IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /^ AV 1.0 IA£12.8 |J0 ■■■ u m ■ 22 1.1 ^ ills III '-6 v» 4r . ^ /: y^ .-> '^ y Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 \ N5 \ \ V 4^ ot, 00, 01; per- sonal, deoleniion of, 00 ; relative and interrogative, deolenaion of, 01 ; syn- tax of, 128. Proper noun, definition of, 68. Proposition, definition of, 130. Punctuation, rulon fur, 21, 44, 40, 146, 146, 161, 162, 168. Qualifying adjootivo, 67. Receipts, forms of, 170. Kegular verb, definition of, 00 ; conju- gation of, 00 103. Relative pronoun, definition of, 65; declension of, 01. Root of a verb, 07. Rules for plural, 84, 86. Sentence, definition of, 20, 138; kinds of, 21 ; its elements, 20-57 ; simple, 141 ; complex, 141 ; compound, 141. Simple sentence, 141 ; analysis of the, 141-144 ; synthesis of, 146-147. Subject, definition of, 138 ; simple, 26, 138 : complete, 26, 138 ; modifiers of, 27-40 ; syntax of, 114. Subjunctive mood, 07 : syntax of, 135. Subordinate oonjunoilon, definition uf, 77. Subscription, models of, 164-168. Superlative degree, definition of, 92 ; rule for use of, 120. Superscriptions, models of, 164-168. Syntax, definition of, 112 ; false, exer> cises in, 136, 136. Synthesis, definition of, 138; of the simple sentence, 146-147 ; of th« complex sentence, 151-165 ; of th« compound sentence, 168-160. Tense, definition of, 96. The, article, 6. To love, conjugation of, 99-103. Transitive verb, definition of, 72. Verb, definition of^ 4 ; transitiTe, de- tuition of, 72; intransitive, defini- tion of, 73 ; neuter, 73 ; interchange- ability of transitive and intransitive, 73 ; modification of the. 94-109 ; con- jugation of, 00 ; prinoopal parts of, 99; auxiliary, 99; syntax of, 116; irregular, conjugation of, 176 ; to be^ conjugation of, 177 ; list of irregular, 179-184. Verbals, definition of, 97. Voice, definition of, 98; aotiv*, 98; passive, 98. Words, classes of, 2-19. ^08, 76. NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS. INTRODUCTORY LESSON. 1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or witten words. 2. Language lessons furnish rules for speaking and writing correctly, and practice in composition. Language study is divided into two parts : I. Grammar. II. Composition. 3. Qrammar is the science that treats of the principles of language. 4. Oomposition is the art of writing correctly. This book is divided into six parts, or sections : I. Classes of Words. . II. The Sentence and its Elements. III. Subdivision of the Parts of Speech. IV. Modifications of the Parts of Speech. V. Syntax. yi. ^alysis and Synthesis, SECTION I. GLASSES OP WORDS. I.— NOUNS, OR NAME-WORDS. 1. Coliimbus discovered America. 2. Buffaloes roam over tlie prairies. 3. Are you fond of skating ? 4. We love thQ fragranee of flowers. Analsrsis. — The word " Columbus " is the name of a person ; the word " America " is the name of a place ; the word " buffaloes " is the name of certain animals ; the words " prairies " and " flowers " are names of things ; the word " skating " is the name of an action ; the word " fragrance " is the name of a quality. Explanation. — Words that are used as names of persons, places, things, actions, or qualities are name-words. In grammar they are called nouns. Definition. — A noun, or name- word, is the name of anything. NOTE. — In selecting the nouns in a sentence pupils should remem- ber that, when it is stated that a noun is the " name of anything," we do not mean by " thing" merely what we know by our senses, but any object (person, place, thing), action, or quality. " A noun is the name of anything, existing or conceived by the mind."— (Swinton's English Grammar.) ! Exercise 1. a. 1. Mention (or write) the names of all the things you see in the school-room. 2. Mention (or write) the names of five persons of , whom you hiive read. VERBS, OR ACTION-WORDS. 3 3. Mention (or write) the names of five places of which you have read. 4. Mention (or write) the names of five actions, as singing. 6. Mention (or write) the names of five feelings of the body (as hv/nger), or of the mind (as pity). b. Copy the following sentences on slates or paper, drawing a line 4inder each noun, 1. Tea grows in China. 2. The oak bears acorns. 3. Cicero was a great orator. 4. Paris is the capital of France. 5. The greatest of these is charity. 6. Sometimes we see a ship. 7. Sometimes we ship a sea. 8. Singing in conceit is an improving exercise. 9. The light conies in at the win- dow. 10. The lightning flashes and the thunder roars. 11. Honesty is the best policy. 12. Seeing is believing. 13. Shakspeare was born at Stratford, in England. 14. 1 fear your joy is short-lived. 15. The scent of tl:e rose hangs round it still. 16. Go where glory waits thee ; But when fame elates thee, O then remember me. c. Mention each noun in the preceding exercise, and apply the definition of a noun : Model : " Tea grows in China." "Tea" is a noun, because it is the name of something; " China" is a noun, because it is the name of something. IL— VERBS, OB AOTION-WOBDS. 1. The sun shines. 2. Are you writing f 3. Brinff me a book. Analysis. — The word " shines " tells or states something about the sun ; it is used in making a statement. The words " are writ- 4 CLASSES OF WORDS. [SEO. I. ing" are used in asking a question. The word ** bring" is used in expressing a command. Explanation. — A word that is used in stating what any person or thing does or «^, or in asking what a person dots or k, or in tell- ing another person to do or he something, is called a verb. Definition.— A verb is a word that expresses action or beinfl^ NOTES. I. "A verb is a word that predicates action or being" (Swinton's English Grammar). To " predicate " signifies to express, assert, or de- clare. This is the principal use of verbs, though they are also em- ployed in asking questions and expressing commands. II. A verb may consist of more than one word : as, is teaming^ will be told, has been requested. Hence, in selecting verbs, care must be taken to include all the words needed to express the action or state of beint^ intended to be expressed in the given sentence. \ Exercise 2. a. Add verbs telling what the following things do. Model : " The kitten " The kitten romps in the garden. 1. The kitten 2. The boy ... 3. The girl... 4. The birds . 5. The clock. 6. Kings 7. The sun . . 8. The wind b. Join verbs telling about the following things being — (something). Model: "The Apple " The apple w sour. 1. The apple sour. 5. Soldiers 2. The grapes ripe. 6. Honesty..., 3. James here yesterday. 7. London 4. Iron malleable. 8. The lion c. Fill up the blanks with suitable verbs. 1. Trees in forests. 2. David a lion and a bear. 3. The glazier the window. 4. The artist a pictura 5, The grocer ...... tea. 6. The servant down stairs, ADJECTIVBS. Copy the following sentences, drawing one line under each noun, and two lines under each verb. 1. The cuckoo builds no nest for herself. 2. The elephant surpasses all other land animals in size. 3. Vast prairies extend beyond the Mississippi. 4. Before our house a prattling river runs. 6. A herd of cattle grazed in a meadow. a The timid bird saw the snake in the gras& 7. My father's fields have produced com. 8. Those pears may ripen on the walL 9. Diogenes lived in a tub. 10. The ship was wrecked on the coast 11. Some might have been saved. 12. " Will you walk into my parlour ?" Said the spider to the fly. Mention each verb in the preceding paragraph, and state how you know that it is a verb. ODEL : " Builds " ia a verb, because it expresses action. m.-ADJEOTIVEa 1. Bring me that book. 2. Here is a drove of ten cattle. 3. The ripe fruit is plucked. Analysis.— The word "that" is added to the noun " book" to tell which book is meant ; the word " ten " is added to the noun " cattle " to tell how many are meant ; the word " ripe " is added to the noun " fruit " to tell what kind or giiality of fruit is meant. Explanation. — "Words such as " that " and " ten " are said to limit the meaning of a noun with which they are joined. A word such as " ripe " is said to express some quality of the thing named by a noun, or to gualify the meaning of a noun. ^ f: ■ \ \ CLASSES OP WORDS. ^ [SEC. t A word which limits or qualifies the meaning of a noun is called an adjective. Definition. — An adjective is a word joined to a nonn to limit or analif^ its meaning. NOTES. I. Sometimes adjectives are used with the class of words called pronouns. (See definition, page 10.) II. The words a, or an, and the are adjectives, because they limit (or define) the meaning of nouns ; but thiey art often called articles. Exercise 3. a. Use with each noun an adjective to limit or qualify its meaning. Model : '*Fine grapes grow in sunnp France." 1 grapes grow in France. 2. The tree has leaves. 3. The ...... cat catches mice. 4. The wind blew down the trees. 5. The picture is 6. The clouds float in the sky. 7 drops of water, grains of sand, Make the ocean. And the land. b. Join with each of the following nouns as many appropriate adjectives as you can think of, and prefix a or an, as in this model. an old a green a tall , , , ^ / tree, an elegant a magnificent a fruit-bearing . 1. tree. 2. horse. 3. house. 4. man. 5. water. 6. bird. c. In the following sentences, select the adjectives, and tell how you know each is an adjective. ABJEOnVES. 7 Model : " Dashing " is an adjective because it is joined to a noun — " waves " —to qualify its meaning ; "rdok-bound " is an ad.3utive, because it is joiued to A noun —" coast " — to qualify its meaning; "th?" is an article, limiting -"waves ;" "a" is an article, limiting "coast.'* 1. The dashing waves beat on a rock-bound coast 2. A large garden is not always a profitable garden^ 3. A handsome flower is not always a sweet-smelling flower. 4. Hail, blithesome stranger of the grove ! 5. Fresh water is a pleasant drink. 6. A common lamp smoked in the neck of a stone bottle. 7. All horned animals are ruminant. 8. Dear, patient, gentle Nell was dead. 9. Be not like dumb, driven cattle. 10. The way was long, the wind was cold ; The minstrel was infirm and old. 11. This silly little grasshopper Despised his wise old mother. Arrange the adjectives, nouns, and verbs in the sentences below in separate columns. (The articles may be omitted.) Model : " Beautiful ferns grow in shady places." ADJECTIVE. NOUN. VERB. beautiful shady ferns places grow I. The tall girl ate the sweet apple. 2. The Grecian army gained a splendid victory. 3. Little drops of water make the mighty . ocean. 4. The poor boy has a blind father. 5. Switzerland is noted for its lofty mountains and beautiful lakes. 6. A rainy day gladdens the white ducks. 7. How doth the little busy bee Improve each shining hour 1 OLASSJBS OF WORD& .t IV.— ADVERBS. 1. The big fire burns brightly. 2. That book is exceedingly dear. 3. Some birds fly very swiftly. Analysis. — The word "brightly" adds something to the mean- ing of the verb " burns ; " the word " e:?ceedingly " adds some- thing to the meaning of the adjective " dear ; " the word "very" adds something to the meaning of the word (adverb) " swiftly." Explanation. — A word that in some mode (manner) changes the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, is said to modify the word with which it is joined. In grammar a word of this kind is called an adverb. \ Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modifier the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. NOTE. — An adverb generally denotes time, place, manner, or degree: as— I saw my uncle [when ?] yesterday lime. I met him [where?] here place. He spoke to me [how 1] pleasantly manner. He spoke to me [degree ?] very pleasantly... .degree. (^ P ^' Bzeroise 4. a. Supply suitable adverbs to fill the blanks in thq following sentences: Model : ** Call me early in the morning." 1. Call me in the morning. 2. Glass is brittle. 3. The exercise is written. 4. The robin sings very 5. The boy has returned. 6. Well-baked bread is wholesome. 7 will you come ? 8. Tell him to walk 9. The bells rang 10. We shall rest 11. Tte moon shines 12. King Alfred governed ADVERBS. 9 Using the verbs comet „ go, call, walk, run, jump, fli/, siny, ny, Make six sentences containing adverbs of ' time Make six sentences containing adverbs of place Make eight sentences containing adverbs o( manner Make twelve sentences containing adverbs I ^*^f , ^, ^ /\/ •{ soft, mrd, sweet, bit' ot degree... ^ ter, fine, blue, &q. c. In the following sentences select the adverbs, and state why each is an adverb. Model : " Terribly " is. an adverb, because it modifies the meaning of tho verb "blew." 1. The wind blew terribly. 2. The boys swim badly. 3. I know where he did it, when he did it, and why he did it. 4. Charles was here yesterday. 5. The stars are very bright. 6. Wo must win now or never. 7. The eagle flies exceedingly high. 8. Alices exercise is well written. 9. We shall not fai^ 10. The Times is published daily. 11. Few men are always happy. 12. This lesson has not been perfectly prepared. d. Arrange the adjectives, nouns, verbs, and adverbs in tin? following sentences in separate columns, as in the modtl. (Include the articles among the adjectives.) Model: "The merry little squirrel sat slyly on the branch of a very lof y tree." ArjECTIVE. NOUN. VERB. ADVERB. slyly very the merry littlo tho a , lofty squirrel branch tree sat 10 OIASSES OF WORDS. [sec. I. 1. The treacherous spider soon caught the DOor fly. 2. The house was entered yesterday, and che ihiei stole tho silver-plata 3. The sun shone brightly on the calm waters of the ocean. 4. The sailors danced joyously when the gallant ship entered the harbour.^ 5. He sang sweetly the old songs of his boyhood. 6. The fire bums cheerily in the grate to-night. 7. Heavy masses of mist floated lazily across the high mountains. 8. A winter so cold has never been known before. 9. Where is my brother now ? v.— PRONOUNS. 1. /am glad that yowhave come. 2. Frank likes his dog and it likes him. Analysis. — The word " I " shows that the person speaking means himself — it is used for the name of the speaker. The word " you" shows that he is speaking to some one — it is used for the name of that person. The word ** it " tfikes the place of the noun " dog ;" the word " him " takes the place of the noun " Frank." Explanation. — Words that are used for real names, or that are used instead of nouns, are called pronouns — that is, for-names, or foi'-nouns. Definition. — A pronoun is a word used for a name, or instead of a noun. NOTE.— The following words are among the principal pronouns : ! I you we he she it they me xus him her them Exercise 5. a. Complete the following sentences by adding pr&nouns. 1. If you tease the dog, will bite 2. The pond is deep, and there are many fish in ligh mountains. le, or instead PRONOUNS. 11 8. The man ran after the rabbit, but could not catch 4. My aunt saw the pictures, but did not buy &. Tell (the speaker) what brings (the person addressed), gentle youth, to Rome. b. Use pronouns instead of the words in italics. BIoDEL : *' I come to bury Ocesnr, not to praise (7(rsar"=I come to bury Canar, I aot to praise him. 1. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise Cassar, 2. Thomas ploughed the field, but Thomm did not plough the field well. 3. New York is a large city ; New Fork is the commercial metro- polis of the. United States. 4. The general told the soldiers that the soldiers would gain the victory. 5. The crocodile lives in large swamps ; the crocodile belongs to the lizard kind, and the civcodile is amphibious. 6. Alexander was an ambitious man ; Alexander conquered the whole world, and then Alexander sighed because Alexander had no more worlds to conquer. 7. The queen walked in the queen's garden with thepieen'smaid& ; the queen's maids wore blue dresses, and these dresses [which] were trimmed with lace. • c. Copy the following sentences, drawing a line under each pronoun. 1. Charles and I ran home ; we were tired. 2. John is a good boy ; he has learned his lesson. 3. You should not lose your place. 4. Whales are not fishes, though they live in the sea. 5. The farmer's wife gave me an apple, and she said I was not to eat it until I went home. 6. She said, " Sir, we are seven." 7. I had a little pony, His name was Dapple Gray ; I lert him to a lady, To ride a mile away. |T f I 13 CLASSES OP WORDS. \ [sec. I. VI. -PREPOSITIONS. 1. The ship sailed from Quebec. 2. The book on the desk is mine. Analysis. — In the first sentence the words "from" and "to" express a relation between " Quebec " and " sailed." In the second sentence the word "on" expresses a relation of place between "desk" and "book." Explanation. — Words that express a relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word are called prejaositions. They con- nect the words between which there is a relation of meaning. Definition. — A preposition is a connective word expressing a relation of meaning between a noun or pronoun and some other word. NOTE. — In our language there are about fifty of these relation- words. The following are the most used prepositions : at from off till up by in on to with for of through Exercise 6. (/ Supply suitable prepositions to fill the blanks in the following sentences. Model : "The visitor passed throxigh tbe gate." 1. The visitor passed the gate. 2. Swallows build the eaves of houses. 3. The mighty Andes rise the clouds. 4. The orator was received applause. 5. Place my book the table. ' , 6. Will you come my house? 7. Children coming home school, look in the open door. 8. The poem Paradise Lost was written Milton. 9. Carry that box James my compliments. 10. Did you buy that book ...... me? 11. We work noon dewy eve. 12 whom are you speaking ? CONJUNCTIONS. lese relation- In the following sentences select the prepositions, and tell why I each is a preposition. Model: "In" it a preposition, because it shows a relation of meaning I between "lieart" and "truth;" "on" is a preposition, because it shows a I relation of meaning between " lips" and " truth." 1. Truth in the heart is better than truth on the lips. 2. The trees in the garden are loaded with fruit. 3. I walked yesterday from our house to the Church. 4. The river flows down the valley. 5. The boy in the boat caught a fish with a line. 6. A Bailor at sea looks hopefully for land. 7. The child met me on the road. 8. We must return to the dust from which we were taken. U. They grew in beauty side by side, They filled one home with glee ; Their graves are scattered far and wide, By mount and stream and sea. VII.— CONJUNCTIONS. 1. James and John went home together. 2. I went because he asked me. Analysis. — The word "and" connects the two nouns "James" and "John;" the word "because" connects "I went" and "he asked me," which are parts of the sentence. Explanation. — A word used to connect two words or other parts, or elements, of a sentence, or to connect two statements in the same sentence, is called a conjunction. Definition. — A conjunction is a word used to connect sen- tences or the elements of a sentence. NOTES. I. The eUmente of a sentence are the words, phrases, or prepositions of which it is composed. (For definitions, see pages 138, 139.) ; I I' 14 CLASSES OF Words. [sKa L II. The following are some of the principal conjunctions : and either— or if but neither— nor than hecauM for that Exeroise 7. Supply suitable conjunctions to fill the blanks in the following sentences. Model : "He ia poor, but he ii lioneat." 1. He is poor, he is honest. 2. Ann Ella are sitting on the grasa ^ 3. Do it, I wish you to do it. \ 4. Art is long, time Ls fleeting. 5. I will tell him, he ask me. 6. Either he I must be in the wrong. 7. I did not know your brother had hurt himself. 8. Ontario is larger Manitoba. 9. All seek happiness, not many find it. 10. Hannibal, Csesar, Napoleon were great generals. In the following sentences select the conjunctions, and tell why each is a conjunction. Model ; " And " is a oon junction because it connects the nouns " animals'* and *• plants," two elements of the sentence ; " and " is a conjunction because it con- nects " live *' and " grow," two elements of the sentence. I 1. Animals and plants live and grow. 2. The father wept, for his son was dead. 3. Richard sat down, but his sister ran off. 4. Two and two make four ; but two and three make five. 6. Neither soldiers nor sailors could advance. 6. No harm was done, though the storm was very severe. 7. I like him because he is generous. 8. We heard that you had arrived. SUMMARY. 9. They are brave and modest boys. 10. They are slow, but they are uiire. 15 VIII.— INTEBJE0TION& 1. Ala$I poor Yorick : I knew him, Horatio, 1 2. Aha I papa, I have found you out. Analysis. — The word " alas " is an exclamation of sorrow ; the word "aha" is an exclamation of surprise and pleasure. Explanation. — A word of exclamation denoting some sudden feeling is called an interjection. This literally signifies a word merely thrown in among the other words in a sentence. Definition. — An intexjection is a word which expresses an emotion. Exercise 8. In the following sentences select the interjediotis, and tell why they are interjections : 1. Hush ! you should not talk now. 2. Fie ! it was not kind of you to do so. 3. Alas ! they had been friends in youth. 4. Hurrah ! we are to have a holiday. * 6. Ho ! breakers on the weather bow. 6. Adieu, adieu ! my native shore fades on my sight. SUMMARY. All the words in the English language are arranged in eight classesj called parts of speech. These are : 1. Nonn. 2. Verb. 3. AcUective. 4. Adverb. 5. Pronoun. 6 Preposition. 7. Oonjunction. 8. Intexjection. 16 CLASSES OF WORDS. [sec. 1. 1. A noun, or name-word, is the name of anything. 2. A verb is a word that expresses action or being. 3. An adjective is a word joined to a noun to limit or qualify its meaning. 4. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 6. A pronoun is a word used for a name or instead of a noun. 6. A preposition is a connective word expressing a relation of meaning between a noun or pronoun and some other word. 7. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences or the elements of a sentence. 8. An interjection is a word which expresses an emotion* REVIEW EXERCISES. a. \ 1. Bees.... 2. Dogs... 3. Cats.... 4. Horses. 9. Squirrels. 10. Crickets.. 11. Bears 12. Wolves... Make (orally or in writing) sentences of two words each by telling what the following animals do. Model: "Bees buzz." , • : 6. Owls 6. Hens 7. Geese 8. Eagles b. Make (orally or in writing) sentences by joining to each noun an adjective, and to each verb an adverb. Model: "Good scholars study diligently." ' 1. Scholars study. 5. Fruit ripens. _ 2. Men work. (J. The fire burns. ,' 3. Tlie wind blows. 7. Birds sing. 4. The girls sew. . 8. The cat and the dog played. c. Make (orally or in writing) sentences by joining a verb with each of the following pronouns. coMrosri ion exekcises. 17 1. I 2. He.. 3. She. Model : *" I study." 4. We 5. You 6. They 7. It 8. Who ? a What 1 Make (orally or in writing) sentences by putting a 7ioim after each of the following picpositions : Model: "Tea comes from China." 1. Tea cymcH from 2. The sun rises in 3. The dogs ran throujh e. 4. The cow jumped over. 5. The church is OM 6. We went to Paris by.. Make (orally or in writing) sentences by supplying a conjunction where required. Model: "Boys and girls write." ,/ . 1. Boys girls write. , - 2. Dogs bark bite. 3. Will you have i)ears peaches ? 4. I will go you will 5. I have neither gold silver. 6. John recites well in grammar poorly in geography. COMPOSITION EXERCISES. a. We may briefly describe a place by answering the followin questions : 1. What is it ? 2. Where is it ? 3. What is it noted for 1 Model: "Montreal." 1. It is a large city. 2. It is in the Province of Quebec. 3. It is noted for its shipping. . i ■ ! ' M Id CLASSES OF ^.VORDSs. [sec. I. 4. Quebec. 5. St. John. 6. The place you live in. These statements may be thus combined : Montreal, a large city in the Province of Quebec, is noted for its shipping. Make statements of each of the following places, and iombine into a sentence. 1. Ottawa. 2. Toronto. 3. Halifax. b. We may briefly describe a building, such as a house, a church, or a railway station, by answering the following question':. : 1. What is it ? 2. What is it used for 1 3, What are its principal parts ? 4. What is it built of ? Model: "A house." \ 1. It is a building. , . 2. It is used for a dweUiug-place. 3. Its principal parts are the walls, roof, floors, rooms, windows, doors, and halls. 4 It is built of wood, brick, or stone. Combined. — A house is a building which is used for a dwelling-place. It is built of wood, brick, or stone, and its principal parts are the walls, roof, floors, rooms, windows, doors, and halls. Make statements of each of the following objects, and combine into two sentences. 1. A churcL 2. A railway station. 3. A barn. 4. A jail. 5. An asylum. 6. Our post-ofiice. c. i The following story is to be read aloud to the class, and pupils are then to write what they can remember of it. (This is called sixi abstract from memory.) ■> DON'T GIVE TOO MUCH FOR THE WHISTLE. • - - - When I was a little boy about seven years old, my friends, on a holiday, filled my pockets with spending-money. I went COMPOSITION EXERCISES. Id directly towards a shop where toys for children were sold ; and being charmed with the sound of a whistle, in the hands of another boy that I met by the way, I offered him all my money for it. I then came home, and went whistling over the house, much pleased with my whistle, but disturbing all the family. My brothers, sisters, and cousins, hearing of the bargain I had made, told me I had given four times as much for the whistle as it was worth. This put me in mind what good things I might have bought with the rest of the money ; and they laughed at me so much for my folly, that I cried with vexation. This little event was afterwards of use to me, for often, when I was tempted to buy some unnecessary thing, I said to my- self : ' Don't give too much for the whistle ; " and so I saved my money.— Benjamin Franklin. , #^ 1 1 1 (20) SECTION II. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. IX.— DEFINITION OP THE SENTENCE. ^^ Fire burns. Analysis. — Here something is named — " fire." Something is >aid about fire — (it) " burns." Explanation. — Whenever we say something about anything, we express a thought. A thought expressed in words is called a sentence. Definition.— A sentence is a combination of words expressing a complete thought : as— 1. Rain is falling. , 2. The stars are distant. 3. The merry schoolboy whistles loudly. Rule for Capitals.— The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter. NOTE. — A sentence is made up of words ; but words thrown to. gether at random do not form a sentence : they must mean somox thing before they can be a sentence. A pupil was told to write j^ ♦ sentence on air. She wrote these words : " The air that we breathe." Now these words are not a sentence, for the reason that they do not make any complete statement. They might easily be converted into a sentence by saying, " The air that we breathe is sweet," or " The air that we breathe is a flirid." \ Exercise 9. Supply such words as will convert into sentences the following incomplete collections of words. " KINDS OF SENTENCES, MoDBL ! *' In 1492 Colambus ditcovet'ed AmerieaJ^* 1. Tn 1492 Columbus 2. The earth, in 365^^ clays 3. A band of robbers 4. The story of Robinson Crusoe ...... 5. The city of New York is 6. The Empire of China ....... 7 was a great patriot. 8 gives milk. 9 is the largest city in the world 10. tell us the time of day. 11 is an improving study. 12 travel over the desert. 13 live in Africa. 31 X.-KINDS OF SENTENCES. I. A senience maytake one or other of these forms : 1. Declarative. — It may simply express a statement, or declare something : as, " The earth rotates." Such a sentence is called a declarative sentence. 2. Interrogative. — It may ask a question : as, "Will you go?" Such a sentence is called an interrogative sentence. 3. Imperative. — It may express a command : as, " Take care." Such a sentence is called an imperative sentence. 4. Ezclamative. — It may express an emotion : as, " How softly the moon shines ! " Such a sentence is called an exclama- iive sentence. II. Rule for Terminal Marks.*— -A declarative or an impera- tive sentence is closed with a period (.) ; an interrogative sen- tence, with an interrogation point (?) ; an exclamative sentence, with an exclamation point (!). * A terminal mark is a mark of puuctaation placed at the end or termina- tion of a sentencQ. 22 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sec. II, Exercise 10. a. Copy on slates or paper the following sentences. ^"Exchange exercises for correction as to (1) spelling, (2) capitals, and (3) ter- minal marks. 1. The farmer mows the waving grass. 2. Tell me what you want. 3. What are you doing? Where are you going ? 4. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 5. Our brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here idle ? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains or slavery ? Forbid it, Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death ! 6. Oh ! call my brother back to me ! I cannot play alone. The summer comes with flower and bee ; Where is my brother gone ? b. Form sentences of the kinds indicated, using the following words : STATEMENTS. | QUESTIONS. COMMANDS. The Queen is situated ? Cease Gold steam-engine? Write Our Province ! .discovered.... ? Send Many ships i Did know. 1 Honour c. Express each of the following statements in the form of a ques- tion, a command, and an exclamation. Model : 1. Dogs delight to bark and bite. (Statement.) '^ 2. Do dogs delight to bark and bite ? (Question.) 3. Let dogs delight to bark and bite. (Command.) 4. How dogs delight to bark and bite ! (Exclamation.) 1. Dogs delight to bark and bite. SUBJECT AND PKEDICATE. 23 2. The big fire burns bri^jhtly. 3. Time flies rapidly. 4. Tlie storm rages fiercely. 5. The scholars rejoice. C. The lion roai-s. X [.-SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. Birds fly. Analysis. — In this sentence, is anything waiw^c? / What? Is anything said about them 1 What 1 Explanation. — Every sentence, however short, must have two parts : 1. The name of what is spoken of — or the subject; 2. Wiiat is said of the subject — or the predicate. In any collection of words, unless something is named and something said about what is named, there can be no statemeiit, and hence no sentence. Definition I.— The subject of a sentence names that of which something is thought. Definition II.— The predicate of a sentence tells what is thought. Definition III— A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject and one predicate. NOTES. I. Both the subject and the predicate may consist of many words. II. The question, " Who (or what) is mentioned ? " will always sug- gest the subject as its answer. And " What is said of the subject?" will give the predicate. Thus in the sentence, " The squirrel eyes the browning chestnuts," what is mentioned 1 " The squirrel" What is said of the squirrel 1 " Eyes the browning chestnuts." Exercise 11. a. Make sentences, usin^ suitable pairs of the following subjects and predicates. \ 24 Snbjeots. Predioat68.. THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEO. II. Model ; " A dog worried a oat." !A dog, robin, crow, horse, baby, the boy, the girl, the jockey, the coachman, the doc- tor, the teacher, the musician. I taught the class, will play the fiddle, shall win the race, worried a cat, will sing a song, built a nest, upset the carriage, cured the man, trundles a hoop, shall toss a ball, wants its rattle, broke the ^ence. Supply suitable subjects : 1 revolves around the sun in a year. 2. is the season of snow and ice. 3 are drawn over the snow in sledges. 4 flows out of Lake Ontario. 5 is the capital of Canada. 6 sail across the Atlantic Oceaa 7 wrote her exercise. 8 lived on a desert island. 9 tremble in the breeze. 10. glides skilfully over the ice. o. Supply suitable predicates : 1. London 2. Coal 3. Sounds of music 4. Vessels 5. The source of the Nile .... 6. The children 7. The fierce lion 8. The kind-hearted doctor . Write a sentence containing each of the following wdrds. Un- derline all the words in tlie subject, and doubly underline all' the words in the predicate. AKAtY.sIS AND SYNl'HKSlS. ^5 ' ■ MODKL : Sntoke. "Smoke curls up from the chimney." H 1. Smoke. 5. The steam-engine. , the doc- I 2. Desk. ■ 3. Air. 6. The eagle. 7. Money. [ win the ■ 4. Book. 8. Girls. t a nest, H 1^ Exchange papers, and see if the subjects and predicates a a hoop, H are correctly underlined. 'ence. ■ Compose two or more sentences upon each of the following subjects : 1. Cotton. 2. Dogs. 3. Robinson Crusoe. i^" Let some of the sentences be written on the black-board, and made the basis of class-criticism. Correct according to the following directions : 1. Draw a line under each misspelled word. 2. Draw a line through each small letter that should be a capital, or capital that should be a small letter. 3. Mark a cross where a period is omitted. XII. -ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. I. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts or ele- ments of which it is composed. II. Synthesis is the process of constructing sentences from their elements. Exercise 12. a. Analyse, according to the model, the following sentences : Model : " Trees blossom " is a sentence, because it expresses a thought, and it is a simple sentence because it contains but one subject and one predi- cate. "Trees" is the subject, because it names that of which something is thought ; " blossom " is the predicate, because it tells what is thought of " trees." 26 THB SliNTENCB AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sec. 11. 1. Trees blossom. 2. KiniDTS rule. 3. Worms crawl. 4. Money was paid. 5. Boatmen were rowing. 6. Lions roar. 7. Dogs bark. 8. Grass will grow. 9. Morning has dawned. 10. Bread nourishes. 11. Exercise invigorates. 12. Men have been loved. b. Construct sentences by joining a suitable subject with each of the following predicates — no sentence to contain more than two words. 1 run. 5 play. 9 fell. 2 glow. 6 purrs. 10 sailed. 3 expand. 7 bellow. 11 died. 4 die. 8. swim. 12 live. Construct sentences by joining a suitable predicate wiih each of the following subjects — (each predicate to consist of one verb only, though tlie verb may be expressed in more than one woi'd). 1. Ladies 3. Rivers 5. Ships ' 2. Boses 4. Greece 6. The teacher XIII.— SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. I. A thought may be expressed by means of two worda — one being the subject, the other the predicate : thus — BUf ITS RLEMRNTS. [SEO. II. subject of the sentence ; "three" limits "tall soMiers." The wordb "the" and "melancholy" modify the subject "days." Xixplanation. — It is often necessary to modify (that is, to limit or qualify) the meaning of the noun-subject. For this purpose we may use adjectives. "Three," "tall," "the," and "melancholy" are adjectives. First Modifier. — The simple subject may be modified by an acUeetive. Bxeroise 13. Analyse according to the model.^ Model : *' The melancholy days have come " is a simple sentence. " Days*' is the simple subject: it is modified by the adjectives "melancholy" and " the." The predicate is " have come." 1. The melancholy days have come. 2. Large bodies move slowly. 3. The grey horses ran away. 4. Dark shadows stretched across the green meadow. 5. Huge elephants live in Africa. 6. The lowing herd comes home. 7. Beautiful meadows lay below. 8. Early rising is healthful. 9. The rising sun shone through the window. 10. The wild cataract leaps in glory. b. Write six sentences, each of which shall contain one of the following nouns as its subject ; and join one or more adjective modifiers with* each subject. 1. Schoolhouse. 2. Mill. 3. Grass. 4. Peaches. 5. Feelings. 6. Doll. * At this stage of progress the analysis is to be confined to stating th ^^ ^way in Russia. It was a mighty army. ' 34 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. 1. The doll was stolen. It was the doll of the girl. It yfoa a pretty doU. It was a wax doll. 2. Deeds are not forgotten. The deeds (/znen are spoken of. The good deeds of men are spoken of. 3. Courage freed Switzerland. It was the courage of William Tell. It was his patriotic courage. 4. A footprint in the sand startled Bobinson Crusoe. It was the footprint of a man. 5. A web is a wonderful object. The web of a spider is spoken of. 6. The roar was heard in the night. It was the roar of the hiUow, It was a deep roar. It was a hoarse roar. (sec. II. XIX.— SUBJECT MODIFIED : By a Nonn in Apposition. William, the young hlacksmith, shoes horses. Analysis. — What is the simple subject of this sentence 1 What use has the word " blacksmith " ? The word " blacksmith " ex- plains which " William " is meant. Explanation. — When a noun denoting the same person or thing as another noun is placed beside it to explain its meaning, the explanatory noun is said to be in apposition with the word which it explains. Definition. — ^A noun in apposition is a noun joined to an- other noun to explain it. \ Third Modifier — The subject may be modified by a noun li^ appositioxt APPOSrriVE MODIFIERS 35 Exercise 16. Select the nouns in apposition, and mention with what word each is in apposition. MODKL : The noun " father " is in •apposition with the noun "Washington." 1. Washington, the father of his country, was the first president of the United States. 2. The Emperor Napoleon * died at St. Helena. 3. Milton, the illustrious poet, was blind. 4. Next came Thomas, the boy who carries the mail. 5. That faithful animal, the horse, is often abused. 6. The Somerset, a phantom ship, was swinging at her mooring. XX.— APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS: Analysis. Analyze according to the model the following sentences. Model : Howard, the distinguished philanthropist, was beloved by all. This is a simple sentence. The simple subject is " Howard ; " it is modified by " philanthropist," a noun in apposition ; " philanthropist " is modified by the adjectives " the " and " distinguished." The predi- cate is " was beloved by all" 1. James Watt, the inventor of the steam-engine, was bom in Scotland. 2. Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was poisoned. 3. Peter the Hermit preached the first Crusade. 4 Night, sable goddess, stretches her sceptre. 5. David, the psalmist, was king of Israel. 6. That faithful animal, the dog, watches our houses. * The noun in apposition generally follows the noun with which it is in apposition (called the principal teiin). But sometimes, as in this instance, the appusitivo comes first. To determine the principal term, inquire "What i^ the naQie of the principal oliject (person or thinj;) spoken qf ? " 36 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. II. XXI.-APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS: Synthesis. I. A noun in apposition may itself be modified by other words. Thus— Wolfe, the gallant young hero, fell at Qnehec. The noun " hero" is in apposition with " Wolfe ; " at the same time the appositive noun is modified by the adjectives "the," "gallant," and " young." The whole appositive expression—" the-gallant-young hero " — is set off by commas from the other parts of the sentence. II. Punctuation. -^Nouns in apposition, especially when modi- fied by other words, are set off from the other parts of the sentence by the comma. NOTE.— The two nouns are not separated by the comma if both words have become so closely connected as to form really one name : as, " Paul the Apostle;' " Peter the fferrmV ^ ♦ \ III. Sentence-building. — The sentence — Wolfe, the gallant young hero,* fell at Queheo— may be separated into several distinct statements : thus — 1. Wolfe fell at Quebec. 2. He was a hero. ' 3. He was a t/oung hero. 4. He was a gallant hero. By the reverse process, the following statements may be com- bined into one sentence : Columbus was persecuted. \ Columbus was a wawjgfaior. r= Columbus the great Italian navi- He was m Italian. C gator was persecuted. He was great. ) Exercise 17. a. \ Unite each group of statements into a simple sentence, as in the model. APPOSITIVE MODIFIERS. 37 i. Sago is excellent for sick people and young children. It is a. food. It is a cheap food. It is a nourishing foow. 5. Bryant wrote " Thanatopsis.'' He is a poet. He is an Ame^ can poet He is an illustrious poet. 3. Benjamin Franklin learned his trade. He was a philosopher. He was a distinguished philosopher. He learned his trade in the office of his brother. His brother was a printer in Boston. 4. I>avid slew Goliath. David was the son of Jesse, Goliath was a Philistine. 6. William the Conqueror defeated Harold. Harold was the Saxon Tcing. 6. The whale is found in the Arctic and Antarctic seas. It is the largest [mammal'] of mammals. 7. Coral is highly prized for ornaments. It is a secretion from the body of an animal. This animal is called a polyp. Copy the following piece, drawing a line under each noun •which is in apposition : THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. The English, keeping side by side in a great mass, cared no more for the shower of Norman arrows than if they had been showers of Norman rain. When the Norman horsemen rode against them, with their battle-axes they cut men and horses down. The Normans gave way. The English pressed forward. Duke William, the Norman commander, pretended to retreat. The eager English followed. Duko William^s army turned again, and fell upon the English with giuab d8 tttE S^NTSNCE AND ITS ^EMfiNtS. [sec. It slaughter. The sun rose high, and sank, and the battle still raged. Through all the wild October day the clash and din resounded in the air. In the red sunset, and in the white moonlight, heaps upon heaps of dead men lay strewn all over the ground. Harold, the Saxon king, wounded in the eye by an arrow, was nearly blind. His brothers were already killed. At length Harold, the king, received a mortal wound and dropped. The English broke and fled. The Normans rallied, and the day was lost. — Dickens' Child's History of England. XXIL-SUB JEOT MODIFIED : By a Phrase. ^ 1. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 2. Like a glow-worm golden In a dell of dew. Analyjiia.— The expression "of beauty" is used to modify " thing." We might express the same idea by using the adjective beautiful : " a beautiful thing." The expression " of dew " is used to modify the meaning of the word " dell," and " dell of dew " signifies the same thing as dewy dell. Explanation.— In each of these cases we have a noun which is joined (or related) by a preposition to another word. An expres- sion of this kind is called a phrase. It forms a part, or element, of a sentence, just as if it were a single word. Definition I.— A phrase is a combination of related words forming an element of a sentence. Definition II.— A plirase which modifies the subject (or any noun) is called an adjective phrase. Fourth Modifier.— The subject may be modified by an adjective phrase. NOTE. — Many phrases consist of a preposition and a iioun. Such phrases may frequently be changed into single words : thus— The man in armour —the armou/red man (adj.). PHRASE MODIFIERS. -V Our oottage bi/ the seaside =our sea-tide cottage (ftdj.). A man o/no^d = a no^ man (adj.). A woman of distinction =a distinguished woman (adj.). A hat with three comers =a three-cornered hat (adj.). 3d Exercise 18. Change the iialicised words into phrases. 1. It is pleasant to lie on o, flowery bed. 2. The army advanced hastily. 3. Jenny Lind sang sioeetly. 4. Sensible men sometimes differ in opinion. 6. The professor delivered an historical lecture. «, 6. There were no railways then. b. Change the italicised phrases into single words. 1. A man of courage does not fear death. 2. We sailed on the river by the light of the moon. 3. The bear sprang in haste from his bed of grass. 4. Learning is the eye of the mind. 5. A settler /row Australia returned last week. 6. People at this time live better than they ever did before. 7. The old bucket of oak hangs in the weU. XXIII.-PHRASE MODIFIERS : Analysis. Analyse the following sentences : MoD£L : "The house on the hill is burnt." This is a simple sentence : " house " is the simple subject ; it is modified by " the," an adjective, and by " on the hill," an adjective phrase. *' Is burnt "is the predicate. 40 fHE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMBNTR. [SBO. It Exercise 19. 1. The wings of the eagle are very strong. 2. The study of history is useful. 3. Roads in the country are often muddy. 4. Grapes from California are much esteemed. 5. The man with the white coat has gone. 6. The light of the sun nourishes plants. 7. The bird in the bush sang sweetly. XXIV.-PBEDIOATE MODIFIED : By an Adverb. 1. Alice plays nicely. 2. Thomas walks here, 3. We will come soon. t Analysis.— The word " nicely " modifies the meaning of the ver " plays," by expressing how Alice plays. The word " here " modifies the meaning of the verb " walks," by expressing where Thomas walks ; the word " soon " modifies the meaning of the verb " will come," by expressing when v;e will come. Explanation.— It is often necessary to modify the meaning of the verb in the predicate by a word expressing how, when, or where. For this purpose we use the class of words called adverbs. (See definition of the adverb, page S.) The words " nicely," " hastily," and " soon " are adverbs. First Modifier.— The predicate verb may be modified by an adverb. Exercise 20. a. Analyse the following sentences.* Model: "Charles was here yesterday." This is a simple aentence: * At this stage of progress the analysis is to include the suhjcct and ita modifiers, and the predicate verb with its adverbial modifiers. PREDICATE MODIFIED. 41 "Ciliarlei** it tlie lubjeot ; " wuh here yoaterday " in the predicate; the predi* ^te verb " waa " is modiAed by the adverbs " hire " aud " yesterday." 1. CharloH was here yesterday. 2. The wind blew terribly. 3. We must win now. 4. The girls laughed heartily. f>. She seldom sees her brother. 6. Oft have I he nd of Lucy Gray. 7. Slowly and sadly wo laid him down. b. Modify each predicate verb by an adverb. Model : " Out- fields produce abundantljf.** 1. Our fields produce 2. Foxes run 3. Your friend died 4. The exercise is written. 6. Young people should rise 6. We shall rest 7. The cricket chirps 8. The old soldier lies 9. It is vt"y hot 10. The tables turned. 11. Homer's Iliad has been read. 12. Were you at Niagara 1 XXV.- PREDICATE MOBIPIED: Adverbial Phrase. 1. A great n.an lives here. 2. A great man lives in this place. Analysis.— The word "here" is au adverb, and modities the predicate verb "lives." The expression "in this place" is a phrase, and has the same meaning as " here : " it modifies " livei*," and hence is called an adverbial phrase. Definition.— An adverbial phrase is a phrase which modlfiap a verb.* * It will hereafter be seea that an adverbial phrase may also modify an adjective or another adverb. 42 THE SKNTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sec. if. Skcond Modikikr.— The predicate verb maybe modified by an adverbial phrase. Note. -Ah adverbial phra.se is generally introduced by a prepo- sition : as, '* in the street," " through the woods." Hut in some phmacH the prepo.sition is not expressed : "The war lasted ten yearn" (^aadui- in(j ten years) ; " we walked tlnrti/ miles " ( = a distance of thirty miles). Every such expression, when it lia.s the meaning of an adverb, is an adverbial phrase. Id ' ill Exercise 21. |:,:||l I"; i ! it Change the ifalicised adverbs into adverbial phrases. Model : " Tlio army advanced rapidly "=The army advanced with rapidity. 1. The army advanced rapidly, ^ 2. The lady spoke calmly. \ 3. Caesar returned triumphantly. 4. Kate sings svxetly. 5. The child followed the good man cheerfully. C. An old elm grew here formerly. 7. That man express himself correctly. 8. Take her up tenderly. 9. Sorrowfully our parents see our faults. ID. Joyfully we greet the opening flowers of spring. i^° III the foregoing sentences state what verb each phrase modifies. Make sentences wit) i the following adverbial lUrases : MuDEL : " In his stall."— Tl-e horse stands in his stall. In his stall ; on the table ; to the church ; into the store ; till to- morrow ; among the corn ; before the glass ; across the bridge ; over the river ; all the day ; from every opening flower ; after the storm; to his long home; near the fire; since yester- day ; above the water ; under a spreading chestnut-tree. PREDICATE MODIFIED. 4S In the folio.* iiig sentencoa modify the predicuto verbs by supply- iiig adverbial jjhrast's expressing timtt. MooKi. : • Tho meeting bogiiia "— Tlio nicuting bugiuH at siren o'clock. 1. The meeting begins 2. I shall go to school 3. America was discovered 4. The stars shine 0. The battle lasted 6. Parliament meets 7. We have a holiday In the following sentences modify the predicate verbs oy eupp.y- ing adverbial phrases expressing place. Model : "I plauted the flowers "—I pluuteil the flowers in thegarUen. 1. I planted the flowers 2. Henry is studying 3. Napoleon died 4. Tea is brought 5. Columbus sailed 6. Cotton is grown 7. My grandfather resides In the following sentences modify tho predicate verbs by supply- ing adverbial phrases expressing manner, cause, or hy whom or what. Model : "She sings "—She sings like a nightingale. "Printing was invented "—Printing was invented hy Outenlei'g. 1. She sings 2. Printing was invented 3. The water rushod 4. Goliath was killed 5. He made his fortune 6. That mountain is high. 44 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sec. II. 7. The steam-engine was invented 8. The lady fainted XXVI.— PREDICATE MODIFIED : Analysis. Analyse the following sentences : Model : *' Many a time, on holidays, we rambled through the woods." This is a simple sentence : " we " is the subject ; *' rambled " is the predicate verb . the predicate verb is modified by the adverbial phrases " many a time," " on holidays," and " through the woods." Exercise 22. 1. Many a time, on holidays, we rambled through the woods. 2. There he lived in days of yore. 3. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. 4. The lad leaped from the boat into the river. 5. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. 6. The moon was reflected in the lake. ^ ' 7. Columbus sailed from Palos in 1492. 8. The village smithy stands under a spreading chestnut-tree. 9. We came on the trail of the Indians in the evening. 10. She perished 'mid italian flowers. I XX VII. —PREDICATE MODIFIED: Synthesis. I. Punctuation.— The following rules of punctuation apply to adverbs and adverbial phrases : . • - Rule I.— Two or more adverbs or adverbial phrases in a series are separated by commas : as— 1. Slowly^ mclly we laid him down. • 2. He reads rapidly, jimntly, and correctly. ' 3. He goes from grave to gay, from, lively to severe. 4. I went from New York, through Liverpool, to Bombay, by way of Suez. PREDICATE MODIFIED. 45 Note.— TVo adverbs or adverbial phrases joined by a conjunction are not separated by commas : as, " Slowly and sadhj we laid him down." Rule IT. An adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence, or otherwise out of its natural order, is generally set off by a comma: as— 1. Over the great plains, the buffalo still roams. 2. Columbus, in 1493, returned from his voyage to the West Indies. Note. — In what is called the " natural order " of a sentence the subject comes first, the predicate verb next, and then follow all the ad- verbial modifiers. But this is by no means the most pleasing order. Good writers, when they employ two or more adverbial phrases in the same sentence, distribute them in such a way as to make an agreeable, harmonious whole. It is when phrases are thus out of their natural order, and in their literary order, that the rule for the comma applies. II.— Sentence-building. — In the following exercise several sepa- rate statements, eacli containing a pljrase, are to be combined into a single simple sentence : thus — ( Columbus returned from hia voyage. Separate Statements... < He returned from his voyage to the West Indies. ( He returned in 1493. Combined. —Columbus returned from his voyage to the West Indies in 1493. In this sentence there are three phrases— (1) "from his voyage," (2) "to the West Indies," (3) "in 1493"— and they are all brought to- gether in the predicate. The sentence would be more agreeable if arranged thus — ,, In 1493, Columbus returned from his voyage to the West Indies ; or, Columbus, in 1493, returned from his voyage to the West Indies. Direction.— Several phrases used in the same sentence should be distributed in such a way as to make the sentence most agree- able to the ear. Exercise 23. Combine as in the model : 46 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEC. It. 1. The teacher of our academy gave prizes. • Jle gave them on exhibition day. He gave them /or scholarship. 2. Napoleon invaded Russia. , He invaded it i7i the winter of 181. He invaded it with a great army. 3. Gold was discovered. It was discovered in California. It was discovered in the year 1849. 4. Close at hand runs the highway. .'' It runs to the little railway station. The station is in the valley. 5. The battle began. It began the next morning. It began at daybreak. { It began in temble earnest. ^ 6. Jacques Cartier landed. He landed early next morning. He landed /rom /lis vesseZ. 7. The swallows built their nests. , lHhia y/ns in the spring-time. They built them under the eaves of tho ham. The nests were built in a long row. XXVIIL—PREDICATE WITH OBJECT. 1. Carpenters build houses. « 2. The hunter shot a hear. - i .3. I teach him and he teaches me. Analysis. — The noun "houses" denotes what carpenters build ; the noun "bear" names xohat the hunter shot. The pronoun "hiYu" denotes whom I teach, and the pronoun "me" denotes whmi he teaches. ill ' .\ PREDICATE WITH OBJECT. 47 Explanation.— In such sentences as '* Birds fly," " Fishes swim/' the verbs "fly "and "swim," when used with a subject, as "birds," "fishes," express a complete meaning — they make complete state- ments. But wheu we sny — Columbus discovered Watt invented no complete statement is made. We wait to be told of some thing or object which Columbus discovered or Watt invented. A word that is used to complete the meaning of a verb denoting action is called the object of the verb. In the examples at the begin- ning of this lesson, " houses " is thie object of " build ;" " bear" is the object of " shot ; " " him " is the object of " teach," and " me" is the object of " teaches." A verb that requires an object in order to make a complete state- ment is called a transitive verb. Di<:FiMTioN I.— A transitive verb is one that denotes an action ter nij -iting on some object. Dk i 'i on II.— The object of a transitive verb is the word or words used to complete the statement made by the verb. Exercise 24. a. Supply objects after the following transitive verbs. 1. Indians hunt , 2. The doctor cures 3. Watt invented 4. The frost kills 5. Rain refreshes 6. Tennyson wrote , ' ' • b. Make sentences by supplying a verb after each subject, and ^kiin selecting from the list a suitable ohjeci ml 48 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sec. II. SUBJECTS. upiwtnu — AU« AAAMnAVAWU OBJECTS. h/AAAl* The musician. A baby. recitation. com. The onrpenter. A robin. rattle. violin. The doctor. A horse. nest. play. The teacher. A boy. patients. houses. o. 1. Write a sentence telling what you saw at the museum. 2. Write a sentence telling several things that the carpenter makes. 3. Write a sentence telling three things that your province pro- duces. V 4. Write a sentence naming four things that you study. 5. Write a sentence specifying several objects that the hardware merchant sells. 6. Write a sentence naming several books that you have read. Underline all the objects. ^ \ i-f-t XXIX.-PREDICATE WITH OBJECT : Analysis. Analyse the following sentences : Model : "The hunter shot a bear." This is a simple sentence : " the hunter" is the subject ; " shot a bear" is the predicate ; " shot" is the predicate verb -, and " bear" is the object. 1. Carpenters build houses. ' 2. The Egyptians embalmed bodies. ' 3. The minister preached a sermon. , 4. Music soothes the mind. ' , ^ 5. James has written a letter. 6. Fools despise knowledge. 7. Physicians prescribe medicines. . • 8. Patriots love their country. \ ' 9. Education improves the mind. . 10. Teachers hear recitations. , ""^ PREDiCAtii With odject. 40 XXX.— PREDICATE WITH OBJECT : Synthesis. I. Functuation.~-KuLE. Three or more objects of the same verb (or two if not connected by a conjunction) are separated by commas: as— 1. Our county produces wlient, corn, potatoea, and fruit 2. Our county produces peaches and pears. ir. Sentence-building — Several statements in which the same verb is used, but with different objects, may be combined into a single sentence by using the verb only once : thus — Milton wrote Paradise Lost. Milton wrote Paradise Regained. Milton wrote several other poems. ^ = Milton wrote Paradise Lost, /■ Paradise Regained, and seve- j ral other poems. ^ "\ Exercise 25. Combine the statements into single sentences, as in the model. 1. We caught a pickerel. We caught three trout. We caught /oM7' 6ass. . 2. Railways transport persons. Railways transport cattle. Railways transport goods. '< 3. Mary studies geography. Mary studies history. " Mary studies botany. Mary studies drawing'. 4. Alfred has a dog. Alfred has two rabbits. Alfred has six pigeons. Alfred ha^ several other pets: 6. In a druggist's store you may find rhubarb. In a druggist's store you may find calomel. In a druggist's store yo'^may find senna. D 50 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [SEO. II. In a druggist's store you may find ipecacuanha. In a druggist's store you may find various other drugs. 6. Dickens wrote The Pickwick Papers. Dickens wrote Oliver Ticist Dickens wrote Vombey and Son. Dickens wrote A Tale of Two Cities. Dickens wrote maiiy other novels. , XXXI.-PREDIOATE ADJECTIVE AND NOMINATIVE. . 1. Gold is yellow. Gold is a metal. , 2. Alfred was king. Pitt was a statesman. 3. The boy becomes a man. Analysis. — Do the words "Gold is " make a complete state- ment ] They do not. We must supply some word, as " yellow " or "metal," telling what gold is. In like manner the words "Alfred was*. ," "Pitt was ," and "The boy becomes ," make no statement until we have completed the predicate by using words to denote whut Alfred and Pitt were^ and wAa< the boy becomes. Explanation.— The verbs "is," "was," and "becomes" are not transitive verbs, because they do not express action ; hence the words used with these verbs to complete the statement are not called objects. An adjective used to complete the sense of a verb not expressing action is called a predicate adjective^ and a noun used in the same ^s2ky i& Cdi\[Q6. Q, predicate nominative. ■; Definition I.— A predicate adjective is an adjective used to complete the sense of a predicate verb. Definition II.— A predicate nominative is a noun (or pronoun) used to complete the sense of a predicate verb. \ NOTE. — There are not many verbs of the kind spoken of in this lesson. The one most used is the verb to be, which has various forms — is, am, was, were, have been, etc. Other verbs of this class are : ./ t»llEt)ICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOMINATIVE. become as, " Mary became queen." feel as, " Velvet feels smooth." look as, " The baby looks happy." seem as, " Success seems secure." smell as, " The rose smells fragrant." taste as, " Vinegar tastes sour." 51 Exercise 26. a. Select the predicate adjedivcs and the pi'edicate nominatives. 1. That mountain is high. 7. Molasses is a liquid, 2. Contented persons are happy. 8. The syrup tastes sweet. ,3. Oxygen is a gas. 9. The boy seemed dull. 4. Yon have been sick. 10. The boy was dull. 5. London is a city. 11. The boy Avas a dunce. 6. David became king. 12. Emily felt proud. b. . Fill out the blanks first by a predicate adjective complement, then by a predicate nominative. When done, unite the two statements into one sentence. Model: "Iron is '* Iron is hard. [Adjective.] Iron is a meto^ [Nominative.] Iron is a hard metal. [Sentences united.] - 1. Iron is 6. The moou is 2. Sugar is 7. Diamonds are 3. Wellington was 8. James has been 4. Clarissa will be 9. This church is 5. The sky is 10. Wolfe was XXXir.— PREDICATE WITH C03XIPLEMENT : Analysis. Analyse the following sentences : Model — 1. " All men are mortal. \M 52 THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sec. It. This is a simple sentence : " all men " is the subject, " are mortal " is the predicate; "are" is the predicate verb, and "mortal" is the predicate nominative. 2. " Frogs are animals." This is a simple sentence : " frogs" is the subject, "are animals" is the predicate ; "are" is the predicate vei^, and "animals" is the predicate nominative. 1. Raphael was an artist. 2. The eye is the organ of sight. 3. The Romans were warlike. 4. We are wrong. 5. The whale is a mammal. 6. The stars are distant. 7. Temperance is a virtue. 8. Tadpoles become frogs.. \ 9. A chrysalis becomes a butterfly. ' 10. The children seem happy. 1 1. This plum tastes acrid. 12. An owl looks wise. 13. A church is an edifice. SUMMARY. I. A sentence is a combination of words expressing a complete thought. II. The subject names that of which something is thought. III. The predicate tells what is thought. IV. A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject and one predicate. V. An a4junct or modifier is a word or words added to another word to modify its meaning. \^ VI. The simple subject may be modified by — 1. An adjective : as, " Bright stars twinkle." 2. A possessive noun : as, " The boy's bravery was rewarded." R!:VIEW EXERCISES. 63 3. A noun !n apposition : as, " Milton, the imet^ was blind." 4. An adjective phrase : as, "The study of history is u.soful." VII. The predicate verb may be modified by — 1. An adverb : as, " The fire bums brightly" 2. An adverbial phrase : as, " Columbus sailed /row Palos" VIII. A verb tliat does n . express a complete statement may be completed by — 1. An object : as, " Columbus discovered America" 2. A predicate adjective : as, " Gold is yellow." 3. A predicate nominative : as, " Gold is a metal" REVIEW EXERCISES a. Combine each of the following sets of statements into a well- constructed simple sentence. Give the simple subject and pre- dicate, and mention the modifiers of each. 1. We skated. It was in the winter evenings. The evenings were cold. They were frosty. It was on the mill-pond. The mill-j)ond was near our father's house. 2. A boy threatened to eat me. It was during my first day at schooL He was a big boy. He had a wide mouth. - • He had large teeth. 3. The schoolhouse stood on a hill. The schoolhouse was old. It was red-coloured. It was shabby. The hill was bleak. ft, li m mi',) ;iia 54 THK SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sec. IL It tvas cold. It was destitute of trees. 4. An Italian mariner made his appearance. This was in the last quarter of the 15th century. He was a citizen of Genoa. He made his appearance at various European courts. 5. A cook made his appearance. He was fat. He was French. • He appeared on deck. It was soon after breakfast. 6. The beaver constructs [something]. It is his house that he constructs. He constructs it with great skill. He constructs it before winter. . 7. Leonidas died. He was a king. He was king of Sparta. ' \ He died like a hero. He aied at Thermopylae. Thermopylae is in Greece. 8. The boy wrote. He was a good boy. He wrote a letter. He wrote to his father. He wrote from school. He wrote on his birthday. It was a long letter. He wrote it early in the morning. He wrote it before breakfast. 9. James Watt died in 1819. He was the great improver of the steam-engine. He died at Heathfield. He died at the age of eighty-four. REVIKW EXERL'ISES. 05 10. VVellinj^ton gained a victory. I le was commancler-in-cliief of the allied atmy. 'i'ho victory was decisive. It was gained over tlio French. The battle was fought at Waterloo. Waterlooo is in Bolgiuui. This took place in 1815. 1. W«'ite a simple sentence, with the subject modified by two a.4jectives. 2. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by a possessive noun and an adjective. 3. Write a simple sentence, with the subject raodifiid by a noun in apposition. 4. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by two adjectives and one adjective phrase. 6. Write p. simple sentence, with the subjt.-ct modified by a possessive noun, an adjective, and a phrase. 6. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb modified by three ad\'erbs. 7. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb modified by two adverbial phrases, 8. Write a simple sentence, with the subject modified by an adjective phrase, and the predicate verb by an adverbial phrase. 9. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb completed by an object. 10. Write a simple sentence, with the predicate verb completed by a predicate adjective, and another by a predicate nomi- native. 6G THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS. [sec. II. COMPOSITION EXER0ISE8. a. Write an abstract from memory after reading the following piece : LITTLE THINGS. " Two men were at work one day in a ship-yard. They were hew- ing a piece of timber to put into a ship. It was a small piece, and not worth much. As they cut off the chips, they found a worm, a little worm, in the wood, about half an inch long. " This wood is wormy," said one ; " shall we put it in ? " ** I don't know ; yes, I think it may go in : it will never be seen, of course." " Yes ; but there may be other worms in it, and these may increase and injure the ship." " No, I think not. To be sure the wood is not worth much ; but I do not wish to lose it. Come, never mind the worm ; we have seen but one ; put it in." So the wormy piece of wood was put in. The ship was made, and she looked veiy noble indeed. She went to sea, and for a number of years did well But it was found, on a distant voyage, that she grew weak and rotten- Her timbers were found to be much eaten by the worms. The captain thought he would try to get her home ; but she sprang a leak. She filled with water, and soon after sank, with all the goods and most of the crew on board. You see that a fine ship and many lives may be lost by a little worm ! And how much evil may a man do when he does a small wrong, as he did who put the wormy timber into the ship. b. Write from memory any of the following stories : 1. Little Re(J. Ridiug-hood. 2. Cinderella. 3. Robinson Crusoe and his goata. c. Write short compositions on any of the following subjects : METALS AND MINERALS. OUTLTNS : Where found ; how mined or qimrried ; qualities ; usea. 1. Iron. 4. Copper. 7. Marble. 2. Gold. 5. Lead. 8. Coal 3. Silver. 6. Quicksilver. 9. Granite, COMPORITION KXEROISER. 67 TRKES. ^ITTUNR: Whoro found ; size; h«ight ; foliago ; varietict; qunlitieB; uaos. 1. The iiinple. 4. The ))irch. 7. The pine. 2. The elm. 6. The chestnut. 8. The hickory. 3. Tlje beech. 6. The oak. 9. The apple. MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. Write short descriptions of the process of making such of tlie following articles as are manufactured in or near the place whore you reside : 1. Shoes. 3. Brick. 5. Cotton cloth. 2. Boots. 4. Horseshoes. fl. Woollens. ( 58 ) SECTION IIT. SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OP SPBBOH. XXXIIL-THE NOUN: Proper. Select from the following examples all the nouns that are the names oi j^articular persons, places, or things. MoDKL : ** Walter visited London, and saw Hyde Park and the Thames." " Walter " is the name of a particular person ; " London " is the name of a particular place ; " Hyde Park " is the name of a particular object ; " Thames " is the name of a particular river. Examples. — l. Thomas lent his knife to John. 2. Mary gave Emma a rose. 3. Socrates died like a philosopher. 4. Wjvtt and Fiiltou were inventors. 5. Halifax is in Nova Scotia. 6. Quebec is a large province. 7. China is the most populous country in tlie world. 8. Jerusalem, my happy home ! 9. Carlo is a good dog. 10. The Rhine is not so large a river as the Mississippi. 11. The Alps are the highest mountains in Europe. 12. We shall have a holiday on Thurs- day because it is Dominion Day. Explanation. — The name of a particular person, place, or thing is an individual or special name. It does not belong to the person, place, or thing by nature, but is given to the person, place, or thing to distinguish that one from others of the same kind. In grammar such names are called proper nouns. Definition.— A proper noun is a special or individual name. Capitals. — Rule : A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter. THE NOUN. 59 Note.— A name made up of two or more words is to be taken as one proper noun : thus, New Glasgow, Dominion Day, Rocky Moun- tains, Lord Dufferin, Peter the Great, Oxford County, n nouns. Definition.— A common nouh is a general or class name. Note.— A collective noun is a noun denoting a collection of in- dividuals considered as forming one whole or body : thus, amiy,jteet, jurtji committee, I come to bury Csesnr, not to praise him. 2. I hope, madam, you find yourself better this morning. 3. John spoke to Ann : he says she will come when she has found tlie book he wants. 4. The b> V saw the mouse as it ran across the floor. 5. Have you had your breakfast ? 6. The children aie coming home from school, and they look in at the open door. 7. I help you, but you do not help me. 8. Charles went to Paris with his mother, and he came back without her. 9. The mountain was higher than we thought it to be. 10. I come to speak to you of what he wish'd — Enoch, your husband : I have ever said You chose the best among us — a strong man ; For where he fixed his heart he set his hand To do the thing he willed, and '^ore it through. I' m ml 64 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPKECH. [SEC. HI. Explanation. — The pronoun used by a speaker to denote himself is called, in grammar, the pronoun of the first person. It is ifsed because it would be very awkward for one to speak his own name every time he had to make a statement about himself. The pronoun which we use for the name of the person we are addressing is called the pronoun of the^ second person. It is used because it would be very tedious to call persons by their proper name every time we address them. Besides, it often happens that we do not know the name of the person to whom we are S[)eakiiig. Three pronouns — he, she, and it — are used instead of nouns which we have already used : by so doing we avoid the unpleasant effect of repeating the same word. These are called pronouns of the third person. These pronouns, since they have special forms to denote the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of, are called personal pronouns. Definition.— A personal pronoun i' one that shows by its form whether it is of the first, second, or third person. NOTE. — The principal pronouns are : I denoting the speaker. We. denoting the speaker along with others. You denoting one or more persons spoken to. He I She \- ...denoting the person or thing spoken of. It j They... ...denoting the persons or things spoken of. The personal pronoun "I" should always be written as a capital letter. XXXIX.-THE PRONOUN: Relative. Select from the following examples all those pronouns tlia,t relaU to a wmd (noun or pronoun) going befoi'e. Tin: PRONOUN. 65 Model : " The man who sold me the horse that was blind will receive the reward which he merits." The pronoun " who " relates to the noun " man ; " the pronoun " that " relates to the noun " horse j " the pronoun " which " relates to the noun " reward." Examples. — 1. This is the lady who called on you. 2. I have lost the book which I bought. 3. London, which is situated on the Thames, is the capital of Great Britain. 4. I have seen the largest lion that was ever brought to this country. 5. I know what you wish. 6. Ave those the dogvS which your father had with him ? 7. Those who love mercy shall receive mercy. 8. I who speak to you am the man tiiat did the deed. 9. You who are so boastful should give some evidence of your ability. 10. The boy and the dog that you saw passed on. 11. I do not know which of you to invite. 12. It is the mind that makes the body rich. 13. The Indians lived in wigwams which they made of bark or the skins of animals. 14. Solomon was the wisest man that ever lived. 15. High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind, Satan exalted sat. Explanation. — Some pronouns not only stand for nouns, but also connect statements. Thus, in the sentence " We love people who love us," the pronoun "who" stands for the noun "people," and at the same time connects the statements " we love people " and " love us." Since these pronouns carry our mind back to a noun going before, they are called relative pronouns ; and the noun to which they refer is called the antecedent (Antecedent means going before.) Definition I.— A relative pronoun is one that refers to a preceding noun or pronoun, and connects two statements in a sentence. Dbfinition II.— The antecedent of a relative is the noun or pronoun represented by the relative. I^TOTE. — The relative pronouns are : loho, which, what, that. Bl 66 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. III. XL.— THE PRONOUN: Interrogative. Select from the following examples the pronouns which are used in asking questions : Model : " Who did it ? " " Which did you see? " "What shall I say ? " Tlie words " who," " which," and " what " are used in asking ques- tions. Examples. — 1. Who comes here? 2. Who killed the deer? 3. Which of you did that ? 4. What is the meaning of the word initr- rogative ? 5. To whom did you oflfer the present ? 6. What's this ? 7. Which of the tw» do you mean? 8. Who comes here? 9. What have you got to say ? Definition.— An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking a anestion. They are who, which, and what. XLI.— REVIEW OP PRONOUNS. There are three subdivisions of pronouns : ' I. Personal. II. Relative. III. Interrooative. I. A personal pronoun is one that shows by its form whether it is of the first, second, or third person. II. A relative pronoun is one that refers to a preceding noun or pronoun, and connects two statements in a sentence. in. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking a ques- tion. They are who, which, and what. Exercise 28. a. In the following sentences tell the class to which each projioun belongs : 1. I have just received the picture which you sent me. 2. Who has been in this room ? 3. The man who was here yesterday. 4. What shall I say to him, and what shall I do ? 5. This is the THE ADJECrriVE. 67 man of whom you spoke. 6. "When will tbey make us a visit 7 7. Who shouts treason ] Let him die. 8. Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O death ! 9. We have just recited a geography lessoD. 10. He says that she is a better scholar than you. 11. What sought they thus afar? 12. They sought a faith's pure shrine. 13. Dear little blossoms down under the snow, You must be weary of winter, I know. b. Rule slates or paper, and write the pronouns in the previous exer- cise according to this model. PERSONAL. RBLATIVE. IMTBRROOATIVE. I you me which who o. Supply suitable pronouns, and tell the class to which each be- longs. 1. John says knows the boy stole the apple. 2. Do remember the place where met, long, long ago? 3. Tell me of the books want, and shall have 4 was the discoverer of the St. Lawrence ? 5 and could not learn was there. • 6. James has lost the knife his father gave 7. Jerusalem was the city to the Crusaders bent their course. 8. The scholar studied most improved the most. 9. This is the house Jack built. 10. hope and will soon be able to write good English. XLIL-THE ADJECTIVE : Qnalifying. Select from the following examples all the adjectives that de- note some quality of the thing named by the noun which they modify. 68 SUBDIVISION OP TIIK PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEO. III. Model : " Good ahepberds care for tender lamba." The adjective "good" expresses a quality of tihepherda; the adjec- tive " teudor " expresses a quality of lambs. Examples. — l. Good shepherds care for tender lambs. 2. An honest man is the noblest work of Ood. 3. Friday was a comely, hatidisorae fullow, with straight, strong limbs. 4. John gave James ten large apples. 6. Clever girls can learn difficult lessons. 6. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 7. What a beautiful flower you have ! 8. The new map has come. 9. After a weary walk we reached a small village. 10. The loftiest mountains are found in Asia. 11. The aun, the great fountain of light, showered down hifi rays. 12. Some mossy bank my couch must be, Some rustling oak my canopy. Definition.— A qualifying adjective is one that denotes a quality. NOTES. I. Adjectives show qualities of different kinds : as — A white horse. A black dog. A red book. Colour. I Size Kind ..{ A yeUow flower. A purple dress. A crimmn sash. A large house. A artvall cottage. A broad road. A narrow path. A low chimney. A tall chimney. A soft bed. A pleasant bed. A harvl, rock.. Sojt sand. A fierce tiger. A gentle lamb. Fine weather. A sweet apple. A strong hand. A brave heart. II. Some adjectives are derived from proper nouns, and hence are :dX\Q(i 'proper adjectives : thus — PROPER N0UN8. China, Italy, America, Spain, Scotland, Turkey, PROPER ADJECTIVES. Ohinese. Italian. American. Spanish. Scotch (oi: Scottish). Turkish. Capitals. — Hule : Proper adjectives begin with a. capital letter. THR ADJECTIVE. CO XLIII.-THE ADJECTIVE : Limiting. Select from tlie following examples all tho adjectives tliut ineroly jmnt imt tho thing named, or denote the number or quaniily uf it. Alflo select tiie articles. Model : " ThiH book has belonged to my sister for four years." Tho word "this" is used to point out which book ; the word "four' is used to denote how many years. Examples. — l. This book has belonged to my sister for four years. 2. That woman lives in this cottage. 3. A nightingale sang sotno Hweet notes. 4. Your six pigeons are dead. 6. On the second day after our arrival fifty persons came to visit us. 6. Whoso book is this ? 7. What a beautiful flower you have 1 8. Our brave soldiers faced many dangers. 9. Two tall elm-trees shade the old brown house. 10. There are seven days in a week. 11. Most boys enjoy skating. 12. Yet beautiful and bright he stood, As born to rule the storm ; A creature of heroic blood, A proud, though child-like form. Definition.^A limiting adjective is one that merely defines or restricts the meaning of a noun. » NOTES. I. Some limiting adjectives serve merely to point out the thing named : as^ this horse (the nearer one). that horse {ihe farther one). II. Some limiting adjectives show the quantity of a thing : as- / 1. Fixed. One ox. Two oxen. Three cows. Tlie y?rs< f ox. The f/uVci horse. The/owH/f dog. Each individual. Either man. Neithei woman. Number. ( 2. Uncertain. Some persons. Other persons. All children. Many children. Several women. Few girls. Most boys. I No persons. Every traveller. i m 1-1 I ■• is- i m 70 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPBEOE. t;>;Xi l!t. ^nlk^' [ Some tea. 3fuch sugar. Little milk. Any breati III. Al'tideS' — A (or an) in called the indefinite article ; the, the definite article. An is used before words beginning with vowel sounds ; a before words beginning with consonant sounds : as, a man ; a house ; a year ; a wonder ; a use ; — an art ; an end ; an heir ; an urn. Obs.— a, e, t, 0, u nre the vowels. W and p are conionnnts when they pre- cede a vowel in the same syllable ; otherwise, vowels. IV. Pronominal Adjectives. — Some limiting adjectives may by themselves represent a noun. These are called pronominal ad- jectives : thus — LIMITINO. Look on this picture. Both boys are studious. Have you seen ani/ geese ? Some girls are lazy. PRONOMINAL. Look on this. Both are studious. Not any. Some are industrious. XLIV.-REVIEW OP ADJECTIVES. * There are two general subdivisions of adjectives : I. Qualifying. IL Limitino. I. A aualiflTing adjective is one that denotes a quality. II. A limiting adjective is one that merely defines or restricts the meaning of a noun. The articles, the and a or an, are limiting adjectives. Exeroibe 29. Bule slates or paper as below, and write the different classes of adjectives in the. following piece. QUALIFYINO. LIMITING. ARTICI.E8 little green this a the THB •ADJIKmV& Tl SILK. We get silk from a caterpillar called the silk-worm. This little creature is green in colour, and feeds on the leaves of the mulberry- tree. It is hatched from an egg about the size of a mustard- seed, and changes its skin four times before it reaches its full size. When full grown it leaves off eating, and covers itself over with a pretty silken case, inside of which the little spinner goes to sleep for some time. When ita sleep is over, it makes a hole in its case, and comes out in the shape of a sumll butterfly, which lays a number of eggs and then dies. It is from the case or ball spun by the silk-worm that all our silk is made. The balls, or cocoons, as they are called, are thrown into warm water, to loosen the gum with which the silk-worm glues the threads together. Then four or five of the threads are fastened to a reel and wound. In this state it is called raw silk ; and it is next sent to the silk-mill, to be prepared for the weaver. The best silk comes from China, where silk-worms were reared and silk was woven into cloth hundreds of years ago. XLV.— THE ADJECTIVE : Oonstructive Exercises. a. Write sentences introducing the adjective forms of the following proper nouns. |C^ Underline the adjectives. Model : ** Switzerland.— Swiss scenery is celebrated for its beauty." 1. Switzerland. 3. Holland. 6. Japan. 7. Pivris. 2. Canada. 4. Peru. 6. Scotland. 8. Turkey. b. Supply suitable adjectives. 1. Csesar was a general.- 2. There are scholars in my class. 3 dog was barking at horse. 4. house on the hill is mine. c Write on paper or slates ten sentences, each sentence contain- ing one of the following nouns with an adjective joined to it: n SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEO. lit 1. orange. 3. bonnet. 5. farm. 7. mountain. 9. thread. 2. coat. 4. shawl. 6. monkeys. 8. waggon. 10. scissors. d. Write in columns, on slate or blackboard, under each heading, nine more adjectives, denoting — Colour. I Kind. I , Size. brown. | sweet. | large. e. Rewrite the sentences, and change the meaning by putting in other adjectives. Model : '* A little r^d cross dog attacked a gay young prancing horse." 1. A large black fierce dog attacked a poor old lame horse. 2. The damask roses perfume the balmy morning air. \ 3. The pretty little child fondles the small black kitten. ' 4. Some idle careless scholars waste many precious hours. 5. Two tall elm-trees shade the old brown house. XLVI.— THE VERB : Transitive and Intransitive. Select from the following examples all those verbs which take an object, and in another coliunn those which do not take an object: Examples* — !• The pony eats hay. 2. The house fell. 3. The cow gives milk. 4. John loves his sister. 5. The bird flew away. 6. Leaves have their time to fall. 7. The teacher instructs us. 8. Who calls me ? 9. Watch him. 10. Coal burns. 11. This poor man dwells in a little hut ; yet he loves his home. 12. The sisters danced the polka. 13. I felt so happy that I almost danced for joy. 14. Old Joe tells funny stories. 15. His illness lasted long. 16. A soft answer turneth away wrath. Definition I.— A transitive verb is one that denotes an action terminating on some object. Transitive means passing over, for the action denoted by the verb is thought of as passing over to the object. THE VERB. 73 The object of a transitive verb ia either a noun (or pronoun) or some word or words having the use of a noun. Definition If.— An intransitive verb is one that denotes (1) a state or condition, or (2) an action not terminating on an object. lutransitlve means not passing over to an object, for the action ends with the person (or thing) spoken of as doing it. 1, NOTES. I. The same verb may oe either transitive or intransitive, according to its use. Thus — 1. Fanners mow (intrans,). Farmers mow grass (trans.). 2. Ice melts (intrans.). Heat melts ice (trans.). 3. Fire burns (intrans.). Fire Imrru wood (trans.). II. Most intransitive verbs require no words to complete their sense ; but a few intransitive verbs take a complement, or completing part (see page 50). Such verbs are sometimes called neuter, copula, or apposition verbs. They are, however, simply intransitive verbs of incomplete predi- cation. Exercise 30, a. it Rule slates or paper as below, and ivrite the verbs. grows invented verb intrans. verb trans. 1. The india-rubber tree grows in Brazil. 2. Whitney invented the cotton-gin. 3. The farmer sent his servant. 4 The moon moves round the earth. 6. Watt constructed the first steam- engine. 6. Milton wrote Paradise Lost. 7. Tiie patriot's heart bled. 8. Is he coming home ? 9. Siieak, marble lips ! : m m f 111 i w ■ 'ig 74 SUBDIVISION OP THE PARTS OP SPEECK. [SEC. III. 10. God moves in a mysterious way, His wonders to perform : He plants his footsteps in the sea, And rides upon the storm. b. Write twelve sentences with verbs which require an object, and twelve with verbs which do not require an object. XLVII.— THE ADVERB : Simple and Conjunctive. Select from the following examples the adverbs that simply modify verbs and distinguish them from those that connect state- ments in a sentence. Model : " You live here." *' I know where you live." " Here " is an adverb, and merely modifies the verb " live." " Where ' is an adverb, and connects the two statements " I know " and " you live." Examples. — 1. You live here. 2. I know where you live. 3. James studies diligently. 4. 1 have heard how be studies. 5. Slowly, sadly we laid him down. 6. The wind blew terribly. 7. I will go when I am invited. 8. We must study while we are young. 9. A very pretty bird daintily picked up the crumbs. 10. Do you know why it is cold in northern countries? 11. Go where glory waits thee. 12. Go yonder. Explanation. — Some adverbs serve only to modify the words with •n'hich they are joined. These ure called simple adverbs. A few adverbs are usod to connect statements in a sentence. These J. re called conjunctive (that 1==., cnn-joining) adverbs. DEFINITION J.— A simple advero is one that merely modifies the •word ^7ith v/hich it is used. \, DiiFiNiTioN II.— A conjunctive (or relative) adverb is one that not only modifies the word with which it is used, but connects iv/o statements in a sentence. THE advj.:rb. 75 NOTES. I. The principal conjunctive adverbs are : when, where, whence, why, how. , II. When the conjunctive adverbs are used to introduce a question, they are called interrogative adverbs. III. The words 3/es and no are generally classed with adverbs ; bui they do not modify any word. They give answers, or responses, to questions ; and hence are sometimes called responsives. m Exercise 31. Rule slates or paper as below, and classify the adverbs in this exercise. SIMPLE. CONJUNCTIVE. cheerfully. when. 3. 4. 1. 1 will cheerfully accompany you when you are ready. 2. Thomas rose early in the morning, and soon finished biy \vork. He would not tell me where he had put ihj letter. Will you show me how to perfuim tLds 'example ? 5. Does she write neatly ? No; qnitf! clumsily G. Did you call her once or twice ? 7. Nero was exceedingly cruel. . 8. He refused to tell his father why he ylw away. 9. That boy goes where he [)leases and when he pleases, * 10. When the dry season arrives, the i^ptiles bury themselves in the mud, where they remain tih the tropical rains fall again. Use a corresponding adverb for each adjective, making such changes in words as are necessary : thus — ^' 7G SUBDIVISION OF THE PARrS OF SPEECH. [SEC. III. 1. He is a slow runner. 2. The child's sleep was soft. He runs slowly. The child slept softly. 1. He is a swift writer. 2. Her singing was swed. 3. Their failure was comi^lpte. 4. Your labours were successful. 5. John had a heavy fall. 6. My suspicions were correct. 7. We took a sZy peep. 8. I gave him a steady look. 9. The whole blame w^as his. 10. He showed true soirow. He writes She sang They failed You laboured John fell I suspected We peeped I looked at him. He was to blame. He was sorry.. XLVIIL— THE CONJUNUTION : Co-ordinate and Subordinate. Select the sentences the parts of which are independent — that is, those containing and, oi; hut, therefore — and distinguish them from the sentences containing a dependent statement — that is, a statement introduced by if, though, unless, that. Examples. — l. I will go and you will come. 2. I will go if you will come. 3. I will go, if you will remain. 4. Fools build houses, and wise men live in them. 5. You will not become learned unless you study. 6. Stay a while, that we may enjoy ourselves. 7. Napoleon conquered nearly all of Euiope, but died a prisoner at St. Helena. 8. We cannot solve the riddle unless we have the key. 9. James or John is to blame. 10. Though He was rich, yet for our sakes He became poor. Explanation. — The sentence " 1 will go and you will come" consists of two statements — statements of separate independent facts. The sentence " I will go, if you will come," consists of two state- ments also ; but the one is made dependent on the other : I will go, provided you come (meaning, if you do not come, I will not go). dent THE CONJUNCTION. 77 A conjunction which connects two independent parts of a sentence is called a co-ordinate conjunction — that is, a conjunction joining two parts of the same order, or rank. A conjunction wliich joins a depen- dent part of a sentence to the principal part is called a subordinate conjunction— that is, a conjunction joining a part of a lower nxak or Older to another part. DicFiNiTioN I. -A co-ordinate conjunction is one that connects words, phrases, or propositions having the same rank. Dkpinition II.— a subordinate conjunction is one that con- nects a dependent with a principal proposition. NOTE. — The principal conjunctions are — CO-OBDINATB. and but either— or neither— nor therefore hence SUBORDINATK. if lest though because unless for that since Exercise 32. Supply conjunctions, and tell whether co-ordinate or subordinate. 1. The clouds soon passed away, sunshine succeeded. 2. The wicked may prosper for a time^ they will receive re- tribution in the end. 3. Contentment is better riches. 4. He was gentle in manner, resolute in action. 6. We shall improve we study. 6. Life is so uncertam we should always be prepared for death. 7. I told you he would fail. 8 you say so, I cannot believe it. 9. You will succeed you persevere. 10. We study we wish to learn. 11. I shall not tell you, you promise to keep the secret. 12. I think Henry is older Paul, he is not so tall. I: m 78 SUBDIVISION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. III. TABLE FOR BLACKBOARD. Noun Pronoun. Subdivisions of JAdjective Farts of Speech. S ! Proper. Common. Abstract. {Personal. Relative. Interrogativh. ( Limiting. ( Qualifying. -- , ( T'lANSITIVE. Verb , I Intransitive. Simple. Conjunctive. Adverb r. . ,. ( Co-ordinate. Oonjuntuion i , oubordinate. REVIEW EXERCISES. Name the class and subdivision of each word in the following exercise : The spider is a cunning fellow. Ho makes his living by his arts and stratagems. He lives by snares and plots; and yet he is An interesting little creature. He exhibits wonderful skill and ingenuity in ^^eaviug his nest, and possesses extraordinary patience and perseverance. The thread of the spider is a soft substance, whica "s contained Iju a little bag in the body of the insect. b. Little Ann had a famous dog. His name was Grip. One dr.y Ann went out to visit a poor woman, and took Grip with her. Grip liad not gone far until he saw a cat. He immediately gave chase ; but the cat ran up a tree and was safe. Grip stood at COMPOSITION EXERCISES. t9 the bottom, and barked with all hia might ; but the cat nevev heeded him. c. I saw a little family of tiny squiirels at play, in the spring, on the top of a hollow log, and really I think they were, without excep- tion, the liveliest, most graceful creatures I ever looked on. Th« flying squirrel is a native of our woods, and exceeds in beauty, to my mind, any of the tribe. Its colour is tVie softest, most delicate tint of grey ; the fur thick and short, and as silken as velvet ; the eyes, like all the squirrel kind, are large, full, and soft ; the whiskers, and long hair about the nose, black ; the membrane that assists this little animal in its flight is white, and delicately soft in texture, like the fur of the chinchilla ; it forms a ridge of fur between the fore and hind legs ; the tail is like an elegant broad grey feather. I was agreeably surprised by tlie appearance of this exquisite little creature, the pictures I had seen giving it a most inelegant and bat-like look, almost disgusting. The young ones are easily tamed, and are very playful and afiectionate when under confinement. Then came a burst of thunder suuiid— The boy — O, where was he 1 Ask of the winds that far around With fragments strewed the sea — With mast, and helm, and pennon fair, That well had borne their part ; But the noblest thing that perished there, Was that young, faithful heart. Composition Exercises. a. — Filling Blanks. THE MARTINS. 1. There an amusing story of two martins. 2. One spring, on back to their old nest, they a sparrow already possession of it as her own. 3. When the martins to in, the sparrow at them, and not M ill 'M' fl so SUBDIVISION OP THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEO. III. 1. the nest. 4. The swallows some of their companions to their aid; but, what they , they not the sparrow 5. At last they away, and the sparrow (that , if sparrows ) that they her to the nest in quiet. 6. But the next day they all back. X There more than a hundred martins, and each a bit of clay in its beak. 8. Then they to work, and up the door of the nest with the clay ; so that the poor sparrow not out, and of course for want of food and air. b. — Answering Questions. SUGAR. What happens to sugar if you leave it in the water 1 Do you know any other things besides sugar that are sweet ? If you put sugar into tea, what happens to the sugar ? If you put sugar into tea, does an>'thiug happen to the Ltea? FRUIT-TREES. At what time of the year do fruit-trees blossom ? When is the fruit ripe 1 When do the leaves fall from the trees ? Are there any trees which are in leaf all the year round ? c— Composition prom Outlines. BREAD. Made from wheat — crushed in the mill — sifting or separating into the bran and the flour — the flour then formed into dough by being well mixed with water — leavening the dough — mixing it with yeast or old leaven — rising — baking — broad made from Indian corn, barley, and rye — how these kinds compare with wheaten bread. [Girls may add a recipe for making any kind of bread or cake.] d. — Abstract from Memory. TURNING THE GRINDSTONE. When I was a little boy, I remember, one cold winter's morning, I was accosted by a smiling man with an axe on his shoulder. 2. < COMPOSITION EXDRCISES. 81 " My pretty boy," said he, " has your father a grindstone i " " Yes, sir," said I. " You are a fine littlb fellow," said he ; " will you let me grind my axe on it ? " Plensed with the compliment of " fine little fellow," "0 yes, sil*," I answered, " it is down in the shop." " And will you, my little man," said he, patting me on the head, " get me a little hot water ? " How could I refuse ? I ran, and soon brought a kettleful. " How old are you ? and what's your name ] " continued he ; "I am sure you are one of the finest lads that ever I have seen ; will you just turn a few minutes for me ? " Tickled with the flattery, like a little fool, I went to work, and bitterly did I regret it. It was a new axe, and I toiled and tugged till I was very tired. The school-bell rang, but I could not get away ; my hands were blistered, and the axe was not half ground. At length, however, it was sharpened, and the man turned to me with, " Now, you little rascal, you've played truant ; scud to the school, or you'll catch it ! " It was hard enough to turn a grindstone, but to be called a little rascal was too bad. e. — Letter-Writing. Write a letter to your teacher, giving an account of some picnic, excursion, exhibition, play, or accident. Note. — Carefully read the " Directions for Letter- Writing," page 164. :|- V m ( 62 ) SECTION IV. MODIFICATIONS OP THE PARTS OP SPEECH. XLIX.— MODIFICATIONS DEPIKED. A noun may denote one or more than one of the objects named : as — ONE. MORE THAN ONE. star stars lady ladies ox oxen The distinction between one or more than one is called number. A noun may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb, or it may denote that the person or thing named possesses some- thing. 1. Motlier [snhj.] loves baby [obj.]. 2. Baby [suhj.] loves mother [06;.]. 3. The boi/s kite is torn [poss.]. These differences in the form or use of nouns are called case. An adjective may denote a quality in different degrees : thus — 1. John is a tall boy. 2. James is taller than John. 3. Richard is the tallest boy in the class. The changes to denote different degrees of a quality are called compaxison. A verb may denote an action notv going on, or one done, or one to be done : as — We walk — we ride. We walked-^we rode. We shall walk — we shall ride. MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. 8$ The form by which a verb expresses time is called tense. Any grammatical chango in a part of speech is called a modifi- cation of that part of speech : hence — DEiiNiTioN.—Modiflcations of the parts of speech are their grammatical changes.* BEFERENOE TABLE OF MODIFICATIONS. { Number. Noun I Case. ( [GkS ANP rEKBON.] / Person. ) Gender. ' j Number. ' Case. Pronoun. Adjective and > comparison. Adverb > Verb. ' Person. Number. Tense. Mood Voice. The preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection have no grammatical changes (modifications). L.-MODIPIOATIONS OF THE NOUN. The noun has two principal modifications: * The expression "grammatical form" is deemed by the author a more exact defining term for the " properties " of the parts of speech ; and that term is em- ployed in his advanced grammar. But for elementary purposes the word " modi- fications" may be preferred as less abstract. Teachers will please observe, however, that " modiijcations " is used in an enlarged sense, embracing all strictly grammatical changes, whether expressed by inflections, radical change, the use of auxiliaries, or by mem grammatical relation. in Il 1 M :i-'i IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /y ^% .,^4fe. ,*V^ <" 1.0 If "^ > 2.5 u^lM I.I 1-25 11.4 11.6 p* v^ 7 y /jS^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 873-4503 84 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEd. IV. I. Number. II. Case. NOTE. — The secondary modificationSj namely, gender and person, are explained in the Notes on page 87. 1. Number. Number is a modification expressing one or more than one of the ohjpcts named by the noun. There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. The singular number denotes one : as, star, chUd. The plural number denotes more than one : as, stars, children. RULES FOR FORMING THE PLURAL. \ General Rule. — The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding S to the singular. Exercise. — Write the plural of the following nouns : bud eagle citizen number flower hawk president gender fruit wren monarch case Special Rule I.— When the singular ends in 8, BH, Z, X, or CH soft (as in eburOH), the plural is formed by adding E8, making another syllable : thus— gas, gas-es guess, guess-es dish, dish-es waltz, waltz-es fox, fox-es bench, bench -es Obs. —Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add ea without increase of syllables : as, hero, heroes ; potato, potatoes. , Exercise. — Write the plural of the following nouns : kiss lash topaz thrush cross ^ birch chorus hoax match compass tAX miss V Special Rule II. — When the singular ends in T preceded by a consonant, the plural is formed by changing the T into I and adding ES : thus — sky, skies ; lady, ladies ; balcony, balconies. MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. 85 Ob3.— But when it is preceded by a vowel the plural b formed by the General Rule. Exercise. — Write the plural of the following nouns : story party beauty joy ray quality duty pony injury society century donkey Spboial Rule III. — Some nouns ending in F or FB form their plural by chang iug F or FB into V, and adding E8 : as— thief, thieves ; wife, wives. Exercise.— Write the plural of the following nouns : knife leaf self elf loaf shelf wolf beef life calf sheaf half man men woman women child children IRREGULAR PLURALS. The following nouns form their plural irregularly : ox oxe:i foot feet mouse mice tooth teebh louse lice goose geese [For peculiarities of nurnber, foreign plurals, dc, see Appendix, pages 173-175.] .2. Case. Case is a modiflcation denoting the relation of a noun to some other word in the sentence. There are three cases of nouns : L The nominative. IL The POSSESSIVE. III. The objective. The nominative case is that /orm which a noun has when it is the subject of a verb. The possessive case is that /orm which a noun has in order to denote ownership or possession. The objective case is that use which a noun has when it is the ol^ect of a yerb or of a pre^iosition. Its /orm is the same as the nominative case. ^ 86 MODIFIOAI'IONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. RULES FOR THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 1. The possessive singnlar is formed by adding an apostrophe ( ') and s to the nominative singular : as, boy, boy's. 2. The possessive plural is generally formed by adding an apostrophe to the nominative plural : as, boys, boys' ; but when the nominative plural d03S not end in s, the possessive plural is formed like the possessive singii- lar : as, children, children's ; oxen, oxen's ; sheep, sheep's. Exercise. — Write the 2>ossessive, singular and plural (if any), of the following nouns : . 1. child ; prince ; woman ; king ; cable ; tutor. 2. peril ; mercy ; father ; Heury ; aunt ; cat. 3. Charles ; gardener ; brother ; poetess ; author ; painter. 4. sculp uor ; engineer ; sister ; Socrates ; princess ; bridge. ' 5. house ; Peter ; righteousness ; ox ; thief ; sheep. Declension. — A noun is said to be declined when we name its t'li-ee cases in the two numbers ; the process of doing so is called declension, DECLENSION OF NOUNS. BOY. MAN. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. boy bosrs Nom. man man Poss. boy's boys' Poss. man's men's Obj. boy boys Otj. ' man men LADY. SHEEP. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. lady ladies Nom. sheep Sheep P088. lady's ladies' Poss. sheep's sheep's Obj. I lady ladies Obj. sheep sheep • ■•^%6 NOTES ON GENDER AND PERSON IIT NOUNS. I. (lender. — When the noun is the name of a male, it is said to MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. 87 be of the masculine gender ; when it is the name of a female, it is said to be of the feminine gender. Tilings which have no sex, or which are not spoken of as male or female, are said to be of the neuter gender. Sometimes the distinct ion of male and female is shown by the form of the noun : as, lion, lioness. Sometimes it is shown by prefixing a word denoting sex : as, he-bear, she-hear. Sometimes it is shown by the use of quite different words : as, toy girl ; hachelor, spinster. II. Person. — In some pronouns the names ^r«<, second, and third per- sons are used to dtnote the distinction between the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. This distinction is shown in the pronouns called persooial pronouns : namely — First person I (denoting the speaker). Second person you (denoting the person spoken to). Third person.... < she > (denoting the person or thing spoken of). • lit i We sometimes join a nomi with a pronoun of the first person : as — / Paul have written it. And sometimes we address a peraon by a real name instead of a pronoun: as — Plato, thou reasonest well. The noun " Paul " is in the first person, and the noun " Plato '' i:^ the second person. With the exception of such examples as these,^ nouns are always the names of persons or things that we speak of— ^ which mry be de^noted by he, or she, or it — and hence are in the third person. Besides, there is no change of form to mark the person of a noun. This distinction is, therefore, of little importance in parsing nouns. •4-1 ri LI.— THE NOUN : Gonstruction Exercises. I. Write three sentences on each of the following nouns, bringing in each noun, as, 1. subject ; 2. possessive ; 3. object. Ill M 88 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC IV. Model : "The ocean." 1. The ocean is the great body of water surrounding the globe. 2. The ocean's greatest depth has never been found out. 3. The Sandwich Islanders love the ocean. 1. The horse. 2. A ship. 3. My cousin. 4. Shakespeare. II. 5. The river. 6. A tiger. Write these sentences so as to make each statement in the singular nnmber. Model: "Dutiful children obey their parents." Changed— A dutiful child obeys its parents. 1. Dutiful children obey their parents. i 2. Men are mortal. ^ 3. Sheep have valuable wool on their backs. 4. The oxen tread out the corn. 5. Little women sometimes have great minds. 6. These deer roam wild over the mountains. 7. The schools are conducted very well. III. Write these sentences so as to make each statement in the plural number. Model : "My boy's tooth is decayed by eating sweetmeats." Changed— My boy's teeth are decayed by eating sweetmeats. 1. My boy's tooth is decayed by eating sweetmeats. 2. A goose, by cackling, is said to have saved Rome. 3. The mouse has been nibbling at the cheese. 4. The ox browses in tiie green meadow. 5. The sheep furnishes us with an important article used in mak- ing clothing. • 6. A man of words and not of deeds > ^ Is like a garden full of weeds. 7. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 8. The child likes to play. 9. The woman washes clothes on the beach. MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOtil. 89 10. A deer is a beautiful animal. 11. A salmon was leaping in the water. 12. The ox was drawing the team. IV. 1. Write a sentence throwing into the plural form ihe statemehtj The valley rejoices. S. Write in the singular form this sentence: Philoeophers survey mankind from China to Peru. 3. The cargo has arriijed: write a sentence stating that mwe (haii one has arrived. 4. Write in the singular form the statement, Good wives wish td pkaie their husbands. 5. Write in the plural form the statement, A man tries to he rich. 6. Monarchs tax their subjects: write this in the singular form. 7. Write in the singular form : Monkeys flourish in Africa. 8. Write a sentence introducing man in the plural. 9. Write a sentence introducing mice in the singular. 10. Write a sentence introducing child in the plural. 11. Write a sentence introducing j)enn^ in the plural. 12. Write a sentence introducing /eet in the singular. 13. Write a sentence introducing ox in the plural. 14. Write a sentence introducing sheep in the singular. 15. Write a sentence introducing she^ in the plural. 16. Write a sentence introducing teeth in the singular. 17. Write a sentence introducing woman in the plural. 18. Write a sentence introducing geese in the singular. 19. Write a sentence introducing pence in the singular. 20. Write & sentence introducing hippopotamus in the plural. V. 1. Write a sentence using elephant in the possessive form singular. 2. Write a sentence using sun in the possessive form singular. 3. Write a sentence using lad^ in the possessive form plural. 4. Write a sentence using crocodile in the possessive form plural. 5. Write a sentence using she^ in the possessive form singular and plural. 0L Write a sentence using calf in the possessive form plural. l: m 00 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [^EC. IV. LIL-MODIFIOATIONS OF THE PRONOUN. I. The Personal Pronouns. " The personal pronouns have modifications denoting person, gender, number, and case. They are thus declined : SINOULAB. PLURAL. Nom. Po9$. Oly. Norn. Pou. Otff. FirttptTMont I, myoi'mliie, me. We, our or ours, ni. Second^ Ton, your or youn, you. You, your or yours, you. f Mas. Tie, his, bim. \ Third, J Fern. She, her or hers, her. I. They, their or theirs, them. {Neat. It, its. It. j Second pen.^ solemn style. Thou, thy or thine, thee. Norn. pi. Te. 1 [ NOTES ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. I. Except in the third personal pronoun singular, which has a form for each geuder (he, she, it), the gender of the personal pronouns de- pends on the gender of the nouns for which they stand. Thus, /, thou, ■we^ you may be either masculine or feminine according as they take the place of names of males or of females ; and they may be masculine, feminine, or neuter according as it takes the place of a masculine, a feminine, or a neuter noun. II. The personal pronouns of the first and second persons have two possessive forms : my, mine; your, yours ; our, ours ; also the third feminine has her, hers. The former of each pair is used when joined with a noun ; the latter is used when the noun is omitted. Thus — C mine. I hen. - house. But, This house is •{ ours. This is 'my her our your ^ their yours. . theirs \ II. The Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. The relative and interrogative pronouns v^ho and which have modifications denoting case. That and what are not declined. MODIFIOATtcms OP THE PRONOtm. 91 m. Off, nt., /., or It. BINOULiVR. Non. Pon. Obij. Who, whoM, ▼bom. WUob, whose, trhlob. PLOBAt. Nam. Poa$, Ohj. Who, whoM, whonu Which, whOM, whloh. Ezeroise 33. Tell the person, number, and case of the pronouns. 1. Heaven helps men who help themselves. 2. Promise me that you will send him what he wants. 3. Whatever he asks I will give liim. 4. Avoid such companions as do not speak the truth. 6. Who found the money ? It was we. 6. We bathed in Great Salt Lake, whose waters floated us like cork& 7. I think I know what you were talking about. 8. This is the dog that worried the cat that caught the rat that ate the malt. 9. Whom did you say she married ? 10. What is it worth 1 What is it good for ? .1. Compose a sentence containing the personal pronoun of the first person singular. 2. Compose a sentence containing the personal pronoun of the third person plural. 3. Compose a sentence containing the personal pronoun of the thitrd person, singular number, feminine gender. 4. Compose a sentence containing the relative who in the objec- tive case. 5. Compose a sentence containing the relative which in the pos- sessive case. 6. Compose a sentence containing the interrogative nronoun. whcU in the nominative case. dli itODIFiOATIONS 01^ THE 1>ART8 OF BfBlECH. [SKO. IV. LIII.-M0DIFiaATI0N8 OF THE ADJEOTIVE AND ADVERB. The acyeotive may change its form to denote comparUon. Thus^ 1. John is a taU boy. 2. James is taller than John. ^ 3. Richard is the taUett boy in the clasiB. Explanation.— The expression " a tall boy " means a boy who can be said to be taU " for a boy ; " that is, without comparison. But when it is said that " James is taller than John," we mean that James has more of the quality of tallness than John has. And when we say, " Richard is the talUet boy in the class," we mean that, as regards the " boys in the class," Richard has the quality of taUnees in the greatest degree. Definition I.— Oomparison is a modiiloation of adjectives (and adverbs) to express degrees of quantity or quality. Definition IT.— The degrees of comparison are called the posi- tive, the comparative, and the superlative degree. The positive degree denotes simple quantity or quality. > The compara4ive denotes a greater degree of the quantity or quality. The superlative degree expresses the greatest degree of the quantity or quality. iii' in RULE FOR COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. • The comparative degree is generally formed by adding er to the positive : as, tall^ taller ; and the superlative degree by adding sst to the positive : as, taH, tallest. But many adjectives of two syllables and all adjectives of more than two are compared by prefixing to the positive more for the comparative and most for the superlative : as, splendid^ more splendid, most spUndid ; beautiful, more beautiful^ most beautiful. NOTE. — ^The addition of er and est sometimes causes the positive to undergo certain changes, according to the rules for spelling deriva- tive words; thus — . \ MODIFICATIONS OF THE ADJECTIVB 93 bine -f er i- bluer* (not hlueer) red -f er ■■ redder * (not reder) happy -f er ~ happier * (not happj^er) Xrregnlar A worse worst m ( Uttte less least many math. more moat tax fartber or ftartber fortbest or Airtbest near nearer nearest or next lata later or latter latest or last old older or elder oldest or eldest hind binder [np: adv.] upper upmost or uppermost [oat: adv.] outer utmost, uttermost, or outmost The Adverb. — The adverb, like the adjective, often undergoes a change of form to express comparison. Adverbs are compared in the same way as adjectives : thus — POSITIVE. soon sweetly COMPARATIVK. sooner more sweetly SDPXRLATIVI. soonest most sweetly : I Exercise 34. a. Select the adjectives, and state the degree of comparison of each. 1. The squirrel is a merry little fellow. 2. The colour was whiter than snow. », * Teachers will call attention to the rules for spelling; derivative words, appUoable in these CMes. P M f*-i 94 M0DIFI0ATI0N8 OF THE PARTS OF DPRFCH. [SEO. IV. 3. The shadows grow longer asevening approaches. 4. To-morrow will be the maddest, merriest day. 6. Homer was the most famous poet of ancient times. 6. This is the best exercise that has been written this week. 7. The sun is more brilliant than the moon. 8. A prudent man saves something for a rainy day. 0. Yesterday was a pleasanter day than we expected. ' 10. The Amazon is the broadest river in the world. b. Write, according to the model, sentences stating the following facts. Express the italicised words in each statement by one adjective : Model: "John hni a grtater degree of witdom thiui Alexander" = John i« wiwr than Alexander. 1. John has a greater degree of mtdom than Alexander. 2. Sugar possesses the greatest degree ofnoeetness of all substances. 3. The Mississippi has greater leiigth than the Amazon. 4. Some mountain [naming it] has the greatest degree of loftinees of any mountain in the world, fi. Contentment has more of the qualiti/ of goodness than wealth. 6. Gold has greater heamness than silver. O. Select the adverbs, and state the degree of comparison of each. 1. The boat arrived sooner than we expected. 2. Higher, higher let us climb. 3. The wind roared loudly among the stately pines. 4. Merrily, merrily bounds the bark across the foaming sea. 5. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 6. This field produces most abundantly. LIY.— MODIFIOATIONS OF THE VEBB. Number of ModiflcationB.— The verb has modifications of five kinds: namely, I. Person. II. Number. IH- Tense. TV. Mood. V. Voice. MODIFICATIONS OF THR VKRB. 90 1. Person and Numbkk. DEFINITION.— Penon and nnmbtr in varbs are modifloationi ex- pTMudng the agreement of a verb with its snbjeet. Person. — Verbs are said to have three persons, according as they are connected with one of the three personal pronouns. Thus — 1. I call— (verb in the first person). S. You coll — (verb in the second person). 3. He [or any singular noun] calls— (verb in the third person). Number. — Verbs are said to have two numbers according as they are connected with a singular or a plural subject Thus — 1. The boy calls — (verb in the singular number). 2. The boys call — (verb in the plural munber). NOTE. — There are very few actual forms to mark the person ami nimiber of a verb, and usually these modiftcations can be told only by referring to the subject. " A verb agrees with its subject in person and number." — Syntax, Rule II. Exercise 36. a. Tell the person and number of each verb by referring to the person and number of the subject 1. I met a little cottage girl. 2. The lady walks gracefully. 3. You learn your lessons quickly. 4. The wind blew down the lofty tree. 6. They went away the day after we arrived. 6. He ran vdth all his might 7. I remember, I remember the house where I 8. We are fond of swimming. 9. The young larks have left their nests, but 10. I think we are never weary of beholding 11. Various officers fell in that engagement. 12. The sheep know when the rain is comin 96 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. r 13. The Greeks loved the fine arts. 14. She was eight years old, she said. 15. I flew to the pleasant fields traversed so oft In life's morning march, when my bosom was young ; I heard my own mountain -goats bleating aloft. And knew the sweet strain that tho corn-reaper sung. b. Supply verbs of the proper person. 1. Rain in showers. 4. Because they sweetly. 2. He to school daily. 5. How hard the wind ! 3. I the birds. 6. You to succeed. o. Change the following verbs into the singular form, using a singular subject instead of each plural subject : Flowers bloom, grow, fade, flourish, thrive. Animals eat, drink, sleep, live, die. 2. The Tenses. DsFiNiTioN.—TeiiRes are modifications of the verb to denote th» time of an action or event. NOTE. — The tenses denote, in addition to the time of an action .T event, the degree of its completeness. There are six tenses : namely^ — Present Present Perfect Past Past Perfect Futnse Fntnre Perfect 3. The Moods. Definition.— Moods (or modes) are modifications of the verb to denote the manner of asserting action or being. NOTE.—" Mood (or mode) is a grammatical form denoting the style or manner of predication." — Swinton'b Engluh Qtmmmu MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 97 There are four moods : namely — Indicative Snbjmietivt Potential Imperative The indicative mood is used in the statement of a fact, or of a matter taken as a fact. The potential mood is used in the statement of something that may, can, might, could, would, or should be. The subjunctive mocd is used in the statement of something merely thought of. The imperative mood is used in the statement of a Command or request. 4. The Verbals. Definition.— The verbals are verb-forms, partaking of the nature of the verb, and having in addition the use of some other part of speech. The verbals are of two kinds: I. Infinitives. II. Parti CIPLES. The infinitive is a verbal noun. It merely names the action or state which the verb asserts. Thus — To read good books is improving. " To read " is an infinitive. It partakes of the nature of the verb, because it takes an object, " books ; " and it has in addition the use of a noun, because it is the subject of the verb " is." Hence " to read " is a verbal noun. The root (or root infinitive) of a verb is a verb in its simplest form, and is the same as the infinitive without the preposition to. Thus read is the root of the verb to read. The Qerund. — Besides the regular form of the infinitive, the verbal in ing is sometimes equivalent to an infinitive : thus — ^Reading good books (=> to read good books) is profitable. This form is called the gerv/nd. The gerund is a verbal noun. iff m lii! / 98 MODIFIOATIONS OP THE PARTS OF SPEECH. (SEC. IV. The participle is a verbal adjective. It shares or participates in the nature both of the verb and of the adjective. Thus — The boy, seeing the bear, ran away. ''Seeing" is a participle. It partakes of the nature of the verb, because it takes an object, " bear," and of the adjective, because it i^ joined with a noun, "boy," to modify it. There are two participles formed by suffixes — the present par- ticiple and the past participle. Rule.— Tbe present participle of all verbs is formed by addtng iNOto tbe root ; "im— torite, writing ; hop, hopping. NOTE. — In adding tn^ the rules for spelling derivative words must be observed. \ Rule.— Tbe past participle of most verbs is formed by adding ED to tbe root; but some verbs form their past participles in other ways : as— writCf loritten ; tell, told. NOTE.— Verbs that do not form their past participle by adding ed belong to the class of irregular verbs. (See Definition, page 99.) is 5. Voice. Dbfinition.— Voice is a modification of the transitive verb, expressing whether the subject names the actor or the recipient of the action. There are two voices : namely, the active voice and the passive voice. A verb in the active voice represents the subject as acting upon an object : as — Watt invented the steam-engine. \ A verb in the passive voice represents the subject as receiving an action : as — The steam-engine was invented by Watt. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 99 Rule.— Tbe pasBlve voloe is fonaed l>y uniting with the past parti- ciple of any transitive verb the various parts of the verb TO BE. 6. Conjugation of Verbs. The conjngatioii of a verb is the systematic arrangement of its various forms. There are two conjugations: I. The regular. II. The IRREGULAR. These two conjugations are distinguished by the mode of forming the past tense (indicative) and the past parti- ciple. A regular verb is one whose past tense and past participle are formed by adding ed to the root : as, (root) love ; (past tense) loved; (past participle) loved. Obs.— In suffixing ed care must be taken to observe the rules for spelling derivative words. An irregular verb is one whose past tense or past participle, or both, are not formed by adding ed to the root : as, (root) take; (past tense) took ; (past participle) taken. The principal parts of a verb are : I. The present indica- tive. II. The past indicativk III. The past participle. An auxiliary verb is one used to assist in conjugating other verbs. The principal auxiliaries are, do, be, have, shall, may, can, mustf with their variations. OONJUGATION OF A BEGULAB VEBB/ TO LOVE. PRINCIPAL parts. Present — love. Past — loved. Past Participle— loved. * The conjugation of the verb to love presents the common form of the regular verb. The synopsis of the ancient form of the second person singular will bQ found in the Appendiii, page 175, n 100 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPBEOH. [SEO. IV.. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present Tense, The present indicative is a simple tense, and one of the principal parts. It is varied thus * 8INOULAB. 1. I love, 2. You love, 3. He * loves ; PLUBAIi. 1. We love, 2. You love, 3. They t love. { Past Tense. The past indicative is a simple tense, and one of the principal parts. In regular verbs it is formed by adding ed to the root ; in irregular verbs, in some other way. BINOULAB, PLrBAL. 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. You loved, 2. You loved, 3. He loved; 3. They loved. Future Tense. The future is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries shcUl or vnll to the root : thus — 1. Expressing simply a futtvre action or event. SIKGULAB. 1. I shall love, 2. You will love, 3. He will love ; FLUBAL. 1. We shall love, 2. You will love, 3. They will bve. 2. Expressing a determinationf eommandf or threat. 1. I will love, 1. We will love, 2. You shall love, 2. You shall love, 3. He shall love ; 3. They shall love. * Or any other pronoun of the thii^d, ^i^A singulur— «Ae, if, etc. ; oi^ any noun in the singular number. •I- Or any nonn iu the plural number., )^iODIFIGATiONS OF THE VERB. loi Present Perfect Tense. The present perfect indicative is formed by joining the auxiliary have with the past participle of the verb. SINOULAB. PLURAL. 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 2. You have loved, 2. You have loved, 3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. Past Perfect Tense. The past perfect indicative is formed by joining the auxiliary^ hcut with the past participle of the verb. 8INGULAB. PLURAL. 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 2. You had loved, 2. You had loved, 3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. Futtfre Perfect Tense. The future perfect tense is formed by joining the future tense of the auxiliary have with the past participle. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I shall 0}' will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 2. You shall or will have lovofl, 3. He shall or will have loved ; 3. They shall or will have loved. POTENTIAL HOOD. Present Tense. The present potential is formed by joining the auxiliaries may, can, or must with the root. PLURAL. 1. We may love, 2. You may love, 3. They may love. Past Tense. The past potential is formed by joining the auxiliaries might, could,, would, or should with the root. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I mightf love, 1. We might love, * Substitute can and must. f Substitute could, vxmM, sJioultU SINGULAR. 1. I may* love, 2. You may love, 3. He may love ; iB m II* ■ if: t t'f ■'U 102 MOtolflCATlOKS OF TttE VAtCTS OP SPEECH. [^^0. IV. 2. You might love, 3. He might love ; 2. You might love, 3. They might love. Present Perfect Tense, The present perfect potential is formed by joining the present potential of the auxiliary how with the past participle. , SIMODLAR. PLTBAL. 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 2. You may have loved, 2. You may have loved, 3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. ^ Past Perfect Tense. The past perfect is formed by joining the past potential of tho auxiliary verb have with the past participle. SINGULAR. PLURAL. '. 1. I might have loved, 1. "We might have loved, 2. You might have loved, 2. You might have loved, 3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present Tente. The present subjunctive is a simple tense, having the same forms as the present indicative, except that the suffix s of the third person is omitted.* It is generally introduced by the conjunctions ift thoughf that, etc PLURAL. 1. If we love, 2. If you love, 3. If they love. Past Tense. ' The past subjunctive is a simple tense, having the same forms as the past ludicative, and generally introduced by if, etc. SINOULAB. 1. If I love, 2. If you love, 3. If he love ; SINGULAR. 1. If I loved, 2. If you loved, " 3. If he loved; PLURAL. 1. If we loved, ^ 2. If you loved, 3. If they loved. ' * The suffix it in the solemn style is also omitted. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 103 IMFERATIVB HOOD. Love (you). INFINITIVES. Present— to love. Perfect— to have loved. {Gerunds) j )*»^-"8 ' having loved. PARTICIPLES. Present— loving. Perfect— having loved. [See Appending, pages 173-184, for the conjugation of a verb with ths ancient form of the second person singular, the conjugation of the verb to be, and a list of irregular verbs.^ Exercise 36. a. State to which tense of the indicative mood each of the follow- ing verbs belongs : 1. The boy walked home. 2. Tiie steamer crossed the ocean. 3. The enemy will take this road. 4. The soldiers took the town. 6. The bride kissed the goblet. 6. What a look he gave ! 7. I shall drown. , 8. Bright rose the suri. 9. You wrote a letter. 10. The rains descended and the floods caiue, and beat upon the house. 11. The merchant writes a despatch. 12. The merchant has written a despatch. 13. You play all day. 14. You have played all day. 15. I tell you I know not. 16. I have told you all I know. 17. They have sung that song remarkably weU. 18* The messenger has just left. ' 1 ■ ! ! i04 MODIFICATIONS OF THB PARTS OF SPEECH. [SEC. IV. 19. He has sent away the ship. 20. We have finished this exercise. 21. I had sent the messenger before you arrived. 22. We saw the deer before we had passed through the woods. 23. After the moon had risen the wind fell. 24. The train had gone before we reached the station. , 25. The sun had risen when we left home. 26. When the lion had shaken his victim, he left him. 27. They had thought we did not know of their conduct. 28. It appeared that the boy had come home immediately after he left school. 29. When she had thought a little, she wept bitterly. 30. She had laid back all his sunny curls. 31. When once you shall have reached that happy shore, you will have • no more sorrow. . '^ 32. I shall have walked to the station before the train arrives. 33. Before Saturday the boys will have matured all their plans for the holidays. 34. The servant will go on the errand as soon as the messenger shall have returned. 35. The man will have paid dearly for his ignorance. 36. When this exercise is completed, we shall have finished all the compound tenses. 37. She looks upon his lips, and they are pale ; She takes him by the hand, and that is cold ; She whispers in his ear a heavy tale, And opens both his eyes. b. In the following lines, change the verbs from the present tense to the past tense : I shoot an arrow into the air, It falls to earth, I know not where ; ^ For so swiftly it flies, the sight Can* not follow in its flight. * Change to could. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 105 Make this statement of some time ago: Steamers sail on the ocean. Make this statement of laat night : The fire burns brightly to-night. Make this statement, using ancient Oreeks instead of toe: We admire fine statues. Make this statement about the Qennans a ^oiuand year$ ago : The Qermans love independence. d. From the following hints, write a short composition telling what you think wUl he the condition of the world a hundred years hence. Underline each verb in the future tense. The ways of travelling then — balloons, etc. The greatness of our country then — the number of people, etc. Our knowledge of distant parts of the world then— the interior of Africa, the North Polar region, etc. Will all the governments of Europe then be republics ? The Canadian Pacific Hallway completed then— how we will reach British Columbia. State the mood and tense of each of the following verbs : 1. The village bell rings. 2. If you go, I shall follow you. 3. Scholars may go home when they have learned this lesson. 4. The storm has ceased. 6. Come, all ye jolly shepherds. 6. Tlie king can make a belted knight. 7. The merchant should have learned more caution. 8. My steps might break your rest. 9. If I had not watered the flowers they would have withered. 10. Go where glory waits you. 11. The sun could not shine, for dark clouds covered the sky. 12. Up from the ground he sprang, and gazed — But who can paint that gaze 1 It hushed their very hearts who saw Its horror and amaze : They might have chained him, as before That stony form he stood* Vi !! 106 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEFX'H. [SEO. IV. f. Tell which verbs are regular^ and which are irregular. 1. The famine came at last upon the land, and many perished for want. 2. Father sold his farm when he went to California. 3. The sun shone brightly yesterday. " 4. Hearing the sound of footsteps, we resolved to go no farther. •3. Shakespeare wrote many dramas. 0. We hoped you would visit us when the leaves fell. 7. The British soldiers fought well. 8. The microscope shows us animalcules. 9. The fox will steal the hens. 10. The mechanic repaired the engine. 11. The study of history will improve our minds. 1 12. Qeneral Brock was killed on the thirteenth of October, 1818. \ i:j. They grew in beauty side by side. 14. The church-bell rings. 15. We shall foim our plans next week. 16. You wrote three hours last night. 17. I'm very lonely now, Mary, For the poor make few new friends } But oh ! they love the better The few our Father sends. NoviiL< BLACKBOARD REVIEW. /-Number.. I ™T^*'* I Plural. ( Nominative. Case ^ Possessive. ( Objective. ( Masculine. Gender < Feminine. ( Neuter. {First. . Second. Third. MODIFIOATIONS OF THE VERB. {First.' Second. Third. ( Masculine. Qkndbr < Feminine. FYO&Olin ( ( Neutor. ( Singular. N^^'^^^ i Plural. ( Nominative. Case ^ Possessive. ( Objective., lor A ^vA^^h ^"^ \ Comparison < Comparative. * ' i Superlative. Adverb. Verb. Voice Mood... ( Tensb j Active. ( Passive. / Indicative. J Potential. J Subjunctive. V Imperative. ' Present. Past. Future. Present Perfect. Past Perfect. . Future Perfect. C First. Person < Second. ( Third. Number ( S"^"^'* \ Plural. I I 1 I . 108 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SFEBOH. [SEC. IV. RBVIEW QUBSTIONS. I. 1. What are modifications of the parts of speech 1 2. How many parts of speech have modifications ? 3. Name three parts of speech having no modifications. 4. Which are the two principal modifications of the noun ? 5. What two secondary modifications has the noun 7 6. What is number in nouns ? 7. What are the numbers ? ' 8. Define singular number ; plural number. II. 1. How is the plural of nouns generally formed ? 2. When is es added for the plural 7 3. How do singular nouns ending in if preceded . by a consonant form their plural 1 4. How do some nouns ending in/or/e form their plural ? 5. What is case in nouns 7 6. How many cases are there 7 7. What is the nominative case 7 possessive case 7 objective case 7 III. 1. Which two cases of nouns have the same form ? 2. What is the rule for forming the possessive singular of nouns 7 3. What is the rule for forming the possessive plural of nouns 7 4. Decline the noun boy ; man ; ladi/ ; sheep. 5. When is a noun said to be of the masculine gender? of the feminine gender 7 of the neuter gender i 6. What are the three persons of nouns 7 • 7. Is person in nouns marked by the form of the word 7 IV. 1. What four modifications have personal pronouns 7 2. Decline who ; which. , 3. What if\ comparison 7 4. Name the three degrees of comparison. 5. Qive the general rule for forming the comparative and 8uperla> tive degrees. OOMFOBl'iJDN BXEU0ISB8. 109 6. How are the comparative and diiperlative degrees generally formed in words of more thaii two syllables 7 7. How are the oomparati "e and su|>erlative degrees of adverbs formed 1 ▼• 1. What are the modifications of verbs 7 2. What are person and number in verbs 7 3. How many persons are there 7 How many numbers 7 4. How many tenses are there 7 5. How many moods are there 7 6. Define indicative mood ; potential ; subjunctive ; imperative. 7. What are the two kinds of verbals 7 . VL 1. What is the infinitive 7 2. What is a participle 7 3. What is voice in verbs 7 4. Define active voice ; passive voioeii 6. What is a regular verb 7 6. What is an irregular verb 7 7. What is an auxiliary verb 7 COMPOSITION EXERCISES. o. — Composition from Outlines. Write a composition on " My School Days," by stating some of the following facts : 1. When you began to go to school, i?. What schools you have attended. 3. The names of all your teachers. 4. What you have studied. 5. What your favourite studies are. 6. In what branches you excel. 7. Some incident of your schooMife. 110 modifications o^ the tarts of speech. [sbo. 1^. 6.— Composition from Outlines. From the following outlines write a composition on MY NATIVE TOWN. ''1. Situation : In what Province, part of the Province, and in what county ; near what body of water, city or large town. Outlines. ( 2. General Description : Size, pursuits of the people, trade, railways, steamers, mills or manufactories. 3. Scenery : Mention any lake, river, mountain, or other interesting object of natural scenery. c. — Abstract from Memory. FIVE PEAS IN ONE ^OD.—lAdafted frm. Ham Andme^n] Once there were five peas growing in one pod. The peas were green, the pod was green, the vine was green^ the leaves were green, and they thought all the world was green. The warm sun shone on the vine — the summer rain watered it. The shell grew larger, and the peas grew bigger and bigger. " Are we to lie here cooped up for ever ? " asked one. " I am tired of it," said another. " I fear we shall become hard/' said a third. " I want to see what there is outside," said a fourth ; while the fifth, a very little pea, cried because he could not get out. At length the vine turned yellow, the pod turned yellow, and the peas turned yellow. " All the world is turning yellow," said the peas, with one voice. Then there came an earthquake, the pod burst open with a crack, and all the five peas rolled out into the yellow sunshine. A little boy clutched them, and said they were fine peas for his pea-sho»ter. He put the biggest one into his gun, and shot it out. " Catch me if you can," said the big pea. " I shall fly straight into the sun," said the next one. *' I shall travel farthest," said the third pea. " Let me alone," said the fourth. *' What is to be will be," said the little pea, as he shot up and COMPOSITION EXERCISES. Ill lodged in an empty flower-pot in the window of a room where lay a poor sick girl. Pretty soon the little pea sprouted, and began to grow up into a beautiful vine. " Dear mother, I think I shall get well," said the little girl one day ; " for my pea is growing famously." " God grant it/' said the mother ; and she took a stick and tied a string to it, so that the green vine might have something to cling to. After many days there stood a beautiful pink pea-blossom smiling in the warm sunshine. The little girl kissed it, and said, " Now I am sure I am I'oing to get well." ( 11-2 ) SECTION V. SYNTAX. Syntax is that division of grammar which treats of the relations of words in sentences. It is divided into two parts — parsing and the rules of con- struction. Parsing consists in stating the class, subdivision, and modifica- tions of the words in a sentence. The rules of construction are statements of the general prin- ciples governing the relation of words in sentences. I. Parsing. In parsing the diflFerent parts of speech the method indicated in the following tables may be followed : 1 Subdivision— ^ro^oer, common, or abstract. Number — singular or plural. (Number in proper nouns may be omitted.) Case — nominative, possessive, or objective (as denoted by form or tue). Subdivision— p^rsonaZ, relative, or interrogative. Person— (in personal pronouns ; in relative pronouns of the 1st or 2d person only). Pronoun... •{ Number — singular or plural. Gender — (in personal pronouns of the 3d person sin- gular only). Case — nominative, possessive, or objective. { Subdivision — limiting (pronominal) or qualifying. Adjective." < Comparison— post^we, comparative, or superlative. \ Office — attrihutvve or com^Um&iUa/ry. RULKS OF CONSTRtJCTIOM. lis )r nouns ronouns }on sin- Verb. CoNJuaATioN — regular or irregular. Subdivision — transitive or intransitive. Voice — active ov passive. Mood — indicative, potential, etc. Tense— pre«m<, past, etc. Person— ^««, second, or third. Number — singular or plural. Adverb -^ Subdivision — simple or conjunctive. \ Comparison — (if comparative or superlativi^. Prepositions.... words connected. Oonjunctions.... words or propositions connected. II. Rules of Construction. Rule I.-;— The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. Rule II. — A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Rule in. — Adjectives and participles modify nouns or pronouns. Rule IV. — A noun modifying another noun signifying a different thing is in the possessive case. Rule V. — A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same case. Rule VI. — The object of a transitive verb is in the ob- jective case. Rule VII. — A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive or a passive verb is in the nominative case. Rule VIII. — An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Rule IX. — A pronoun agrees in person. g«»dcr, and num- ber with its antecedent or the wortl tl ^^ftxe|)z">wt *>. m I ' I li 114 SVNtAX. \ [sec. V. Rule X. — 1. A preposition joins a noun or pronoun to some other word. 2. A noun or pronoun depending on a preposition is in the objective case. Rule XI. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or pro- positions. Rule XII. — 1. A noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other word is put in the nominative case. 2. The interjection has no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence. THE SUBJECT. \ Bulk I.— The subject of a verb is in the nominative case : as— - 1. Water consists of two gases. 2. He is the man who I think wrote the letter. Model for Parsing. wate'...is a common noun, of the singular number and nominative case, subject of the verb " consists," according to Rule I. he is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case, subject of the verb " is," according to Rule I. who is a relative pronoun, of the singular number and nominative case, subject of the verb " wrote," according to Rule I. I is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, nominative case, subject of the verb " think," according to Rule I. Exercise 37. In the following sentences parse the subjects according to the model : 1. Books are not dead things. 2. The teacher taught the -^o.xno f« qing. AatlEEBtENt O^ TAE verb. 116 3. The crows which are feeding in the field are easily frightened. 4. I heard a wonderful story when I was a little girl. 5. We will know our lesson better to-morrow. ^ 6. He lives in the old cottage at the foot of the hill. 7. And the mother gave, in tears and pain, The flowers she most did love ; She knew she should find them all again In the fields of light above. Caution.— Never use a prononn in the objective case as the subject of a verb: thus— Betsey and me were out. This is incorrect, because the pronoun " me " in the objective case is made the subject of the verb " were." It should be, " Betsey and 1 were out." If r ' 8:,,!i Exercise 38. Correct by the caution the following examples : 1. Suppose you and me go a-gunning. 2. Ida is the girl whom we supposed would read the poem. 3. Who will go after a pail of water ? Her and me [will go]. 4. Who did the mischief 1 Them [did]. 5. Them are the books which we wanted. 6. You learn faster than me [learn]. AaBEEMENT OF THE VERB. BuLE II.— A verb agrees with its subject in number and in person: as— 1. I am that merry wanderer. 2. A bee among the flowers of spring is one of the most cheerful objects that can be seen. Model for Parsing. am is an in-egular intransitive verb (be), of the indicative mood, present tense, first person singular, and agrees with its subject " I," according to Rule II. is is an irregular intransitive verb, of the indicative mood, / lU SVNtAX. [sec. V. present tense, third person singular, and agrees with its subject "bee," according to Rule II. can be seen..is an irregular transitive verb (see), of the passive voice, potential mood, prresent tense, third person plural, and agrees with its subject '* that." I Exercise 30. In the following sentences parse the verbs according to the model : 1. Letters pass through th^ post-office. 2. We wandered across the meadows. 3. The goats were feeding on the mountain-side. 4. Still waters run deep. 5. Where have you been 1 6. Men may come, and men may go. 7. " For oh ! " say the children, " we are weary, And we cannot run or leap." Caution.— Words or phrases qnaiuying tbe jubjeot must not affeet t&e number of the verb : thus— The sound of many voices reach my ear. Incorrect : because the verb "reach" is plural, while its subject " sound " is singular. It should be " The sound of many voices reaches my ear." Special Rules under Rule II. Sp£Oial Rule I.— Two or more subjects In the singular connected by AND, and convesring pliurallty of Idea* require a verb in the plural : as— .1. Gold and iron are metals. 2. Mary and Ida seem happy. Caution.— When two singular nouns convey the idea of one person or thing, or when they are preceded by EACH, EVERT, or NO (and are thus taken separatelv), the verb must be in the Bingular : as— The general and governor who captured Detroit were killed at Queenston Heights. AQREEMBNT OF THE VERB. 117 Incorrect : because the nouns " general " and " governor " denote one person (Brock), and hence should take a verb in the singular. But " were killed" is plural It should be " was killed." Special Rule IT.— Two or more aubjects In the singular oonneoted by OR or NOB require a verb in the singular : as— 1. Either the man .or his wife has stolen my watch— (not " have stolen my watch "). 2. Neither the day nor the hour has been appointed — (not " have been appointed "). Special Bulb III.— Collective nouns require a verb in the singular when the sense is singular, and in the plural when the sense is plural : as— The regiment was composed of many men. We think of the regiment (though composed of many men) as form- ing one body. The sense is singular, and hence the verb " was com- posed " is singular also. The people were greatly displeased. We do not think of " people " as denoting one body : it has the sense of many persons, ea^h of whom " was displeased." Hence the verb is plural Exercise 40. Correct these examples by Rule II., or the Special Rules or Cautions. By Rule II. 1. What was you doing and where was you going 1 2. Cowardice and treachery generally goes together. 3. Romulus and Remus was twin brothers. 4. Many who was slain lies in unknown graves. 5. Six months' interest are due. 6. Honour and shame from no condition rises. 7. The number of senators from each of the Provinces are limited by law. 8. Nitrogen and oxygen united forms the air which we breathe. 118 SYNTAX. [SEO. V. By Bpeeial Rule I.— Oantion. 1. Each book and each paper were carefully examined. 2. My friend and companion have often warned me of the danger. 3. No oppression, no tyrant reign here. 4. Bread and milk are good for children. 6. Every emotion and every operation of the mind have a corre- sponding expression of the countenance. 6. For a laggard in love and a dastard in war Were to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. By Special Rule Q. 1. When sickness or misfortune overtake us, the sincerity of friendship is tested. 2. A man's being rich or his being poor do not affect his (Character for integrity. ^ 3. Neither the man nor his son were present. By Special Rule m. 1. The army were larga 2. The Board of Trustees have passed the resolution unanimously. 3. The Senate of the Dominion have adjourned. 4. The fleet have been scattered by the storm. hi! ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. RuLB III.— Adjectives and participles modify nouns or pronouns : ns— 1. Around the fire one wintry night The farmer's rosy children sat. ; 2. The king, surrounded by his courtiers, proceeded to the palace. Model for Pap.sing. the is a limiting adjective (or, an article) modifying the noun " fire," according to Rule III. one....*' is a limiting adjective modifying the noun "night," according to Rule III. wintry is a qualifying adjective modifying the noun " night," according to Rule III. ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 119 e a corre- rosy is a qualifying adjective modifying the noun " chil- dren," according to Rule III. surrounded... is a participle modifying the noun "king," accord ing to Rule III. Exercise 41. In the following sentences parse the adjectives and participles according to the model : 1. The singing birds have come at last. 2. Upon a barren steep, Above a stormy deep, I saw an angel, watching the wild sea. 3. At church, with meek and unaffected grace. His looks adorned the venerable place. 4. The large black cat killed the bird. 5. The great, heavy iron * bar fell on the unfortunate man, killing him instantly. 6. The long rows of quaint black piles, shiny and wet and weather- worn, with funeral garlands of sea- weed twisted about them by the late tide, might have represented an unsightly marine cemetery. Caution.— The following errors in the use of adjectives are to be carefully Avoided : 1. The use of these or those for this or that with a singular noun. Say " this sort of people," " that kind of horses " — not " these sort of people," " those kind of horses." 2. The use of the pronoun them for the adjective those. Say. ^^ those carriages," '^ those apples" — not "them carriage.^," " them apples." Special Rules under B\ile IIL 1. The Articles. Special Rule I.— When two or more nouns or adjectives refer to the same * Noun used aa an adjective. 120 SYNTAX. [sec. v. thing, the artld* It prefixed to the flrtt only ; but If they refer to different thlngf, the article should he repeated with each : thua— 1. The governor and commander-in-chief has arrived (that is, one person). 2. The governor and the commander-in-chief have arrived (that is, two persons). 3. He lives in a long and narrow street (one street). 4. The rich and the poor have a common interest (two classes). 2. Comparison. Special Rule XL— An adjective la used In the comparative degree when two objects are compared, In the superlative when more than two : us— 1. Gold is heavier than iron. 2. Mercury is the heaviest of metals. K 3. Predicate Adjective. Special Rule III.— A predicate adjective relates to the subject of the verb; m— 1. Iron is hard. 2. The fruit seems ripe. Oautiok.— An adverb should not be used In plaoe of a predicate adjective ; thus — The rose smells sweetly ; The velvet feels smoothli/. The adverbs "sweetly " and "smoothly" are here used incorrectly for the adjectives sweet and smooth. The rose does not really "smell" or the v^elvet "feel ;" what is meant is that the rose is sweet to the smell or scent, and that the velvet is smooth to the touch. In each case it is the subject, not the verb, that is to be modified, and hence an adjective, not an adverb, is required. Note.— The following verbs, each containing the force of the verb to 6c, require to be followed by a predicate adjective when the subject IS to be modified. 1. smell. 3. look. 5. become. 2. feel 4. taste. 6. grow. THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 121 Exercise 42. Correct the following examples : 1. Them apples are sour. 2. Those sort of people are always complaining. 3. Hand me them slates. 4. I am very fond of those sort of apples. 6. The president, secretary, and treasurer have arrived. 6. Sir Walter Scott, the poet and the novelist, lived at Abbots- ford. 7. I passed a man and boy on my way to town. 8. Silk is a fine and a delicate fibre. 9. This is the best house of the two. 10. Which is the oldest, William or Edwin ] 11. The lemon tastes sourly. 12. Miss Smith looks beautifully. 13. Mary sings sweet. THE POSSESSIVE OASE. Rule IV.— A noun modifying another noun tUgnUyhig a dlfftrent thing li In the posBesslve case : as— Ladies' and children's shoes are sold here. I^ODEL FOR Parsing. ladies' is a common noun, of the plural number and posses- sive case, modifying " shoes," according to Rule IV. children's... .is a common noun, of the plural number and posses- ■--- sive case, modifying "shoes," according to Rule IV. Exercise 43. In the following sentences parse the possessive ilouns according, to the model : ' 1. John's book was torn. 2. My sister's hat was blown into the river. .3. Have you ever seen Goldsmith's Deserted Village 1 4. Richer by far is the heart's adoration. 5. Watt's invention of the steam-engine was one of the most ini . portant ever made. m \ . 122 SYNTAX. [8E0. V. 6. Order is heaven's first law. 7. We bought the shoes at Sutherland's.* 8. That book is Kichard's.f 0. Did the War of 1812 happen in Brock's :{: or in Frevost's ad- ministration ? 10. Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, thy God's, and truth's. Caution. —Nayer omit the liffn of poiseislve In writing the posseMlve case of a noun, nor employ It In wrltlnff that of a pronoun : aH— Write 6oy'», boy^, chilcPa, children! 8— not hoys, childs, childrens. Write hers, its, ourSf yours, theirs — not her^s, it's, our's, yours, their's. Special Rule under Rule IV. x ^ When two or more nouna in the posBesiive caie are connected and denote Joint owners of the eame thlnff, the sign of poiieiBlye is suffixed to the last noun only: as— " Smith and Thomson's store." But when they denote separate owners of different things, the slsn of posseBslve la suffixed to each noun : as— " Chambers's and Worcester's dictionaries." Exercise 44. Correct these examples by Rule IV. or Special Rule. 1. " Ladle's and gentlemens boots and shoes " was painted over the door. 2. Men and women's shoes are made here. 3. Was the Repeal of the Corn Laws under Peel or Russell's administration 1 4. Did you ever hear of Mason's and Dixon's line 1 5. Have you read any of Dickens or Thackeray's works ? 6. That is Thomas kite. 7. The blame is their's, not yours'. Supply stove. t Supply book. t Siipiily administration. THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 123 APPOSITION. RuLi V.—A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or pronoun le put by apposition In the same ease : hi— 1. Milton, the English poet, wrote Parndi»e Lout. 2. The Christians were persecuted by Nero, the infamous oiuperor. Model for Parsing. poet is a common noun, of the singular immber and nomina- tive case, in apposition with the subject " Milton." emperor... is a common noun, of the singular number and objective case, in apposition with " Nero." Exercise 45. Parse the nouns in apposition. 1. The potato, a root much used for food, was first grown in America. 2. Franklin, the philosopher, discovered the identity of lightning and electricity. 3. That useful animal, the camel, is found in Asia and Africa. 4. Have you studied the geography of Asia and Africa, two grand divisions of the globe ? 5. Cicero, the greatest orator among the Romans, was put to death. 6. I did not know him, the gentle boy. 7. He shot the albatross, that strange bird. 8. I, John Barclay, solemnly affirm. 9. Do we not admire those brave men, the mountaineers of Swit- zerland ] ^ THE OBJECTIVE OASE. RuLi VT.— The object of a transitive verb Is in the objective case : as— Follow me. Who killed the deer ? 124 SYNTAX. Model for Parsing. [sec. v. me. deer. .is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, and objective case, object of the transitive verb " follow," according to Rule VI. ..is a common noun, of the singular number and objective case, object of the transitive verb " killed," according to Rule VI. Exercise 46. In the following sentences parse the objects according to the model : 1. Caxton introduced printing into England. ■ i 2. We have just received our presents. | 3. Me he restored, and him he hanged. ^ . >. 4. They saw us as we entered the carriage. 5. Who called her ] 6. Whom did she call ? 7. She sang the song most beautifully. Caution.— Never nse a pronoun in the nominative case as the object of a transitive verb : aa— Who did you see at church ? ' This is incorrect : because the pronoun " who " in the nominative case is made the object of the verb ** did see." It should be, " Whom did you see ? " Special Rules under Rule VI. Special Rule I.— The indirect object of a transitive verb may be in the objective case without a preposition : as— Give me a book. The indirect object shows that to or for which anything is or is done. t " . , V Special Rule II.— The inflnitives or participles of transitive verbs may govern objects in the objective case : as— 1, To love our e7ig»»tV» is a Christian duty. . - 2. The thief, seeing the officei', ran away. a • COMPLEMENT. 125 Bxerci e 47- Correct these examples by the Caution : J. The teacher asked my sister and I to come. 2. [s this the boy who you wanted ? 3. Who did she marry ? 4. lliey that honour me I will honour, 5. She told somebody, but I don't know who. 6. They we injure we dislike. - COMPLEMENT. Rule VII.— A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an Intransitive or a passive verb Is In the nomlaatlve case : as— 1. Caesar was a great grewer*a^ [nom. case]. 2. The girl becomes a ivoman [nom. case]. 3. Henry was chosen ca/>^am [nom. case]. 4. It proved to be she [nom. case]. » , Model for Pausing. general (sentence 1). ..is a common noun, of the singular number and nominative case, complement of the intransi- tive verb " was," according to Rule VII. captain (sentence 3)... is a common noun, of the singular number ahd nominative case, complement of the - passive verb " was chosen," according to Rule VII. she (sentence 4) is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, feminine gender, and nomi- native case, complement of the intransitive verb " to be," according to Rule VII. Exercise 48. a. In the following sentences parse the complements according to the model : 1. Gold and silver are precious metals. . "^ Mecca is a holy city. ilili ii 126 SYNTAX. [sec. v. 3. John was called the beloved disciple. 4. The boy seems a scholar. 5. Study was always his delight. 6. The food appears to be poison. 7. If I were she I would improve my opportunities. 8. Do you think it was she 1 9. Men are but children of a larger growth. '' 10. Webster and Ashburton were appointed commissioners to settle the boundary question. 11. John proved a worthy successor to his brother. 12. Some mossy bank my couch must be, Some rustling oak * my canopy. b. Correct the violations of Rule VII. 1. Who struck the bell 1 It was him. 2. It is them that you mean, not us. 3. It could not possibly have been her. 4. I took it to be she. 5. Who do you imagine him to be ? * 6. It was him who issued the order, although the people for a long time disbelieved it to be he, 7. I should try to do better if I were him. ^ , ADVERBS. Rule VIII.— An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb : iS — 1. 3ferrili/, merrily went the bark. 2. The frost is intensely severe. 3. Pianists move their fingers very quickly. & t] I I . Model for Parsing. -• •, . merrily is an adverb, modifying the verb " went," according : to Rule VIII. • ^ intei'sely is an adverb, modifying the adjective "severe," according to Rule VIII. * Supply must he. V (( O'i la C. V ADVERBS. 127 very. .is an adverb, modifying the advoib "quickly," according to Rule VIII. settle for a Exercise 49. h In the following sentences parse the adverbs according to the model : 1. The very fairest flowers usually wither most quickly. 2. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 3. The pupil has answered very well. 4. When are you coming 'i 5. We will know our lesson better to-morrow. ' \ 6. She loved not wisely, but too well. Caution I.— Never use two negatives to express a negation : thus— I have not been nowhere. This is incorrect : " not nowhere " implies someivhere. It should be " I have been noivhere," or " I have not been ani/where." Caution II.— Never use an adjective where an adverb is required : thus— 1. The army marched rapidly — (not I'apid). 2. The horse trots well — (not good). 3. The bird sings beautifully— (not beautiful). i » ■ i;: J' I i •• verb ! rding ^ere. Special Rules under Rule VIII. ' . Speciaii Rule I.— Adverbs should be so placed in a sentence as to qualify tne word intended : thus— , 1. He came to see me ow/y once. 2. He only came to see me once. These two sentences have different meanings according as the ad- verb " only " is placed so as to qualify once or came. The first means, " He came to see me only once," not oftener. The second means, " He only came to see me once " — lie did nothing else. Special Rule II.- A noun denoting direction, time, distance, value, etc., is in the objective case without a preposition : thus— 1. The scholars have gone Aowie— (modifying " have gone "). 128 SYNTAX. [sec. V 2. That girl is fifteen years old— (modifying,' "old "). 3. There is a pole twenty /i.oa Received Payment, GEO. S. THOMPSON & CO. 70 Mr. Edward Edson ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [skc. Vl. London, Nov. 1, 1872. Tu 10 lbs. Java Coffee, „ 5 „ Green Tea, ., 13 „ Brown Sugar, „ 4 gals. Molasses, at » To Benjamin H. Fenton, Dr. .40 $4.00 1.20 6.00 .14 1.68 .37^ 4.50 Received Payment, $13.18 BENJ. H. FENTON, jier Fred. C. Dow. Exercise 71. Make out the bills for the following articles, and receipt them : 1. Henry Dixon bought, Feb. 3, 1873, of Peter Brown & Co., 12 lbs. of sugar, at 10 cts. ; 8 lbs. of coffee, at 45 cts. ; 4 lbs. of tea, at 75 cts. 2. Jameson & Son sold, April 6, 1873, to Richard Roby, 2 doz. men's black beaver hats, at $4 apiece ; 6 doz. boys* drab hats, at f 1.50 apiece ; ^ doz. silk umbrellas, at $4.50 ; ^ doz. leather satchels, at $3.50. 3. Make out a bill for labour ; for articles purchased at a hard- ware store; boot-and-shoe store ; book store ; dry -goods store; grocery store ; lumber yard, etc. Receipt for Rent. $309i^/o. GuELPH, Mav 15, 1873. Received of Messrs. Hughes Brothers, Three Huvdred and Nine -^f}^ Dollars, in full for rent of store, No. 20 Main St., to /Sept. 1, 1873. AVILLIAMSON & RICHARDSON, per Jas. H. Johnson. Receipt in full of all Demands. ^ $500 j^. Kingston, Oct. 15, 1872. Received of Robt. H. Jenkins, Esii., Five Hundred and -^^ Dollars in full of all demands. GEO. H. POWELL. :. , MISCELLANEOUS KXIiKCLSES IN BUSINESS COMPOSITION. 171 Exercise 72. Make out receipts as above : 1. Henry A. Nichols receives, March 3, 1873, from Arthur A Andrews, $840.25 on account. 2. Geo. R. Stone, of Ottawa, this day gives Henry GUbert $125, in full for one quarter's rent of house. No. 10 Elm St. 3. For the rent of a house ; for services rendered ; for interest on a note to date ; for money received on account ; in settle- ment of an account to date ; for investment, etc. Order for Goods. |500. Ottawa, Augtist 9, 1873. Mr. Edw. H. Hamlin will please deliver to Messrs. Quekn & Valen- tine goods to the amount of Five Hundred Dollars, and charge the same to WILLIAM A. STEWART. Order for Mo>iey. |33,. ToRoyTO, Feb. 19, 1873. Messrs. Brown <& Hooker : Gentlemen, — Please pay to Mr. Thomas Andrew, or order, Thirty- three Dollars^ dice on my account, and oblige. Yours respect full)/, HENRY W. WILKINS. Bank. Chech. No. 27. Montreal, Nov. 3, 1872. To THE Merchants Bank op Canada. jPay to Wm. H. Bowker, Esq., or order, Sixty-nine and ^^(^ Dollars. $69i^. SAMUEL WALLACE. Exercise 73. Make out the following orders in due form, supplying dates : 1. Carter Brothers give to Wm. H. Brown an , rder for 10 barrels of flour. Spring Extra, on Robt. L. Fuller. 3. Lewis Clarke given Stephen Dennison an order on Brown, Lewis, & Co., for $2000, 172 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. [sec. VI. • 3. Robt. Fulton gives to Hirnm Day a check on the Bank of Toronto, Cobourg, for $10C0. 4. Order somebody to pay money to somebody, or to deliver goods to somebody, and charge to your account, or to the account of somebody else, Promissory Note Payable to Order. $300. Port Hope, Aiig. 8. 1872. ' Ninety days after date, for value received, I promise to pay Mr. James Dicfei m.vn, or order, Tliree Hundred Dollars. HENRY G. GRAHAM. Promissory Note payable to Bearer. t ^ ',h*^. CoLLiNGWOOD, Afay 2\ 1873. ,.'•• l\fore April 20, 1874, /or value received, I promise to pay Mr. RiciiiRJ UowE, or hearer, One Hundred Ninety-two and -,1fjj Dollars. JAMES W. WARD. • Joint and Several Note. $3061i8oV HALiF!iX, N.S., Sept. 4, 1873. On demand, for value received, we jointly and severally promise to 'pay Mr, Walter Wheeler, or order, Tliree Thousand Sixty-one and ^^g Dollars, with interest at 7 per cent. f WILLIAM WARD. I JOHN WOOD. Exercise 74. Write out the foliowing according to the models : 1. John Scott, of Kingston, owes S;:ephen HooVer f400, for which he gives his note, payable tc him or to his c>. ler in 4 months from March 3, 1873. 2. On or before the 10th of October, 1873, Thomas Morse, Jr., of St. Catherines, promises to pay t(!i William Stickney, or bearer, $75.75. Write the note, ami date it April 10, 1873. 3. John Smith, of Whitby, this day promises to pay to William Stone, or oider. $400 t,lirp(i months a'ter date. ( 173 ) I \\ APPEIfDIX. PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER. Indeterminate Forms. — A few nouns have tlie same form for the plural as for the singular. SINGULAR. sheop deer grouse salmon heathen Among tliese are — vhvnxt. sheep deer grouse salmon heathen In these indeterminate forms the number of tlje noun is to be inferred from the context : thus, " A sheej) was feeding on the hill J " " Sheep were feeding on the hill." Donble Plurals. — Some nouns have double plurals, eacli pos- sessing a peculiar signification. SINGULAR. PLURAL. PLUnAL. brother brothers (by birth) bietbien (of a comnuiiiity). cloth cloths (kinds of cloth) dollies (garments), die dies (stamps for coiniuj^) dice (for itUiy). genius geniuses (men of talent) genii (spirits). index indexes (contents) indices (algebraic signs). pea peas (single ones) pease (collective), penny pennies (coins) ..pence (valne or amount). staff. staves (common use) staffs (military tern;). shot ...shot (balls) shots (numlier of lounds). fish . . tish (collective) lislies (individuals). 174 APPENDIX. , \ Plurals as Singulars. — Some plural forms are usually treate«] as singular : as, amends, ffallows, news, odds, pains, tcages. So — politics 1 ethics I represent Greek plurals, but are now treated ns physics /-singular. Thus, "Matlieniatics is an improving optics I study ;" *' Optics is the science of light." mathematics J Plurals only. — Some nouns, the names of things consisting of more than one part or forming a pair, have only the plural forms : annals entrails scissors antipodes nuptials shears breeches pantaloons tongs drawers pincers victuals dregs scales vitals i^ Foreign Plurals.— Many foreign nouns, especially those that Jire imperfectly naturalised, retain their foreign plural.* (The plurals of such nouns are readily found by reference to a dictionary.) SINGULAR. PLURAL. i formula formulae datum data radius radii (2) GreeJc j ^'^'^ ^J^« I phenomenon phenomena i^s T* T \ bandit banditti (3) Italian \ • l • ^ • { virtuoso virtuosi (4) Hebrew \ '^'^'''^ ^'^""l^!"^ ^ \ seraph seraphim * 1. IMatiy Latin nouns adopted into our language retain their Latin CDdings : Nouns in us (masculine) form the plural in i; as, focus, foci. ,, „ ?(8 (neuter) „ ,, era ; as, genus, genera. ,, uvii „ „ a; as, stratum, strata. ,, a „ ,, ae; as, nebula, nebulae. ,, ex ,, ,, tecs; as, vortex, vortices. 2. Some Greek nouns adopted into our language retain the Greek endings in the plural : thus— Nouns in is form the pluml in es; as, crisis, crises. „ ,, on ,, ,, a ; as, phenomenon, phenomena. i It's m MODEL OF CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAll VERBS. 175 Oompounds. — With regard to compounds the following points are to be noted : I. The plural of compound nouns is generally formed by adding the suffix to the principal noun, that is, to the noun described : as, ir\\\t-treeSy brothers-inAav:, «/rfs-de-camp. II. When the last part of a compound is an adjective (according to the French idiom), the suffix is usually added to the noun : as attomei/s-genera], court s-nmYi\a\. Knights Templars YjiluvaWscs both parts; as do also, men-servants, women-servants. III. When the Avords are so closely allied that the meaning is incom- plete till the Avhole is known, the plural sign is added at the end : as, forget-me-nots. B. SYNOPSIS OP A REGULAR VERB IN THE SECOND PERSON SINGULAR, OLD STYLE. Indicative.... Thow lovest, thou lovedst, thou shalt or Avilt love, thou hast loved, thou hadst loved, thou shalt or wilt have loved. Potential Thou mayst love, thou niightst love, thou mayst have loved, thou mightst have loved. Subjunctive.. li thou love, if thou loved. Imperative... \iO\g\\\o\\. 0. MODEL OF CONJUGATION OP IRREGULAR VERBS. NOTE, — The naode of formation of the compound parts of an irregular verb is precisely the same as that of a regular verb ; but the irregularity of the past and past participle renders it desirable to illustrate the paradigm of the verb, and to practise pupils therein. To )??«»;.— Active Voice. Principal Parts — Present — see. Prts<— saw. Past Participle — seen. Synopsis OF the Verb "To See" in the Third Person Singular OP ALL the Moods and Tenses in the Active Voice. Indicative. ...He sees, he saw, he shall or will see, he has seen, he had seen, he shall or will h.ivc seen. 176 APPENDIX. Potential ....He may see, he might see, ho may have seen, ho ml^^ht huvo seen. Hubjunctivcli he sec, if he saw. Imperative... Seo (you — thou, ye). Synopsis OF THB Verb "To See "in the First Person PLUPUi ujj' ALL THE Moods and Tenses in the Passive Voice. Indicative.... We are seen, we were seen, we shall or will be seen, wo have been seen, wo had been seen, we shall or will have been seen. Potential Wo may be seen, we might bo seen, we may have been seen, we might have been seen. Subjunctive.. li wo bo seen, if we were seen. Imjjcrativo ..Bo (you— thou, ye) seen. ^' FORMS OP CONJUGATION. Besides the common btylc of the verb, several special modes of con- jugation aro used to express particular meanings. The principal of tliese are : (I) Tbe froqressive. (2) The emphatic. (3) The inter- UOOATIVE. • I. Progressive Form. The progressive form of a verb is that which represents the continu- ance of the action or btato asseited by the verb : as, " I am writing ; " " He nas sleeping." Tho progressive form of a verb is made by combining its i>rcsent participle with tho variations of the auxiliary verb to be. II. Emphatic Form. Tho emphatic form of a verb is made by joining do and did with the iufiuitivo (without to) : as, "T. do learn ;" "I did learn." This combination is found only in the present and tho past indica- tive (active), and in the imperative. Present. — I do leurn, thou dodt learn, he does learn, etc. Past. — I did learn, thou didst learn, he did learn, etc. Lnperatiie. —Do learn. m. Interrogative Form. The interrogative form is that which is used in asking a question : as, « Can he see 1 " " Shall he be punished ?" CONJUGATION OP THE AUXILIARY VERB TO BE. 1 i t lUVO , wo huvo seen, con- kl of rTER- tinu- ssent 1 the dica- : TliiH lorin in used in tlic iiidicntivc nii«l putcntiiil iikxmIh. I. A verh is conju^utuil iiituri-o;;ulivc'ly by ) |ilvaeit, 3. He was ; Past Tense. PLURAL. 1. We were, 2. You were, 3. They were. Future Tense. . 1. I shall or will bo, 1. We shall or will be, 2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. You shall or will be. 3. He shall or will be ; 3. They shall or will be. 1. I have been, 2. Thou hast been, 3. He has been ; Present Perfect Tense. 1. We have been, 2. You have been, 3. They have been. 1. I had been, 2. Thou hadst been, 3. He had been ; Pcist Perfect Tense. 1. We had been, 2. You had been, 3. They had been. Future Perfect Tense. 1. I shall or Avill have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 3. He shall or will have been ; 3. They shall or will have been. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present Tense. 1. We may be, 2. You may be, 3. They may be. Pa^ Tense. 1. We might be, 2. You might be, 3. They might be. r.'« 1. I may be, 2. Thou mayst be, 3. He may be ; 1. I might be, 2. Thou mightst be, 3. He might be ; Present Perfect Tense. 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. Yon may have been, 3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been, v Past Perfect Tense. 1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. « LIST OP IRREGULAR VRRBS. 179 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. n, en. Present Tense. SIKOULAH. 1. If I be, 2. Ifthonbe, 3. If ho bo; PLUHAL. 1. If WO be, 2. If yon be, 3. If they be. Past Terse. SINOULAR. 1. If I were, 2. If thou wcrt, 3. If lie were ; PLITRAL. 1. If we were, 2. If yon were, .3. If thoy were. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Be (yon — thou, ye). INFINITIVES. Present—io bo. Perfect— io have been. {Gernnds)~\ic\n^ ; havinj; Iwen. PARTICIPLES. PrMCwf— being. Past — been. Pcr/cr<— having been. P. LIST OP IRREGULAR VERBS. Ezplanation. — When a verb has a past or past participle, or iK>tb, of the regular conjugation, this fact is indicated by placing •ed after the form or forms. This -ed is lo be suffixed to the root^ ;are being taken to observe the rule of spelling for derivative wopIs. When the -ed is in heavy type, it indicates that the -ed form is |>referable. The forms in italics are either out of use, seldom used, or not ised by the best authors. ••RCiCirT. PAST. PAST PAUTICTPLK fiblde abode abode ari»e arose arisen awake awoke, -ed awaked be or am was been hear {to bring forth) boie, hare born bear {to carrjj) bore, bare borne l)eat beat beaten, beat begin began begnn behold beheld beheld belay belaid, -ed belaid, -ed bend bent, -ed bent, -ed 180 APPENDIX. PBKaENT. PAST. Ii PAST PAUTICIPLE. l»et bet, -ed bet, -ed bereave bereft bereft, -ed beseech besought besought bid bid, bade bidden, bid bind bouud bound bite bit bitten, bit bleed bled bled bleud blent, -ed blent, -ed bless blest, -ed blest, -ed blow blew blown break broke, hraike broken, broke breed bred bred briug brought brought build built, -ed built, -ed burn burnt, -ed burnt, -ed burst bui-st burst buy bought bought cast cast cast catch caught, -ed caught, -ed chide cbid, chode chidden, chid choose chose chosen cleave {to adli^re) cleaved, clave cleaved cleave {to split) clove, cleft, clave cleft, cloven climb climbed climbed cling clung clung clothe clothed, clad clad, -ed come came come creep crept crept crow crew, -ed crowed cut cut cut dare {to venture) durst, -ed dared deal dealt, -ed dealt, -ed dig dug, -ed dug, -ed do did done draw drew drawn dream dreamt, -ed dreamt, -ed LIST (F IRREGULAR VERBS. 181 PRESKirr. PAST. PAST PARTICIFLK. dress drest, -ed drest, -ed drink drank, drunk drunk, drunken drive drove driven dwell dwelt, -ed dwelt, -ed eat ate, eat eaten, eat fall fell fallen feed fed fed fetl felt felt flght fought fought find found found flee .fled fled fling flung flung fly flew flown forbear forl)ore forborne forget forgot forgotten, forgot forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen get got got, gotten gild gilt, -ed gilt, -ed gird girt, -ed girt, -ed give ^ gave given go went gone grave graved graven, -ed grind ground ground grow grew grown hang * hung hung have had had hear heard heard heave hove, -ed hoven, -ed hew hewed hewn, -ed bide hid hidden, hid hold held held, hoiden keep kept kept kneel knelt, -ed knelt, -ed * Hang^ to take life by hanging, is regular. l»a APPENDIX. FRESENT. ' PAST. I'AST PAUTICIPLR knit knit, -ed knit, -ed know knew known lade laded laded, ladeu lay laid laid lead led led leap 18apt, -ed Igapt, -ed leara learnt, -ed learnt, -ed leave left ' left lend lent lent lie {to recline) lay lain light lit, -ed lit, -ed luse ■ lost lost make made made mean meant meant meet met met mow mowed mown, -ed pass past, -ed past, -ed pay paid l)aid pen (to enclose) pent, -ed pent, -ed prove proved proven, -ed quit quit, -ed quit, -ed rap rapt, -ed rapt, -ed read read read rend rent rent ride rode, rid ridden, rid ring rang, rang rung rise rose risen rive Hved riven, -ed run ran, run run saw . sawed savrn, -ed say said said see saw seen seek sought sought seethe sod, -ed sodden, -ed sell sold sold scud sent sent LIST OF IRRKGULAIl VERBS. 183 PitKSENT. I'AsT. PAST PARTICIPLE. set set set 8hak« sliouk shaken shape sliaped shajyen, -ed shave shaved shaven, -ed shear sheared shorn, -ed shine shone, -ed shone, -ed shoe shod shod shoot . shot shot show showed shown, -ed shred shred bhred shrink shrank, shnini: shrunk, shrunken sing sang, sHnff sung sink sank, sunk sunk sit sat sat slay slow slain sleep slept slept slide slid slidden, slid sling slung, slanff slung slink slunk, slunk slunk sht slit, -ed slit, -ed smell smelt, -ed smelt, -ed smite smote smitten, smit sow sowed sown, -ed speak spoke, spake spoken speed sped, -ed sped, -ed spell spelt, -ed spelt, -ed spend spent spent spill spilt, -ed spilt, -ed spin spun, span spun spit spit, spat spit split split, -ed split, -ed spoil spoilt, -ed spoilt, -ed spread spread spread spring sprang, sitrung sprung stand stood stood stave stove, -ed ^tove^ -ed I 184 . APPENDIX. I'RMIITK PAST. , PAST PARTICIPLE Htay stniil, ^ed staid, -ed steal stole • stolen stick stuck stuck StiDg stung stung stride strode, tlrid stridden strike struck struck, stricken string strung strung strive strove striven strov, strew strowed, strewed strown, strewn swear swore, stvare sworn sweat sweat, -ed sweat, -ed sweep swept swept swell swelled swollen, -ed swim swam, smim swum swing swung swung take: took taken teach taught taught tear tore, tare turn tell told told think thought thought thrive throve, -ed thriven, -ed throw , threw thrown tread trod trodden, trod wake woke, -ed woke, ed wax waxed waxen, wear wore worn weave wove woven wed wed, -ed wed, -ed weep wept wept wet wet, -ed wet, -ed whet whet, -ed whet, -ed win won won wind w wound, -ed wound work wrought, -ed wrought, -ed wring wrung wrung write • wrote, Kt'it written w \ l\