv A tk- K-«>ucrRr. 5. 1 |,f M.irs 
 
 7 n. .„i '^'^"y- ^- 'he grammar class is lauirht bv Miss M 
 
 7. By wi,o,n was this Ink spilled ? 8. In it raining ? ^ ' 
 
 Ltl 
 
 of the 
 
 Inflnltl 
 
 nature 
 
 VI. INFINITIVES. 
 
 ve is a form of the verb that partakes 
 of both verb and noun (03). 
 
 If 
 
•r J- 
 
MICIOCOTY RISOIUTION TiST CHART 
 
 (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No 2) 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 1.25 
 
 ■ 56 
 
 Li 
 
 Hi 
 
 a. 
 
 ■ 2.8 
 
 ■ 40 
 
 1.4 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 ^ APPLIED \t\MGE Inc 
 
 ^^ '653 Eost Mam Street 
 
 S'.S Rochester New York 14609 USA 
 
 '■^^ (716) 48;,: - 0300 - Phone 
 
 ^= (716) 288- 5989 - Fo« 
 
364 
 
 Tiir: i'AF<rs ok spkixh 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 ail. Nature of Iiifliiiilvos. — Iiifitiitivcs are in- 
 termediate between verbs on the one hand and 
 nouns on the other. They express aetion, bein;^-, 
 or state, and take the same adjuncts or modifiers as 
 the verbs from wliieh they are formed; but they 
 iiave the constructions of nouns. They dilTer from 
 verbs in not beinj^ instruments of assertion ; they 
 differ from nouns in having the adjuncts of verbs. 
 An infinitive is "a verb in a substantival aspect." 
 
 The Maine "infinitive" means "unlimited," and refers to tlie 
 fact that the action, l)einjj, or state expressed l)y an infinitive is 
 usually not limited to a |)ar(icular subject or time: as. "To climb 
 steep hills recpiires strenjfth and endurance." 
 
 The indicative, subjunctive, and imptraiive forms of the V( rl). 
 which take the person and number of their subject, arc oflt n 
 called Finite (" limited "; verbs. 
 
 212. Form of Inflnitivos.— With rej^ird to form, 
 infinitives are of three principal kinds. 
 
 I. The Hoot-Iiiflnltlve, which always has the 
 same form as the root or simple form of the verb : 
 as, "Better iccar out than rust out;" "You need 
 not ivaitr This simple Root-Infinitive is used as 
 follows: — 
 
 OO After verbs of perception - V/^vf/-, sec, fed, ohxcrve, petceivv. 
 A-ni>7t', tic: "I heard him s/tit;." " 1 saw liim r/oi." Yet some 
 verbs of perception take the " to '• form : as. " I felt him /o be 
 honest." 
 
 {b) After the Auxiliaries— j//(r//. 7iv//. may, do: "Do not interruM 
 me." 
 
 {c) After may, shall, 7i<ill, used as Principal verbs : " He may come 
 if he wishes to." 
 
 {a) After certain verbs— /v. /,/</, w<?/{v,etc.: "We m.ide him ans^ver." 
 
or vKKhs 
 
 265 
 
 0') After certain txpressions //a,/ />.//.,, had (wouU) rath,,- 
 " V'ou had bctiLT i;o." 
 
 (/) Alter tht: conjunction ///„;,. •• Rather ;han do that I wuuld die." 
 
 2. The lt<H>t-iiifiiiitivi> Willi »Mo:'' as, •It is 
 bettor to i^rar out than to ntst out;" "I prefer 
 toMiit." The Infinitive with -'to" is frequently 
 called the Civniiullai Iiillnltlvt. from a supposed 
 eonneetion with what we now eall the " (Jerund." 
 
 3. The Inniiltlvt' In --Intf,'' «,i- (ionnul: as. "She 
 understands boiliu^i^r ^n egg better than anybody 
 else." 
 
 The gerund is usually active : as, 
 
 PriStHt : Loviiifj. 
 Perfect : Havinj; loved. 
 
 The passive gerund is occasionally found : as, 
 
 Present : Iking loved. 
 Perfect : Having been loved. 
 
 A gerund is in function a noun-verbal. In the 
 last example given above it takes a direet object 
 like any transitive verb. But in the .sentence, "He 
 is fond of Milking," it is used solely with the force 
 of a noun. The present participle (which bears the 
 same form as the gerund) is an adjective-verbal 
 (see 2i«-ai8), and should not be difficult to distin- 
 guish. There is one construction, however, which 
 might give rise to some difficulty, as in these two 
 examples: — 
 
 " We did not like his coming so often." ((ierund.) 
 "We did not like him coming so often." (I'articiple.) 
 

 AR'"' Y 
 
 j56 THK parts ok SI'KKCH 
 
 When a possessive noun or pronoun precedes the 
 fcrrn in --ing." the latter must be parsed as a 
 
 ircrund. , v«r ^ 
 
 In funetion it is often difficult to detect a differ- 
 ence between the gerund and the infinitive Nv-ith 
 - to.*' althou^di the forms are so different. In the 
 following examples they have both the value of ab- 
 stract nouns: " To see is to believe;" and "Seein'C 
 is believing." Yet in Hamlefs soliloquy, " To be 
 or not to be," we feel that a substitution of the 
 gerund forms, " Being or not being," would impair 
 the force of the passage. Again there are many 
 constructions in which only the gerund is permissi- 
 ble • -IS - He was punished for not coming in time, 
 and conversely many constructions in which only 
 the infinitive with " to " may be employed : as, "He 
 was advised to come in time." 
 
 The gerund is not identical in form with the 
 participle only. It also resembles in its present 
 tense the verbal noun in "-ing." 
 
 .. He praised him for the /nuMtg of liis men. " (Verbal-noun.) 
 
 '. He praised Iiim for /um,///n^^ his men so well." (Gerund.) 
 
 This gerund form is really, as will be shown in 
 
 the next paragraph, the old verbal noun broken 
 
 down and disguised by the omission of the article 
 
 and the preposition following. 
 
 ai.J. History of Inflnitlve Forms.— 
 1 The lloot-Influltlve and the Gerundlal Infin- 
 itive -In Old English the Infinitive ended in "-an," 
 (or "-ian"): as,dmian. In Middle English this was 
 
OF Vr.RHS 
 
 a67 
 
 chanj^el to .e„."and later to ..-c: - as. W..^/..,, 
 St later the ..e" was dropped, and the modern 
 biiul was reaehed. Let us now en<,uire how the 
 preposition .'to" eanie to be employed so widely as 
 the sign of the Infinitive. 
 
 The Vhc of *Mo- as an Infinitive Nl^n.—Wh it 
 we now eall the C^on.naiul Inflnhlvo was in ()!d 
 Knghsh merely the dative ease of the simple infini. 
 tive preecded by the preposition - to: " as, 
 
 " Ut eode se sidcre his si'd to sru^rnmr 
 •' The sower went out to sow his seed." (Adverbial.) 
 '• r;ehyre se «e earan haibbe /.7,C'/'J'r.^////r." 
 " He that hath ears to hear let him hear." (Adiee 
 tival.) ■' 
 
 C'-anne " or --enne " was the inflectional ending- of 
 the dative infinitive.) 
 
 • 1 fT^T'^f V^*" '""'^ "■"*'" ^^^^'"^'^^ ^'-^"^^ ^'•«"i the 
 older Middle English form "-en," was dropped from 
 
 the root infinitive, there was nothing to distinguish 
 It from many other parts of the verb. Conse- 
 quently, as a distinguishin^r si^^n, the preposition -to" 
 u'as borrowed from the dative and prefixed also to the 
 simple root-infinitive. This use of " to " as a regu 
 lar infinitive sign dates from the end of the twelfth 
 century, and became so widespread that the infin- 
 itives without - to " were restricted to the instances 
 enumerated above. The dative case ending "-enne " 
 had meanwhile fallen away, and nothing remained 
 in the form to distinguish this dative from the root- 
 infinitive with " to." 
 
 iU 
 

 368 
 
 Tin: PARTS OF SI'EKCII 
 
 2. TlH. Inflnltlvo In **.|„«r,- „,. C;oiMii,<l._Thc 
 
 jferund f„rm in "-injr" was developed in early mod- 
 tM-n Kn^lish. In Old KnKlish the term -gerund " 
 has reference to the dative of the infinitive with 
 "to, which we now call the jferundial infinitive. 
 N(>w. this dative ending "-enne" never became 
 "-ing." but was lost entirely. Therefore, the term 
 " gerund " is somewhat of a misnomer. 
 
 The only form which in Old Kngli.sh ended in 
 "-ing "(or-.ung- )was the verbal-noun : as, Av;/-;/-//;/^. 
 or Av.r,/-/;/^r. "learning." These nouns in "-ing" 
 were only verbal in the sen.se of being formed from 
 the stem (,f the verb, like many words, .such as 
 " steal-th." which have no verbal functions. They 
 pos.se.s.sed none of the functions of the verb, but 
 were nouns by inflection and usage. Thus' our 
 modern gerund phrase: as, "He A-as puni.shed for 
 ^Av/////^'-a purse," would have been originally -He 
 was punished for ///r sf,o/wjr of a purse," where' 
 "stealing" is clearly a verbal-noun. 
 
 During the Middle Engli.sh period (the Old Eng- 
 lish present participle having meanwhile changed 
 from --inde" to "-inge"),a confusion arcse be- 
 twcen the verbal-noun and the participle, which 
 had now become identical in form. The present 
 participle was regularly followed by an accu.sative 
 and therefore it was felt that the verbal-noun should 
 likewise be followed by an accu.sative. So by the 
 omi.ssion of the article " the" and of the following 
 prepo.sition, the sentence " He was punished/,,/-///.- 
 stcahug of a purse " became corrupted to •' He was 
 
OF \ i;i<ns 
 
 3^>9 
 
 punished /.r ./,,;//,,,. a purse." where - stealitur - is 
 cliatiKcd in function fn.m a noun to a verh ' 
 
 The eonipcund tenses of the Kcrund were formed 
 in imitation of the partieiple forms: as. " He wis 
 punished for liavwi: stolnt a purse." 
 
 AV./,,;// The m.Hlern gerund is derived from the 
 ^>lc I'^uffhsh verbal-nouns in ..-un^.' and "-in.r - 
 and owes ,ts new funetio , to the inHuenee of the 
 Mnld e Ivn«hsh partieiple forms in 'Mngie;- from 
 the older "-inde." 
 
 NoiK. - Then- is ai, infinitive, ronstrurlion in F.nRl.sh which h-.s 
 -cas.on...| nuuh .liscoss... an...n« p..,is.s. (,,,„i^ |, ™ 
 
 rr "\"7T '■•"«'"''• •''^- •'-"•«•'• M-'Uh.ws. in a r t 
 e.sa> .n wluoh he n.akes a pl.a for Rreater fl.x.h.Nty of sneec 
 consuiers .he cons.ruct.on ,o b.- jus,if...<i „n ,h. sc.e of usage " 
 l-.xan,,.ios ,.f ,|,e "spl,, infinitive- placed hesule the .rj-ulir 
 ronstruction are as follows.- ^ 
 
 spilt htfinUive: " I wish lo clearly point out." 
 " I wish to point out clearly." 
 
 Split hifinitiv,: " I hope to soon go and see you." 
 •• I hope soon to go and see yru ' 
 
 EXEECISE 191. 
 
 /Crvinc' 7:rrrdsr 9;. /r/.v, M. r.ol.i„^„ilirr /. 
 prarM by ^^tor Ull u'/ut/nr or not -to" i-^^ ^r. 
 force of a prrposjtioti. 
 
 Jids the 
 
 -14 Tonsos oftholnflnltlvo.-Withthe infini- 
 tives of 'M^e " and "have" as auxiliaries we form 
 certain T>hms,u infinitives corresponding^ to some 
 ten.se forms o*" ♦'-- -•-■'• ■• - 
 
 le indicative, act 
 
 iveand pa.ssivc 
 
 as 
 
270 
 
 Tin: I'Ak IS OK si'Kixii 
 
 ill 
 
 
 ArTi\B. 
 f^rruHtPro^rress/v,: •' \ ,.x,k.. t /,, f,, ,,.,,„„^. ,..,„.„.. 
 
 "^ " ' ■ '■ ' •"" '">Ty to /,„'.'.• Mill.n s„ poorly." 
 
 " ' '« W'ls reprov. .1 f„r //<,7v,/c x/'///Av/ ii." 
 Inf.,t I n^r,ssr.e: " I ou^ht /o /,av^ hrn ,..r,n,,,' n.y .xcrcisr." 
 
 "HiH .irti, was cratnpcil from his Aavin^ 
 i>tin 'a<ritini^ all morning.' 
 
 PrfsfHt: » The cx.rcise must b,- rcr/t/en." 
 
 " She (lislikr.) /i,/>nr, „//,,,/. pr„,„,.. 
 /•r/^r/ ; .. jhe (-x.-rcLsc ought A; Aav, hen tvrin,-,!. " 
 
 " She is angry at ^l7'/>/^^ M„ calhuP |)r..„,|." 
 
 The infinitive forms may be tabulated as follows: 
 
 lt<M>|.|iiMiiitiv,.H „,H| <i«.rnii«||alM. 
 
 A( TIVK. 
 
 ''■' Ordinary. , •, 
 
 P" :"'""*^- Pol l,e writing. 
 
 [toj have written. {,„] ,,,.,^ j^.^.„ ^.^j,.,^^, 
 
 -J f'ASSIVK. 
 
 I ft'st'nt : ( to] be written n^.f. t r. i i • 
 
 ' -■ ^^'"«"- '''^V"''- I ">1 l>ave bten written. 
 
 lutliiltlveH III "-lii^f," „r <;».piiiui„. 
 
 ACTIVK. 
 
 '—Ordinary. > „ 
 
 Presa,f: writing. Pro^rc^s-ve. . 
 
 ^Vr/,r/ .• having written. having been writing. 
 
 Passive.' 
 
 /Vr-frw/.' beinc called n.^f,.* i 
 
 ^ '^"- /'^r/rr/ .• havuig been called. 
 
 A Prt'sint Infinitive denotes aetion which is in 
 complete at the time expressed by the prineipal 
 verb : as, " He tries /. :.r//./' •■ He tried /. ^.ril ■" 
 " lie will try /o write. " 
 
 A Perfect Infinitive is properly used to denote 
 aetion which is completed at the time expressed by 
 the princ ipol^verb : as, "Alfred is said to have draJn 
 
 ■ l*..ss|. e i„fi,.inv„ in •• -i.,g " ..re rnr.. occurring o„ly wl.h , .r.ain verb,. 
 
OF VERBS 
 
 ■i7t 
 
 up a body of laws:" "I fdt glad /o have sent 
 Niajrara Falls;" - I shall be glad /., haw fimshui 
 my task." 
 
 hlxu-piion.-" {^^^^\^x:' "must." "nccl.' and " shouUI ' (i,, the 
 stnsf of •• .mikIu ••) have no (hhtiuctivc form to .knotc past tmit- • 
 and will, ihfsf vcrl,s chstmclion.s ol lime art- (ki.ote.l |,y . h in^i.-s in 
 the form of the- following infmitive. the pr.-scnt forms .leiu.t.n^: ..res- 
 eMtt.n,e..-.,ulthe,,erf.ct forn.H past time: as. •• Vou ou^'ht a',v." 
 
 N .». ou«ht io have, on. ,■ " •• He .should f..- .areful." •• He should 
 //<!.'. Mv, careful. A similar us. of ,lu- infi.u.iv.- fnnns t.> denote 
 t.mejs found after .'couM- an.| •• nuKht .„ s.,„... .,f „,,,r ..ses : 
 as I rouM.^.,,. ..I cc.1,1 have^ro,,,-,.'- '. Yuu might ./«.w." 
 
 N ou mi){ht //«i7v ansuYnu/." 
 
 EX£BCISE 192. 
 
 1 . Construct snitnurs illustratin^i; the use of the dif. 
 ferent tenses of the infinitive. 
 
 2. /;// ,.,hieh of the italieized forms is ri^^ht. and 
 give the reason : — 
 
 1. Lee intended to attack {to have attacked) at dayl.r.nk. 
 
 2. We meant to start {to have starte.i) long ago. 
 
 accident'' ^'' ''"''"'"'' '" ^''^'"'^ ^'^ ^"'"" A'^""^'"') «"<-»' an 
 
 4. He Is said to lose {to have lost) ten dollars. 
 
 5- It woultl have Ik-ci, better to -wait (to have loa/ted) 
 suspici^r''"''' "^'^'"■^(/'''^''•/"'■''^'^) ^" ^^'■"'^se {to have aroused) 
 
 815. Constructions of the Infinitive.— The in- 
 
 fitiitive. with or without adjuncts, is common in the 
 following constructions: 
 
 to nhf rf '' "^ " ^ ''V ''• " '^"^"'^ ^^"'^ '^ ^^^y • " "^""? able 
 
 to play the piano is not knowing music." 
 
 i 
 
 
i72 
 
 THE I'AK IS OK SIKKCH 
 
 Ibwcr« • • III . I 7a : KriMitsi pleasure is /o rauf 
 
 Here beloMK luMoncally. infinitive, u«-.l after -ought. ••. muM " 
 ^;;-. •••>-i/-'can/aaduMcrb,.,.ra..afu.rao.!lJ;icMi;::i, 
 
 4. Object 0/ a PrtfHHition : as.-irr ha.l no rhoicr l.ut ri e 
 
 EXERCISE 193. 
 
 tiipnittvi' in ^'-ing''). "'"'Ktr 
 
 VII. PARTIC'IPLKS. 
 A Pnrtlolplo is a form of the verb that partakes 
 of tlie nature of both verb and a.ljcetive. 
 
 «I«. Nature of Pn,.tlt.l,,io«.-Participles arc in- 
 termediate between verbs on the one hand and 
 adjeetives on the other. They express action, be- 
 inff. or state, and take the .same adjuncts or modi- 
 fiers as the verbs from which they are formed; l,nt 
 they have the constructions of adjectives. Thev 
 differ from verbs in not bein^^r instruments of assc,-- 
 tion: they differ from adjectives in havin.. the 
 adjuncts of verbs. A participle is '-a verb hi an 
 adjectival aspect." 
 
OK \ KKILS 
 
 Vi 
 
 for 
 
 ^17. Form "f tho P.,rilc.|pUH*.-.\VitI, rejrar.l l., 
 •", participles arc of two principal kin.ls:-. 
 
 I. The IW.U innlclpus lornad f ,.,, ,.„ 
 
 f the verb by aUdu. , •• .i„g:- as. •• The girl n.n/ 
 
 roin I he rcM.t 
 
 ///i,'- a !)<M)k i 
 
 my 
 
 cousin. 
 
 The present participle dcscriU-s an action as 
 KoiH^t^'on at some particular time. 
 
 2- The l»,wt Turtlclphs usually formed from 
 the r(M)t of the verb by aihiing "-cd.'" •• .d ' .. t • 
 -■cn.-or ...n"(,7n, iho): as. •• Tlic plam ,w//,/ 
 AJKhtslmde is poisonous;- -The Ijook A,/v// fmm 
 my desk has been returned." 
 
 The past participle describes an action as/,,,/ or 
 <('/////, Av/ at some particular time. 
 
 With the participles of "be" and "have" as 
 auxdiaries we form certain l»h„i„,n Punielpi..., as. 
 
 Active. 
 
 p'-{fl*/n "lf,iv,'n^ ivrillnt n.y Irtlors. I wtut t.. hr.l." 
 
 t'r/e,tln^ressnH': '• //.,;/,,,. /,,.•./ ;..,//,>/. all .lay. I a.n t.r. ,|.•• 
 
 /'^«•Jr<'///; 
 /Vr/V^/.• 
 
 P.V».S|VR. 
 
 /'V///C 'i'f ///.•» in ink. the nanu- was |,ar.l 
 to er.nsr. 
 
 t.iint'd many niistakts. 
 The participles may be tabulated as follows:— 
 
 ACTIVH. 
 
 /;r...«/.- wri.in,.. />,^y,,,, :,avin,. uri..en. 
 
 / " v/ .• wratcn. y v,y;v/ /V,;,.,>..v/rv . I. . vin-j Ik .-n w, ilin;;. 
 
 /''V.V.,/.. being written. /W. writt.-n. /'..y,, / , |,av in-.^ !,,,„ 
 
 writltn. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 I 
 
■'■« *. 
 
 ti, fe 
 
 l. '.*■ 
 
 
 ilf^ 'ii. 
 
 '^■» THfc lAK TS OK SI'KECH 
 
 £Z£RCIS£ 194. 
 
 1 . Kit'itu> lixtrcise y<>. 
 
 2. /W/// r>w/ M, tortiapUs u, /\trfs /ff ami fl' of 
 I'.xtrau 15. ami h// //,, I, use 0/ uult. 
 
 «IH. CoMMriK'lloim of Piirth.|,,le«_I»articiplcs 
 
 layc all the crclinary uses of mljcctivcs. and the 
 l«'llowiin^ sjHJcial nscH in addition:— 
 
 -....• a..ndantac.io..orcorul.ion:n,.4.,/,, .. ,;„, 7,; 
 » -r,. I ,pranK to .h. Hin.low;' ...Morn. ...,/•./ ,,y „,.. cir. „ ' 
 
 J. .//Air^v/ to ., X.,m/,i„//;, AholuU (I2SJ): ns "Nu.hl 
 "•////«;' on. wfliKher.1 a fin..- *^ 
 
 for vo.r -^^ ,;''-^''-'^ /« /^rA-/V^..,.. ,,. .. M.„h„ ,, ^,^,^ 
 i«>f >«»» . He hits wtitlfti a Unc-r. " "* 
 
 4. 0>//W/rv uu of Parti,, -f^i,,, a, j,, ,h, ,,„,^^^^ .. 
 
 ;l . ;.s a parnnpl. an., >e. i. ,,0,. ,no. U.an ,.. ..Ify u,e t:' 
 VOL r hr .cMUe-nce ,|.m s no, ,„ean •■ I insist on ,h. work whirl" 
 
 .Ion. .horoujf hly ; that is. ,„/ M, M,,.,,,^,// ././V/^ ,/ the ,.ork Such 
 ;■; l';"«-l «•• "-n-for... ^.s ,he force of a gc'und or v!- t al nT n 
 aiul may In: sa.d to l,e iscl "gcruntlivcly." ' 
 
 EXERCISE 195. 
 
 ^^ In the folhnoins: ^nUnu.s .famine the for, us in 
 'ij, and deter „n,u- whether they are verbal nouns, 
 pitrtuiples, or j^ernnds. 
 
 1. It is hardly worth l>ol/,erini; aJwut. 
 
 2. It is not worth the askint^r, 
 
 3. The 7o,ep,ni: woman stood 7.',/«v/„^. her hands. 
 
*►» \KKIiS 
 
 ^75 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6. 
 
 Me wa* rnn.iKt.l m ih, hmUiHc of .i ! 
 
 The r»»iw 
 
 Me Went out Ann/in 
 
 i<»»i>e. 
 
 gi»i(» i»\ •hiumH/.UiH^' wt^illli. 
 
 8 
 
 V 
 lu 
 
 II 
 
 12. 
 
 I J 
 
 I4. 
 
 «5 
 
 1 6. 
 
 • 7. 
 1 8. 
 ly. 
 
 20. 
 31. 
 
 =4 
 25- 
 
 I )ti > on Itkr tJti I, hiH^ * 
 Do y«ni like i-f.y, .4///^. ircr* ? 
 lo. They went mit ik.tihtnj^ logrthtr. 
 I have no liutc for \kftihiMi;, 
 Mis faiher .»l.)r.iril to hU ik,i,hini; for a liirnK'. 
 I can see hmi fi^r/, hhii^ rvcr> <| ly, 
 Me made a h^n,,^ l.ar|,Mm in /'//»7«c thai horst. 
 I ilicl not ff. I like /.M7«c any unit . 
 
 Losing their way ihr chil.Irn, went along v;,p,n^r 
 We wcrr Ao/>inj^r ,„ ^.j. y„„ 
 
 Me could not s|Rak for /au^kiHx'. 
 /.<itf4.'/////^' in jjihmI for till digestion. 
 Me rcmeiiilMrrril s/>,,Utni: »•> m.- about it. 
 Your slylc of rfii,tinx '** i'uorrrct. 
 Mis rtiuihit:: was much adinirtil. 
 This prcveiurd the work b,hi^ ,/<;«,.. 
 Mf insisted on my amiini; immediately. 
 Mc «li«l it by h>.>isti»^ his arm. 
 
 I 
 
 f I- 
 
 VIII. PKCILIAII VKini-PIIUAHKH. 
 
 Some vcrb-phrascs arc dimciilt to clas.sify he 
 -au.sc they have .several ineaninjr.s. aeeording'to the 
 eonneetion in which they are ii.sed. 
 
 810. iH't.— -Let." f,.llnwe(l hy the nM,l-inn„itive 
 without "to," has in modern Kn^rlish two eomnu.n 
 uses: — 
 
 1. As a notional v.-rb meaning "to permit:" .hs. "At List 
 Pharaoh let the Israelites ^^o." 
 
 2. As an auxih.iry. to form a vcrb-phrase expressing an exhorta- 
 tion ,n the first or third person : as. 'Ut us be merry ; " ••/../ us do 
 
tvmsmmmi^KSLMi^r iHeiij 
 
 SI' "'»' -«.. 
 
 J || *., its?"*'" 
 
 rjf^ 
 
 276 
 
 im-: I'AK IS ()|. SI'KKCH 
 
 or clU-;" "A^/ thy words be few;" " /.,/ hi,n that thinketh he 
 stantleih take heed lest U,: fall." 
 
 aao. May, ^iiKht.— •• May •' (past, " might "), fi^l- 
 lowed by thj root-inlinitivc witliout " to," has in 
 modern English the following common uses:— 
 
 1. As a notional verb denoting permission: as. "You may ^o 
 now ; " " She may come in ; " " Mother said we mi^ht go." 
 
 2. As a notional verb denoting possibility: as. " It may rain •" 
 •• She may be at home ; " " It mii^rfu have been." 
 
 3- As an auxiliary, to form a subjunctive verb-phrase: as. "I 
 hope you may succeed; ' "J/ay you //rr long and happily ; " "'lie 
 said he hoped that we w/i,'-/// succeed" 
 
 aai. Should.— " Should," followed by the root- 
 infinitive without " to," has the following common 
 uses: — 
 
 1. As a notional verb denoting duty or obli^i^ation : as. " You 
 s/iou/d speak more slowly." 
 
 2. As an auxiliary to express futurity from the standpoint of 
 past time : as, " He said he should go." 
 
 3. As an auxiliary to form a subjunctive verb-phrase : as " If 
 he should come, \ should have no more fear; ""It is better he 
 should die." 
 
 SS8. Would.—- Would," followed by the root- 
 infinitive without " to," has the following common 
 uses : — 
 
 1. As a notional verb denoting determination .- as. " Hcivould 
 not lie." 
 
 2. As a notional verb denoting custom : as. " He 7wuld sit there 
 by the hour." 
 
 3- As an auxiliary to express futurity from the standpoint of 
 past tmie: as. "She said he 7uould come." 
 
 4- As an auxiliary to form a subjunctive verb-phrase : as, " It 
 •would be better if we should start now." 
 
OK VERBS 
 
 VJ7 
 
 823. Can, Mu.,, o..j,ht. Can, meaning .-to be 
 able; ,.../. meaning .-to be <,bliged/^.ncl ., J/ 
 "-anmg..tobeinclutyboun<l/N.esonet^^^ 
 
 <> l<nse by an infinitive. Jiut since tliey always 
 retain their regular meanings, it seems Ltter to 
 class them as notional verbs, with the infinitive as 
 complement. 
 
 IX. coxji (;atiox. 
 
 8«4. Conjugation DellmMl.-It is often conven- 
 ient to have tlie dillerent forms of the verb arrange! 
 together in regular order. ^ 
 
 A/,,//W._The regular arrangement of the forms 
 of a verb in a table or scheme is called its Conju- 
 
 - br^\v^!!r:!"!^""''? of "i,e.--The irregular verb 
 
 IS conjugated as follows: — 
 
 I aril. 
 
 You are (Thou art) 
 
 He is. 
 
 ladlciitlvo Mode. 
 
 rreseiu. 
 
 Paal. 
 
 I vvas. 
 
 You were (Thou wast, or uert). 
 He was. 
 
 I shall be. 
 
 You will he (Thou wilt be). 
 
 He will be. 
 
 lutiir 
 
 I have been. 
 
 I'rpseMt rcrfert. 
 
 You have been (Thou hast been). 
 
 He has bee 
 
 We are. 
 Vou are. 
 They are. 
 
 \\'e were. 
 Vou were. 
 They were. 
 
 We shall be. 
 Vou will be. 
 They will be. 
 
 We have been. 
 You have been, 
 
 Th 
 
 t-y have been. 
 
'VrL.^ 
 
 g?"i« 
 
 ,«"*»' 
 
 'Sff! 
 
 ■•I 
 
 ..,*. ,i 
 
 278 
 
 THE PARTS OF SI'tKCH 
 
 I na<l been. 
 
 You had btcn (Thuu limlst been). 
 
 lie had liccn. 
 
 , , Future Perfect. 
 
 I sliall have l>cen. 
 
 You will have been 
 
 (Thou wilt have been). 
 
 He will have been. 
 
 We had been. 
 You had been. 
 They had been. 
 
 We shall have been. 
 You will have been. 
 
 They will have been. 
 
 
 Hubjiiiietlvct Mmlu.i 
 
 
 ((Jftcii pretedcd l.y • 
 
 if.") 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 I be. 
 
 
 We be. 
 
 You be (Thou 
 
 be). 
 
 You be. 
 
 He be. 
 
 Pa!.t. 
 
 They l)e. 
 
 I were. 
 
 f 
 
 We were. 
 
 Yt)u were (Thou wert). 
 
 You were. 
 
 He were. 
 
 
 They were. 
 
 I have been. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 We have been. 
 
 You have been 
 
 (Thou have been). 
 
 You have been. 
 
 He have been. 
 
 
 They have been. 
 
 I had been. 
 
 Past """ffect. 
 
 We had been. 
 
 You had been 
 
 (Thou had been). 
 
 You had been. 
 
 He had been. 
 
 
 They had been. 
 
 
 Iinpuratlvo Mode. 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 
 
 Be, do be. 
 
 
 
 Inflnltlvcs. 
 
 
 Present. 
 IToj be. 
 
 Root-Injinitivts. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 [To] have been. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Being. 
 
 InfiHitivts in " -ing 
 Participles. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Having been. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 Being. 
 
 Been. 
 
 Having been. 
 
 • For subjunctive verb-phrases formed with "may," "might," "should," and 
 would sec «80-«'.»3. 
 
OK VKRUS 
 
 -79 
 
 *««0. Conjuifullon or "Cull "—riw. . 
 
 of the verb "c-m- whi 1 r ^"»J"i,^'iti,.M 
 
 Prt-sent. 
 
 I If calls. 
 Past. 
 
 He tailed. 
 
 Kiiturc. 
 
 He will call. 
 
 TVcscni I'crfece. 
 
 He has called. 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 Heliad called. 
 
 I'liliirc IVrfcct. 
 
 He will ha\c called. 
 
 Present. 
 He call. 
 
 Past. 
 
 He called. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 He have called. 
 
 Past Perfert. 
 
 He had called. 
 
 :seiit. 
 
 Pre 
 Call. 
 
 Active A'oko. 
 
 InUIfatlvo.MoUo. 
 
 Present Eiiipli.aii.. 
 
 He dues ca'l. 
 
 P.ist Ijii|ili.itii . 
 
 He did call. 
 
 8ub.Iunetlvo Mode.' 
 
 ("ftcn preceded by " if.") 
 Present Kmpli.uic. 
 
 He do call. 
 
 Present Pr.grtssive. 
 
 He is calling. 
 
 Past Progri-ssive, 
 
 He Was calling. 
 
 ^■ulure Prcgrc^sive 
 He will |,e calliii- 
 
 Present P.rfeu Progressive. 
 
 He has been calling. 
 
 Past Perfect Progressive. 
 
 He had been calling. 
 
 Fiiliire Perfect Prf.-ressiv,-. 
 
 He will have been callin" 
 
 Past Emphatic. 
 
 He did call. 
 
 Imperative Mode. 
 
 Present Empliafic. 
 
 Present Progressive. 
 He be calling. 
 
 P.ist I'rogresslve. 
 
 He were callini:. 
 
 Present Perfe. t Progressiva.. 
 
 He have been calling. 
 
 Past Perf.ct Progi , 
 
 He had been call 
 
 ressivc. 
 
 ni 
 
 Do rail. 
 
 ' For subjn 
 
 Present Progressive. 
 
 Be railing, tlo be callin"-. 
 
 ' would ' 
 
 see 220-2-i'i 
 
 ive vcrh-piirascs fori 
 
 ni.ll wit! 
 
 i I ! 
 
 t \ 
 
 I 
 
 ' I'.Hght. 
 
w 
 
 THE PARTS OF SI'EFXH 
 
 Pre>fnt. 
 
 (ToJ call. 
 
 I'crfi-ci. 
 
 [To] have called. 
 
 InnnltlvcM. 
 
 Kaci'/mjtmitivtt. 
 
 I'erfctt Proi;re^^ive. 
 
 Haviiijj bctn calling. 
 
 Present l'r^Kre^Mve. 
 [To I be callinjr. 
 
 Perfect Prc>grv'<>ivc. 
 
 l' i) have been calling. 
 
 lii/iHitix-tt i» " .ihg." 
 PreNcnt. Perfect. 
 
 Calling. H.iving called. 
 
 „ I'lirtlflpIfM. 
 
 ^^"'"K- C.dk.l. 
 
 U !'"'*^'„ , Perfect Progre^^ivc. 
 
 Having called. ||avi„g been calling. 
 
 I'asMlvo A'olfo. 
 Iiidlcatlvf MiMlt>. 
 
 "*='* called. He i.s being calltd. 
 
 „ ^•"'' „ . Past ProKrc>sive 
 
 He was called. He was being called. 
 
 I'utiire. 
 
 He will be called. 
 
 Present Pcrfci t. 
 
 He has been called. 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 He had Ijeen called. 
 
 Kutiitc Perfect. 
 
 He will have been railed. 
 Subjunctive Mode.' 
 
 (Often preceded by " if."i 
 Prtsetit. 
 
 He be called. 
 
 Past. 
 
 He v>^ illed. 
 
 F.- -feet. 
 
 He have i. cen called. 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 He had been called. 
 
 P.ist Proyressive. 
 
 He were being called. 
 
 > For subjunctive verb-phrases formed with "raav." "might." "should," and 
 ' would "^ee 820-8S8. 
 
F'rcvnt. 
 
 Be called. 
 
 OK VKRUS 
 Impvrutlv*'. 
 
 a8i 
 
 I'ri »<iU Kniphdtic. 
 
 I^o be called. 
 
 lUllUlllVfM. 
 
 rrcscnc. p. f . 
 
 [To] be called. (To] l.avj i;,;i„ called. 
 
 l*Hrtlflpli>M. 
 
 Ik-.ns called. Callcl. H..vi„„ b":, callc.l. 
 
 v..rb!«,".\'" '" '■"-*'. ^'-'--To parse a funic 
 vcib (ail), we luust jrivc its— 
 
 ( • • Class : whether transitive or intransitive, strong or weak 
 (i) rrincipa! parts. 
 (j) Voice. 
 
 (4) Mode. 
 
 (5) Tense. 
 
 (6) Person. 
 
 (7) Number. 
 
 (8) Construction. 
 
 0) Cla«: whelhcr transi.ive or i„,ra„si,ive. strong or weak. 
 
 (2) Voice. 
 
 (3) Tense. 
 
 (4) Construction. 
 
 DXEBCISE 196. 
 
 nnca;asof/u- tnfimtires and parttapls that a^cZt 
 '^'^'^i^^^tth auxiliaries to form verb-phrases :-~ 
 r. She watches him ns a cat woul<! watch a mouse 
 
 ^^^^^^^^r^. "'" '^ ^°"^"'°"'^ ^-- «^-d than 
 
•v^^ 
 
 *^ 
 
 '">#( 
 
 WW. I'AK IS ()|- SI'IKCM 
 
 3. A man may write at any tuni- if hf will sit hnnstif dugycjly toil. 
 
 4. A falcon, towtrinji in Hlt pride o( pl.icf, 
 Was by a inousinj; owl hawked at and killed. 
 
 5. When that the poor have cried. Casar h.ith wept; 
 Ambition should be made ot sterner stuff. 
 
 6. The moving moon went up the sky, 
 
 And nowhere did abide ; 
 Soltly she was going up. 
 
 And a star or two beside, 
 r. Full fathom hve thy father lies; 
 
 Of his boiHs are coral made . 
 Those are pearls th.ii were his eyes: 
 
 Nothing of him that doth fade 
 But doth suffer a se;i-ch..nge 
 Into something rich and strange. 
 
 8. True ease in .vriting comes from art. not chance. 
 As those move easiest who have learned to dance ; 
 ' Tis not enough no harshness gives offense,— 
 The sound must seem an echo to the sense. 
 
 9. Of all the wonders that I yel have he.ird. 
 
 It seems 'o me most strange that men should fear; 
 
 Seeing iii.it de.ith, a necessary end, 
 
 Will come when it will come. 
 10. Had I but served my Cod with half the zeal 
 
 I served my king he would not in mine age 
 
 Have left me nake.l .0 mine enemies, 
 n. I am satisfied that the vast majority of the people of Can- 
 adaare in fivor of the continuance and perpetuation of the con- 
 nection between the Dominion and the Mother country. There 
 is nothing to gain and everything to lose by sepai-.:iion. I believe 
 that if any party or person were to announce or declare such a 
 thing, whether by annexation with the neighboring country the 
 great Republic to the south of us. or by declaring for independence 
 I believe that the people of Canada would say " No." 
 
 —Sir John A. Macdonald. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 0^ AIJVKRHS 
 
 Most advurbs arc used <.„Ij. witl/verbs- 1, 
 the name " adverb •• Ti,„ > ,"" ^'^'^"■'•; "cncu 
 
 -d.e.ve....Lra^t:fri::'i-:2:r 
 
 six kinds:— mtanini,s adverbs are of 
 
 (I) ././7.r^. o/ //,„,..- as. •■ I,-t US go ,uno " 
 
 (3) ^J^.r^. ../„,,„„,,. , ,, .. ,,^. ,,^^^^, ^^^^^ „ 
 
 (4) ^./Tvr^../,/.i.^,,, as. ..He talks /////.•• 
 
 (5) ^./r.r^. ./ ,,,,, , ,,^ .. ,^^^ ^^. , ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^ , 
 
 y^) •'^<''''<rhs of assert ton- 7i<i ''P,rl,,^ 
 you can «^/ help me." ^^ ' """ '^^'i' >"" : '* '•^^•".• 
 
 EXEBCISE 197. 
 
 uvcros, classified accor<hni^r to mvaniui:. 
 
 Pino c 1 »assifh.,i Accowllii^ to T *<o 
 
 C^s«,fi., aec..di„« .. use, adverbs L ;/:;,;- 
 

 ■■5I 
 
 »;,JiP ' ■ 
 
 
 I 
 
 !«4 
 
 THK PARTS 01 SI'KKCIl 
 
 1. //w/AV/^r ../,i«,rM». uM(l to mollify the mining of n verb an 
 acljcctivr. or an .Mlvcrl): as. "He walkcl rapuUy ;' "She is tUj. 
 pretty. an<i talks txctcdittf^ly uu//." 
 
 2. Interr,^,uivt A.h>,rhs, usc.1 to ask qurstions : as •• Wheft 
 <li.l you arrive ? " hulircct : •• He aikcd %i>h,n we arrivcl." 
 
 3. Coniuiutiv,- Aih'trbs, used to introduce clauses: as. " We 
 went on to I'aris. inhere wc stayed a week." 
 
 C.)njiMKti\r adverbs sha<le off into conjunctions, fron. which 
 they frequently cannot be distinguished. 
 
 EXEBCISE 198. 
 
 Construct .wn fains il lust rat htfr the ,iiffcrent kinds 0/ 
 (U/irrhs, ilassijini according to use. 
 
 i 
 
 a.lO. Advorlm ClaHHlflcMl Atc-onlliitf t<» Form.— 
 
 Classifiecl according to form, adverbs arc of three 
 kinds: — 
 
 \. Snnfi/e A.fvtrh. ssh\c\\ express their ineanin- without the 
 aid of an adverbial termination: as. "Come ;,,rt ." "That is A.,; 
 bad. This class includes nouns and adjectives that are n.ade 
 mlo adverbs by being set in an .idverbial positiua : .ns. " He w ,s 
 ston,- dead ; " " Pull /mrd," 
 
 2. 'V.u/VvW./rtVv/'Af. which have distinctive adverbial termina- 
 tions : as. " Yoii acted t.vW,'." 
 
 3. P/in,s.d A,iv,rf,s, which are idiomatic adverbial phrases 
 that cannot easily be separated into parts. The following are 
 common examples :— 
 
 arm-in-arm 
 as yet 
 at all 
 at best 
 at large 
 at last 
 at least 
 at lenjTth 
 at most 
 
 at once 
 at worst 
 by all means 
 by far 
 face to face 
 for good 
 ere long 
 in general 
 in short 
 
 in vain 
 now-a-days 
 of course 
 of late 
 of old 
 on high 
 one by one 
 two bv two 
 
-» >■■ 
 
 '»'■ w 
 
 "F ADVI.KUS 
 
 "i 
 
 The mo,t common form of adverb in literarv 
 Ivnglish IS the llex.onal form in •• -ly " I, ,"1"? 
 f rceiy from al. ,i„a.s of adjecUves eLpt . ^.t: 
 
 'n -I), .w lively and •■ fnendly," usually hive 
 no c„rres,K,„di„, adverb. We u.4 instelli^i^, 
 
 -/-/-■ •■Co,,,. ,......■■ ..s,a„d ,iV..- ..,1;^,,.",: 
 
 £X£BCIS£ 199. 
 
 1. S!.e Kets her lessons ^,,.t 0„.r//,.) enough. 
 
 2. Are you coming with us ? .S«r.- (.v^r,/,). 
 
 3- Speak .v/</:,. (vAw/,,) a^,) ^y^.^y„^.^ uiistinctlyX 
 
 4. He could scanc {scarcely) control his f.-ehnss. 
 
 5. A person shouhl dress suitable {sullably) ,o his station. 
 
 831. Comimrlson of Adverbs.-Many .adverbs 
 icmne :de.-,s that vary i„ degree, and'there for^ 
 they .admit of comparison. like adjectives (,„«, 
 
 Monosyllabic .adverbs (and a few others) usually 
 form the>r comparative and superlative degrees by 
 aad.ng ...er" and .'-est- as, ' Pull ,u,rj" ^ 
 
 i! 
 
286 
 
 TMi: PARTS OK SI'KKCII 
 
 Adverbs in •*.lv" usti'illv f,^r^ *u 
 1 ■ -^ "•''u.iii) form the comnarativr 
 
 •IS, He felt It «/„.,/ /,,.„/,,. •• 
 
 Jlf"" ';'■'■'''*••'"' ',''"• -"Paris.,,, „f .,,|,„,„ „. 
 
 EXERCISE 200. 
 
 I. I can „u,ly ,„„■,./ ,„„„, ,„„y^, . , „„. ^^ 
 
 3. V.U „ugl„ ,„ valu. ,.„ur priviU-^r, A,i,.i.r ,«,„, ^,,^;,, 
 
 4. « h,c , can run , he /.,„,. ,/„„„,, e„„„er ,„ a,,„,„,,„, , 
 vJc,.uV;:> -^•"■'^•'■'/•"■'^" l.aUrn,.,i„....,„ 
 
 «.ia. A.U.-<-tlvooi.A.lv,.rl..--rt is s„mctimfs , 
 <,..cst,„„ whcth.,- 1„ .,sc a,. a.ljectivc. .„■ .,„ 2 J 
 
 . m.. 1, .. ,;,slc. • If ,|„. ,,,I,le,l w.,r<l applies t„ the 
 
 ■•">.jcc. .,f ,hc vcTh, it sh,.„M I,, an adjcclive : if to 
 
 I.e verb, u sh.,„l.l be an adverb. VVe say. •• We 
 
 lecl 7i'(frw," when wo mn'm ♦!,..* 
 
 . «ucu «t nic.in that we are warm- 
 
 we .say. ..\Ve feel :,.„.,„/, o„ this .subjeet," wheti 
 
 «e mean th.-.t our feelinjjs are stirred up. I„ t,," 
 
 |r.st .sentence ■•warn," is an attribute c..,nplement ; 
 
 ... the .seeoncl. •■ «.ar,nly ' is a m,„lifierof the verb 
 
 As a rule, ,t ,s pr,.,,er t.. use an adjective whenevei^ 
 
 the verb re.se„,bles in meaning. ...,„„e fornt „f the 
 
 verb ..be" .,r ...seem ;•• otherwi.se we u.se an adverb 
 
 Sometnnes we may use either adjective or adverb 
 
 ulh no d.fferenee in meaning: ..s, -We arrived 
 
OK /\I)\i:hi!s 
 EXEECI8E 201. 
 
 aK7 
 
 2- Tlif ,|oor shut ,•„,,, ,,,„,,/ 
 »• "e .|„l not acl awh.uu,/ (,,- d- , /, 
 
 "•-'Is that .he,. rZ;t "■'" '" "'^- ""^'' •"■ 
 
 The word " onlv " ^ 
 
 r„ « , ,. f'lllowinjr sentences.— 
 
 (•') 0«/)'hcl„st hish.it M, II 
 
 ■^'^'■■'-. -H..,..h.!:;t:'^;:r;-,;: ,,,:■ ;,:;-. 
 
 ••"t-nccs), u m:,y I,e pi,,,,.,! ,,f,e,- „„. 
 
If'j.4 :,_ 
 
 -iji jtlf I 
 
 i 
 
 1811 
 
 THK PARTS OK S|»KI * li 
 
 ^Tt 
 
 wortl it tmMlificfl, with an emphatic, nImoMt (1t!i|Kir- 
 aging effect: am, •' lie h>Hl his hat only." 
 
 tf.'i4. iKiiiiiif Nfifiii I vtH«.— Formerly two or more 
 negative atlverlw* were frequently useil to Ktrengthen 
 one another. 
 
 In nuKlern literary Kngli.sh two negatives destroy 
 each other, and are et|uivalent to an affirmative: 
 as, " I can't do nothing " = " I can ^and must) tlo 
 suHJcthing." 
 
 tf.'Ift. HiiliMtlliit<>M for Adv<»rl»N.— The atlverbial 
 function niay Ix; |)crlormcil hy — 
 
 (I) A noun : as, " The Ixxik com a lio/t.it ," "We Muilird nn 
 
 (2> A ftroHftkH : as. " Tktt much we may aflfinn." 
 
 (3) Att rt^h't'rhiitl phrit%e ; as, " He ciin«* oh foot." 
 
 (4) /!« atbvrbial clausf : " They slarleil whtn the sum rosr," 
 
 tt.'Ki. How ia VtivHt* AUv*'!*!***. — To parse an ad- 
 verb wc must give its — 
 
 (1) Clas* acconlinn i<> (<o mraiung. (O) use, and (< ) form. 
 
 (2) Comparison. 
 
 (3) Construction. 
 
 EXEBCISE 202. 
 
 Pnrse the adverbs in Exercise 1 96. 
 
1 1 
 
 » 
 
 niAPTi'.k IX 
 
 or « 1,'rrr'":'" 'r •■ "■"'■' '■'^"^■•' '•'■'-•'' •'« "•»>" 
 
 ■T n p,.,„„„„ ,„ ,|,„„, j„ ^^,^ 
 
 wnnl (Hii). "iiiir 
 
 The fuiKii.,,, of a ,m.|K>.,;,i„„ i, ,„ l,n„« a „,>„„ 
 
 ;.a,,r,.„„.,..i,u....,,n.„lir>i,„,r..,. wi,h a „.„ 
 
 .. -no .„ .„, a.l,., I..,, , ,,., .,„,,,,,„ ^ .,, 
 
 ,h't,.::t """"■'' ''^•^■■••\Vl..a,„,hc.»orl.lwa.s 
 hat? I .,,.. sorry/,,, .hc-m f •• \\V traVflH 
 
 «:I7. Pro|MMftl(»tm C'liwNin,.,!.— r» 
 
 a classiHed list' of the prciM^sit, 
 use: — 
 
 Mlnipln I*r«*|MH«|tl(MM. 
 nf««T down in „^„.^ 
 
 ?; '»•« of ,1,,.,. 
 
 J*** '"^ oft through 
 
 oy from on till 
 
 *i common 
 
 to 
 
 iimlrr 
 
 up 
 Willi 
 
 afward 
 iljout 
 alwve 
 acrosj 
 igainst 
 along 
 amidst, amid 
 
 C otii|M)iinil I*rf>|Mi«ii loim. 
 
 ar.).iiid, round IhIw.-. n 
 
 aslant 
 
 athwart 
 
 before 
 
 Ix-liind 
 
 Ik'tow 
 
 Iwnrath 
 
 anionjr. amon^'st bisidc. hrsidps 
 
 Iwtwixl 
 Iwyond 
 drspite 
 into 
 
 throuj,'Jiout 
 toward, towards 
 undt rntath 
 
 until 
 
 unto 
 
 ujM)n 
 
 witlun 
 
 without 
 
 I ■/•.• <i- 
 
 >Jr frr. if,;, j 
 
 iM i» (i.r rrlrtrrii r, m,i f 
 
 or inciiMiti/ing. 
 
' 1 ■l..«^ 
 
 ii .' •./'!'! 
 
 ■*j^* 
 
 
 ■n-^: 
 
 2'/J 
 
 TflE PARTS OF Sl'KF.CH 
 
 Pri'poMltlouM iu>rlvtsl from Vt^rlw. 
 
 barring 
 concern inj^ 
 (lurin){ 
 exceptiiij^, except 
 
 nrcordinj; to 
 apart fron 
 as for 
 as rejjards 
 as lo 
 
 luraiise of 
 I))' HUMUS of 
 by iiMsoi) of 
 
 |)ast 
 
 piMuHn;; 
 
 notwithstanding 
 
 regarding 
 
 I'lirUHIll l*l'«*|MIHltlol|H. 
 
 by way of 
 
 for the sake ol 
 
 in accordance with 
 
 in addition to 
 
 in case of 
 
 in compliance with 
 
 in cons«(|uence ot 
 
 in front of 
 
 respecting 
 saving, save 
 touching 
 
 in opposition to 
 in place of 
 in preference to 
 in spite of 
 instead of 
 on account of 
 out of 
 with regartl to 
 
 O"' 
 
 I,.-;--. -<■■> 
 
 IJS-; 
 
 EXERCISE 203. 
 
 Construct sentences illustrati)ig the use of sueh />re/>o- 
 sitions its the teacher uuiy select, 
 
 a;J8. Objects of Prepositions. — The substantive 
 following a preposition is ealled its Objoft, and is 
 in the objective case. It is commonly a noun or 
 a pronoun ; but it may be any word or j^roup of 
 words used as a noun : as, 
 
 (1) Noun: Come into the ^'-^r^jVw. 
 
 (2) Pronoun : I stood behind ////«, 
 
 (3) Adverb: I never felt it till mnv. 
 
 i\) Adjecth'e : Lift up your eyes on hii:;Ji. 
 
 (5) Prepositional phrase : He stepped from /'<•///>/// ///f' /r^^. 
 
 (6) Infinitive phrase : None knew tliee but to Iinie thee. 
 
 (7) Siil'stantive clause : Listen to 7vhat I say. 
 
 Used In'fore clauses, prepositions often !)Pfonie indistinj^uish- 
 able from conjiinrtion'^ : -t;, " Ilf^ c-imf* Ih'fore I di'.!. 
 
<»!• I'KKrosiiioxs 
 EXERCISE 204. 
 
 2>jl 
 
 i'yuf iiuu a />r,/>osinoii uioy havi. 
 
 aaj*. Pivposltloiml IMiiiiscM — A rJ,,.. . 
 
 ;;.« of a ,.,.,.„.s.u.,. anu ij :4,- i'r: ::;;',::;:; 
 
 >-< ..crs, ,.s callcl a ■■■h.....«„I..„„, ,m.„,^, 
 
 ".hhcs a „„„„ .,.. a ,„.on.n,„, it is an v y.,., , 
 l-.n..c.. as, ..-n... watros„/„, js .l.aU, ' i i? 
 mo<].hes a v.,b, a„ acljc-ctivc, .„■ a,, a.htrl, 
 
 EXERCISE 205. 
 
 S40. Position of P,K.posltlo„»._Or,li„ariIv -, 
 
 Prcp„s,t,on, as its nan,c i.nplies, is place, blr^ 
 
 t.mc.s, however, it is put after its object, as, "mat 
 arc wecominjf /„/•• ' ' '"" 
 
 To tho TcnclUT _tIi« tt, 
 
 ."nH„„.. ,,. a sen.::; s,:/.!,:?,; ,";;;;;•-■''">• '"-'■ -- 
 
 ■; So,,,,. ii,„, ,„„ ,h,„ .,i,,,^ ,„, ,,,^,_, _^^,. _ ^.^^ 
 
 K.'lthcr Ix.ii- il, :ii 
 
 T! 
 
 ■an 
 
 ny to 
 
 Rathrrl,carilu)seills\veh,-ive 
 
 oliiLTs that we kn 
 
 o\v n 
 
 ^^o/r -Shafcsp. 
 
 care. 
 
' I .t 
 
 i 
 
 
 392 
 
 THE FARTS OF SPEKCH 
 
 The following scnunccs arc eniinly in accord with the best 
 English idiom : — 
 
 What art: you looking at ? What are you thinking of? 
 What did you ask (or ? That is all 1 came for. 
 
 241. Prcpo»4ltioiiH Used as Adverbs. — Some of 
 the simplest prepositions, such as '* in," "on," *« off," 
 "up," "to," were originally adverbs ; and in mod- 
 ern English many of them are used adverbially. 
 
 1. Sometimes a preposition is i-^ed adverbially as an insepa- 
 rable adjunct of the verb: as, " She carried off the prize ; " " The' 
 people /<i«i,V/rt/ <i/ Fulton's steamboat." The adverbial force of 
 such prepositions is shown by the fact that they stay with the verb 
 when the sentences are changed into the passive form : as, " Ful- 
 ton's steamboat was laughed at by the people." From this last 
 sentence it is clear that in the former sentence, " The people 
 laughed at Fulton's steamboat," " steamboat ' is the object, not 
 of the preposition " at," but of the transitive verb " laughed at." 
 
 2. Sometinies a preposition becomes an adverb through the 
 omission of its object : as. 
 
 It was nothing to joke about. (Omission of " which.") 
 That is all I ask/t?r. (Omission of " that.") 
 
 248. Special Use of Some Propositions. — Prepo- 
 sitions play a very important part in our language, 
 and have many idiomatic uses. Most of these can 
 be learned only by 0I serving the custom of good 
 speakers and writers. The following notes on soine 
 special uses of a few prepositions may prove help- 
 ful:— 
 
 At, in : — Before names of places to denote " where," at is used 
 when the place is viewed as a mere point ; in is used when the 
 speaker desires to make prominent the idea " within the bounds 
 of : " as, " He arrived at Liverpool in the morning and remained in 
 that ritv two divs," 
 
 / « 
 
OF l'Rl:iO:,ITION-S ■ j,j 
 
 lungs of the bodv " VV„ ' ^^ ' *' ^'^V '" '''«' 
 
 our comfort 7vith their poverty - ""«-'«-"«-* • as. Crv///,,,^ 
 
 «^un!ikeness between objects; whrwetfer^r^ '" "' "'" 
 op'n n we use either .///?• /■ !^'"^*-''''^ '" <''s<'j;reement in 
 
 ^^if^^t'nt from .—XccoriWiMT t,> .1 u 
 
 n^l-""" after ffcZ ' Z/"uitre ^^ ■■ "T ""^ '"""" 
 
 ■s very d,jr„cnl fn„„ |,i, |,„,h„... "'"""")' ■> /'•"" as, ■■ lie 
 
 -e.nb,e. /p:;:, L' 7:7,1 fct*",: !:?'«""■"■ '— ^' 
 
 Pariso„.so,„e gran.^lltiaTp.elerr:; T:r '' "'""" "' "■'- 
 an adjective or an idv^rh ^^^11 it.even in .,ese sentences. 
 
 suii pht;:: ,:;r", ":;L'°ofr': *"":'^^ •^"'' "•" '"= >•-"- 
 
 Joh..,- ■■ .he Province ,/o,,r„' • T' .'"i ■■"; " "" "'^ '^ ■•^'• 
 
 ■■'■-■' M you ar e Tome ^ /-^"■y"""" " "'™'' ^ " «■ " ^o will 
 " - .he won,e„ ;: : 1 ,;,^','/;: ■-- ••-'-'! ^ - as, "A, 
 
 ii 
 
 EXERCISE 206. 
 
 '• The kinir confulrfl i • 
 
 ■J, i-uiin(ic(i fiis ministers, 
 
 2. We stayed — ^ 
 Hotel. 
 
 Loiulun tsvu weeks 
 
 the Victoria 
 
 I " 
 
7.£% 
 
 •#; 
 
 294 THK PARTS OK SI'KI.CH 
 
 3. The marriage cuhloms of the KiishMiis arc very iliffercnt 
 ours. 
 
 4- He .s;iys thai he shall he hack in an huur ; hut we cannot 
 wail him, 
 
 5. He retlected iht- lonekict the (lOVirntiient not 
 
 supporting' him. 
 
 6. The conspirators confided the execution of their plot 
 
 llie youngest of their number. 
 
 7. We arrived I'.iris in the evening. that city we 
 
 stayed the Hotel Normandie. 
 
 8. He who comp.ires his own condition th.it of otinrs 
 
 will find that he has many reasons for thinking; himself fortunate. 
 
 a4;j. Il<»w to Pait*c l*ivi»osltl«iis.— To parse a 
 prcpo.sition one must give — 
 
 (1) Its ol)ject. 
 
 (2) The construction of the phrase which it introduces. 
 
 EXERCISE 207. 
 
 Parsi' the prepositions in lixcrcisr 196. 
 
 'i 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 OF CUNJUXiTloxs 
 
 A Conjunofion is a word used to connect sen 
 tenccs, phrases, or words (»o). "' 
 
 Conjunctions must lie carefully clistinmiUho,! t 
 ■■"hJ ••t^'ativ c,„„nouns. which are Ikn? "' Prepositions 
 
 srm» in.ro<.Les a .no cM ^ ; ^^ ^ ^7:^;:;;« 7^"^- '^ ^^.p.. 
 ;ur a noun with which it 'on:;..^: •.:.;'i^'^;.^':'7;'^-'^ 
 
 ■■Ih""8l>.' •• licraus,..- "Dili" -for- ... .? "«''• 
 
 844. <l«s.slf|..„,l„„ .,f <„,u„„o,i.,„s._Co„j„ne. 
 '■""■" m.-.y be arranged in two general classes^ 
 
 or Xter::i„t^T^i;rr'' ""-- --"■ ■'"-- 
 
 ■ i^, » Lame ^<v <///.«•<• you cae( nip-""r'... • ii 
 
 -.rrsomM-"'^""'"; ^""J""<-""n«- - Conj„„eli„n.s 
 cl.ea mj; that .something will presently be a.l.led : as 
 John ami Henry ni.ay go with yon." 
 -orieiatlve Coujuiiotlous, 
 

 »9<J 
 
 THE PARTS OF SIT.F.rFI 
 
 Puff 
 
 *flr'. 
 
 The most com nifni correlative conjunctions arc: 
 ••both — and," -either — or," " neither — nor," 
 '• whether— or," •• not only— but also." 
 
 When conjunctions arc used as correlatives, as 
 ••both— and," "either— or," each of the correlated 
 words should be so placed as to indicate clearly 
 what ideas are to be connected in thou^^ht. This 
 principle is violated in •• He not only visited Paris. 
 but Berlin /rAv;." In this sentence the position of 
 " not only " before the verb •• visited " leads one to 
 expect some correspondinjj verb in the second part 
 of the .sentence; in fact, however, the two con- 
 nected words are « • Paris " and • • Berlin ; " • • visited " 
 applies to both. This meaning is clearly indicated 
 by putting •• not only" before " Paris:" thus, •• He 
 visited not only Paris, but Berlin also." As a rule, 
 the word after the first correlative should be the 
 same part of speech as the word after the second 
 correlative. 
 
 846. Phrasal Conjunctions.— The following ex- 
 pressions are best parsed as Phmsal Conjunctions: 
 
 ^* '^ as though as long as as soon as 
 
 as sure as except that in case that in order that 
 
 for as much as provided that 
 
 847. How to Pai-se Conjunctions.— To parse a 
 conjunction we must tell — 
 
 (i) Its class. 
 
 (2) What it connects, 
 
 EXEKCISE 208. 
 
 1 . Review Exercises 93 and 94. 
 
 2. Parse the conjunctions in Exercise 196. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 «"■ 'MKkJKcTlONs 
 Ax iMtorJocfloM is a wcnl used n. . ,, 
 
 :r;r;;j '-'--'■■•-• -":r;^;:^;; 
 "-^fr^:^,,^:^:^:,--.-.-^r^ 
 
 J '"IIS . as, Coodness gracious ! " 
 
 EXEHCISE 209. 
 
 Point out the interjections in lUcreise 67. 
 
 a 
 
la 
 
 ■s -I 
 
 V --mi 
 
'"'''fi'-'i*^ 
 
 •«T-€#li«.,* * 
 
 i 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 MST OF STR()N(; AND IRRE(iULAK WEAK VKRHS 
 
 Thk forn.H Klvrn in the followinK list arc all supported l,y k,mh| 
 UV.K.; I.,a they arc not In all cases ,h.- only authorised forn.s 
 For full infonnalion on the subject, students tnusl have rccou.«:' 
 to the best dictionaries. 
 
 I'reaent. 
 abide 
 alight 
 arise 
 am (be) 
 awake 
 
 bear (•• brin^' forth") 
 bear ("carry ") 
 beat 
 begin 
 behold 
 bend 
 lx;reavc 
 l>€ seech 
 bet 
 
 bid ("command") 
 bid ("offer tnoney , 
 bind 
 bite 
 bleed 
 blend 
 blow 
 break 
 breed 
 bring 
 build 
 bui3t 
 buy 
 
 l*nNt. 
 
 alKxIe 
 
 alijihled. alil 
 
 arose 
 
 was 
 
 awoke, awaked 
 
 l)ore 
 
 bore 
 
 bc.-.t 
 
 l>egan 
 
 beheld 
 
 bent 
 
 Ijcreft. bereaved 
 
 Ijesought 
 
 bet 
 
 bade 
 
 bid 
 
 bound 
 
 bit 
 
 bled 
 
 blent, blended 
 
 blew 
 
 broke 
 
 bred 
 
 broujfl 
 
 built 
 
 burst 
 
 Ijought 
 
 It 
 
 TiUit I'lirlli'Iplo. 
 
 alKxIti 
 
 alighted, alii 
 
 arisen 
 
 Iktu 
 
 aw.ike'd 
 
 Iwrn 
 
 Imriie 
 
 l)eatcn 
 
 Ix-'gim 
 
 beheld 
 
 bent 
 
 iH-reft. btreavtd 
 
 Insought 
 f>et 
 
 bidden 
 bid 
 
 bound 
 bitten 
 bled 
 
 blent, blended 
 blown 
 en 
 
 brok 
 
 bred 
 
 brought 
 
 built 
 
 burst 
 
 bought 
 
j^^tA^: 
 
 ' |l|! 
 
 y)o 
 
 AliKNIlIX 
 
 
 l*r«HM>nl. 
 
 l*N»l. 
 
 l*NMt l>Mr(ifl|il««. 
 
 I ant 
 
 t.l<lt 
 
 Ca»( 
 
 c.ilcli 
 
 la.iKht 
 
 cauKht 
 
 elude 
 
 chul 
 
 c hidden 
 
 I l|IK>>kC 
 
 clioHC 
 
 chosen 
 
 tlf.ivc (••ailluTi: 
 
 ") cUavfd 
 
 e leaved 
 
 ckavi: (•' »|ilil "f 
 
 tlovr, cicfl 
 
 tluven, cleft 
 
 rlmg 
 
 clung 
 
 clung 
 
 cuinc 
 
 came 
 
 tonic 
 
 cost 
 
 «C(<»t 
 
 cost 
 
 crct|i 
 
 I rcpt 
 
 crept 
 
 cut 
 
 lUt 
 
 cut 
 
 deal 
 
 dralt 
 
 dealt 
 
 dig 
 
 '•"K. «I«KK«'' 
 
 dug. digyrd 
 
 do 
 
 . did 
 
 done 
 
 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 ilrawn 
 
 dress 
 
 drcsl, dressed 
 
 «lrcsl, dressed 
 
 drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk 
 
 drive 
 
 drove 
 
 <lriven 
 
 dwell 
 
 •Iwclt 
 
 flwcit 
 
 eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 fall 
 
 fdl 
 
 fallen 
 
 feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed 
 
 feel 
 
 felt 
 
 felt 
 
 fiKht 
 
 fou^'ht 
 
 fought 
 
 tind 
 
 found 
 
 found 
 
 flee 
 
 lied 
 
 fled 
 
 fling 
 
 fliuig 
 
 flung 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 forbear 
 
 forbore 
 
 forlwrne 
 
 forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten 
 
 forsake 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken 
 
 freeze 
 
 fioze 
 
 frozen 
 
 get 
 
 got 
 
 got 
 
 gild 
 
 j;ilt, gilded 
 
 gilt, gilded 
 
 give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 grind 
 
 round 
 
 ground 
 
 grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
l*r«>M«>itt. 
 
 Ii.irig 
 have 
 
 hvAT 
 
 lic.ivc 
 
 hew 
 
 hide 
 
 hit 
 
 hohl 
 
 hurl 
 
 ktrp 
 
 k I Iff I 
 
 knit 
 
 know 
 
 iailc 
 
 1.1) 
 
 l«*afl 
 
 h-ave 
 
 lend 
 
 let 
 
 lif ("rfclim- ") 
 
 hcC'tfIlafalwho..(l 
 h^ht 
 
 lose 
 
 make 
 
 mean 
 
 meet 
 
 pay 
 
 put 
 
 quit 
 
 rr id 
 
 rend 
 
 rid 
 
 ride 
 
 ring 
 
 rise 
 
 rive 
 
 M.ingc .i ' ,, iiM;ii oniy 
 * ■■ She htnveil a vjgh ; " 
 
 AI'I'F.NDIX 
 
 l*n»i. 
 
 huM({. hangetl ' 
 
 had 
 
 hraril 
 
 hovf . heaved ' 
 
 hewed 
 
 bM 
 
 hit 
 
 held 
 huit 
 k(|it 
 
 •'••Hi. kiHflfd 
 •'•••«. kniiifd 
 kiu'w 
 laded 
 Ukt 
 led 
 left 
 lent 
 let 
 lay 
 •■) lie.l 
 
 liKhl« d. ht 
 
 lost 
 
 made 
 
 meant 
 
 met 
 
 paid 
 
 put 
 
 quit, quilled 
 
 read 
 
 rent 
 
 rid 
 
 rode 
 
 rnng 
 
 rose 
 
 rived 
 
 of t«eciiiioii liy h.iiiKini;. 
 
 ■ Tlic crew hovf the ci«tK" overl>.. 
 
 M>« 
 
 !•••» t*iirtl«'||iit«. 
 
 hung. h.iii)>fd ' 
 
 had 
 
 he.ird 
 
 hove ', heaved 
 
 hewn 
 
 hidden 
 
 hit 
 
 held 
 
 hurt 
 
 kept 
 
 kmlt. kiHflrd 
 
 knit, knitted 
 
 known 
 
 laded, laden 
 
 laid 
 
 led 
 
 left 
 
 lent 
 
 let 
 
 lain 
 
 lied 
 
 li^htod. lit 
 
 lost 
 
 made 
 
 meant 
 
 n)?t 
 
 paid 
 
 put 
 
 quit, quilled 
 
 read 
 
 rent 
 
 rid 
 
 ridden 
 
 rung 
 
 risen 
 
 riven, rived 
 
 iid. ' 
 
} '1^%^ 
 
 JOJ 
 
 ArrhNi>i\ 
 
 t*r*Hit<nt. 
 
 fnmt. 
 
 run 
 
 t.in 
 
 My 
 
 klMl 
 
 nee 
 
 ».»w 
 
 serk 
 
 »nU|>hl 
 
 »rrlhr «inlr.in<«itivr) 
 
 HTflhrd 
 
 MTihr (ir.irisiitvi) 
 
 MM-lhtd, mhI 
 
 Mil 
 
 %old 
 
 >rn«l 
 
 sent 
 
 sri 
 
 Ml 
 
 sli.ike 
 
 !»lun»k 
 
 !»hr<l 
 
 »lu«l 
 
 shine 
 
 shone 
 
 »hue 
 
 sIickI 
 
 shool 
 
 >hoi 
 
 show 
 
 shov\r(l 
 
 shred 
 
 •hrtd, shredtlcd 
 
 shrink 
 
 shrank 
 
 thrive 
 
 slirtivf. .slirive<l 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 sing 
 
 sang 
 
 sink 
 
 sink 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 slay 
 
 slew 
 
 sleep 
 
 slept 
 
 slide 
 
 slid 
 
 sling 
 
 slung 
 
 slink 
 
 slunk 
 
 slit 
 
 slit 
 
 sinell 
 
 smelt, sine lied 
 
 smite 
 
 smote 
 
 sow 
 
 sowfd 
 
 s|)t.'ak 
 
 spoke 
 
 speed 
 
 sped 
 
 spell 
 
 S|K.lt. spoiled 
 
 spend 
 
 S|H'nt 
 
 spill 
 
 spilled, spilt 
 
 spin 
 
 spun 
 
 spit 
 
 spit 
 
 l>ii«l l*nrl let lilt*. 
 
 run 
 ft.Md 
 M-rn 
 
 IMKighl 
 
 Miihtd 
 
 M-i-ihi'd, sihIiI •! 
 
 Mild 
 
 sent 
 
 •ct 
 
 fthjkrn 
 
 •Ik(I 
 
 shone 
 
 sho<l 
 
 shot 
 
 shown 
 
 shrrd, slirctlded 
 
 shrunk 
 
 shriven, shrivi.-d 
 
 shut 
 
 sung 
 
 sunk 
 
 sat 
 
 slain 
 
 slept 
 
 slidden, slid 
 
 slung 
 
 slunk 
 
 sht 
 
 smell, smelicd 
 
 smitten 
 
 sowed, sown 
 
 spoken 
 
 sped 
 
 spelt, spelled 
 
 spent 
 
 spilled, spilt 
 
 spun 
 
 spit 
 
l*rtHM»nt. 
 
 •piit 
 sjioil 
 
 •.|.rin|{ 
 
 M.IVC 
 
 ^l.^y 
 
 Mr.i| 
 
 Mick 
 
 sllHjj 
 
 ftiitik 
 »ircw 
 Atriile 
 Mrjkc 
 
 Mrivc 
 swrar 
 
 -HW(Cp 
 
 swell 
 
 swim 
 
 swing 
 
 take 
 
 teach 
 
 tear 
 
 tell 
 
 Ihmk 
 
 thrive 
 
 throw 
 
 thrust 
 
 tread 
 
 wake 
 
 Wear 
 
 weave 
 
 Weep 
 
 wet 
 
 win 
 
 wind 
 
 wriii^ 
 
 write 
 
 AIMi.N|)J\ 
 
 •poilvil, hpuilt 
 >»priai| 
 
 !»pr.inj; 
 
 ^I(NM| 
 
 •love, M.ivnl 
 
 »»l lyeil. sI.ihI 
 
 Mole 
 
 hlutk 
 
 Kluiij; 
 
 it link 
 
 M re wet I 
 
 MIimIc 
 
 struck 
 
 Mrunjf 
 
 slruvc 
 
 swore 
 
 swept 
 
 svvclle<I 
 
 swam 
 
 swung 
 
 look 
 
 taught 
 
 tore 
 
 told 
 
 thought 
 
 throve, ihriveil 
 
 threw 
 
 thrust 
 
 trod 
 
 woke, waked 
 
 wore 
 
 wove 
 
 wept 
 
 wet 
 
 Won 
 
 wound 
 
 wrung 
 
 wrote 
 
 >'l 
 
 1'iM.t l*nrti«-l|ii(.. 
 
 spill 
 
 ftlMMled. k|H>||| 
 
 ftprr.id 
 
 sprung 
 sIo<nI 
 
 stove, -^imd 
 6'a>ed. Maid 
 stolen 
 
 NlUtk 
 
 Mung 
 slunk 
 
 strewn 
 
 stridden 
 
 Mruck, stritkcn 
 
 strung 
 
 strurn 
 
 sworn 
 
 swept 
 
 swell, d, swollen 
 
 swum 
 
 swung 
 taken 
 
 taught 
 
 torn 
 
 told 
 
 thought 
 
 thriven, thrived 
 
 thrown 
 
 thrust 
 
 trodden 
 
 woke, waked 
 
 worn 
 
 woven 
 
 wept 
 
 Wet 
 
 won 
 
 Wf>und 
 
 wrung 
 
 written 
 
^ 
 
 u 
 
 B^ 
 
 
 I 
 
 !l 
 
HISTORIC/!. SKHTCH OF THE HNGLISH 
 
 LAN(.UAGE. 
 
 PERIODS OF ENGLISH. 
 
 Tlio Celts—The (Itnelopn.cnt of the EnL^i.h I 
 Its origin is tooted in th.. ,1. , i , i-nglish langu.i^i- from 
 
 "H.ai.,': The .l:^i,:^::^T": ,:,;;;: ,':;;::-" 'r-'^ ■" 
 
 lory speaks were th.- Celr^ ,., .t i ''^ "^ ^^'"•'" '''s- 
 
 '"."i.; c.„.,,. ,..:';; ^:i;v:;::;i;''; :;«;::;'' ' •'■^'■7"- 
 
 race of Cells, o, llu,,,,,,, i„ „ ^ „ ,„'','"'■' ' "'"I"-, „( ,|,„ 
 
 ;ir."v„,.ff ,„ ,1, ,,„„,. eisc>v,„.,.:,.„;„',t ;:„„':r ''■""""• "■'■'= """ 
 
 iry, will, lis laiigii.iKe. reluniiil ,„ i,s f,,,,,,,., "" " ■■., c ,„,„ 
 
 Latin was, of c„„f ,„,,'„ f, '" ""I" r"''-"""' •' K""'",, province, 
 
 after .he in,ro,l , t, f 'cE';'' 1 '''"'"« " '"' ■^''"^ ^ ••"" 
 
 of the second ee , v , ,™ " tV"'" """'" "'"•■""' ""' '■■1»= 
 
 «"rch. in t,,e n:: i;'hrrei:r:nh:V"r'-T °' •"= 
 
 teries a popular form of I iti„ ,i.^ ^ ^"'^^ '''"^' '"""'^s- 
 
 likelihooc I hat the cec tf he '"''"^'"' "''' '■^"' ""^^ ^^« -'-^y 
 •o .hese power Jil:: Br;]"" '^'^^ ^^•°"" ^'^'^' '" ^"- 
 Romans abandoned the coun rv "^' V"' "''^ '"^ ''^- '" 409 the 
 ^lown from the savaleorththh T •r'^:''-"^'^ »'-- poured 
 to sweep away evx.; rd.c of R ? ^"''^'' "^ '^'^'^ ^"'' ■^^^"^^ 
 
 '•'^-i-." ceiLf ^:tri;:- :;n-^:;- 1^^^^^^ 
 
 1 I - "cu 111 tH^ir ttrror to the 
 
3o6 
 
 HISTOKICAL SKKTCH OK ENGLISH 
 
 I 
 
 powerful trilKs of Teutons who dwelt in the low-lyinK lands of 
 northern (iermany. and thus about thr middle of the fifth century 
 the pagan tribes of Angles. Saxons, and Jutes rowed their vast flat- 
 bottomed boats across the North Sea. and became in their turn 
 invadnig conquerors. Their incursions lasted for one hundred 
 years, and by the end of that period the native population of Cells 
 or IJritons. was crowded back into the remotest corners of the 
 island. Strathclyde. the Scottish Highlands. Wales, and Cornwall. 
 The Gaelic (including Irish and Manx) and the Welsh dialects of 
 to-day (for Cornish is now extinct) are the only remnants in Britain 
 of the primitive Celtic speech. 
 
 KiitfUHh the TjaiifjTuuKe of the Teuton Tnvtwiers 
 
 Our English language takes its origin from the speech of these 
 Teuton conquerors. The first list mentions the most important 
 members of the Indo-European group of languages. The second 
 list will show the main subdivisions of the Teutonic or Germanic 
 group. 
 
 These main branches of the Indo-European may be subdivided 
 as follows : — 
 
 
 c 
 
 8. 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 <* 
 
 'C 
 
 < 
 
 Aryan. 
 
 ArinoDlau. 
 
 Ilellonlo. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Celtic. 
 
 Balto-Slavlo. 
 Teutonic. 
 
 Sanskrit. Old and Modern Persian, and the 
 
 present Indian languages. 
 Old and Modern Armenian (intermediate 
 
 between East and West Aryan). 
 
 The various Greek dialects, both old and 
 modern. 
 
 The Latin dialects, and the modern Ro- 
 mance languages sprung from Latin, as 
 Italian, French. Spanish, and Portuguese. 
 
 Welsh. Cornish (dead), Gaelic (including 
 Irish and Scottish Gaelic, and Manx, the 
 dialect of the Isle of Man), and Armori- 
 can, the language of northwestern France. 
 (Celtic was originally spoken throughout 
 England, France. Spain, and Portugal.) 
 
 Old Prussian. Russian, and Polish. 
 
 English and the related languages, which 
 are shown as follows : 
 
"'STnRK-M.sK,:,c„,„.-,;x.,,,,,„ 
 
 ■a 
 
 e 
 
 C 
 
 
 e 
 n 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 c 
 
 r Gollile. 
 
 N'orMo. 
 
 I <'t'riiiiui. 
 
 307 
 
 OI.I a-ul .^roc|..^, Danish. Norwegian Ic. 
 '•iiul.r. and Swedish. ' 
 
 Old I.„>v 
 *rant'oii|iii,. 
 
 Ohl FriHiun. 
 Old KiikIIhIi. 
 
 ^"•"'i'.'h German and Modern German 
 
 ;;''"■<- Franconian.F,e„,sh. and Hutch 
 
 <^''' •''"'' Modern Saxc, 
 
 Old and Mod.rn Frisian 
 
 0'<l and Mod..rn Kn^riis,,. 
 How Does IV.itonh. Dim.- /», ^ 
 sq)arated from the other Indo F„r *"''''' Teutonic group is 
 particulars : m^'o-Luropean speeches in four markrd 
 
 '• ^'''^'</'^^'mr of Consonants Tor "Cr\». • r 
 uniform consonant changelee r \ ^^'' "^-^ S^^'" ^'"<l 
 
 «'^e Teutonic Iangua.es fro ncuh VT" ^'''''" '^- ^=4) separates 
 as Latin or C;ree^ ^i "• ^ Z '"'""^ '""""'" '^"'«"^'^-- -^^ 
 words together which ul^^ sLr:.^,!:'^:^!:"'" ^'"'' ^"^"^'^ 
 Lat. /e./-em Eng. /oo/ 
 
 2. 7'>*^ Accent of IVorti^ T« .k r . ^ 
 ".<= w„„l-„r„s w's fr/l~ ; .■"."''"-f ""P-- !"-"< ^l-ech 
 and i„ ,|,e ,a,„« word i, f. H I , "'"•"; " ^' "" -'V »y".'l'le. 
 •he reverse. ,„ ,he Te.,; Z^^^lt"' '°"' " ^""'"^ - 
 falls for ihe mosi part u,„„ .^"^"^es the accent is fixed, ajid 
 
 nouns and ndjective^ oTver .nZ-r k"^ "' "' '"""■ '" 
 
 strong and the weak. The «rnn ''"''""°" "' adjectives, the 
 
 ^".cle) is a Teutonic devetopS ''\"'"";'''' '"" "" "'«""= 
 German, and Old English likewise shows i' '"""" '" ""^"^ 
 
 «s^.. -:--:;rc;;,:^-^^^^^^^^^ - k-. 
 
 "ine leutonic group. There is 
 
Qi 
 
 308 
 
 HISTORICAI. SKF.TCH OK ENCMSH 
 
 9i 
 
 f 
 ■ li 
 
 
 
 '■WtKt 
 
 lU) ( orr.spoiwliii;; |)i.|riiif form.ilion m the ollui iikhiIhts of the 
 In(l«)-Kur.»|)c;m «niii|). I In; so-cilled stron;,' prctnitts which are 
 formed by vowil-chanKc {i^nniatwn or ahlaut), as. e. j;.. Ihnw— 
 tAretif - thnnon, are liki-wist- characteristic of Teutonic. I his sys- 
 tem of vowel-change rxisted to some extent in the ohhr Indo- 
 ICuropean lanffuages. but did not serve especially to show differ- 
 ence of tense. 
 
 Old KiiiirllMii TrIboH and i)laIocts.-The Teuton in- 
 vaders of Hritain be-longed. as has i)efn said, to (hfferent Low 
 (Jerman trilu-s. Of these the Angles settled in the North ; the 
 Jutes settled in Kent, the Isle of Wight, and Hampshire; while the 
 Saxons possessed themselves of the remaining South, except Corn- 
 wall, which was still held by the Britons. The main body of 
 Angles settled north of the Humber, and their country received 
 the n^ine of Nortliiimbi-Ia (O. E. " Nor«i«=tli|.hymbre ' ). 
 Another portion, called the East Anglians. settled in Norfolk (O. E. 
 " Nor«-folc." North-people), and in Suffolk (O. E. " SuS-folc." 
 South-people), while still another colony of Angles occupied the 
 Mklland counties, to which the name Morela was given. The 
 dialect of the North-Anglian tribes is called Northumbrian, 
 and of the mid-Anglian tribes Mercian. The Saxons in the 
 south broke up into a number of divisions. There were the West 
 Saxons, who lived in Wessex ; the East Saxons, living in Essex ; 
 the Middle Saxons, who held Middlesex, and the South Saxons in 
 Sussex. The main dialects of the South of England were called 
 West Saxon and Kentish. 
 
 English the (Jeneral Name—The Angles during the 
 early history of the country were the dominant tribe, and for this 
 reason the speech of the whole island was called English 
 (O. E. Eni^riis,), Though the West Saxons later gained the 
 supremacy, they continued to call their language Kn-r/is/i. The 
 term .]n^'-/o-S\ix,m was only used to denote the collective people, 
 not the language. 
 
 Ohl English Literature.— The literature of England prior 
 to the Norman conquest is a very interesting study. The great bulk 
 of poetry was produced in Northumbria, though we now possess 
 only the West Saxon translations. Alfred the Creat, king of the 
 West Saxons, is the most important prose writer of the period. 
 
HISTOKK-u. SKETCH Of K^r.US,, ^^ 
 
 jhe Lo. c;....a,. ....... .n,:;,:: ^ ,^:;;;;-'' <•«' ^-^t. 
 
 a few words which ,hey h.ul borrowe.lf o V'"' ''•"'''• 
 J'ul m acJcli.ion .„ ,ha, ,h.y borrow. k."' " "'^^""""*"«. 
 
 «-'ity in 597. Kxau^Wos o . I '''^' r^-'"«^'-" "^ Chris- 
 
 wall, wine. „„Ie. These arc c-!i . '""''' '" *''"«"'^'' ■ '^"eet. 
 
 Lntin words introduced 1"^^^^^^ ^'-^ ''-od. 
 
 La.in words of ,he Seco ! fr^^'""' ^^' ^""^ucst are calle<| 
 candle, creed. The L .Vi„ . '' ^'"'""I'les : ahar. bishop 
 
 '^•''i^^l I'eriod. Kxarnpir. CO '^^^^ "'' '^^"'"' ^•'"'" ^^'"'^ "' "^e 
 •his period were introdu ed i ir" t'i:7'' r"" ''°^' ^^""'^ «' 
 All .nodern borrowings from / . ^ "V^"'''" "^''""^''^ ^>-"ch. 
 
 caiied Latin words o^ :r;w p:L^,^'""•^*•— '"^y »« 
 
 •''«'usan(| Latin words of this nerin^ I. ;. J '''^ ^''"' "^•'•'- '^o 
 number of derivatives. ' '" '•"^''''^h.besicles an imn.ense 
 
 Celtic Influonoos — Oniv t 
 way into Oh| English, a's the Cdt, r ^f'" ''""'' "^^''^ "'^i-" 
 Komanized. and the Celts of .h. '"'''"^ '^^"'"^ largely 
 
 remote fastnesses. K mp e ^r"^' "^'"''•^ ''"'^ ''"-" 'o 
 
 — t. Us., c, „.,..;^;::;^, ^a^'^;::;:;,-:'— . 
 
 centuryScandinavianhorde f^^rkw :T;r'"^°'^ 
 overrun the Anglian territory. u JnT .^ and Denmark began to 
 
 Pletely conquered the North bu i 11 ""T ""'"'">• ^'-ycon,- 
 forcecl ,o submit to the West S Ink n r ''"''''''' ^"^^^ ^^^^- 
 
 -'-le of England was con ue ed bt th' H '°"' '"""'^'^' '^^ 
 ^-^"'I •ill .043. when EcKv.,n , ' qL '"' ^^'^ ^"'^'' "'- 
 
 Saxon royal line. The inrtue p, of ^ .'''''' '■'''°'''' "^^ ^"^''O" 
 speech was chiefly in the direc i on nl I''"'"'" "'^"" '^' ^^"g'ian 
 
 -system. It was'ot ^JT^:,^''''''"^^''^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 words made their way into t^rp^^T ''T ''^^-"'"-'an 
 names, especially tho,se ending nU;^^^^^ '"' g-gnphical 
 Althorp; (^) skin. sky. sk.ll. ^^' -^^^'''T* down) -as, Whitby. 
 
Vo 
 
 HISTORICAL SKKTCH OK ENGLISH 
 
 liiS 
 
 Iho NoiMimi, <oiM,,M.H|._\Vt. now come to the |H..iu,| of 
 the Nornvin Coiu,ii. si. an , vuit <.( ihr t„st iniportanct- in the .le- 
 vclopnicr.t of KhkI.,,..! an.l the English speech. The n.ost apparent 
 result of the C<,n<|u.st was tllo luldltloii of ininu.rouM 
 JrtiKli wowlH |„ the KukUhIi viHuhuI.iiv, a.ul a 
 further result of t;real importance was to liiiHtfii the dec-uv 
 ortho old Ii.neotl.,i,al nysUm. English, therefore. cease'cl 
 to be a SYnlh,t ,,il lanj-uage <lenc.tinjr the various relations between 
 worils by change of tern.ination and hecarn.- an analvtual language 
 <lenotn)g ihcv syntactical relations !,y relational words (i e 
 prepositions and ether auxiliary forms of speech). 
 
 Now we must inquire why the English language survived the 
 shocK of this invasion, and acquired fron. what must have seemed 
 at hrst a national (lis.,ster a subtler and richer force of expression 
 Had not the Anglo-Saxon invaders established their speech in the 
 is.and winch they conquered } Why then did not the Normans also 
 succeed in imposing iheir language upon a conquered people, and 
 English thus become a mere dialectal variety of Erench ? ' The 
 question becomes more ditricult to answer when we consider that 
 French was estallishe.l as the language of the court, the church, 
 the army, the schools. th» law courts, and the Parliament, so that 
 It became i.n possible for any Englishman to rise above serfdoni 
 without ac(|uiring the language of ,he conqueror. The peasant 
 working in the field uses the Saxon word swine; the animal is 
 killed and cooked for the Norman's table, who calls it by the more 
 fastidious name of pork. Thus ox becomes beef (Fr. b<fuf), 
 calf becomes vea' (Fr. feau), and sheep is changed to mutton 
 (P>. m out on).'' 
 
 The supremacy of French seemed still further assured by the 
 ever-increasing possessions in France of the English sovereigns. 
 Henry 11 added vast French territories to the English throne. '• By 
 birth, treaty, or marriage Henry was lord not only of England, 
 with the sul)se(|uent addition of Ireland, but of Normandy, Maine. 
 Anjou, Aquitaine. and presently of Brittany. lis realm extended 
 fj-om^^heviots to the Pyrenees. He was a greater power in 
 
 •The Nonn.Tns (North-men) were themselves of Teutonic stock In the n!..th 
 X'"^n'l?'''H'^°""' •*"=*■ '*^'"'^'?,.1'P ""• ^-ne. .aptured Ro '/en. a^ n.,sl^sLd ,hen,. 
 
 » See Scott : " Ivanhoe." 
 
HISTOKKAI. SKKTCII ()|. i:.\(;lisII 3,, 
 
 France th.n .he K.n« ..f ,.>..„. .• hi,„sHf. ihou^U l.y ,1,. s„ .„...• 
 -;.K^ of ^..,.Uis.„ he was .h... .he French k.nj' ^^i^ 
 
 In view of these in.inuie ,,..li,K.il rd.iions with France it w .s 
 .nov.able that intellectual interchange shoul.l ..e .-.c' . w e 
 tl.c- .W-. count -.s; so .hat even af.e. the loss of .hese F e cll" 
 -su.ns . e h.era.ure o, France continued for many cen u J To 
 'MfUience the speech of Knglai.d. ^ 
 
 UolavatU.n of Fort.|«n I..II,ion<.os.-nu. the pressure 
 was lost .0 Lnjfland n, .204 by the .ncapac.ty of John an.l thus 
 
 " ^njjianc Forty years later Louis IX of France onler,,! ,h,- 
 K >.l.sh nobles to relinquish their possessions in Juv-Ian.!. or fore' 
 all clnnn to those in France. As a .neasure of retali^t.on lenrv ll 
 conhscated the property of ,he French in En.dand. Thus the ' 
 
 etween the two countries c.nu„u.e.l to w.den. Meanwhile throS« 
 
 1 1 liic end by sheer weight of numbers. " 
 
 l4 n. h'-e^"'; r"" "'" "'^ ''^>- '" '362 K.Iward Ills 
 a. hament abolished the use of French in the courts of law The 
 Kn ainent in which this measure wa. vassed had been ope d 
 l'> Edward m English for the first time. I„ ,385 French wa 
 abandoned in the Grammar-schools. 
 
 An English r.Itemt.iro.-In the same century, for.h.-r ,0 
 
 ensure the triumphs of ,he English tongue, a native li' . . ! 
 
 sprang up.and rapidly gathered power. Sir John Mandeville(>) wr e 
 
 ■n La.m an account of his travels, turned it into French, and fin 
 
 -slated It into English in ,356. Langland's •• X'.sion of • 
 
 lowman. an alliterative poem, followed a few years later The 
 
 poet'ror'cT' ^f"""^' '""^^"' "^^ ^""^^'' '^^- "»• 1---^^' 
 
 How had it fared with the English 
 
 the Conquest to the days of Ci 
 
 s|)»^(ch in tins long interval f 
 
 torn 
 
 lauccr.'' It survived, as we h 
 
 ive 
 
§1 
 
 J«3 
 
 UISIOKKAI. SKIHH nl KNl.r.lSfl 
 
 I 
 
 ri 
 i 
 
 s<r„ ,„„.„,« ,1,,. |.,w.r |K-..plr; I,,,, lacking ih- „sti...,Mn« mllm-,Rc 
 of . uh.irr. and will, no h.ciary HtamluMl ol extdkiuc ..n a orrt-ct- 
 ivr U. niisuv. u .juickly Infcainc cor.u|.k-«l. Kvn. w.il, thuMr en- 
 siTvai.Vf forces at work, w.tl, a Kical cla.MCal liuraturt- a.,.| ^m,|. 
 an accepted Man<lard of culturt-.l »|„-ccl.. in.«l,.rn i;n,.|,>h ,s inipcr- 
 ccpuhly yet surely cl.an;.,n«. A lanxuaKc that .I.h> not clianKc U 
 <'"a(l. Yet the .hai.ges l)ctwecn the Corupiest a.ul Chaucer were 
 nnn.easurably greater than can he ohserse.l in any other perio.l of 
 sinular length in the language. An e,p.al lapse of tune s.parat. . 
 us from Shakespeare, yet Shakes|)eare seems scarcely arrh.iir to 
 us. A child can un.lerstan.l his speech. lU.t Chaucer coul.l nut 
 have understoo.1 .KKric. who is one of the l.itest authors of th,- 
 Old hnj^iish period. 
 
 The Norn.an Conquest gave a new complexion to the Enulish 
 lanj^uage : * " 
 
 I. /.> /Ms/fHt,ii,r the decay of iiijlationul forms. 
 IF. liythe inlrodiulion of ni.tny nnv 7von/s into the voeahulary 
 ivith a f,:q,„nl toss of the correspomlin^r ,uuh>€ wonis. 
 
 I. Tho \Hvny uV IiKIoctloriul Forms In MIU.II«. 
 KllHrllsh. -Old Knjilish had been the period ,,( •• („11 intlcci.ons - 
 Middle English has been called ,he period of ••levelled inrtect.ons " 
 The influence of French in this direction was onlv indirect, .uul 
 served to accelerote a process -a-hieh 7oas inherent in the iam^ua^e 
 I he texts of the transition period, su.h as I.ayan.on's lirut. which 
 show scarcely any French influence, abound in examples of levelled 
 inflections. 
 
 Ilediic-tloii of Kiul Vowels to »»o/V-The Old English 
 vowels a. o, and u of the terminations became weakened to e For 
 example. O. E. o.ra ; M. E. o.ve ; O. E. 0x0 n ,■ M. E. o.ve» ■ 
 O. E. stiinas ; .M. E. stones. 
 
 Change of "en" to *'e/*-IJesi<Ies the reduction of .-,11 
 final vowels to e. final n was soon afterw.ird dropped from the in- 
 finitive and past participle. Thus hin<hn became /nn</e and i/nimien 
 became ibunde. 
 
 It will readily be seen what importance this ending e acquires in 
 the Middle English period. Owing to its universalitv grammatical 
 relations could no longer be distinguished bv infler.inn nnd ♦i,.,.^ 
 
HISTOKKAI. SKITCIIUF KNi.MsH 3,3 
 
 •he .ysinn ..f r. I...mh,..| wnr.U was inir.Hlucf.l. // /, m«. //. . 
 
 ...2;':;;::'; ^•••""«— '^^^ -«= -vo .aso.. .„ acun. ^ 
 
 unclucl;"|' '""' Corrup,.onH of all kunls were .hcfurc 
 
 on the hrst sellable. L.M.sequnuly tlu- unaco-.Ur.l vowels of .1 
 .crmn,a,.un woul.l l,e .ccluce.l ,0 the n.u.ral vovvcl ' • • " 
 
 Among other inflL-ction.il and uramin itir .1 .\,f( .* 
 
 "" ' •^' = '■■"^'•^ '""..winL;'::;;';:',;;*;;:;;::,' '■^•'"™ 
 
 ■•iirilioi. <imimm,ii,.„| <li«iiK,.».-_r/„ .v,«„ ii> ,i„ 
 
 :::ir, "'.r" ttt "■ •'■ "'^' """ "^•^"«^'' 
 
 was the -fs of the Kfmtivc and plnrd 
 
 7'//. . /,/yVr/m.. -The levdlin^^ of noun-inrtcctions and the loss of 
 K-Kler d,st.nc,.ons naturally led to the d.sre^ar.l of ' I, f 
 
 rherefore the case en.lings of adjectives disappeare.l and t ! 
 term.nat.on-. alone survived as the sign throug'h'out of the v I 
 adjective and of the s ,,ng plur il 
 
 accusat.vc //,,;. for the masculine, the dative /u,r replaein^ u 
 usa.ve /..for .he feminine, and the accusative (/.)// U,: 
 
 The other pronoun classes show many similar changes all tend 
 •ng toward ;, simplification of inHection ^ 
 
 me^f of'\n;Mle"r"';T'"' ■'"';'" "" "^"^^ ""^^""-^ ''--'"P- 
 ^^^ent_ofJVI,ddle Lnghsh. apart from .he reduction of inflections. 
 
 Ihe -ame word is used .Atrr^^,!V^it"^Sh v' *•''-' ''•'*" "°"' «'^ ''"^ somcrl,,,... 
 A<J«K»««r. " ' " ' ' -'"-■' "'^ fcns'i->ri ..tt eiiiuation. i. e., hondur or 
 
\A 
 
 ii 
 
 
 M4 
 
 IIISIOKK Al. SKI. nil OK I.Nt.l.lSlI 
 
 u.i^ ilir « li.in^f (i( in.iiiy >irui)|{ vcilw lo ihc wf.ik i«»nju|{.itiun, 
 Thtis (Jh.itiCk.r htiuwt the (olliming utiuii}; priicritr;* : lnf.,/,'M<itt'; 
 I'rrt.. i;H.':i>,x'{uh-g/o,{, /iiui^-A -Am^/i, t/Miiiu- ifuot, wlicrc MimI- 
 I III I'lt^li^h li.iH only the fuiins iii -nf. 
 
 II. Tlif <ii*o\vtli of till* VociilMiliiry. Tlw inllunurc of 
 (In- NutiiMt) c oiH|iust ii|>«m iiui ^t.iniiiiatu.k s^sii-m w.in iiulircct, 
 aixinul vrry far-rr.iching. I( did not extend l>eyond tin- in dec I tot is, 
 .ind w.is not evin the thief ciiisc in ihcir decay. Moreover, our in- 
 tleclion.d system iMirmweil «<>M///i,' fioin the Krrn< h. hut devcli>|><'d 
 on a purely Tculonic basis. The tiireii mtriMlui lion of a vast 
 iitiiiiher of French words w.is an evt iil whuh iidlueiued our 
 laii^'u;i}{e more profoundly, and changed the whole complexion of 
 our Knulish siverli. lUit this introtluclion of 
 
 A I >tailii.il (trimiti. 
 
 new wyrds u is not as sadilen as wo may sup- 
 pose. It was the slow j;rowih of leiiturus. For many ye.irs llu; 
 two speeches lived si-'e by side without mtermiiifjliit^. I'ntil Uw 
 Hiiifiiii- of tilt ta'ilfth . •: titty nut mot,' than a liozcH Fi , tti h words 
 ittr t,> f>,' foil lilt lit I'.iii^lish -a'tithii^s. In fiMy-six thousand lines of 
 Lavamons /.';///. a poem imil.ited in tlie thirteenth century from 
 the French, there are only one hundred and fifty words of Anyio- 
 French orijjin. 
 
 From 1250 to 1350 may be rotij;hly considered ns the pcrio<l 
 when Anylo-Fiench( Norman-Freiuh) words were introduced most 
 freely. After that perio«| the numerous French words which came 
 into the languajfc were chiefly borrowed from the Parisian dialect. 
 It was a very necessary tiling lliat our vocaliul.iry should be thus 
 enriclied. for durinj; the fourteenth century F.nj^dish had lost the 
 power of forming self-expl.iining compounds, and those formerly in 
 use h.iil fallen away. 
 
 Dt'cay In Wonl-Coinposltlon.— Thus Old F:nj,dish had 
 innumerable words, like forc-dders, lree-u>rii^lit, fair-hood, flcsfi- 
 iiion^^cr, hook-lioiisr, /(trc-wit, learnini^-knii^ht, which were dis- 
 pl.iced by correspondinfj words of French orij,Mn, :\?,,(iiicestors, ciir- 
 f>enti'r, f>ritiity, f>iif(/i,r, /if»arv,ttiiifton, />uf>i7. It is very possible, 
 of course, that the powtr fo form these self-explaining compounds 
 fell into disuse owing to the facility for borrowing the correspond- 
 ing French words. It may also be mentioned here that a very 
 large number of our living prefixes arid suffixes v.t-ic burrowed 
 
'"■SK.RICAI. SKMUl ... ,..v.,, ,s„ 3„ 
 
 .'r ;;:,:.''::';::•';;.:::■ 't '!'- '■•••" - ■""" "- 
 
 K. rriiith ., ,, fur I iiuoiiu" .,/,^ 
 
 I c ; h„ „,',,, T" "' "■""■ " > - •■! i,.„ 
 
 IIUHlIiiUllHl, |U.«.,iK|n.„|^th,.,„.,,.. II „ .. 
 
 - ,..-^.n.:;;;:,:4;::;r.: ;::;;• .,,;■;■■■" •"» '-■ .«,.,:: 
 
 »ni,»: "No, „„|,. ,„ ,,, '"" '^"i:l"-'<^'<"n l).cli„„;„v.- 
 
 .".raorera: ,C.r , ':: .7 ■",:"'":■ ',"" '" "- l-"l- 
 
 -ii r.,r„„.i, „„M '•■ 1"'": '""'"■""• ""«■• -I- 
 
 —111...- i,s ,,n, - , : '■ ^^^ ";;"'•■"-•" •"■" An„...-.S..„„ 
 
 i'-™ii..r„i,., „f s„ „.„„,,?; ; " " " """ "'■" '■'"■ '■'•'■' 
 
 »,»//„ r. /„/;S,.^ „■,,,, '"'•^ "'"•III"-, ("'in mir ,;,rlKs, ,!.,>,, ,„. 
 farm, and of evervrKv lif • 'narK« t, the strert. tlu- 
 
 -r. ..ire:;::,'!: ,tiZ.;':','::; ",t""^ ■""•"■■'«'■ '- 
 
 evpr..ssive „, ,„„ „„,„,„, ..„„ ,^ ,„7 . ' , " ' "'""» 
 
 stirnng scenes „f lif,.. ,r,„„ ,„, ,.,.,,11,. ,„ ,hV,^ I- '""■'' 
 
 -'.-a,^;,:;;,::s:U;:':'-::;::;':«,---M.^. 
 
 ■'■■'"'" ■^»"-"'"- -.- ,„„,i„„ a„,, .,„,,, „,/-;,„:. ""•■ ''-■ 
 
Ji6 
 
 HISIOKK ,\|, SKI rCM OK INCLISH 
 
 I <] 
 
 r 
 
 I h., ju.lK.nrnt » in ihr m.m corrrci.l>u» wr mutt accqit ii w.iii 
 c-rrLun rt«rv.iiiof,H. Thrrr arc many naiiim of common »n<l 
 f.un.lwr ohjrci^ .h.it .... „f Krrncli orn-m. Anions .hrm. r.»r c«. 
 aiM|.lr. wr timl vith coiiinioii t. rm» (UmuImik ril.ilion*hi|. .i% uft./, 
 .'//«/. u,/>/o^, Hux.. rl.'. \VV „ui,l tike into cnHMltraliun alvi 
 III.- fat I thai wluir purr EriK-li^h vvur.U arc ..fit-r, "chararlcrur.! I>> 
 Mrrn^-il,. |„||,. .„„| hnviu. Ik-iiik' frn|uinlly mono%)llabM-." »t ill the 
 vvnr.N win. I, wc.c early l«„,ovv..| rmm i|,c I r. „. h hav br.o.nr s« 
 thoroughly a part of tl,.- hu^uaj;. .1,..,. ,.,xe to thr »,K-cial Mu.lenl. 
 they are un«li^tln^rul^halllr fu.m nur native M.ktU of wonl*. \\> 
 ran wfrly c.i. luilc that KKghsh has gained very materially by thi» 
 fuMun of two vigornus s|>«-.. h. s. \\ c h.n.- gain.-.l alikr in wr.ilih 
 and subtkly of . x|.ri-»sion. and it cannot nureiy Ik: artirined that we 
 liave lost in s'rriigth. 
 
 LATKR DKVKLOI'MENTS OF MIDDI.K KNdl.lSlt. 
 MhhlU' KiitfliMli IMiilci'tHiiiwI tli«' IMm4> (>rtli4> \a\\\- 
 Uoiioi- MfdliilHi I»!iiIm, I. in the ihirl.-.ntli and fourtr.nth 
 crnliMnsand during a pait of llu- lilte-cnth crntury thrr.- w«-rr ihne 
 chief litrrary diain IS -thr Noith.rn (Old N'oilhuinbnan). th.- Mid- 
 land (< )l<| Mercian), anti thr Southern (Old Wrst S.ixon). Thr Norlh- 
 rrn dialn i rxl.ndfd north of the Iluinlier as far as Alurdeen ; thf 
 Suuihcrndialrct was spoken south of the Thames, while the Mi<|. 
 land «lialtTt ociupie.l ih.- inti-i veiling district, including the important 
 city i)f F.cmdon on the north side of the Thames. The linguistic 
 distinction l>etwocn these dialects it is not necessary here to discuss 
 
 ,,j „ .. , . '" «'♦''■'*''• Suffice it to say that the Northern 
 
 DiMinciion l)eiweeri the .. , , ' 
 
 I)i«lcci». dialect, owing partly, perhaps, to Scandinavian 
 
 inHuences, cast off inliectional terminations 
 much more extensively than the other dialects, and in this res|)ecl 
 is more akin to Modern Knglish. For example, the Northern dia- 
 lect abandoned -,/// as the third plural sign of the present indica- 
 tive, in ail but four words substituted plurals in -s for phirals in -/•//. 
 and gave up the prefix gt- ( ») for the past participle. So far. 
 indeed, had the Northern dialect separated itself from the Southern 
 that the natives of the North anl South could not understand one 
 another. 
 
 Now when Norm;in-Frni( h h.id been deprived of its supiemaey 
 
!»'• Mt.ll. .t |». .1^. , 
 
 HlSlfiKICAI. SKKHM(,r KNi.l.lSH 3,7 
 
 «wcrnlhr|wo.„rn„... or Nur.l, .,,,,1 South 
 
 :;;:;r:^;.:;;:i,r,;:;:-:;;;;;-,JX^-:r= 
 -lr;:;ri;i«;:;;r;r;j';;r;i;;;,::;v;:TV-^ 
 
 .!/.'</, 
 
 '-'// Stmii't.i I: 
 
 '«s' //>//. A'///,/, 
 
 riv,;i from /A, Qhl .lA 
 
 '/v, 
 
 /f </# 
 
 'i'fi «•«# 
 
 y» ./ // 
 
 A //V //»//. ri'///i// /V/ /,, 
 
 fcsM)r Skcit 
 
 ciiri 
 
 of fl 
 
 '" ""'l<'«'f'f.ll> in .he rJKhl wl.n, !,»■ 
 
 « /I ,f,: 
 
 'n\> i.Hfciiun that if I.MM.I.M, ha.l 
 ■"• nvri. Ihrs|«.rch of ,h.- h,,,,,!, | 
 
 l>«*rn hiiill 
 
 sni thai •• It Ka 
 '>•! ihc south SKir 
 
 P'rtof North AiPcrica vvouKI have J^^e 
 
 It now is 
 
 •'»|"'«' ■•'•'I of ih.- ^rreatpr 
 »» vrry (hffrrciit from what 
 
 MODKKN i:\{;ijsH. 
 M*Mh«rn Kiiirll«4ii vvi. . 
 
 '-"'."" n„,, in E,i,";,,i ;":' «-;'"■■■"'; "'-k .I..S ,.-ri,Kl in 
 A,n.ric. in l^- Th V^ , "" '" ""■ *'"'""'l"- "'^°V".-,I 
 
 » w„„u,.rrui m ,,.,,, „",;,::;■ 7 ',"■ ' "' ■•■■•""""-■■ •.-- 
 
 "■ir-r,"^'-' ^- ■^""!^^'^:::!::r"- • - ■'"" 
 
 JIT"" '"■' ^ ■'' «'"'''■" < 1>-"I."« P.HO.U as 
 
 •■ The I.m-uajre became nhnost entirHv ,f//.,/i.//. / • u . 
 scanty remains of the ohier infln tions. """^>''''"^' ^v.,h only 
 
 f'Tiri ro, ;,,„...,.„ ..„„, ,,„.^,,^^, y^^ - -'-'- •" --e standard 
 
318 
 
 rilSTOklCAL SKKTCH OF KNCILISH 
 
 i i f 
 
 I 
 
 3. M.iny n.\v infl.i- nces Iroin forn^'n Liuku-ikcs still further in- 
 creased the iiybrid cliaracter ol our vocabulary. 
 
 Now FoivI«ii Iii(liicMK-os.-TI,usthe Rtnaissance led to 
 the adopiion of a large luunl.cr ol (ireek and Latin words, intro- 
 duced M.to the laiiKua-e in a Latinized torin. Frequent transla- 
 tions from Latin works had also the effect of j;ivinjr a Latin turn to 
 many of our };rarnniatical constructions. Surre\ . Wyatt. and other 
 Eh/ahethan writers came closely into touch with Italian literature 
 whence a considerable infusion of Italian words into our lan-niaKe' 
 I he opening up of the New World brought England into contact 
 with .Spam, and accounts for an infusion of words from that source. 
 And tinally the ever-growing commerc iai relations o( England nnd 
 III.' spuit of maritime adventure brought words into the language 
 from every corner of the globe. 
 
 PERIODS OF MODERN ENGLISH. 
 The Modern Period falls into the following natural divisions :- 
 
 1. Early Modern English (Elizabethan or Tudor English), roughly 
 from 1500 to 1625. 
 
 2. Seventeenth Century English (Age of I)ryd«ii). 
 
 3. Late Modern and Present English, from 1700 to the present 
 day. 
 
 Professor Sweet distinguishes Early and Late Modern En-dish 
 by saying that "the former is the period of exp.-riment and com- 
 parative licence both in the importation and in th.- formation of new 
 words, idioms, and graitimalical constructions. The Lat< Modern 
 English Period is. on the other hand, one of selection and organi- 
 zation. The most n)arked differences in fletail are the great sound- 
 changes undergone by the spoken language-changes which have 
 been completely disguised by the fixity of the orthography." 
 
 >ll 
 
 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Tho Origin of Laiitfiia*re.-The origin of language is 
 wrapped in mystery. Yet certain assumptions mav be made with 
 some degree of certainty. The need of communici'tion is the basis 
 of human speech. At fust primitive man possessed, like the ani- 
 
"ISTOR.CAI. SKKTCH „F EN,;,.,,„ 3,, 
 
 mals, emotional cries <if ■>.;., i- 
 
 'o hi, (dl„w,. ,1^ :,","/'>■: "':'' "■ ' "'«'l.lc. a, ,„oh 
 
 out of which hnu'uaL'r h .. ... ,:'"^ "'*" l>nmituc dements 
 
 ^urtfu-r power h.stth.ur.n: "'"' '""' ''"■^•^--' - 
 
 "^ '••"«ua«e cleation ^Ij' Z f "'" f"- "'" '" '"^' "--' 
 l""-|'ose. as. for exanmlc to u M n ;'".' '''""'^'''y '^^^^^'^'-out 
 tHce all clevelopn.ent ; s l ,"' '""^ °^ '^' '"• '*•" 
 
 value they inherently possess^ lb .? "^ ''"^ •*^"^'«*^^"^'^ 
 
 niin.icry. He probahVl J^h ' l^' '°""'"^'' '""'•^""" '>^ 
 
 the cries of the birc.s'o t.n . ^^Thu '^^ "" ^°"""^ °^ "•'--• 
 ■sprang up. an,! gradually th" nh n ' ' ^'""'"''' ^"^•'''"'■'rv 
 
 n-«ls an.l ,o point out ,hrs^^ 'T ^" ^•^'"""^ ^^'^ "'"M"-. 
 VVhatchfferentLt:^ Z tm ;:;? f^'^'^ "^ ^^"^" "^ "'-'h. 
 place, then, this superio pow o „ "■"?"" ^"''' '" "^ «-' 
 
 power of in,itatlon' w ich n ,m, rh"'';"' """ '---''-"-'y a 
 
 Thus arose a tradition-,! ...; r ''"'" J'" f^"' '^^"'^- purpose. 
 
 han,.„ „„„„ .:::::;„: ;,;;jr::;r::,,:;!;''^- -r ^^ -"^ 
 
 eralion to generation An,l ir , "^ '^"^ additions from ^^-n- 
 
 ->'•'|.smode,,c^^..e^i^^ "'""''" ''-'^ 
 
 sprung. ■■' •'^ ■ "'''^ ''^" "^ ^vonderful con.plexity. has 
 
 One error was 0^^0.1.^'' ' "" ""'^' """ '''^'■"^^ ^^^I'^ ''-ay- 
 '-cause it l.a n'o S «- forefathers, and 
 
 to mention it here ^ '^ ^'■°'" °"'' ""''^^ '^ ^^^'^^ right 
 
 English ianguag^^^Th^tlh^ t:7i,;'rT'^ ^^ '^^'^^'"^ ^^ 
 guagc would naturally (e s 1 ' Ld t . ^^ '""" "" '^"- 
 
 Srow corrupt. Thev felt thu I . '''"' '''■''"^^^'''- '"'"'' '^us 
 
 Had appear!.,, whe.: U w ^a;!: s^rr' T'"' " ^'""^"'^" 
 
 changes and corruptions. Sw,f;t:i;!: ^:r;: :::::::i;:;:- 
 
1 
 
 1 
 
 , i 
 
 ■ I 
 
 1 
 
 3 1' i 
 
 III I 
 
 320 
 
 HISTORICAL SKKTCH OF EN(;^.oH 
 
 making proposals in this {liiection, " What I have most at heart." 
 Swift wrotP, " is that some method shouhl he thoujjht on for ascer- 
 taining and fixinjj our language forever, after such alterations are 
 made in it as shall be thought rctpiisite." With this ambitious end 
 in view Johnson undertook his great Dictionary. They looked upon 
 language as a piece of ingenious mechanism, and failed to realizf 
 the vital creative forces that are constantly working within it. The 
 ignorant observer thinks that the continents stand upon the same 
 foundations as on the day of creation, and that the rivers still flow 
 in their old appointed channels. We know that the world is even 
 now in process of creation. The air and rain wear down the 
 mountain tops, the rivers dig new channels in the changing hills, and 
 the silent energy of the sun is transforming the solid earth itself. 
 And so it is with language ; for words are merely the counters r)f 
 speech, and, like coins, are worn by repe.ited use. A true appre- 
 ciation of language then can be gained only by reflecting u|)on the 
 laws which govern its growth, its change, and its decay. 
 
 FoHsibllltles of Chanjaro.— The use of words for ordinary 
 conversation seems as natural to us as breathing. By an inward 
 movement of suggestion and association the right word comes 
 readily to our lips, and we scarcely realize the hidden and compli- 
 cated processes that are involved in such a simple oi)eration. As 
 children we first began to exercise our speech faculty and to extend 
 oi:r stock of words and ideas. This we did by that quick habit of 
 imitation which man alone possesses. Yet everyone knows that a 
 child imitates but imperfectly. And similarly we, who are only 
 grown-up children, likewise hear amiss, and are not yet grown per- 
 fect in reproducing what we hear. The main difference between 
 the adult and the child is that the l.itter is constantly exercising his 
 faculty of imitation in reproducing the new sounds which he hears 
 from the lips of others. The adult, on the other hand, has already 
 by that method learned enough words for his ordinary use, and in 
 employing any word he does not consciously imitate others, hut 
 unconsciously revives a speech-image which is already stored 
 in his own mind. His vocal organs respond mechanically to this 
 imi)ression, just as the hand responds to a mental suggestion when 
 we write. Yet though our handwriting appears superficially the 
 same, we can never write the same word twice with microscopical 
 
HISTORICAL SKKTCM OK ,;n,^us„ 3,, 
 
 "-i-ii.i.t,:,i fact :,.... ou't ":"",'';;''■' r* "■ ''"■""■ """ "■■= 
 
 "infainiliar word. Ifclwiri ih,. I, ? ' " "'""«' ""'' 
 
 Shakespeare will, perfect eise • U,„ „ '^"^"" '"•'"""• ^V e ran rea.l 
 
 -M». T,.,.,. .„. ,;,e,fr :; r,:M;: ;:';;i:r ;;;:';:■ '"- ■"" 
 
 S..U.UIS we heard, a„,l i„,.,gi„e a,,„„3, ,har "•.:,; "T' 
 ilahnms '" some foreign t„„gue. "'■'•■ '''- 
 
 think of other, a. >vel ,, „ ' ' , "'''■'■ '" *""l''=- ^e „,„« 
 
 frun, undue char^- wTr^fe I r'",'' T'' '""""" '^"""'•".- 
 l.^ss„«s degenerate iZ,', [ '"'"''""'••"e 'Itroufh care- 
 
 S"ve a „,easure of cle." e« A 'T ^ "".' """"'•' "'"" >'"■ 
 
 -. w.ar o. and-i-r:;-- ::::':i::!:^\::::!^,r 
 'rcn co.„/u„ica.io„°:,:r;;r„„ ^" ^" ,;:;j";f "--"•;'•" 
 
 generations would show -i di.fin., ^"'^ "^ '"^ ^*^^^ 
 
 wouUI speak a separat: lli^l^r K,:;^i:r^: r^'' m"' '''' 
 ..net subdinsions representing ,heS ' j :1 ^.^r" ;^.;;'- 
 tJ'e l.mits of a single con.munitv. small or \.r i , . " 
 
 arises spreads ifraduallv to ill -.'n,! " ul-.-tevn- change 
 
 speech hut Ie^h7cln.f•; " ""'"' ''""^ "^ "^^ K-"'''-^! 
 
 p-ut« . u! then V '" ^ ^' ''"'"'" '"^ '''•''' '"'" '^^^ (-^ n.nre) 
 
 ! -. ->u! t.cn t.. change, ans.ng in e,.l,...- pa., do not spread to 
 
I J — 
 
 . ■ ■'5t A Jf" ■•» '*"... 
 
 I 
 
 ''>-J- . 
 
 .'TL-X' 
 
 322 HISTORICAL SKKTCH OF ENCWJSH 
 
 th.- «)thrr. and th.-ic begins to appear a difference in usage belweeti 
 ihcnj," ' 
 
 We may thus understand how by geographical distribution and by 
 difficulty of intercourse an original i)annt speech n.ay be. and in fact 
 must be. broken up into local dialects more or less diffeientiated. 
 
 We have referred to the subtle changes which our own indivj.lual 
 S|)eech IS suljject to. TAe- more decisive cham^e^ in language 
 likewise arise in the individual or in a limife'd number of indi- 
 vtduals, and are thus gradually spread throughout the commw 
 nity. The chief opportunity for change arises lo/ten the lani^uai^rf 
 li being passed from generation to generation. 
 
 It remains now to examine in brief detail the mai.i laws which 
 operate universally to effect language change, and those laws which 
 seem confi-ied in their operation to our own group of languages. 
 As these laws are somewhat complicated in character it seems best 
 to present them chiefly by way of concrete examples. 
 
 Words are subject to two main kinds of change, namely 
 ClmiiKo In Soiiml and ChniiKe In Signification. In 
 deahi.g with these it must be borne in mind that reference is aU 
 ways made to the spoken word, for written speech does not appre- 
 ciably change. The f.ict that modern spelling is so inadequate to 
 represent modern pronunciation shows how stagnant the written 
 language is. and how far from the old pronunciation the spoken 
 word has travelled. 
 
 The chief factors so far referred to in the phenomena of sound 
 change have been imperfect hearlnjir, Imp'Tfeet souna- 
 meniory (or speech- 1 muffe). and Imperfect i-epro- 
 tlnction. While these are the most important causes hading to 
 a differentiation in speech, there are likewise a number of subsidiary 
 elements in language development, such as the conditions of 
 climate, habits of life, and many other considerations, so subtle as 
 to render investigation difflcult and a tangible exposition of the 
 laws which govern them impossible. 
 
 Chanj^es In Sound— Consonant Changes.— There still 
 remain a number of interesting processes in which we are able to 
 discern the operations of a constant law. Of these the most im- 
 portant are given below : 
 
 • " Encyclopedia Hritaiiiilc a." Art. PhiMogy, 
 
HI.STOKICAI. .SKKICI. of KN.iLISH j.-j 
 
 seeks ,„ overcome .1,, n„ I" '?"" '" "'■ '^ ^"'""•'•■'l •"•'" 
 lener sou Id -m Law ;, l" rr';"""? "^^ "''" "' '""■■" 
 
 ianKuage,ro„r:: 1 :e'i;r;r:r''' '™"^"r'' "^'"^ »■•- 
 
 em ;.;„„llsl, will ,,,„„ „,e e"fe„?. ' '""''"r"" °' °''' ""'' •''"''- 
 /.W and Aw . now slm, J / / ; , " ''■" "I""'"'' Tl.us, 
 
 unde? ..."e same X^cLg h:.""'°" ^^^P^'V ^ classe."; 
 
 ^onsonan. i„ ,he same lord . ^'' ""-" """^''°" "' '"'"'*'" 
 Mr,M. u is easv Lr. ^^ ""'' '^ »-i">ilatio„ is only 
 .He . In ,he wlrLll X^'^' i: Tf^ "■"-• .--'^'r "' 
 C"l. .0 pass from ,l,e voiceless' ei.cr ,o L ," tT'" l" ""■ 
 ' '» ."«»//„« ,„ ,|,e , and becomes voMes ■,',/"""»"•• ">= 
 ess lakes place in the ,vr„,i / "-' '°"^eless. The reverse proc- 
 
 correspon,lli:h ice, ;™ThfS P tt' '"= ' '» ™-" "' 
 ge. .h, modern „„, wns J„,L?J ^"^'"^^ 'T' ''""' '*'''<^'' »= 
 change.1 ,o ,he dental na,a 7w i, Z", \""''" ""'" '" "- 
 O. E. /„.„,.;, ,|,e reverse p™ "' ^ seln "? '' '" '""''' '""" 
 cases olm«Mvt, ,„/„„■/„,: , ^''"'' ""' ""' '"'inv 
 
 ;™n.,..-/,^/,,,,,.;:rnt::i,a :,frf 'zft;^ "i ■^■'"'■' 
 ,^r:---^r^tJrrc:i::rf^--:" 
 
 ■ Las. ana .„. are occasion..,,, exp.aincd bv ..,„«, .,,, _, ...,„ ,,^^^^ ^^^ 
 
..v 
 
 324 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KNcil.lSH 
 
 I 
 
 r.xamplrs . O. K. " brid " liecaine bird, (J. K. " axian " lu-came t^sk. 
 O. K. " €urh " Ijecnmc through, O. E. " wa'ps" became %'Hisp, O. E. 
 " gacrs " Ikicame grass, etc. 
 
 (jirltnin^M I^uw and Venior'H Ijiiw.— The importance 
 of these two great cunsunaiital laws for all Germanic languages 
 cannot i>c tienied. 'I'hey require, however, in order to Ik; properly 
 understoml such a knowledge of (ireck and Latin or Sanskrit words 
 as a young student is not expected tu possess. Inasmuch as these 
 laws arc rather a part of Indo-European grammar than within the 
 scope of an exclusively English grammar, it will sulfice to detine 
 them very briefly, with se»'eral examples for illustration. 
 
 (irlinni'H Tja>\', so named for its founder, Jacob Grimm 
 (1785-1863), seeks to explain anti reduce to regularity the changes 
 in the consonantal system of the Germanic languages as compared 
 with the oldest languages in the Indo-European family. Taking 
 Sanskrit, or even Latin and (ireek, as the best representatives of 
 the primitive parent speech, Grimm shows how any given consonant 
 in these langu.iges of the: labial, dental, palatal or velar series 
 underwent an almost constant change in passing into the Teutonic 
 languages. A labial could never become a dental, nor any letter 
 pass from one series into another. Hut within each series a regular 
 shifting always took place. Thus / of Sanskrit or Latin became 
 /// in English or Low German, d became /. and dh became d. 
 And in the Labial series Indo-European bh became b, b became/, 
 and p became/. 
 
 Take, for example, the Latin word frater. This does not look 
 much like our English brother, but it is almost identical if we bear 
 Grimm's Law in mind. Indo-F!uropean bh, which is Latin f, be- 
 comes b, and / according to law gives th. Compare also tres and 
 three, duo and two. 
 
 Verner*s Law.— Vemer's Law is important because it 
 explains the apparent exceptions to Grimm's Law by referring 
 them to the influence of Indo-European or early Teutonic accent. 
 Grimm's Law is invariable when the consonant affected immedi- 
 ately followed the syllable where the primitive accent fell. Ver- 
 ner's Law applies to cases where the consonant is not immediately 
 preceded by this primitive accent. There takes place then, as it 
 
HlSIOKKAl. SKKTCM OF ,.:n,,UsH ,,, 
 
 -:;.i^;™".:: ;:;;;^,::;r:;;;r;- "'T----'- --- 
 
 vomers L.w. '"""- '""'•*' '^l'"'-""'' .«ccor,|,Mfi to 
 
 ■I'hi-s . able will show, he .liffcrcn,,. suits: 
 
 l-I-.. / to/ 
 
 / <o /// (voiceless) ro//, /, , 
 
 Xto// '"///(voiced) 
 
 s '°-^ 
 
 Cull: viS'i:::^""' ^^^-"""^ •" ^^n.,...,::;:i,^„.^^^ .^ 
 Have ::c;: :^:;:;s:i;c'' M:«r' ••' ^^-"^^ ^'■«"^" 
 
 «<«i" approximately the s „, e s ., , " '• '* "'"' ' '''""*' ^^- 
 /ate) has become an entireK- liffer'" /' <P';>-'ou.,cecl like modern 
 - is the phonetic ec,uivai; V 'f H': V? '" ^"'^ '''''" ''^' 
 
 eighteenth century .luecl /.. ., h . ^ ^t ;h'"' '""'^ '" "'^ 
 tensive to examine here and it wil ! ff ' . '"^'" '''' '°" ^''- 
 
 the general laws which he L fT T ""'" ^'''^'' '^ ''-'- 
 
 i" English. ''" ^'''''"'''^ '^' ^'''-»"K*^« ol vowel sounds 
 
 en'r^';:;^;;,!:?-::!;',^;::;''^ >-« --. are general, short- 
 many suffixes, eg': "^ '"" '"' '""^^ ^""-"an.s. an<l before 
 O. E. s/<7p/,- ,o Mod. E. s/e'/>/ 
 
 binacio.,, as /,/, „,/. It.. Tg. '' " """'" "'"°"^"' ""'- 
 
 O. E. jfe/,,/, to Mod g ,,^.^1^ 
 
 " ■' /'■''"■ AM 
 
 ^ 0„ntr„o„„„.^„, e„„,„e,io„ ,w„ vowels are re,luce,l .„ „„e. 
 
 O. E./rewtato Mod. E. ft tend. 
 
^"'"liii'iiil* - 
 
 k. '"la*.- 
 s. ' #■■■»»; 
 
 336 
 
 IIISIDKICAL SKI.TCH OK KNCil.ISM 
 
 lerminahon iS iK-canie -f. Obstrvr also llu- past participli"* wlur» 
 t lias licvn sy ncopatfil : as. s/i,ra'M. /Annt'fi, horn. vxc. In man] 
 nouns syiK*()|)€ is seen : as, O. E (cmttt, MimI. E. ant. 
 
 Apliii'iH'HlM. -ApHa-rcsis is the loss of an unsJr«*ssccl vowel a 
 the l)f>;iiininj{ of a word. Ihe loss of tin- Old Knglisli prefix .c'- be 
 f«)rf past participles is an example. This.j,'^- became Middle Kn^lisl 
 y- and then wis dropped. Apharesis is ollen shown in the shorli 
 of two forms of the same word : A^,loni;alofte ; s^u/rt.est/u/ri;cU 
 
 A|M»fOlH».— Ai cope is the loss of a tinal vowel. It is ex 
 emplitiejl, therefore, in the decay ol the inHettional endings, whici 
 is the chief distinction iKlween Old and Modern English. 
 
 Mutation.— Mutation is a vowel change produced by a vowel 
 or occ.isionally by a consonant of the following syllable. It i 
 equivalent to the (U-rman Umlaut , and is best shown in Englisl 
 in words such As/oot. man. mouse, etc., which form their plural I) 
 change of vowel. Related forms like gold— i^ild, full fill sho\ 
 the same ix'culiarity. The change of the root vowel in these word 
 is due to conditions in (he older stage of the l.mguage, when th 
 following syllable contained the vowel /. This / had the power « 
 raising the pitch of the preceding vowel, so that a became <*. o bt 
 came y or e, and u became /. Examples \ a Ko e : man -mi-n 
 talv — tell : English from Knglisc, which is from an older Angli-isi 
 In this word the / has survived, and caused the e sound to chang 
 in quality and have the value of an /'. 
 
 o to y (e) gold, gild. 
 
 b Xa I goose {(). E. " ^^s"^, geese. 
 
 tooth (O. E. "tr)«'). teeth. 
 
 foot (O. E. '•I6i").feet. 
 u toy it) full. fill. 
 H to y Mouse {O.E."mus"). Mi'ci- {O.E."n\Ss" 
 
 Gradation.— There is a form of vowel variation, representt 
 best by the strong verbs, which cannot be explained by mutatioi 
 To changes in the stem of a verb, as l?egin, />iga>t, begun ; s/n> 
 sang, sung, the term (wiiMlatlon (German Al'laul) is appliei 
 Gradation is found throughout the Indo-tluropean family, and s 
 original gradation series have been established. In Teuton 
 these series have become reduced to two, and from these two hat 
 
HISTOKICAL SKETCH OK EN(;l|sH ^^j 
 
 I'l.nmK il,e six dassc. of ,hr Tcu.o.nc MrooK verl>. (;, u|,,.«n i, 
 
 |»t .ir wiin ail altcrcil vowel in various parts of survcU ik . 
 
 chaoKes are .u,.,K,se.l .o have had 'h l^^t 't^U^l 
 accent in ihc prin.iuvc language. *» "' 
 
 CHANGES NOT CONFINED TO VOWELS OR 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 Aimlo«.V.-The powrr of suirirestion is M..r„.-.. ii • ■ 
 
 H«c Luinan nniul. If wc think of m.n! I'^H't-tually active in 
 
 this IS the case with Enghsh. In the old Si.„piifi,a,jo„ ,tue to 
 
 I "iguage there were five main declensions of ^"""«y- 
 
 nouns and many subordinate nn#.c n... i i 
 
 formed i.s p.ur!;. in JS^s rjn it ft^ tr:'?" "'r'' 
 and gradually encroached upon thl othL"""^ '"""^"'• 
 until now there is practically but one declen^ '"> '" Pl"-l Forma, 
 sion. Remnants of the other forms of plural """"• 
 
 formation, as by vowel change in foo/ fert ^fr . 
 sidered irregular. ^ ' ^^^•' ^""^ "^^ con- 
 
 The Old English noun had likewise three distinct ., • u 
 s.nKular and plural. But one case in the '" '^' 
 
 singular and one in the plural by their more ''** '" ^'''' ^-"'^'^"k*- 
 
328 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ENGLISH 
 
 The gniwUi of the weak cmijuyaiion is aixiih* r h«mm| example. 
 
 (.> In .he V.rl,. '^" '"■''' ^*'^*" •" •'"• '"'KU'K'- follow the 
 analiig) of the -eti prctt-riitvt i thus we have 
 httyiOtt—lHiycoltid, ficrrymaiuhr- g<rtymiin,/irt,i, etc. 
 
 Enj{Ush prefixes aiul suflixes are very much influenced by anal- 
 ogy. The adverbial suffix -ly, for <xample, has f>cconie ahnost uni- 
 ^ . , vtrsal. We even find tfiat fwrtowed French 
 
 (*) In rrelixe<. .mil ._il lii*- 
 
 suffKcv words become hybrid formations through its 
 
 addition: e. g.. tettnin/y, virily, honestly. 
 The prefix a- is original in ccrt.iiii word?., as, .i//.w.ctt . hut through 
 analogy we find it in a numlwr of words IxsitUs : '•. g.. .»- in 
 aduwn is O. E. </- ; a- in att'ity is (J. K. ,>»- ,■ ,/- in <»/<'«(,' is (). K. 
 ii////- ,■ ii- in tiwiitt is (). E. /,'/-. 
 
 Analogy must be recogni/cd as one of ihf living |)iocesses in the 
 language tending dways towards siinpliticalion. " In spraking a 
 language we learn only a few of the grammatically modified words 
 ready-made; all the others we form on the pattern of those already 
 learnt" (Switt : " New English liiammar"). 
 
 Popular Ktyinoloflry may be descril)ed as a sjwcies of 
 an.ilogy. In analogy pr()|)er one form undergoes the influence of a 
 whole grammatical group, as when a plural in -tn becomes an -s 
 plural. In popular etymology one word is altere<l to corres|)ond 
 with Of'C other word which has a fancied connection with it. This 
 will be shown by the following exampKs : 
 
 IViseacre. This word was origin.illy only remotely connectetl 
 with wise, ind h.is no connection with lure. 
 
 Sirloin is derived from the French surlont^e, meaning the piece 
 of meat " upon the loin." The popular belief was that an I'nglish 
 king, well pleased with his dinner, had knighted a loin in jest. 
 
 So7>erei)^n. In this word, from the French sortrain, a ^ has 
 been inserted because of a fancied connection with reign. 
 
 Shamefaced. This should be shamefast like steadfast, but has 
 been altered through a supposed connection \s\\\\faee. 
 
 Cray-fish is from the French I'ert'visse. and has no true connec- 
 tion withyf.?^. 
 
 Pickaxe has nothing to do with pick nor with axe, but is directly 
 derived from the Old French fiickois. 
 
 Wormwood, a bitter medicinal herb, has nothing to do with 
 
"-- •• - .'-.. ..a. ':: 2';; . ;•"' ;^'^ ^---^^ ^^"- »• 
 
 rv/-«...«M. which ,s .» variant. <-«".,,..rf the viu„| 
 
 Sotnetjiijcs ttht'ii a wnr>l ^...i i 
 
 A popular wor.| cV.,.- u' r 'r"*'"' 'm '"■"'••' ''"''■"• 
 
 ^"Pp>Hrd u, in- plural. """' ''••'•'"^*' ' ^"»'-''- wa» 
 
 ^'Olit||||||||,|||,,,l .... . 
 
 ; •■'" 'v..fr,.c, ^ord :.;'^.;, :;',,;;.7;''-'' ■" ••"•"■"«)•• c„„. 
 
 fonnt-r cas,- it mves rU^ . ^'^'" ""•""•«! con.siruclioi.^. |„ ,(,,. 
 
 are r..,u.u., i::;;::.^ i::.;L'::;:^;:^ r""""'"^-" ^'"^^ ^^"-^^ 
 
 •qmrfd .ha. she ha.l just vni •'• r v! . '" '"""^ '*"'' exc.r.lly 
 
 or the unintentional l.u Lr of U. ^"' ' '" '^"""^i""" Much 
 
 ^ro,n this source. "*'''''''''> ■""' •^'"- Malajm.p ari«;s 
 
 Contamination in svnfTv ,.. a 
 
 Sir Walter liesan. writes ..Shi ""' ^'"'''^ ^^°'" '»'''* '"-"'«• 
 
 «« hurt /... coinpU-xion. • n s l' "' ""'^ "' ''"'^'- ^'"' ^«- 
 are found, e. g. : - .^'».ike5|K-are numerous examples 
 
 " Let us onre airain iscnii .. 
 Whit «,« I, >"'"■ '^•'»''s 
 
 ^^"^^ '^'^ have. w„„i^,h.s seen." 
 
 tk: • . —"Hamlet." I i ,. 
 
 This ,s a confusion f,elw'eon - L ef . ^ 
 
 •■''^•." •-'.Hi ...nssail you w,.h what/' """' •''^'''"" "'" V"" ^^hat. 
 
 ' erstood .he stres.s laid upon n .m;^;.?"'-?"^' -«"« - -- 
 therefore mus. consider two viri ' i ' "' "' ''>"''"''^- We 
 
 -/'■m. when one or more words n f ''"'• "'"^"^^'y- •^'''''"'V- 
 
 ••'^'cen.ed. and «vvv/-./,v,-. which h 'f'"^''"" "'""^'^"•^e *« markedly 
 '•yll.^We wi.hin a wo.d. ' ^'"^ ^'''' ^^^'^'-^^^^ to .he accented 
 
 Senteneo-St 
 
 yo!! going hon 
 
 rt'RS. r^,.( „,; j,^ 
 
 na*i 
 
 •ral divisions, the fi 
 
 'c with your hroiher?" Ji 
 
 iminr n fymV-^j 
 
 'Aren 
 
 r?it endin< with 
 
 spntrnce 
 "s sentence fall 
 ^ s.rong expiratory stress on 
 
 iinto (wo 
 
3VO 
 
 HiSiOkU Al. SKIIIM OK F.NC.I.ISM 
 
 %iiip „ 
 
 i 
 
 m 
 
 
 A»Hh-, the vcomt t-iuliitg Willi .1 ulrtuii; r)i|»ii.ilory »lrcii<i on hrotktr, 
 '\\\v. true units of H|K:t>Lh, ilicrcfure, mk. rather lirraih-){r»up« th.ui 
 iiidiviilual wunlii. li happt'in not iiidcqunitly that a wont may 
 Wax a ^lr^»^»g HrnU'iicr-nircH!* In one Kroup ami lo*c \\ in an- 
 «»ilirr. I liu» III " Art- you Komt{ liouif tu-itfghl or ii>-inoirovv ? " 
 the word liom<!' lo»cs the strrss which it hurc in thr p''*^*-'^*"'*K <""' 
 ample. There arc, however, terlain word* which arc habitually 
 unHtre»»rd in the Hfnlcuce. Muh as partii \ks, most prononunal 
 words including the arliilrt, and auxiliary \erbH. The^e woid». 
 till reforc, are rsjH-cially Mibjet t to phonetic changes. An «x.iinplc 
 ol this was seen in our tirst example in the corrupted foim artn'l. 
 Diir colhKjuid contracted forni'*. such as /laiuHf, I'd. I'U, i/on't, 
 I li\, .ire all to Ik: expl.iiiu-il on the siinie print iple, M.my iiiono- 
 H)llal)ic words show ililfcrenl loims according to ihcir stiessed or 
 unstressed position. Thus /<' and Iih*, of and ojf, than and ///*•« 
 re|)resent the Siime words tirst In the unstres ,ed and then in the 
 stressed position. Kxample : " He fell off, and that was the list 
 of \\\\\\," Many of the obscured sounds which aiisc from l.ick of 
 stress arc not represented by the written word, since S|>elliiig is not 
 jihonclir. Notice the difference between the sound in the won! 
 ivas in these two diflTfrently accented sentences: " Ife tiv/* there" 
 and " lie ivas th6r«'." In the preceding example, owing to the lack 
 of stress, the pronoun htm loses its initial //, which it preserves in a 
 sentence like " I saw //////, but not h,'r." Words such as with, 
 thou, thi', thiy were originally pronounce<l with .i voiceless th. 
 Now the th is voicecl owing tf» their constant lack of stress in the 
 sentence. Compare the jt sounti in iiioo.u-. accented, and in is and 
 7i>as, un.nccented. 
 
 (tiinlatlon.— Finallv. it may be mentioned that the gradation 
 changrs in the conjugation of strong verbs .ire generally supposed 
 to have arisen at a remote period owing to a change in stress ac- 
 cording to emphatic or iiiuniphatic position in a sentence. Pro- 
 nounce the sentence " \\v c.\n go " with the three possible .icrcii- 
 tuations, and note the different v.ilue of the vowel in nui. This 
 will show how variations in vowels may arise from the presence ;;r 
 absence of stress. 
 
 Woitl-StifSH. — The importance of word stress was early 
 recognized in the history of scicntihc phonetics. It has l)««n men- 
 
HlhinRK Al. SKKicH »»|. KNf.l.lMI j^, 
 
 noncl alrrul) th a il„ ^,r,..u co,m,„.,nl .h.li MlurMit-,! 
 
 itMou^huui h) ,h. ,H.M.um ..r ,hc M,..,. W,,.,. .... ,.,.. . 
 ".-iM.dy pr«cc.U.I Uk. .ort.man, „ .l^v. 1o,h..| .u.ur.l.nu ..", 
 
 ■I ».e ...rhcM ..«...„, ,„ I . g.nn.. was prr*„n,.,l,ly (rer. .i, ,„ the 
 p..r.h, l,Mlo.Kuropr.u,. |Ju. ,r Kr.ul.,..ll> l......,nc. luc.l. a„.| r.M- .| 
 
 -KuLuly on . jur... ul..r .yllal.l.-. |„ ..-neMl. .hc- ;u„.„. r. su.l on 
 
 h. roo, .Ml..bl. ; .H., in ,. ..,, ,,,,,„,,., ..„, ,„ ^,.^,^^ J 
 
 ved Iron, cHhrr. ,, rr>u.l ..n ,hr l^^, ^s||..b,e. ..f .h. ,,..„,. ,,,„ „ 
 «h.s were a prHlv Karly l-inKl.h .....„, ,,.. „„,„.., , ^j' 
 
 '^.une Uw^.ahl,.M,Kh,„e.ix,. sl.uwcl a Itml.ni) lo lu.clhnr s nss 
 as in Miit.iJti. "vss. 
 
 The forcKM wor.U thai wrr.- infr.Hlurr.l. e,,H..ial|y fr..,,, r,.n.h 
 arc found .., Ih- arcnt..! .„ ChaiR. r v.n.rtMu. > ..s n. K,. ... h ...hI 
 ^omrun.e» accor.linK «'» ihe KnK'h.h n.ann.r, I h,.> hr wr.Us 'l„.,n 
 A,m„ur ami /,,,„„«^. ^/.,„,„ .,„., ^^,„^„ „ ^^,„ ,^. ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^ 
 
 Kcncral thing. Umt for. .^n svur.U have yiel.l..| ,u ihr K„«|,sh ,ul.- 
 nouns and adj.clivr, laking the a.-.ent on ih.- (mf.x. an.l v,.rb> 
 accenting the r.K)l syllable. The following wor.U will .ilustratc 
 this :~ 
 
 No iiiH Of AiUfftlvtn*. 
 CtSMlilU t 
 
 (mull 
 ftt'quent 
 
 Vi<rlM. 
 
 ii'Mn'rl 
 I on, f lid 
 
 iHsiilt 
 
 O.KU'ttt 
 
 fr,t/ut'ut 
 
 Sometimes adjectives areaccenttl like veil.s : as. suhhw, mmiile 
 etc. 
 
 Many French words of late intrrKluction still retain their loreiLm 
 stress: as. hurlhquc, cuii'f, c,imf>,ii\',i, caprhe. 
 
 The (luestion of accent in comjKiund words is rather involve.l 
 and has already been sufTiciently referred to. >e Se< tion I(n».) ' 
 
 The effect of word-siress upon the sound. ;ind in most cases 
 upon the form of words, may now be discussed. The effe, t of the 
 strong expiratory stress in Entrlish has Ixen tn w.-nl. i .u,., 
 
 , ,. , , ■- -- •' - ••»•' Wilts 
 
 render liable to .h.muc the unstressed syllables which precede or 
 
33^ 
 
 HISTORICAL SKF'.TCfl OK KNl.I.ISH 
 
 J 
 
 follow. Many of the vowi-l changes that have iK'en already «lis- 
 cussctl, such as byncopc. apocope, apha-resis, etc., are characteristic 
 of unstressed syllables. Alx>ve all, we must remember that the 
 thorout;hjjoin}^ abantlonment of infections in Knglish is the result 
 of delicient stress. The sound of these endinys i)ecame more and 
 more obscure, until they were insufticient to mark grammatical 
 distinctions, and relational words had to be substituted. 
 
 A curious law of sound change in the ac- 
 Vowel Shortening. cente<! syllable ntay be observed by comparing 
 
 (ill In the Accenit'il i i i ; j/ i i ji j/ i i 
 
 t „ ,, words like hi-ath and heat Iter, t/ir.Hit and 
 
 Syllabic. 
 
 throttle, etc. In the derivatives the place of 
 accent remains the same, and yet the stem vowel is markedly 
 shortened. This is more especially the case when the origin il 
 long vowel is followed in the derivative by a group of two or more 
 consonants. ' 
 
 EXAMIM.KS.— /)V<»</^/aiul breadth, wide and 'width. 
 
 This is the reason for the vowel shortening in ihe past tenses of 
 weak verbs, such as feed— fed, read — read. Fed was in Middle 
 English yV/Zir/t', and read wns reddc. 
 
 In com|)ound words a similar vowel shortening occurs, generally 
 due to the presence of two consonants after the accented vowel. 
 
 EXAMPLKS. — Goslittg (fronj f^oose), bonfire (from bonefre), break- 
 fast, husband (from house-bond), ll'hitby {7uhite-tou>n), Whit- 
 church. 
 
 In the following examples the shortening seems due only to the 
 stress: forehead, knowledj^e, two pence (pronounced tuppence), 
 holiday (for holy day), etc. 
 
 Such are the vowel changes common in the 
 
 "^^ '" sy!lab"r"""* Stressed syllable of a compound word. The 
 unstressed syllable likewise undergoes short- 
 ening, and is frequently much corrupted in sound. 
 
 ExAMl'l,K!=. — lioatrnhiin, coxswain (pronounced familiarly bos'n, 
 cox'n), hous^k'ife (corrupted to hnssif ov hussy), sheriff {{ov shire- 
 reeve), Hamton (for Ifani-to7un), Sutton, Weston, Huckingham 
 {ham means home). 
 
 Finally, a syllable, owing to lack of stress, may entirely disappear. 
 
 Examples. — {a) In inflectional syllables — man's for mannes. 
 
 (b) In the Iwdy of a word — lark for O. E. lawerce, Gloucester 
 
 • I' 
 
 -«,:. 
 
 f • 
 
IIISTOKICAL SKETCH OF ENGLfSH ^^^ 
 
 f|.romnu,cccl oV.m/.,,. /.,/,,./.,- ,pro„<,UMCc.l /..Ar). /../«/,/// 
 U>r/„ur/,Y,„uX^/,/, and .,/«<,• fu, sM,„.s. ^ "^ 
 
 U) huiuny-/o,u for n/o/n; dr.Uf lor ^;m>,i/v. 
 
 luann;;. couple.l w.l, .naccurate r.,,rocl,.c,ion. \V,.r<ls chan^ie in 
 ...can.ntj a ,cr a son.euhat similar fashion. As no ,w., in.livi.Tnals 
 ^.n poss.l,ly i.avcha,I ,lu- sa.nc cxpcrinuvs in I.f<. i, w,l| |,e evident 
 tl.at then sto. rs of uieas must partake of the sau.e .hff.rence. Thus 
 any one of us n.ay listen to a philosophical kctuu-. and con.e away 
 Mone.hew.str although we seemed to be familiar with ain.ost ail 
 .e words e. .ployed. Hut were we really as fan.iliar with then, as 
 ^e thought we were .> " Subj.-c." " object." " anger." •■ pi.y • 
 W.11. and .. host of such words v.ere used by the philosopher in a 
 connection wh .. only min.ls traine.l upon the sanu- paths of 
 tl'ouKht could . ,preciate. In ordinary conversation we c'.n n,an- 
 age to understan.l one an.,-' .r fairly well, because, roughly spe .k- 
 .ng. our experiences are the san.e. Yet we always put our own 
 private mterpretation. which is the n.easure of our private ex- 
 pc-nence. on what we he.-.r. Thus a dog fancier or a horse breeder 
 speaks to us about his .lugs or his horses. In a general way we 
 know what a dog or a horse is. but we are far from receiving'int^ 
 our mmds the ,deas which those words embody with the fullness 
 of meanmg w.th which they were expressed. So we all by our indi- 
 vidual experience contribute our share toward widening or narrow- 
 .ng .he significance of wor.Is. Language lives and grows in this 
 way. The vual principle of its giow.h at the outset was n, t . 
 phoncal extension. And that san.e principle is alive an<l astonish- 
 mgyacnve to-day We realise i. n.ost convincingly when some 
 whim o .he popular nund (originally ,he whim of some lucky in- 
 <hvKluaI, selects a familiar word, w.enclu-n it from i.s usu.d 
 n.eanmg .and seizing metaphorically upon some characteristic of 
 he word, foists upon it some new an.l d.-.ring interpretation. Thus 
 slang acquires the digni.v of a creative process 
 
 If students would believe it. there is scarcely a more pleasurable 
 and prohtable recreation than half an hour wi.h a goo<l'dictionary 
 
 uM ^ rT\ r> '""'' "'^ '"" '^'""^' '■"""'^'' --'"•'^ have gracl 
 ually extended ,h.,r meaning by this metaphorical process. The 
 
334 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OK KNCJLISH 
 
 word " subjiTt '• is (Icrivetl ihroufrh Fnmli from tlu- L.ilin su/>- 
 jfitus. meaning " thrown JKncath." su/> jaare. To t.ke it in its 
 noun meaning only this gives us Hrsf. " subject," meaning "one 
 placed under the authority of another. - then as the idea of sov- 
 ereignty in the state grew it came to mean " one owmg allegiance 
 to a sovereign." In a sentence like '• I am the unhappy subject of 
 these quarrels" we are getting somewhat further from the original 
 meaning, as also in the phrases " subject under discussion." "sub- 
 ject of a story." etc. It would pu/de us unnecessarily to trace the 
 word into its further developments as a term of grannuar. of 
 philosophy, of logic, of nuisic. or of fine arts. Yet all these are but 
 metaphorical extensions of the original elements of which the word 
 is composed. Sometimes a word like this, or its kindred philo- 
 sophical term "object." is a measure of the knowledge of the 
 world. Volumes have been written to explain what "subject " and 
 "object " in terms of philosophy truly mean, and probably till the 
 end of time volumes will be written which will bring us no nearer 
 to the true solution. 
 
 The word " subject " illustrates a very common method of ex- 
 tending the primary meaning of a word or root by tniiisfonning 
 it from a comreti- an,i physical to a spiritual signi/tia/ne. Thus 
 has arisen the whole body of our intellectual and moral vocabulary, 
 " every word of which this is composed, if we are able to trace its his- 
 tory back to the beginning, can be shown to have signified originally 
 something concrete and apprehensible by the senses. Its present 
 use is the result of a figurative transfer, founded on the recognition 
 of an analogy between a physical and a mental actor product,"' 
 Thus abstract means "drawn off," concrete is "grown together," 
 substantial is "standing beneath," spirit is "breath," intellect 
 from a Latin verb meanin,' " to go between." " to choose ; " right 
 is Latin ;w/«j, " straight." etc.. etc. The Latin word pono, "to 
 place." is alone responsible for the following words : Pose, poser, 
 position, post, posture, positive, apposite, apposition, component, 
 composure, composer, composition, compost, compound, de- 
 ponent, deposed, deposition, depository, deposit, depot, exponent, 
 expose, exposition, exposure, imposing, imposts, impostor, imposi- 
 tion, impound, disposable, dispose, disposed, disposition, indisposed. 
 
 ' Whitnty . " LanRuage and ihe Study of Language." The list of derivatives from 
 pone IS also taken from Whitney. 
 
HISTORICAL SKKTCH OK KN(;USH 335 
 
 opponent opposite. op,„>.silion. i.mT,M,si.ion. p.„,,.,sc.. proposition, 
 propound, npose. purpose, suppose, supposititious, etc 
 
 The vatious ways in wf.ich wonis may change the.r siKn.ticancc 
 may be tabulated as follows:- 
 
 («) Hy Metaphorical Extension of .}f„mi,,^r, -Exatnples h.,vc 
 l.een given above. Let the student consult a d.ctionarv un.ler such 
 wonis as Z/,.^/. taste, M,,r, et... for further characteristic ex.t.nples 
 Notice also the worcls/<v and legion. 
 
 (2) specialization of Meaning.- -\\on\^ are fre,,uently specd- 
 ized in meaning : as. e. g.. stan'e from the O. K. sleorfan, •• to die." 
 
 " Thus starved the mighty Hercules. "-(•//.i/^tv/-. 
 Disease, formerly "distress of .my kind." now sickness. 
 
 "So all the night they passed in great disease."-.S/„„,^. 
 
 (3) Deterioration.-^Uny examples may be mentioned of de- 
 
 enoration m the meaning of words. '. The so-calle,l pejorative 
 
 tendency IS the result of a v. ry human disposition which prompts 
 
 us to ved. to attenuate, to d.sguise i<!eas which are disagreeable 
 
 ••Huphlm":.' '^ '"^ '""^"'^ ^ ^"^'" ^^ '•- «^"- ""«• 
 
 EXAMPLF.S. 
 Conceit : Once, any kin.iof idea .- now. vanity. 
 U)s.siP : Once, a sponsor; now, a scandal-,nont,rcr, 
 INSOLKNT : Once, unusual; now. insulting 
 Knave : Once, a boy (Ger. Knabe) ; now. a rascal. 
 1 UN Y : Once, younger ; now. insignificant. 
 
 Si i,lv : Once, innocent ; now. foolish. 
 
 babe^" '"^'"' ^''"' ''"' ''""' ''^ "" "''' ''"^^ '""'^'^ harmless silly 
 process" ^'''''"'"''■"~'^''"'' ^"■' ^"'^''' "^^•"'"" °f 'he reverse 
 
 EXAMfLKS. 
 
 GENKRou.S:Once. -noble only in birth;" now, "noble in 
 character." 
 
 g^uZus"^'" ^"''^•^'''' '" *'' ''^^ ^^"«^' o"- ^'"^''//AvA,,/.. now 
 " A profane and //'''^r,7/counsciJor."^.S7„,>(v.y>^^r^. 
 
'«!**»*! mimBL. 
 
 ■■*-i 
 
 ■afil 
 
 33ft HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KN(;MSH 
 
 SMA k I : ( )riKinally. •• giving pajn ' (cf. Oer. S,/i,n,,=) ; now. 
 s/>nX'^A//j: cleiur. In slang usage the word ha J 
 again (leterioiatctl. 
 
 Kxtonnh,,, or Vocibulary.-With the advance of civili/a- 
 tion language has been found inadequate to meet the new demands 
 upon a In order to express new ideas of an abstract nature the 
 Lnghsh language has always beer, able to manipulate its own 
 existing stock of words, and by way of nielaphoiical extension 
 bend then, to new uses. JJut it was not |K)ssible to apply this nat- 
 ural method to meet the needs of the discoveries and inventions in 
 which modern civilization abounds. Therefore, men of science 
 have b.en in the habit of manufacturing names for these new proc- 
 esses, naming them either for their inventor or discoveier. or else 
 constructing a word from one of the classical languages. For this 
 purpose Greek roots have for ihe most part l>een employed. The 
 language of science in all its branches abounds in examples. 
 
 *i 
 
*"-Kf 
 
 y/'t^dri.. 
 
 INDEX 
 
 The iiuiiieral> refer lo puuck. 
 
 A, prcfiosition, j-m. 
 A or an, articles, clmicc Iw- 
 twctn, 217; incaiiing of, ^18- 
 
 2UJ. 
 
 .Ibout lu, J44. 
 
 Absolute nominative, lUj, i8j. 
 
 Abstract nouns, 149. 
 
 Active voice, 46-47. 2^2-223, 
 
 260- j6 I. 
 Address, nominative of, 170. 
 Adjectives, defined, 1 14-115; as 
 
 nouns. i7j; classified, 211; 
 
 smgular and plural, 211 
 
 ApiKJsitives. 71 ; clauses used 
 as, t<6; case of, ijj. 
 
 Articles, defined, 117; origiii of. 
 217; clioice between an or a, 
 217; definite an«l indefinite 
 distinguished, 21H; uses of 
 the, 2ig; uses of a or an, 
 2iy; not every the or a an 
 article, 221 ; how to parse, 
 221. 
 
 .Is, relative, 205. 
 
 Assertive sentences, defined, 18; 
 punctuation of, 19. 
 
 .^•••Kuidi aim piurai, 211; •'^ »", distinguished, 292. 
 
 comparison, 212-214; use of Attribute complements, defined, 
 comparative and superlative, 50-51 ; case of, 170, 182. 
 
 214-21S ; substitutes for, 215- Auxiliary verbs, defined, 232. 
 
 216; parsing. 216; adjective 
 
 or adverb, 286. 
 Adjuncts, defined, 37. 
 Adverbial objective, 170. 
 Adverbs, defined, 1 18- 1 19 ; nouns 
 
 as, 170, 173, 288; classified 
 
 according to meaning, 283; 
 
 according to use, 283-284; 
 
 according to form. 284-285; 
 
 comparison. 285-286; adjec- 
 
 B. 
 
 Bare subject, 37. 
 Be, copula, 39; complement of. 
 when infinitive, 170, 182: in- 
 flection for person, 2^i-2^\4; 
 as progressive auxiliary, ;4o- 
 242; forms in the subjunctive. 
 254; as passive auxiliary. 
 . • . ■ -""„-""■ "yj^^ -261 : conjugation, 277-278. 
 
 isT^-^Ilnl? • ^^.'' P°'"'^o"' ^''''•*^^' language, pronouns in, 
 287, double negatives, 288; 178 
 
 s^stitutes, 288; how to parse, British words, 5. 
 
 A 1 . ^"^ relative. 205. 
 
 Agent with passive verbs, 223. 
 
 Although, verb with, 259. q 
 
 ^nal^J^ '^^^"^'^' ^"^^ 9"' '^""i"gation, 279-281. 
 
 .^"g es.^. (^g„ 232. 277. 
 
 2 • r'ekt'Jn?' .^^'"^ ""^ "^'"*^' ^^'^' ^^•'^"^'^' '63: nominative, 
 fish 4 " ^^' Possessive, and objective. 
 
 Antecedent, defined, 1 13. 
 Anybody, number and gender 
 
 of, 188. 
 Anyhudy else's, 165. 
 
 337 
 
 defined. 163-164: form of 
 possessive. J64-165; uses of 
 nominative, 170; uses of ob- 
 jective, 170: ucc of the x>ri%- 
 se.ssive. 170- 171 ; in cxcla- 
 
3J8 
 
 INUKX 
 
 mation.s. 170. iH..; ,|..ul)lc 
 IMwscssivc. 172; in ai>iK>siii..n, 
 i7J, <»t |>crs<)nal proniuuis, 
 l«i. l8j; of interrogative pro- 
 nouns. 19J-194; of relative 
 pronouns, joj, joj-MH. 
 Causative verbs. ^-^4; formation 
 
 of. 227. 
 Changes in our language, H-y; 
 how they came al)out, y ; still 
 ^ going on. 10-11. 
 Clauses, defined, 63-64 : as mod- 
 ifiers 63-64; modifying, clas- 
 sihed. 68; as subjects. 84; as 
 complements. 85; as apposi- 
 tives, 86; subordinate. 07; 
 relative. 197 iy8. 
 Collective nouns, 148. 
 Common gender, 150. 
 Common nouns, 147-148. 
 Compare to, compare teilli, dis- 
 tinguished, jyj. 
 Comparisoji of adjectives. 2i>- 
 
 ^14: of adverbs. -285-286. 
 Complenunts. defined, 49; at- 
 tribute, 50; object. SI ; objec- 
 tive. 5J-54: with' passive 
 forms. 56; several with one 
 verb. 57 ; phrases used as. 82 ; 
 clauses used as, 85; case of. 
 170. 182. 
 
 Complete predication, verbs of, 
 48. 
 
 Complete subject. 37. 
 
 Complex sentences.' defined. 97. 
 
 Compound personal pronouns. 
 '89-191; relative pronouns. 
 X)7. 
 
 Compound sentences, defined. 
 98; classified, 100 ; improper. 
 103. 
 
 Compound subject. 2s: predi- 
 cate. 25. 
 
 Compound words, formation 
 of. 142-145: plural of. 145- 
 14^, 158; po.s-essive of. 165. 
 
 Conditional sentences, 258-259. 
 
 Confide in, confide to. distin 
 guished. 293. 
 
 Conjugation, defined. 277: be, 
 -/7--78; ciiil, 279-281. 
 
 Conjunctions, defined. 124-125; 
 
 IHwiti.,,,. ,..5. j,^,. ,|i^,j„. 
 
 guishid from preposition!* 
 and relative |ironoun>., 295; 
 classificatioii, 295; correla- 
 tive. 295; phrasal, 2*/); pars- 
 ing. -H/). 
 
 Conjunctive adverbs, 284. 
 
 Connecting words, 100, 295-29^) 
 
 Construction, defined, 107; of 
 nouns. i67-ir)9; of pronouns, 
 •81-183: of verbs, 237; of in- 
 finitives. 271-272; of parti- 
 ciples. 274. 
 
 Ci)ordinate clauses. 98; con- 
 junctions. 295. 
 
 Copula. 39-40. 
 
 Correlative conjunctions, 29s- 
 296. 
 
 Danish words. 6. 
 Declension, defined, 166; of 
 nouns. lU); of pronouns of 
 the first person. 176; of pro- 
 nouns of the .second iKT.son. 
 178; of pronouns of the third 
 person. 179; of interrogative 
 pnmouns. 193; of relative 
 pront)uns. 199. 
 Definite article. 218-221. 
 Demonstrative pronouns. 101- 
 
 19^. 
 Dependent clause, defined, 97. 
 Derivation, defined, 141. 
 Descriptive adjectives. 211; 
 
 relative clause, 197-198. 
 Diagrams. 74-76. 
 /hfFer from, differ with, distin- 
 guished. 293. 
 Different from, 293. 
 Direct object, defined. 51 ; case 
 
 of. 170. 182. 
 Direct questions. 195-196. 
 Ihi. auxiliary. 242-243. 
 Ih}n't, doesn't. 236. 
 Double possessive. 172; nega- 
 tives, 288. ' • K 
 
 E. 
 
 flach. number and gender of, 
 188. 
 
iNi)i:\ 
 
 Kdjtorial use of uv, iru; our- 
 
 J«//, ujo. 
 Ai//..r. mimlKT aiui gviukr „{, 
 
 loo. 
 
 JiU/u-r—or. verbs with, jn: 
 
 |M)sitiiin of. Ji)5-Mjb. 
 Klliptical sentences, defined 
 , 105. 
 
 jjnipliatic tense forms, 242 J4] 
 l'.ngli«,h. origin of name, i-j; 
 
 t-arly home of, j; spread «.f. 
 
 «i-j; clianges in. 4. H-u;' 
 
 growth of. 5 ; good, defined. 
 
 II. 
 I'.-'crybody, ntunber and gen- 
 
 der .)f. 188. 
 
 Kxclamations. defined, yi ; case 
 of. 170. i8.>. 
 
 r.xclamatory sentences, ilefined 
 18. 
 
 Expletive use of it, _'8 ; of then- 
 a* 
 
 F. 
 
 Pall, fell, distinguished. 227. 
 
 I'eminine gender, defined. 150- 
 forms. 151-15J; in personifi- 
 cation. 154-155; in pnmouns. 
 179, 186-187. 
 
 Finite verbs, defined, 264. 
 
 foreign plurals. i6o. 
 
 Foreign words, proportion of 
 in English. 8. 
 
 Future perfect tense. 239-240; 
 progressive. 240-242. 
 
 Future tense, defined. 238; for- 
 mation. 239; shall or xvill, 
 246-248; conjugation. 277 flF. 
 
 J3«i 
 
 (iranmiar. defined, ir; use-, <»f 
 I-'; Kramiiiars old and new.' 
 12; grammar vs. bigic. ytt 
 
 (.rammatical and logual terms 
 distinguished, ^7. 
 
 H. 
 
 Had, subjunctive auxiliary. 2SS. 
 //«J7r. transitive. 45; as auxil 
 
 lary ot perfect. 2.^9-240. 
 //<•. decliiu.l. 179; gender. 179. 
 
 i8()-i87; construction. 182 
 
 //.r dt-tliiu-d. 17,;; gendtr, ,7,,, 
 
 l«)-i87; construction as ik»s- 
 
 sessivc'. 181 ; as objective, 182. 
 
 Ilcrs, case. 179: geniler. 179, 
 
 i8<)-i87; cons;ruction. 181. 
 1 1 cr self, i8«j-i9i. 
 Him, case. 179; gender. 179. 
 
 iW)-i87; construction, 182. 
 thmsi'lf, i8«j-i9i. 
 IIL case. 179; gt-nder. 17.). 
 186-187; construction. 181. 
 
 Gender defined, 150; of nouns. 
 150-155: ways of denoting. 
 151-15^: relation to pronouns. 
 153-154: in personification. 
 154-155: personal pronouns, 
 179. 186-187; relative pro- 
 nouns, 202. 
 
 Generic article. 219. 
 
 Going to, 244. 
 
 Good English, defined, 11. 
 
 I. 
 
 /.classified. 175; declined. 176; 
 how written, 170; use, 182. 
 
 Idea, defined. 15. 
 
 If, verbs with. 258-259. 
 
 Imperative mode, defined. 2^r 
 use, 256-257; let, 275. 
 
 Imperative sentences, defined, 
 18; punctuation of, 19; predi- 
 cate in, 21. 
 
 Impersonal subject, 27, 180 • 
 object. 180. 
 
 Imported words. 7. 
 
 Improper compound sentences 
 
 103. 
 /". at, distinguished. 292. 
 Incomplete predication, verbs 
 of, 48-49. 
 
 Indefinite pronouns. 207. 208- 
 ■iQuy, articles. 217-221. 
 
 Independent elements, defined. 
 90; vocatives. 90; exclama- 
 tions. 01: parentlu•!il^^!, 92: 
 pleonastic. 93 ; punctuation 
 of. 93: nominative absolute, 
 109; case of, 170, 
 
340 
 
 INDKX 
 
 liulkativc mo«lc. ilofmcW. J5 ; 
 '•^•. -^54; HI CMiidiiiwiial >ui* 
 liiict)., JS^.iS*J- 
 IiitJirict «»l»jcct, tkrtnfd. OH-(ji;; 
 as subject of passive verb. 
 7" 71. -fn ; case (if. 170. iHj. 
 Ifubrtct questions, Kjs-UJb. 
 Inliiiiiivis. (liJincd. iM), j()j. 
 J(>4; furiu c.f. 1^;. ^64.^^,; 
 history of, M}ji%), subject 
 of, i(jK, 18^; attribute coin- 
 plttnent of to oc, 170, iHj; 
 kinds, Jt^-jijb; with to, Aty 
 A>7; tenses, A*)-27\\ coti- 
 structit)ns, 271-272. 
 Intlectinn, dertiied. 140; of 
 nouns, i«); of personal pro- 
 nouns. i7f). 1 78. 17,,; „f ,ii.. 
 nionstrative pronouns, ly.'; of 
 interr«)Kative proiiounji. lyj; 
 of relative pronouns, lyy; I>f 
 adjectives. Jii. jij; of verbs. 
 -77-J«i. 
 "ing." words in, ijj. 
 Interjections, 127, 2^)7. 
 Interrogative adverbs, 284. 
 Interrogative pronouns, defined, 
 igj-igT); decline<I, lyj; dis- 
 tinguished. i«>4; u-/,,, or 
 ti'/ioMj. 194; in indirect ques- 
 tions, I95-|{/). 
 Interrogative sentences, defined. 
 18; punctuation of, 19; predi- 
 cate in, 21. 
 Interrogative tense forms, 242- 
 
 24.V 
 Intransitive verbs. 45-46, 222- 
 
 2-7. 
 Irregular comparison. 214. 
 //. expletive. 28-29. 180. 
 It, pronoun, classified, 175; de- 
 clined. 179: gender, 179. iST)- 
 i«7: speci.il uses, 180; con- 
 structions. 182-183. 
 Its. 179: history. 180. 
 Itself. / 89- 191. 
 
 Jutes, 2. 
 
 J. 
 L. 
 
 I-anguaee. defined i • chnnee' 
 in. 4. 8-11. 
 
 Latin wortis found in Hritain, 
 
 5 ; from iNKiks, 7. 
 I.outili at, 224. 
 ioy. Ill-, distinguished, 227 
 l.ct, 2,\2. 27s 27U. 
 I.ii', lay. distinguished. 227. 
 
 I.lki', M)X 
 
 Limiting a«ljectives, 21 1; ad- 
 verbs. 284. 
 Logic vs. grammar, 36. 
 
 M. 
 
 Majestic use of u-.-, 176; onr- 
 it'lf, 190. 
 
 Masculine gen<ler. defined. 150; 
 forms, 151-152; in |Hrsonirt- 
 cation. 154-155, ,87; pro- 
 nouns. 179. i8t)-i87. 
 May, 2.\j. 255. 27b. 
 •»/.•. classified. 175; case. 176; 
 
 constructions. 182-18). 
 Mtfl/it, 255. 27l>. 
 Minr. i7h. use. i8i. 
 Missionary words. 6, 
 Mixed verbs. 230-231. 
 Mode, defined. ■253': indicative. 
 254; subjunctive, 254-2S(»- 
 imperative. 256-257: in con- 
 ditional sentences. 258-259 
 Mo«lifiers. defined. 59-60: 'dis- 
 tinguished from c«miplements. 
 61 ; phrases and clauses used 
 as, 63-f^; themselves i-iodi- 
 ficd, 7:i. 
 Must. 232, 271-272, 277. 
 '^ly. classified. 175: case. 176: 
 
 construction. 181, 
 Myst'lf, 189- < J I. 
 
 N. 
 Xccd, 272. 
 
 Negative tense forms. 242-241 
 Negatives, double. 288. 
 ;Vfi//;(r, number and gender of. 
 1 08. 
 
 Ncither~,wr. verbs with. 217- 
 
 position of, 296. 
 Neuter gender, defined. 150 • in 
 
 pronouns. 179. 186-187.' 
 New conjugation, 210. 
 A'o. adverb. 283. 
 .V<:-/-.;f/v. numWr and gender of, 
 
 loo. 
 
' '#'■*"■ I- 
 
 INDKX 
 
 Nuiiiittaiivc, ilorinril. i(»j-j(i4; 
 
 of pcrMtiial iiroiiiiuiiji. iHj- 
 iHj; of intirriigutivc pro- 
 nouns. uj,\iij4; of relative 
 pronouns, joj. joj. 
 i\'or, verhs with, jj;. 
 Norman- French words. 6. 
 Notional verhs. jjj. 
 Nouns. <letinetl. iii; proper, 
 147; coiiiinon, 147 14H; col- 
 lective, 14H; ahMract. 141^; 
 gemler. 150 15.'; ;)er,suniHe.l. 
 •54; MUgular ami plural. I5<)- 
 15M; two plurals. i5y; foreign 
 plurals. Kw; case. Kij. H)5 ; 
 iKclensiori. iW»; iwrscm. 160- 
 i')7; constructions. 167-17^; 
 suhstitutes for, 173; ho. to 
 parse, 17.5. 
 Nuink-r. defined. is6: forma- 
 tion f.f plural. IS6-I5«; two 
 plurals, 159-160: divided 
 usage. i6t; jH'rsonal pro- 
 nouns. 176, 178. 188: relative 
 pronouns, 20^; adjectives, 
 -mi; verl)s, 2.?j-j.?6. 
 Numeral adjectives, jii. 
 
 Oniissiiiu of suhjfct. ji, 
 JS7 ' of witrds. 103 ly^,. 
 i>uly, iNiMtioii i»f. jHj. 
 Or, verhs with. JJ^J. 
 (^HKfil. JiJ, J7l,J77. 
 Our, ours. 17*.; use. 181. 
 Ourst'll. ounitvct, 189 io| 
 Own, uju. 
 
 V. 
 
 341 
 
 JU(l, 
 
 Ohject, direct. 51 ; retained. 71 ; 
 
 case of. 170. 182. jo.v 
 Ohject, indirect, defined, 68-69; 
 
 in passive sentences. 70-71! 
 
 ^n : case of. 170. 182. 
 Ohject of preposition, defined. 
 
 \22- case of, 170, 18.2, 2o\; 
 
 K'nds. 290. 
 Ohjective. adverhial. 170. 
 Ohjective attrihute comple- 
 ments, defined. s.VSS : case 
 
 of. 170. 
 
 OI>jectivc case, defined. 164: 
 suhject of infinitive. 168: uses 
 of, 170: of personal pronouns. 
 182-18.1; of interrogative pro- 
 nouns. 193. 194: of relative 
 pronouns. 20 ^ 207. 
 
 Of. ?8o. 20.^ ' 
 
 OKI conjugation. 229. 
 
 Old English. .1-4. 
 
 Pareiitlutical expressions, 92. 
 I'arsing, iiouiin. 17,}; pr.iiiouns. 
 
 AJ^, adjectives. 216; articles, 
 
 J^x ; verhs, 281 ; adverbs. 288; 
 
 prepositions, 294; conjunc- 
 
 iitins. 296. 
 »'articiples. defined, i.u. 272; 
 
 constructions, jb2, 27s ; form' 
 
 Tarts of speech, distinguished. 
 
 Ill-ia6; summari/ed, 1 {8. 
 Parts of verlt. principal. 2.M. 
 Passive voice. 4(»-47. 222-221, 
 2f)0-2f>.j; complements with 
 56. 2f)r. 
 Past iK-rfect tense, 2W-240; 
 
 progressive. 240-242. 
 Past tense, simple form. 229- 
 AJJ, 2.»8; <krtned. 2j8; pro- 
 gressive. 240-242: emphatic, 
 interrogative, and negative. 
 -^42-24.1; misused forms. 250- 
 251; conjugation. 277 'd. 
 jVculiar verb phrases, 27^-277 
 I erfect tenses. 2.W-242: uses <,f 
 the present |>erfect. 24.3 ; mis- 
 used forms. 250-251. 
 Person, of nouns. ViC^-\6y; of 
 pronouns. 175. 202: of verbs 
 2iy-2:S7. 
 Personal pronouns, defined. 
 175: first person, 176: second 
 person. 177-178: third per- 
 son. 179-180; special uses of 
 '/. 180: uses of pf)ssessive 
 forms. 181 ; uses of nomina- 
 tive forms. 182 : uses of ob- 
 jective forms. 182-181: use 
 of gender forms. 186-187: 
 use of number forms, 188; 
 compound, 189-191; as re- 
 flexives. 191. 
 
34i 
 
 IN III: X 
 
 l*crs«.nirtiaii..n. goiuKr in, isj 
 ^ «55. 1H7 
 
 I'hrasf, cKfiiud. 15; diMu, 
 K«''»licil rroiii MiiUm-c. l(>; 
 froiii ilauw. (|J.(^; an iiichIi- 
 her, (».j (j^ ; as Mihjtvi. Hi ; as 
 CMihplfnuni. Hj : |»ri|K>jmioii- 
 
 ul, tJJ, Jyi. 
 
 I'li-iitiaMu. ;.<. 
 
 Mural mimlHr. iKlim-.l. 156; 
 l«<rmatioii of. 156 15M; two 
 phiraU. i.sy. fon-JKn plurals. 
 Kio; duiilfil usaKf, U>i ; pro- 
 nouns. 170. ,78. ,HH; adjcc- 
 livts.^li; verbs, J.U^.K>. 
 l«H*lival language, pronouns in 
 17K. 
 
 l'<)sition of subject, jj; of a«l 
 jectives. 1.3; of pre|N)siiions. 
 IJJ. -*>« ; (»f Conjunctions, 
 1^5. JiJS M/t: of adverbs, /H; 
 
 Pi«sitive degree, define.l, zm. 
 IN.ssessivc case. deHned. i()o; 
 form of. Km- 165. iHi; use of. 
 170 171. iMr ; double. 172; in 
 ap|M)sition. 172: of |Krsonal 
 pnmouns, iKi ; of interroga- 
 tive pronouns. 19^^ ; of relative 
 pronouns, jo.?, .«>4. 
 Predicate, defined. i\ . in inter- 
 rogativt and impt-rative sen- 
 tences. 2\\ iK)sition of. 2i\ 
 compound, 25: distinguisbed 
 from verb. yj. 
 Predicate nominative. 170. 
 Predication, verbs of complete 
 
 and incomplete, 4H-4<>. 
 Preixisitional pbrase. defined, 
 
 \2f\\ classitivd. j»>i. 
 Prepositions, defined. \i2\ ob- 
 ject of. 122. 170. 182. 20.1. 
 2QO: classified. 289-200: posi- 
 tion. 2r;; : as adverbs, 292; 
 special uses of some. 2<j2-293 : 
 parsing. 294. 
 Present perfect tense, 2.^9-240; 
 progressive, 240-241 ; rm- 
 phatic. interrogative, and 
 negative. 242-243 : uses. 244- 
 21.": onnjugalion. 2y^. 
 Principal parts of verb, 229. 
 
 Pri.gressive relative clause, I«J7 
 1 98. 
 
 Progressive tenses. 240 242. 
 
 Pronommal adjectives, mu 
 «y.». 20H. 211. 
 
 Pron.mns, cUfined. \\\, anie- 
 tedenl. iij; iktsoiuI, 175- 
 |H«; comiK.und jn-rsonal or 
 nflexive. 189-191 ; demon- 
 strative. 191 192; interri)ga- 
 tive. 192 l«>); relative. u>>. 
 JOf). comiM.und relative, 2cXj- 
 -»7; Hidefimte, 2(j8; bow to 
 parse, 2oi>. 
 Proper nouns, dtfincd, 147 
 
 plural of, 158. 
 I'unctualitm. of sentences, 19; 
 of ap|)ositives. Ti, of indc- 
 IHudent elements. 93 ; of rela- 
 tive clauses, i<;8. 
 
 yuestions. «lirect and indirect, 
 ly^ n/». 
 
 R 
 
 Raise, rise, distinguisbed, 227. 
 Reflexive imMumns. |8«> 191. 
 
 Kelative clauses. !97-i(y<. 
 
 Relative pronouns, defined. 196- 
 t*)7: <li^tingiiisbed, ic;8-2oo: 
 gender, number, and person. 
 Mi; ca^', 203. 207: Xi'hose. or 
 •'/ which, 204; as and but, 
 -J05 ; omitted. 20^1; comjiound. 
 20f» 207; indefinite, 207. 
 
 Retained object. 71. 
 
 Rise, raise, distinguisbed, 2*7. 
 
 R<M>t. defined. 141. 
 
 R«M)t. infinitive. 129, j(\A-jfts, 
 267. 
 
 Same as, same that, distin- 
 guished, 205, 
 
 Saxons, 2. 
 
 Sentences, defined, 15; distin- 
 guished from phrases, 16; 
 assertive. Interrogative, im- 
 perative, and exclamatory. 
 17 «8. 21 : how written. 19; 
 assertive most common, ig; 
 origin or, ig: essential parts 
 of, 21: impersonal. 28: types 
 
INDEX 
 
 "f, Mimmariited, 57. pare, „i 
 Miinmari/Pd. ,^, .im,,|,.. ,|,." 
 hiuU. •/.; cmplix. .U»nu-,|. 
 07; o.iniMnuul, cUfiiu-.l. .,M 
 
 K'HllMMItul. cl.lf.%lfUi|. till,; 
 
 mi|>r.t|Kr ii)m|M»uni|. 10 } 
 illipncal. 105; c..ii<|itiun;ir 
 
 ^t't, sU. (listinKuishffl. jj^. 
 
 Shall or tcUI. j,^, J4t, j^s 
 
 .S/i.%.|odiiicd. l7y;Kt.n.lir, 17.,. 
 l«()l«7; cnnstriutions. iHj. 
 
 Should. claHsificatiun. Ju. <li> 
 linKuishcil fruin tcim'ltl jjH 
 siihjunctivc. J35; ''nH- ..f in- 
 hnuiw with, ^71 ; iiuaninKs. 
 
 SiRii of tlu' infinitive. ^.7. 
 
 Simple sentence, defined, gf) 
 
 Simple sul.ject, (lefine«l. ^7 
 
 Smgiiiar numl>er. (lefuud. 156- 
 divided usaKe, i6r ; personal 
 proiK.uns. 176. 178, iSK; a,|. 
 JcctiveH. ill; verbs, J^]J}(). 
 
 Sil. set. distinRuixlied, //?. 
 
 Strong verbs. 2]o. 
 
 Subject, defined, Jt ; oinitte<l. 
 ^'' ^57- position of, jj. com- 
 pound. ^4-^5 ; imfH-rsonal. 27- 
 ^8; simple, distiiiKuislud 
 from complete. 37; of pas- 
 sive verb. 46-47. jj2.j2^^ .,f„ . 
 phrase used as, «i ; clause 
 used as. 84; of verb. 16^164 
 170. 182. 20M of infinitive. 
 168. i8i. 
 
 Subjunctive mode, defined. 2<;v 
 form, 254-255: uses. 25s-25(,' 
 tenses. 256; in con.litional 
 
 sentences. 258-^sy. 
 SulK)rdinate clauses. 97; con- 
 junctions. 2<J5. 
 Substantive, defined. ^6-^7 
 Substantive clauses, as subjects. 
 
 84; as complements, 85-8r>' 
 
 as appositives, 86. 
 Substantive phrases. 
 
 jects. 81. 2f)i : as 
 
 ments, 82. 
 Suh..itmcs for noun.. .,.,. ..,. 
 
 adjectives. 215; f„r adverbs. 
 
 2oo. 
 
 343 
 
 .Summary ..f -tentence I>|k-*, 57' 
 ol Hinumc iirmiure, i>4 of 
 pariNuf siH-ech. i.iH; .,f 1^,,^^ 
 f'Tni-.. 24.J 244. 
 
 SuiHTlalive degree. 
 
 JIJ 214. 
 
 r 
 
 as sub- 
 complc- 
 
 I7.<; for 
 
 T. 
 
 t'li-e, defiue.l. j.j8; M'uplc 
 present and pa>t. 2.}8; jw-r- 
 tect tenses. 2.tH.24o; future. 
 -iMr. pri^rcsive tiii-es, J40- 
 -f4^; emphatic. inierroKaiive 
 
 ;""i '^^n-iuvi. J4jj^j- s,i,„: 
 
 iiiary of ten^o forms. 24? 244- 
 iiMvi of ihv simple pre^ent; 
 •^44-^45: uses of tlu- present 
 perfect, 245; j/iaU ,,r u,li, 
 24?) 24H; misused forms. 250- 
 ■^5' ; tenses of infinitive, j^m- 
 f7\ ; of participles, 27 \ 
 I han whiini, 20J. 
 That, demonstrative. 191- lyj 
 
 211; relative, igy-200. 
 / ht\ adverb. 221. 
 '/■/'<•. article. 217-219. 
 //i.v case. 177.178: distin- 
 guished from vou, 177-178- 
 constructions. 182-18^. 
 Ihftr, theirs, case. 179; con- 
 st. <jct ion. 181: as genderless 
 plurals. 188. 
 '/A.-w, case. 179: constructions. 
 i«2; as genderless plural. 18M 
 I hi'insi-lxrs, 189- 191. 
 / /'fn-. expletive. 29- ?o. 
 I licse, i<)(-i92, 21, 
 Thcv. declined. 17.;: construc- 
 tions 182: as Ken.lerkss 
 plural. 188. 
 Ihinc case. 177-17H; ,1, tin- 
 RUislied from vours, r~7-i78- 
 construction. i8t. 
 This. 101-192. 211. 
 Those, rgi-iyj, 211. 
 77»^;m declined. 177-17S : dislin- 
 Kin^ned from \ou. 177-178- 
 constructions. 182. 
 T(">un/i. verbs with. 259 
 'bought, a. defin.-d ic 
 Thy. case 177-178- distin- 
 Ki'i>lie«| from vour. 177 178- 
 'vunstruction. 181. 
 
344 
 
 INDKX 
 
 Thyiflf. likt^mt. 
 
 lo Iwjorr \\u' r«t«»l infinilivr, 
 
 ijy, jtS>S, Mf7 
 Trantilivi* vcrl», 45 «•'>. -'Ji i-»5- 
 
 U. 
 
 Vnkst, vcrhi with. i5Q 
 
 Vs, 170; conitruction^ iKj. 
 
 Uifd to, J44' 
 
 V. 
 
 Vrrli |>hra«eti, icparatcMi, aj. 44: 
 (irfinrd. 4l-4Jr; inUTrogalivc. 
 negative, ami emphatic. 4J 4.t, 
 ^4^ .i4j: future, ajg; perfect. 
 aj9 i40 ; progressive. .140-^4^ ; 
 emphatic, interrogative, and 
 negative, a4J-a4J: subjunc- 
 tive, JSS: peculiar. i75-^7^J- 
 
 VerlwU. 1^8. 
 
 Verbs, defined. .l6-.^^: distin- 
 guished from predicate, 37; 
 of action, being, or state. .V<; 
 transitive and intransitive. 
 45-46. 223-225 ; active and 
 passive. 46-47. 222-22i, 2(10- 
 363; of complete predication, 
 48: of incomplete predication. 
 48-49; infinitives. |j8-l^, 
 2(\y272, participles. Ij8. IJI. 
 37^-375; subject of. 167. 168. 
 iHa, ao.v. strong and weak. 
 23Q-a.ll : principal parts, aji ; 
 notional and auxiliary. 2^2; 
 number and person, i.y-2.^7; 
 tense. 2.^8-251 ; minle. 35.V 
 250; peculiar verb-phrases. 
 275-277; conjugation. 277- 
 281 ; flow to parse. 281. 
 
 Vocatives, defined. 90; case of, 
 170, 182. 
 
 Voice. 46-47. 222-22^. 260-263. 
 
 w. 
 
 Half for, Udif on, mm 
 
 li'f, drained. I7f»; edili>rial or 
 
 nujcstic, i7<); c«m»trmtion'.. 
 
 iKjt. 
 Weak veriM, 229-2.IO. 
 Hhat, interrogK ive. 1*^2 i';4; 
 
 relative. 199-200. 203. 
 Hhatctt-r. 207. 
 H htHsoa^^r. 207. 
 H'huh, interntgative. 192 194; 
 
 relative, 199-200; of tvhtth 
 
 or whott, 204. 
 M'huhet'fr, 207 
 Who, interrogative. 192-194: 
 
 relative, 199^ Joo, J02. 
 U'hoft'cr, 207- J08. 
 H'hom, interrogative, lo-li. 
 
 193-IQ4; relative, 199 Joo, 203. 
 H'liomncr, 207-/08. 
 ll'luuc, interrogative. 192-193; 
 
 relative, 199-200, 204; whosf 
 
 or of which, 204. 
 Il'hose else, 165. 
 H'hosoi'xrr. 207. 
 H'ill or shall. 2.K). 246-248. 
 Would. 232. 248. 255. 276. 
 
 V. 
 
 IV. classified, i77-«78; case, 
 
 178; constructions, 178, 182- 
 183, 
 
 Yes. 283. _^ 
 
 Vou, classified. 175: case. 178, 
 
 183: construction, 178. 182- 
 183; numlier. 178, 235. 
 
 Your, yours, classified. I75". 
 
 case. 178; construction. iKi. 
 
 Yourself, yourselves, 171. 189- 
 191. 
 
 »- . 
 

 I'M: 
 
 km; 
 
 huh 
 
 1041 
 
 o-ll. 
 
 •i9.»; 
 
 fhote 
 
 case, 
 iHj- 
 
 178. 
 
 175: 
 iKi. 
 
 189- 
 
<J.^M 'mJL 
 
 .-.:;/ .ij^ 
 
 T'