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Laa diagrammas suivants illuatrant la mithoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) IK IS ■ 4.0 2.5 2.2 2.0 i.8 ^ /APPLIED irvHGE he SI '653 East Moin Street r.S Rocliester. Ne« York 14609 USA ^= (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone :as (716) 288 - 5989 - Fax <;E<^ THE EASTERN OB OLD WORLD: BMBR ACINO ANCIENT AND MODEEN HISTORY BT HENRY HOWARD BROWNELL, A. M. VOL. II, ^i^n^^^^ REVOLUTIONS , ENGLAND, WITH THE HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OP AUSTRALIA, SWEDEN AND NORWAY; DENMARK; THE NETHERLANDS- SWITZERLAND ; I'ORTUGAL j ITALY ; A STATISTICAL APPENDIX; EMBRACING A DESCRIPTIOW, rTATISTIOAl AND GEOGRAPHICAL, OF THE COUNTRIES OF EUROPE, ASIA, AND AFKIOA, COMPILED FROM THE LATEST AUTHORITIES, WITH NUMEROUS BEAUTIFUL ILLUSTRATIONS. DRAWN AND COLORED AFTER NATURE, BHBBACmO POBTBAITS, SCBNEBr, CURIOSITHJS, CITIES, PUBLIC KDinOB8, ITOL PnefSHBD BT SUnSCRIPTIOM, ONLT. Toronto, c. w. BOSTWICjC AND BARNARD. \ (^iJUik^, J^- ^ y ^ CONTENTS. VOL. II. FRANCE. CHAPTER I . Tl»- Knrlj Inlmbilanta of France-The Rom SSo 8:i7 241 247 SSTi se3 M6 iJ71 978 Oeorge IV., VV'illlam IV., anon Oniiaporto, JInrKlml Hoult, MiirNh.il Luniios, ^"'""""" ^'■<"">l"« tho Emprc, J.«ephl,.e, The Private Supper at Dantzlc, Miimliiil Noy, An Oillccr of tho Imporlal Guar.l of Napoleon, Uisintorm.nt of tho R«,„ai„, „f Sapo\eon, Th« Funeral Car of Napoleon, I.ouiB Napoloon Bonaparte, A nnrricmlfl, ax nllackod and dofonrted, at Parl^ A Druid and Druldess, A Dnildlcal Altar or Monmnont, A HrltishVarrlor of tho Soutln'm Tribeis A Kiilnht Templar, In Full Amidiir, K»S(ll»li, fJcolch, and Irish Costumoa, The Murder of Thomaa A Becket, Garter Klng-at-Arms, Chief Herald of Rn«land, Dciiih of Richard III., Heurj- VIII., Elizabeth, Queen of England, Cliarloa I,, Oliver Cromwell, ••harge of Cromwell at Worceater, Charles II., Charles Edward (called the Pretender), The Duke of Wellington, Charge of the Enntaklllon Dragoons at Waterloo, Victoria, Danish Costumes, Jenny Lind, liernadotle, Italian Costume, Miirat, U OHAWN nr «KnHA,Bn bt I'Ans Darley O'llrien H Darley tJ'llrien n Cliu-k 34 Darloy Kicharilsoa m l>n(ld «i Clark 7S Clark 79 Clark H4 Clark Hfi Clark ."« Clark ^K Clark m Dodd 98 Thompson 99 VValliQ Hnhhr'tt fc Edmonds 109 Darley Horrick , 112 Crosby 194 Crosby 121 Crosby l'.'.i Cro.iby I'-ir, • lark ll:i Dwiey n-n-icn li; Oosby I.-iT Ottley llerrick m Tli(jni|)«iin iff the East. by that of ."■ho on his his ambi- gh fond of science, ho afous age. y enabled . In 777, iignal mis- L FRANCE. 11 tbrtur,o. - ..e rear of his army, while defiling through the narrow pas. of i;on..esval^s, in the Pyrenees, was al^^kcd by tl loZ Koland, fell fightmg valiantly, and his bravest peers died with him >.o mcKlent m warfiu-e has been oftener celebrated in the ballaX' songs, and other primitive records of the two nations ' By the energy of Charlemagne, the Northmen or Normans who had long harassed the shores of Southern Europe, were rendTed and the coasts were protected by a powerful navy Hi emZ was cc^^nuany enlarged, until it extended over France, It^^Z 1" niast of Central Europe, and a large part of Spain. £ the year 800, he received from the Pope, at Eome, with the most solemn that ot his father, extended to the remotest regions of the East and principally passed, and where, in 813, he resigned the throne of his ;:: ITcT^ '?^^ "^^°"^^- ^^ ^^^^ '-^^ -^ ^^"^^n^^^^^^^^^ his rdgn ''^'"''^-''''^^ y«- «f 1^- -Se, and the forty-fourth oJ He'^dfd f ^^;^;;'G.od.natured," possessed little of his talents. r^LSsTondlt hi! ZT ^^,f "%^-. embittered by the valour and .enius of tll^'^a^^Lrd^Ti;^^^^^^^^^^ -srs^lrr:::=dars^^^^^ OJie Wer died in 377, and ^as s...2^\-^:XZ^- The political condition of France and ^^^n^. ^f +\. strictly feudal; lands being held of\he kT" bv ht' "T"' "" the erowr was Sowed bvl'l f' ''''V ^"^'^^^^"' ^^^ ^ ^S-i tl.o Fat, soi'ft'r^/^-^'^"^!^^^^^^^^^'^^*^ won Char ^ouis of Germany. Nearly tl 'IP.H' 10 M'liole onij>ire uf 12 THE PEOPLE-S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. Sfr T. '' ''""^*'^ ""^^^' '"^ descendant; but in vain. Ibe isonnans had again commenced their fierce incursions, and in oSi beleaguered Pans itself, which, however, successfully resisted a u 188 bv"" ^""" ^'^ ^"^^P^^^^^ '' ^^-^- -- -gross, hat u 688, by common consent, his authority was disowned, and Count ri T' r "f 'TV"'d' ^'"^ '^'^'^ i" ^^^ P'^^e. At his d ath in 898 Charles (called the Simple), a son of Louis IL, and who had already been proclauned by the bishops and nobles, was acknowledged kfnf In the the year 911, Eollo, a brave and politic leader of the Normans, gamed such advantages, that Charles was compelled to mandy This infusion of a new and vigorous race proved of the greatest advantage to the French nation and to Europe. The Normans, hough still distinguished above all other nations'by thei valour and military skill, cultivated refinement and policy; and the r province soon became highly prosperous, powerful, Ld, fo'r that a' intellectual and refined. Charles was deposed on account of Ms mcapacity, and Eaoul, who succeeded himf died in 935 Through the influence of Hugh the Fair, the nephew of Eudes and for many years the real ruler of the kingdom, Louis IV., a son of Charles, and English by education, was pkced'upon the h one ot lin;,^h, and the la.ter, assisted by the duke of Normandy, waged war ^against him. He died in 954, and was succeeded ^^Ht d'^A^v'"'""'" °^ ?' ^"""''^ ^^^S"' ^^^°' ^^P^'OT of Germany nvaded France with a large army; but was unable to takTSfe capital, which was strongly fortified by Hugh Capet, son of HvLl Loui! V To r' r ''""• ^^^'^^^^ ^^^d ^° 9S7, and his sfn Louis v., to whom Capet wa. guardian, followed him in a few months. With him ended the Carlovingian dynasty, under wh^lT 1 ndW Vr' w"^"'^ "^"^ ^«"'^°^' *^^ ^"-^ 'f the ki gdot 5jlFS^:^St~^ ^^^^:^':^:^^ -- ^ -d upont rOBT. ndant; but in vain. > incursions, and in Jcessfully resisted a s was so gross, tliat sowned, and Count ^t his death in 898, id who had already cknowledged kin". litic leader of the was compelled to B still called Nor- ■ace proved of the to Europe. The Jr nations by their i policy; and their , and, for that age, )n account of his i93o. aephew of Eudes, , Louis IV., a son upon the throne, it to the dictation Normandy, waged ceded by his son ror of Germany, able to take the 3et, son of Hugh 987, and his son i him in a few ty, under which, of the kingdom ry. During this from the Franks) t is based upon a FBANCE. 18 CHAPTEE H. THE HOUSE OF CAPET. &UGH Capet, finding no one in a condition to oppose him, in 987 support of the clergy, the most influential part of the community ful and factious nobles of his time. These petty tyrants exLi^ed a complete despotism within the limits of their own terr torie and were almost contmually engaged in a savage and predatory 2Z ll rnir extt " ''^^ ;T '''" '' '' '^ J-tl/termedfthe litt iearn ng extant was confined to the priests. Gerbert, the kino's wards held the popedom, under the title of Sylvester 11 Kobert (the Pious) succeeded his father Hugh, in 996" His rei^^n was dastxnguished by a singular delusion. Lik certa n f^ tics o ' our own time, mankind generally supposed the worid to be omin' Its termination. From neglect in cultivating the land a finunr> nearly ensued. The church now began to ev°ince th ext nt o t power. Eobert had refused to separate from his wife Berth, win was his distant relation. The Pope, to enforce obed enc ^com municated him, laid the kingdom under an interdic anVCl ^ compe led him to submit to a separation. Persecutiois for Cel were_ also common, even at this early age, and the cruel ciLom of burmng heretics wa. often practised. Robert died in mi 2 I reign of thirty-four years, passed chiefly in the observance of t ij bigoted and unenlightened rites of the religion of his day succus^fully maintained his claim to the dukedom. " " ^ _ ''^ n THE rjiOi'LK'S BOOK OF HISTORY. The rernarlcnble institution and code of "Chivalry" was now founded, and flourished greatly from his time. It was oridnallv an association for the defence of the weak, for deference and Respect to age and to the fair, and for performing feats of knightly gallantrv. Though some of these objects were but partially secured, (the Knights hnally becoming great ojipressors and ravishers them- selves,) It yet imparted a more generous tone to the savage warfare ot the times, and hastened the march of civilization. Philip, at the age of seven, succeeded his father, under the guard- lanship of the able and virtuous Baldwin, earl of Flanders. On assuming the government, at the age of fourteen, his vices and incapacity soon became apparent. Events of the greatest import- ance to Europe occurred during his reign. William of Normandy ii.s nominal vassal, conquered the kingdom of England, and became Jar more powerful and independent than his sovereign who took the mean satisfoction of assisting and abetting his revolted sons Another body of Normans, headed by Robert Guiscard. a descend- ant of Rollo, seized tl>e kingdom of Sicily from the Saracens, and gained an extensive footing in Italy. A still more important enter- prise was the first crusade, which in the last of the eleventh century distracted all Europe, and especially allured and carried away the excitable French. ■^ Pilgrimages to the Holy Land had long been practised, and under the humane and enlightened rule of the Saracens, the multitudes who resorted to the tomb of Christ, at Jerusalem, were tolerated and protected But in 1094, when the fierce and bigoted Turks included the Holy City in their conquests, the pious devotees who resorted to the Holy Sepulchre, met with great indignity and cruelty • and a spirit of revenge was awakened throughout Christian Europe' Peter the Hermit, who had himself witnessed the atrocities of the mfidels, travelled from city to city, and exhorted princes and people to rescue the Sepulchre of their Saviour from the thraldom of Mahomet. A vast religious enthusiasm was thus aroused The knights were eager for a new field of distinction; the people were zealous to gam a remission of their sins, as promised by the Pope- and the cross was assumed throughout France with the greatest A vast number of feeble and unwarlike pilgrims first commenced the expedition over land; but nearly all perished on the way from exposure, fatigue, and attack by the nations through which they ] Iry" was now s originally an and respect tp litly gallantry, secured, (the vishers them- avage warfare ler the guard- I'landers. On lis vices and iatest import- f Normandy, I, and became ^n who took evolted sons, d. fi descend- saracens, and )ortant enter- 3nth century, ied away the i, and under 8 multitudes ire tolerated joted Turks evotees avIio and cruelty ; tian Europe, cities of the ; and people hraldom of used. The people were r the Pope; ;he greatest commenced e way from ivhich they FBANCE. .^ pa^sscd. To this succeeded a great and well-appointed armament of three hundred thousand men, commanded by Godfrey of Bouillon Kobert of Flanders, Robert of Normandy, son of the Conqueror,' llugh, the kmg's brother, and other lords and nobles of hic^h renown In three great divisions, they arrived in the East, where private ambition and private conquests soon allured many of the leaders from the sanctified undertaking in which they had embarked A portion, under Baldwin and the two Roberts, at length, in 1099 arrived under the walls of Jerusalem, which they took by storm' alter a fierce resistance. Godfrey waa chosen king of Jerusalem' and assumed a crown of thorns, with the title of "Defender of the Holy Sepulchre." The greater part of the Crusaders then returned leaving for the defence of their conquest two associations of military monks-the Knights Templars, and the Knights Hospitallers, or Knights of St. John. The work, however, was not completed. The Mahometans finally regained possession of the Holy City and though seven crusades were afterwards sent against them, retained it, as they continue to do to this day. Meanwhile, the king, abandoned to sensuality, relinquished the TnT.'SfrT"''' '"J'V'''' ^°"^^' ' P""«« «f J"«t intentions reii Tfift ^^'^ ^' ^'^ ^^ ^^^^' '^''^ ' '^^^l^- -"d feeble rei^ of fifty years, leaving tc his heirs the kingdom of France hardly larger than some of its present departments _ Under his son Louis VI. (called the Fat) it began, however to increasem territory, wealth, and importance. Much of thisWov^ ment wa. due to the protection extended over artisans and m Xnt who were granted charters for mutual defence and municipal govern! ment. As these classes increased in wealth, their taxes eSed the royal treasury. The arts and sciences improved; and comm roe secure from the depredations of the nobility, fiourisied to aT Xi^ before unknown Such was the foundation of those powerLl e I corporations which afterwards exercised such influeLe in th government of the nation. Louis was so(^ engaged in war with his powerful vassal Henrv I of England; and, at the instigation of the latter, the empero.of necessary to raise the or>Jlamme, or sacred national banner around i^-iju.xiy , and ^v hose cuudition he had greatly improved. 16 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF niSTOEY. During h.3 reign, literature, such as it was, made considerabl. progress, and the wandering Troubadours or koven^l Tit rd dinuscd a general taste for song and poetry. tL edebrl d bault of Champagne, his powerful and rebellious vaBsalT=!k„I unfortunate afzen, perished in the flames. Overcome with remote the kmg vowed a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; which by the Z7Z eoquenccof Bernard, Abbo.of01airvau..w'.co„v;^'dno™^^^^^^^ crusade. An expedition of two hundred and fift,r +1, '*""i"er Which he led into Palestine, Med "arl" sh^ reX"' ZtZ tST ""'"r*'/"^ ''" -er'regained .ht t.v^ ::s ritti:f orSjei'"'^^™^' -' ™ -- ^y '^« m unimportant wars with England, the king died Tn n«o T succeeded by his son Philip II. ^ ' ^^^^ ^"^ ^^ This prince, afterwards called Philin Au£ni«tn= ^r .-l , , monarch who had ruled the French since the^Its of P^ Y '^^"' He^^aintained . standing army, and ^ZXLfJtt;^^^ The irof% "* """'^ '^'"^^^'^^^ ^^^° ^" absolute monarch; I he city of Pans was greatly enlarged and imorov^d' ^n u^' reign, and vvas surrounded by a stroncr wall V.T ^""^ ^"^ aged and facilitated. He was Ipatfon of ..^r""''? '"'' '°'""^" the writers of romances and of mCellous tal? '^.^T'^'Sed their unnatural rebelliom mZ7d tL eldostT ^ t "'' ^" on the death of his father inim i ^^'^V^^^^^^^d the crown with Philip for a iT:c£''}£ ZTiCtT r-'-'^' archs, mutually Je.lous of each other;saTrnt;,f;rstrng : I PKTER THE HERMIT, M*T.BO FOB TH. ,ncc... or TH., OHU.^DJR. "I -.AN not to cla« Peter the Hermit amo.g great men; but cert^nW 1, ae..rve. the character of on, of the moat extraordinary men that ZT produced, ifit were but for the circumatance of having LvuW.' ' one continent to combat to extermination against anot e : / ' Trr"^'* nan. in doubt whether'he wa. madman or prophet fool 7 ^ > "- S-x* I: DKPARTURS or THE FIRST CBUSADl. '-KD BT P.T«« TBI BIBlilT ABO WALT., TH. P..M,t.l., "T«. Count. PalatiB. were already fuU of th. de.ir. to undertak. tbi. journey, and the knignt. of an inferior order .oon felt the .am. «al Th. poor them,eWe. eoon caught th. flam, .o .r4cntly. that no on. paue.d to th^nk of the .mallnee. of hi. wealth, but each .et about .elling hi. property - _ _ Who .haU t.U th, chUdren and th. infirm that, animated by the .am. .p.nt ha.t.ned to the. warT Who .h.11 c.ou»t M.i old men and th. youn, ««d. Who hurried forward to th. fi«htr-»ot „1<.. ,.. bope of a,. „«, ZTZ th. orcwn of martyrdom to b. won amid ... -orH .f the infidel. Tb. poo, harn...ing their oxen to two-wi.e...„ eart., i» wh.oh th.y p.aoed th. bab... at ..oh town or ctl. that th.y ..w. demanded eag.rly whether that •M J.ru.al.m."_D,.oBi,Tio» ., th. Fi... C.u.ad.. ,t a> Et.-wim... "if t, HILIII 4 to undertak* tfai* le (am* caal. Th» no ona pauiad to ailing hia propany. >t, animated by tha man and tha youDS a of aiJ og, "lut for infidala. — _ _ ■which thaj piaoed Bding osK-ard, vhila igaply whathar that BTi-wiTmais FBANCE. 17 I City wf Aero, the key oi ihv East. In «tor,ning this ,,h.ce und in h.s onoouruers w.th Saladin, tho .hivalric .ultan of Kgypt, Ki"L d ac.iu,n..d, by hi. .IcHp. ,r.« valour, th. nan.o of Cu3ur do M„I by which ho has ever since bcc, distinguished. I'hilip .oon took his h-I-arture for trance, taking a s, lenm oath that ij .vouhl .-onnnit .'. host.ht.es ,n the absence of Kichard-an oath from which he tre;u:hvrousIy but vai..Iy besought the Popo to release him. Never- holess, learning that liiehard w:u, eai^tive in Germany, he „ ade an attack upon his Norman possessions. In the fourth cru.sade, which succeeded, Philip refused to proved to ti.e Uoly Land m person; but levied taxes to forward the ontcr- prise Great nun.bers of his subjects embarked in the new expedition wh.c 1. was la.ide,l by Baldwin, count of Flanders. Joining thdr forced with those of Ven.ce, under Dandalo, the blind and ve.ierable do.e t ley .ere diverted from their purpose by a new enterpri,^, the ccm- uest of the Greek empire. Constantinople was taken, a.,,' Baldwin, ... 1204, being chosen emperor, founded a new dynasty in d.o LVst John, who succeeded Kichard in 1199, murdered his nephew Arthur the lineal heir to the throne, whose cause had been e snjused by 1 h.hp The French king, pleased with the opportunit , sum- nio..ed John, as his vassal, to trial for this crh.ie; and on his efusal to attend, declared his fief of Normandy forfeited. .The weak and wicked monarch could oppose no effectual resistance. Normmdv reverted to the crown of France, and hi. provinces of Maine, Anion and Touraine were speedily wrung from him by conquest. A l^rsre army wa^ also prepared, at the request of the Pope, for the inva'.ion a,.d conquest of England; but on the subniission of John, the v Z tiff issued his commands for its disbandment, greatly to :',e Mortification of the French monarch, who easily perceived hims, f tiie tool of this dommeenng and unscrupulous churchman Phihp, thus far highly successful in his ambitious schemes wa. next exposed to the attack of a formidable confederacy. En^'land' Flanders and Germany were united against him, and with an'lrmy of fi% thousand men, he encountered the confederates, of an over- whelming force, at Bouvines, on the 27th August, 1214 Afler a most desperate battle, in which Philip wa. dragged from his horse and exposed to the greatest danger, he won a complete victory ij seems to have been customary for ecclesiastics to engage in warfare ""YQlli—2 ^^^^ «*««ution among the enemy. ^' 18 TliJi rEOl'LE'S BOOK OF IIISTOBY. A severe persecution, occasionally afterwards renewed, waa carried on against the Albigenses, a sect of Christians in Languedoc, and the .nost atrocious cruelties were committed. An unsuccessful enter- i.nse under Prince Louis, to gain the throne of England, and an .equally futile crusade, despatched into Egypt, were the last import- ant movements under the reign of Philip. He died in 1223, in the f.ftyeighth year of his age, and the fourth of a reign in which the strength and territory of Prance had been extraordinarily increased l.oms VIIL, who aacended the throne on the death of his father was thirty-six years of age, and feeble both in mind and body' Uunng his brief reign of three years, he waged war with Henry m ot J^^nglaml and carried on a bitter persecution against the Albi- genses. While engaged in the latter, he died in 1226, of a fever which carried off great numbers of his soldiers. _ His queen, Blanche, who became .egent and guardian of her son LOUIS IX. was a woman of great energy and kindly disposition! though rash and arbitrary. She maintained the rights of the throne rilVl"""' v'"^''^ e^ ?' '^'^"S' "* ^'' '""J^"*^- This monarch, called from his piety St. Louis, wa« of a remarkably just and reli- gious disposition, though enslaved by the bigotry of his times. In the year 1244, while in a trance, he received, as he imagined a di vine command to assume the cross. Four years afterwards he sailed to Egypt with a gallant armament, seized the town of Dami- etta, and advanced towards Cairo. The expedition was, however defeated by an inundation of the Nile; his troops perished of pesti^ lenee; and in April, 1250, he was compelled to surrender himself and the remains of his army as prisoners to the sultan of E-vpt He finally regained his liberty by payment of an immense ranfom and, after an absence of four years, returned to France Here he applied himself to the more truly religious task of redressing abuses and administering equal justice to his subjects. The "Parliament of Pans," a grand council of all the principal persons in the king- dom, was now constituted aa a "High Court of Appeals." In July, 1270, the king, attended by many of his nobles, had the tolly to embark in another crusade; and first effected a landing in Africa, enthusiastically hoping to convert the infidel king of Tmiis Pestilence, however, caused by the excessive heat, broke out in his camp, and this generous, but misdirected monarch fell a victim to it after a virtuous, though bigoted reign of fortv-four years His son Philij> in. (.nrnnmcd the Bold) ^^^[s a prince of excellent KY. , 3wed, waa carried mguedoc, and the isuccessful enter- England, and an ! the last import- d in 1223, in the ign in which the inarilj increased, ith of his father, mind and bodj. ■ with Henry III. gainst the Albi- 1226, of a fever ■dian of her son, idly disposition, tits of the throne This monarch, y just and reli- f his times. In he imagined, a 3 afterwards he town of Dami- i was, however, irished of pesti- ■render himself iltan of ICgypt. imense ransom, mce. Here he dressing abuses le " Parliament ns in the king- eals." nobles, had the 'd a landing in king of Tunis, roke out in his I a victim to it, ears. ce of excellent tKANCl!;. 19 3 disposition, but of very inferior abilities. His barber, or physician, Pierre le Brossc, had gained almost complete influence over his mind] and even tried to effect, by false accusations, the ruin of the queen. His falsehoods and treasonable designs being detected, however, he was liually condemned and executed. The French invaders had for a considerable time kept possession of Sicily, and exercised much cruelty upon the inhabitants. A most terrible conspiracy was organized for their destruction. The plot, although known to numbers, was kept secret for years, and the intended victims were perfectly unsuspicious. At length, on Easter- day, 1282, at the tolling of the vesper-bell, the inhabitants rose throughout the island, attacked their enemies by surprise, and slew them all, with a single exception. An expedition which Philip undertook for the conquest of Arra- gon, was disconcerted by the loss of his fleet, which was destroyed or captured by Andrew Doria, the great Genoese admiral; and shortly after, in 1285, the king expired, after a reign of fifteen years, during which the French nation had enjoyed an unusual amount of happiness and prosperity. HLs son Philip IV., surnamed the Fair, next ascended the throne. Some of the most barbarous and perfidious acts on record soon dis- graced his reign. The new sovereign was by no means deficient m ability, especially in craft and cunning; but he was avaricious unprincipled, and outrageously cruel. He was soon engaged in war with England, and, by treachery, gained some advantages He entrapped the earl of Flanders by an invitation, imprisoned him at 1 aris, and despatched a force of fifty thousand men against his terri- tories. These, however, met with such a terrible defeat at the hands of the Flemi,< citizens, that, after the battle, four thousand golden spurs, the badges of knighthood, were collected on the field The king, however, was now in alliance with Edward of England who had married his sister Margaret, and was enabled to turn his resources against them, and in turn to gain the advantage Covetous of the wealth of their order, he next instituted a most atrocious persecution against the Knights Templars. Finding that he was unable legally to destroy th3 institution, he gave orders for the arbitrary arrest of all its members who were in the kingdom riieir property was confiscated, and many of them were subjected to the moat cruel tortures, to extort a confession of nretP.nH«d -;,^». Jacques de Molay, the Grand Master, who hastened from OyprmZ 20 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. defend the reputation of his Order, was, after a vilknous mockery of trial, burned alive, by especial order of the king. The Pope, who had at first protested against these atrocities, readily connived at them, on receiving a share of the spoils. Although, by oppressive taxes, the king had completely alienated his people, yet by way of depressing the nobility, he admitted them to a voice in the general assembly; and the States General were afterwards composed of the clergy, the nobility, and the deputies of the people. Philip died in 1314, from a fall received while hunting, in the forty-sixth year of his age, and the twenty-ninth of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Louis X., called Hutin (the Peevish), who left the control of government to his uncle, Charles of Valois. He died a^er a reign of nineteen months, chiefly remarkable for the emancipation of the serfs, whom he compelled to purchase their freedom, to replenish his exhausted treai -irv. His brother, Philip V., came to the throne in 1316, and i h-s an unimportant reign of six years, was succeeded by his younger brother, Charles IV., at whose death, in 1328, the cro\/n, in default of male heirs, passed to Philip, son of Charles of Yalois. The direct line of Capet thus came to an end, after retaining the throne for more than three centuries. iiJuAiiJER III. THB HOUSE OF VALOIS. Philip VI., sumamed (why, it would be hard to say) the For- tunate, received the crown at the age of thirty-four, and was soon called upon to defend it from the impudent and unreasonable claims advanced by Edward III., king of England. Although the preten- sions of Edward, derived from his mother, a daughter of Philip IV. v/ere rendered null by the Salic law, and even if that law were Dou-existent, were inferior to those of another branch, yet he obsti- nately persisted in assuming the title and arms of the king of France )RY. illiinous mockery king. The Pope, readilj connived npletely alienated he admitted them ites Greneral were id the deputies of I hunting, in the f his reign, called Hutin (the lis uncle, Charles months, chiefly )m he compelled ed treaf 'i.rv. il6, and t i^^r an by his younger cro\/n, 111 default of "Valois. The lining the throne to say) the For- ir, and was soon sasonable claims )ugh the preten- 3r of Philip IV., f that law were ch, yet he obsti- 3 king of France FRANCE. 21 —a piece of folly which the sovereigns of England, until very recently, have all imitated. Edward and his son, the famous Black Prince, with a large armv • landed in France. On the 23d of August, 1346, was fought the battle of Crecy (Cressy), in which the superiority of the Englisli archers secured ttiem a complete and terrible victory. More than thirty thousand of the French perished in this disastrous conflict, including a vast number of knights, nobles, and all the flower of French chivalry, Edward immediately laid siege to Calais; and the unfortunate inhabitants, after bravely resisting for more than a year, were reduced to the greitest suffering from famine. The town was finally compelled to surrender, and the lives of the citizens were saved by the heroic conduct of Eustace de St. Pierre, who w-ith five of his fellow-burgesses, offered their lives as a ransom for the rest. They were spared, with much reluctance, at the inter- cession of Philippa, Edward's queen. At length, after France had been terribly devastated, and in parts almost depopulated, a peace was concluded. Soon afterwards, in 1350, Philip died, in the fifty-seventh year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign. During his time the province of Dauphiny had been ceded to the French territories in consideration that the king's son should always bear the title of the 'dauphin." John, his eldest son, at the age of forty, ascended the throne, and the war with England was soon revived. Prince Edward, who had led a small army from Gascony, was ravagin- the country, and John with an immensely superior force, attacked him at i oictiers. But the English position was strongly fortified ; a sudden panic seized the French ranks; and the contest resulted in a victory tor the English, as brilliant, though less bloody, than that of Crecy 1 he king and his son Philip, being taken prisoners, were treated by the victor with the utmost respect and courtesy, and were carried to London. The condition of France, left without a ruler, was now wretched m the extreme. The nobles, attempting to reduce the people again to a condition of serfdom, committed the most atrocious cruelties- and the peasantry, driven to desperation, commenced a furioui a tack on their oppressors. The castles of the nobility, in many paces were pillaged, and their inmates ravished and massacred, llus e^c^«en. as it was called, from Jacques Bon Homme, (Jack Goodiellow, a ^vourite leader,) became so for.nidable that all p.rtie. !iii!l;^ TilK ri;oi>LE'S BOOK OF UISTORY. Enolisl, an.l French, united to put it down, and it wa3 finally sup- prcs..ed, Willi iiniuoiise slaughter ^ ^ rerncv'v^fui' h^; ''"°° ^he captivity of his father, held the dima. d;d ihr h ^'°""? '^' extortionate sums which were denundul ibr his ransom; and King Edward, with a large army marched to the very walls of Paris. A terrible storm of' huS mind fh r:? '"^'^r? '"'' ^^^'^ ^^^ ^^-^ '^P- ^is superstition sun s Sohn ^".^ ^" ?" '^' ^^^"^^"* °^ ^^^*^^» ^^^P-I'-^ted sums John was set free, and returned to his own country but found himself unable, from the poverty of the nation, to comUte Im engagements. Therefore, declaring that if good fa tb we e th "td T r^^ r'" ^'^^^' '' ^^^'^'^ ^* ^-« 'be respecteT n ms capti uty, and died a prisoner m England, April 8th, 1864. He had abSi" InV'i t , / f ^^'''' ''''' ''''''^y distinguished for his In. ; T '"'"''^ accomplishments. He was fond of the ompany ol hterary men, among whom the celebrated Petrarch conversed wxth him, and admired his taste and learning. The o 2 ibrary, which m his father's day had consisted of twenty volume! he increased to nine hundred. It is, at present, the largelt kthe world, containing more than a million of volum;. Sevfra wo k cies ot l^ioissart are the most important. By order of the kin,, many of the Greek and Latin clasL were tnfnsl ted i^ ^ren t' mdiflerently enough, it is true. The university of Paris wL already thronged with students from almost every nation of Eurle "^ lis political abilities were also great. He regained the province elin 7' ""• ''"' """"'"'^ ^"^^^^* '^^'^ -'^^^^ besiegin/a certam ca-stle; but so great w.-i. the respect felt lor him even by his nemies, that in accordance to agreement, the fortress surrendered and the ke,. were solemnly laid upon his bier by the governor ' Char es he Bad king of Navarre, had long disturbed the Fr;neh nat o„ by his treachery and enmity; and finally filled the measure of his'cnmes by administering a slow poison to Charles, his relative and fellow-sovere.gn. Under the influence of this cW pot on .e ngered for a tune, and finally expired in 1380, at the age of forty.foiir, having reigned sixteen years. ^ I RY. i was finally sup- fatlier, held the lums which were h a large army, torm of thunder tiis superstitious pretensions, and 3rtain stipulated m country, but on, to complete ood faith were be respected in 'able manner to 1,1364. He had and misfortune, guished for his as fond of the irated Petrarch ng. The royal venty volumes, B largest in the Several works ich the chroni- r of the king, 1 into French, ris was already iiUrope. the province iiesclin, carry- le besieging a n even by his i surrendered, governor, id the French the measure s, his relative cruel potion, it the age of FRANCE. 23 Charles YI. (the ''Well Beloved"), at the age of thirteen, came to the throne, the duke of Anjou being appointed regent. The hitter, a selfish and ambitious man, took advantage of his power to attempt the gaining a kingdom of his own. Seizing the public treasure, and assembling a large army, he marched into Italy where Joanna of Naples had bequeathed to him her possessions. Ili- force was, however, almost entirely cut off, and he survived but a short tmm tlie destruction of his ambitious hopes. The duke of Burgundy succeeded to the regency, and in 1386 planned a formidable invasion of England. Nine hundred vessels were prepared, but the expedition was dispersed by a storm and rendered incapable of effecting its object. The king, who on his commg of age, in 1388, assumed the government, gave promise, by his wise and equitable measures, of an excellent reign. Unfortu- natP.y exposure to the sun brought on a furious attack of insanity and when he had partially recovered, a terrible accident which befell several of his noble companions occasioned a renewal of his disorder. For thirty years, during which this unhappy monarch reigned nominally he had only occasional glimpses of reason, and was reated with brutal neglect by his queen, Isabella of Bavaria who kept possession of his revenues. ' In the latter part of his reign, Henry V. of England, seeing the defenceless state of the kingdom, again advanced the aisurd flaim of Edward III, and invaded France with a large army Afte^ ravaging the country far and near, he encountered the French of great y superior force, near Agincourt, on the 26th of October lil6 The latter, attacked upon disadvantageous ground, and exposed to the galhng fire of the English archery, were entir ly defeated and great numbers of them perished. ^ ueieatea, and Henry, who, on account of the mortality from disease in his army h^ been compelled to return to England, soon reeommencedThe war, and ma short time gained possession of all Normandy ' Over! reZrof'tho i; "T"''""i°' ''^ ^""^^' "^^^'^^' ^- --declared regent of the kingdom, and successor to the crown; the imbecile kmg being made to assent publicly to this arrangement. Hen'y d X of |r\r7"' '* ^r^' '"' ^^^^ '^^^--^s, having tlfe exl in ;fS .;:f "* °' f:r; '''^«' ^^^'^^m king hlLelf expired in 1422, at the age of fifty-five, afler a reign of fortv-two years, mostly passed in insanity. "" ^ "" During his reign, a curious instance of the trial by ordeal occurred. 21 THE PEOPlE.s BOOK OF HISTOEr. aire, he attacked him fbrioimlv «r.A v. ^'^^.^od). Meeting Mac- enmity, awakened s^'p^r Cmu'^ "'"''"^, f '^'^^"^^ ^^ and it was resolved to refer' tl,: "^^"^^"^r^!, avowed his innocence, fight between the do/and the ™^*^^ V' ^'^"'^^^^^ ^^ '-^ P'^bli club, and the do, t ;t d^r^, .'^^ ^-^ 7.^"°^^^^ ^ weary. After a Inna n,,^ ^ "^^ ^*^^ shelter when -e V his b;:xtifrsr rijt: rr-- "- -- te w™ so long slb^ected ■ '"»''"'«''»!/ "„,plai„t to which ever, appeared desperate; when in U2S „ °" *""""«». bo*- came to his relief To,„ ,1. j f ' "" «^«"'aordiiiary event herself insp,-,^. She Z'^^I^TIT^J^'"^"- '» """«■- them exhorting her to ronairto.L^ 1 ""S*' "'«' '■eard frequent exercise she Si. ''''''^™"ee of her country. By bacl and othe:2„texetises7nd nT™%'° "*"« ""'=-- .0 Charles, and in.brLd ^rortttTilTT: ''''''' of ecclesiastics was appointed fn «v ™'^sion. A commission convinced of the reali^rof her LTZT '" '''''"''' -^' ^^'-^ value of her enthusiasm thev "^ ' ' ""' '"'''''" °^ ^^^ Political truth of herpretens^nsAZ^^^^ 'T'''' ^" ^-°- o^' the on a splendid gray chanrefT ^" '^^Plete armour, and mounted closel/besiegef by he El sh T"' '° °''"'^"^' ^^'^^'^'^ -- then religious entlusiaL^:^:fa^e^^^^^^ the highest an energetic warfare with the English T W ^ ' ^^""^^^^^d occasion, defeated; great numbef \hem ^"..''""V^^"^ awe, deserted; and Talbot the En^li. '^^ ^ ''''^'g^"'^^ to raise the siege. 0^^s:^^:^Z':::fS::Z ''^''f' to her prediction, was soon enabled to enter Rh.' "''"'^'"S and be solemnly crowned after the manne of h "'^^''"«-')^' then entreated permission to retire to herUL^XlX t BY. ' enemy, Robert forest of Bondi. e crime, brought ■ Meeting Mac- Y exhibiting hia d his innocence, nee by a public ^ was allowed a r shelter when ininal was over- d was executed, ed in the rei"-n iplaint to which id king, by the title of Charles icient place of fortunes, how- ordinary event 'asant, Jacques 3en, to imagine els, and heard country. By ling on horse- nteen repaired A commission s; and, either f the political favour of the and mounted hicli was then h the liighest I, commenced almost every t a religious as compelled es, according victoriously, iestors. She ling that her FBANCE. 25 mission was accomplished. The king however, desirous of availing himself of her services during the remainder of the war, would not assent. Her flimily was enriched and ennobled, and sfll recom- menced her exploits. At length, being treacherously deserted in a skirmish by her companions, who were jealous of her superior renown, she fell into the hands of the duke of Burgundy, who sold her for a large sum to tlie duke of Bedford. The English meanly resolved to avenge themselves on this woman, before whose arms they had so often fleS. A commission of i^riests and others, headed by the infamous French bishop of Beauvais, was appointed to try her on a charge of sorcery. She was convicted, and, to the eternal dishonour o°f all concerned, and especially of Charles, was burned as a witch in the market-place of Rouen on the 30th of May, 1431. Many of those who, according to the superstition of the times, had believed in her guilt, on witnessing the constancy and piety of her end, were struck with remorse, and went away, exclaiming, in anguish, "We are lost! a holy person has been burned." _ This cruel and cowardly act availed the English little. They lost city after city, and were speedily driven out of all France, except Calais. Charles, after an absence of seventeen years, reentered his capital, in November, 1437. In the following year a dreadful fam- me and pestilence laid waste the country; and it is said that wolves roved through the deserted streets of Paris. In 1440, peace was concluded, and the duke of Orleans, the kings cousin, who had been a prisoner in England for twenty-five years, returned to his country. His son afterwards became kincr of France The latter days of King Charles were much disturbed" by the rebellious and unnatural conduct of the dauphin, an odious wretch, who afterwards, under the title of Louis XL, so lon^ tvran- nized over the French nation. He had taken refuge with the duke of Burgundy, but still continued his machinations against the lite of his father. The unhappy monarch, continually dreading poison refused to talce food, and thus, it is said, perished of starvation, in the year 1461. He had lived fiftyeight years, and reigned thirty-nine Loms supported by his powerful ally and vassal, the duke of Burgundy after being crowned at Rheims, proceeded to Paris and assumed the government. Plis disregard of their order excited dis- content among the nobles, and a powerftil league was formed against iiim, headed by the dukes of Berri and Br^tagne, and Charles, the 26 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. lie soon found himself in a more perilous condition. Charles who had succeeded his father in the powerful principality of Bur gundy, was a man of fiery courage and ungovernable passions. It .as agreed that Louis and himself should hold a personal eonfereneo a eronne, a town of Burgundy; and the former, with butlw at endants, came th.ther, and was lodged in the ca.stle. Durin. the r m erv:ew, news came that the people of Liege, a town of Flande s belonging to Burgundy, had been excited to insurrection by the em^-anes of Louis. The duke, terribly incensed, made him^ is! oner on the spot, and for two days remained in a state of furious agnatmn, unable to decide upon his execution. At length bv the influence of his chief officers, who were in the pay of the 'capt vc monarch, he spared his life, though upon humiliating'lond^tfons'and he k.ng, compelled to accompany Charles to Flafders, was Lced Edward IV. of England, a warlike and ambitious prince, entered France by h,s port of Calais, in 1475, with a large army anfla d laim to the crown. By a dexterous use of bibery, ^th politic Lems wa., however, enabled to purchase peace, and [he two mon arehs held a personal interview upon a bridge, with a strong ^X between, to prevent treachery. Through this cautious obaci: tz^;"^^:^ '"''''''' '-'' ^ -^^--' -^ -p-ted u;:n The duke of Burgundy, attempting to conquer Switzeriand mrVtZ 7r\'r^ ^^-^ *^^ ^^'- -^-^^■ Atter the battle of Morat, the remains of his slaughtered armv were heaped into a huge pyramid, as their only buria! ^ "Here Burgundy bequei.thed his tombless host, A bony hciip, through ages to remain, Tliemselves their sepulchre." A portion of this fatal mound remained until recently, though much dim.mshed by the pious care of the Burg^indians, al of whfmZs ng that way, earned home some relies of their cou'ntrymen. Charies h mself soon afterwards lost his life, by treachery or violence, whi e besieging the town of Nancy. ' I IKY. ly waa assembleJ lises, he contrived idition. Charles, ncipalitj of Bur- ■ble passions. It rsonal conference r, with but few te. During their own of Flanders irrection by the made him pris- state of furious t length, by the Y of the captive conditions; and iers, was forced of those whom prince, entered army, and laid 2ry, the politic I the two mon- i strong grating iitious obstacle leparated upon r Switzerland, mountaineers. ightered army though much of whom pass- men. Charles iolence, while FRANCE. 27 J ■!- Louis publicly gave thanks for the death of the duke, and imme- diately .seized his territories; the people, worn out by disastrous wars, could offer no resistance. Edward IV. was dead, and Louis now seemed at the height of his power; yet he was utterly miser- able. Aware of the hatred of his people, whom he had terribly oppressed, he immured himself for life in the castle of Plessis which was strongly fortified and guarded by his Scottish archers' Here, .surrounded by gibbets, on which his unhappy subjects were suspended, he led an unenviable life, governing by his barber and his executioner, and vainly trying to ward off the approach of death by collecting a great quantity of relics. The Pope sent him many articles oi this nature; and even the Grand Turk considerately despatched a supply; but all in vain, for he expired in August, 14«d, after an odious and oppressive reign of twenty-two years During this time, however, either by bequest, purchase, or "con- quest, nearly all the important principalities in the limits of the ancient kingdom had come into the hands of the sovereign whoso power and independence were thus wonderfully increased ' H.S .son Charles VIIL, who, on account of his father's jealousy had hitherto been deprived of all means of improvement, was of a most excellent and amiable disposition, but deficient in judgment and sagacity. As he was only fourteen, his guardianship, by tl will of Louis, wa3 conferred on his eldest sister. Her authority waJ confirn^d by the States General, and the duke of Orieans w o Z opposed her, fled to Bretagne. War was hereupon commenced against that province; Orleans was taken prisoner, Ld cloTeTyTon Charies of Anjou had bequeathed to Louis his claim upon Naples and the young king, anxious to acquire military glory in 149, et out for Italy with eighteen thousand men. Proelaimfng himsS he enemy of the Italian tyrants, he passed triumphantly^hr^i he peninsula. Rome and Naples threw open their gatesf and S ^med him as a deliverer. While, however, the French abandon d hemselves to revelry and military license, a powerful confederal waa formed against them, consisting of the Emperor Maximilhrf lerdmand of Spain, and the Italian princes. Char 1"^' pelled to return immediately, and, with only nine thoL".d men encounte d an army of more than four times his numb i'the valley of Fornova. Leaving three thousand of the enom^ dead 28 THE I'KOI'LE'S BOOK OF UlSTOBy. iluii lus Italian conquests. In his domestic administration, he displayed great love of iustice and a de.re or reform. His people, ho.ever,^id not long "no v the benefit of these virtues, for he expired, from the eifecfs oJ an accident, in April. 1498, in the fifteenth year of his reil Ind Z twenty eighth of his age. His surname ^f "the Courts'' r^^ cacs his amiable deportment; and no sovereign ever died more beloved by aU with whom he came in intercourse. CH APT EH 17. THE HOUSE OP VAL0I8 CONTINUBI>. As Charles left no children, he waa succeeded by the duke of Orleans, great grandson of Charles V., who, at the^age of thirt^ SIX, jisccnded the throne, under the title of Louis XII Educa^fd amid reverses, he had learned wisdoi. nom misfortune; and so studt ously promoted the good of his peopl. .. to receive their enthus a^^ affection. Commerce, science, and literature were zealously eniou aged; taxes were lessened; and the administration ofT^ ce w" irfrunatl^ ''' '-'-'''' ''^'" '' - ^^ ^- ^- P-^ent Z Having certain claims upon Milan, he took possession of that duchy and of the republic of Genoa; and then, by agreemen with Ferdinand of Spain, despoiled the king of Naples 'of lis terries The allies quarrelled, however, about the division of their spo 1 and Gonsalvo de Cordova, the "Great Captain," by treacherv and military skill secured the whole for his m^r. Verdinand. "^ In io08, the celebrated Pope Julius II., one of the most able men that ev.r sat upon a throne, induced Louis, Ferdinand, ad th Emperor Maximilian, to suspend their mutual hostilities, and turn heir arms against the republic of Venice, which had becime formT territory. In lolO. Julius and Louis engaged in hostilities, and the -4} BY. )mpelled to aban* It love of justice, '. not long enjoy the effects of an is reign, and the IJourteoua" indi- ever died more bjthe duke of 3 age of thirty- ^IL Educated s; andsostudi- eir enthusiastic alously encour- of justice waa s prudent and session of that greement with his territories, jf their spoil; treachery and nand. he most able inand, and the ties, and turn become formi- f considerable lities, and the FRANCE. 29 former waa completely overcome. Two years afterwards, s^ssistcd by Ferdinand and the V\>netiaus, he renewed the war; but, with hia allies, was dofoiitcd by the French, in a great battle at Ravenna, and died in the Jbllowing year. Leo X., another distinguished patron of art and letters, succeeded him. In loia, Henry VIII., the youthful king of England, who had espt)uscd the cause of Maximilian, assisted in defeating the French at Guinegate; but in tho following year Anne, the widow of Charles (whom L.HUS had married,) dying, peace waa concluded, and cemented by the marriage of the French king to Mary, sister of the English monarch. Louis did not long survive this alliance. lie died Janu- ary Lst, 1515, in the fifty-third year of his age, after a reign of seventeen years. Ilis care for tli happiness of his subjects gained hun the enviable title of "Father f his people." In default of direct male heirs, the crown next pa-ssed to the count oi' Angouleme, cousin of the late monarch, who became king, under the title of Francis I., at the age of twenty-one. This gallant and chivalrous prince possessed some faults natural to those of his temperamuit. Ue was headstrong and dissipated; and his court, iilled with the most beautiful and sometimes frailest ladies in the realm, presented a striking contrast to the gravity of his predecessors. Miiaa was still the object of his desires; and in spite of the opposition of the Pope, the emperor, and Ferdinand, he came off victorious. The brave Chevalier Bayard crossed the Alps, and sur- prised the enemy; Francis in person defeated the Swiss, and Milan submitted. Charles I., grandson of Ferdinand, perhaps the most able sovereicrn of his time, had inherited immense possessions, both in the old and nevv worlds. In seeking the office of emperor of Germany, which IS elective, he found a rival in Francis. The most disastrous wars were incurred from this mutual jealousy. Both sought the friendship oi Henry VIIL, but Charles, gaining the first interview, and bein- nepkew to Queen Catherine, gained the advantage. Nevertheless, the French and English sovereigns, by mutual agreement, met at a place near Ardres, called, from the magnificence displayed, the "Field of the Cloth of Gold." For eighteen days, while occasionally discussing graver matters, they mingled in youthful amusements, and lived in the greatest intimacy. Both excelled in martial sports ; but Henry one day, seizing his fellow-sovereign by the collar, and provoking him to wrestle, received a severe fall, and was laid flat upon his back 80 •ZUH I'JiOl'LK'S BOOK OF 1I18T0RV, The king of Spain hud gnincd his object, and hud become emperor under liic title ul' Churles V, P'rancis, enra;,'ed ut his disappoint- ment, and easily iinding a pretext for war, sent an army into Spain and another into Italy. The latter, ill-comnumded, was repeatedly deleated and repulsed— the constable of Bourbon, the best general in France, remaining unemijloyed at home. Louisa of Savoy, the icing's mother, ami a woman of detestable character, wished to marry him. He rejected the proposal in such terms that the king gave him a blow. Uis possessions, under pretext of law, were soon Htripj)ed from him, and, eager for revenge, he entered the service of the emperor. The latter made him liberal promises, and he invaded France; but being joined by no one, was compelled to retreat. Francis had been for some time besieging the city of Pavia, when a large force, under the constable and Lannoy, came to its relief. On the 23d of February, 1525, a desperate battle was fought, in which Francis, after displaying great personal valour, was utterly defeated, and was taken prisoner. lie wrote to his mother the celebrated despatch, "Madam, all is lost, except honour." The emperor, demanding unreasonable terms, kept his rival close prisoner f(jr a year, during which he had nearly died from confinement and inquietude. lie finally accepted the emperor's conditions, and was relea-sed, leaving his two sons as hostages; but, on regaining his dominions, dishonourably refused compliance, alleging that the promises of a captive were not binding. In these desolating wars fell the brave and honourable Chevalier Bayard, "the knight without fear and without reproach." He was considered, in his own day, as ever since, the model of pure chiv- alry, and the king himself besought knighthood at his hand on the field of battle. Finding him mortally wounded, the duke of B^^urbon lamented his fate, to which Bayard replied, "I am not to be pitied; but those who arc fighting against their country." In 1529, a treaty of peace was concluded, by which Francis paid a heavy ransom for his sons, and married Eleanor, the emperor's sister. Relieved from the anxieties of war, he r'.evotcd much atten- tion to literature and the fine arts. Beuvcnuto Cellini and other distinguished artists adorned his court. Palaces were rebuilt, and statues and paintings of high merit were produced. The climate at this time underwent a remarkable change, and from 1528 to 1534 France was under a perpetual summer. Nature, in consequence, ex])eriencing no period of rest, was unable to bring her products to / BV. I become emperor t his disappoint- army into Spain 1, wus repeatedly the best general 3a of" Savoy, the wished to marry it the king gavo law, were soon ed the service of , and he invaded d to retreat, y of Pavia, when une to its relief. J was fought, in our, was utterly his mother the honour." The ,'al close prisoner confinement and ditions, and was n regaining his leging that the arable Chevalier oach." He was jl of pure chiv- his hand on the ukeof Bwurbon tot to be pitied ; ;h Francis paid , the emperor's ted much atten- illini and other ere rebuilt, and The climate at ti 1528 to 1534, n consequence, her ]?roduet3 to FKANCE. ai maturity, and a terrible famine wjus the result. This, and the usually attending r'ostilenee, carried off a fourth of the inhabitants of France riie wii with Charles was renewed in 153(J, and continued for ciglit years, during which the emperor was generally assisted by lenry. Peace was conebuled in 1544; and three years afterwards I'ran.is, who had been ill for a long time, expired, on the 31st of >Iareh, 1547, in the finythird year of his age and the thirtyseeond of Ins reign. The courage and magnilieenee of this king delighted the French nation, ever fund of glury and display; and he has always recin an especial favourite of their historians. His son Henry IF. succeeded, and with his queen, Catherine de -Medieis, was entertained, on their j)ublic entry into Paris, among other amusements, with the execution of several herelics;-a dread- ful spectacle, which so affected the king, that he never entirely rocn-ered from the shock. In 1555, the Emperor Charles V so long the enemy of France, voluntarily resigned his immense posses- sions to his son Philip II., und retired into a convent. The Pope being at enmity with Philip, sought the aid of Henry, who des- patched the rnmenced. The courts established for the suppressioiTof heresv It titlt of Les chamhres aro?€/ife.,"_" burning chambers" The r;;;ll!;';;f^ ^^^^-^ ^'^^p'^^^- ^^ vSin end::LreJ^ .;^ta3 htse cruelties. He succeeded, however, in preventing th« introduction of the inquisition preventing the ;cu IJcnrj de Bourbon, pnnce of Cond,5, and brother to the king of Navarre, was at the head of the reformed believers. The Adm ra! Cohgni, and many others of hi-di nnk wen- off],. ""- ^^""''^^' sion. Their plan/fbr «olf defend i:^''.^:;^',^;" ''""' condemned to lose his head. By th^JxX^^f Z ^^ Z e.xeeut.on was delayed; and meanwhile the youn. ki,.^^^ xv ' f effected an apparent reconciliation of the two rival fam lies T t K> llugnenots, and the toleration extended to them, bfgan to thin o aga,n resorting to force. An accidental affray, in wlSt lie du t o( Guise was injured, brought on a devastating civ war Ti <'-ontost which for a long time divided France, w5s dlstingu iheJbv a ferocity unusual even in civil warfare. Fri^ndsir and e ' at nl , . ' "" ««"^"^anded the Huguenots, was defeated at Dreux, and taken prisoner by Guise, who, hoWr, treaSi J^m 0R7. f an Italian court, oted enemy of tlie nMy through the lie curdinal, ardent the Bourbons, (of Te,) the o])ponents •t. A savage per- itanta were called, )ression of heresy icquired the terri- chambers." The 1 endeavoured to n preventing the lit without resist- other to the king rs. The Admiral 'he same persua- 1, the prince was ofl'Hopitul, the g king, who for tnber, 1560, after , succeeded him, laved the life of icen, to counter- e Bourbons, and id families. As sition, naturally aducation. The 'ied a wiser and ing number oi began to think which the duke vil war, Thi.s istinguished by p and relation- massacres were h was defeated )r, treated him Fri-Dch Costun.o '" ^"'' ""UN or LUOI, ,,. French Cotumo, I" rni Hfn-i or louii ti, French Contum* 'N TH« tt»,„„ at toon xii French Contuma or iBt a IT ■NTIC«HTa CINTDHT. ■■*ft^ FBANCE. 815 with mucli confidence and magnanimity.- Tlie duke himself, the next year, 1563, fell by the hand of an assassin, and died, exhorting the queen to make jjeace between the contending parties. Ills wishes were complied with; and tlie Huguenots received favourable terms. In 1567, the reformed party, oppressed and deceived, again took up arms. The Constable Montmoreiici was killed early in the war and on ^the 13th of March, 1569, Conde himself, after displaying great skill and valour, fell upon the field of Jarnac. Ilis forces, overpowered by the enemy, under Tavannes, who were four times their number, were compelled to yield. At the death of Cond6, the prince of Beam, heir to JS'avarre, (afterwards the famous Uenry IV.) a youth of sixteen, became the head of the reformed party. He was already distinguished by his intelligence, prudence, and amiable mariners. In 1570, peace was concluded, and, to cement it, a marriage between Henry and the king's sister, Margaret, was resolved upon. With the principal persons of his party, he repaired to Paris. The young sovereign, now king of Navarre, was married in 1572, and during the festivities of the occasion, a most horrible plot was matured for the extirpation of the Protestant party. Some of the leaders sus- pected treachery, and one of them said to Coligni, "I am going to quit Paris, because they seem too fond of us." For two years, Catherine and the duke of Guise (who inherited more than his father's hostility to the reformation) had been engaged in preparing this atrocious scheme: the king had been i)revailed on to give his consent; and their enemies had been invited to Paris for the express purpose of ending the matters in dis|)ute by a general massacre. On the 24th of August, 1572, six days after the marriage, at a given signal, the tolling of the great bell of the palace, an indiscrimi- nate slaughter of the Protestants commenced. Five thousand of them were murdered in Paris, and at least seventy thousand in the provinces. The brave and venerable Admiral Coligni was killed by the express commands of the duke, who presided over the massacre; and it is .said that Charles himself fired with a musket, from his palace window, upon the unfortunate victims as they ran thr6ugh the streets below. A public thanksgiving was offered for the suc- cess of this wholesale butchery, which occurred upon the night of St. Bartholomew, and has taken its name from that circumstance. Two millions, however, of the Huguenots, remained; and, rather than drive them to desperation, a peace was concluded Vol. 11.-3 ' r 8i THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY, From the time of his implication in this terrible crime Charles enjoyed no rest. He was continually tormented by remo^^e, and is supposed that his fate was accelerated by a slow poison He died on the 30th May, 1574, in the twenty-fourth year of h s age afte a reign of thirteen years. During this disturbed and bloody'peSd it IS remarkable that many improvements were effected in fhe laws' and in the administration of justice. These reforms were due to the untiring and benevolent efforts of the chancellor, I'Hopital the inost enlightened and virtuous public character of hi^ age ^ ' Jieir to the throne, had been elected king of Poland, and was in that country at the time of Charies' death. Delighted with his new pros- pects, lie fled from his kingdom suddenly, by night, and hastened to take possession of his native domains. He was now in his twenty- nel^'t'l r ['' T '"'''' ^^^^'^^^i"gly effeminate, and his amuse- mcmts childish in the cxtren,e. His country, meanwhile, wa. distracted by the religious contests which stiH prevailed. ' Th" duke of Guise, afler the peace of 1576, formed a powerful "League" Am'Jrt ■ '" Tr '''' ^«f"™^ti«»- The king himself and 1 hil p of Spain joined the confederacy ; and in the war which ensued he Huguenots were compelled to resist a most powerful combina^ tion of enemies. Henry of Navarre was now the next heir to the hrone, and the Catholics were filled with alarm, on account of hi religion and his talents. The ambitious and powerful duke of Guise was, however, the most influential person in the kingdom, and hi! popularity and his evident designs on the throne excited tke king' jealousy. On his arrival at Paris he was received with such enthl wL t Kl'f ' ''*'' ''^"^^' ^^^^'^^'^ '' -^-« himself from further trouble by assassination; and accordingly the duke, being summoned to attend the royal council, was murdered in the iiaJlsof the palace, by the king's emissaries. His brother, the cardinal perished in the same manner, the next day ^-irainai, SoAonnl^r"''" T'^'^f.^' *hi« «t'-««ity.' took up arms, and the hH fo f ; . .i^T '''^'^''^'^''^ t'-ibunal, declared that the king o^t ofl^e Ic ;T- '''''' ""^ ^^^^^"^^^ ' h« «^^--d the sup' port of the king of Navarre, who, with a considerable army, came to his assistance In 1589, they appeared with a large arm/b Ze ev^t' I f fT °' f ^''^^"^ ^^^ ^^^^-^^ b^ - --P-te" thrr ;„ r """^ "'"^'^ J^^^^^« Clement, instigated by the League, having gained an interview with the king, stabbed bim ORY. ible crime, Charles by remorse, and it r poison. He died of his age, after a nd bloody period, fected in the laws, )rms were due to Ilor, I'Hopital, the his age. ;his event became d, and was in that V'ith his new pros- ;, and hastened to )w in his twenty- e, and his amuse- meanwhile, was prevailed. The werful "League" :ing himself and ar which ensued, •werful combina- next heir to the n account of his ul duke of Guise ingdom, and his ccited the king's vith such enthu- re himself from he duke, being i in the halls of r, the cardinal, ' arms, and the that the king itained the sup- )le army, came ge army before an unexpected , instigated by g, stabbed him FEANCE. K)0 mortally. lie died, bequeathing his crown to Henry of Navarre, imd entreating him to embrace the Catholic faith. The news of his death Avas received with frantic joy by the Parisians, and his assas- sin was consecrated as a saint by the entire priesthood, the Pope included. With this sovereign ended the line of Valois, which for two hundred and sixty-one years had ruled the kingdom. D-^ring these long and disfistrous civil wars, the condition of France was wretched in the extreme. Even in time of nominal peace, fights, massacres, and bloody revenges were of daily occurrence, and the morals of the people had terribly deteriorated. Learning and refinement had, however, made considerable progress. The poetry of Ronsard, and the admirable essays of Montaigne had already delighted the world. Literature was more zealously pursued than at any former time. CHAPTEH ?. THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. — HENRY IV. AND LOUIS XIII. Henry IV., deservedly known in history a.s Henry the Great, did not arrive at the throne without experiencing the most formi- dable opposition. The League was still arrayed against him, and hastened to proclaim as king the Cardinal Bourbon, his uncle, under the title of Charles X. At the age of thirty-six, he commenced a successful struggle for the throne. Gay, amiable, and cheerfUl, he endeared to himself all who approached him. The peasantry espe- cially, for whose welftxre he was always anxious, adored him, and when not restrained by religious bigotry or the control of 'their masters, were ready to espouse his cause. Though secretly desirous of assuring his title to the throne by a public conversion to Catholicism, he thought the time unfavourable and accordingly rejected the overture, of those who, on that condi' tion, would have supported him. He ssued, however, an edict a.ssurmg support, and protection to the Catholic religion, and then' with his few remaining followers, retreated to the coast near Dieppe' Ihe duke of Mayenne, chief commander of the League, with tw-nt- ''tj THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. faithful followers, less m number than a fourth of the enemy, awaited hun at the cattle and village of Arques. By the treachery of the foreign mercenaries who, under pretence of joining his little army, got safe within the intrenchments, he had almost sustained an entire defeat; but throwing himself into the midst of the %ht, and per- forming acts of the greatest heroism, he succeeded in repilsing ^the enemy, and gained an important victory. Eeinforced by the troops which Queen Elizabeth of England had despa tched to the aid of the Protestant cuuso, he advanced' to Park Lnable to gam possession of the capital, he waged war in the prov- Arf ; """fJaZ '^ '" '''^"'"^= '''''^^ ^"^"«- 0^ the 14th of ^ arch, 1590 Mayenne, with sixteen thousand men, encountered the fldcf 'of l"vrv n ""' "T'-^^^^'f "- '» n--ber, on the celebrated ht c of Ivry. Henry oxiiorted h,s faithful adherents to follow his wlte p]u„.e, assuring them that it would ever be found on the paJi to honour and victory. Leading the charge in person and killing the standard-bearer of the leaguers with lis ow'n ha nd ho . ges followed and he was soon enabled to invest the city of Paris winch, bigoted in the Romish fliith, stoutly withstood him lis compassion, in allowing provisions to enter the city, and the useless inhabitants to pass his lines, prevented him from 'rUucing i " rlXZ '^"'^^ '^"' ''' '''''-''' ''-''''-' '^- - Philip of Spain was anxious to secure the crown for his own daughter, the infan.a; but failed to carry his point with the ssem• b cot rT;d H^^^ bt converted. He was already listening to the arguments of the rnost learned Catholic divines; and in spite of the^til ' Spain, and of the papal legate, ^vho styled him a "relapsed he e c -. Jt was sufficiently evident that his heretical opinions were the oily bar to his certain accession to the throne ^ Indeed, it had been manifest for some time that the kincr could ' ecure peace to the country and toleration to the Huguro^te on y ' hj embracing the Catholic religion. This piece of^olicy wL ' advocated by Sully and other eminent men of the reform dfaUh |uid accordingly, in July, 1593, Henry made a public proTssion o/ his Catholicism in the Chnrch of St. Denis. The Parisfan s^ ivin! m vast numbers from their walls, crowded around "Xr^^ «)# roRY, th a small force of the enemy, awaited 16 treachery of the ling his little army, sustained an entire the fight, and per- id in repulsing the th of England had advanced to Paris, d war in the prov- On the 14th of n, encountered the , on the celebrated rents to follow his be found on the ;e in person, and his own hand, he Further advan- the city of Paris, hstood him. Ilia y, and the usele.ss reducing it; and , impelled him to i >wn for his own t with the assem- h is disposition to rguments of the be opposition of elapsed heretic,") as were the only ! t the king could ' Huguenots only j of policy was j reformed faith; I ic profession of { risians, sallying ■ lira with enthu- I FEANCE. s: 8ia.stic joy; and he waa soon enabled to unite the kingdom in complete submission. Entering Paris on the 22d of March, 1594, he was received .with rauch enthusiasm, and soon proclaimed a general amnesty; his fonner opponents, their bigotry being quieted, were charmed with the kmdness and frankness of his manners. The miserable domestic wars, in which France, for thirty-seven years, had been involved were thus terminated; and the rights of the Huguenots were flnali; assured by the celebrated " Edict of Nantes," securing to them perfect toleration, and making them eligible to all offices of honour and dignitv Ilenry, aware of the importance of the friendship of the Pone used every effort to conciliate him, and was finally solemnly ackncwll edged as king, and received full absolution. Mayenne and other obstinate leaguers, on learning this, submitted, and gave in their complete adhesion The Jesuits, however, who were supposed to have countenanced two attempts upon his life, were expelled from the kingdom _ The Spaniards, who still maintained hostilities aTrTed u'pon. " '"" ^""'' "^' ^" '''' ^^^'^^ '' P-- -- The remainder of Henry's reign, though on the whole prosperous and successful, was troubled by the quarrels and treasonable schemes of his nobles one of whom. Marshal Biron, was publicly executed a^ an example to the rest. He was married in 1600 to Mar/de Medics, but still retained that proneness to intrigue and licen W ness which formed the least estimable part of his^disposition! no •' Ti' f ""'''" ^'''^''''' °^ ^^''^^*' ^"^ hi« fr'^nl^ness of dis- position, had, however, made him universally popular. He lonid ho said, to see the day when every peasant of FrLce should hafe a t:tZl C- ^^^^^'.^'-^S'^ «^i" high, were now paid wfth chcerlulnes. An insurrection of the peasantry in Guienne was que ed, without sanguinary measures, by redressing their wronT Pans, which on his entry was half-deserted and ruined spraS into new prosperity under his wise and liberal government F Incf All thee fair anticipations were destined to be disappointed. Ihe king was for some time oppressed with the anticipation of ZrZtir^l he was depressed in spirits, and intimatXa li through a crowd, an assassin, nameJ Eavaili; tpt ed^ S nJ' 38 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. cism, leaped upon the wheel, and stabbed him twice in the breast lie survived but a brief time, and expired amid the heartfelt lamentations of the whole kingdom. Ue was in the fifty-seventh year of his age and the twenty-first of his reign. The murderer wa^put to death with the most studied and barbarous tortures n,s eldest son, Louis XIII., was, at the age of nine, proclaimed King, and the regency conferred on his mother, the king's widow Mary de Mcdicis. She was a liberal patron of arts and letters, bu! was unfit to govern, and confided all her power to an Italian adven- turer, whom she raised to the title of Marquis D'Ancre and marshal of J^ ranee. The nobility, enraged at his insolence, resolved on his des ruction; and de Luynes, the companion of the young king, now at the age of sixteen, persuaded him to sign an order for the marshal s arrest. Vitry, tlie captain of the guard, in executing this warrant, maliciously shot his prisoner, whose body was soon sus- pended on one of the numerous gibbets which he had erected to overawe the people of Paris. De Luynes, who, by his influence with Louis, succeeded him in authority, was also excessively arrogant and haughty. Universal corruption prevailed at court, and the country was miserably mis- governed-murders and robberies being constant, even in the streets ot laris, and their perpetrators often being the servants of the nobihty and gentry. The king, who was weak-minded and indolent left every thing to his favourite, the duke de Luynes, who kep him.self almost inaccessible to the public. At the death of the latter in 1621, his place wa^ filled by one of his confidants, Armaud dx rulTof FraTe '"'' ''"'^"^^' ^"' ''' ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^« ^^ This extraordinary man, who was an ecclesiastic by education and a soldier and politician by nature, was made a bishop at the age of twenty-one-a circumstance which never deterred him from assuming armour, and taking the field in person. His ambi- tion and vanity were both excessive, and he aspired to excel in every department of genius-war, statesmanship, letters, and even dancing-his performances in which. latter branch of the fine arte are said to have convulsed the queen with laughter, and caused her to incur his mortal enmity. By adroit and daring measures, he completely overthrew the nob es who were in league against him, and made himself entire master of the state. He besieged and took the strong city of t- rOKY. ;wice in the breast, amid the heartfelt n the fifty-seventh ;n. The murderer arous tortures, 3f nine, proclaimed the king's widow, irts and letters, but an Italian adven- Ancre and marshal ce, resolved on his e young king, now an order for the , in executing this )dy was soon sus- he had erected to succeeded him in jghty. Universal as miserably mis- even in the streets 3 servants of the ided and indolent, juynes, who kept leath of the latter, lants, Armand d-i my years the real tic by education, bishop at the age terred hira from j son. His ambi- | )ired to excel in letters, and even 1 of the fine arts *, and caused her r overthrew the le himself entire ! strong city of FBANCE. 89 llocherie, the lasi refuge of - . Huguenots, after a desperate defeiice, m which only four thousand out of fourteen thousand of its defenders iiryived. The power of the reformed faction was thus complctelv broken, and it was compelled entirely to succumb to the more numerous party of the Catholics, After a long and troubled admin- istrutiun, during much of which France was engaged in contests with Austria, he expired, and with him the extensive and ambi- t.uus plans which he had formed, and but partially realized He died in 1622, and the king, who had long been a mere puppet in his iiuiids, followed him in May, 1648, leaving his son Louis XIV -x child of four years old, heir to the crown. He w.^ forty-one ye'ars ot age, and had reigned thirty-three. During this reign, the cardinal, who like Wolsey, wa^ a magnifi- cent patron of art and letters, did much for the encouragement of science and genius. He reared a splendid palace, still the ornament of Paris, and founded the "Jardin des Plantes," that admirable institution, the most complete in the world, for the promotion of a knowledge of Natural History, He encouraged Corneille and Moliore he latter the most brilliant name in French literature, and trien, and with a considerable force advanced toward Pa Cond^, who had been engaged in a desultory warfare with the rov^ he attack of 1 urenne with tlie most desperate valour, and for a tune maintainod his position in the capital. The burg ss W ever, refusing to sanction his schemes, he delivered fh m to t iT outrage and massacre of the mob. This act so tarnished his c-ise hat he W.S compelled to retreat. The court entered Pa in rT pubhc, to Ms p., ,,. eond?::^^^ ^:r;.r::;:^ th. Spanish king, and was appointed general over his forcea" His 42 THE I'Koi'LJi'S UuuK OK IIlSTOKi'. grot rival an.l oi,,„,no,.t, Marshal Turonne, conunancled the Frorich n. alU.r a ser.cs of cngngcnents, in which he wa.suI„.ost uniformu' e.Hsful, compolled the enemy to a.sk for peaee. The "treaty of the Pyrenees," coueludecl in 1059, restored peaee to the two natL f r n ir ^- U '■ "^'""'^ ^^''''^'^' ""^^ unserupulous policy t ont ^ ° T'/"'™- °" *'"^ '^^"'^' ^l'« J^i''^-. ^t the age of ^ontj-thr.., to.^c the government into his own ha.t^s; and dtring .";;:;;;: ';f ^ "'=" ^^ se..nty-three year, nev^r aften:!:^ Hlmqu.sh. 1 the «„prcn.e control to any minister or favourite selll hue" n'"''' T""'' ""' '''T'^ '"^"'-^^^'^ -- - -tense 1> r 1 , '''■' '^' "" '"''"' ^^^titute of abilities, though not a^'''colWt :^ ""'^^'^•^' ^«^'' -~1 th state. Col crt, the mnust.r, had brought Ins finances into a floar- ..ng eond.tujn; and with Turenne for a general, and Vault /or ongn.eer, he eonuneneed a system of aggrandizement at Z • pense o In.s n .ghbours. He was at first foiled by the allia clZlI 7f ? rr' ^* '^""^' -eeecded'in detach-: Charles II., of England, from the confederacy, invaded Holland on ii tnvia pretext, in 1672, with a formidable army. 1 1.0 defenceless and feeble republic was soon reduced to extremitv It was m serious contemplation among the citizens to leave ddr poh; 7 Per' ^"' '"""^? T "^^'^" ^" *'^^ ^-^ Indian A : ^^iU^a.^'^^VTT'^"' ^'' "°^'^"° ^^«^*«^the most abject serN itude u ould sa >s y the victor. In this miserable state of affairs the young pnnce of Orange, (afterwards William III., of En. i;nd ) ! neau ot tlieir government. Their „«>v leader adopted ,he most energetic means of defenee Tl „ Hl„„,.s were opened, and Ih, country was laid nmler water thus ah I„ the f„,|„„.,„g y,„ s ;__ j^^i^^^j .^^ favour and Fn r;;.:;;' "Tf"' f°™^' "■"'^"'*=' " ''-'-.'tration ;;:' ] ranee „..e f, L«ns withdrew his army. The following year Charle zrC'.^:";: ^r'r '^""■' *" '"'"'^"^■* ^^^^^ J.ou,s. 1 ,0 latter nevertheless maintained the war, and Turenne rrni t -«r '-'rr f rt,'" ""=" "*'^ "^ ^"™^ .L._i„ oi war, :.. .„r|jc and fertile Uistnet of the frontier was ■>vl roKv. niuidcd the French, us ahiiost uniformly ;o. The "treaty of to the two nations, tin, and renounciny ifterwards, Muzariii .nscrupulous j)olicy ^iiig, at the age of hands; and during % never afterwards r or favourite, ell was an intense »iHties, though not th in war and the ances into a floai-- 1, and Vauban for ■ndizement at the id by the alliance ded in detaching /aded Holland on uced to extremity. lis to leave their lUst Indian Archi- of the most abject )le state of affairs, 'I., of England,) ;, ivas placed at the leans of defence, mder water; thus nder the ice pass- heir favour, and lonstration upon irig year, Charles his alliance with r, and Turenne, irgetic campaign lers of Louvois, the frontier was FRANCE. 43 L. laid waste with fire and sword. At the field oC Seiief, Cond^ engnged the Dutch and Spaniards, commanded by the prince of Orange, and, after a murderous encounter, in which twenty thousand men were left; upon the field, gained a doubtful victory. Turenne after exhibiting the most remarkable skill and perseverance in his campaign against the imperialists and other allies, wiis killed, in 1760, by a cannon-shot. The war, after this event, languished, and few actions of imi)ortance occurred. At length, iu 1678, by the mediation of P^iiglnnd, a peace wius concluded, at Nimegueti, leaving matters much as they were before the war; France, however, having acf^uired some accession of territory. During these conflicts, Louis° wli.) was much fonder ot the renown than of the perils or fatigues of warfare, hud occasionally joined his armies ; but for the most part left the weight of the campaign to his generals. He was, neverthe- less, overwhelmed with adulation as a second Alexander. The chief influence at court was that of Madame de Maintenon, whom the king, in 1685, two years after the death of his wife, pri- vately married. She was the widow of Scarron, an en.inent wit, and a man of the most fascinating address, though terribly deformetl and crippled in conserpience of an unfortunate accident. She had been governess to a lady of the court, and in this situation attracted tlie attention of the king, who was charmed with her agreeable m m- ners. She was never publiely acknowledged as queen. Loui.^ as well as his favourit us attached in a most bigoted manner to the Church of Rene; and in the year 1685, Le Tellier, a fanatical Romanist, the father of Louvois, peisuaded him to commence a horrible persecution of his Protestant subjects. Several measures of the most alarming nature had already been taken, and in 1685 the revocation of the Edict of Nantes the only safeguard of the reformed religion, induced many to seek a home m huidf less exposed to persecution. To check this spirit of emi.Ta- tion, the severest measures were adopted; and the dragoons who were quartered among the unhappy Huguenots, committed the most inghtful excesses. Robbery, torture and murder left the persecuted sect no alternative but flight; and in attempting this, thousands were seized by the brutal soldiery, and u.idcrwent fresh atrocities. Nevertheless, ,t is said, not less than half a million found means to escape from the kingdom. This cruel measure inflicted an irreoarable injury on Fr"r,c" Ine people thus forced into exile were among her most valuable I 41 THE I'EOrLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. Citizen, and they took with them to other countries the arts and I Z:^^:^'''''^'''''''^''^' These unfortunarcx^j: were distribute.! among various nations. Great numbers took refuge Gro t B^iHrrrr «^^™-'-'*^-" newlv-settled colonic f Meaiuvhile, an alliance between Spain, Germany and Holland had been brought about by the prince of Oran J'tl ' enein, of the PVench. In 1^38, .^J^^^, ^Zi: X^S the throne of England-a position which, however, he conned -erely .secondary to his grand plan of ; European confedtcv on hi ^^^; f '^'"g;-ourees. a most barbarous measure wa3 resolved of t Jl^.i U^"* '" """"^"- ^^""^^'^^^- 'l^'- ^'--tiful palatinate Every tin.Mvl,T;' "^ ^ ''^'? ^ ''^"'^' '' *« "^ P^^^^^^* ^--t- ^ very tlung u Inch (ire and sword could .lestroy, was consumed • and he wretched mhabitants were left without food or shZr .'i Lo 2::;!;;: : "^'•/^'"--<^' ;^- ^ --'■. under Marshal Wn ^g g.ii .((1 tho advantage over Prince Eugene and his allies- bnf nf under admiral Tourville, they experienced a mo ^ sig a def^ t Tt ^.th, all parties being exhausted by war, and Lou^ haWn^trtl^ dos gns, the treaty of Ryswick was conchuled in 1697 b vTl eh matters were left much as at the commencement of th^ Lnt nn.hir'" '""' ;^"",^ "^^^'1 P^''-^^^^ «"'y to subserve other schemes^ of his iTe s ^ ,'" ' '""^^'?"" *" '-''''' '^' ^'^"'"^ >vhich in 1,569 he h.,d sohmudy renounced. The dying monarch, however left his ^ o-ninions by w.l to Philip, the grandson of Lou s, and one o ^ cl.ree heirs; a scheme for partitioning the kingdom had bel on I foot, but was now abandoned. " The Emi.eror Leopold, whose claim was equal to that of Ton;« aggneved at this arrangement, commenced hostUit s nd ht ' ^.ose o Louis under Cat.nat and Marshal Viileroi. The French monarch now provok .1 another enemy in Eiidand bv r)„bl. "l -kno.,edging in 1701 the son of JaiL IL i:^!:;^^]^ S m comp hanee with a promise made to the dethroned m.m rcl on his death-bed. The famous duke of Mirlhnrn., -). '"<'" ^rcH on uuivc oi iviaritiorough w;is appointed to RY. •ies the arts and ufortunate exiles ibers took refuge ttled colouios of d with kindness y, and Holland, ', the inveterate es II., he gained r, he considered an confederacy. to prevent the are was resolved itifnl palatinate s former dovas- as now sent, in i perfect desert, consumed; and ihelter. In the al Luxemburer. lies; but at sea lal defeat. At having further 697, by which le contest, schemes of his •eneh monarch vhich in 1(559 wever, left his nd one of the had been on that of Louis, ies; and his antnges over Tlie French , by publicly f of England, inoii;irch on appoiiited to FRANCE. 45 , .!i.; oo.nmand of Ae allied force,, and i„ „ «„•„ „f bri|„„„, _. • '2tx t!'°nr r ""■■'•" ""■■""^■^ -diu™:"'™ r.u„uu, at the battle of Weidieiin, n Au.rnst 17ru l,„ ^ r . i :: r;S;.:;f; ''-r ™'"''- -^"^ -« 4 it, ™ t iiuiui, ol eqnal foree, u.ider Marshal VilJor„i at ii.,,,,illi,., v^rt'r::: ::::=■— "---aS^^" ..ea^tho" ,!"';, ;5 ?;'""•■"*?'■ "''■ " "■'»" '-riWo baule was f„„ght .»s: :;::£ „x.:!; oi!;r ."t- ^'"-^ '- "■" -^ -^ i".i;.;-.;;..;ni.ar, and':,!?;!:';;-,;;:';;:;;-:;'"- """ "-" "° t.. marel, into l,i rij' ^ , ""'"f ""'' "■"='"'"=. »- -"b' Lave been „a.lo; nn,l b:f «;', ' ^ .CTr T"!' ""'^"'^ I«":0 might have bee,. ,l,e.,,,e,l ,t ,t '"i Mf nt"; TV^ ministry, of a Jacobite ten, I,-,.,.., "* *''^ English tlie eni;;ies,ofMar;tc^: ^;^;::y;^--^-^^-th France; deserting her allie. reclU r T '^"°'''"*'' '''"^ ^^"^^''^"^1 -ndea^eparat^peace ' ' '""" '''"" *'-' Netherlands, ani Eugene, left alone, was defc.totl 1,„ irn goneral peace w=. sign., J t'^ .t ' ,'^y:';\;>^ ^^^-^ -^1 a "H;>'ce.nont of ti.e war. ^ """ ^"'*'"'" «« «* the com- Tlie reign, wliicli be^r.^n .s„ brilli.,„fl.r -'spos,t,on, and the hope of the French nation The duke of Bern, another grandson, soon followed, and the solo heirship to the crown thus devolved upon the infant son of Louis of Burcmndv On the 1st of September, 1715, Louis himself expired, °not with- out remorse at the condition of the splendid kingdom which he had u d only as an instrument to serve his ambition, vanity, and pleasure, thni T/. !;' P^^^^«^«««^«' he exhorted the next heir to avoid not ir t '. T •'''^'' '"'"'"'^^ ^^""^ ^^hi^h ^' l^""^''" had dour rrt "'T- '''^ P^°^'^'' ^^'^P'^^ ^^^^^ ^«-- «f «Pl- dour and finery, openly rejoiced at the death of their oppressor. He had reigned seventy-three years, and lived seventy-seven During this reign, the longest in the annals of France, or per- haps any other nation, great improvements had taken place in commerce and arts, owing principally to the wise encouragemen" us enlightened minister, Colbert. The manufactures of gT^s silk, and carpeting, were carried to much perfection. LitSri mprovements of high importance were commenced: and a succe s ful commerce was opened with the East Lidies Louis, though without taste for learning himself, was yet bv the 1 eraturc The admirable Mohere, the ornament of his rei^m was distuiguished by the royal favour. The age produced m n \^,n nent writers. Racine, La Fontaine, MontefquL, a'd Fo2. X" re still classics ,n the French language. Great a'ttention w^pti to classical literature, and the best authors of antiquity wer^ Tc ^^;r'thT r?tt ''" ™ delphini,»-f^r th'eusTof e : dauphin. The object of these attentions, however did not f^W t ' them very kindly, but had rather an ave;ionrSte;' ' i In no reign have the ecclesiastics been dic.inguishod bv more ' genius and piety Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and especially the aZ Me Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray, were distinguished bv t oTr earning, eloquence, and virtues. The latter, wh^wi LtoMo I aiiphin, composed, for the use of his pupil, ibe celeratrd^rj' ^ h giving especial precepts of wisdom and virtue for th use ^ ITOBY. domestic affliction ided to the title, aud •id succession to the rhe second of these, i a prince of admi.r- ition. The duke of sole heirship to the lis of Burgundy. !" expired, not with- gdom which he had canity, and pleasure. next heir to avoid ich he himself had their lo.ve of splen- of their oppressor. 3venty-seveu of France, or per- ad taken place in 'ise encouragement lufactures of glass, rfection. Internal 3ed: and a success- 5lf, was yet, by the a liberal patron of t of his reign, was oduced many emi- 1, and Fontenelle, attention was paid itiquity were care- -for the use of the er, did not take to '■ letters. i iguishod by more ecially the admir- nguished by their > was tutor to the 3lebratcd "Telem- i^ii-tue for the use FKANCE. 47 The great passion of Louis was for building, in which he souan- dered mcredible sums, wrung from his people by taxation. His eharnung and beautifullysituatod palace at St. Gernuiins he forsook because it commanded a view of the church of St. Denis where iHS ancestors were deposited, and where he must one day join them .Vt an expense of nearly a thousand millions of francs, he converted the manshy grounds of Versailles into a royal residence, which, it has becMi .said "might lodge all the kings of Europe." In this jibude of grand and dignified enjoyment, every thing was regulated by an et.quette of the most stately absurdity. A great number of courtiers assembled early in the morning to behold their sovereign perform tlie ceremony of shaving and dressing, encumbered wi!h tlic ruost frivolous forms and observances. He dined before a great crowd of the nob.hty, and, at night, was put to bed with cere- monies equally cumbi'ous and ridiculous. Louis XV was only five years old at the death of his great grand- ther, and the duke of Orleans, a nephew of the late kifg, asSmed ' tirtt-iirr^'T^"^'","^^^ sition bi . ev 1 education, and an irresistible turn for levity, rendered - aly depraved. His first measures were liberal ar^d popu tr t,,o . , favourable hopes. His incapanty, however, soon laid 1 c a^n^open to a terrible injury. The treasury, exhausted by ^d^.n^' ' embarrassed, and an artful Scotchma.( namedJolin Law, proposed a scheme for its relief. This was the establishment of a vast bank, the stock of whi.. should be atd 7 ni government securities. To tickle the flmcy of the Parilian tl e new corporation was granted the exclusive privilege of tradii:. to China, Senegal and Mississippi, from the latter of vl id. it fk ! it" popular name. As in the South Sea scheme of Em! a^^d pub ! enthusiasm rose to an enormous height Mnlt,-hif Silesia. France, igainst her; but the inally overpowered 743, under Marshal igen by the British, lety thousand men, dauphin, laid siege y thousand, coming severe and doubtful f several important owing year, though ^teated at Piacenza, 'illiant successes oC iry of war; and, in x-la-Chapelle. No ined. of thought, whicli r began to be felt, could not but per- but it will last my i of feeling may be urch and the new ! church itself. A FEANCE. 49 host of brilliant and eager intellects, wearied at the absurdity and cruelty of the French Catholic Church, sought refuge in the opposite extreme of skepticism and irreligion. Voltaire, Roudseau, Diderot, D'Alembert and others, skilfully exposed the failings and attacked , . the power of the ancient .system. The leading clergy, as Jesuits, : and the parliamentary faction, as Jansenists, carried on a furious and ludicrous wai-fare. The court, which favoured the former, perse- cuted the latter. The cruel executions of Galas, falsely accused of murder, and of La Barre, accused of sacrilege, greatly strengthened the party of those who attacked the church. The king, who had always been ruled by his mistresses, was now under the mfluence of Madam de Pompadour, who entirely con- trolled the government, and managed foreign relations, war, ana all the most important matters of the realm. Immense sums were squandered by the king on his seraglio and his favourites. In the East, that contest for the Indian empire had commenced which iinally resulted in favour of England. In North America a mutual jealousy, destined to end in a shnilar result, was already embroiling the colonists. Frederick had now entered into alliance with England, and Louis and his mistress, resenting some of his witticisms, m 1756 joined their fortunes to those of Austria An • expedition, under the due de Richelieu, took the island of Minorca Frederick onened the camj^aign with a brilliant victory over the Austrians and Saxons; and the Seven Years' War, in which, almost single handed, he fought against all Europe, commenced. In 1757, an attempt waa made upon the life of the kin^ by a half- uisane wretch called Damiens. The injury to his person^wi imma. lerial, and the unfortunate man was put to death by the most barbarous torments. j » In the same year, the French arms, under Richelieu, were highly successful, and the duke of Cumberland was compelled to surrend4 Hanover. At the battle of Rosbach, however, Frederick, with a greatly mfenor force, defeated fifty thousand French and Germans- and instantly celebrated their flight with cerran obscene and wittJ rse?s of \ f ; ""'^T^ "'° '''''' ''''''^'^' ^^^--' "-t ^ Fran e L TS'.l v"^'"?' '"^ ^'^ '""""^'^''^ "^ '''^'^^ "^^^ Mndpn ^^,l^^^'t^;*^«"«l^ agam fought with disadvantage at ller ships and colonies were taken by the English; and in 1763 by the treaty of Paris- she ceded C-^n- h nn ^ ^^ ' Yq,.^ jj , ' ""^ i-eueu v^anuia anu other provinces to ^^ 60 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOBY. tlieni, certain others being restored to her. At the same time when this disgraceful peace was signed, Prussia and Austria entered into treaty. Frederick still held Silesia, for which more than a million of men had been vainly sacrificed. During this time, a fierce struggle had been going on between the court and clergy and the parliament. This body, which had here- tofore done little except to register the edicts of the king, was now at open issue with the high church party, and sometimes with Louis himself. Remonstrances were poured in against Jesuitism and taxa- tion, and the refractory members were often arbitrarily committed to prison. It was finally broken up entirely, and the members exilal to different parts of the kingdom. The due de Choiseul prime minister, who refused to lend his influence to the court party was deprived of office, and banished to his country-seat. The dauphin and his wife, and the queen, had died in rapid sue- cession, and the son o: the former, now heir to the throne, was in 1770 married to Maria Antoinette, daughter of the empress of Aus- tna. The king continued to be entirely devoted to sensuahty, and Madame du Barry, his latest mistress held complete control over his political action. On the 10th of kay, 1774, in the midst of the humiliation and discontent of his kingdom, he expired of the small- pox, in his sixty-fifth year, after a reign of fifty-nine years. Nature had gifted this monarch with singular personal advan- tages. He had a handsome countenance and a royal demeanour but his intellect was narrow, and he was during the greater part of his life a slave to sensuality. No court in Europe exhibited suph undisguised and oriental licentiousness. His seraglio, entitled the "Pare au Cerfs," was the scandal of Paris itself, not easily alarmed on the score of decorum. He left an embarrassed treasury, a wide- spread discontent among all classes, and a state of great indigence suffering, and disaflfection among the entire labou ng classes. ' STORY. . the same time when Austria entered into iiore than a million oing on between the dy, which had here- f the king, was now oraetimes with Louis Jesuitism and taxa- rbitrarily committed , and the members le due de Choiseul, e to the court party, try-seat. i died in rapid suc- the throne, was in he empress of Aus- ito sensuality, and lete control over his n the midst of the spired of the small- nine years. IT personal advan- i royal demeanour, the greater part of )pe exhibited such raglio, entitled the not easily alarmed d treasury, a wide- of great indigence, ng classes. VBANOE. 61 CHAPTEE ?n. THB HOUSE OF BOURBON CONTINUED. — LOUIS XYI. AND THE REVOLUTION. The young king, at his accession to the throne, was twenty years of age. He was naturally feeble-minded, though conscientious; and his education had been rather that of a monk than a king. The count dc Maureptw, an aged and astute politician, was appointed minister; and Turgot, ;m enlightened financier, was placed over the treasury. He at once brought forward a plan for relieving the people of their excessive and exclusive taxes, and for distributing a portion of the burden among the clergy and nobles, each of which bodies held a third of all the property in the kingdom. So great, however, was the opposition of the privileged classes, that he and his friend Malesherbes, also an enlightened statesman, were expelled from office. Not long afterwards, the celebrated Necker was appointed in his place, who, by a s)stem of continual borrowing, kept the apparatus of government, for a time, from stoppage. A new quarrel soon commenced with England. The French ministry had for some time entertained the project of assisting the North American colonies in their struggle with the mother-country; La Fayette and other men of distinction had already entered their service; and in 1778 the victory of Saratoga decided the court to enter into a treaty, acknowl- edging their independence. War with England followed as a matter 01 course. In 1779, an alliance was formed with Spain, and England beheld for the first time in an hundred years the channel scoured by a hostile fleet, and her sea-ports threatened with invasion They failed, however, in a demonstration against Gibraltar, and several ships were captured by Eodney. A French army and fleet were despatched to the assistance of the Americans, and aided them in achieving important successes. The surrender of the British under Oomwalhs, at Yorktown, in 1782, decided the event of the struggle A Iter gaining further advantages, in April, 1782, the French fleet of thnty-four sail, under the Count de Grasse, encountered that of Eod- scy iu the West Indian seas, and after a desperate light, was utterly ^ ^1 52 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. defeated, w.th a terrific loss of life. In tLe same year, o n.o.st for- m.dable at ack was made upon Gibraltar by the combined French and Spanish fleets. After a long and tremendous cannonade on both sides the floatmg batteries, constructed for the siege, took fire, and the for ress, by its natural strength and the valour of its defenders compelled its assailants to retire. ' In 1783, treaties of peace were signed .y the conflicting parties; the ndependence of the United States being acknowledged, and ce tain colonies being receded to France and Spain. Maurcpas was dead, and Necker out of office; the treasury was empty, and Calonne, who filled the place of the latter, as a last rosort, a.ssembled the "notables" or privileged orders. Showing them the concbt.on of the public finances, he proposed that they should slKire the burden of ta.xation. Ilis plan was defeated, and, partially for good reasons, he was driven from oflice; but the agita lT.!!;['' r' "''''''''^- ^* '"°" ^^'^'^"^^ ^^i^^*^"* that the "states, general, whose meeting was continually dreaded by government must be convoked. The king, by dismissing unnecessary officers and reforming his court, sought, as far a.s "possible, to Lert tS coming storm. The duke of Orleans, the king's cousin, an ambt tious and unprincip ed man, secretly encouraged insurrection. He was banished from Paris; but throughout the provinces, the peop offehed resistance to the troops of government. In thi.^ extrem't general Having done this, he retired from office, and Necker a^ain came into power. "t.**"' It was decided that the deputies from the "third estate " or people shou d equal in number that of the nobility and clergy united The two latter, by their selfish obstinacy, had heretofore dfJeated a i efforts for the relief of the kingdom, and justly dreaded the day o reckoning which approached. On the 4th of May, 1789 this a.ssembly perhaps the most important of all national conventions in Its influence on the destinu^s of mankind, came together at Ver! sallies. Public expectation was raised to the highest pitch ; distress and famine kept the lower classes constantly on the verge of insu'! rectioii, and the money and secret influence of Orleans fomented the disturbance. The question was first raised, whether this numerous body, consisting of twelve hundred members, should act and vote Mvcommon, or each order separately. The privileged classes insisted on the latter. After long disputes and ineffectual attempts at adjust i STOKY. uno year, jv iiio.st for- ho combined Froiich us cannonade on both ) siege, took fire, and lour of its defenders, )nflicting parties; the w' edged, and certain 36; the treasury was the latter, as a last d orders. Showing proposed that thej 1 was defeated, and, )ffice ; but the agita ent that the " states- led by government, unnecessary officers, ssible, to avert the 's cousin, an ambi- i insurrection. He rovinces, the people In tliis extremity, invoked the states- 3, and Necker again 'd estate " or people iind clergy united, etofore defeated all dreaded the day of 'May, 1789, this tional conventions, le together at Ver- best pitch ; distress the verge of insur- leans fomented the ■her this numerous ould act and vote ged classes insisted attempts at adjust FBANCK. 53 ment, the commons took the bold and decisive step of assuming the entire legislative power to themselves, and forthwith commencod their action under the title of the "National Assembly." The ino 1 , ri and well-organized mob led bv thttfo^ tt ^'''"' '^•-'"* the Convention, and denandod *t, tr"\°'""°*' ^""•^""••i«^ Girondists Tl.. l ^.'''''^'r^^' haughtily, the exclusion of the uirondists. I lie deputies, aft.!r vainly attemptin<. escaoe wpr^ V .Z do., prisoners until they voted the arrest of thhT ""''' ^''^^ members of the obnoxious party "*^ prominent ^vitliTtrnei'l Cort'f '"^ "T' '' '''' P^-"-' -^ -t to the CoTenti: a Wst !;r : ,f —"— P— ^ i" chists. Though p;oceedin<. Torn. f., f aganist the anar- were at once suDorets ^ K .1 r-^1 .najonty. these demonstrations Marat,byayoungenth:!r::L,a ;:H;::!Sr:V'^f Im memory and his sanguinarv systo tf V, ^^^^^ advantage of the public^indill l he n. ^'^"^'T . '^''"^ armies,andthesurren,lo..f T^° 1 ^li..,„ ^l'""-'>'; " "'e mdst „f ..eal, resisted the enetyn^H^^" '':'''"■ '''''T''''' ''^ " "'*'- Spain, and England were n 1 ' ' ^ ^"'"''^ ''""'''''• were destined to be d I," T„ ""r, «""" "''•■'"Oe, and all «on and fleet, w:. clttly Licl °:;, '1 ,„'• "" ''"^''''' «™- oompcllcd to evacuate it, iLin- hm dl „ 1 , ,'"^ "f^ """"^ re.i.d the "'i-ranrd^rrh- ";-.;' -^^^^^^^ 62 THE I'EOrLK'S liOOK OF HISTORY. _-ais man, wliose name is the most celebrated in history, was born m Corsica in 1769, and at this time was twenty-four years old. He had been educated in the royal military school, at Brienne,' and from early youth had been J^stinguished by his talent and untiring industry. ° The Convention had n'>w completely succumbed to the "Reign of Terror." It was the mere instrument in the liands of Robespierre and his colleagues, and its members sought eagerly the highest benches of the Mountain, in order to gain the reputation of ultra- republican is,a. Danton, however, who, with all his sensuality and ferocity, was not destitute of human feeling, became weary of this scene ot bloodshed, and retired into the country. A scandalous farce was next enacted at the capital. The archbishop of Paris with other of the apostate clergy, openly renounced Christianity' and joined in worshipping the godcless "Reason," who, in the per- son of a well-known actress, was enthroned at the church of Notre Dame. Robespierre, however, set hM- face against atheism, and at his instance, the leading anarchh r., -hose power he dreaded were sent to the guillotine (24th of March, 1794). He was also jealous ol Danton, who wished to stay the effusion of blood; and this "oold bad man " was suddenly arrested, with several of his partv and lodged in prison. "Fool!" he exclaimed, "I alone could have saved him." Wh^n arraigned before the tribunal, and asked, accord- ing to form, his name and residence, he haughtily replied: "My dwelling will soon be annihilation; .my name will be found in the Pantheon of History." They were all despatched to the never-fail- ing guillotine, which had receiv. < ,o many of their victims before them. The last relics of the noL..ity and royalty soon followed them; and to these succeeded crowds of nuns, taken en masse from their convents to be butchered, or of peasant women from La Ven- dee. The Princess Elizabeth, sister to Louis, perished at this time when the murderers, for want of victims, sought their prey amon<^ the weaker and more helpless sex. Still greater atrocities were perpetrated in the provinces; great numbers srfthred in the "/jmV- lades," despatched by cannon and musketry, and greater still in the "noyades," where thousands were taken in hulks to the midst of nvers, and then drowned by scuttling the vessels. These horrid scenes occurred in many parts of the country. Robespierre now endeavoured to found his power upon some Burer and more reputable footing than that of mere massacre. He FBANCE, 68 was not fond of blood, like those of his colleagues who butchered for amusement or from mere ferocity-but sir^ply reorrdltof 't TrTf ; ° '; '"«^*^*««"«P>^^'^'^y was formed for Ws overthrow Artful reports were circulutod, to the effeet that he had a ) st o nro scr.pt.on including lualf the Convention. This bodv wl.t f ^ time had trembling!, obeyed his ooJ^X^t^Z gathered eourage from despair. The situatioi of th tyra^" i Z^ tn..e ha.s been aptly con.pared to that of the buecanee " 1 h f who, descendmg the river Orellana with a party of hi cr^. tlfw one after a..other through jealousy, until the remnant to save tl.V own hves, took that of tlieir feroeious eommander. PererilL danger, he o.'gani.ed a fresh insurrection, which at th .1 i mome. t might break forth in his favour, ^nl th n nddts Hit Convention ma speech of many hours, re;ounting his serX" and denounemg his onuonontq Qr....^ a r i j o "^» ='i'i\ ices, ana pressed him to „ ^^'"' '^"*'- S«'"« defended themselves; others press,ea him to name his enemies. It is probable that if nt .1 • «, he had clo„,„,„W .1. head, of „' ,iS a, , Itf L' act da ,ger„u, foes, the majority, to save their own, woull]^. ™ dictator. For a longtime, phrensied with rage and despair he vinl^ endeavoured to be heard. "President of as^assins.'T ; :^^^^^^^^^ he harshest tones, "for the last tin.e, I demand HbertVof Zch" i^oldiers in the interest of the Convention Pi- ^^ (51 TUi rjCOl'LE'S BOOK OF HI8T0BY, ^erisl.ecl before thcin. An immense crowd witnessed their fate with exultation; Kobespicrre wiis executed last, and the axe descended upon him in the mids: of tremendous applause. TIju:; end.;d the "Ecign of Terror." LxiAii iliH iX. THE CONVENTION ANlJ^THE LIRECTORf. The leader-, of the new movement, still enibi.rrasaed hy the violence V'' ^oine who had aided tliem, and dreudn.g unpopula;ty, adopted o.lj by uegrev's a i jilder policy. The worst agents of the Terror- ists v/ere jcut lo tlu; scatlbld, airiid universal satisfaction. Their "suspv. t 'ont sub.it.ed, :„r;;,eTLrtr'it t°l; oZTIL'^'t ;irmip:x:' ■n.e F,.n-e:gj„era. ^l^.i::'^:''^::^^"'"' "»• ll.e defeat of Massena and Gu^ n^, rto^lltV; "°"' "'""'' f fresh enemy. He raised the sie. e "ta,t™tIvTnd f J "T" "■'" of the separation „f .he Austria'nVS 2' 2Ltl'^ , -icicaieu incm m succession at 68 TlIK riiOl'LE'S HOOK OF II 18 TO UY. Lonato and CaHtigliuiu!. Wurmaer, with the remaiudcr of tiia forces, roll atcd into the Tyrol. The sio woa resumed, and in Soptember the Aus- trians, ron -AviUf; lli v^anipaign, were again defeated at Rovcredo, CoUiano, ai! re utterly routed. Provera, who, with another a Mon, l.ad atleui^ od to reli. ve Mantua, was al.-o deH'ated; and ftnally that city itself, after a long and gallant resistance, was compelled bv famine to capitulate. The -papal forces, which had moved in f, »oui of Austria, were routed at Imola; and the Pope waa comi)elled to purchase peace by fresh sacrifice'^ of t. tiiisure and a|rt. "Thus terminated the f". campaign of Bonapa'ue; tiie most brilliant in modern histo-y, considering the armies and the empire conquered, and the uii^ 1 P'nnbers with which this was achieved." The Directory, elati oy ose advantages, would listen to no terms of peace, either ivith England or Austr. i; and Bernauotte, with thirty thousand troo2)s from Germany, waa ordered to effect a janci the J town witbi menti much He tc PVenc an ex a dom Wh majori unpop constit to the the la majorit mined who ov able g( which ( On the councils a great '' re ai livery v the con almost L seemed i debt; ai Austria. with the zel, the J enraged exclaimii peace wsu and the t some recc ally, the i The tri FRANC*. idcr of Ilia 69 junction with Napoloon. Early in March 17Q- .r , the AJp, dofcafng the arch.lukVat fhe t^ ,1 t 'T "T' town was tukoii, and in a fortni.rht tJ, /"K'"'fn<-iito. Town after within twcnt,.f;,ur lo.;:^':? ^ ^'tut Z "'"^'•''■'? "'•^'""-» ments did not arrive- and Vn,>nl , ^ P'''""'''^''! reitilbrco. much, proposcdTn in tt^tr "r '''^^-'""^''^"^ «^ '^"-"I'ting too He took advantage w'er' . "''' ^^'°""' '' ^^'^^^'^ '" ApnJ- Fren., to «uppL;'X^:S:^:~7-,--'.i-d oJthe an existence of twelve hundred vears nhl \\"""'' ^^■^>'<^''. '''ftc'i adernoerac,, and Huhnutted n in ! ^fhe ^1 '" ^'"^''^— ^ to While these splendid suoee J , ' ''^^'''' «""T»eror. m^orit, of whiJh we ZXS7:l ^'"^'' ^''^ ^"-^•^^^'^. '^ unpopuKar at hon.e. Another thi!f°"°".r^ "'" exce.ssively constitution, was elected, a d I ^ :1 ' ;:""r''' ''''''''"'^ '' ^^'« to the nuMlerates. The ^ova i .1 nT ^'^'""^ "''''' ^^' ^^''^^torv tbe latter. Barra, U^^ JlZ: 'if^r'"' '""'^^^^^^ majority of the forn.er, had hitherto r .1 1 'th. . ^ ""I"-'""ipI"v. The Jacobin minoritv whLh 't ,'' ' ^"^'^ almost. ,otic power upon the dirTctoTs and t """ ' ""'^^^"^ seemed about tu revive Thov no ii > ' ^'^ ''^'^'" «^ tf^'-ror debt; and rejecteriJonourabTe C.: '^'f r-''^^'\^V^^ '— ^ Austria. Napoleon, however ^^'0!^^' ^'^ ^"^^'""^ ^^^ wUh the latter, and 'accord ingl'v erne dl to '" '"'• '" °"" ^'^^ ^1, the Austria. r>lenipotenH ' vinterf "^'^''^^'^tion.^ CoLent- enraged victor cbshedC fgO^^^^^^^ Tf ''^^ dela-s, .b. exclaiming that he would thus'shatthTe '"?'"'' ^■"^''' peace was concluded, l.rrifiedilt *'"' '"^i'""^' ""'^'«« in«tant and the treaty of Campo iti'rasli;^? ^ some recumpense for her losses ba^selvW ^^ ""'""^ Austria, ai ally, the state of Venice. ^ ^ P"''"'''"" «^ ^^ ' ancient The triumphant young general, returning to Paris, wa. receive-.. 70 THE l'EOrLE'8 BOOK )F IIISTOBY. With tho highest honours. Uo soon perceived the incapacity nn.l unpopularity of the present rulers of France, and doubtlesis cherished ainbitiou.s scluTiiert for his own advancement. But, to use his own (xprcssion, "the p,:nr was not yet ripe;" and after some futile l)reparatiuns for the invasion of England, he conceived the idea of attacking tli t power in her Indian possessions, and of forming an Kastern empire for himself. An expedition to Egypt, as the most vulnerable point of attack, was resolved on; the Directory were glad to get rid of ,)ne whose influence they were beginning to dread; and the funds for the undertaking were on a frivolous pretext extorted from the small and defenceless state of Berne. Twenty.five thousand men, mostly veterans, and omcered by distinguished generals, four hundred transjx.rts, and lifleen men-of-war, composed this splendid exi)edition, which sailed from Toulon on the 19th of May, 1798. Taking i.ossessi()n of the island of Malta on its way, the expedition reached Al.'xan.lria on the 1st of July, and marched to Cairo. The Man.alukes, un.h'r Mourad Bey, fought desperately at the "Battle of the Pyramids," charging the immoveable squares of the French with the most reckless impetuosity; but were utterly defeated, and vast numbers of them perished on the field, or in vainly attempting to 8wun the Nile. At the same time the French fleet, in the Bay of Aboukir, was defeated and almost destroyed by that of the Ensflish under Admiral Nelson. ' The enlightened and legislative mind of Napoleon soon established a better government in Egypt than that unhappy counl.y had known for centuries; hut he was recalled to military action, in 1799 bv the hostility of the Turks. Marching across the desert, he took the port of Jaffa by storm, and cruelly massacred several thousand pris- oners, who had surrendered. lie then laid siege to Acre, which was defended by the ferocious P^ushaDjezzar (the Butcher) and assisted by the English fleet. After many desperate assaults, in which the fiower of his army was destroyed, he relinquished the hopeless undertaking, and returned to Egypt. In July, a Turkish armv of eighteen thousand men, commanded by Mustaj.ha Pasha, landed at f Aboukir. The French commander immediately gave them battle; , charged by the cavalry of Murat, they were utterly defeated. !ve thousand perislnng on the field and in the neighbouring eea. The remainder surrendered. Mustapha was brought before the victor, who courteously said that the sultan should be informed of the valour he had displayed, although defeated. "Spare thyself the L :a{)acity and ss clu'rishod ISO his own Home futile the idea of forming an ta the most y were ghid dreud; and St extorted te thousand iieral.s, four Ls spKiridid y. 1798. expedition 'airo. The "Battle of 'reneli with 1, and vast nnpting to he Bay of le English, 3stablished jad known 1799, by e took the isand pris- ;re, which tid assisted which the ! hopeless 1 army of landed at !ni battle; defeated, jhbouring before the nedof tbo lyself the FUANCK n no '*■ trouble, replied the huuLflitv Tiiri-. u • than thou inst" ^^ ^' '"^ ""^''' '^"^^^ »"« bettor bouring countries \ ';"'" "''"^^'"«' '^"^1 <'verawing the neigh- Italy On ,1. T : . , "'"^ ™1'"""J' """° t"" l»te to savi, »tc"c Z' I'v «"" '"°''f ■■ '" " '"""•' "'""'■ I"*>1 f»' throe Ota.., who, by forced loaL tr::iL 1 1 ■;i::r; 'i , T 17""'" *" "*'""° "" «» ""O'; aot,::n^h r^:?::::;:-'- ^r ^-- M- St, an.beevide,K«,,r„reteholt:tle.r"'o;rrV:',: ^.1}, wnicn, h...Aevci-, the fooiish incumbents of the le ^^ hctt 1!\X 12 TJIE PEOl'LE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. % executive refused liim. He immediately resolved on a more import' ant step and a higher elevation. Nearly all the ofiiccrs in Paris were strongly in his interest. The subtle AbW' Sieycs, and Duos, one of the directors, were in league with him. On the 9th of November, he held a general levee of the military chiefs. The Council of Ancients appointed him to command the ti-oopa of the capital. To a message from' the Directory, ho haughtily retorted their incapacity and the misfortunes of France. Bariiis, persuaded by Talleyrand, resigned. Sieyes and Dueos vol- untarily did the same. Gohier and Moulins, who were refractory, were arrested. The Directory thus set aside, Napoleon harangued the Ancients, asserting the worthle.ssness of the constitution, and his intention of reforming the government. He was received with applause, and went to try his eloquence with the more obstinate "Five llundred." Here, however, he was received with fury, and nearly lost his life in their hands. Rescued by his grenadiers, he would have been immediately outlawed, but that his brother Lueien, who was President, refused to put the vote. The latter, leaving the assembly, declared it dissolved on account of the violence of its members. This decision was immediately enforced by Murat with a company of grenadiers. With fixed bayonets they cleared the hall, the members escaping through the windows, and leaving their "togas" (worn in imitation of Rome) torn among the biislies. Tlie same evening, the Ancients, with a few of the Five Hundred, assembled, abolished the Directory, and appointed a provisional executive of three consuls ir its stead. tj ititi iHi It X its iti JL> m THE CONSULATE. ^Na fAPOLEON, Sieyes and Ducos, were appointed provisional consuls, and directed to prepare a constitution. The plan of Sieyes for a "grand elector," with only the shadow of authority, was instantly rejected by the former. "What man of spirit," said he, "would # ff-i Pr-. t» s L FRANCE. 78 L « senate a„d .i,a. a tribunalo, all the f^lLVZT"' appointed for life, and rcceivin, l,,.„i ,"' °' ''"* ^^'"g ateoluu; system w « mJlZ, , „''""''"'»°= . '«''••'"«»■ TUs „I,„o»l popularity of Napoleon and .if I ', ™"«-^" great was the iu'ion. issn^ l""" *'j '*" «' " ^ «--- "f *» Kev„. Lebrun as nominnl ass^,^^; , % ^, ' """' Ca"'b"«'5r& and paiaeeof t, , ,„,^ ani li^l^f ^.r^ltTeatr ''' contended with the giatSoSel.'' '?!""• '"" ""■""'«". '« Moulty of the asSl If ' ,t ^' ""'''■ "'•'". »"<' "'« in wooden sheathes, s„r,„'o:;:j tT^ScirTll idTl"'' and the Anstnan general, Melas, could hardly credit l^, •>' ^o^ of Mel. pusfron^in"';::;;:/.: -tsr'-A.r'''' were, however, comnletelv defeatprl C T... "'« -riencli. ^hej =^oss or five twL rZt'Z^^t^:^^-^' w,U. should escape, took up a disadvuntageoJs posido^.f M ^^'"'"'^ on the. Uth of June, bein-x surprised hvfl. ''"="' ''^"^ Half his ar,ny was n retn^t fl ^ '"'' ''"' ''^"^^'^^ ^^^"*«^ted. ij' was 111 retreat, when he was reinforced hv n„o ■ "Hi, phtuung a strong battery, resisted tl>e anproTof tf ' 74 THE I'EorLK'S BOOK OF UISTOBY. Paris. Nevertheless, the defeated nation, after the expiration of this, resumed hostilities in Germany. The Archduke John, who commanded there, was, however, utterly defeated by Moreau, ai Hohculiiidcn, and Austria then signed a treaty as favourable to the French as that of Campo Formio. The first consul, on the 25th of December, narrowly escaped assassination. An "Infernal Machine," prepared by certain furious royalists, was exploded near his carriage. Eighty persons were killed or wounded, but the chief object of this atrocious design was unhurt. This defeated attempt strengthened his hands, and enabled him to snpi)ross the remains of Jacobini-m, and gain more full and irrespcHisihle authority. He now resolved, it is probable, upon reorganizing a monarchy, and, as an important auxiliary to govern- ment, reestablished, with the sanction of the Poi^e, the Catholic church, in union with the state. To the remonstrances of the Eevo- lutionists, he replied: "I was a Mahometan in Egypt, and I will bo a Catholic here, for the good of the people." On Easter Sunday, 1802, a solemn Te Deum at Notre Dame commemorated the reinstal- lation of the Homish hierarchy. Napoleon attended, and his generals, with covert sneers, were compelled to do the same. The British, unable to assail their foe in any other quarter, had despatched an expedition to Egypt, under General Abercrombie. Taking Malta on its Avay, it arrived; and the French, after suffering a defeat, capitulated, on condition of being transported to their country. The consul, meanwhile, made great preparations at Bou- logne for an invasion of England; and though it may be doubted if he seriously intended it, great alarm was occasioned to the enemy. A peaet, however, was concluded at Amiens, in March, 1802 by which the French were to regain Malta and other important posses- sions, and agreed to evacuate Southern Italy. In M;iy, Napoleon was declared by the legislative body first con- sul for life; he had already been chosen president of the Cisalpine Republic. Piedmont was annexed to France, and her preponderant ])ower in Southern Europe was otherwise plainly exhibited. The English luinistry, jealous of this increasing dominion, scandalously broke the treaty so lately signed at Amiens. They refused to sur- render Malta and the Cape of Good Hope, alleging the most frivolous and untenable pretences, A furious paper warfare was also kept up between the presses of the two nation.^, and Napoleon had the folly to enter it in persoa. He was, nevertheless, sincerely desirous of TBANCE. 75 peace, and met the insolent demands of t1,o n f i with moderation and temper Z"lan ] / ijovernn.ent dociared wa, b, i^in, an^nba^^^^i^.^ ""T' ''''' orders ibr the seizure of French eoJoni.. T '''''"^'' ""'^ ^"^'^"'S ous surprise, Napoleon dl^ 1 1 1 u , '^ ''''"°" *^^^ i^^^'^Ji" Naple., and took possession of l^deirat:^^^^^^^ "'"^^"' to the Britisii soverei-n W>, ■ ; ^''^"'''^'' ^^ Hanover, i>ertaining tcMupted by the jr of ni remonstrated in vain, and Prussiat liussia, succeeded, however md'thiK "^T ^^^^^"^^•r. ^^ the "continental 'system "'exefu^J'^f ," ^i"." '" "^"■^^^^^' '^"^ Europe, could not'yet be fulw^^fr'"^' 'T "" ''' '""''^ "' turned his thou-hts to the in v.f ,1 \ J^"puleon now sciiously and llotma were ^ :S:a l^^ .^^^^^ ^ ^^ ^P--ihl arm^ de^tid: 'ZT:.uJ:''i^: ^"^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^-^ was "^to e.ie. w:iitc:^:i:fe;;;sr^^^ -r^^ - ,o iwo uf ihe accused w,., . .°„, T ' ^f"si'l, an JiiiglU„,ui,, awaiu„g'.hc result ;rr:^i::"'7£»''- '? "" r'""^ «ennc, tried by a court ,.a,.tro;^ iTwe of 7 '° "°- aga,ust France, and immediately exeeu ed Tl f ^ J'*'' '""" T..e «ea.ed';:^^:::i r::: tirrr-^Tr'''^ un,lcr pretext of ensuring die pernetuitv ,/ °"'"''' .ueU attack, p.«d a decree or Cl fb :f SI;" ^ ' T'"' ...- nnnio„3 to tr, t rep'-uS ^^^^ ^ "' *""^ rnera. 4re' Sr^m X^;"^-;"-;;' '^^ pHucipal logne, to which tlie emperor orese,,. ./l t u , """•>' "' '^""■ with enthusiasm Tbe Pone 1 fr '""' ''"''"' ^'^ "'"^"^'"'^ lUe lope Lun.self pro<:eedoa lo Paris for ti,e 76 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF UI8T0BY. purpose of crowning the successor of Charlemagne. The ceremon j took place on the 2d of December, with great magnificence, in Notre Dame. Napoleon, however, taking the crown from the pon- tiff, placed it on his own brow, and that of Josephine on her's. He was then solemnly consecrated by the Pope, and listened to a sermon, in which his Holiness compared himself to Samuel, and the new emperor to David. tijilAriiiiJci Ai THE EHPIRB. Almost immediately on his accession to the throne, the emperor was menaced with fresh hostilities. England, emboldened by the support of Kussia, openly and piratically seized upon the vessels of Spain, a nation with which she was at peace, but which was sup- posed to be secretly in the interest of France. This j)roduced an alliance between the two latter countries, and encouraged the hopes of Napoleon, that their united fleets might yet dispute the empire of the seas with their common enemy. A fresh defeat, however, soon proved their inferiority. In the spring of 1805, he received the title of "King of Italy," and the "iron crown" of Charlemagne. Genoa and other important places were added to the empire. Although his attention was now apparently absorbed by the great preparations at Boulogne, he was well aware, from the menacing attitude of the northern powers, that the field of battle lay in another direction ; and he secretly planned campaigns against the threatened coalition. In April, 1805, England, Eussia, Austria, and Sweden concluded a hostile alliance against him— Prussia, like the bat in the fable, hovering between the two interests, and waiting the event to espuuse that of the victor. Napoleon vainly endeavoured by negotiation to avert the storm; but learning that the Austrians h^ occupied Munich, the capital of his ally, gave orders for the foniudablu ** Array of England" to march toward the Rhine. A splendid tri- umph was the result. Mack, the Austrian General, with his A\hwle FRANCE. 77 L colour, wore iLl ",? i„ f "'""'^ "' r""""' ""J eighty stand „f ".cm battle. A^T nelv aZ Xd ^ 'f™"^^ "^ K'^" ...aa resigning a portion of her don.ini L nZ'^ ''1 ^'^"'^^^ belonging to her ally the ki-i.r nfC, II ■^^''^n^'ver, however, ««ne comVmsation.^' New -i? :1! !! ''"'"^' T. '"''"^^ ^« ^^^ ^ io support the influence " W F^'iJl^ '^^ «"^ ^ «— 7 ne« m Italy, the emperor ^rmcdpi ^^^^ ^ ^:;:^ ^ ^ favourite generals and a few eminent eivil unr T , r' ^"' ^"« was m Hie king of Naples and Jou^ T i ^'°'^''" '^"^'''^^ i. ea ana i.oai., aixuiucr, king of Holland. 78 TUt; PEOl'LE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. His power, in reality, now extended over all .ioutiiern Europe: Austria, Spain, and Gerinany subniitting comj)letely to his dictation. Prussia, however, whicli liad greedily accepted Hanover, was alarmed by learning that Napoleon had offered to restore it to England, as a condition of peace. The "Confederatiiin of the Rhine," by which Napoleon, emulating Charlemagne, became the feudal mjister of Germany, was a source of yet further trouble and jealousy; and in August, 1806, the court of Prussia madly resojvcd to attack the power which had humbled the imperial armies of Austria and Rus- sia. In September, they invaded the territories of some of the smaller states, and in a bulletin imperiously warned the French to quit Germany altogether. Napoleon, witli his customary fondness lor paper warfare and pers(M)ality, answered with another, ridiculing the queen and court. Marching on the Prussian army, by an able manccuvre, he cut them off from their eoutitry and their supplies. ' On the 14th of October, two decisive actions took place within a short distance of each other. At Jena, the Prussians, under Prince HohcTilohe, engaged the main body of •the French, under Najraleon himself; they were utterly routed, and compelled to fly. At Auer- stadt, l.):tvoust found himself compelled to contend against the chief part >..f (luir army, three times his own number, and commanded by u . • -;i;i> and tlie duke of Brunswick. Formed into squares, the Freii<:l., ajtantry resisted repeated charges of cavalry, led on by Blucher. The duke of Brunswick and the king, who succeeded him, were e(]ually unsuccessful; and finally this valiant and auda- cious infantry charged in their turn, broke the enemies' lines, and drove them in mingled confusion with the fugitives of Jena. This victory decided the fate of Prussia. On the following day, Erfurt, with one hundred pieces of cannon, and fourteen hundred men, suri'cndered to Murat. The column which commemorated the defeat of the French at Rosbach, by JVederick the Great, was sent to Paris; and the sword, star, and colours of that hero shared a similar fate. On the 27th, Napoleon entered Berlin, where he conducted him- self in all respects as the absolute master of the destinies of Prussia. Indeed, the whole kingdom was in his hands. Nearly every fortress and im])ortant town had surrendered, and King Frederick had fled beyond the Oder. Feeling himself now master of nearly all ho |)orts of Europe, he issued the celebrated "Berlin decrees." Alleging as his pretext the numerous violations of national law committed by England, he declared that country in a state of block- FBANCE. i4 when ,^; b3 r^b f 'p'p "'- ^'" '^""^''-« -- -treat- «IaugI.ter had tak^ -ny, had passed the b.-idge ^" .1^ ''J^.S"/"' °' i"^ Ney. Napoleon, with hi: whole d spo i^r"; 't f ""f ■''' -.stance, and assailed the Kussian a rttl^^itT" r '^ vantageous position. Separated ]>v ,1„ 1 , , '""^ '^'''''^• Leavy cannonade, varied t^^l '^^ ^ ^^ ^"^ ^i^^'^ to a routed and dispersed by the infC. trv tI ^' f^ ''"'' '"'^^'^^ attempting to swhn the ri-er, and il Xe.t ," ^""^"'^ '" I tl.e field. Further advantag sluotd ;.;^;";;t"'^ "^" ^'^^'" "'^ ^ to vaun, in a proelan.ation\ his I^dl^f ^f^^: rd"" ^""" ^'^^ you have taken one hundred and wonf • ^"/''^'^'■' ^^'"paign, t'.Tms. His sharp f>rp,, lor, 1 ,. 1 '^''^^ "^ t'le jjarshest \Ufet 01 the ii.ibe Were taken from MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I ■ 5.6 13.2 3.6 1^ 21 2.2 20 1.8 A APPLIED irvVlGE 1653 East Moin Street Rochester. Ne* York U609 USA (716) 482 -0300 -Phone (716) 288- 6989 - Fox so TUB PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORV. liHii. An enormous contribution was levied on his kingdom to ddray the expenses of the war. Out of nine million subjects, he v.as permitted to retain only five. French garrisons were kept in sevei'al of his most important fortresses. He was compelled to shut his ports against Er.gknd. Jerome Bonaparte became king of Westphalia— his kingdom being composed of territory conquered mostly from Prussia. Napoleon also, with great want of magna- nimity, indr'red in much personal abuse and vituperation of the defeated nr on. Alexander was now completely won by the personal fascinations and ambitious views of his ally, and was inspired by similar designs for his own aggrandizement. A grand scheme, comprising the conquest of a-great part of the world, was discussed at Tilsit, and secretly adopted. Napoleon was to commence with Spain, and Eussia with Sweden and Turkey. Europe was already, m' their imaginations, dismembered and divided between them. Circum- stances peculiarly favoured their views. England had now nearly the whole continent against her. By the piratical expedition against the capital and fleet of Denmark, she had aroused the indignation of all civilized nations. Only her superiority at sea, and ht? insu- lar position, had hilherto preserved her from invasion. Sweden and Portugal alone continued commercial intercourse with her; and to suppress that of the latter. General Junot was despatched in October from Bayonne with thirty thousand men. In this hour of almost unlimited power and glory, the decline of Napoleon may be said to eonunenee. lie suppressed the tribunate the last vestige of the I'evolution; decreed the establishment of hereditary titles; and increased the limits of the conscription. In the latter part of 1807, he kei.t six hun.lred thousand soldiers under arms. A far nobler and more usclul occupation, that of formin" his celebrated " Code, " at this time also engaged his attention. The condition of Spain wiis. at this ])eriod, almost as weak as pos- sible.^ The king. Charles IV., was ruled by his (jueen, and she by her favourite, the notorious Godoy, styled "Prince of the Peace.*'' The latter connived at all the ambitious schemes of the emperor upon Portugal. Junot had hardly entered the Portuguese territory before the royal family putto sea, and took refuge in Brazil. TheiV kingdom was quietly occupied by the French general. A second and third army crossed tlie Pyrenees, and early in 1808 a large pai'tof the disposable forces of Frange were already in Spain. Meanwhile, i decline of e tribunate, ishment of •iptiou. In diers under of forming ition. eak as pos- md she by lie Peace.'' e emperor le territory zil. Their A second rgepaitof leanwhile, NAPOLEON BONAPARTJS, fioix at Ajaooio in Corsica a ' w ^-Pe-r Of Franc,. xeoT'i^"'"" ^"'^- ^^<'»- ^^^ Conaul of F.an , «:»iled to St IT., E«P"or of Elba, I814 En,. "' "^' ' ^•^^'^'' °«'*°''". »S1» Bied Ma^ «h feTl °' "' ^'"^•='' "^» -o^-.ine.o;::r::r;:f"'''^^' Mora than thy meana.. ?. ^ foot-.tool, now *n e-pi.e t Ju „:« 'Cr ""^^^^ ^» ^^^^^ = But govern not thy p;,,, ^ """'"'■ "'"^^^' CH..n. H.Ho.n. Canto Ul. ,„,,„ Marshal soult N.OHOLA. J,^K „ D,.„ BoHLT. Marshal of Franc. .„a ". . , torn .t A=>an.. March «th. ,7« Hi. father Ja.al' ' "'"'"*• "" " . ucut.. ..p.,^, .. «P- WW. . ;rrr zr "^^ ^^ -"' ^^^ On th. r.tuPa of Napol.on from Elb.. I,- '"Pcn.ibl. .taUon.. to .ranc. ana .a. ^.^It .^f^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^ -» ^. -«.. ..v.ral exalfd po.t. ; .nd until T I. ^ ^ '^^"'" ^- =« ^" 1^'ld ».-. ta^en an actL P«tt XLTS ^-^^'^--^ ^. -^^ancd .«. FBANCE. 81 81 the besotted kinff and his onn v..r,A- j in turn the favouf of Nap C t^Tt' T""'"°' ^°"«^^* «-^ present to the king, and whh it oli. '' "t^. ^^^P'-^^^^ed a splendid session of the mo^ 4^'f:^^^:^^^ ^« ^f « pos- insurrection in the capital convcZdZv I ??"" ''^''^- ^" ofFerdinand. Murat at ono.l! ^^ ^ ^^ to abdicate in favour vainly thinking to ga n hTco n "t ''''''^ ''''"'' ^"^ ^^^'^"'-d. hastened to Bavonte t';^""*^"'''"^ «»d protection of Napdeon two parties mutCirpleSedthei" 'w ''"" '"''''' -^ ^h weakness and recrimfn.tion tiZ fT"" '^''' '^""' ^"^^ ^^^^ such to set aside the whoTe fen2 , ^'^^ '!"P'^°^' ^^ ^'^g^^^t. resolved Meantime, the peopt oOlfdr^^Vnnfrarth'T'^^ '' ''' ^^°- d.nand, rose against the French and Z ?' ^'P''*"^ "^ ^^^- of the stragglers and the sick ' MnTa7'c ""i "' "^"•'^"^' ;vI>oIesale military execution. Cha";,' ^^ Grouchy replied by a threats and partly by caiolerv 'l'''!''/'^V ''^'"^"^^' P^^-^'j by to the throne. L^n £n ' "'f '^ ^^^'^'" ^^«"- «'-""« nobles, under the tTe of th' , CoT-'T' ^'^ '""^''^^ ^"^ fi% The emperor's claim that Joseph Sna',""^^^^ ^* ^^^-"« ^v'as acceded to by these anr>.i'^ ^"^ ^'"'° ^^Soain former kingdom oTNal; L •''' ^"''^^^'^^^ Proclaimed; his law of Nap^oleon ^ ^"°^ "^'^^^ *« ^^^^at, tae brother-i " Or, the same day that Ferdinand abdicated AIpv a ■ ukase, annexing Sweden tn hi. i '*'°'^^<^^' Alexander issued a possession of it^ His task w^Tn ""''"'' ''"^ ^^^'^ '^^^P^ to gain -ho had to overcome the rlstrT "' *'^" *^^^* ^^ ^^ '"y" When the accession of Joseph "" ' Tf' P^*^'°^'« "^^i- and massacres of the FrenTwer co' " J '''"""' ^"--e^tions do-; and, in a short ti^: na r;or:?a f'^Kr ^'^ '•"^- were arrayed against them In thV^ fi ^^'^™'d^ble character the msurgent armies were dett^^ aS's" " ?f ^ ^"^ ^'^k«. great slaughter; but Dupont wi^. 1 f ''".f "^ '^'''^^'^^'•'^. ^ith ing to reach Cadi^, was compel dJ^^^^'^'?^'^ ^"^^^' ^" '-^"^^"^Pt- Similar insurrect ons broSt In p 7"' *' '^""^ '' ^^•>^''"- ernment despatched to Zirn "^"'' ^"^ the British gov- -n, under lir Arth^ W esinrch'"^^ '' ''^"° *^^"^-^ - the Tagus. The battle of vfrnilro in" . ff ' ''''' ^^^^^^ the British with inferior forces w^,; f 7^"'^ '^""^*' ^"^«king the convention of Cintra the Fr!! ^^''*''^' ''°'' ^«"°^«d. By their plunder, to their ow\foun!;: "" *''"^°^*^''' ^'*^ «" VOt,. Il.—g •^* 82 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTORY. Austria also, affronted by her exclusion from the treaty of Til- Bit, and alarmed at the tokens of a universal empire, meditated the resumption of hostilities, and increased her forces. She was, never- theless, excluded from the conference of Erfurt, where the two Icadmg powers again discussed and settled the affairs of Europe. Aware of the necessity of suppressing the Peninsular troubles before engaging a fresh enemy. Napoleon despatched his choicest forces to Spain, and early in November, 1808, crossed the Pyrenees m person. The insurgent forces were about an hundred thousand m number; but were so divided as to be easily crushed in succes- sion. Blake was defeated at Espinosa, Belvedere at Burgos and Castanos at Tudela. The victor immediately pushed on, and took Madrid. The mquisition was forthwith abolished, and the convents were suppressed. He was driving the British, now a little more than twenty thou- sand m number, from the Peninsula, when tidings of fresh prepara- tions on the part of Austria reached him, and caused him to hurry northward without a moment's delay. Soult, whom he left in com- mand, pursued the army of Sir John Moore to Corunna, where, on the 16th of January. 1809, previous to their embarkation, a battle was fought, in which the French wei-e repulsed, and the gallant com- mander of the English was killed by a cannon-shot. The enemy magnanimously erected a monument over his remains. The Austrian government, resolving upon a coup de main, had raised by incredible exertions, an army of two hundred thousand men destined to act against France and Italy; and another to keep in check the emperor Alexander. The Archduke Charles who commanded the former, taking the French by surprise, invaded Germany. Napoleon, hastening, with hardly a Frenchman, to the scene of action, took command of the Bavarians and other friendly forces, defeated the enemy at Ebensberg, and compelled a large division of their forces to surrender at Landshut. Hence, coming to the rescue of Davoust, who was engaged with the enemy at Eckmuhl he took the Austrian army by surprise in their flank, and gained a complete and overwhelming victory. Davoust was made orince of Eckmuhl on the field; and another astonishing proclamation announced to the Parisians the capture, within a single week, of an Hundred cannon, forty stand of colours, and fiftv thousand prisoners ,oi co^l'ieror once more took the road to Vienna; and on the Uth of May, one month from the commencement of hostilities FRANCE. 83 and formally annxTn ft lorn J^^^^^ '' '''' ''^'^^ ^^ ^^m^, Pope his tide orbishoo and '"''' '"^P^'^' ^'^^^'"^ *« ^^e The Archduke Chait'Lari' T""?^ '"^ '"^"''^"^ ^^^^^03. the opposite sid'o'rD: ?. tt ttt? T ^^^^^^^ ^^ destroyed, it was difficult toem'of ''^^''' ^''^'"o ^^^^^ moverLn ofAlexanderlthprr ,'" '''"S.agement. In^itating the the woodyisland oft '^^^^^^^^ P-d down to porting, by a temnor-.rv 1 H V , ^"^ succeeded in trans- opposi^ bank. A de Zrat "'' ' '^'"T^ '^ ^^'^ *^-P« *« ^he Essling. ThelVetch S, '"^"'^"*^^. ^^^^^ P'^''^ in the village of by the° partial Sj io" 17"? -T' '"' °^^ ^^'^^^^ -PP'-* fire of artillery andTZ ! l\ '^^'' '"^^^'^^ ^^^^'^^ ^0"^ a In this bioo 7;:;tre" : 1 M :vi ;'" ^^''"' ^^^^ "^-^ ^-• bello, a man of ext-aordin r' I ^^ "''' '^« ^'^'^^ ^^ ^onte- Fren;h army Coleot L ^77' "'i\' *'^ "^'^>^"^" ^^ *'- was deeply affect Jbv the ^ "^ ^'"^ '^"^^'' ^^^ «^» «J«. lower, who to the lift "'T '"^ ^^"*^ ^^ ^^^'^ ^^"hful fol! he attacked the archdukp T ' ^^'■'''' ^" ^^^ 6th Wagram. S vera] onh!'! 'T , 'T'^' ^'^ ^^^°"S^^ P««t«^ -t killed or disablirifthevrlri^^^ of xXapoIeon had bee- able to the Austrian AnT /V^' ^'"'^ '* '"* '^'""'^ ^-o- to bear upon h centre a„d^^^^^^^^ T"^ ""^' '""^^^'•' ^-"g*^* into the g'aps eaused by ht artme^^^^^^^^^^^^^ T ^'^ "'^"^^^ day. Twenty thousand prison^^ s^^^^^^^^^^^^^ concluded on the loth nnil^o 1 , ^'^ armistice waa ".e imperial Xl^^ne^YiT^""' '""' °'' "'= "^"""^ " "^ "' 'vere invad^ now ^h,.T ^\ """"^^ "" '"''' ""■' '"'«'«^ 64 TH£ I'EOI'],E'8 BOOK OF niSTORV the insurgent mountuineers still held out. The Poles, under Ponia towsky, had been defeated by Austria. England had despatched a powerful expedition to the Low Countries, which, however, proved a complete failure, leaving the bones of half its numbers on the deadly island of Walcheren. On the Peninsula, Soult, after expelling the British, and overrun- ning various provinces, was himself repelled from Portugal, in May, by Wellesley, who had returned from England, and resumed the com- mand. The latter, pursuing his advantage, marched into Spain, and with twenty thousand British and thirty thousand Spaniard.s, under Cuesta, encountered the French, equally strong, at Talavera. ' They were commanded by Victor, and King Joseph was present in person. On the 28th of July, the attack was commenced by the French in columns, and at one time was almost successful; but owing to the able dispositions of the English commander, and the strength of his position, they were repulsed, and the advantage remained with the allies. Wellesley, however, was compelled to fall back into Portugal. Negotiations for peace, meanwhile, went on at Vienna. Alexander had shown himself, if not a faithless, yet a lukewarm ally. Napoleon felt the necessity of some firmer union with one, at least, of the great powers of Europe. Moderate terms therefore were granted to the defeated nation, and by secret agreement, the alliance was to be ratified by the marriage of the victor to a princess of the royal house of Austria. Other circumstances had strengthened this conclusion. He had no heirs by Josephine, and the son of Louis, whom he had destined to be his successor, died in infancy. The unhappy empress after vainly attempting to avert her fate, yielded an apparent con' sent, and was present at the solemn dissolution of their marriage. She retired to Malmaison; and in March, 1810, Napoleon was married to the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis. unJer Ponia despatched a rever, proved abera on the and overrun- agal, in May, med the coui- to Spain, and liards, under .vera. They sntin person, e French in 'wing to the •ength of his led with the ito Portugal. Alexander . Napoleon of the great mted to the 2 was to be royal house conclusion, lom he had py empress, iparent con- r marriage, was married ror Francis. MARSHAL LANMES J... L««... M.r,hal of France, .nd Duk, of Mont.b.Uo w„ born in M n..nd7. April. 1769. of humbl. parenuge hi. f.th,, b.i J u wond^i aari.« .d ..pe..:. - v^:: ^ ^r ^;rtr .^^^^ the "Ajax" of the French army After . „.,. , "* .nd .lor,, he .a. .ortaU, .ouldadt . /T;;; .^ r^ 'f '""""'' K..Un«. Kapoleon. upon who.e na.e he cieaLlt:;::^:: '""* '/ w~. a^ected to tear, b, the lose of thi. faithf.1 coZd. Jd .erlT^r ' 1 thei and eecu cicni nad arbit mere partii still 1 resist perso parab more had a schem His the uti usage, incorp( sition ( of Mar allowec Joseph guerilla with ei| British, nable " After lo the Frei destructi accompli sustaiiiec yBANOJE. CHAPTER III, THUDBCUNKANDPALLOFTHBUMPIKB. and the Hrn^ness and pL^Z^^T" T" ^""^'^ ^"^'^'•^«^' secured by the nevvallhnt t ' dynasty seemed to be cient eauses were gradual vun. for •'"'''""', '""' "fP''^^'"^'>' "'«"«• nad been reared t'oo ^;t^:SX T ""^^"^ ^^'^'^ arbitrary measures, and in narti „1 7 ^' permanent. His merce, had alienated the luSen V" T "'"'' '^^^^'^^'"'"^ «"'"• particularly those whose in. . ^'!''"* '""^'"^'-^ ^^ ^is subjects, ^tiHbyfar'ihem s iid'^^^^^^^^ His a!my resistless enthusiasm of" t public" n^df' f' ^"? *'^ ^^^'^ ^^ person of the emperor an n::^:^2CL^''\^ '^^^^7 ^^ *^- parable for bravery and militL 2, ' ^'"''''''' •"^°"^- more attached to their own a'Z- n r ' """'"' ^^*^ ^*'^ ^'-^^^P^ions, had acquired, than to thrviel s of r""* "' '" ''' ^^^^'^ *^^>^ schemes of ambition '^""' '^""''"''fe^'^ «r h^B personal usage, to resign his kingdorof no' T ^^ ^*'' '^"'"^*^^"'"^' ^y ill! incorporated with the Ffench em"" 1' '"/ '^ ^^^^^^^ " ^--"'^ «tion of her monarch, was in X . of "' "'"'' ^^^ ^^^ ^«P- of Marshal Bernadotte whom Na'ot r T'""^"' ^^^'^ ^^oice allowed, with much rducCce T «;.' tt' '' f "'^'^P' Joseph suc^eded in 1810 in reducinrf? ,,"*""• ^" ^P^'". guerillaorpartisanwarfarebein. , 2 IT^'"^ ^'°"^"^««; ^^e with eighty thousand me^ pu "t w n''' '"" ''^"^■""^d. Ma^sena, British, in Portugal, untiJX H IT. •'^°" "^*' ^'"^^^ ^^^"^'•^nd nable "lines of Torres Tdr^"l'^^^ ''"P^eg" Aft erlosingagreatpa tjf hr;rmTbvd " t*"^*^ "^^^'-' the French commander was crSd fn T'''' ''™'"^' '"^ '^''sne, destruction wherever he mssT M ''* '"*° ^P^^"' ^^^^^ accomplished nothing, and Sol f™°"*' ^^° ^"^^^^^^^'-l hinf -stained an importalUTvei^et'iter"" ^"' ^'^ ""^-"^' 86 TilE rfiOI'LE'B BOOK OF IIISTOKY. A far more formidable conflict was approacliing. Napoleon, who Degan to see the impolicy of allowing the Russian emperor to annex Turkey to his dominions, had refused even at Erfurt to sanction a plan for the conquest of his ally; and a coldness on the part of Alexander resulted. The occui)ation of the duchy of Oldenburg, pertaining to a connection of the latter, was a further cause of ill- feeling. The British influence again prevailed at St. Petersburg, and the continental system was abrogated in Eussia. Both parties, while carrying on negotiations, made gigantic preparations for the event of war, and concentrated large ai-niies on their frontiers. Bernadotte, who^had impudently demanded Norway as the price of his adhesion to Napoleon, was provoked by an invasion of his territories into an alliance with Kussia, Turkey kept quiet, and England, of coui-se, continued hostile. }^ut all the remainder of Europe seemed at the disposal of Napoleon in the ensuing wjiitest. France, Italy, Holland, Germany, Prussia, and Austria, were all prepared, some from fear and some from attachment, to place their forces at his command. Napoleon, it is probable, sincerely wi.shed for peace, but not at the expense of his ambition or his* interests. But negotiation, both public and private, proved ineffectual to reconcile the conflicting interests, and early in 1812 war seemed inevitable. The French emperor, in May, held a levee at Dresden, of the various powers whose services he had demanded. Probably so brilliant and august a court was never assembled to do homage to any human being. Among the sovereigns, who "jostled each other in his ante-chamber/' might be seen the emperor of Austria, the king of Prussia, and 'a long array of lesser potentates. "The reunion of Dresden seemed a parting pageant, given to Napoleon by Fortune ere she abandoned liim. The richest incense that could be burned to human pride was there offered to Bonapai te." It was evident, however, that he could no longer rely upon the enthusiastic support of those distinguished chiefs who had served him so long and faithfully, and on whose earnest. devotion he had hitherto implicitly relied. Having acquired fortunes, and become the masters of families, they were less disposed than formerly to tempt fortune, and greatly preferred the enjoyment of what they had already acquired. At a private supper to which the emperor, then at Dantzic, invited Murat, Berthier, and Kapp, this feeling wa^ plainly expressed. The three generals sat with grave reserve. " I see very clearly, gentlemen, " said Napoleon, " that you are no longer desirous of going to war. Murat would prefer oleon, who )r to annex sanction u he part of Dldenburg, luse of ill- sburg, and 'ties, while the event ternadotte, 8 adhesion ios into an of coui-se, led at the , Holland, fi-om fear inland, not at the tion, both ;onflicting le French IS powers nd august an being, ihainber, " iia, and a n seemed bandoued pride was he could nguished on whose acquired disposed ijoyment to which id Eapp, sat with on, "that id prefer ^iMJiiim^ NAPOLSON UROWNINa THI EMPRESS JOSBPHINB "But n*t tnt^ from the Head of the Catholic Church would Napoleon tog i •«nt to receiTe as a boon the golden symbol of sovereignty, which he vul • ensible he owed solely to his own unparalleled train of military and civil m { cei''"'• ^^^^^'^^ to return to his hotel in Pari," y,'^' ^"'^ ^"^PP ^ impatient lowed, first broken oy Raon wl.Tl '''''/''^ '''''• ^ «"«"«« ^"1- On learning the in ^ 1 Te it orSlVT'""' ^'^ '^^*- emperor immediately betook \m[ I ' P"^"'' "'"^"^^y' ^^^ the Vistula. This d.antl L; Vti^^' ''"'"^"^^ ^^'"y beyond bas ever been colE \t !' T^'^^^ ^^^ '"''«* numerous that thousand men. tL d ftX . P ^^^ ^^ •'' °^^^'^ ^^S^* ^-"dred mous, and compelled AW fn t 'T'''"^ '"'^ ^ '"^^^ ^^^ «"«- attention whioh^he should have drf'/'" ''' commissariat that On the 24th of June 81 ^ crord rt^' '' *'^ ^^'"P^^^" save by a single Cossack ami V l^ ' ■^''"'^"' "^challenged -my. The fatter hot ve Trt , " T^"^^ °' *^« «-^- defence, and he ent red t^citv o W^ -"' '"'"''"^ ^"^^ large f^ce, under Macdonald kit !l "? ''i'^'"* opposition. A who, in two large armlTwl . . ^ ''T^ ?' ^^'*^«- The Russians, -edivided;r:^St:nTo?:::;:t^^j^^ the insubordination of JeromP w^ ^ ' ^^"^^ ^"« 'ost by in disgrace. For t;ovter ll I Znl "' """^'^^""' ^^"* ^«- <'vvn bulk, and the difficuUv ^f ' ''"'^' ^««»'"bered by its loon then'marched u^^ sLle'r^'T"^' '' ^'^^-- ^P^" on the road, and a murlouTat^^?' ^"'' f ^^ '"^ ^^'^bborn resistance ruins. In despite the reZns^^,', 71'^ ^"""/'^" '' ^*« burning dred and twenty thousand men h. ^^ f "''"^•^' ^'^^ «°« bun eighty leagues dLant. ^' ^"'^^^ «" ^^^ Moscow, now Kutusofl[- had by this time been appointed to th. Russians, and, with a somewhat ^uZ I «o"^"iand of the dino. on the river MoskTa "ortfe eTh oTsT' K '^"^*^^^°- commenced; the Russians bein" 7 i f ^"P^^^^ber, the action attacking. Several o t etreLrS" "''^^^"' *^^ ^^-b tl.e action, and it was only afteVltrvt^:::," 'r''^' ^^^'^ ^'^ fallen, that the Russians were helZr u '' ^^^'^^'^^ having compelled to abandon th Te d eT^^^^^ - .nt.enchments, and and the only trophies of th .t f '" '^''"'b generals felL broken cannon, and le/g than a Tl '""T'' "^'^^^ ^^^^« ^ ^«^ beroic conduct,' was imme ately ct^r' '"■""" ^^^' ^^ ^- The fate of Moscow hnwevp/ "'"f ^Z /"'^C'^ of the Moskwa." ber Napoleon entered\tldtrk"uS^^^ tJ>e ancient palace of tie czar. Z d d wT " *'^ ^""^""' ile did not long enjoy his new 88 THE I'EOPLE'S BOOK OF UISTOHY, possessions. Fires broke out in several quarters, and on the 17th spread over the entire city. Napoleon with difficulty escaped, and beheld from a short distance this magnificent spectacle, which too truly foreboded the frustration of his schemes. It seems doubtful whether this destruction of the ancient capital of Eussia was the work of private incendiaries or of Rostopchin, the governor. It was now evidently impossible for the French army to winter here, as the emperor had intended, and he instantly conceived the daring idea of marching upon St. Petersburg. But his generals, weary of war, would not concur in this audacious scheme : they counselled a retreat :' while Napoleon, with apparent infatuation, lingered for a month in the Kremlin, amid the ruins of the city, vainly waiting an answer . to his proposals for peace. On the 19th of October the army, heavily encumbered with spoils commenced its retreat— that horrible retreat which exhausts all con- ceptions of human suffering and despair. On the road to Kalouga a sangumary engagement took place between a portion of the hostile armies; but the main bodies, under Kutusoff and Napoleon, as yet cautiously avoided each other. The French array, in three divisions marched toward Smolensko, suffering terribly from cold and famine' and harassed by clouds of Cossacks, who hung upon their rear and cut off ev3ry straggler from the ranks. The trophies and the plun- der were abandoned in the deep snow, through which the army could hardly force its way. Arriving at Smolensko, reduced in effective numbers, to a third of the conquerors of Moscow, they found famine awaiting them, and hostile armies surrounding them on all sides. The conduct of Ney, who commanded the rear-guard was, during the whole retreat, a miracle of courage, talent, and for- titude. With five thousand men, he kept Kutusoff, with eighty thousand, at bay, and brought his division to Napoleon. The "Grand Army," now reduced to fourteen thousand men, worn out with privation and fatigue, still retreated, seeking to escape the enemy by crossing the Beresina. Meeting by chance tie army of Victor, they resolved, thus reinforced, to attempt the p^issage. Two irail bridges were thrown across the stream, and a portion of the army crossed in safety. During this terrible pa.«sage, the Russian army, in overwhelming force, was pressing on their rear. Great numbers were drowned by the breaking of one of the bridges and by bemg forced into the water. Their bodies were almost immedi- ately frozen into the wintry stream, and when counted by the Kua-' )n the ITth jcaped, and which too IS doubtful ia was the or. It was lere, as the laring idea iry of war, i a retreat : month in an answer nth spoils, its all con- I I^alouga, the hostile on, as yet divisions, id famine, rear, and the plun- the army duced, in !Ow, they ling them lar-guard, , and for- ;h eighty )n. The vorn out cape the army of je. Two n of the Russian . Great ges, and immedi- the Ku8- MAKSHAL NET. -«.i«n «.. .o.t ..pueu cLfiaenc, «a u'rr " "='^" ^'"^ ^^• Br.T..t of th, Brav..- Hi. conduct n th, / v '"" '"" ""» "' »»" th. l-t charge o/ th. 0„.rd at Waterloo . . "' "••"* =* »•* "-- "• xau* - *aya Col M._.. ' •'''"'siataa br «. w ...... „„ „:»:^ '.:r. „°zr'"°"" "°"'-'' "•"«- "'• 'M ^L FBANCE. he had brought into actioi w^ awI . . 7^ ?^"^''^"^' "^'^^ computed, by accurate jud^e Tat o7tt ""°^^^^^*^^- ^' ha.s been dred and t.enty-five thoutnd l/^ain "TT '^"^ '^"^ ^- and tlurty-two thousand perished 7n,^° ^'"^'^' "'^^ ^^""dred hundred and ninety-threeThutlnd^e^^ '^"'"^' ^"^ -« many of the national trophies TereT. ™'^! ^"'""^^^^- '^'hough seventy-five eagles or colour Id let Tl' *'^^ ^-^"^^^ *«-k All Europe, taking heart nrtl,.'^'"^ ^^""'''^• no.see.ed'r;adyto'riXiti 'ate ..ter, deserted Macdonald. Hunt W^'- ^^"^'"^^''^n^. ""der Yorck. intrusted to his charge fld to htoi^- *^' '^"^^'"^ ^'^ '^^ arn,; to betray his masterf and jl the T ^^ T '' ""^P'^^^' ^^ ^4 entered into alliance with Eu sh Pruss^T ^"^*"^ '"' ^"^'-^ them, and the French were co^e^Ied To 7'* """^ediarely joined the Oder, as a line of defence R.t I ^^' *^' ^^^^' '^^^^^'^d of ^^^^Z^Z'^l^Z' r/^P^epar.ion and snows of Bussia, he conscrbtion 7^" ^'^ P^"'^^«'' i" the Pation. In Aprii, 1813, he Xe. \hT ""'J ''''• ^^"^^^ '" antici! ^hich yet remained in GlTanT ' t, ''7 '' ''''^ ^^^'^^-'d men, scripts entirely ignorant oTri^tj^j'^J^^ 'r^^^ >--^ -n! termed them, in despair. The alS ^ ^ ^'' "' '"" °^^^ g«"«^al agamst him, but were defeated under B,;\^''t* ^"'''' ^''^'^"^^d youth, whom Napoleon had atadv nsl /' -Y '^' ^•^"^^S<^«"« hood and enthusiasm. He immedtL ^'''^. ''''^' ^'^ «^^" ^ardi- of Leipsic and Dresden. EluSt^^^^^^^^ *'^ ^'^^''^^'^ «'^- to accede to the terms of Austrlfvl ^ I '"''"'•^^^' '^« ^^f-^^ed of her neutrality, a constderaW; nn "'^^ ^.^'"^"d^d, as the price Bautzen,onthe2 stof C he! ""^"^^"fion of territory. At then, in a position of J^^Vcr.rdT'^^ ^ --7, d^^^^^^^^^ The Kussian and Prussif^ m e ^^^^^^^ '^ "^" ^"'^^«^^- leoD, still refusing the demandrnf ^ f ° '^"'^^•^' and Napo- -We a fo™afa,ua.e::iiire:tirrjr.::f /■'"•'" an ar my m TUK rjiOI'LE'S BOOK OF JIISTORY. «)f two liuiulrod thousand men ready for action; the Eussian and Prussiuu armies wore reinforced; yet the emperor resolved to hoUl out at Dresden. General Moreau, long banished for conspiracy, had now entered the service of Alexander, and was directing the enemies of his country, while Bernadotte, with his kingdom, was also in arms against his former master. On the 21st of August the Austrians, under Prince Schwartzen ourg, in overwhelming force, attacked Dresden, which was gallantly defended by twenty thousand French; when Napoleon, returning from the pursuit of Blucher, repulsed them. Two days afterwards, he completely defeated them, with the loss of their cannon and twenty thousand prisoners. Moreau, his ancient rival, was mortally Nvounded in the action. This advantage was, in a great degree counterbalanced by the misfortune of his general, Vandarame, who,' with his division, was compelled to surrender to a superior force of Russians and Prussians. The allies now pursued a singular system of tactics, recommended it is said by Bernadotte. At the approach of the emperor, they invariably retreated ; but when engaged witJi his generals, put forth their utmost efforts, and frequently ventured to give battle. Thus, Oudinot was defeated at Buren by Berna- dotte, and Macdonald by Blucher, at the Katzbach. " The campaigns round Ditsden resembled what Homer recounts of the siege °of Troy. When Achilles rushed forth, all was rout, fight, and slaugh- ter; when he retired, his enemies showed courage, and never failed to gain the advantage." He was soon compelled, by the increasing forces of the enemy, to transfer his quarters to Leipsic. On the very day of his arrival (October 16th), the allies, in over- whelming force, began to close around it, but, after some desperat t" wl T '''''"''^' '« ^•'"^^ ^u, Ic IIi« look Hocaed to pos«ert t p ,ri' •"'^^^^''"-^'--^' violence. ciaas. and bh.nt.l .fords Ir!;' s^s " P'"" "' "^^^'^'^^^ -««i- lt'>.Lstated 0.1 hiH throne, but holding it ) J'O "M irally desired I>eaoe as wel fi .1 • ^' "" '"■'''="••« t««"re, , •« <>^ '--if But tile all'ic" . "et r:;:;'^^ "' '''^ '"'^'^- I overtures; and the " Congress of Vi. - '^ "^ ""■'^^^■^■'- t" h\, unrelenting hostility- C Brit if''". '°""'^'^"«') "-^'-'ved o' agreed that each i>uld 7 rn t' ^T^ Z'"^^^''"' -"^ ^'n^sia troops for tlK.api>rua.lun.ntet \ "'^ ""^ ^'^•>' ^''""^"nd The position of Napoleon i,uh>,J \ *''''' '''ver, a million, theeornmencement. kan leiuItT^^ countrien, was ab.solutely dstttel/ .^^ T^^^'^"^ ™ ^^ other sarj to defend her. The-^ailure 7^fL^ iV'"'^ ^'"^^ "^^^•«- ^ loss of his throne, had pren>a .r - 1 ' "'^'''' *^^^''^^^"^^ ^''th the ruined, was a great blow to the caui ofTl "^ '""'', '"^ ^^^" ^"^'^^7 --taneo if deferred a little loZtr vo d") "';"'"^'^'"- «- The constitution which the e,r„Jmr ,' "''" ^'"" invaluable, to the liberals, on the gro nd t Tn ^'i Tl'f' ""^ objectionable -e-bled) it professc'd si.npl o ^t t f "^"'f ' ^^'^^^^ it much wuhout recognising the au hor tvT 1 •" '^'' ''''^''^^ "''^^ though fond of spectacles, Lf , ? "''T '''" ^''^^'"^-- pageantry of the "Champ de m1 " wl I. '^T '^' '^^'"^^^^ 'nation of the uew governmenr Tf ? ^^■'^'^'"ated the organ, composed of his gen 'als rp ^aTlf ^ '" "' ^''''' ^-^'^ I to the interest of Napoleon-^t "hi 1' '"'' '"^'"'^^'•>' 'J^^oted •nons contained a strong ^^^ oHl^t: tt 'T".'^"^, ^ -- Tae immense arniies of the -M.. Jacobinical feeling. tl-e whole eastern frontier w.^m:e;::^H"""^.^^ ^" ^-»'-. «-'d -ert.o„, , f,ree for the nationaldct t."""^""; ^^^ ^^''^P^'^te Aapoleon seleete^ iHs last fatal campaign The /5r i ^^"^ "'""^''^'"^ soldiers "■^■re the English and P°u;ianrw o 'T''" "^ ^' encountered -erned to await his attack If J !; ''''^' ^''''^y '-P<^^^ov forces, t- 16th of Jun. he .ngatd t^^e P.. "' T'''^^' n^anceuvres, on -en, under Blucher. Ju^J^^Z^ ""' '' ''^'^'y ^'— d gnj. i hough superior in mu ' t, they i)U THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. were def'eiitcd, with a loss of ten thousand men, and conipeUcd to retreat. On the same day Ney, with a portion of the army, engaged the British at Quatre Brius, but after obstinate figliting, no decisive result was attained. Wellington, however, retreated towards Brus- sels, and took up his position near the village of "Waterloo, a few- miles from the city. Napoleon followed him, and on the 18th of June, the two armies, each about seventy thousand in number, encamped opposite to each other. Both were distressed, but espe- cially the French, by the tempestuous weather to which, for some days previous, they had been exposed. The forces und(!r the com- mand of Wellington were composed about equally of British and continental troops. Those of Napoleon were all that remained of that splendid army, so long the terror of Eurojie. The plan of each commander was exceedingly simple; Wellington being only intent on holding his position until reinforced by Blucher; and Napoleon staking his last hopes on the desperate attempt to destroy the two armies in succession before they could effect a junction. A little before noon, the action commenced with a furious can- nonade, and a desperate attack, led by Jerome, upon the Chateau of Ilougoumont, occupied by the British. The latter succeeded in holding this important post. An attack on the English centre was equally unfortunate. The charging columns had penetrated the forces of the enemy, but being attacked on all sides, lost manv of their number in the fight, as weil as two tliou-sand prisoners, who were surrounded. The British cavalry were, in their turn, repulsed with much loss. They also lost the farm of La Ifaye Saiiite, an important position. On the I'ight, the French cavalry made repeated charges upon the squares of the British, which, however, they were unable to break. In repeating tiiis desperate attempt again and again, tlie greater. part of them wen^ destroyed. The Prussians, under Bulow, had now readied the field, and attacked the Freneli right; and Napoleon, at last aware of the approach of Blucher with an- overwhelming force, resolv(>d on a last and desperate ellbrt to destroy the English before he could arrive. The imperial guard, who had been hitherto ke})t in reserve, were formed into two columns, and ordered to charge the English line. To the exhorta- tions of their sovereign, they answered, for the last time, with cries of Vive VEmpereur! and, led by the celel)rated Ney, moyed on to tlic attack. The fire which they encountered, however, was too heavv to admit of success, and in spite of the efforts of their heroic leader. oiiipollod to iiy, engaged no decisive ivards Brus- erloo, a few the 18th of in number, d, but espe- h, for some or the com- British and emained of )lan of each only intent i Napoleon oy the two arious can- lie Chateau ccecded in centre was itratcd the it many of oners, who II, repulsed Sainte, an le repeated they were again and Prussians, ,he French >f Bluchcr ;rate ciTbrt rial guard, into two B exhorta- with cries J on to the too heavv oic leader, '-^^^^^^fersri---^^ AN OFnCER OF THE IMPERIAL QtTARD OF NAPOl. EOH. IV VULL DHiromi FKANCE. 97 ihey were compelled to retreat in confusion Thp m, . t. general, and the flying ranks worp fl! ^ '^°''* °°^ became Blucher, which had jfst ante7 G if "^ "T'^ ^^ *^« -™^ °f fugitives were slaugltered b; Ihe^p^^^^^^^^^^ ancient and recent defeat. Many deserted o/ '"!' "° ""^^'' overthrow of his government Thin 1 "''"' to atten.pt the than h.reliancel, hisTn 1^:^:^^^::^-^^^^^^ al], that a second abdication alone coufd p ese/ve FrT '7 '"\*' m;sorable condition of a conquered coun^rT ffis CT 'T *' vamly pleaded his cause before the assembK' ^ """'' fidelity. " We have been faithful " nnf ^^ ' ^^'^ '""'"''^^^^ ^^^^^ followed your brother to tt s 1 of Zpt t 7^"^'' ""^ '^^^ siu. The bones of Frenchmen Jl T^P*~*^ *^« ''"^^^s of Rus- fdelity." I. a generirco^S^' he Tdty'tirer "'^r' '''''' °^^ Lis views, and delieately su^^ested abi ' ^'T' ^' '''*^''^*«'i for the impending evils Thf unflf ? "" '^' °"'^ ^«"^«dj various counsels, fnd un willit to . ^^ ''''''''^"' '^•^*'-^«t^d by es^couldnotekctad^S^ ir C^^^ biographer, " was, perhaps Tw of a ''* '''""''''" '^y' ^^^ advised hi; instaitrtortiea to tleN ^;"?"^" S^^'--". who be could not, indeed^ en"y h o' ' J V ^''*"' "'"' which he was more attached hn If ^^ '"^ «''^«-«"i.-'l, to that general respect wouirhavei; P'"'.T"I^[^^ ^^'""^"t-^ but where talents and won'derf^l tt f fdve^^^^^^^^ '"' ''''''' ''' ^P'^^'^ to enforce." On the 29d of L^n ,''! """■' '^ ^^"" calculated Waterloo, in comXt.t/re' eTrisit^ ^ ^'^ 'T °^ made an abdication in favournf 1.;. f . , *''^ assembly, he The deputies, thou rreZ-nrrr r^""' '^" "^'"^ ^^ ««^«'' -verei;, p^laimcd 1 m Ty^rn^^^^^ ^^'^'""^^''^^^- *^- -w cherished the hope of reZ^L^^t^ZTl '""?. ^^■'^ exaggerated statcinent of the a;nii;bloX •'^''"'^^'^ ^» wa. furiously contradicted b^ Ny^^^T '"' IT"'""' ^^''"^ oried, "will ever rally a-^ain I myself .n , °f ^ ^'^•'^^^'" ''« ^Hnessed then- total'ex^rminl;i:r eT"r they are annihilated. The enemv nr. n.AT , ^'"^ ""^ ^''^"''^J «and men. They mav if tLv ? '"'?*. ^^^'-^'J^^. with eigbtv thou- VOL. II.1V ^' ^ ^^"'^'' ^' ^" ^^'•^^'^ ^» si^ %«. *' There m THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. Is no safety for France, but in instant propositions for peace." When this fiery and determined commander could speak thus, resistance miglit well be deemed hopeless; yet Napoleon, with an honourable desire to serve his country in the worst emergency, still lingered in the vicinity of Paris, and offered his services once more to meet the enemy, or to defend the capital to the last extremity. These pro- l)osals were rejected by the provisional government, wliich feared to intrust him again with the means of acquiring power. lie left Paris, and on tlie 3d of July arrived at Eochefort, where two frigates had been placed at his disposal to convey him to America. But tlie coast was lined with English cruisers; the Bellerophon line-of-battle ship was blockading the port; it was impossible to force a passage; and he would not consent to any plans for a secret escape. In answer to his negotiations for a passage to America, the captain of the English ship suggested "to his officers the propriety of his seeking an a.sylum in England, though refusing to make any definite pledges concerning his reception. Rejecting, therefore, the warlike proposals of the relics of his army, which could only have brought further devastation on France and destruction to themselves, he embarked in the Bellerophon, and on the 24th arrived at Tor- bay, on tlie coast of Devonshire. He had already despatched the brief and well-known letter to the Prince Regent, invoking the hos- pitality of England. It was, however-, determined by that mean- spirited prince and his advisers to keep liim close prisoner during the remainder of his life. He was transferred to the distant island of St Helena, where, after a few miserable years, exposed to the annoyances of an impertinent keeper, he expired on the 5th of May, 1821. His remains were interred on the spot; but many years lifter, in compliance with his will, were transferred to Paris, and deposited, with magnificent and imposing ceremonies, beneath the great dome of the Invalides. iiill'Ulli^fiiMilMkiLUilkiiiiiuilii'iUkiUliUijliAtaiyiiitiiiii i, resistance THE D1SINTERM2NT OP Tuv t,^ ^^«Ams OF NAPOLKON 'I w.is indeed Napoleon " C-.3, ..Kapoleon devoid of' .f::'^?"'!^";""' "^^ ^"*°-«' ^' ^" •t that fi„t day of eternity Z """" "^ *°'i' "•™ Meanwhile, the rinain n^g CI Zdl S T"' 7^'^ ™ ^''"=- compelled to retreat upof thHaor, I, .t "'"^ *^™*y' «'^ they »ere followed b/I al iedC u:'''';;' "" ""^ l'^' "' J-'y. »bieh the French displayed all thet , ^^ '"""' "s""'"*- *- ticewa3eo„cluded.„„^,r;h t LXd^tdT"^'""™'^- evacuated by its defeudeiN tf,. > . i / "^ ''''^ ^^^" completely ■ The aiiiedVwetSi^t'rrow/r:!:"'^'^ T'-""'- ment or the Chambers Uh\oh n ^""""^f^e the provisional govern- and sullen), announ^i Lt Lou 7^^ ^-^ved ;) On the 8th he entered, •accompTn^^re't^Tr^^ ''r^^^- guished marshals, and, protected bv fo, J '"°'* ^''*'"- sion of his crown and palL'rSevetn^Vr'' '^"" *^"^ P°««^«- the defeated nation. Several of her "T"" ^"' "^^^^^^ ^^««^ ;aken from her, and otli: M^ir^lZTT '^^^^^^^^^ Largecontributionsofmoneywereexacted n,^ T'^" ^'"^^""«- the l^nest in the world waf 2 nn^ f 'r ' 'P^'"^'"^ "^'^««""^. restored to the nations ronT.S L h-^ T"""' •"'^•^' ^'«- The course of the new govemmen Iht ""^"'"^ *^'^«"- nation, was- even more unLiSor^^td -rSnTn^^^^ Tbe brave Marshal Ney was privately execS r\ LT /"P''" of the prime supporters of the emperor si ared the^ t^^'^'? ^"' iette was saved only by the devotpd n Tt ""' ^^^- ^^^• -iie, vvho remained in prLn^Shcit^ ""'"°* "' ^^^ i' - w-ue ne escaped m disgmse. Toward 100 THE PEOPI.E'8 BOOK OF H18T0KY. tLe close of the year, a general amnesty was proclaimed. Thu unpopularity of Louis continued. He substituted the white flag in place of the tri-colour, to which the nation was much attached; and, to gratify the ultra royalists, violated, in several particulars, the charter which he had granted. The legislative body became gradu- ally divided into two parties, which, however varying in principle, have ever since retained their appellations. The "extreme right," or ultra royalists, were continually opposed by the " extreme left," or ultra liberals. The moderate party occupied the "centre." The distracted condition of Spain, so long in a state of civil war- fare, determined the French government to interfere with an armed force; and in 1823 the duke d'Angouleme, with a large army, marched into that country, advanced from Madrid to Cadiz, and gratified the national vanity of the French by an appearance of con- trol and dictation in the political affairs of the Peninsula. On the 16th of September, 1824, the king died, and was succeeded by his brother, the Comte d'Artois, under the title of Charles X. The late king, though sometimes over-influenced by his royalist relatives, was in reality a man of moderate views, and probably sincerely desirous of the welfare of the people. His successor repre- sented the worst class of legitimatists and uncompromising royalists. His first measure was a judicious one. By granting annuities to those whose lands had been seized by government during the Eevo- lution, he assured the title of the possessors, and removed one for- midable source of opposition, and the temptation to effect revolutions. ^lore obnoxious measures succeeded. Further restrictions were placed upon the liberty of the press. To secure a majority in the upper house, a large number of peers was created. The chamber ot deputies was dissolved, in hopes that the court influence would be more predominant in the next. The result proved quite the reverse, and the royalist ministers were compelled to re ;ign. The more liberal statesmen who succeeded them, retained office only for a short time; and in 1829 the king appointed a new ministry, at the head of which was the Prince de Polignac, a name odious to the whole nation from the former career of the fiunily which he repre- sented. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies being found too republican, was dissolved immediately after its meeting, and a new election was ordered, which, however, resulted still more unfavourably to the court. On the 4tli of July, 1830, the city of Algiers, so long a pest to all FRANCE. 101 civilized communities, was taken bv ^Wr. ir ^^^ of the important pro^lnceTIllll^Zl T^^V'^^^^^^ expedition, though very nomlfr ?7 ^'''^- ^^'' «"^°*^«« of this stimulated b, further fr"' ^b traT '^l''^ ^'^ ^'"^""^ -•^•^^^' tent had been caused bv the mean a^d^-./r'^''- ^'•''' '^^^-or. bons, on their first restoration w^ '^ '^"' ^'"^""P' '^^^'^« «our. of Napoieon. His statu:td\11:ker7 "^'T "' ''^ ^^-■- the Place Vendome, and melted to fomh^Tf tt ^""^ ^'^^""" ^" IV. His name had been carefullv ZTJf ^ ^'"''^ «^ H^nry -nurnents. This miserab e p^^^^^^^^^^^ ^T P"^'- buildings and r ««"^^""^J even now, so long XL / TT'^ ' "^^'"^^^^ the statues or portraits of the grtate t «ovt '^ u"' '^' ^^'J^«*' ^"^ authority, a now mode of X^on 17'"^ ', ^^"-^"^ ^"^'^-^ views. The charter was thus en Sv s, b ""^T^'''^ *« «^^^« ^^^ ensued in Paris. On the 27th Tn sp t^of th' "i-'"' ^^^^* '^'^'^on the deputies met, and proteste^aS tt O .T'o"' """'^^^'^ ^^ ceeded m a body to the TuilerS 'L '^' ^^'^ ^^^y P^o- commander of the forces, that tl^'^opt ZZlTV'' ""''"^'^'^ government. The king Ordered him to « T^'^^ ^PP°«« the ment by military force. MeanwhHe t T'""" '^' ^^^"^^^ ^^^-' began to be displayed, and thetd llJ' '".'' '^°'^ ^"^ -^^^'-^des wa. assumed by mfny of the citizens f ";'''" ""^^'""^^ ^"-^ the people and the k^^g. guar^ l^^r^^^^^^^^^^ between a harassmg fire and discharge «f rl" lif ^ ' """'" ^^P^^^d to n>glU barricades were thrown u^ in h" ""^ ^ "'"'^«-«- ^t he following day, after a des;ea'te;nt^^^^^^^^ ^'treets, and on the people, the former, with the pv.. ?'" ^^' ^''^^Ps and eclared for the popula'r «: e. SeTeXr:/ f ^^^'^ ^"-^' had been already killed and wounded t''.' '' *^^ ''''^^''^ the obnoxious ministers resigned theT/offl ^"''^' "^"'"^d Paris; his ordinances. It was t^f at th^"' '':^ '""^ ^'^-S repealed aroused, were determined on a change of ^'"^ '' ""^' thoroughly met, and the National Guard with faFf^r" '"•'"' ^^^ ^^P^^ies ou^ His pe^onal influence w^ tfC tt '^ '"''"'" '^"«^ -i-ca .hat the city was almost 102 THE r£0PL£'8 BOOK OF IlISTOUY. instantly quieted, and the " Eevolution of Three Days " was disgraced by no exeesses whatever. On tlie 30th the duke of Orleans (son of Egalit6, who had prompted and who pcri.slied in the first Revolution,) was appointed the tem- porary head of government. On the 2d of August, the king formally abdicated in favour of his grandson, and fled to England., After much collision of sentiment, the inflnence of La Fayette determined the Chambers to declare in favour of a limited monarchy, and to place the duke of Orleans on the throne. The career of this prince had been one of uncommon adventure and vicissitude. lie had, while very young, distinguished himself in defence of the republic, had seen his father perish on the scaffold, and had been compelleti to fly for his own life. He had taught mathematics in SwitzerlaiJ, and resided as a private citizen in the United States. From 1800 until the fall of Napoleon, he had quietly resided in England, and since the accession of the Bourbons, had been intrusted ■with military command on account of his relationship, and deprived of it on account of his too liberal principles. From a monarch trained in such a school of adversity the nation naturally expected prudence and regard to popular right. He was accordingly, on the 9th of August, publicly proclaimed "King oC ihe French," a title constructed purposely to exclude the feudal principles of a monarchy, and to recognise the political existence of the people. The government of the "Citizen King" proved, in many respects, firm and sensible. The French footing in Africa was maintained and extende^^, though at a very considerable cost both of life and jponey; and, in the general pacification of Europe, this turbulont and half-conquered province was considered as affording an excellent school of warfare to the officers and soldiers of the French army. The foreign relations of Frauiie, during his reign, were generally managed in a spirit of prudence and conciliation; and perhaps no government of that country ever succeeded in inspiring the other Europeon powers with greater confidence and friendliness. The king, whose private fortune was immense, was perhaps one of the most liberal and judicious patrons of art and science whom France has ever known. The taste and pride of the nation were gratified by the erection or completion of magnificent structures, and by the most lavish expenditure upon such exhibitions of native talent as exalted the glory of the French people. The restoration of the remains of Napo eon, which his influence with the British I disgraced l)rompted I the tein- g formally id.. After ctoriuined lid to place )riiioe hud liad, while lublic, hud illod to fly rk il, and resided in 1 intrusted 1 deprived monarch ' expected ly, on the ii," a title nonarch}^, f respects, laintained f life and turbulont excellent ich army, generally irhaps no the other ips one of ice whom tion were :ures, and of native sstoration e British f BANCfc. 108 gor'orn/nent procured, occasioned a pageant from U. ^ ^ fro-n thoir il.nZ.ve in St hT' '"' ?';""'"" ^'""-'«- brought gorgeous ear, a Lid a n u .1 "V^" 7"^'"^^ ^«^« ^'^^'- "" « place. The kinc, '^7^ ' ^ ^ "r:'''''''''''^' '" ^''^i'' «"«! resti,,.- conveyin,. them ueros. the sea.snndar.Wl t) ^^"'" ''""°"^«<1 ^i"' monies, the cor„se of N., nl , '"^ ""•'' •'"Pressivo c.iro- Although posL..^ urihr :;jt^:.. r;::'"7 ---• liition, L(..u a Pliilii,,,,. u-l,r>tl„.,. r "^ '^ " sudden revo- nation, or from cli. r 'st " f:,''" ^'^T'^'V"'"'"'^^' ''^"^ -^''•• i"to arbitrary measu: .^ U l^' Sj^^'r 'T' T' '^^^''" '" France, and csneciallv "^^'X ' i' '"'^ ''"■'' "'^"^y^ »>'^cn -publican's and , \lf "' V""-'^'''""ble da.s.s of ultra- satisfy, and vvhos ^^o ^ t^hl '" ^-—"t. would property of others. u 'h m ! r""'" ""^ '^'^'^'^^ "^ ^he ■Tirit, measures were t ke w h H "'T'^'^ this Jacobinical liberties of the people, "s:;;::!;;^. ':,;:;« '^--y^^ the small portion of the oiti/cns .r„.l tl "''^''" *" =^ comparatively ..V*; of „„..„„„,, n„:n;;:\ i f;™;:™'-;^ ;/" ™r™"" usually enabled to control both thp r,n.,. , ^I'sposal, was of the assembly. *''' ^'"^^"'"^ *^'''^t'°"« and the action Severe restrictions woro i)laced unnn ti.^ vi, .• prnsocutions against offen 11^ ed l,f "'" °^*^,^ ^''«-' «"d unrelenting rigour The.o pv v '"'"'''' ^'^^ ^'^'-^^ '''"fi and the life of the kiii '" '^""'^^^^ '-^"^ thizing strongly in the movL . 5 '^^''"'^' '"^ ^Teneral, synipa- resista°nce. O^fe , in a surpSv ""^''^P^^'^^ ^ ^-J ^r JdaWe restored. To the\-nrnrr/it"nr^^^^^^^^^^ this favourable result was in a ZlT ^'^^^ lamartine according,, .ood forwl^' "s hflTSnT'"^,'' ^"' ''' "^^^ the revolutionary leaders * ^"'^ prominent of abothtd^.^dSlttl^^^^^^^^^^^ -yalty was were without employ So i „ rJ ^ ^'°^" °P«" *« those who ular the persons o^fhe nt^ 'reLTatt ^'""T ^"' ^ ^^P' universally acknowledged-the c erlv '' '''*^°"*^ ^^ «°°^ bishop of Paris, and thf army by Ehd "r"T' '^ *^" ^^«^- .n their adhesion to the younglS ''"^^^^'^' J--"^ ^Peedily A National Assembly, to preo'irP „ L a voiced to meet upon the 4th Tf M ^^.^'^^^""^t't^tion, was con- to be elected, and eve'; Fre^tn of^h" '""'"' "^"'^^- -- secured the privilege of votJn^ ^ilf ^ ' .'^! "^ t^enty^one was arrange a settled basis for TvLme t the .''^ ^'^'^ "^^^ -^ hung on a precarious thread TheT'iu'"^''''"'^ °^ ^'•^"co elated at their victory, were liabl 1^"?,'' *^°"^^ '*'" ^^^'^^^^^ «nd . from the slightest c'lCe The „1^^'" '^"*'^"«"* ^^^^ tumult receiving and replying to the innul^/ '^.7"'' ^"^'^ «^t in presented to them ^^verygrievarf ^^'"'^ ^^'^ at the feet of MM. Lamartfne^ M^r; Td T '"'^''"^' ^'^ ^^^ a remedy. Carpenters, builders sho' I ^'"^"' ^"^ ^ ^^^^ to purse-knitters, jeLllersflo'ri,^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^'■^^^«' ^-P^tressea, cooks, and nurserymaids formed^ .''''S'^'""^^' ^^aiters, -arched in process^ thl^ule stlttr; ^^ ^'^^^^^' ^^ nient the hardships they suffered in hi ' '° *^^ ^°^«^°' a single day, in the course of thre hou^ T T'T ''^'''S'-" On of the Hotel de Ville thus ZZ a ' ^''^'" ^°"^"' «t the porch hundred thousand wVkln "bo " /"r"' ^'^ ^^^^^^ 'f - views and w ishes. ' ^ P^^^^'^^"/ appeared to state their To satisfy the national love of mJlifo. j- , to the number of two hundrll thou 1 7 '^^'^' '" ^^° ^^^^^-^d it, as National Guards; and a v ! e" ^77 """^^ very ettective force, styled the Garde :o8 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. Mobile, was enlisted from the ranks of that needy and wild-headed vouth, which naturally forms the main-spring of popular tumult. From the interruption of business, and the withdrawal of great numbers of the opulent class from Paris, considerable distress ere long began to prevail. In Paris alone, seventy thousand artisans and workmen were out of employ, and to provide work for them, according to the pledges of government, seemed almost impossible! So precarious was the position of the capital considered, that it was resolved to recall a portion of the regular army to Paris— a step hazardous in the extreme, but which was safely accomplished under the pretext of the "Grand Festival of Fraternity." At this mag- ntficent spectacle, where four hundred thousand men appeared under arms, a considerable force of regular soldiers was introduced, in appear- ance to add to the splendour and fraternity of the occasion, but in reality to form an efficient force for the repression of popular tumult. The French nation, taking, as usual, the lead from Paris, had for the most part fallen quietly into the new order of things; but the government, fearing the influence of royalist and other factions, used all Its influence to support the success of republican candidates. The election was conducted with the most exemplary order and tranquillity, and resulted in the choice of a very large majority of the moderate republican party. The royalists and ultra republicans were comparatively few. On the appointed day (May 4th, 1848) the assembly met at the National Palace (the former Chamber of Deputies), and in the pres- ence of a vast multitude the Eepublic was enthusiastically proclaimed. The several ministers of the late government each read a report of their official acts, and it was voted almost unanimously that they had deserved well of the country. Their offices having been superseded by the meeting of the Assembly, an Executive Committee was appointed, consisting only of a part of the late incumbents— viz: MM. Arago, Gamier Pag^s, Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru Rollin.' Several of the Socialists and ultra republicans, who had been attached to the late government, were thus left out of office, to the great dis- content of their respective factions. On the 15th, the Assembly came very near being overthrown by the coup de main of a few turbulent and ambitious spirits. An excited body of the populace, led by Barbds, Blanqui, and other noted red republicans, burst into the palace, expelled the members and boldly assumed the authority of government. With a drawn — _ J' ild-headed tumult, il of great istress ere id artisans for them, mpossible. ed, that it ris — a step hed under this mag- ired under in appear- 3n, but in ar tumult. 3, had for ; but the ions, used andidates. irder and ajoritj of publicans let at the the pres- oclaimed. •eport of they had perseded ittee was Its — viz: 1 Eollin. attached ;reat dis- LOms NAPOLEON, rown by its. An id other lembers, 1 drawn Late bevolutiovs nv „„ ^fiiu^Sb OF FEANOE be levied on lh„ ,-icl, 1^2 ^T""' "'^ *■""« *™'a. an e,ua^ eonsisting of Limsclf and a fe» „,L, « "" "^eeitive government, appointed. '"^ """^ ^«™ republicans, should be b/.he nSi GTarf'rbod'v'r''''''';"*™"''''''''^ '"PPoned respectable and substantia SnrH?H ^T"' "' '""-"" lin, they marched upon the Hotel 1 ^f'^^y lamartiue and Kol- b& and many of hfs confedeMi"" If' """" *"=■'' '™»«'' ^5"- again in full possession of its aSori^"^ 7h!"'°* *^ '^""'"^ ™ Its assistance by the militarv foVrT*- S^""™' "">™ment to less numerous ^pposi^or'AtrdrSr;"' "■= ''^^ ^"^ :^;:atrar'°" °'-- -4rj,\rs;tjd r^^ neeic*r;trwiero?:r°''™"^ *" " - ^--^ Bo!:^e^:-d^lrre:,:t3"^^^^^^^^ empire. While a mere youth he hn, '^'TT''''' ^'^"^« °^ ^^e over the garrison at Strasbol !„ . ""1' ' ^"'^ '"^'"P^ ^° g->- Louis Philippe. Undis^tedlt-s ;;l^^ f ^"°^«— ' ^f theclemencj of the government .f.lT''"'^ unconciliated by and desperate effort t'o aeconT hi s^Sr^' t' 'r "^^'^ ^ ^^^^ a xoNv adherenH at Boulogne hp 11 °?" . ^""^'"g- ^ith only emperor, to march in triumph to Par .^r!' '" '""'^'■'^" °^ *''« arrested by the officials and wl, f ' ^" V"^' '''"'°'* '^"'"ediately ment in the strong Se'ofHrr"'' '° P^'-P^*"^' '-P--- a confinement of s^ver Jyel he ioof 7"°"-'"" ^""'^P^'^^"' ^^^- the strife for political elevation He vvafrt^r'^' I'''''' '"*« yea. of age. and experience and misfort:etd';X:iyTnfn:d no TIIK I'UorLE'S BOOK OF III8T0BT. down the natural rashness of his character. Certainly, his whole demeanour, and the republican attitude which he assumed, evinced extraordinary tact and discretion. So great a prestige attached to the magic name of Napoleon, that this adventurer, without a single personal claim on the attachment of the people, was elected simultaneously as a member of the assem- bly, in Paris and in three other departments, where vacancies had occurred. The old cry of " vive I'empereur" began to be heard in the streets, and such crowds assembled that large forces of soldiery were required to disperse them. The assembly, vexed and alarmed, received with acclamation the suggestion of Lamartine that the old laws, excluding the Bonaparte family from the soil of Franqe, should be enforced. But this was a step too arbitrary and hazardous to be lightly carried through, and the prince, unharmed by this impolitic eflfervesence of spleen, took his seat in the assembly. CHAPTER I?I. IHB INSURRECTION OP JUNE. — GREAT DESTRUCTION OF LIPB. -• TRIUMPH OF GOVERNMENT. — ADMINISTRATION OF CAVAIG- NAC, — ELECTION OF LOUIS NAPOLEON AS PRESIDENT. HIS ADMINISTRATION. — HIS LATE USURPATION. Danger, the most formidable and immediate, however, lay in a different quarter. The government, to equalize in some degree the burden of the national workshops, and perhaps to rid itself of a dangerous nucleus of sedition, had resolved, to send into the prov- inces twelve thousand of the workmen employed in the public fac- tories. Vehement remonstrances were made, but in vain ; and on file evening of the 22d of June, the insurgent »^a^ty took the most active measures for a fresh revolution. Barricades, some of them of enormous size, were thrown up in several of the principal thor- oughflires; and during the following day, thousands of the malcon- tents were busily employed in plucking up pavements, and piling carriages, furniture, and every species of obstruction across the streets. Their plan had been formed with great tact and skill in engineer- I-ATE REVOLUTIONS OF fEANCE. m ing. ^^'"^ 1-^stj forfificntions (for centuri. v gents of Paris) included a irro./l I ' ^''"''^'' ^o the insur- half of the citv, and weVoflcuhtr''' ^^-^^^"'^-g over nearly .tersofthewh^ie. The fI^^^^^^^ insurrection, formed their nrincimf =. u"f', '' ^"''''"' ^'''^"^"^ «f ! ^^rricndes were defended braZo ■'*7"^^°^^- ^hese formidable prising the mcst lawless and dnn ^ «-^««Perated multitude, com- number of honest, but :;^orlnt an'rhThT'f^ ^' '''^'''' ^''^ '^ ^^^ desperate with want, and ea^r to „' 1 " ' "' ^^'■'''"^"' The government, hough in a'^^' T '^''^°'""^''^ -^«"g«- -dden and simulta^eou ll!, "T" *^^"T ^^ -^P^- «t this opponents, took every precZt^n /'^' "^''' '"^^ ^"^^^^ "^ their The National Guard was called ou '^ff ' '"^'^^^^^^ ^^«''«t-"oe. Garde Mobile were disposed n 1-"^ ,- f ^"o- republic, though at the cost of an rmen/'"''"!, '^'"^ ^'^^^^ ^he insurgents were in possession of thirr, ""^^''" °^ ''■^^«- The ™ well supplied with mu^I , ^ '' P'"" "^^ «■''"-"' -^ cades, and from the windows f the .dio" "T ^"" ^''^'•- ^-"■ '-Tderous fire upon the advane L. 2^"'''^'^^''' '^"^ '^'^P' »P ^ -pamted at timei, resortertreTefv r •'■ ^ '''"'''' "'*'^"^' carry on the war. The baskets Tf ' '"^ '"^^'^ '^' soaker to -ounded, and even the coffins of tVjT";' '^'' ""''''''''' °^ the service as receptacles for concLled „ • ""''' ^'''''^ >"to the t'-e Pantheon, and the church osVr"""""/ ^' *'^« '"^^^^t, ensued; and the proverbial ccLl oftj''""'- '^' ^'''''' ^^ting more severely or cruelly test^dZnl t"'"'? ""'' seldom beef contest of its children. In tt h.rd '" "' '' '"^ ''''''''^'^ graces composing the Garde Mobtl"""'^^^^^ ^<- their gay and audacious bra:' J- TL' "'""^"^ ^-tinguished «'ere of course killed and wounded T. ^''''' """^^^''^ ^^ them ounded. The venerable archbishop of 112 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HI8T0BT. Pans, who had fearlessly ventured among the revolutionary ranka with a message of conciliation, v/as, to the grief of all parties, moriall^ wounded by a char.ce shot. The troops, wearied with fight and watchmg, were at this time assisted by numerous detachments of the ^atlonal Guard, which had hastened to Paris from the adioininir departments. •' ^ By the evcni.ig ,.f Satur^'uy, the insurgeuts, at a fearful cost of life, had been driven from the left bank of the Seine, but still held out m great force on the right, in the Faubourg St. Antoino, that of the Temple, and elsewhere. Early on Sunday the 25th the con- fliot recommenced; and after a most murderous assault they wero dislodged from some of tueir strongest positions. It was not how- ever, until the following day that they were completely defeated- the survivors surrendering or flying from the city. In this civil contest, the most terrible that has ever desolated Paris more than ten thousand had been killed and wonnded. The suburbs wer- filled vvith fugitives, who were brought in and lodged, by thousands, in the overflowing prisons. Immediately on the restoration of order. General Cavaignac re- signed the temporary dictatorship with which he had been invested • and the executive authority being vacant by the withdrawal of the late committee, the assembly at once decreed it to the successful general, with full power of appointing all ministerial and other executive officers. In this new cabinet, only a single name (that of M. Mane) prohiinent in the late ministries was to be seen- but so judicious and energetic wa« the action of the new government and so severe a check had been given to insurrection, that a more assured tranquillity prevailed than at any time since the flight of Loui« Philippe. A small number of the captive insurgents were trans^- ported, and the numerous remainder were set at liberty. Louis Blanc distinguished in the first revolutionary movement, and Caussidiere' the prefect of police, were so compromised in the late insurrection as to be compelled to fly to England. Attempts were made to implicate Lamartine and Rollin, but with doubtful success their chief fault appearing to have been one of indecision and inefficiene-' The assembly, having overcome these formidable obstacle- pro- ceeded to the formation of a constitution. After much debate h '.vas resolved that there should be but a single legislative chamber and that the president of the republic should be elected to office for a period of four years, and at the expiration of his term should narj ranks, ea, morially 1 fight and chments of le adjoining •ful cost of t still held ntoino, that th the con- they wero i not, how- y defeated; I this civil more than were filled )usands, in aignac re- I invested ; wal of the successful and other le (that of n; but so ment, and reassured of Louif ere trans- uis Blanc, lussidiere, jurrection made to ess, their jfl'icienc-'. icle?, pro- debate, it chamber, to office a should, LATK BiCVOLDTlONS OF Khance. for the four en.suin^r veam K« ;„ i- -i . ^^ It was soon evident thn* *t „ i • „ could hardly have been possible ,t '7', ''^''''^'^'"''""' '"J«''' J. t-I abilities and the honerm d L ^ o Th '7"^;"^ ^'^'■'^' = 'h« leas valued by this fickle and sZITT ' ^'**' ^'*^'«^'^'- ^^eing of a name which hud brou^t thl ^'?fr ^^^" '^« '"^''^ I^^'re which the wearer had done' th " ::::n'^r "'!^'^^'--' «-' 'o At the election, which took Xn T '^ ^° ^""^'«"t« l^i« title Napoleon reeeiUd ^.^^fZlZim ''^ ^' ''^^^''"^-' ^^^ ally proclaimed as president of ?h 7 ? ""^ '''''''' «"^ ^^^ form- Sunday of May, 1852 '^' ^^'"''^ P^°P^« ""til the seeond It was soon evident that tv^ and vigorous hands. An at tel"tT ?°'^'-"'"'^"* ^^ ^t least in firm Rollin and others, ^aZToTl'''''''''T''"' '°"^"^«^ ^y Ledru England. Taking advanrfo^r .^ "^^'^' ^"^ '^' ^««J«rs fled i.to his minister -ofved efJe^ttal ! to l^r '''■ ''^'^'^^^ -^ 'nglj commenced a system of leve.. "PP^^'tion, and acord- against the obnoxious jouTnalMr "'^"'"'"^ P^"^^'' ^«P««i«''v were so hampered with restr c'tio!! ^ '''? suppressed, and othePl cessfully to assail the govrr„m"f " d««troy their ability sue «ts and Bourbonists as the partisan 'IrK*'''!^''^' '' ^^" ^•■'««'^- pemmted openly to decry the'r^ S ^''^""' '""^^^'•' ™ On May 31st lR--,n » i F'»uJic. I 'b™ millions of voter, wre ,h„; 1 . «7"™""""' ""'' '""'« 'h™ P'ting in .he ,elec.io„ o "heir Vrt ''",''""''«" "^ P»«- wasei.eitel.buttherovernraentrelvi' °7' fP"'" <]i» .tent " Pe™»led in it, course ^ '°'->^'"8™ "-e support of ,W army "i i. a settled gover„„eVC "^ ^ ""^^ '"'« ^''" •mbu.onofthepr.sident .„H t, ^, ° "'"rm at the evident •he affection, a/d garnUeT" ."*■"* ^-P"" "> -""ilt -n evident i„ the obstacles oplcd * irr'' ™'' "'"« »■» ' tr^t^ *„ an inc^ f, ^'^itrTZ^- tlf lU THE I'EOPLE-S BOOK OF HISTORY. ing tlio constitution, wliich, as affording the means of prolonging his power, he earnestly desired, was, in general, coldly received by the doparttnents, to which it hud been referred, and it was soon evident that none but illegal mcaaurca could protract his term of office beyond the stated period. llis cards, however, despite the difficulty of his position, wero played with remarkable skill and audacity. lie contrived to dis- miss from oflice General Changarnier, a sturdy supporter of the republican cause, whoso opposition heretofore had held him in check and by frequent favours and festivities gained over to his cause great numbers both of officers and soldiers of the army. Confident in his strength, ho continued to suppress the meetings of the opposition with arbitrary sternness, and to inflict fresh and heavy punishments upon the refracitory journals. Even the editor of the Charivari (the "Punch" of Paris) wa« subjected to severe fine and imprisonment for a caricature, representing the constitution set up as a mark, and the president offering a reward to any one who would shoot it down. When the harmless ebullitions of popular humour can thus be pro- .scribed, the union of strength and despotism is tolerably apparent After a most vehement debate in the assembly (July 19th, 1861) tho motion for a revision of the constitution was rejected, not having recei/ed tho votes of throe-fourths, which were legally requisite to its passage. Undismayed at this failure, and perceiving that the conservative fmrtion of the assembly was mostly hostile to his pre- tensions, tho president, persisting in his determination to be reelected, resolved to conciliate the three millions of disfranchised voters by restoring their privileges. Accordingly, at tho next meeting of tho a.ssembly, (November 4th, 1851) he strongly recommended, in his message, tho removal of tho restrictions upon voting (restrictions of his own recommendation), and his ministers presented a bill to that ellbct. Afler an animated and protracted debate, however, it was rejected. A law was likewise brought before the chamber authorizing tho impeachment of a president who should seek an election in violation of the provisions of the constitution. Foiled in his ambitious schemes by tho opposition of the assembly, and perceiving that he could not with impunity break down the con- stitution during tho existenr.e of that body, Napoleon resolved upon a speedy and violent assertion of his usurping claims. This remarkable cotip (Vcbtt, as tho French stylo it, was executed with a Buddenneas and secresy surpassing almost any thing in the history Jl I.ATE REVOLUTIONS OF FKANOE. y^ he had determined ,„. ^a forcihll " . ' '"'"''^"''^ ^^ ^-^^^^ t^at advised their immedi to\^r r f ""'' '•" '''■' '^^"""■^' «"^ by his nets. C.,mplia CO 3 i ;:/n"''"?'^''"« cornpo^ised i-.cdinto,, fined i,h Lr ro t^o::' T' ''r ^«^« night, all the principal ofliccrs nnd V ♦• ."""«' '''" «""'o knewto be hostile to Hsrhr/wri:;d'r " ''"'•^' "'"'" '•« i'.t" pri.son. A rnong thorn J^ro Zf" "^^^ ""'"''''^ '^''^^ ^''^own merly president of FranccrCh ' ^"'"''"^, ^«"«''«I« Cavaignao (for- with M. Thie. and a c old of 20?'"' ^"'"-'--«. -d BedL, completely by ^urprise^ran/orttrT-T'^ °'^"''*"«- Taken ble to offer any rcistancr Chanl« 'T ^'^'' *^«^ ^"'^ »"«• ang..e the .soldirs. Thete numT"" '"'"'^ endeavoured to har- ei~tan..ofn.nchXrri:;:;^«"' ^^«^"«"^^^ V Jd^d o^lrii^VS^V^^^^^^^^^^ ^«"--n. decree wa« pi. the president of the republic dee e l^Thf ^'^''T' P'^^^''^' 18 dissolved. 2, Universal nnffrZ ' : ' . National Assembly 81«t May is repk.led 8 i^re ; fn 'h •■'"?''«'>-'' '^e law of the --"- from the 14th to t 21st n ^'T'" "'' '"'^"'^^'^ '" *''oir -i-n.d intho.holoofl irs nmtT; r- '' '^'''« ^^''^^ o^-'go of State is dissolved. 6 The Mir ^'^^^ ^' Thoeonnal vjith the execution of this decree "a?' ''" /"^^'^'"^ ^' «''«^«-J Nnpoleon w.« likewise potedTnvin:?; r^'^'T' '" ^''^ ''""i^'« ^^ i"g them to pronounce Ctheir^^TT"? '"'' "«"''' «"^^ '"^q'^ir- president for 'ten year:'loC C^.^'f^ ''^ T "" ^'^ •^'-"'' ^« success is owing) was a J invoked wth -^"^ "^^'"'''" '^'^ exhortations to fidelity ' "" insidious appeals, and J!:rr^rt!iJ::: :;::;?"^r j^- -^ -^. president, in accordance wU Ve 68^"'? /^^^^''P"^'''■«" "^ »h« vvhich he had violated. Th" dislv of I t "' '^'^ ^^"■^*'^>'*'<>" proved futile before the bayonet! with wp". ^/f'"'''^'""' h«^«ver, we re crowded. The assemblll T '"'^ *^'« «"'««^'' "f Paris «fty of the membe:: "r all" t''7'' ""^ ''" ^'""'^-^ -^ in d.,r.nce only for a day ' '"""^^^ '"^^' «^ ^^'^^ were hold On Wednesday the 8d \r n j- borscbMk in ,h„ I{„„ si A„."J ' '. ';^P"'"''"«»«™, appeared o, «to„eJ .„„ „,„ ^ „V_^„.», ^^ ^. e,™p.„i„„, ,„, « o-^"'"^ "sufpation. A slight 116 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF UISTOKr. barricade was erected; but tbe overwhelming numbers of troops which closed around, easily suppressed this feeble show of resistance. Baudin and two other representatives were slain. "On Thursday morning, appearances of insurrection began to grow serious. Barri- cades were erected in several streets. At twelve o'clock, the Boule- vards were swept by troops, artillery was brought up, and wherever groups of people were seen they were fired upon. It is now known that police oflScers encouraged the building of barricades in order to give the troops a chance to attack the people. Buildings were battered with cannon, and scores of respectable people were killed at their windows. Throughout the day, the troops behaved in the most brutal manner, bayoneting, shooting, and riding over ever_y body within reach. Great numbers of innocent persons were killed in this manner." Many of the soldiers were drunk, and Paris pre- sented the appearance of a city taken by storm. It was evidently the intention of the usurper md his unprincipled advisers to strike terror by a general and indiscriminate massacre. By the official return, it appears that only fifteen of th-o soldiers were killed, and more than two thousand of the people— a fact which sufficiently proves that a very Blight resistance was made the pretext for a butchery, the most wanton and unprovoked which has been perpe- trated in Paris since the days of Eobespierre. On receiving intelligence of these facts, several of the provincial ; districts, especially in the valley of the Khone, made resistance to : the government; but after some hard fighting, the insurgents were ^ defeated, and order— the order of tyranny and fear— was restored. ' In general, the French people, accustomed to revolutions, received i the event with much indifference and apathy. The vote of the army, already conciliated by favour and lar- gesses, was first taken, and was, as might have been expected, almost unanimous in favour of the usurper. On Sunday and Satur- day, the 20th and 2l3t of December, the question was after a fashion submitted to the people, in the several departments of France. The only vote permitted was one of an affirmative or negative to the vague though simple proposition, that Louis Napoleon should, for ten years longer, remain at the head of affairs. The result exhibits the disgraceful fact, that France, in over- whelming majority, submits to this high-handed act of usurpation, and settles down content with the bare name of a republic, and thnt| probably, only during the pleasure of the dictator. The official l-ATE REVOLUTIONS OF FBANCE. 117 returns show a vote of 7439 210 ,-n f '^^ only 640.737 against him SL - '°"'" '^" ^''''^''''^ «"^^ liar nanner in which the eTec^f 1^ ^^^^"«« f^'' ^^e pecu- -main of his complete and terwheSr ''''' °° '«"^' -" able, m a great measure, to the mereTo^ T"^"^^ ^^^'^^^ ^<^"^- .m a still greater degree to the u^-^ ^T '"'^ ""^ ^'' '^^"^e. but reliable, even though' a d^^^ ^TeZe ^"^ '^ ^ '"^'^^ -^ wir h^^r T&trr '-- ^""^-^ ^^^« - manner a. to place it most TmpleteTv und/'v'''"^' ''^ «"«^ « distrngumhed generals and civilZT f ^'' '''°*''°'- ^^"7 Cavaignac, Thie,^. Victor Hut and ' ^^^ ^'"'•^^«^' ^'^^^'^d^^ the late representatives. Twe^; fiv. T'^^' ^"""^^^^ ^^^^^ of transported to the deadly and pCs^illtinl ^'^'^"^ ^^^« ^een hbertytrees have all been pbckeTun ' , T* '^ ^^^^^^^^ The ternity, and equality," have Wn 17:, ."^ '^' ^""'^^ "liberty, fra- The populace%ver witrand ' . '''!" '^' P^^'^'*^ buildings. insult, by chalking up as Ustltu^Z'th^rr'""'^^^ ^^-'^^^ thi« cavalry, and ar^-T^.j;.. ««t>8titute8 the tahsmanic words "infantry, latfkLnr . .uX?ji!nt ^^''"' '''""^' ^""««d by the fiscated by a decree Tlp^^Z^'^^^'^''^^^^^^^^^ for ite distribution in such aCnt^'as to r '''"'^^° '-"^^ ant classes-especially the artisanrth? l '"'"*' ^""''^"^ ^'"Port- -est lavish and whofesale pSon ^f 2'' ".' ''' ""^- ^'^^ strengthen the attachment of triatl/ t^^r^'' ^'^" '"^d^' *- only force which opposes any formidaSi' ^'*''°'^' ^"^''d' *he has been disbanded and diLrmed "" *" '"^"'^^^ *^«°P«' The new constitution whioh v,o= • . ,. dent, though admittin^nt Jl :r '"" ^^^^^^ ^y the presi- of power to ite represeLti;r ^1' f"" '"^^ *'^ ^^'^^^ ^ denied to the legislature, and the init^ve of 'TiT"^ P'*'*'""^ ^' to the president. He may proroair ^ "" ^"^^ '« '^'^'^^^ assembly at his pleasure, and fuS'ld ''"'"' T^ ^''''^"^^ ^^e legislation of every k.'nd a12 '^ "'"'P^"*^ ^''"t'-ol over «hals, and admirals, and citte^s „!' Tf'u ^^ ^-^inals, mar' tutes a species of upper housrw kh r 1 \ '^' ^''^'^'^^ ««n«ti- reaiity of power, g si Z 'a" o b " '""'"'"^^ *^^" ^^^ -«embly, be prorogued by tiet^de^t b.T' "' '* "^>' "^« ^^e A st.ng leaning towani -onS;^^:::r^^^]'^^^d 113 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP lilSTORy. not only ,n this instrument, but in the decrees bj which it has been preceded and accompanied. The law of 1848. abrogating titles of ?rt ?^' .'' ??r"'^-- ^"'^ "^ '^' °«^ 'y'''"' i« '^-^^dly adopted from that of the empire, and the whole is so modelled as to lodge, in el ct, supreme power in the hands of the dictator. The French n^.ion, at this moment, enjoys less real liberty than it has done at any time since the Eeign of Terror. The freedom of the press is completely suppressed, and even the license of conversation, so dear to that volatile people, is materially curtailed. Whether they will obtain a greater degree of freedom, and whether they are fitted to enjoy It, IS a problem which time alone can determine. ib it has been iting titles of edly adopted 3 to lodge, in The French t has done at the press is ition, 80 dear ler they will are fitted to r&AtHiK, m THB IUIBB8 OF PIAHCB. The Romans, Pharamond, Chief of the Pranks, Clodiou, THE MBBOVIiroiAH KIROS. Meroveus, . Childeric, , ^ Clovia, . , Descendants of Clovis, . I)agobertI.,great.g™„d.onofCloW8, Clwis II., . ^ • • • . Charles Mart«l, son of Popi,,, Pepin the Short, son of Charley Charlemagne, son of Pepin, Thk C^u>v„.u« Kx,os. or SuceessLrs „f Charlemagne. * . H.gh Capet, . . . ""-^--"T. Robert (the Pious), son of Hugh, ' * ' Henry I., son of Robert, . ' * * Philip I., son of Heniy, Louis VI., son of Philip, Louis VU., son of Louis Vi " ' " I Philip II. (Augustus), son of Louis VIl" ' * I LouwVIII., son of Philip II, ■'■ • Louis IX (St. Louis), son of.Louis vin., ' * Ph..p in. (the Bold), son of Louis IX * PhiLpIV. (the Fair), son of Philip III"' ' " L«"i8 X. (the Peevish), non of Philip iV.', ' ' Philip v., son of Philip IV • Charles IV. (the Pair), son of Philip IV.," . ' . ' p..,. .„ «0"SE or VAL0I8. I'h'lip VI., grandson of Philip m., John (the Good), son of Philip VI., * ' * * Charles V., son of John, . ' • • • ■.C. 60Tt)ii.D.420 420 " 428 . 428 « 448 448 ' 468 < 481 « dll « 628 « 638 « 665 « 688 " 714 - 741 « 768 « 816 « 987 « . 996 «• . 1031 « . 1060 « il08 « . il37 « 1180 " . 1223 « 1226 <• . 1270 " 1285 » . J314 « JHlb « . 1321 " 1 1328 « 1350 1360 « 1364 1364 « 1380 1380 « 1422 14212 1461 120 THE PBOPLE'8 BOOK OF HISTORY. Louis XI., son of Charle* VII.. Charles Vm. gon of Louis XI FROM 1461 to 1483 Louis XII.. greatgrandson of c'harles* V/ . '. ' * * ]%l I ]f,l Pmncs I., greatgreafc-grandson of Charles V ' ' 5,5 « «!* HenrylL, son of Francis I., . . .... 516 1647 Francis II., son of Henry II., . l^l" »*'^9 Charle^IX.,sonofHenryn.. . "* " »'*«<' Henry la son of Henry H.. . . Jf^ „" '''* ^ ' 1674 « 1689 HOUSE or BOaBBOII. Henry IV. (the Great), eleventh descendant of Louis IX, 1689 « i«,n Louis Xm., son of Henry IV.. . . ^uw lA, . . 1689 « 1610 Louis XIV.. son of Louilxra... J^? „" '''' Louis XV.. great-grnndson of Louis XIV., [^l „ !!1'^ Louis XVI.. grandson of Louis XV.. !'f I "^'^ ^"'r^C" "^ ^"'' ^^^■' "^'^'"^~'™"-'^'^«-^> '"' The Consull^ "^^ " I'SS The Empire, . ^"^ " "04 Louis XVIII.. brother of Louis xVl.. ' !!?* I '«'" The Hundred Days of the Empire. • • • • 1814 I8I6 Louis XVni. (restored), . '^''^ Charles X., brother of Louis XVm,' ' ' ' ' ' loi* " ^^^* jjfcsr "'*''"""'"* ^''""*'"°^* • * • ' • '^«»« " s 1848 " - JSJVGLAIJ) C H A P T E a I. Less than two thousand veara <,in^» r.:. ■ poworW and cMteed DationTon eanh w. ' "7 ""' "' "" "«»' forest, inhabited bya rude Td h,t ' """^ "" moultivated in their manners a^ud mte" lifetT,?'''' ""' ■""* ""I-*-- of our own day. Theva^II 'n ?1 ''"'"'"■' »"'' °"'er savages on .he milk Ji flih'of theTeSe t ""'"' '"' ''"' """"'"'"^ the humania„„ arts had "7 °'''™ ■ '»">"'«™ v,as unknown, and were a branch VZ^^elToe tie it V't''""^- '^'-^ P^P'^ Western Europe, and wS S;. v "''""^, «™Pi«d Ae most of hei V the Ito^ans. In BrW„'°'l''"'''"^^!'W- give hos^s plete dependance upon Eorne The' e1 Tr"'" '^^* ^ «°'"- vi^it, constructed a wall across tL if T f "'"' ^"^^^"S ^'« way to the Tyne, for the purpose >f ^v' '^^t'^^'^^ ^^°"^ ^^^ ^ol- still continued%heir incursionr '^'"^ *^' Caledonians, who through the civiliid p t of he iZd UnT ' ^ T^^"^'^^' ^^^^^ the prefects appointed by them feeUn, ^p .' ^"^^^ '"^P''^^^' often declared themselves indenli^r? '" *^''' ^^^^^"^^ ^^'M purple. As the en,pir7bee ^^t^^^^^^^^^^^ *^« -perial by the success of her barbarian neLhbouiJ thTp '"r^'^°"' ^"^ gradually withdrawn for the defenee of S- ^^''"'" ^'^^^^^ Picts or Caledonians, the ScoIb from Tr., . "^^^j^^^^^^^^J- The ti^e .ain-land, all ^.sed t Xp' tu^ : t^^^^^^^^^^^ «ons. London was taken and plundered ^^7^ ^''' '''""^• finally defeated, still kept up the r atck^'^Ari ?^T^' *^°"^^ the last Roman legion amid th/ . ^^ngth (A. D. 420), unfortunate Britons,UeTttif2er:ra^t ^^^' ^'^^ unprotected from the ravages of their numeTi i^vadetf "" ^'^ / CHAPTEB n. well's r "LtL^.Til"""^'".'^-"-- iad f„r.W defenceless kingdom, Vorti, being hard pressed by a rival STo'/r''' ' °"*^^^ P^"°«. bh invasions wi. .ill'lT*^.' ^"'l, continually troubled by the Pict- assisiance a body 124 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. of Saxon mercenaries. The tribes inhabiting the forests of Gor many and the western shores of Central Europe, were a race far superior to the Britons in courage and enterprise. Already their strong and well-rigged vessels had penetrated to distant shores, on errands of piracy or commerce. Hengist and Hofsa, two renowned chiefs, complied with the invitation of Vortigern, and landed in Britain with three ships and sixteen hundred men. Strengthened by further reinforcements, they successfully repelled the Picts and Scots; but, unsatisfied with the Isle of Thanet, which had been bestowed upon them, they made further demands. These not being complied with, they turned their arms against their allies, and a series of hostilities corn.nenced, which in the end resulted in the entire subjugation oi' the island by its new invadera. Horsa was 8lain; but Hengist, by a series of victories, gained possession of the whole of Kent, and thu^ founded the first kingdom of the Saxon Heptarchy. Fresh numbers of the foreigners flocked over. A chief named Ella, after a contest of several years, gained posses^ sion of further territories, and constituted the kingdom of South Saxons, now Sussex. Another body, under Cerdic, formed the prmcipality of West Saxons or Wessex. Others, landing on the eastern coast, took the name of East Saxons, and their territory was called Essex. Norfolk and Suffolk were conquered and settled by the Angles, and named from them East Anglia. To this race England is indebted for its present name. Deira and Bernicia, two British priacipalities, were subdued by the same people, and formed the kingdom of Northumbria, the most powerful in Britain. Mercia was for the most part conquered and settled by the same people. Thus was formed the Heptarchy, or seven kingdoms of the German invaders. These changes occupied a period of nearly an hundred and fifty years, during which the Britons opposed an insufhcient resistance to their fierce and warlike foes, and were gradually reduced to com- plete subjection. Only the dwellers in the mountainous district of Wales, and the scattered tribes which took refuge thither, remained an independent and separate people. In other parts of the island, the nationality of the native race was so completely effaced, that their original language became entirely disused, and modern English con- tains very few traces of the language of the original inhabitants. All Britain was now divided between the new and victorious race of Anglo-Saxons, the original Britons, who had retreated into "NOLAND. 12', salons ix.„ti(i; euKcr U; o/ll.^, , ° ^'"' ^H Gi-«Korv a on. .i,.p,..c,..d'i,..t Bri.*: :nrr/' '"•; ''"'"^- ^- compamcns. Ji.l,„ll,„. j,, , "f K. ? , "^"K"'""". "ill' forty n.»med „> a Cl,ri,tia„ pri„c.i ,"' tor ^HK "i ° """^ ''^". »'^ .o.m.wbatappr„Ia.™ivi'of:Lrrwe/'°„'"*°''*r f*"-"*'' lH)rr„i3,,„„ to disseminate their dnrN '"°»'™"». >>» g^o tl,em rcr-ri:it£9:tr:a:^- Abbe^. now stands. The faith cont r^'' ^^'^^^ Westminster -- final, estabh-shed in aM le A ':t '" '^"'^'^' ""^ -« ^-« After nearly two centuries f w 1 T f f "" '*^^"^'- Mereia had be^. at :£:^J;^Z^:^r'' ''T''''^'^ ^-« terestu,g wars had been wa^edTnor t ^TJ' ""^ ''''"''' ""^n- the royal line of Wes^ex ^^se kto ^ f ^^''^'"* P""«'Palities, ^^ing. who had been for som y a ran^^X'-'"""^" ^^^-*' ^J- the great emperor Charlern^a; " eturntd"; n"''' ^''^ ' ^^^^ 800, and assumed the erown Aflefd ^"*^" ^" the year improvement of his realm in MOQ , '''' ^'^^^""g some time to the -all. and in fourteen years "el, ^ T f '''' ^"*^"^ ^' ^-n "ext engaged in war with Merda 1 f ^^'^"^'"•««''-"* ^e waa defeated. Kent submitted to2 \l!Tf "^/'^'^ ^^ ^^'^i''^^^^/ and espoused his cause. The S,: "f M ""' "^"^^^""^ ^«^-'ted, t^e supremacy, was slain in battt 'and t^^^f '^ "'^""« ^- conquered his kingdom. He next sTzJnZ^^^' ^^^'^^^ ^"'i crowned his successes by the conquest of wSS'^"'"^ ^^ ^7 \ 121 TIIK l'J£0rLE'8 BOOK OF HISTOBY. CHAPTER III. THl ANGLO-SAXON IINOB. The whole island south of the friths was now united under Egbert. This prince, the first ruler of the British nation, waa a man of great talents and unibitiun, both probably matured by a residence at the court of Charlenuigne. He gave his kingdom the name of Angle- land (England), which, with little alteration, it bears to this day. Scarcely had he reduced his new dominions to ord.T, when he waa called upon to repel the most formidable enemy which the nation ever encountered. The Northmen or Danes, inhabitants of Denmark and Norway, and destined to be the scourge of all adjoining nations, lirst landed in England on the coast of Dorset, with a small force, in the year 787. Ere long they descended on Northumbria, and plundered the monasteries. In 838 tiiey came, with thirty-live vessels, to Char- mouth, in Dorset, where Egbert gave them battle, but was unablo to repulse tliera from the country. Two years afterwards a largo body joined the Britons of Devon, and invaded Wessex, but wc°o defeated by Egbert. That monarch died in the following year, leav- ing Wessex to one of his sons, Ethelwulf, and Sussex, Kent, and Essex to Athelstane, the other. The Danes continued to make yearly incursions upon the southern and eastern coasts; but were, in general, bravely resisted. Encour- aged, however, by spoil, in the year 851 they sailed up the Thames, plundered London and Canterbury, and advanced into Surrey. Here, however, they were encountered by Ethelwulf, and defeutJd with great slaughter. At the death of that prince, in 858, his sons Ethelbald and Ethelbert succeeded. The latter, surviving, found himself in possession of the whole kingdom in SbO. Tlie Danes continued their ravages. They burned the city of Winchester, and after receiving a large sum from the people of Kent as the price of peace, devastated the country. Ethelbert dying in 866, bis brother Ethered ascended the throne; and in the year of his accession, a large army of Danes, landing m East Anglia, procured horses, and marched into Northumbria, «NOLAND. 127 A treaty was made, which, how ve 1h« n ' ^.'"' "^ '"« ^'^'o'"- "ga.n overran the countr/in 873 p^f, ^'"" dl.regarded, aTul further treaties were made, all „f wl,! , ' T"""'"' «»«"^'J. and ^e Danes, when opportu^, 'e "'* ^^^-^.^f ^"'^'^ ^-'^■- V advantages, that ahn-.t the ;ho i.-itio. f ^- ''""^ ^"'"^"^ -<^^ the k,ng was forced to wander ab ,„ , "'^'''''^'"^ '^ ^^•e'", "nd a P'-'a-sant. "" ^^J« co^Mry in the disguise of By degrees he collected a small f ^ . whom he lived in the midst 7o\tni' f '''^^ ""'^'•«"^. ^^^h Devon having s„ecns..f,.l,^. n.ist "i 1" VT"^''' ^''"' '"^"n of Alfred resolved to .uako^an, Jr ."" ^f^ "^ ^'"^ ^--^"ers, Reentered their camp diH.„i/^^ '? '"^^^'' ^''« '"vadors »" t at he wished, snnlmo,,: '; , "'f-'' -'^ 1-ving learned "g to Ethandune, ho defeate th !" '' ■'"^'" ^''^ ^^''-- ^^f-.h- bcMoged them in their ean.p, nd <] '', ? ' '^^"'^^' «"g^'fe-'"-t, mm, the,r leader, was l.nptiied j ' "' T' ^^ ^"^"^^'- G»th- the English king. Ii,f wa^ iCmiuedT "^^'^'^ ^^""^^''^'^ --"1 "tory, and ever after remainecl'fSVV "" " P^''^'"" "^ ^er- ; people also laid a-le their rdld^^^ ^:7''--ven.ig„. "is ; themselves to agrienlture. ^^ ^'"^'''^'y habite, devoting ^"nng4 fifteen veir^ i„ i.- i , I -P^.ed <™»o,rr^„ , :,;t,':°,»;'n.w« « pe„ee, Alfred M.«l a camp, o.hcn, sailed up ,| ' Th '^ ™""« "' ^eM, for- - led ,n N„r.h„„bria and ZZ^'Z J"' ''''"'■ "'""-"l Ihe king gained several virtori™ '/""«' '°™'l«>y 'he superior naval force of fl,„ ■ f °<'""«re also repressed ™- of 'WO of .heir vere, fte^'Sh: :' '" T^' '-i<"^ '"" ^" "" "=""-We n.on,:or^:,r:%' ■; »« of Susse. '# 12S THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY^. year of his reign, at the aye of fifly-throe. His name has siiiee hw.u luovorbiiil as the model of a good sovereign. During his long and troubled reign, he devoted niueh time and attention to the encour- agement of liteiature and general education; he promoted com- merce, and enforced the impartial administration of justice. HLs ii'.emory has always been cherished with the greatest fondness by the PJnglish nation. His son Edward I. (surnamed the Elder), was chosen to succeed him, by the Witan or ])arliament. His reign was at first disturbed by the pretensions of Ethelwald, a son of Ethelbald, who, with the assistance of the Danes of Northumbria, maintained his claim to the throne for several years. He wius finally slain in battle, and the Danes, continuing their hostilities, were defeated with immense slaughter. The supremacy of Edward gradually extended over the whole islands, even the princes of Wales and Scotland acknowledg- ing allegiance to him. lie died in 925, after a successful reign of twenty-four years. Athclstane, his eldest son, by his father's will and the election of the Witan, succeeded. Shortly after his accession, the Britons of Cambria and Danmonia attempted to recover their inde})cndenco but were defeated and subilued. A formidable alliance between the northern Danes and Scots was no more successful. The Danish chiefs were compelled to lly beyond seas, and the Scottish king to renew his allegiance, and give his son as a hostage. Anlaf, one of the former, becoming master of Dublin, renewed the war, assisted by tlie Scots and several of tlio British tribes. Anlaf, in the guise of a minstrel, examined the king's camp, and a night attack was commenced by the confederates. A battle ensued, lasting all the following day, ^'hicli resulted in their entire defeat, with tlie loss of many of their chiels and vast numbers of their fol- lowers. After ihis decisive victory, the reign of Athclstane was undisturbed. He was in friendly alliance with the first princes on the continent, many of whom were connected with him by marriage or other private ties. lie died in 1)41, and was succeeded by his brother Edmund, a youth of eighteen. After some years of contest with Anlaf, with whom he was compelled to share his sovereigntv, the death of the latter enabled him ,o regain and extend lil-f authority. lie met his death in a manner curiously characteristic of the rudeness of the times. Seeing at his table one Leof, an out- law, the king sprang up, and attempted to eject him from the room. ■NOLAND, In the struggle, he received a mortal ivnnn^ ^ , , ...rude. .,.d died i„ 946, .<^.r7X:7tJ:Tj'' '"•'•' "' ""' Ills brother Edred succeodod t,. ♦! .i "^ edged king, subdued a reti^- .N, r""/ '•"' '^'"^ •^"^'^«-'- into an earldom for one of klZCr^T '''' "^' ^^'"^^^^^^ ^' On his death, in 9oo, Edwv son nF "p i Hi. reign was brief and unlu. L D^Lttth 'aT ''""" ''■"^'• bury, a man of .rreat talont. ^' "s^an, the Abbot of Glasten- chuiih, had for:;,^ i"!:"' f'^--^- - the cause of the the court and nati ^ ll^ ! , • 7^^^ '^^-'"^« -thority with the accession of Edwy a vou h f "'"'' "" '^^^ ^^«"« ^'^^^ be sought the n.^an ?^;f \| ; :^^ ;^'^^'^: -^ ^-"^ of pleasure, tion with Odo, archbishop of cfn 1 '^''^^"^'^"«^' '^"^ *" -onjunc- •separate from his wife Xvl H : 7^' '""^'^'"^'^^ ^'^^ '^""o to iron, and shortly aflorwarcfs 1 J^ J" ^ "T"', "'' '^ ''«^ diers of Odo. Dor unfort«n„t7l i if^ "".rdored bv the sol- and at his deatCi/S h tn ^ p1 ^'' '"* '^'"^' •^"--- '-i was chosen king D,m^, L^^ '^T f ''i •'^', ^''^ "^^ "^ ^'"^teen ^^hen he died, and J ^O^flXf^^^FT' ITf^' '''' t}'r). After a brief reign this „■ f. '""^ "• (*''^' ^^"''■ command of Elfrida h^^Juu.TT":'"'''''"'^''^ '" »7«. V ti- of her own ^on; mZ^H:'::;^:^ ^^^^ I^-'-l the elevi: plunder..!. The Witm L V" "' ''"" ""^ ^'^'^-' -'^ exHientofbuyingthemorfo wlTl ''"""■'' "" '''^' "''^'---''l''^ :7eW(Dane-mo„ev), w.^ lev d t ' ^'"T' "" '''""^ ^'^"^'^ ^^'"^^ Tenthousand^i;.:;;:;;^ ^^:;^^^^^ to incite them to further incursions n rLTn"'' ""^ ''''^^'' renewed the war. 1„ 0!)3 Sw.-vn' ? ' "'^7 ^""*'^^'"g J''^"-, they kingof Nc,rway,en,en.dtt^I 2 ' ^^"'.V*'/'*"""'''^'^'' "'"J O'-ve, adjoining countHes, a, d h ^s . '" ri" ' " '"■^" '^'^^' '''^-'8-' th^ i^ they laid wa.sto t .e 1 , f ' ^7'.'"" 't-self Failing to take bribe of sixteen tlu>. s / lo ' : V r'^'.' "' ^'^^^■""^"^ "^'^ -- of the Northmen were rerwed „nT '' ^'"'' '''« '"^'"^'"""^ tf^o English, h, the year lOoi Iw T' 'f '"'''^ "^'I-«-' V paid them as tlie j,rico ol nu-e,' '^^""^^■^"»'- t'^«"«und pounds were Vol. JI.— y 130 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. Soon afterwards the king and his assembly determined on a bold and treacherous project. On a given day, the Danes, scattered throughout the island, were every where attacked and slain without mercy by the native inhabitants. Among them was Gunhilda, the sister of Sweyn. In revenge, the Danish monarch rScommenced hostilities, and for four years laid waste the southern and eastern parts of the kingdom. In 1006, a respite from plunder was pur- chased, as before, by payment of thirty thousand pounds. During two years of peace, which succeeded, great preparations for defence were made, and a large fleet was assembled at Sandwich; but a quarrel among the leaders rendered these exertions of no effect. Soon afterwards a formidable Danish force, commanded by Thurkill, landed at Sandwich; ravaged the country far and near- and was only induced to depart, at the end of two years, by pay' ment of forty-eight thousand pounds. Their leader was also made Earl of East-Anglia, and, with a great number of his men, taken into the king's pay. All was unavailing. The next year, 1013, Sweyn appeared with a large armament, and sailed up the Humber. Joined by the Danes • already in England, he overran the country. The greater part soon submitted, and Eth Jred, afler taking refuge in the isle of Wight, was compelled to seek an asylum, with his family, at the court of Normandy. j CHAPTEH I?. THE DANISH KINGS AND THE LAST OF THE SAXONS. The Danish monarch, having become master of all England died in the following year, 1014, and the Danes chose his son Canite to fill the throne. The English resolved to recall Ethelred, who, with his son, Edmund Ironside, recommenced the war. Afler varioua indecisive movements, and the treacherous assassination of some of the Danish chiefs, Ethelred died in 1016 at London. Edmund was chosen as his successor by tlie Witan at London; aWOLAND. 131 1 Tl but that of "Wess^x decided ' f immediate! J commenced ThrDair/" °f ?*"'j*®- Hostilities were obstinate conflicts, the kingdom bv 1 ? : ' ''"'^ ^^^'^ ^^^e'"^! between them, EdrnnndZZi'Tf '^''^'^'- ^^'^ ^^rided tbe same year, and the mZ " ur" ^"P«"«^%- He died Canute king of all England "' "'^^'"^ "* ^«"^°°. declared ^vidt^Efh^^^^ — eign married Emma, the tinguishcd supporters. Ilf JaVnow tr^"''''""' *° ^'' ^««t ^is- !"■« age, being k,ng of Denmark Z """""l ^"''''^'''^ '"^"^^^h of t> homage of Sweden Td st^;^ V^^^"^^-^, and having spent in England, but l.e often visiied hi, n! T^ T P""°'P^'ly successfully put do.n ull attempl at ^evo t 7"/'"""""^' ^"^ reign became mild and equitable andV! A" ^^ ^^'^ ''^'^> ^'-^ \ new subjects. ^ ' ''"^ ^^ g^''"<^d the affections of his It is related that, to rebukp ih^ flo** Ife Clair u> be se. upon ., e .™d "7 ;". '' """'="• '«' "^-l /head™nci„g.ide,„%e.po .* "m ttofr'''™'""'' '=™™-^'^'i reached andfoamed around htatfr''"''^"' '^'"'"™™ .ion of W, flatterers, and fri' L "'°f '^ ™"='»'^ •"»"'»• y tae original settlemeitof Canute hi . '"™''' "" ^h«"i» •n 1040, and Hardacnute wa^^utiimo, ?"" ^- '"'^'^- ^« '^^^ -^^He^.dbutt.o,e--S--^ of Canute, offered to secur. W t.! ''''^' '^"^ ^'^"•i""'-^- espousing Editha, the earl s d.uX T""'' °" '""'^'■''°" ^^ ^is London, and by the influence' of Godwin KT ''"""' ^"^ ^^'^ ^^ e t^iron, and crowned at Winche te "'in 1I4T" ThT v"^^' ^^ of Ih^yeld was abolished by him and fl. 1 T^ °'*'^"' *^^ g-nted to Danish favourites wU r LmeV Tr t'' P""™"« •n wa. paramount: his authority Zltt Jll '"'"'" "^^°^- ^-4 e^tended over all the .oX^^^ "^al!^:^;:^ 1S2 ~~i THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY of toe kingdom. Edward, though compelled to acquiesce, dirflikea th 'bmily, and selected all his favourites from Normandy, the coun- try of his education. Numbers of these foreigners flocked over and were advanced to high offices. Their language, the Norman French, was also adopted at court, and the people began to be jeal- ous of the ascendancy which tins more polished race was acquiring. Open hostilities commenced with an affray in Dover, caused by the insolence of the foreigners ; and Godwin, with his sons, espoused the cause of the English. They were, however, obliged .j fleo into exile, and sentence of outlawry was passed against them. Their possessions were allotted to others, and the king's authoritj' was completely established. At this time his cousin William, duke of Norma dy, paid a visit to the English court, and perhaps first entertained his ambitious designs upon the kingdom. In 1052, the exiled family of Godwin made a vigorous movement to recover their power. Harold raised forces in Ireland, and his father, with a large fleet fro"i Flanders, appeared on the south coast. The people declared in their favour, and, uniting their forces, they marched to London. The l.'- ■■ • .3 compelled to yield. TLo' Witan-gemot was assembled; all tbtir honours and possessions were restored, and the fon/igncrs were mostly compelled to quit the king- do--. The death of Godwin, whicli occurred not long after, increased the power and influence of his successor Harold. At this time, the interference of England was 3olicited by Mal- colm, the rightful hoir to the Scottish throne. His father, Duncan, had been treacherously murdered by Macbeth, one of his officers,' who usurped the crown. The prince claimed the protection of Edward, as his liege lord, and an a'-y was despatched to his assist- ance, under Earl Siward, who def u -i and slew the usurper, and in 1054 placed Malcolm on the throne. The king, who had intended to appoint his nephew Edward to the succession, was disappointed by his sudden death; and it Ls said tliat he made a will, appointing William of Normandy heir to the kmgdom. Harold having fallen into the hands of a lawless barou on the coast of Ponthieu, wis, by order of William, released, and sent to the court of Normandy. On this occasion, the latter informed liim of his aspirations to the crown, and Harold, seeing himself in tlie duke's power, took an oath to support his pretensions. Edward having rebuilt and consecrated Westminster Abbey, died, mid was buried there in 1065, having reigned twenty-three years. ENGLAND. His character was weak an.! f^^u^ t ^ nomination as successor T>,^ , ^"^' °" '^^s death-bed i at Rouen, and thetow dropped^ "f 'J "^^"^^"^ -^"« hunt t: barons he -..oned l3?^^^^^^^^^^ B, advice of ,,° promptly refused, the duke convened f T"''"" '^^'^ ^^«"'g nobles and dependants at LilLbont TfT' ^^^^^''-^^-t of hi^ tenures to accon^pany him beyond s^as th e^n """"'f^'^''^ ^^ their conquest of England, and many waS Irff ^'u'"""^* ^'- countries flockei to his standard ^7? , ""^ *^" ''^^Jo>''i"g and sent him a consecrated banner a^A T V^'''''^^ ^'^ cause, Meanwhile, Harold wa^ enlTJ i''' ^^ ^*- P«t«r- gigantic namesake, ZZPSrlT'"'' V''' '-^--usand landed in England, and defeated tt f "^ '' ''"""''^' ^^o had Tbe English monarch, befo Td n! hT ''"' ^'^ ^^^^^ ^im. Tosti, who was with the enelyrild'/^"^'^ ^'''' ^'•^^h- being demanded what he wTuli le i ?." l '''^''' ''°"«'^'^- It old replied, "Seven feet of Englfsh eli 'f ''°^^^''^>' ^ar- haps a little more." Tosti and W ^ T ' """' ^ ^^ ^'"^ « g^ant, per- wa. completely defeated "^'^'^ ""'« «^^^"' ^^d their krmy w^rt^h^r rS;^;^i- -« ^"-on Of William, fth of September, 1066. Thrkinrh' ""7' ''^^^""^' ^ ^^^ days assembled a large force and ml. . ^'^ ^°"^°"' ^" «^'^ the 15th of October tie trCtrentlr;"' ?'' "^^^^^•^- ^^ (now Battle), about eight milerinhnTf ri 'P''^' ^''^"^'^ teniae «tood on the defensivc'the k in" Stin^on riT' "J^ ^^"^^'^^ ThXm'^ 'r^''^^ follolinjtCm '^"^"'^ *^^ ^^^ gh.astly relics upon ;hich HarolcTZf ) ,"''^ ' "'''"^«'- ^^ the claim. A Norman knight named tI.^ ^"^^" '^ «"??-* l^i« --• -.ormansdiL;X-Sr:L^^-Ha. 184 THE I'iOl'LK'S BOOK OF JIISTORV. ^^ uon. Their cavalry was twice driven back, and they were unuhle . u break the compact masses of the English. By enticing a portion ^'fl. mu ^^ '"*° "• P"^"'*' ^"''"'" '^«« ^^'^Wed U.; «ut th ., ) oft. Ihe archery still continued to pour a flight of arrows upun their crowded ranks; and one of these entering th. tyr, v '^ HaroW deeded the day. Th.- king was slain, and his army .Iterly ronte-l' Ihe victors m this oksiinate contest lost a f(>urth of .IteirV.ainbc] the loss of the English, as well as their original number, is unknown' At the time of this in<.].ortant event, the Anglo-Saxons, politically speaking, were possessed vC a tolerabk .Jiare of freedom ar-^ lU^p,.,] institutions, though strongly tinctured with the barbarisi., of iho age. They were divided into several distir.t eio.vse3 First the nobihty, called Korls (earls), composed of the V.vds and ■■•cntr-v second, the Oeori.s (carles), who owned or clti. uted tL. .-^ound' and hel;l it by payment of certain dues, or the pcrfbrmanocrof cer! tarn b. . viflcs io the lord.s: ami thirdly, the Theowes, or slaves, who were the r. Uio! i le property of their masters. Slavery and the slave- trade appv-a.' to havf prevailed in England from a. early period The coun,iy was divided into Townships, Hundreds, and Shires much as It is at present; and regular jurisdiction belonged to each of the.e divisions. The clergy constituted a pordon of all the higher courts. The Witana-gemot was the great council or parlia- ment of the kingdom, and sat thrice a year. The king in person presided, and next to him sat the bishops, abbots, and other clergy beneath these the Welch and Scottish princes, and lower still the ealdormm, or chief men - the .shires, and the landholders. In this grand council all laws were made, taxes imposed, and state offend- ers tried. It also had power to choose a successor to the crown from any of the royal line. In the several lower courts, were tried various crimes and misde- meanours. Treason, robbery, murder, and some other offences were punished with death. Homicide might be paid for at a given rate, according to the rank of the individual slain— that of a ceorl being two hundred shillings, and of a lord twelve hundred. The or.th of the latter was also held equal to six of the former. The trial bj ordeal of fire or water was common; the defendant's innocence being presumed if he escaped unhurt, and vice versa. Something slightly resembling the trial by jury also prevailed. The feudal principle existed to a certain extent; a' d the greater part of the royal revenues was derived from the du. . \ tributes 1 of Uk H was u i^ tenanc p kingd( The in the and th twenty church HH were unable ing a portion to out ihji.i arrovirs up.n e V f Horo](| terly route-l. [Cif riumbci ; is unknown. IS, politically 1 an':' I'l^eral Hsu of tin- First, the iiid genti-y; tl<.^ ground, aiiuo of oer- slaves, who id the slave- y period, and Shires, ged to each of all the il or parlia- j in person her clergy ; ^er still the rs. In this tate offend- the crown and misde- rences were given rate, ceorl being 'he of.th of be trial by icnce being ng slightly •he greater \ tributes ENGLAND. 135 of tliose holding lands anr^ fin j and the oath of a priest wTsT.^i , ^^''^ '^"^"°' ^^*h an earl- twenty ce^-les. l.'CZr^'Zt^ '''' ^'^ '""^^^ ^^ church closely followed thatTf W ''' ^^glo-Saxon CHAPTEH ?. ^II^UAM I.. WILLIAM 11., ,^p „,^^^ ^ After ravaging the coast and burnin. n xNormandy directed his march towLir ".^ ''^^'' ^^"^ ^^^ of , ^^PelessidisunionprevaTdntlv ^<^«i«tance seemed uud the chief persons among trcwT"^ ?"'" °' ^^« ^"^-^-bj j and made their submission He ^fl ^"^ ^^^J entered his camp l^ccember, at Westminster AbbevintlT'"^ °^ *^« 25th of b. followers and the Englifh wTi ," ef ^V' ^^^'^^^ ^^^^^^^ I ^^'"iam, hereafter called the Co^^^^^^^^^^^^ desire to conciliate his new subject^ 2 ^ ^'^ ^* ^'^* ^ «^^«"g rnai,v liberal and judicious me^ '„ '"^"T"''^ ^'^ ^'^'S" ^vith estates of those who had fou^hf 7" • •"^.'^'^^^^ated, however, the follower, who received themtetXl'" 1 ''^^^'"^^' ^^ ^- Gorman garrisons. Having se2dJ I"' '"^ '"'""^^ *^^'» ^^th ^^ormandy, astonishing Tis^sSlt , "'^ '"f ^''"^' ^« ^^turned to '-d richly endowing lis favourife 1 ^ '^^'"^^^'^^ «^ ^^ «Poils. iiberally remembered. '"'"""*^ ™°"^tenes. The Pope, also, ^a^ Meanwhile, his officers and followers in Fn i ^ r. sion, were driving the people toT? ^ '"'^' ^^ *^«^^ ^PPres. parts the NormaL wer'e Tx^ ed fTT-''''''^'''^' ^" '-« general revolt was meditated.^ ^'„[rrPt'' r^«««i«"«. a«d a ated the principal p..eop™ -.f ,u ^ '^*"''°^^ '» haste, rnncfi;. P- ^.....on. of the realm, and reduced the revoted 136 TUE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. provinces by arms. The conquered country was divided among his followers. A second and formidable scheme of insurrection was also sup- pressed; and the Conqueror burned, plundered, and massacred throughout many of the fairest portions of England. An attempt headed by the sons of Harold was in like manner defeated. A more troublesome enemy wius found in Sweyn, king of Denmark, who sent his brother and two sons, with two hundred and forty ves- sels, to the assistance of the English. William, however, by bribery finally induced them to depart, and then took the most savage revenge upon the revolted provinces, leaving them a perfect desert. Famine ensued, and more than a hundred thousand persons perished. A few desperate men still continued their resistance for a while longer, but were finally defeated, and mostly slain. Having reduced the kingdom to entire subjection, William entered Scotland, and received the homage of King Malcolm; thence passing over to the continent, he plundered and subdued the province of Maine. While thus absent, in 1075, a new insurrec- tion, headed by Norman nobles, broke out in England. It was, how- ever, suppressed without much difficulty, and the king took occasion to behead the last earl of English blood who still retained the title. His own family now began to give the monarch great uneasiness. Eobert, his eldest son, discontented because Normandy was not granted him, set the king's authority at defiance, and intrenched himself in a castle of that province. The king besieged him, and one day, in a sally, was unhorsed and wounded by his own sou, who, however, soon went into voluntary exile. The bishop of Durham, a foreigner, had oppressed the people intolerably; and, refusing redress, was S3t upon by his ^ock, and slain, with many of his people. The insurrection extended; but Cdo, bishop of Bayeux, the king's brother, marched with an army into the disaffected region, pillaging and slaughtering the malcon- tents. His own fall, however, was at hand. While endeavouring to secure the papacy, he was seized and imprisoned by William, who dreaded his ambitious projects. In 1085, the kings of Norway and Denmark prepared a great fleet and army to effect the liberation of England from the foreign yoke. The Conqueror also eulistod a vast force, principally foreign merce- naries; but from various causes (among them, liberal bribery bj William) the northern armament never sailed for England. v\ own son, HifhiMd a««pjp„ Sootch Coituw, »■« lIXTBaw.. • I >^ Codtum. 0/ Ancieut Britonn vim Of WILLIAM THI OOMMOSHO* KnK.mh CoituA*. 0» THI roOKTHMTU uanTOItr *i BngU»h Coitume, ' »■■ riMB or aiaBT vm Iriih Coituns*, •» TBB TVBLrTB CBarOBT KN'JLAND. 137 of Frnnoe upon his Jn,^. " ^ , *^''' "* ""'"'^^ '""''" ^'^ '»'« king tie. against !ha , a, ' .1"'' ","7"""'^^^ —--1 ''ostili^ Bix weeks, and uJ^T^^jf^Z^'T''''''^ ^" '""°'-'^-' the cruolt^ and violence whh hi "^''T '^''^' ^••"-«'' ''- Normandy to his .... lu"^Knl:f^^ ^!" '^'^^' '^y -"' pounds to his thir,l son He rv A . T T' ""'^ "^'^ ^''""«'^"'i I.urri<.d off to secure tl^ir owTi, . t'' t'"' '^^ P^'^^""« ^''-^ent andthocorpse lay for stne t " '"" ' . " '""•^' """ ''''"'^'^''•^^; was ...out '. be h. o "d in t^^^^^^^^^ ";^^"^' '"' ^'"^ ""-• ^-n ii the owner of the huK v I , i" ^"''': "*''"'' ^'^ '"•"' '""■'», bu^i unti, he received :ie; Hee^nlL'lir ^^^ ^^ ^^' ^^''"^^ ^^« iliis monarch, who ejected siip», n. ° ?• , of Knsl„„d, „.„, , „,.„ of conlZi "nb Cbt ""^ i" "" "^*' and sellisi, in the extr,™.. ]|- , •'^' °"" '^''*''' "varioicius, great, .„a ho e-peda Xli' irn :"'"'f' "'"• """■"-» «™ iWrty square mile, f„ if ? P"*") ''" '"'"' »•»•'"'= « Iraet of ^i f iL.io„;l' : t; :";s ; : ;'■^,^7 ^--r. >.-■..« conciliated the cl•< c-wed a. rightful heir; but William Tn.v '",'''™'"- of Robert, as the enabled to pnt i„„ the diL^„r^;r ''"" T"^ '" "™^' ""^ *o people, eondition, ho^eve'rr,^:::^ ' ''^ "™"°"''"" "^ ving come to an agreement, the two brothers tnrneil * 188 TllK i'Kol'l. Ii\S HOOK OF HISTORY. .heir arms agiiiiKst Henry, wlioin tlioy compelled to surrender his fortress, and betake himself into exile. Meanwhile, Malcolm had made an incursion into England; but on the return of William was compelled to renew his homage, and Ml 1003, making a new irruption, was slain in a skirmish. A fresh attempt on Normandy, an invasion of the Welsh, and a revolt of son'? of his own barons, furnished further emijloyment to the king foi- his arms and policy. At this time, Peter the Hermit had infected all Europe with th(3 fanatical and enthusiastic design of recovering the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem from the Turks. Robert, a brave soldier, and eager to distinguish himself in this new contest, assumed the cross; and, to raise money for the expedition, agreed to yield his duchy to Wi). liain, for five years, for the sum of ten thousand marks. William almost stripped the kingdom to raise it, and in 1096 took posses- sion of the province. In the latter part of his reign, the king was engaged in disputes with the clergy, similar to those which provod so troublesome to his successors. In the year 1099, on the 2d of August, he went hunting in the New Forest, and in the evening was found lyin./ ^' *« ^^^^ a person to swear that he had berian od \'"' ' ^^ P'"*^"""« ^ ti"g on his death-bed Jned ovT I *' '^' '^"'""^ "^^ *^^« W-tminster on the 22d JDeceX '""'^'^ ''^ """^ ^'"^ '^^ --X:^i:tr:;s ::; t:r «« i ^^« -- - 'country. Fortified castles arose on 1^ ^T"" throughout the peasants and citizens wer^ m o t T n '"^ '"'"' """^ ^^'^ ""^^'^Pl'^ Few atrocities canZZd ZlT ' ^^''"'^''''^ '^"^^ ^PP'-^^^^d- every kind, which ^rmt v v r^"' /""';'?' '^"'^ '^"^''W- of 'Host miserable countries oLr ""'"'^' '^"^^'^'^^ «- «^ ^'- 140 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. Tlie king found his throne by no means an easy one. Revolt., and Scottish incursions followed each other in rapid succession Sardly had he surmounted these difficulties, when in 1141 Matilda, with her natural brother, Robert, landed in Sussex, and was joined by many barons and knights. After various battles and skirmishes the king was defeated and made prisoner near Lincoln, and Matilda was proclaimed queen of England. Such was her haughty and ungracious temper, that the Londoners and others speedily revolted; Robert was seized; and Stephen, by exchange for him, regained his liberty. After the war had been protracted for some years longer, the death of Robert so discouraged the empress, that in 1147 she withdrew into Normandy. Hostili- ties ceased for two years, but in 1150 her son Henry, passing through the kingdom to Scotland, reanimated the hopes of her faction Having come into possession of Normandy, ho passed over into England, in 1152, 'to support his adherents. After some hostile manoeuvres, it was agreed that Stephen should hold the crown dur- ing his life, and that Henry should succeed him. The king died in the following year, on the 25th of October, after an unquiet reig^ of nineteen years. Though a usurper, he possessed many admirable qualities, and would probably, under more fortunate circumstances have made a good king. ' It may be remarked that the Norman conquest had made but little diiference in the laws of England, or in the constitution of coiu-ts. The principal changes were the transfer of nearly all the landed estate to the new comers; the enlargement of the feud'd system ; the change in the church government ; and the separation of the spiritual from the civil jurisdiction. The feudal system, the origin of which has been variously deduced from the Roman and Celtic customs, wa,s of a complicated and extended nature; but, in general, the effect was to render all land- holders dependent upor the higher classes, and make them liable to service in war, and various duties in time of peace. The ereat buron holding lands of the king, received the feudal homage of his knights, and they, in their turn, of the yeomen and others who held under them. The church of Rome had gradually .^n acquiring an ascendancy over all others, and in her various c-nseste with the continental powers, had usually kept the advantage In England, as well as elsewbere, she had gained a paramount influence, and interfered ENGLAND. 141 actively with the royal authority Thio ^^^ ^lented by the privilege accorded fr^ ^f'' ^"^ «^^^% ^"g- bcnginvariably'tried LfoTtheL bt / '''''' '^ William I., o^f rendered themnhnost irresponsible for crime "" '''''^'''-'^' ^^^ich ,^\\T'J^ ^^"^ained almost unchanged Tl .• , called the King's Court, attended hi.' ' '''-^>''^'* "^ these, the chancellor, treasurer' .^t, fT"','"'^ "^^ ^''^"P^-'i of still remained i„ use, ST/onT'T']'^''''^''''^- Ordeals tnal by arms, vv^ introduced ^ ^ '"'^ """'"- "/ ^"'H or a The royal revenues were derivp,^ ft. Tolls, permission to trade, fines TfeiturT ""7 "'"^^*^ '' ^-^^e^- Jews, Ac, &c, were a few of tl it ' "°'^* ^^ *"^'^' P^^^der of ^, Henry II. (Plantageret^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^ i'rone without opposition. Be 'des £^1 twenty-one, ascended the i"H parents and giined by nur rite n ^ ? ' ^^""^ ^"^^"^^ ^^om .mmediately commenced VTewLn^^^^^ S« expelled the mercenaries from he L^ *^^ ^^^^*'"g -^uses; resumed the possession of the royofcttlf ''/""^'^ '^' '^^^ Jition of those which had beenl.Tu ', '"'^ '^'^^^^ ^^^^ demo- con.pelled his brother Geoff ; o tsL V "'^"- ''^ '^'^ ^« and Maine, which he had invfded if a P'''^*^"'^^«"« to Anjou accessions to his territory in FrL. f^'^'^^'ds gained further and attempted to hold Toulouse ^ Possession of Brittany, f ;^^r ;:i tj^r ^^^^ the e^esses of -hod, had become horribly f e'ucn iv "l"'"f' ^^'"^ -"P^n- «ary to appoint some one to thcTriml-v ''' ''"'' '^ ^^^ "«°^- depend. Thomas d Bocket. e o C ^ '/" "".^'"'^ '"PP"^* ^^ could union between a Londoner\nd th '"'? ^" "'' ""'^^ ^^ ''' ^«->-'tic o'.e of the most able and a," I , flf M ''' ''^"^'^^" ^"-' -- cated for the church, he had 1 ?" "^ ''.'^ ^""«- '^"ough edu- Appointed l'igl^clKan;cIlor,J.e f^tlvir? ""T'""' ^'^'' ^«'«^«- ;:;%.;. valour and gen;L^r:--^ t - English church. But ,o ot7 p'^'-b^^y. the hiad of 1-12 TII£ rEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY and baffled at every turn by the able and enthusiastic prelate. At a great council, however, held at Clarendon, in 1164, many amend- ments were made in the existing system, and provision was made for the trial of ecclesiastics in the civil courts. Confliets between the crown and mitre still continued, and Becket, finding the king too powerful for him, left the kingdom in disguise, and passed over into Flanders. Protected by the Pope and Louis of France, he continued his haughty tone, and excommunicated all who had been concerned in the coimcil of Clarendon. In 1170, by the mediation of Louis, an apparent reconciliation took place; and Becket returned to resume his former position. His obstinate and factious disposition, however produced fresh troubles. The king, highly excited at his attacks' one day exclaimed: "Of the cowards who eat my bread, is there not one who will free me from this turbulent priest?" Four of hia barons, hearing these words, secretly left the court, and hastened to Canterbury, where the primate was performing religious ceremonies and denouncing his enemies. They entered his room, attended bv twelve knights, and required him to revoke the excommunication which he had lately pronounced on the king's partisans. This he obstinately refused to do; and soon after, following him into the church, the assassins despatched him with repeated blows before the altar. He died in his fifty-third year, a martyr to the cause of fanati- cism, pride, and usurpation. He was canonized by the church, and his shrine at Canterbury was, for many centuries afterwards, the favourite resort of pilgrims from all parts of the island. Meanwhile, some of Henry's adventurous subjects were laying the foundation of a new sovereignty in Ireland. The Irish, a Christian- ized but barbarous people, were, in the twelfth century, not much advanced beyond the Britons of the time of Caesar. The Noith- men, superior to these rude tribes, had founded some towns on the coast, and commenced a foreign intercourse. In the berrinnin^' °' ^'"' ^"'^^"^'""^ tvvo races never coalesced, and L2ll""^^'^^ the island, the a miserable spectacle of o^pre L" ': ' ' ^''''"^ P'^^^"^^^ After these successes ZZ ' '^•''' '"^ ^'^^^ ^«r. of Becket from the Po^ ^ o |/s:rt' "Y'^'^" ^^^ *'^« ^^^^ excommunication over hi hend Z 'u "■ '^'^ ^««" folding an -dered his life an unhapp;le hL " '"i? '^"'^^ ^'-"^-s Geoffrey, on whom Kndand ai^d ih^ P u' ^^'"'^' ^"^^ard, and -ttled, demanded that^he' should be , P""'^^" '^^^ ^-n , terntones; and, on his refusal fle to th.^" '" /°^^^^«'"" "^ ^^eir , -e an extensive confederacy a'aistt '""^f ^°'^^«' ^-'^ organ- »J Scotland, and the earls^? "L "' ,P" ^'"^ ^^ ^'"^^ce "oved by ambition and jealous! .11 ' ^"''^ '"^ ^^^^^Sne, '^e";ands of these undutifulin-nce? "'^P^^^^^ *^« i^^Pudeni ihe kmg prepared for resistanep.' v. • ^ , -n:cate his enemies, an^S, r'twe^nifr' ''^ ^^P« *^ --- ■-gment his forces. Normand ^t^X^ .^'^""■''f <^ -ercenaries to ome mdecisive actions, the unfonrat k'"^ '1''"'^^*' ""'^ «^*^'- „ h>s sons half the revenues of ^ h^"? ""^'"'^ *« ^^-ender /'"« negotiation being broken off ^^''^''' '^^•>' demanded ^d de Lu.y, g.arSian X:^^:,TT!^': ^!!^'-^. -he;^ ^^'^^-d^eLu.^----^^;^ returned to Eng,^^^^^ 7.'"«* revolt and Scottish invnsio ^ i^' T'' ^'''^"'^^"« '* ^^^'^velv shnne of Becket, declared hi ' '""- proceeding to the -;;";;tted toaflagella^^^^^^^^^^^^ "^ ^'- -int's detth^^'J ,i ''^••'* *h« kmg of Scots, who; with " ,t' th" r""'"'^^^'^ --« [L ° ^ '■^""^^''^"^^ ">en, had again lU THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF lIISTOBy. invaded England, was defeated and taken prisoner on that very diiy— a proof, as it was supposed, of the king's reconciliation with the heavenly powers. Ecturning to Normandy, he recommenced the contest, and finally the princes were compelled to accept terms far leas advantageous than those which he ha(^ offered at first. The kjng^f Scotland also was obliged to acknowledge Henry as his feudal lord, and to yield up the strong fortresses of Berwick and Roxburgh (1175). In 1183, the princes renewed their contests with the king and with each other; but the death of Henry and Geoffrey ended these difficulties. In 1188, Richard, a.ssisted by the king of France, again revolted, and the unhappy old monarch, defeated and disappointed every where, was compelled to yield to his unre{ison;iblo demands. Ilia youngest and favourite son, John, for whom he had destined the kingdom of Ireland, had also joined the conspiracy against him. The king did not long survive these misfortunes, but died of a lingering fever on the 6th of July, 1189, refusing to revoke the malediction which he had pronounced against his undutiful children. With Henry, who possessed no ordinary legislative talents, origin- ated the present English system of common law and of circuit cou°rts. Trial by jury was also partially developed, though the absurd ordeals and wagers of battel still continued to be used. CHAPTEH ?n. RICHARD I., JOHN, AND HENRI III. Richard I. (Cceur de Lion), the eldest surviving son of the late monarch, was crowned at Westminster Abbey, on the 8d of Sep- teml)er, 1189, in the midst of an outrageous riot directed Against the Jews, who were every where plundered and murdered throudi- out the city. A new crusade had been for some time in progress; and Richard, burning for martial glory, assumed the cross. He raised money for t flied of a revoke the ill children, snts, origin- •cuit courts. urd ordeals >^\i;>iv,^ THE MURDKR or TB0MA8 1 BECMT. J-n, four M.aa.in. proceeded in are.t „ ► Th.. round the pri„.„. .,„ tru.ted TnLXJV' "*=''''^*'-'"" P'- -t.'.'T.rr.W.rly.Uend.d.. and though tl ""•«»-" of hi. ob.r. P-caution. a,ai„..h.irv.olenoe, .e .n,! a Ij' r ^'"' "**-'"" "^^ «, to .ear ve.p.re. Th.y followed him th.Zr . '" '' '""'^'''•' ^^--l^ r- -o,en hi. head ,Uh >.an, i:;?: LT*^ l"*^ ^'^ ^^^ '^- •'-. „d i-»pid, .nd>„fl*.iw. apiHt. ,ho wa. able 7 ^""''' '' '^ »°" ^"^'X, - Him,e., the .nterpri« ' of pHd. Vnd ami! ""^ " *'' "°';'''- "^ ^-^"4 •n^ .,(•_.. . yiixe ana ambition. un.i.. t-w> ^^-J-,-,-, -_ _ «ion -Hum ^3 hi.TOKr or E«oi.*ko •■i ■NtfLAND. the oxpedition by evorv nr^^ -ui ^ ^^ wick and Roxburgh I Z^'^^^ft'' '^ """"^-"^^ B- who remonstrated, that he w . .'d self J ""'^"""^ *" tf^««o couhl find a purchaser. ''" *^'" ^'^3^ «f london, if ho Having appointed governoro f *i. , • brother John with titled i: 1 t j : ^' "f""' ""^ ^-'''^ ^'« Just before thin, however, the fieCcrl 1 ^^"1'^' ^"^ ^ '^'-tine. upon the unfortunate Jews .™ n k "' '""''^' « f''««J' attack ''Durt't *'"^'"'"°'^'"^ ""-bensof whon. were rn.ssaerei Saracen. Unable, however, from thltl r '?^'^^ '^'"'^'^ *''« possession of Jerusalem, he mad^ '^l^'f^'^onof hi., ,„; ^^ alrous sultan of Eg^^p,, 'j g "jf ^ ri?o7^'\^^'"^^"' '^^^ ^^i- Meanwlnle, great disorder^ pClld V''/"^^^'^'^ ^^"^ Acre, of Durham and Ely, who had Cn ft in' f "°'""- ^^'" ^'^^^P^ d^agreed, and the former was im^ L d bv ^T. "' ^'" '''■^'-^d-"- the most regal state and authority Mb of V'"''' "^"--"ned . mandy, and subdued a portion off and Vl '"'' ^"^'^^^''^ ^or- brother was dead, attempted to s i 'the 1; V""'- "" '"' *^'* ^'^ The king, while travelling through Ger"' f,^'"^«^>I^ ouslj seized and imprisoned b/^ .S^r^'^^ ^^^" ^--^^^I'er place of confinement was for a it t me nM ' '' ^"^^"^' ^"^ h'« captors agreed to release him for a ra " ^^"?- ^* '^"2^^ his marks; and after more than a yea's "2 "-l T ^"'"'"'^ ^'>-'««n'-« I After being recrowned, (to effa" '' ""chained." -t out for the continent, o deSn^tV •'' "^P^^^^^^') ^-^'-^ France. His brother John wi h 1 ^^""""'«"« from the kinc. of t eFrenchofi^ce^andgarr^^^^^^^ t"'^^^' '"---^ ^hen seeking his brother, obtained pardon t^^ The war was continued, with brief fZ ' ^°""'^ t'-^-'^sons. R.chard, which occuri^'d in 1199 wlTT'' ""^" '^' ^^^^h of Chains, whose owner had refused to ^'"^^"^ *^« ^'-^tle of covered treasure, hew. woun^d by athfr " ^" -^^'^-^^"y-dis- ■""■y proved mortal, and Rich.rd Lv ' ''^'''''•^"^^- The ^^cejand at his owzl desire undelt^r^ ''^'^^ '""^h peni- ^^-•lorgy, expired in the forty sec^'dv ''7? .^'^S^ellation from ^t.ng^^^.,tion^^.eourage. i^I^^ ^Z^^^Z'''^ ^-ing a 146 THE PKOrhE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. Though Artliiir, flnko of Brittnny, niid son of Geoffrey, was the next heir to thi- ti.muo, Richard bequeathed it to his brother John- who acenred the treasure, as usual, and, after some ^ -sitation, was crowned at AVestniinster. Arthur, supported by Ifiilip, at first nuiititained his own pretensions; but being abandoned by him, was obliged to relinquish them, and do homage for Brittany to lii,- imclo. In 1202, Arthur, supported by Philip, whose daughter he had married, again laid claim to the French pro\ inces; but was defeated, imprisoned, and finally assassinated in secret, i»robably by the hand of John himself Philip continued hostilities, and, aided by the uni- versal horror occasioned by this crime, succeeded in wresting from John all his continental domains, except Guienne. The weak and cruel monarch was next involved in a quarrel with Pope Innocent III., arising out of a private ecclesiastical dispute between certain monks. Rt«fusing to submit, his kingdom was laid under an interdict, which he revenged by despoiling the clergy and imprisoning their concubines until large sums were paid for their ransom. JIo sought aid from the emperor of Morocco, and even offered to turn Mahometan, if he would assist him against the Pope. The latter, in 1209, next tried an excommunication, and finally issued a sentence of deposition against him, the execution of which he intrusted to Philip, promising the crown of England and the forgivenes ■ T his sins as the reward. Great vi-rnrationa were made by both princes; but just as the war w; -• nUmt to commence, John, infinitely to the disappointment of Phi:n\ n.-ade a mean submission to the Pope, surrendering all his possess;.' :i3 to him and to his successors, and agreeing to hold them by annual payment of a thousand mark.«. The clergy, more- over, brought in an immense bill for damages, which he was compelled to satisfy. Fresh troubles awaited him. The barons, headed by the prima* Langton, after vainly demanding pledges for the future reform of abuses, assembled a force, and made war upon the king John, finding the whole kingdom arrayed against him, was com- pelled to accede to their demands; and on the 19th of June, 1215, at Runnymead, signed what is called "The Great Charter," the most important instrument in English history. By this celebrated writing, the rights of the church and nobility were defined and secured; the cities were assured their ancient privileges, and exemption from arbitrary -taxation ; foreign merchants were protected; and it was BNOLAND. 147 147 of . long ,crio, of ,„J5L ,„ »; ""'if """ T' '"°"""™' John, wlioso raf^e at th\^ ^, . ^ • , Ills enemies, dt'clarini; tliem tn >,„ , ' ^^^ «xcommunicaU'd .".rough t„o „o„,.„,t:,'::;:: ™ *- sarao.,.^ .„ .„^h,, ".» a«l mur.lori„g all bcfi.ro ,1m ll ■ ^ "''■ ■.'.» b™' the »aiM in ,|,„ „% Th, ? ' "'" ""' <."' "f Salisbury did « ich. The affliccd nation w^ H 'f ■* ™''?' ^"""^"^ "' ''»"<'■ hy th.' death of J„l,n, whi h S,. ed T T'l '""'"' •■«■""- forty.nintl, year „f l.i!, ^.e Ifc d W f""'^ »".''. '" 1216, i„ ,he .or «p. 1 , ^,- j;^-';;__a .r.,. 1 ,„, „ „_ .^ee„fJf"p„':cVat:::f"si:fhrfrT'^'- .hrone w. aefe*d, I;:dl!;;2dt^: "eT^ T *™ ""> bio,■■ "°'""™<1 '» .ina^ly deposed and i.nprison d. PeL feT ^•'='""' •"'' ™ h«hop of Winehestor, succeeded iZ u *"'■ " ^<>"<>"". f«i"g all offices with'bi, o^rtou™ 1 '""" ''''™"' >"■' ^5i^q;^=duf3"S?-?"^ f the large amounts ..nt out of th.n\ "'"'' '^^^^"ant 1243, made a demand for fresh ecu 1 '^' "" ""^ «««^^°"' i^ -»"^ 0. .he real, '^^•J^^l::^:^^^^ - MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1^ i^ ^ tii US u Im m 1.8 ^ APPLIED IfvHGE Inc 1653 East Main Street Rochester, Ne» York 14609 (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone (716) 288- 5989 - Fa« USA 118 THE PEOPLE'S 300K OF UISTOliV authority. The king was compelled to submit, and a grand couiici; was held at Oxford on the 11th of June, 1258. This assembly took all power into its own hands, and enacted many resolutions limiting the royal j)rorogative. The barons, however, became so unpopular, that in 1261 the king resumed his full authority, and reappointed the principal officers of the kingdom, who had been displaced by the council. In 1263 Leicester, who had gone to France, returned, and reorgan- ized the confederacy. ney took up arms, and once more compelled the king to resign his resumed authority. He, however, took the field again, and after further engagements, the questions in dispute were submitted to the arbitration of the king of France (1264). This being in favour of the king, the barons refused to abide by it, and resumed their arms. The king, supported by many of the great families in Scotland and the north of England, assembled an army, and a bloody engagement took place at Lewes, in which the king's party were entirely defeated. Five thousand are said to have fallen on either side. Leicester was now the actual ruler of the kingdom, and used his power with great tyranny and rapacity. He carried the king about with him, treating him with a semblance of respect, and using his name and authority to fortify his own acts. The year 1265 is memorable for the foundation of the British Parliament. The Grand Ccancil had hitherto consisted only of the barons, prelates, and tenants of the crown; but Leice^t?'-, on this occasion, (probably to secure a majority of supporters,) directed the election of "two knights for each county, two citizens for each city, and two burgesses for each borough," thus for the first time establishing the principle of representation from the people. The king and Prince Edward were still kept in custody; but the latter, while riding out with liis attendants, escaped on a fleet horse, and, assisted by the earl of Gloucester and other barons, commenced hostilities against Leicester, In a great battle which ensued at Evesham, the old king, cased in armour, was placed by Leicester in the front rank; and being unhoreed and wounded, cried out, "I am Henry of Winchester," The prince, hearing his voice, ran to his assistance, and conveyed him to a place of safety. Leicester and his son were slain ; and their army was utterly defeated. The memory of Leicester was long cherished by the people, who showed their estimate of his character by tho title of "Sir Simon the liighteous." ENGLAND. W.) reduced all disaffected plte oTthe ^n f "'" "^""^ ^'"^^^' prince then sailed for pflesdne t ^^'^ *° submission. The h-^bse„ce,,e.ingdied:'rv :^^^^^^^^^^^^ -d du.n: year of h,s age and the fi%.sixth of L ^ '^ ^' '^-^'^'^"^^t^ was not marked by any distiW,, «! '^'^"- ^^« character offers few incidents'ofpCnS^^^^^ tra^t^l ^ his long reign by ordeal wa. abolished, and a stnd w« ° ^'' '^'"^' *^« *"^1 encroachments of the Church. <^o«imenced against the CHAPTER 71U. cI'rST"^^^ h^d sustained the fame of pelled to make a treaty of ' peace 'rr^' '^.'^""^^ers, was com- the death of his father and Ifter' .. ' ""^^ ^^^'' ^« ^'^'^^^ of «ing disturbances, he r'eLhefh^ k SZ' T'' ^" ^"^^"-' -'" age of thirty-six. ^^gdorn, and was crowned, at the appear and do homage to the crowf lri'277 tl t """ ^^'"^^^ ^ country with an army, while his Aop/ ' / ^'"^ ""*^^^d his I-lewellyn, imprisoned in the bZ. ^.^'^^"^^"ded the coast, and pelled to submit, upo "sever TrJ%;" °' ^^^-' ^^ -- ^em.tted,and thinking the subjnX of w'i °^'"''' ^^^ ^^'S Soon after, the Welsh. impatC°t of 1 /f f '^'"P'^*^' ^^^^^ed «fd by a prophecy if the enl ^ .^^ '^ '"^'' ^ tl^-ughout the Ln^a d %;:, d h f'^ '^^'" ^^^^^^^^ acfon After meeting some fevIrTet ITT^ '' *'« ««-« «f Llewellyn was slain; and thp nft l- ? ^^^''^ ^^^^ated them- ^helnng remained more t an a Je^^ ^tT^'^ ''''' '^-'^^ and establishing the English syi^o?^ ^''''' ^^^^^ing fortresse.., b Q sy^iem ot government. The queen, loO THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. at this time, gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Edward, to conciliate his new subjects, declared to be "Prince of Wales," a title which has ever since been borne by the heir-apparent to the British throne. After some years, spent in domestic legislation and on the conti- nent, the affairs of Scotland attracted his attention, and employed the remainder of his reign. In 1286, Alexander III. had died; and the "Maid of Norway," his grand-daughter, was the next in succession. She was betrothed to the son of Edward, but dying in 1290, no less than thirteen pre- tenders to the throne started up. To avoid an appeal to arms, it was determined by the barons, in 1291, to refer the decision to the king of England. He readily accepted the office of arbitrator, and advanced with a large army to the frontier. Before making his award, however, he first required that they should acknowledge his right as feudal lord of Scotland. After some hesitation, the various parties interested signed an instrument to that effect, and all the royal castles and for- tresses were put into the hands of Edward. After examining the various claims, he pronounced judgment in favour of John Baliol a descendant of the royal line, and, restoring the fortresses into his hands, gave him complete possession of the kingdom. The king of England soon found himself engaged in hostilities with France; but ere he quitted the kingdom, difficulties in Wales and Scotland induced him to remain. The first he effectually sub- dued, and, Baliol refusing to acknowledge his sovereignty, he marched with a large army to the frontiers of the latter in 1296. The Scots to draw him away, made an inroad into Cumberland; but. -^'"re- garding this, he attacked Berwick, carried it by assault, and ^a garrison of seven thousand men to the sword. Warrenne, tci.i of Surrey, also gained a great victory at Dunbar, leaving ten thousand of the Scots dead upon the field. The whole kingdom now submit- ted, and Baliol in person made a formal surrender of his kingdom. Edward marched through the country, held a parliament, received the homage of the nation, and returned to England; leaving War- renne guardian of the kingdom, and filling the principal offices with Englishmen. Baliol was taken in honourable captivity to Londoa The king then crossed the sea with a large army, and, without much hostility, a treaty was concluded, by which Guienne was restored, and he married a sister of the French monarch. BNQLAND. •151 advanced to Stirl „g. Srh J^^ eh!" '^J T"^ " '"'S^ a™y, aad mission; but Wallace and Mori „i,l', '""'?''' "' '""''-"»•- English earl a. Cambustennoalf™ Vh r.^' '"«*<' *» summoped a parliament Rnt i.- ^ ^^" ^^ *^e kingdom, and transitory. ElvvardXnef LdVS? ^^"f. '""'^'^*' -- force of eighty seven thousand mpn T ''^^^'^ ^"°''^"^ ^^t^ a Scots were entirely, routed ^1^:", 'f ?' ^^"^^ '' ^^'^'^^^^ th« of fifteen thousand merWaW '''' .\' ^^"^^* computaiion, Pope ^^^'L:z:^t^z^crr'' -'' '^ ^^^^' *^« a time, while the questims in ?"'^' ^ ^''^^^ ^^ ^^^de for determined on thTCrrSJZT^Zr^'f '"^ ''''' ^^^^^ an army of twenty thouslnrin u . T^"^""' ""'^ «"^ treacherously betrayed was f 'L fT f " '"^^^*^^' ^'^^ ^eing on a fictitious cha4:e ^rt e C t^^"^""'""' '''''' -^ executed^ hfl.[ ""= ^""1^ "f "™"gins .h. fonned a eri™i„ CStfo^ ,^™'"'; l'"™""- While .ifere: revolted baron, who had e! ^T Sh S "dT""'' °'" "'' "'° various pretexts, and flnallv i^,-, f ""'""' .f™ h" return under force of Lne tl.ousand Te^sa tdtr .^ T ''"''''™"' ""^ " of forcibly suppressing .he ^orit-ZTheXenc^f t^rf"" t:.^ riX'^. tntr -'S- "^^^^^^^ bal!:: dSs t'L7;„ttr"'' r^^'*-^ "'-*. -^ «"» after, his father >vas Callv deZ f "' "'"' '''"«don,. Soon .a oath of allegianee Tth^e ,IZltr""Se1 1 "T ^"^ arch, after being carried from o-^.tuV , ^ dethroned mon- September, 1327. muraeicd at Berkley, on the 21st of Mortimer was made earl of March inrl tt.« u- ^ governed by him and the que^ Ce tl ^ '" "" "^^'^^^^ agreed upon, invaded the north "f Erl' f ' '™'' ^^^ ^^^" -nd men, and comn.itted grievous t "" V"*^"'"*^^ *^'«- thousand, which was sent 1^^^^ 'f' ^" '''"»:^ ^^^ ^'^y unable to come t. a" L aZllt .' ""^7 '''' ''''^'^ ^'^^^' -- i a peace was concluded'TS ih^ '^^ ''', ''"^^"^"^ ^'^-' ^^^S. fullj acknowledged '^' independence of Scotland wa^ control. In 1330 ^sisted hi f' ""^J'^hteen, was impatient of his the traitor, assulnrttrL td ^*^^^*^ ^ °*'^^^^' ^^ ^-^ tW« body, Mortimer was Zc ' Iv'o^^T'f ^P-^-^-t. By of other offences, w. conde.::leCd ex^ruttd^ 'if '^"'' ^"^ confined to her private residence ^^^«"ted. Ibe queen was puS;dTah!,™Lt'' S^:'* ?■""'"= °'^"'^" '»^' inroad into Seo.land Th"y e„™S . '?""■ i'""'' ""^ »* - « Edward „ t:"L^'S:„o^ t :;:; bi.feTit': 154 TUK i'JiUl'LK'S BOOK OF lIlbTORY. Hill, tlie Scots lost thirty thousuncl men; Berwick surrciitlerca; und David, the young king, was compelled to fly into France. Buliul was acknowledged sovereign, and the English supremacy was once more extended over Scotland. The Scots, however, rose agiuii, tuid after a contest of some years, David returned, and in 1341 lesumed his throne. ^ P.dward's attention, however, was now engrossed by the crown of France, to which, in right of his mother, he had advanced an utterly uuluundud claim. Having formed an alliance with several of the continental states, he invaded the French territory in 1339 with fifty thousand men, burning and plundering as he went. Philip, king of that country, also raised a large army, but no decisive engage- ment ensued, and Edward, disbanding his allies, returned to England, deeply in debt, having accomplished nothing. In 1340, he renewed the war; and a large fleet which Philip had stationed at Sluys to oppose him, was destroyed or taken by that of the English, and thirty thousand of the French perished. His allies now crowded to his standard; and with a force of two hundred thousand men, he recommenced hostilities. A great body of these, however, taking a sudden alarm, fled. Tournay, strongly garrisoned^ resisted his arms, and Philip appeared with a large army, but, as before, avoided a decisive engagement. By the mediation of jlne of Hamault, a relative of both monarchs, hostilities were suspended tor nine months, and this period, by the intervention of the Pope was afterwards extended. ' The king's debts, and his disputes with the nobility and clergy of his realm, occupied him till 1342, when he made a fresh and inetiectual attempt. In 1345, he induced the parliament to support him in another expedition, and despatched the earl of Derby with an army to Guienne. This general was exceedingly successful, and in 1846 Edward, with thirty thousand troops, went over in person. Forty thousand Flemings were to invade France at the same time. Land- ing in Normandy, he ravaged the country far and near. Thence marching up the left bank of the Seine, he burned many towns, and carried his incursions to the neighbourhood of Paris itself. Philip, with an army on the opposite shore, still protracted the war, avoiding a general engagement. At length, on the 26th of August, the two armies met at Creci, or Cressy, a small village near the coast, the French force being ENGLAND. loo , . -too vanously estimated at from sivtv +l,^. i twenty thousand :„en. InTheX ^f ? l " ""' ^'"'"'^"^ ^"^ oommenccd. The result w., f , '''''^''"* ^'^^^^ the battle and a host of nobles and gcie„ 'l^'f °^ ?^"^ P^'"-^' were, in this battle, for the fiilZ; , .''" '"'^ '^'^' ^^""^'^ the. use contribut;d gr^ I ^Z!^'' ^^ ^-^-' ^^ ^^^^ ^rt::;^:,:!^t ^::^. ^^:t - ^^^^i, .hieh .. overcome by famine, the tlTwT^^dered • iT'. ^* ^^"°^^^' having stipulated &; the deaVof six o fth" ^'-''f ' ^'^"^^^ Eustuche de St. Pierre, and five othei of 1 1 T"'^"^ ^'''^'''''' ously offered their li;es as a ransolfo h^^^ ^^ "''''"^' °^"^^- according to usage, presented herelts be7 T^^^^."^^"' ^d' .aked,withhaltersintheirhands Tel. 1 '^' ^^«*°^' ^^If- be led to execution, but at thelU; fh ^uT S ''^" ^^ finally mduced to spare their lives Tl,^ \1V. ' ^^'^'PP^> ^^^^ expelled from Calais, and it was r7peopb/^h t ^°t f", ""*^^ as a mart for his commerce ^^''^ ^^ *he king, being taken prisoner, was o^tiedi,^- "f '" *°'^'""^ ">™ • ™J. of lii, nobility. ' "^ '" '"™P'' I" L<""ion, with soveral I ^»«-t„'^irp^rl;rt™tf,'°°''^'-' ^-^..^e )a..d, aa well a., the re t of eIT /°7^ ^''™- I" 18« E„g. I wMch earried off ^JLt^Z'C::^^!'' *"''"' ^'^^ Negotiations being fruitless th. '"^ -y^'^fnts. 180, John havi„g~;vt s'p'^r^r''™^" Edward the Black Prince (ao c'ni f u '^ °" ""= ""■'»"=• .Iread, dia.i„g„i,b,j hi^e^a "ress^Tn^ ,"T '> "'° '""' eastward from Bourdeau.x, with sixtv^h f"''™. "arehed "aging the country, a. u'ana Sffeturd"/ ™"^™«"e ""d « eSeit^rx'cr '"^ ^^ - tnr i:r 150 THE I'EOI'LKS r.(M)K OK IIISTOKY. Imving pnrclmscd Baliol's claim to the throne, marched through the country, burnmg and devastating it in all directions In the autnmn, the prince, with twelve thousand troops, set forth upon another marauding expedition, and near the town of Poictim tIf T . ' u^" '™^' ^"'""^""ded by King John in person It i^nghsh archerj-, us usual, proved triumphant; the French wero 'Ideates , and Kmg John himself, with his son Philip, after a dis-' a^ousbatUe was taken prisoner. The captive monarch was tre^'l n ' *^:,^!S^^^* d;«tinction, the prince waiting upon him in person and, on their arrival in England, the castle of Windsor was assi.-ncl him for a residence. '«»'o'K-a The king of Scotland had now been eleven years a prisoner- l,„t v.^ set at liberty on payment of a hundred fhousanSTark ,' an the surrender of important liostages. The French nobility rejecting the terms which had been offered for the liberation of their king, Edward, in i359, with an hum housand men again invaded France. After ravaging Pieardy a„, advancing to the gates of Paris, he was compelled to retire W th want of provisions; and a treaty waa finally signed, by which it was .greed that he should resign all his preLsiiiisf reto nin only Poitou Guienne, and Ponthieu, and the towns of CalaTs , r!:r Clot: ''-'- *^ -'-- ^^ ^^^^ «^-^^ ^^ p^^^ ^^ \ Edwnrd the Black Prince was next engaged in an expedition for ' the purpose of restoring Peter IV., king of Castile, to his thron^^ i He was afterwards involved in war with Charles, who had succeeded I his father John upon the throne, and being compelled byTheal h to return to England, the few possessions of that nation in Fran were mostly lost to her. He died inl376, in the fortysix h yearo his age, leaving the highest reputation for magnanin^ty and chiva ' rous courage, though tinctured with the ferocity of the times Hi son Richard was declared heir to the throne. The Idng soon followed his son. He died the following year Ike the Conquerc, plundered and deserted by his attendlnts in h," ast moments. His death occurred on the 21st of June 377 in the sixty-fifth year of his age, after a reign of fifty yZT ' The military renown and general success of this long and brilliant e gn, have rendered the names of Edward III. and his son a „. the most prominent in English history. The constitution and the power of parliament profited by the very ambition of the kin..- for hi 1 through the ■ops, set forth 1 of Poictiors m in person. Frencli were p, after a dis- li was treated im in person, was assigned risoner; but marks, and been offered an hundred 'icardy, and etire by the by which it s, retaining ' Calais and be paid as a pedition for his throne, j I succeeded j y ill-health | in France j ith year of ! and chival- | imes. His (ving year, ants in his 3, 1877, in d brilliant son among 'U and the ig; for his J •""".SI!— -----o^«...«. I aiixii I liistii i " I out t ' UXCfp : iiiij>ea ' iiad ]i (leliiic( prautic Man scltio ii M'liat cl uutburii and the BlCHAR father. A of carrying tion. For I prevailed; ' serfdom, sii f^fgrecs, ho\ hecotne geii outrageous i Jn Kent a three leaders assumed the pillaging the law ■yeJ-8, jiisti ^rc(i thousa an iNOLAND. ,' aiixkty togaiu «(i,,nli,.a imhi,.,.,l i • ^^^ i ^^ ,vv,« tl.us my cstatjisl ;t 7 '"" ''" ^^''-" ''« U, 1 ^ out to vof. of i.urlia,„ent t : Z? '"^' ""' ^« -''- "S: except by milhority uf both J. '"'''' ^'"^"''J "ot b« .ilr., j pract.. of law were al.so ion^ZuvT 'T' '^'^' ^''-'"y ^'d 8etle,„ Englaiul. The avuriciou ' T T'^'" '^'■*'"««"« invited to w at ohc.c)ce- A» a per- Richard, who, on the death of^rl "^"'''"^"^^^^ V the injustice of the banished dulfe landedTn ^^rrP^''^'^" '^ ^-^-d, in 1399 -ght to reeover his rights I: 'ted T T'"""" ''^^^ ^''^ "ncle, who had been left as regent at firs? u' °^ ^"*' ^''^I^ard's '""'• ^^' «fter an interview wSe.ef TT?^^'^ ' ^'^''^ ^ oppose forces with him.- Their armfn^r/ ' ^'^''" ^^'^ "^P^^^v,) jS "Ppeared before Bristol ; tCLtie "''. '" ^""^^^^^ thi I f «'-d's favourites were exiuted ^ fe^^^^^^^^^ -- of S eJof s"l\"° ^^""'"^ *he disastl;"r'°^'"''^^'*^«f atrial, r''^ of Salisbury, and ere lono- fnZ ^ '"telhgence, sent over the ^^ fnends of the terrible revenge "^iT''' ^"^^^"^^^ ^^^-^-'ng ge uhich he would take at some r IGO THE P£01>LE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. future tune. On beholding the immense force of his enemy, and Ondmg himself a prisoner, he broke into weeping and lamentation ilenrj received him with a mixture of respect and severity, com- pelled him to issue a summons for a parliament, and took him close prisoner to London, where he was lodged in the tower. Here threats and promises were successfully used to induce him to resign the crown ; and he assented to an act of abdication, appointing the duke ol Hereford his successor. On the 29th of September, both houses met in Westminster Hall I lie act of resignation was read, thirty-three articles of impeach-" ment were preferred, and the deposition of Richard was unanim^ouslv voted. Henry then publicly claimed the throne, and his demand was at once admitted as valid. There can be no doubt that the dethronement of Richard and the e evation of Henry of Bolingbroke, was the result of universal popular feebng throughout England; and the latter may therefore be regarded as the rightful occupant of the throne, and the house ol Lancaster as his rightful successors. The dethroned monarch was only tliirty-four years of age; and it was resolved by the lords that he should be kept in close custody 1 he zeal of certain of his adherents hastened the fate which usually i awaits captive princes. An insurrection in his favour was set on I loot in 1400, but was speedily suppressed, and the leaders were mostly ^ executed. The death of Richard himself was announced soon after- ' wards, and it was generally supposed that he had been starved to I death by order of the king. Other accounts say that he was mur- i dered by Sir Piers of Exton, who came to his prison with seven ' f(.llower8, and slew him after a desperate defence, in which he killed ^ several of his assailants. However this may be, there can hardly ^ be a^doubt that he was taken off, in some manner, by the authority : With John Wickliffe, who died in the reign of Richard, com- menced the first movement for a reformation in the church Ev preached fiercely against the doctrine of transubstuntiation, against mdu gences, pardons, excommunications, and other abuses of the papal authority. A number of bulls were issued against him from lionie, and he was compelled to answer for his heresies before an ecclesiastical '.ibunal; but, by a dexterous evasion, and supported by some of the leading nobles, he escaped with tolerable impunity and died in retirement in 1384. Thirty years auerwards, his remains," by an order of the council of f^ thrown into the river Swift n" ' T^' ^T ^""^ "P' ^"'■"ed, and «nd his followers, who we.'e ren^ui^wrforT'"'' '^'''^ ^■''^«^^' as far as Edinburgh but was eo' ^'7! ^*' ^^^^"^^^^ ^^^^ an army supplies. A border-VLlrho? . '" '''''' ^^ '^' ^^-»* of earlof Dougl., with^ nroiTe' Y"'-"^' '"' ^" ^^^^^ ^^« land w. encountered at HomiMo ^yXlZZfTl' T f""'' 4 ^^r::Sc(^t^^trr' -r ^- -- outlawed. He immediately declarld ht /'''' ^'"^'' ^"^ ^«« hiscountryxnen flocked to his stnf J T '' ^^^^^^^°'^ «f Wales; cian confirming his authorifv n \ ^^P^^^tion as a magi- The king, Prince Hen y a / otheT 1 T "^'"^^"^ ^"^-^'^-'^• the conquest of the rebel^^o" pr ' Li b^' "^"^^'^^ ^"^^^^^ compelled to retire by the weaZ tf' '""'" '"^ "^^^-^ ^"«^''^"«« country, and the'skill L iZ^^^t^ C^t ' nT^f ^^ ^'- embarrassment, Northumberland wif v ''^'^ *" ^^'^ ^^"i^S'^ by ill-treatmen;, formed a ho^'con^d" "' '".^ '"^'"'^' ^-*''^*°^ l^, and other r;nowned noble T ^.^''^T^ ^'"^ ^lendour, Doug, toward Wales, and encount t "d Iw til '""V '^^^ "^^^'^^^ 21st of July, the two armies each ..h 7/ ^^'""'^'^^'y- On the ber, engaged. Hotspur Soud^r .,"'''' ''""^"^^ ^" >-'"■ into the centre of the roval fiT ' , '"'^-^ ^"""^«^«' Pl""^'od billed four of his frildTwh Tal' a^LmS 'v '^"^^ ^^^^'"' ^^ assailants. Percy fell by a chance arrow D ,'""' '" ^''^'"^ *'^« .oner, andafter a contest of thrl ' """S'^' ^^'''^'' '"^do pris- ^f the king. Both lief s^^'^^^^^^ ^-ided in fa^^our nobles were executed, but Northumh 7 ^'"'"''"^ °^*'^« ^^P^^ve Douglas wa. honourably treated" "^ ''''''"" ' P^'-do-, and Fresh insurrections succeedp,! Tn i m- . Northumberland, and others rltd f ".' ^''^'^'^^^^V Scrope, and announced their It nl/ott) '' .""''" ''""^"^^ "^'' Vol. IL-U "'""^^'^'^ "^ dethroning the king. By the arti' TOW'" ..■ . :iti '■^Of!^-:%g*^: uwt' 162 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. tZ^!J u' '^'^ ^"'■^ ^"^"^^^ *« ^^^^ down their arms, and he eaders were then seized and beheaded ' Wales wa. gradUuy reduced to submission; but Owen Glendour still held out in the Znlr ir' """"^'^^ ^^^^°"^' ^"^ ^^^^-^^ ^'^ -d^P-d-oe Iletr J^lf *'T' rf '"* *^''^ " ^""'^ "d^^^*^g« i°t« the hands of Ilenry, by which he meanly profited. James, the heir to the Scot t.sh throne sa>hng to France, when only nine years old, waa eaptur tl^,r ^lf ""'"'"'"' ^^'' ^^"° ^^^^^"«d hi"^ ^ Pri oner, and wa. thus enabled to control the dishonest regent of Scotland, by thrlt ening to release the rightful claimant to the throne. ThTplc however, wa^ carefully and liberally educated ' this reign. The kmg was frequently rendered uneasy by the wild ness and dissipation of his son Prince Henry, who, "^hoLhbl and talented, chose to associate with low and riotois' comtaiZl Oneof these having been arrested, and brought before Ga^cln' he chief justice the prince interceded for his release; and The request being refused, drew his sword, or, aa others say dealt the judge a box upon the ear. The latter instantly ordered him to b commiued to jail, to which the prince, probably struck with shame promptly submitted. The king, on being informed of the oireum: stance, exclaimed, "Happy the monarch who haa a Judge so resoluTe in discharge of his duty, and a son so willing to sublitTo the " " Henry died on the 20th of March, 1413, in the forty-sixth ye r of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign. His abilities w ere grel though his character is deeply stained by the murder of his foyal kinsman. The horrible writ, her native village. The king, however induced her to remam; ennobled the family; and confef ed a We pension upon her. ^" » ^oigu The dukes of Bedford and Burgundy, though disheartened continued hostilities, and the Maid sfill opposed IhemtrgS ski 1 and courage; but in 1430 was captured in a skirmish by fom BedtrT ' ^''''^'^' "^' ''' ' '^'^^ P-« ^ *^« duke !ota of t?'"^ T'^'^'i ^'^^^ ^" ecclesiastical tribunal, com- posed of the creatures of the English, she was condemned as a heretic and, to the eternal disgrace of the English name tas burned at Eouen, on the 80th of xMay, 1431 ' Enlh""Al """''^' "" ™°^^^^ *« *^« disadvantage ofTe English. After various attempts at negotiation, the duke of Bur! gundy made peace with France; and finally, in 1435 Bedford the able leader of the English, died. Paris opened S' gates to 1 French, and the duke of Burgundy took up arms in S behdf Lord Talbot and other of the English leaders still stubborn ym^^^^^ tained the contest; but in 1444, an armistice for two yel^Z m^'TLtf '• *'; rf'""' ^"^ °' ^"^^^"'^ ^^d ^^^ advancing to mans estate, and displaying little capacity. His temper was mild ENGLAND. and thouchtfu] hut l,^ ^W and spinted na^ion^ cIZTS^J"^^^^ *° ^-- ^ g.eat Jis nephew and the king's nZleZtf.V^^^ buer y at variance. It ^fs pSlv It th ''' ^°"^^' ^"^^ -- that the duchcs, in 1441, waf accused of '"'*'"'^ °^ *^« f^^-^er was said to have made witirk ^ *''^^°° and sorcerv qi,« ting, and exposed U ; itnt ^7.''"' ^ ^^^^ ^^^-f t -ya d,ie, .„a the dufe^s trxVhl'^^ -Jesty .i|ht p': Her confederates were executed .n 1 I ^ '"'''''*^'^ *" the throne penance, and was then cons ned to o^^ T ^^"P^"^'^ "^ ^o p'b ic Through the cardinal's inflml ^^^ustody for life. ^ was married to Mari;:^:^^^^^^^^^^ whom Anjou and Maine, which he tS"'-^' " ""'"'"^^ ^ing, to Beau^ful, spirited, and aceomZedsh. '\'''^'' ^''^ '^'^^'^^ Bcjiufort, Somerset, and Norfolkhe; f ""'.'^^'^ ^"^^d theking%nd In 1447. Gloucester was T it7r'"^ ™^^^ *^« kin^n shortly afterwards wa. found deTd if hV'/'^'^^^ of treason? and of Suifolk,- and other circumstances seeldV' ^'"* *° *^^ <^"ke -ionofallNtra^dyrnVaT"'^^^'' *^^ ^--^ -on got pes ;f the English conq.;r and pts:; '""''^'''^'^^^^^^^rltZ Te popular indignation fell chiefl "^T;^;? *'^ ^^^^ «^ ^'^^aL he match with Margaret and d!r '''',^'^^«''^. ^ho had arranged %s of Normandy. He 1? "'^"^ "P Anjou and MainTS i^^-jts trr :?i-n *--- - -«- Olouctster, Worivick, a„d P„. ? '""' °""*<1 «te death „f ueieat d: the insurgents 168 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. marclied to London, and executed the royal chamberlain, Lord Saj and the .sherill" of Kent. The citizens at laat took up arms, defended the bridge, and the insurgents gradually dispersed. Tiieir leader, bemg jmrsued by the sheriif, was slain, after an obstinate resistance! The dis])utes between Somerset and the duke of York had for some time embroiled the kingdom; and the latter had more than once raised forces to overawe the government. He was arrested, but dismissed without injury by the feeble monarch. In 1453 the English, who had sent forces into France to rgcrain Gascony, were defeated under Talbot, the earl of Shrewsbury, °and lost their last footing in Guienne. This increased the odium of the court and queen ; and the king soon fell into a state of such imbe- cihty, that he could no longer even play the part of royalty. Somerset was committed to the tower, and York was appointed by the peera Protector during the king's incapacity. The king partially recov- ering, Somerset rggained his liberty and influence, and York lo^t the protectorate. He retired to his estates, where, being joined by the duke of Norfolk, and the earls of Salisbury and Warwick he raised three thousand men. They marched toward London, and, though professing loyalty, demanded the delivery to them of Somer^ set and others. This being refused, a skirmish with the royal forces ensued, in which Somerset and others of distinction were slain and the king, wounded, fell into the hands of the insurgents. Parliament was summoned, and he was compelled to justify the rebels, whose chief, the duke of York, was again declared Protector. But in 1456, the king so far recovered his reason, that the queen and her party were enabled to dismiss the duke, and hold the government in their own hands. For two years the mutual jealousy of the factions continued; and the nation was gradually divided into the parties of York and' Lan- caster. In 1458, indeed, by the mediation of the primate and others, an agreement and a public reconciliation were effected It was however, only superficial, and their concealed hatred was kin- dled mto a flame by a trifling occurrence. Warwick's servants and the queen's having engaged in a quarrel, the latter attacked the eorl himself, who with difficulty escaped from their hands. He retired in anger to his castle, and thence to Calais, of which he was governor. Both parties now prepared for open hostilities, and the duke of York advanced a claim to the crown. This he founded on his de- Bcent from Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and third son of Edward III ^NOLANft. 169 and ho dynasty under vvhicl t^, duko ' 1'?'""' fe'-'^utions; or pol.cy talccn the place of fo e^ ]tl "'""^' ''"' ''^^'f- ^^J ^'^c that h,s claun w.-u. no more vali 1 th ^ successors to the thn,„o «o anc.„t Saxon line, or of til Br ,0,: W "'^^ '"^'^"'^^^"^^ «^^'" or tlie kinir anr? fh^ -"'uons before them T}.,. «r„ > n^'"fe, ana the power of Iiiu ^ n . ''"^'"' ^"e weakness duke a fair prospect of^eclsf Dis^in ""' '^""'^'^' ^^^ ^'' ^ of Salisbury, Warwick, and Nor o k brt?^^"'"''' '''"' ^''« '^''^^'^ nobles rema.ned faithful to the k h 'a. ^ ''^'^ T"^''^^ I'"''* of the zance of the house of Lancustor 7 ^ ^' ''^ ''"■^'^ ^^'-^^ the co-nn- P-fns assumed these frhVr'Jr^ t? ''^^ ^^ ^-'^'. ^^^ ^ wlj:c ensued wa., i„ consequen e X 7. ^'r' '"^ ^'^ -"'-t Both sides made preparation for i ^^"' "^ *^»« ^^-^^'^■" event of importance took ^1 Zitu '"'^'"^ ^*^"^°"'«' ''"^ - Salisbury defeated the roval fn. '^ ''"*"'"" of 1459 when «bire, with a loss of two titsan TL:'!'^'''' ^"^"^^' '" «^"^^'-'- however, was soon levied bv thpT ^""'"^^ of sixty thousand ■nto Ireland, while his con fed Lf' '"^^ ^"^^' "^^^-vv^e^l- Ac d They were all shortly after if^^^^^^^ to Ca'^s' Undismayed, however Wnrw; .u ^. * °^ Parliament, a small force of ^fteenlL l^r^r ^.tf ^"1 '""^' ''^''^^^ ^^^^ London, was increased to twen tv fi '.^ ' ^^ ^^'^ ^'"^^ he reached to Northampton, and en^Id L - ^"""'' ''" '^"" "'-^^^"'-^ -y of one of the leaders!t.s d ,S T"' f^f V the treach were slam; and the kin^ him elf ' f ''"'"' "o^les of eminence -d Prince Edward e Jped ll/^ 'i''" P"^°"«^- The qu „ tened to return from Irdl ^ '"^^- '^^^ '^'^ke of York hnT ^fter the question hrdCedJ^^^^^^^ to the ct, w .' as a compromise, that Ilenrv shin M *^''P'^''«' t^^^' Proposed I'fe, and that afte;wards it « Zu d n TT '''' ^^^^^^ during is Th^urr -'^-n^ragreed ' ' '" '"'« «^ *"« h-- To -rrendrtI"V,^rof her son"" ? *^^ ^^''^h' d^t«™ined not to Clifford, and oth^r lordrr/commene 7T''' '^ ^orthumberhu. iVcv llIK I'&Oh'lK'S BOOK OF III8T0KY. ««■ lib hen. and presented H on « polo to the q.u . n, who wu*, .W.ghted with, the sight. Salisbury nud twelve othCrs shared his fate Ills son, tt youth of seventeen, was stubbed by the ruthless Clifford K.lward, earl of .Vfnrch, his eldest son, had at this titne a body of twenty-three thousanu men, with which he defeated the carls of P'-mbroke and Orniond, beheading the captives, in revenge for the cA,(;..tion of bis friends at Wakefieia'. The earl of Warwick and the duke of Norf.^lk, taking the king with them, were defeated at .^t. i\lbans by the queen, who thus regained possession of her liusoand. Further executions followed. K.lward, however, uniting his forces with those of Warwick soon gamed such advantages, that she was compelled to return to the North; and ho enter«d London, where he was very popular i„ triumph. The people were shortly after harangued by his orators who, in a largo assembly, asked what king they would have and' with great enthusia.sm, decided in favour of Edward The ne.xt day, March 4th, 1461, in a great council, it was decided that Henry by joining the queen's party, had violated the award, and forfeited tlie throne. Edward was immediately proclaimed king During the latte- reigns, the power of the House of Commons Jiad been continually increasing; and in the last the elective fran chise was limited to freeholders, of the annual income of forty shuhngs. ""J CHAPTER II. EDWARD IV., EDWAKD V.. AND KICHAED III. .The Lancastrian faction, with sixty thousand men, still main- tained a hostile position at York. The king and Warw'-r V London to engage them; and, with a i;..ce of forty-nine thomii.l reached Pontefract. After various skirmishes, a general .- ■ , ment came on, in the midst of a heavy snow driving against the Lancastrians. They fought with obstinacy till evening when in retre.it.;ng.. they were routed; and as Edward had issued orders to give nc .miter, nearly half their number perished. The next day "NOLAND. he entered York tooW ,i .i , ^^^ , Ou the 29th of Ju.u. }„• • ^^ . uagniflconce. and created his hZh''''"n^ "' ^'"'«'> ^^ith great ofClurenee and Gloucester; PaH^^^^^^^^ J^" '.rd. ch^k ' 0-; and un attainder w.. i)a.s.rd al V^f T''^ '^^^ "^^"^'- "«-^n- groat nun^ber of their chief adlr^ ' '""^ '""^'^ ^"-''Z «"d a Af'^rgaret, with son.e assistance from F one more at^.n^^ .„d wa. at fit JeraH^ '"^ ^^"^''^"^' --'« approach 'fi^dwa^u and Warwick whrir^^"^ T''"^''^"''- ^^"^ '''- partmns, and she returned to FrancJ ^^' '"'' ""^''"^'^ ^^'^ ono:.^'titju::ti:;:t:r^^^ .as induced ^"8 adherents were executed. JLtn , ' '"^ ^'^ ^^"«^ ^^'"'"i"" a year, but was discovered hyZZTt """T^'^ ^'' '"°^« '^^^ 'gnonun.ous manner, and locLd Tn Z' T'"'^ *" ^°"^"» i" an All her relations were ennobl '^ ^i[^^"^*^' '''' ^eforcf offices; and the promotion of th net f/ "' '^'''''''^ *" ^''t^b jealousy of the Nevilles and othern o f'f^ '""""^^^ ^^^''^^ the In 1469, Clarence marred trdChf 7^^"^ '^^ ^'- ^^^ T-'of^^^xr^^^^^^^^ of oppressive taxes. Lord HubeT who ""'^ ^'^^ ^^« abolition defeated with a loss of five thonf' a """"* "^^'"^^ them, was queen's father) and his son Jo^C. X '''' ^''' ^^^ ("« Clarence and Warwick, arriv L r?.^ n ?' ""''^ ''^^«»t«d. ''"^tody; but (the Lancastri^ L T ?"^'''' '''^ '^^ ^^-S into amnes,vT,raag ,. -^^ndns rismg) released him and « „! , and n ■ granted; concessions were mnr1« f .1' , ^ general ""d aa apparent reconciliation was eiFecTedt *^' hostile nobles, a. , however, soon excited a n.vrn tl T"'^'''^ ^"^ ^^^ «on-in ;nd the leaders executed, the/ l" , l n^ ,'"' '"""'f ^^"^^ ^^PPressed of I'ouis XL, king of Fran?, t *'"' ^^'^ *^«nce to Se cour; -idingtherewithVerso ,rd bttT'^'f °^ ^-ry's wi^.:: - - Wa among the e^xil^^ at ^:t;;:S l^P "" ■^'"'■- 172 THE TEOrLK's HOOK OF IIISTORV. Of P.mcc Edward to Warwick's second daughter, Anne. It waa agreed to restore King Henry to the throne, and. in case that Edwl^ should die witliout issue, Claronce ar.d his heirs should inherit On the 13th of September, 1470, they landed at Plymouth, where Warwick proclaimed King Henry, and summoned all to j L h standurd Edward, out-manarnvred, and deserted by his troo fled to Holland. The allies hastened to London; and'^^n the Jt Pa,^r a' v^' ""T"^ ''" """"' ""'^^'^ i" P-«««-- to S i auls A parliament being summoned, reversed the acts of ti.J preceding reign, and restored the houses of Lancaster and Ncvil o their former honours and possessions. Only one execution fol- lowed this complete revolution. Li 1471, assisted by Burgundy, Edward returned, and landed ut Ravenspur on the 14th of March. He solemnly avowed howev. that he had no further design than to recover tlio es" t of Yo,"' and his followers shouted "Long live King Henryl" Finding hin ' self at the head of a respectable force, he throw off the mask, an! was joined by Clarence, already discontented with the new arn , '! rnent Pushing on to London, he seized Henry, and taking h^u with the army, advanced to meet Warwick. On the 14th of A,,ri they encountered at Barnet, and after a contest of six hours the Lancastrians were defeated. Warwick, fighting valiantly, foll"wi, his brother, leaving behind him the popular name of ^ he I^ maker, from the changes he had wrought in the government. ' Ihe queen and Prince Edward, who had also arrived, were oucnumbered, defeated, and captured by Edward, at Tewksbur; • and the gallant pnnce was brutally murdered in the tent of his riva by the hands of Clarence, Gloucester, and others. Three t^:l of the Lancastrians were slain, and their leaders were executed after a promise of pardon. Edward reentered London- and Z sa.ne night Henry died in his prison, probably „.urd:;edy king's command. •' Freed from domestic enemies, Edward resolved to attemnt tl.o conquest of France; but the aid of parliament, always St he-se occasions, was not sufTicient, and the king, und.^ pretext of sohc, ing charity, extorted large sums, called benevolauJ, from the wealthy citizens. Li 1475, he passed over to Calais with J^l thousand troops; but, on account of the disinclination of his allic. and nob es. the war was not carried on; a treaty was concluded, by which Margaret was to be returned to France, the dauphin to marry ENGLAND. liiti eldest daun-lifpr n»^ . • -^^3 between U.™, to prevent .; Z^i^^^^'^f ^ «^-"«- S-tin; liicbard of Gloucester the L-l. ' ''""^''- "-rry A.n.e, the wido^v'of 4^^' rT'1 ^''''^'''' ^«« '^"xious to of the nnn.nse estates of W Z^'^t "^! ^'^"^ ^'' ^— '- wishmg to keep them all in his own T '^'*' ^^ ^''^'•«»«°. >vho coven^d he, disguised ,. . ^Z^Z t^ 'f ' ^^"'^f ^'^ ^-'^ ^e di:! . ofleaded at this and other nuttter Ih V''^ ^'''- C''"-«»co, of Ins dKscontented expressions 1 Ivin^roaT f? ''""''*' «"^ ««'ne genued fonn, he w.j deelared 3v ^^^^^^^^ executed ,n the towcr-aeeordin.'o fe f *'"'^"^' ^"^ P^'vatofy mg m a butt of Maln^sey wine (1478) "^'" "'^'''''' ^y ^^oj. Mwaix], vvlule ineditatinrr a k ?^' «tl^ of April, 1483, in t :^:,[ "c "![ "'*' ^^*^^-' ^^^ «" the tueiUj-thirdof his reign ThtT ""'^ ^'^' "^ ^'^ «ge. and Z --';^. w. exceeding; p^^i'S^hf T"' ^^^-us^ld Jhs valour, his beauty, aid L a 'rel 1 ' '"^J^''^^"' «» '-^^^ount of His son, Edward V w i ? ''^'^^''^ manners. ;; ^^ ^^r,. of the ci^ej: S;^ tj^' ^ 1 1^'"^ ^"^ ^^ *'-" to London, liowever, his uncle A ' '^"'^^''^- 0" 'uh wiv J-;-t loyalt,, inte;e.;edt . !^t' "''^ '"'^ ^^^"^^'^ ^ i- liuli-brother, Earl Grey, a.id llivor ' ^'''■"""' '"^"^^ '"•'•^'^ted his f- taken to London h 1 f^^^t T"V?'' '"'"■ '^^ - - Jodgcd .n the tower. Gl'oucest °r wl". f '"' '''"' "^'^ ^^ -- to ,11 the great offices with his ^r ^'"'''''''''^ '^"'^ ''««te„ed obv ous. Il.,tin^s, StaJl y a.ul o "'"'^ "''^ ^''^'j'-^^ -ere n v. to tl.e young king, Kichard uL^ :::;T"""''"^' tinnly attached «g;"...st then,, ar.d publicly sho^^ I ^' "" ''^^T'"''"'"" «^ «"'•-'•/ ^vu ered, pretended that tLs" f ' '?"' ^^''"^^'' -'^'^ "aturall^ f be queen, Jane Shore, a ^ ^ ,^1 'T'' ^''^ -"^'-"'^ e^ecutmn of the latter, sweari!bf\ "^T^"^^' the innnediato .^"'^•-.til he saw his ho d. Ot ?« If ^ ""' ^'"^' ''^' vvoul.I no ;";i'-;"-a. On the san>e d 7 1 v r': T' ^''^' ^'■'-"''^ -'-o b^ H''iXl« HENRY Til. The successful adventurer, proceeding to London, was welcomed by tlie authorities, and renewed his promise to espouse the Princtss Elizabeth. The coronation was delayed by a pestilence, called t\w "Sweating Sickness," which carried oft" numbers of the people. On the 80th of October, 1485, the king was crowned, and, for tlie greater security of his person, enrolled a force of Yeomen, a cor] is which still forms the body-guard of the English sovereigns. Par- liament soon meeting, settled the crown explicitly on Henry and liis lieirs. Except by right of conquest, and the popular wish, his titk; was excessively weak, resting solely on his descent from an illegiti- 1 the protection ir patrons, the f, was usually When a pris- ? forte et dure, im naked in a 11 he answered other cruelties in the most •ayer to saints, ins and indul- ited Lollards, md they iield 3 exceedingly d, wa^ mostly sen translated ras watchfully fas welcomed ! the Princcs.s ce, called tlic ! people. Oii and, for tlie omen, a cor] is a'eigns. Par- lenry and his wish, his title »m an illegiti- THB DEATH OF RICHARD III , A D I486, a AT TH» BATTLB Or BOiWORTB. .v"?^."'*'^^ ''^™°'' '"""' °' ^" '"^"''^' '■■^"''"°°- -'» '>-• -T. .round th. field .nd d.,orying h,a rival at no great di.tanc. h, drov, again.t him witb f^ry. « hope, that either Henry, death or h« own would decide the victor;, 0.tw,.„ them. He kUled with hi. own hand. Sir William Brandon, .tandard .t7L /r\^' d>— ted Sir John Cheyney; he wa. now within reach ./ R.h«o„a h:m.el, who declined not the combat, when Sir WUIiam Stanley br..fan« « with h,. troop,, .urroundea Richard, who. fightin, bravely to thJ 1-t moment, wa. overwhelmed by number. ■•-Hum,-, H,.,o.t o, I..L.. I mutcc Yorki: Befij Lancas nary in })riest t Landin, almost I people. don to I to refute Assist the prctt Iindcd i engaged of their i tlie priest ture; tfie in the Toy part, puni of a rapac I A truce I 1488, the ' slew tlie 62 were route ! 1492, the ] ,' had gained ' him a hefv Calais, and pretext; foi peace was c «'ho thus fii: Nearly at Cork in Ireh «^as the duk^ 1'he credulot to France, an iish crown. ^ ducheas of B Both the k Vol. II.. BNOLAND. mate child of John of Gaunt Rp, ^ , ^''^ Yorkiste, hy espousing Elizabeth T' "^'''' *^««<^n««at „r ,i., ^ Before long, the favour vS he "f'T'l'" °' *^'^* ^-'-- Lancastrians, displeased their former n "^ ''^^^'"'^ ^^^'^'•J *''« nary impostor, "amed Lambert Cnilt^""'"''' '"^ «« ^^^raordi- pnest to personate the young eaotl!''-"!!''"'''^ by adesigning I-chng in Ireland, where the eau e If v't' '''''''' *" ^^e qteen! al^nost universally acknovvledid aX./oJ ' Jf ^"^"'^''' ^'« -- people Uenry, to diseoneert this m^ ""^ ^^' ''" ""^''^^^ -"d don to h,s Inte opponents, and publiSv . Tk ' ^/^''^^^^^ ' '^'' P-- to refute the imposture. ^''^ ^^^^^ited the real Warvviek Assisted by the earl ,.f r • , ' the pretender was eroded a; Me ';b'°V'' '''''''' of Burgundy ^--icd in England. Wkh eHif /^^ engaged the royal forees,b,t:"in^"r' *^^ '-^-=-^ their most distinguished leaders anTS.^^^''"' "'*' ^^^^ ^-« ''^'1-est and his pupil, the pre ended l^J '^^'^/""^^er. Simons ture; the former died in prison a„dth. I ^' '""^''^"^^ ''^^'^ ""Po- f;s;^:^he:^-5^^^ ;^S8 the people in th^eTorrr:!?;* 't'^"^' ^" ^^^ 7- slew the earl of Northumberland ^f """''''«" ^^ « tax, and 1492, the king, under pretenee of ^ f'P'^*^^^^ against them. In adgainedpossession of B U aVv "f '"V?' ""^^ *'^-^««. -hiel J- a hefvy subsidy, and ::^l:^:^^^ '^'^'^' *« =-"' Calais, and commenced hostilitie ^k ' r""'"^ ""''' ^^^"^ed at pretext; ^r negotiations were meTnwhier T''^' ""''^ ' '"-« pace was concluded on the payZt Ip 7'^ ""' ""^ '"^ *^^«ty of «'J^« thus filled his coffers at tifp *' ^''"'^^ ^"^^ *« the kin.r , ^^early at this time a voum. '^'"''/' ^"^'^ ^'''^-^- Cork in Ireland from Po t^' ."rrf "^'^"^ ^^^^^^ -'-J ut was the duke of York, and^^d esea.r;,"" "°" ^^^"-^^ *^''^^ ^e 1 he credulous people at once aeknowri . ! *'''°'^^ ^^ t^^« tower to France, and treated by K nt ChaH ^ ^'','''"' ""^ '-' ^^ ^nvU d -h crown. At the peace, h waf omT n' ^ " '^"""^ ""''' '^ ^'- J^^- ' duche. of Burgundy, who s trTnuouX t '' '''t "'"^^« ^^^^ ^l.^e "^xSr^--rkisJt^-^r^:T-s 178 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. ~n into the facts; and they ascertained that h^s real name was Pcrkin Warbeck, the son of a Flemish Jew, and that he had been origin- ally sent to Ireland by the duchess herself, to personate the character of the murdered prince. In 1494, the king, discovering the names of those noblemen who had supported the pretender, took the oppor- tunity to execute several of them. Sir William Stanley, the lord chamberlain, who had saved the king's life at Bosworth, was also beheaded on an almost totally unfounded charge of treason; the desire to obtain his large possessions being, it was supposed, the chief motive of his avaricious and ungrateful master. In 149G, Warbeck landed with a few adherents, who were easily dispersed and taken. An hundred and fifty of them were hanged. Ketrcating to Scotland, he was received honourably by King Jamea" who, in 1497, invaded England with an army in his behalf. The people, however, refused to regard the proclamation of Warbeck. The raising of taxes to meet the expenses of resistance occasioned a rebellion, which was, however, suppressed by the king's generals and great numbers of the insurgents were slain. ' After another Scottish invasion, followed by a truce, the pretender raised his standard at Cornwall, and assembled six thousand men Being deserted by their leader, they surrendered, and were mostly pardoned. Warbeck, who had taken sanctuary, was carried to Lon- don, and on examination, confessed his impostures. After six months, attempting to escape, he was set in the stocks, compelled to read his confession in public, and then committed to the tower (1498). Here he formed an intimacy with the unfortunate young earl of Warwick, who was kept close prisoner simply on account of his royal descent, and who, from long confinement, was exceedingly simple and ignorant. The latter consented to a plan for escape which being detected, Perkin was executed. Warwick was then arrai-ned before the peers on a charge of sharing in the seditious plans of Warbeck, and was beheaded on the 28th of November. Thus perished the last of the Plantagenets ; and there is little reason to doubt that the cold-blooded and remorseless monarch con- trived the whole plot as a means of getting rid of one whose rank might make him a formidable rival. The immediate motive probably was to bring about a marriage between his son Artliur and the infanta Catharine of Spain; whose father, Ferdinand, had declared his distrust of Henry's children inheriting securely "aa long as the earl of Warwick lived." ENGLAND. 179 Hostilities with Scotland, which w,>}. ^. ■ ^ - contintied «o many years, w re in 150^ /f. intermissions, had marriage between the k nrof'tL , ' T'^1'' *^« P^^^^"* by a garet. Their descendants 'wdrsa;"^ "V'^ ^^'"^-« ^- both kingdoms. The marri.-u e of A^ , ^^•\" '^ "'"*«^ throne of brated in his fifteenth year b^t h s sn I ""f 't ^"^^"^''^ ^^ ^^^e- king's hopes, it was aLnged tht HeTf t''' ^'-^'^PP^-ting the marry her, and a dispensation for th^ "f ' ''''"^ '"''' '^^^^^ the Pope. ^ ^"'^ *^"* Pui-pose was obtained from Em^;sots:dtej, hi! Sf ^^"r 1 ^"' '^ --^ «^ large sums in a most oppressive JZ ^t ^''^^'''' ^« S^^^^d of his most active sup^p'or^rw^, e J ten t^' °', ^^'^^^' ^- havmg summoned his retainers to Z\ "'''"^ P«"°d« ^^ infringing a certain statute. Tnryh^^^^^^^ *° ^'^^ ^'"^ ^l^- ^"th the goat; and was finally carried X K ''"'' ^'^° ^''^'^bled plaint on the 22d of April 1509 "1 .^^ 'u ""'*^^ °^ '^^' <^om- and the twenty-fourth of his feign ^^"^'"'^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ -Se bidTha: oTaMfd^oSr r ^'^' -^ -^- o^ a cold- his enemies, though he would s|,.,l w„ ! "'•" °°' """""tive toward his ambition or avarice. He left L I -T', i"" ""«"■* '" ^'"'ifF ! hi. People, whom he had o'^;;ita d d, tV'"' "' ""^^ "' « .l»o€„,dtuted ^ ^™'"''^' ""'W *« Star Chamber -S"«S t ra^ItesHe^r-^ ^^ ^-^-^' o«. Sebaatian Cabot, a Te„etil„rwt „ mT"/ '«1""™^ »ent of No«h Amrtca, fem Labrador toVoir "^ "'" ""' 130 THE PROPLE'8 BOOK OF HISTORY. CHAPTER Xni. HENRY VIII, TuE young king, at the age of eighteen, ascended the throne with every advantage. Universally acknowledgw'd as the rightful heir and mheiiting largo treasures accumulated by the avarice of hi« predecessor, his reign commenced most auspiciously. He married Cathanne, retained his father's ministers, and for two years amused tlie court uud people by scenes of martial splendour and gallantry ihe execution of Empson and Dudley, which he ordered in coin- pliiince with tlic importunities of the people, was the only event of public importance until 1512, when England began to take a pun m the affairs of the Continent. By an alliance with Ferdinand of Spain, a fleet and army were despatched to recover Guienne for England and Navarre for Spaiu. The latter object was accomplished, but the design of Henry failed owing to the mutinous disposition of the troops. Various naval engagements with the French fleet followed, but resulted in nothin- of importance. In 1513, the king, with twenty-five - h-usand iner° sailed for France, having first ordered the execution of the earl of Suffolk, who lay in the tower, and who, being accused of conspir- acy, had surrendered himself to the late king, on an assurance that his life should be spared. Assisted by the Emperor I^l^imiliaii, the English took Tournay and Terouenne, and made prisoners the Chevalier Bayard and other persons of eminence. Henry then returned to the island, where the Scots were assuming a hostile attitude. James, his brother-in-law, having been dishonourably used by Henry in some matters of no great importance, wa.s prevailed on bv the French court to take up arms. He despatched a fleet to the aid of Louis, and with a numerous army marched into the north of England, taking many strongholds. The earl of Surrey, with twenty-five thousand men, proceeded against him, and the two armies encountered on Flodden, one of the Cheviot hills. The battle, which only lasted for an hour, was fought most fiercely, and ' resulted in the utter discomfiture of the Scots, with a loss of teu ■ "NOLAND. thousar/d men. Kine Jftm*. i i,- ^^^ ■I he host! t es witJi Pro Henr/sallio^andltcf;:;-- ;f^^V dereetion oi of I0U.S to Mary, the king's sisfer Ltoo ^ ''^ ^' *^^' '"'^^^''^8« whowas ,noro than thrice her lie .L' '""^ "^ '"'• ^'''^'' and she became a widow aftpwl ^ ' "^ '''' ^'''^ ^^^ ^f June 151K ^r^ed Francis I. Jrdedt IhlTh^r ^' ^""^^^^^^ ^^^^ Jdtrwl:~. 1 1"-^^^^ --- ^" the kingdom wa. through him the natl Tn '! ^'''''' ^^"^'•^^'^d the kin^ Id t^-onor.butcheTrd Xetrr;-" r--- ^"«' - whom he was made a dean. On tho n ^ "" "^ ^"^"'"^ ^"•' bv he became the royal almone , anc bv hi."" °' ^'^^ ■ '""o king"^ 'n he royal amusemen^ a. ;«» as W hi^Tf '' '"^ «ompanronshi°p' Pletelj won his affectio; and otfiYen ^^'^ ^'^'' ^"'^'"^'^«. '^-m accession, bishop, archbishop cardinal^, f '"'"'' '" ^'P^'' fle also aspired, not without^Con to tht T' '"^ '^"'"" '^g^^e. . His revenue, arising from his m « P^^t'^cate itself enormous; ^e lived inVl'tpr^rf^^^^^ P^^^---^^. ^^ Lberal and enlightened patronage on liTerfr^"''' '''^ ^'''^^^^ 2 Both in the administration an2 1 ' ""^^ '"^^ ^^ ^^^^^n- W and ^ti;;^tlf rr,^^ l^- I^IO, the k^gs Of havmg received the vote of the e Le Jfr? ''^"!!^' ^"^^ C^-^- ng the powerful support of the EnTt ' '"' ^''''«"« «f gain- -tervie. with him'' They m t net cI""'' T'""' ^ P— a" tory, and. in the midflt of tournament J f °" ^^e English terri- -to a treaty of mutual alhan e " c^w ''IT''' '''''^y^' -^-ed I 7«« displayed by the two eourts on .1 ^' ""''^^'^ ^"^ magnifi. of their meeting ^as styled 'The fS Tt""' ^'^* ^'^ P^-^ Their attendants, vying with ennK I °^ ^^^^ ^^^th of Gold " ebts and expense.^ tI iTk'ntT ".'''^''^^' '"^"^^ -'-t terms, even acting to each oth r^tll t^^TV'^ "^^^* -*'-te This memorable meetinc. h . ^he toilet. °f Francis, f„. Char f SpXl; f f' "'™™ *^ "'-«'« 182 TUK I'KOPLE'B IIUOK OF HISTOltY. first iioblos in the kingdom, was arrested and executed upon a very doubtful charge of tre^ison. The king's jealousy and Wolaey's ambition were probably the cause of this vindictive act. The war between Charles and Francis had been renewed; but both parties accepted the mediation of England. Wolsey, to whom the affair was intrusted, efl'ected (probably by previous arrangement with Henry) an alliance between the emperor, the Pope, and the king of Kngland; and it was agreed to invade Franco simultajie- ously. The earl of Surrey, with sixteen thousand troops, pasHcd over in 1522, but ellected notliing of importance. Albany, tliu Scottish regent, at the instigation of Francis, assembled a large army for the invasion of England; but after some hostilities, left the kingdom. The earl of Angus took the vegoncy, under Henry's proteeti(jn, and peace prevailed between the nations for eighteen yeans. By the intrigues of the emperor, Wolsey had now been twice dis- appointed of his election to the papacy; and he concluded a fresh treaty of alliance with France. 3y this time, the various kingdoms of Europe, after passing through many transitions, had assumed something of their present limits and forms of government. Great events were in their commencement. The wonderful revolution in the church had begun on the Continent. The press, for more than half a century, had been gradually disseminating light and knowl- edge, and its first important effects were seen in the great contest which took place between the new and the ancient theology. The building of St. Peter's had, in a great measure, drained the papal treasury; and to repair the loss in some degree, the practice of selling indulgences was carried on by the agents of the church, in a very extensive manner. In Germany, the principal itinerant was Tetzel, a Dominican friar, who, with his assistants, disposed of great numbers, promising the purchasers that "the gates of hell should be closed, and those of Paradise open to them." At last he came in the neighbourhood of Wittemburg, where Dr. Martin Luther, the professor of theology, an Augustinian monk, had been for several years engaged in extricating himself from the trammels of the Romish superstitions. His penitents exhibited Tetzel's indulgences, desiring absolution, which he refused, denouncing their authority. Tetzel, who was au inquisitor, then proclaimed him a heretic. Luther in return began to preach openly against the indulgences; and his celebrated warfare w ith the papal church commenced. In England, where Wickliil'e's ilNOLAND. 183 opiiuuiKs were still aocretly chemlm.l hv ,« r.. , widely circulated. The churchl . 7 ^"^' ^'^ ^^"^''^ ''^'^^ endeavoured to check th'^'d^J::: ^rif ""'li— ^ion. «o.ne a«.Hi.tunce, produced in ifio, ' "'"\"«"''3- l'i"'«clf; with Seven Sacrarnezlt.'" U. Z ^ 1 r^Tf' "''''"'«« '^^ ^''^ title of "Defender of thrX^^ "" '-" ^l-o arrogate to then.elves o tTis d^y LuT ' " f f^'--orei,„s vituperated in this perfornlef ' ' i' u ^'" ^"^ ^^'^" fe''''^'^^'^' tern, equally coarse to S;;i::rT^ ^ '^""^''-' «PI''>-i%' epithets, "a hog of hell " ^ii! ''^'".'' '''"'^"^ "^^'''^ ^l^oice others, in which the lowest dent !?'/'""■""''•,"' responded with were reached. "^^^'^^^ °^ ^camlity and obscenity This situation of reliLnona nfro,--. i ^y .i.«,e«„„„, foo.i„g»s i:t:,rf rzr 't''"""T' borne him live children of wl.«r« i , *= ^ ^'^ ^"^«" ^'ad vived. ner melarlV ^1 ^e:^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^' ^r"T '^'^'•>'' '^- u.ul he waa anxiously dfsirous of a ' T T^ ^'' "^'''*'°"«' opportune scruple o/ conscW e r t tiT ,..,^ ^t" "' ^ been married to his brother who rU»,l i Katharme had 'Sensation had been ot^nld frt ^L Po' T'' 7' ^^""°^' « a-ientious doubt of its authority Wol. ^ ' " ^r^''''^ ' «''" and a divorce was resolved o"^" A F e S"""T^ '^^ ""^ '■^-' but the king had become sn^ n.n -1 '"""^'^t'^" ^«« planned; one of the UJ::zz:x^ ^' "J ^"-/^^^'^'^": refused to surrender her virtue to tb T^' '^ ^™'"^^"- ^''« ^i^aH in the event of^^rting tb^" r^"^^ ^^ ^^^^ divorce' After mthdhv e '^•^'•"''"" ^^ ^^^ ^^^'^ ^- a an'1 Cardinal 00^^, tf't" ,""''— "-"« i-ucd to Wolsey resolute and noble dem^.r^u^ If ""V ^'f''''^' ^^>« ^^^-^'^ <-■; ^l^eflnally refu.J;;:rnTe\:t tmi'n ''''''' ''-' -^.sion in accordance with his wilhes Bl^t tb P "'^ "'f '^'^ " by the Emperor Charles V rtl,! .' f '^ ^"J'^' influenced various frivolous pretexL to n, ^T;' "'^'^'"^' ^""*"^^^' ""^^^ years. Henry wafwefr dl^mTw 7 "''"" ^ "^^^ *^^" *-' t^-e delays, Lt his Cr^.'.ele^'"^' '^ "'°" '^^ ^"^^^"^^^ arnmgellmh^^^^^^^^^ '"T"'^' ^^ '^^"^ ^^^^^ ^^^ely by previous 184 THK PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOBY. by tlio universities and learned canonists. He eagerly swore "this injui hath tlie sow by the right car," and remarked upon the money and (|uiet which he had lost from not knowing the device sooner. CrannuT was instantly sent for, and the case put into his hands. Tlie fall of Wolsey, who had been unable or unwilling to effect his rniuster's purpose, ensued. The great seal waa taken from him, and lie was ci)inpelled to yield his immense personal property to the king. Parliament was summoned; and on a long list of very vague charges, he was outlawed. Having thus humbled his former favour- ite, the king pardoned him, and allowed him to retain a portion of his property. Soon after, in November, 1530, while travelling, lie was taken very ill, and came to the convent at Leicester, where the abbot received him with great respect. "Father Abbot," said the fallen man, "I am come to leave my bones among you." lie soon died, saying, in his last moments, " Had 1 but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs." The Pope still proving impracticable, application was made to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and, with great difiiculty, Henry obtained an opinion that the marriage was illegal. Many agents were also employed to obtain the decisions of foreign univer- sities, and, in spite of the opposition of the Pope and emperor, these were generally favourable to the king. They were then tranr,mitted to Rome, with a hint that the matter might yet be decided in Eng- land; but his IJoliness, urged by Henry on one side, and Charles on the other, would not compromise himself by a decision. Cromwell, a talented and ambitious man, who had been in the service of Wolsey, and afterwards of the king, now advised Henry to take a bold step, and aKsume to himself the supremacy over the church and clergy of England. The king assented. Under pretext that the clergy had incurred outlawry by obeying Wolsey, they were compelled to present the king with a large sum of money, (one hun- dred thousand pounds,) and to acknowledge him their supreme head "as far as the laws of Christ would allow." This blow was followed in 1532 by an act of parliament, reducing the revenues of Home, and providing for the consecration of bishops by the king, in case of refusal by the Pope. Meanwhile, persecution continued M rage, and several unfortunate persons were burned for having denied "the real presence" of the body of Clirist in the coiisccrated wafer. Henry now lost all patience, and banished Katharine, who still ENGLAND. 185 maintained lipr nrnfr..,«; n A,rao B„l„j.„. She ,„„„ a|,pe„ro,l „ „, '"'"•■""'y ""'™J .■.I.J oil,,™, after ,rj.i, ni'J"^'-'' '"''"''''" "■" '1""". "ml Ora„„,cr fi-t marriage null ;,„t v, .J 1°!^ "'■""",' 1'™""°"*="' "■« ki.«'s the priamtc, and gave birth to T T *'"■"•' "^^ «""">«i V deelamU,„ire.„,„the„,„™ ■" '''= ''""«»> Eli-:.l>e.h, who w.^ "f Anne, and ,nal"'"'«"'• -<• "".'.l by the ftte of eleven monK 1 V 7 ^'-''""«""= "^'s "vcr. e^«,„cd a, Tvbnn, fo/ „'",,; '"'r "[ ""■'" I'"'™' »'"' "ero * l.n.l .ah.„ refngc in En-i,.'!:; !","»';■'■ •^":"«.i*.«, 1 '10 execution of the biCof K !'^ '" 'f'''''^^''^'^ «tak,.. Tl. -gnaninuty, and the latter iCd ~:, ' f '"' ^^''^-'' «''-^ t'.e scaffold. These ju.hVial m der!. '""^'"'^ P'onsan tries on tl'e tyrant's name w.n. exeer.t 7 . "' \ ^'''''''^ ""'^^•'•^•; "'-J He next resolved on the suppressi^ "f " ''*"''''• scqncstrationof their revenues- a n.oT ^"" vents, and the -leed, but produetive of J ron.:V":''T "''' ^^"^l"*^'-'- *-^ -ho, by the avarice or s p^ i ^^^ '" ."^^-"^ "'-v vie- ■'"niured in these sechided -md nm "" ^'''■""^'^' ^"^'^ l^««n ,.ve„;2 :^;r:: ;;;;■ tn'^Z',""" ,"f '■■"'•^"■' ""» -en. I«l lK>con,e fascinated bv\ n ar '" : r 7 "''*''°- "■»"->' »««"'la.it., and being dta,„|,„i„,! in ,'" -'""""■■ ""<■' "^ !'«' ;r»rp..Hn„it, to g^t rid '„';"„'! " ^r 'f 'I ""■ -"«'" l"«y l.e.ng re,K,rfcul to him, he onl^e d I "'''''''" '"''*^"'' "f V-;« her a charge of aduUe'rv I,V ' , T. """"' """' '"'*''»' '■'Other, were arrcte,! „. ,|,c pirtiri ^ ''f r"''''''"'" "'' "'""' ''<''• ■■• »«»t dignified and elooncntlpi'tl . ' \ """"■ S'«* "'■»'-' «"ee, the ehargc, vvem l.cISt^ '' 'TiT'"'''^ '''' '""'- «™o»nted.o „l™,t nothing ""thi"^:^!:'""""'.""'' "'" P-f -^ i».irHvS were all con- ISO THE I'EOrLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. "n victed of treason, and suffered accordingly, no one daring to dispute the tyrant's will. The queen was beheaded, evincing great courace and magnanimity to the last. Being informed that the pain would be trifling, she replied, "I have but a little neck," and put her hand about it, smiling. The day after this atrocious murder, Henry married the object of liis passion, as if willing to exhibit his motives without shame or compunction. The people of Lincolnshire, discontented at the sup- pression of the monasteries, assembled in arms, to the number of twenty thousand; but finally dispersed upon proclamation. A more formidable insurrection broke out in the North, where the malcontents marched through the country in great force, performin'^ a sort of martial pilgrimage, and took the cities of York and IIull. Forty thousand in number, they advanced to Doncaater; but a heavy rain and an act of amnesty dispersed then,. Tn 1537, they again took up arms; eight thousand, headed bv two gentlemen of Cumberland, attempted to seize Carlisle, but were defeated with great slaughter, and several of their leaders, witli seventy others, were hanged on the walls. Other similar under- takings were also suppressed, and a number of nobles, gentry, ami clergy, implicated in them, were executed. An amnesty was after- wards issued. On the 12th of October, the queen gave birth to a son (Prince Edward), and died soon afterwards, thus probably escaping the fate which might, at no distant day, have been her's, by the king's caprice. An English translation of the Bible was this year introduced into the kingdom, by the royal sanction. The remaining monasteries were next suppressed, with little opposition, the loss of the monks lieing partially compensated; and a revenue of an hundred and tb.rty thousand pounds was thus added to the royal treasury. A vast number of pretended relics and juggling impostures were at t!ie snme time exposed to the popular examination ; and St. Thomas of Canterbury (Becket) was condemned as a traitor, and his bones were taken up and burned. Most of the lands sequestered were divided among the favourite nobles and gentry; whose rapacity and greediness, with the shameless prodigality of the king, absorbed tlie spoils of the clergy so far, that in 1540, the next year, he was obliged to require a large subsidy froia parliament to meet the expenses°of this most lucrative reformation. In spite of the errors and superstitions which clung around these strong destri into t ture ii iudigu laying to take a gove if not only ef the kin, Hegii of the ] vain, to crusade, foruiidal Montagu cuted on Henry its most Lambert convince with two to find til liis conun, g'-ished I an absolu; I all the aut i After a prepared i articles, cal % this, th confession, the first w. \niade felonj cast into pr: ship, was u children to G treaties for a ENGLAND. ~ J mto the hands of the untJnc hL ''^"'^''^ ^^'^^"«« ^^^^^ f^" tare in general sustaLTCSe loT^, ""^^"^^ ^"^ ^^^-- iudiguation was excited aH T '- ^^' "^^'* unbounded %in°g the kingdrul; an T/ 'r' ' '""'^^ ''^^^ "^ ^--d, declaring his l^ter o^t, IleS^e ' T7'-^^^^^^"» ^^"^^ to take up anns against thf k g Cthf ti^^^ ''' "^'"^^^ a government could be overtWn hv * t ^"'^ ^''''^ ^^^^^ if not more enlightened Zk ^ '^'^°'- ^^'^'^ "^i"^^. oni, effect of thiffSai\^'orThey:r '"'^^^^'^"*' ^"^ *^^ the king to further violence '^°' ^^ *° exasperate lieginald de Ja Pole, a se;o„d cousin of "the kin^ hnd K of the most active of the oaml no- . ^'^e kmg, had been one crusade, the injuries ied bv ,l,f ? u ""f «'■ ""y " ™*= Montague, and several „Z pe so' "'^..T t ■■'' '"■''">»'■■ ^ord outed on a charge of abe.ti„; £ dTsl " """"°"' "''° "^ «- ilenry, though setting the church nf°R^'^ . j ., its most absurd doctrLs ^ P Lcuin '^^'''"'^^ Lambert in support of the L7Z7sZ^,^%T'^ ""' ^"^ convmce the unhappy man. burnel h^a Wnhffi n "' ""^'^^ *° with two Anabaptists. It was thp J ^"f Afield, m coinpany to find the most slavish and .Ik ^ ""^ '"'^ ^^^'""^ ^^ ^^^^ ^ing ^i-ommand. An ^ ttrri^tl:^^^^^^^^^^^^ - , 6'ushed persons without trial .to/ ^ ' ^"'^ ^^'^^^ distin. an absolute despotism. f^wV^Tvir^ T^^^^' -ting all t e authority of a statute of pfrlilmen: '"'°' P^lamation Alter a vehement debate upon mattPr«' r.f r • prepared a bill of faith; and tLt o Z ^^ ^^"'':' '''^ P^^*^ ''"i<^J^«,ca]led " the blood; statute'- 1 !. T'''"* ^^''^^"^ ^'^ ^^^ I By this, the doctrines of CuLrZ" '^^''"^'^ -I'l-obation. confession, and other niatl^r^were It^^Jlf 'Tr' ^'^ ^^^^^^^' the first was punishable by death 2 t ^^^.^^«"t«tive; to oppose \n.ade felony. Numbers of "^^h r ^ ""^^^^ '''' «*^-s was -t mto prison. Cranmer, suppotTbl'theT "" """f '"^^^^ sinp, was untouched; but found ,> "^ ^^^^g s personal friend- cliildrentoGernumy.'lIenrvTlHT'T'V" '^"^ ^'« ^^"« '^"^ --^raf.eshii:.C^™^^ S . jm. A Ucu corpulent m person, 188 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HlSTOliY, was anxious that his wife should be of correspondingly large dimcn sious. Among other propositions, one was rejected which he made to Francis I., that they should meet at Calais, and the Frenchman should bring the finest ladies of his court. He next saw a picture of Anne, daughter of the duke of Cleves, made proposals, and was readily accepted. On beholding the bride, however, he was griev- ously disappointed, and swore that "they had brought him a great Flanders mare." Unwilling to offend the continental prince, how- ever, he married her, but determined to repudiate her as soon as possible, and to ruin Cromwell, the high chamberlain, who had brought about the match. At a dinner he beheftl Catharine Howard, niece of the duke of Norfolk, C-.J was immediately captivated by her charms. Cromwell was fortliwith attainted by the parliament, according to his own device, upon a frivolous charge of treason and heresy. The parlia- ment and clergy, subservient as usual, pronounced the king's marriage void, on the ground that Anne had been previously affi- anced to another; and it was made high treason to question this decision. The execution of Cromwell followed immediately, and fresh victims were soon offered to the shrines of bigotry— three for denying the supremacy, and three for preaching "justification by f'utli." In April, 1541, an insurrection had broken out in the north, but it was suppressed, and the loaders were executed. The revenge- ill monai'ch seized this occasion to execute the countess of Salisbur\- dole's mother, a lady of seventy-two, who had for some time been imprisoned. A few days after the death of Cromwell, the new queen had been publicly introduced at court, and, according to the lords of the coun- cil, had completely won the king's heart by "a notable appearance oi" honour, cleanness, and maidenly behaviour." The king, the following season, gave public thanks to Heaven, for the happiness of his married life; aiid on the next day received a written state- ment of the queen's incontinence, both before and after marriage. Henry at first could not believe it, but upon receiving undeniable proof, burst into tears. The parliament met, and bills of attainder were passed against the queen and other persons implicated. She was beheaded on the 13th of February, 1542. On the 12th of July, in the following year, he married Catharine Parr, the widow of Lord Latimer, a lady secretly inclined to the reformed doctrines. The year before, some acts of hostility with Scotland had occurred, ENGLAND. July, 1544, he crossed Tie 7^1 " ' '"^" ^S'-^'"^* ^^-- I- army ofthirty thousand men Vtf , ^''"'^^''^^ •mobility and an -aJe peace with the enenr;„d he\ "^ ^''''^' ^^^'^^'^ ^^^ ally ing taken and ganisonedtheVown of B"r and Scotland was still MyZ/all^^^^^^^ ^he war with l^nce peace m 1646. ^ Protracted until it was terminated by a n-deastrongatternpttoeru H'hi r? "' " ''''' ^^« --- the pnmate and his\adheren s w e' mrTT' ? *'^ ^^"^ ^^'^* and praymg for his committal to th. 7 ^ ' ''"''" ^^*^ l^^^esy, he should be at the disposa f tl t^nT . ""'"^^ ^"'^^"^^^ tha a nng a^uring him of proteetion tTc al 1 k"?"'^*^^^ ^"^^^ '^- severely and unjustly dealt with prod need t'^?' '"'"^ '^"^^^ accnisers, went before the king ThlZ J' ' '"^' ^'"^ ^'^« 'n Cranmer. and a hollow reconciliattn '" f'^'^'f ^'' ^°"^^<'"»<^« The parliament of 1545 ."1^^^ ^ f ^^ -en empowered him to sei^o thel "" '"^^'^^^"^ *" "'« ^^'S'. and ;f -, and public instituti" s ol eoX'":,'' ''^ '^'^^^'^^'^' --- , he g ory of God and the ZZfTl ' 7' ^'"^" ^« ^'^"^ ^o ! following year, Anne Askew Thdv .vT "/ t' '^''^"•" ^" '^- opnnons. was cruelly tortured ^n i w i I ,^ ^""'^ t^''^'^ ^^^ ^^^-'"^d 1 'l^^'J-ng the "real presence " ' '"' "''^"^«' ^^ burned for ! , G'^'-diner, the persecutincr bishon .f Axr- , I to make a victim of the qu n V/n "':^^^-' «-- attempted ; r"^''^^^°'^^e^edrawnupaiainst\;r .;'"''• '^^"^^"t. articles of I ut Catharine, acciclental y Cn J; i;" hi« approbation ; j he tyrant's vanity and lov^^ ofTrg , ^ "h' T "^'^"^ «^^"^'-^ ! reconciled to her. The next d-tJ Tl ' !' ^''""'^^"'"P''-'t^"ly -"en, appeared in the roya ganifn ^''V'^'^"^^"'^'-. ^vitll forty V'^--ve, fool, and bca<' a'nd d^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ '''' ^^«-^ -H^'J him also .iKsgraced. ' ^"'^""'^'^ 1^"" away. Gardiner was Jhc king, afflicted with corpulence n„d .V, b"t contrived to load his memoni ''''''''''"" "'''^'- ^'"^ ^'^'^ e•^--'t,on of the accon.plishcd ariof S ""' '""''" ^^^°^^^ ' ^he - ...^.unded charge if trlr^f;;::^- ? T"^ ^'^^^^'"^ " h^ d,e^ ««^-d- after. Somerset and Cranme si f ,%i ''"' '"''"''^^ '^''''' ^ays Persecutions, under the reforf > '''™^* ^"'^^ ^he others. I '--dothersby mmLofS ^-n- a"d condemned her to the «:! I '''"''" "^""^'^ Joan Boucher -t incarnate of the vf^gif T.TluLTr'^'^'^^^ ^'^^* ^^-^ -- -'uctance to signing the horrible Can t- ^f In T' '" ^^^^^^^^* Oranmer was necessary to induce him ' T " authority of "'^ed Parr, suffered the same flfi^' • "^'^t Jear, a man The first effect of Z ^' ^'"'"^ ^n Arian. to the receivet flh '^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ monasteries was, except kv their new and ablnT :Ll n ' t^Tt "^'u '^'^''^ ^^P^-^ oncy and personal kindne of leir^T "'"'^ ''°''' ^^ ^'^^ ^«'"-- -ere further distressed by he hth , "tasters the friars. They f'e precious metals from';he a' f W^o^M- """' '^ ^'^ ^"^^"^ '' correspondingly. Viewing all tL evik 7'°'' "°' ^'"^"° ^'«*^» ., '^'^"-^ ^-*-e, they rose int:^^^^^^^^^ the . verai or tue Counties, where they 102 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK Of lllSTOUy. were ut first quieted by tlie efforts of the resident gentry; but by degrees the insaiTections beeiinie more fonuiduble. In Devon, the insurgents, numbering ten thousand men, demanded tlie restoration m full of the aneient forms vvhieh had been suppressed; that many disused customs should be enforced, and that heretics should be strictly punished. While laying siege to Exeter, they were routed and dispersed by Lord liussell; several of their leaders were exe- cuted; anil the vicar of St. Thomas was hanged in his robes from his own steeple. In Norfolk, one Kett, a tanner, with twenty tliou- sand peasants under his command, sat beneath an oak, called the Oak of Reformation, summoned the gentry to appear before liiai and made what decrees he pleased. After routing the marquis of Northampton, who had been sent against them, the rebels wcru defeated by Warwick, with a loss of two thousand of their num- ber. Kett was hanged at Norwich, and nine others were suspended from the boughs of their favourite tree. The protector had now become exceedingly unpopular; and he added to the public hatred by pulling down certain churclics and bishops' houses in the city, to build himself a palace in their room. His principal enemy was Dudley, earl of Warwick, a son of tho beheaded agent of Henry VII. In 1549, this nobleman, with eight others of the council, assumed the entire power, and appealed to all classes for assistance. Somerset, being generally deserted, was com- pelled to yield to the storm, and was committed to the tower. Uc was accused of being the author of all the misfortunes which had ha[)pened to the realm, and confessed his guilt. Certain penalties were adjudged, but his opponents, not wishing to ruin him entirely, liberated and pardoned him. A marriage of his daughter to War- wick's eldest son united the rivals, and he was allowed a seat in tin; council. The successful faction, as usual, rewarded themselves with titles and estates. Oil the 2 ith of March, 1550, a peace was made with France aii'l Scotland; Boulogne being restored to the former ou payment of four hundred thousand crowns. The iielbrmation was still pushed on. Bishop Bonner, a staunch sujjporter of Home, was deprived of his see, and imprisoned. Gar- diner, who had been two years in the tower, waa also degraded from his office. The Princess Mary, who still heard mass, was men- aced in her turn; but declared herself ready to die in support of ber faith, and assured the council that she never would read any of their 1 the en molest forty-t ^7aI earl of ftl' his I oa the leading .son, bu execute people, whose ii oi' Lis c were fin was also Tlie k of lat6, zealous a illegitiim in order, I duchess c daughter, ■ berland i strong Pr faith mus j of her fat I the chief ^ liceording] devise, aft counsellori and ambit Lady Jane and the th: The kin on the 6th and that p brief and y qualities, th Nortluun Vol. J aymeut of { was men- £A'ULAND. 1V2 their books, 03 she tbxnked God she never had Thr w . the emperor, her cousin, who threaten^ 1 t, '""^^ ^''' "^ Hiolesteu. The Book o^ Connnon IWr w T ""i"'^'^^" ion.-two articles of religion were drawn! """'' "'' leading persons. Ho wus trip,l r,..r .i ' ''* "' ^''"-'i' Mm, but found guih on to crab ," !--«- -quitted of trea- cxocuted on the 22d i blua v 15-."' • i'? f '^'""^^- ''' ^'^'^ People, with who. ae li!:^ S^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^"^ ^^^ f ^ wbu.sc interests, on various 000.,=;^ ^ P"puiar, and his care for oi' his character. Sc' "l 7^^' 'f""^ '''' ^^^-'-^"S l-^tion uerc fined and imprisoned El t''''T' <^'^^'«"ted, and others was uW, deprived of llse;. "" '""''^' '"^ ^^^^^"* K---"«t, TIic king's health, always delicatP hn.l v. of latd, and North^nberiind S'eJ I "' ''''' P^^'^^^^'""^ zealous adherent of Eomanism Sh 1^''^"^'' °^ ^^^^"'^ ' ^^ I 'llegitimate by act of mr i 2nt ^ ''^'^'^ ^'''^ ^''^^ "'-l*^ i'-'Jor, overLkin. trhl-^^^^^^^ *^^^ "-t ' Juchess'of Suttblk, who .t Itt ^^^'f '^' *^'^ ^^'"S's will, .-as the I ^^^, t.e Lad; .i:: a:^:^^.:;:^^^:::;::.^^^^^ :; '- bcrland represented these nnft^^^r. t^ *i "^ '"^^''^'"'t. Aorthuin- -..g iw.a,., a.,d ;■ ..x:-;, : . :r:Lf ;r '"r-"' : failii must encounter if At-i.-v «„ i ,? '' """^ '™ refoniieil tfe chief judges to drut up , "" '"'", ''''' "°"'-'' "'"• ""'"'-•i device, after pea. detate,;:^ s .^j' W^.n,"*""' »'"» *= "-' counsellors except one The Zi , 7 ° '"''s"' ""'" «""ily on the ■ H= 'J-^ a»;i that p„pistr,\i,.ht' C frtt trT""", °'%T ''"«'""■ 104 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. but was disappointed by her precipitate flight. The Lady Jane A\honi her ambitions relatives were attemjjting to place in this high and perilous position, was only sixteen years of age, but was iiidowed with high talents, virtuous feelings, and an amiable disp... Hition. She was also unusually learned and accomplished. When (four days after the king's death) the news was communicated tu licr, and the princi])al persons of the council requested her to assume llie crown, she fell senseless to the ground, and on recovering, wept bitterly. She was told that she was the rightful heir, and accepted the crown— without question most reluctantly— and from a sense of duty. The partisans of Northambcland, and the reformed clergy in general, exerted themselves strongly to secure the throne to its new occupant; but the disinterested subjects listened with apathy to tlie proclamation, and to the sermons preached in favour of the change. In Norfolk, the people, h.iting Northumberiand for his severities,' espoused the cause of Mary, and prockimed her as queen. Several of the nobility joined her, and four thousand men, under Sir Edward Ilastfngs, deserted the cause of Northumberiand, and came to her assistance. A fleet sent to intercept he-, if she should attempt an escape, took a similar course. Northumberiand, witn ten thousand men, advanced against her, but finding himself vastly outnumbered retreated to Cambridge. ' Meanwhile, in London, the civil authorities and several of the higL officers of government, perceiving how matters were tending, pro- claimed Mary, amid the acclamations of the populace. TheLadv .Jane, after a reign of ten days, made a formal re:jignation of her brief authority, declaring how much pleasanter it was than the acceptance. Northumberiand was speedily arrested and committed to the tower; and the accession of Mary to the throne was univer- sally acknowledged. Entering London in triumph, she released Bonner and Tunstall, and made Gardiner high-chancellor. North- umberiand and a number of his associates were convicted of hif^h treason, but the only executions at this time were those of himself and two others. Jane and her husband were kept in confinement, and the other prisoners were set at liberty. The queen hc.d .xv^erred that she would not interfere with the religion of the people; but the hope of toleration soon proved vain and fixtile. Bishops Ridley and Hooper were committed to prison, and the Princess Elizabeth found it necessary for her safety to attend JENOLAND. 196 mass The primate, Cranrner on the flroi • ^- • proval, was committed to the tower on n f '''^T'''' "^ ^' ^'^V- on a similar eharge, was al^^dT^r mSI'TT ^'^^^"^'^^ ' ants were soon in prison; the pZle of V fr^^ ''^''"^ ^'•°*«^^*- q-«nofherpromisi,metwitiiCl 1, 1 ''"^'"^'"° *^^ I nan.cd Dobbe, was sei in the pi f' i^e'wa: I "" ""•^^"^^'•■^> by the Pope as papal legate to En'and ad,! ''''' ^^^^^^^ a private letter to the" nontifr nr.J,° ' , '" '1"''^" despatched into obedience to the Sec of rC^ '° '""^' *'^ '^'"«"^'-' '^^g-n majority 'rfliomliste'.'twifn^ """*' '""' ^''"'Posed of a large ^ng law, was performed, ant^ZX T " t'*"^"" °^ ^^^ «-'*■ forcibly put out of the house 1?JS-":;"^" ^° '"^^'' ^^- m.cy, and annullir,g all statutes of tire'ltelV"" ^"''"'^ '^&'*'- , were passed. Jane, her husbinr i T°" '""""'""'S'-^^'ision. "^tnintedof treason, ^nd all 12; '"^^'^''^*^''' ^"^ Cranmer, ^ere i..g the hatred of tL-ir pl^ s ' T^' " ''^ '"* ^^"^^ °^«W-.- I majesty to select a husband from amon. tir'^vr "'" ^^^^"^ '^^^ I hopmg to prevent her eontemnlld .! " ""^'^''^ ""^ ^^^ ^^''^'^"^ the emperor', son; but st to h 1 T'^' ^''*^ ^'^'"^ ''^ ^P^'" choose in this matter. Her r lit v"" '" '"^' "°* ^he'"' *« chancellor, in settlin. the artlTe 7 ° ^''^' ^''^^^^"«'-' t^e commissioners, took ev.ry p" Ittln ^"1"'^ "'*^^ *^- '-P-ial of his country; and Philin^as then ' "I u *'"""" ^"'^ ^^^'^^tv only the shadow of authoritl ThT 1?. "''''''"'' "*^^ ^'^ ^« «"°-«d 'ngly odious to the people in LneT T "^^■^^^^'«'«-. e-ceed- renewed against the government Th. '" ^'^^'^P'^^^ies were soon , where Sir Thomas Wyatt T man of '""'' 'f'""' ^*^« >° ^ent, I '-ded a revolt, and inLld Z^:lr:l^'^J ""' ^°^^'^^^ . London, however, proved loyal .nd th. ""'""'^ '"'"• ! -ng, with a greatly diminished fore;! "^'"* ^^^^^'•' ^«empt- taken prisoner. The next dav t '"'^•"'' ^'' ^'''^^ ^'^'^'^^ and execution of her youthful andfnnocenrnriJ''"'^' T'''''' ^'' '^^ '- that of her husband. He wasTehenrr'' "'' ^''^^^^ '^•'^"«' ^"^ I7«enee 0.^ a vast multitude; rdjl 1 '" ''"^^•^'"' ^" ^^e '; h,s lifeless bodv, was led fLth tH'. T-"^""""'"^ *^« ^^t-^^^ f he died with grea; courage and tl n •' '"' ^^*^'" *^« ^^^e^- '-d committed an unlawfuUet but d!?" ^ ^v! '^'"^"^"^ ^^'-^^ «he -n.^ desired the crown. ThlTeVi ! T'^ ^" ^""^^^'^^^ ^^ hav- ----oman,oneofth-:^:^ir:S^ 106 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. ti) be met in English liiHtory. Her fatlier and uncle, who hud been engaged in a conspirncy, were Hhortly after executed. One of the accused beitig acquitted, the jury were fined large sums, and t!io conviction of others wa** thus insured. Wyatt was beheaded, and a large number of his followers (by some accounts four hundred and flily) were hanged. Elizabeth, who was naturally an object of jealous suspicion to hor Catholic sister, was committed to the tower, being landed at Traitors' Stairs, where she exhibited some resolution, and a gom] deal of feminine petulance and weakness. Mary, urged by tin- emperor, would willingly have executed her; but not daring opcnlj to violate the law, kept her close prisoner in various fortresse>-, Great numbers of the gentry, foreseeing the impending persecutions, sold their property, and went over into France. In si)ite of all endeavours of the royal party, and an imnicnw sum sent over by the eini)cror for purposes of bribery, parliament refused to sanction any measure giving Spain a foothold in the king- dom. They would not even make it treason to con.sj)ire against the life of the queen's husband; and refused to revive the statute of the six articles, and other .strong Komanist laws concerning heresy. The marriage took place, (July 2oth, 1554,) but all tlic pomp and pageantry displayed on the occasion, could not reconcile the people to an alliance whieh reminded them of Si)anish tyranny and of the Inquisition. The queen's mo.st cherished project was to bring the kingdom again under obedience to the Pope ; and for this purpo.se, a pliable House of Commons was required. Orders were issued to the sheritFs accordingly, and so fully did they carry out her instr ctions, that not a single Protestant, it would iij>pear, was electcfl to the new house. On meeting, the chancellor, in presence of the royal pair, « announced to the hou.se their intention of reuniting the realm to the Catholic church. The old attainder of -Cardinal Pole was reversed, and he was received with the highest distinction as papal legate. A unanimous petition from the lords and commons prayed I for readmission into the bosom of the church. In a great meeting ; the legate absolved the realm, and the ancient faith was restored ' with stately ceremonies. The various bills rejected by the former ' parliament were passed. Elizabeth, however, with some other pri.s- ' on(>rs of distinction, was released by the intervention of Philip, who desired to ingratiate himself with the nation. r ENGLAND. lf»7 desiWng. however' that l':;;"^^^^^^^^ I mou «. aa acco,npani.„e„^ fo t.t W u:';^:'^^'""; '^ fe--' - ■ I (Inml, a mai, of mild and umiabl. f ^''"i''^'- '^'^e car to win back the recu.a.LTh^ IZk'^'"^' \^^''^^ '"-"•^. ''"■^PKurocuredasole,nnprol^r,t' J"'^ !" f-rtheranco of celebrated by the ominous bWe of h ' '^''"^'^T^"'^' ""^^ '•^^"•-"fc^ This ceremony, called the "ttst of t; T "T^'"''* ^''^' "'^'•'°' annually observed. On the thin \l I ^^^"«"»^'I>ation," was to be and other high lord, both l';! J^^r.ti '"^ ^^r^"^^' ^"""-' authonty of the legate, for the'tril of " j^ "^' ' ^^"'^ "-1- Iheir hrst victim wa^ the Rev I >i ' '^'^'^'• presence, and wa. burned at Smh r , i °"'"' ""^^ ^'"^^^ ^'^^ real He died with great con tan 1 an a Ihe ' "" '". '^' "' ^^^-^O'- -nt of an immense crowd Vplt;:'"^''^"'' ^"^""-^'« Bisl. )p Hooper suffered the same L n h ! "!' ^^"^'' ''^''''''''^^'' ^ .'■• More of these horrible executbn fol "7 ^^T'"' ^' ^'"^•-- of Bonner, to whom the chancel o 1 T' ""^"^ '^'' ^''^'^^'^ou office and who, from his ^^Zatl!::^;^''''' *^- «^io- , 'v-as the fittest instrument that ,J1 . ^ " '^'^"^^'^ «f cruelty i --dclergy,^saysCs h^^^^^^^^^^^^^ "Tl^; most alacrity. They were beal^l, Zr ^'^ ^^ '"^^''' ^^'"^^ ^»^« -ctity of their marriage; t e^^;,^^:^^^^^^^^^ '^.'^^ validity and I ^vas at stake; the desire of leavinri "■'^'' '"^ ^^'I^^''^"" I 1'"'''^' «^-^"Ple. combit,ed with a sense' orrril'''"'"^, "'^"'' ''^"^ '^ I 'l^^^* d-ived strength from the ver Lfw, "f '"' '^".'^'' ""^ *^« j stances, would have weakened i-' \ ^'"' '' ^" ^^t^^"- ^ircum- ' Philip's confessor, a Franciscan named Be c'T^ °' """^' *^^* enl-ghtened than his conternp< • rfeT at thi« '"''' ^"'"'"^ °^ «ermon more strongly condlnunng the L blrh'^ T ^'^''^"^ ' opposed to Christianity ^ "" l>arbarities, as utterly ^Ctu^riTT:^^^^"^-^^ or*e ™,. ,.,. -i'utioo of .he c.,nfls^;ZLuXZ*'°r'''^™""'^"' *» a»>l Latimer, after beins kept in „Uf ^^ ' Cranmer, Ei<|I,:„, •0 Oxford, where for Ihree H ,1 ■"' """° """=■ ^'"^ °^nM from their opponent TleZZlZV"'''''™'' "»* '*"- appear before .he Pope in eigl.;tr.ld "rrer-.r-*" •"■ 198 T1I£ I'EOPLE'S BOOK OF UISTOKV. oncd. Bisliop Eidley, and Latimer, still maintaining their opinions with constancy, were condemned, and suffered at Oxford, on tho IHth of October. "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley," said Lati- mer at the stake, "and play the man. We shall this day, by God's grace, kindle in England such a flame as I trust shall never bo put out." Gardiner, who had heretofore managed the parliament with great ability and address, having died, the queen mot with no little diffi- culty in carrying out her projects. A bill for restoring tithes, first- fruits, &c., to the Pope, was rejected, and she obtained little for tho pur])ose. In other ways the houses exhibited discontent with tliu saii.'hiiiury measures of the government. Philip, also, perceiving his unpopularity, and despairing of offspring by the queen, returnod to Flunders, and shortly afler inherited, by the resignation of his father, tlie immense jJosseHsions which he had acquired. The queea solaced herself, in his absence, by reestablishing monasteries, and persecuting heretics, sixty-seven of whom were this year condeinned to the flames for ojiposing transubstantiation. The eighty days aj)pointed for Cranmer's appearance having expired, the Pope degraded him, and ai)])ointed Pole as primate in his place. In February, 15o(), Bishops Bonner and Thirlby sat at | Oxford, as a commission for his trial. In vain he protested against ' the pali)able evasion of justice which had been put upon him; he ' was clothed in mock insignia, and publicly scoffed at. Afler this. ' by the fear of death, and the temptations of his enemies, the ' unhappy man was induced to abjure his opinions, and to sign no less | than six different recantations. The object of his persecutors vis j now attained, and, t)wing to the queen's personal hatred and that of I others, it was deiermined, contrary to the usual custom, to sacrifice | him with the rest. Suddenly, and without preparation, he was sum- rnoned forth to' die, and, in presence of a large congregation, was ' desired to repeat his recantation. He arose, knelt and prayed^ and | then addressed the people, exhorting them to loyalty, virtue,' and , piety. Then, to the confusion of his enemies, he made the most open confession and repentance of his weakness and duplicity in falsely denying his true opinions; and ioclared that the hand which had 8ignef ton' --stance of PhiH,. ,, IIo.ll "' . fli:' "' ^^''"^^'-^ *" t'-" the coast of France. A severe rever.ri ' '"'^''^"^^''"J^'. J^an^sed )''S''- On the 1st of January 1558 r 7'''' '"^''"^^^ *''^> E"K- c-onquests of Edward III. which Lf"'"'! \""'-^ '^'""""'^ «f the i; their possession, was la 'Thrdu ^ '^^ ^"^^^^ ^''^ ^-" Jeeplv mortified the people -uk . ' V ^^^^ «^ <^"'«e. This loss cleckred that after hef d S "l, ''^'^^^^^TI ^he queen, that she l^-t." An atten.pt to r^Le i^Z f V'^"^' ^^^"^ "^ '- port of Brest, failed; but, b/a si^ Je o IT' X^'T^ "^"" ^he Jtirir^i;;;:r:rx^ unpopularity which her cruelti ^s1.k d ' "^^''-avated by the with mortification that all h^J^^i^T^r '"• ^^^^ ^'^^^^ the secret spread of heretical ; ' "o ^ J"" T'^^' ^" ^'>-'^' Iier successor, privately held the r2., ^ ^ '^ '''"' ^^^^^^beth, probably rSestublish then.. IZ .t"t ."'"'''"■ "'<^ ^^-'J «l'e expired on the 17th of No::e b^r l --Y *•" '^"'^''"'^" ^^^^^ l-pular epithet of "Bloody Mary" evC^^ ^^"Putat.on; and the or IKTsecution had sunk into the n.in 1 of t ' ?^^ '^' ^'«""r« With the death of Mary and P , n ^'"^^"• -lod l^ con.n.on con:^ t ^^:^;:; f"'^' ^^^ ^P^ -p..n«,, ti- ^-1 of the refonned believ s aj " """'"' ^"^'^ "^^--^^-'J «taucy and cheerfulness of the n rtvr n 77' "'''''^''''S the con- t^- pe.,cuto.. embraced til: P^:::^^^^''' ''^ f^^^ ^>' -t_i.t taith as soon aa ihey could 200 THE PEOl'LE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. do SO with safety. During those four years of obstinate attempts at forcible conversion, nearly three hundred victims had perished in the flames, including bishops, clergy, women, and children. CHAPTEB 17. ELIZABETH. The new queen was immediately proclaimed amid the general rejoicings of the people. By the counsel of Sir "William Cecil, her chief adviser, she declared her intention of retaining most of the counsellors in office. An announcement of her accession was sent to foreign princes, and Philip immediately ofifered her his hand ; which, however, was civilly declined. The Pope, on receiving the intelligence, passionately declared that she was illegitimate, and could not inherit the crown ; but said that if she would renounce her claim, and submit entirely to the Holy See, she should be leni ently treated. This ridiculous assumption was, of course, entirely disregarded. Those in prison for opinion's sake were now released, and the queen commenced slowly and cautiously to change the established forms of worship. She was crowned on the 15th of January, 1559, the occasion being celebrated by the most quaint and gorgeous pageantry. Elizabeth was at this time twenty-five years of age, tolerably good-looking, and, considering the age, remarkably learned and accomplished. The new parliament, in which, from obvious reasons, there was a strong Protestant ascendancy, immediately con- firmed her title to the crown, and commenced the work of religious reformation. Tenths, first-fruits, and the supremacy, were restored to the crown ; and to deny the latter obstinately, was made treason. Eight clerical champions, four from each party, were appointed to hold a disputation upon the mass, the English liturgy, and the power of the church to establish rites and ceremonies. It was curiously argued by the supporters of the Latin service, that "ignorance is the mother of devotion ;" a piece of sophistry which was ably refuted ENGLAND. 201 201 hy the Protestant debaters On fT,„ refusing to argue, becaus; their n '''°"^ '"''*^"^' '^' K*^™-"^^^^ word, the, .erf, aker he a' wt ;£""''. T" *° ^^^« *^« ^-t for a contempt, and some of th7m ^' *™'' ^'^^^ ^^^^^^'Ij The''Actof UrliformitvCstherj'l'"^ '' *he tower under grievous penaltie's, ZXTt^X^'T'""' ' '''''"^ -^--' fine of a shilling on all Cabfented h.f' ".' '"^ ^"^"^'"^ ^ the fifteen bishops, one onlv onn« 1 ^^^mselves from church. Of and the others, 'th^'^^i^T^ff^ f^^^ afterwards imp'risoned or W „!"* T"'^ ^* "'^^^^*^' -- new regulations. Their place Z"m7T "^^ ''PP"^'"^ ^^« great body of the clerL^v hi "^ '''*'' Protestants. The hesitation,\nd theSj^^^^^^ ^^^ «^-ges witho established. "^"nation was thus finally and effectually ^tI^:Sttf^;SSr::rf ^ --^^e term. Scotland and her husband thlSbwr'T f ^°""«^ '^"^'^ ^^ arms of England, to whieL ulrvt', '^ ''''''^'^ '^'^ 'oy.l "ext heir. The R, "sts of F,?' ^-^ *' "^' ^^^^^ ^^^^t^. -as Elizabeth illegitim. . Z loof ° a'/* ''"' ^^^^^'^' consid;ring of the throne; it .us weH knotn'lf 7 '^ ''" ^^^^^^^ the scheme of placing her upon in f /''"'' ''''''^y ^^^"'^hed queen to seek a secret alliance with tlip '"" ''^'^^^^^ratiom led the Persecution had there prXeVtrT^i ''^*"" °^ ^-^^-d. =^eal and adding to the number of Li '^''' ^" ^^«^^'"g the whoheld.accordingtoher:wn:tet:rtC:^ should not be performed, "unless isuitlfr^''^'"''''"^P""^«« by her treachery and seviity dr^en th" ^^^f.^^^^enience," had Excited by the famous John Knox f P^^^r^'^P^" ^^^-"'-• they pillaged monasteries, expeUrd th.t '"^ ^"'''"^ ^^^^^^^^ papistical instruments and or'n ^er^ Tf Zt^^ \"' '"^^^^'^^ ^'^^ gregation of the Lord," an assoZo' h *^7':"^«-'^««- ^he "Con- gained great advantagis, and coZeZ h . ^^ ^"^^^^"^^'-^^ "^^les, however, she violated a once on^r '''''""'" *^^^"^^'- -hich ^ The king of that country dyin J" S ^^ '^^" ^^--• fary, openly assumed the'^itt ff kin! an 1 ""' ^^'^"""^ "- ^^^ 'and, and England. Further aTd to, ° f ''° °^ F''^^^^. ^cot- ^^ngregation, seeing them Ives ^''^'''' ^"' ^""'^'''^^ ^' ^^ ^he fhzabeth. Afleetlnd ™"';i^fj;:^^^^^^^ "i'P"-' for aid to •^■^* ^-ties wer, fo. . L^^St t^ ^^l^ 1 2ij2 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF UlSTOEY. treaty, m wliicli it was proposed (tLe queen-regent having died) thai the French should evacuate the kingdom, and that it should be gov eriiod by twelve persons, appointed by the queen and parlianTent and that the claim to the throne of England should be renounced. ' The young 'king of Prance, however, died soon afterwards, and Mary, his w-3ow, finding her situation unpleasant, and urged by her Scottish subjects, concluded to return to her own kingdom Application was made to Elizabeth for an unmolested passage to Scotland, which was peremptorily refused, unless the Scottish queen would ratify the treaty. This she refused to do, and there is little doubt that her rival, though pretending friendship, privately sent ^^ fleet to intercept her passage. In 1561, Mary, weeping, quitted the land of her adoption. She watched the shores as long as they were in sight, exclaiimg, tearfully, "Farewell, France! I shall never see thee more." The rough appearance and want of polish of her new subjects, did not tend to reconcile her to the change; and with her French suite, she was especially annoyed at a loud and discordant serenade which her loving subjects, in their joy at her return kept up all night beneath the palace windows. She was at this tinie nineteen, tall, beautiful, talented, and accomplished; and though educated m a sphere so entirely different, reigned for some ycar.s happily and prosperously. Murray, her half-brother, a man of great ability, and the head of the Protestant party, aided her with Ins advice; and she listened with prudent patience to the roudi admonitions of Knox. Nevertheless, instigated by her French advisers, she inwardly resolved to restore the ancient faith to its former supremacy; anil had alrerdy promised, if she succeeded to the throne of England, to bring that kingdom again under subjection to the Holy See' The Romanists were naturally pleased with this; and those Protest- ants who, including Elizabeth herself, secretly regarded Mary as her rightful successor, were proportionately alarmed. Elizabeth still insisted on the ratification of the treaty, but refused to acknowl- edge Mary as her successor. Both sovereigns being young and personally accomplished, were sought in marriage by a number of ambitious suitors; but Eliza- beth, while by negotiation amusing the parliament, which wiis anxious to see the succession settled on her issue, secretly deter- mined never to subject herself to the pov/er of a hiisl)and. Among foreigners, Philip, Charles of Austria, Eric of Sweden, the duke of ENGLAND. S08 to the cession of XrH.ZZrt X '^^^ ^^^^^^ ^- ! ^'! °^f.°^^« ^««idence called Cun^nor Hall /' ^'^''^"^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^t I ^"^i b'at a strong suspicion of murder wi: T^ "'\ ''''^''''' ^' ^^-« I ^^j:^- .^-fe'ht also the hand of m!" ''^lY '' *^« ^-o-ite. i 7' '^' W of Navarre and othl off ' • . '^"^^'"^^ '^'^ J"« of a union with her. Her chowT. ^^^ '""^ ^^^^« ^esirou. i r"'r^« «^ ^^'-beth and th t ^f r^'? ""^/^^ *^^' ^^ *« that she could not securely marry w^tl .'t™'^ ^^^^'^" ^^«« «"«h. cester and others were nroiled h t w ^u'^' '-^PP^obation. Lei- thrust her advice upon Cc u i^ t„w/'^' f '^^"^'^ «^^ ^'^^ I jealousy to throw obstacles befo e eve v ^ '• ^"'^'^' ^'"'^ «^^>-'« herself had suggested. Darnl /! youfh^?r' '''" ^'^^'^ ^« «'- Ehzabeth, and descended fiom d,. J , r *'''"*^' ^ ^''bjeot of i last won the favour of the S^tt 1 ' ''/ ^"''^ ^'^S^L, a -tion of England and manyof ter own"' "^r " '^''^ °^ ^^« ^o- and bestowed on him the'^tit L of w "m ^*^' ^'^ "™^ ^-- havmg taken up arms she rr^.l^ a ^' ■ ^''"'^•>^' ^"^ other lords tbe head of her' troop; a„ddrove1heTr ^^"' "^'"= --" took refuge in England wlte E^ ' ", ^^/^^ ^^^^dom. They them as traitors, secret^ countenpn. J '7 '^' "P'"'-^ denouncing Mary soon discovered her hi f "^ """''''^ '^'"'■ foolish. He lost her It 'thi:i I'^'^f^^' f ^"^^^^^'^^^' ^^ i f '^^'d R^.^-io, an Italian musician Tlou.hfr''^ '"^"^'^ "P- j any cnmmal connection existed the iPoT^ ^"^' '^"^ "PP^^'' *hat jobles was so great, that therri'dt"''^ ""'^^ ''^'^ ^^^^^^ They further agreed to procure l^rB ^'T''' '^' ^^^^^^^te. matr monial," which the queen had b!^r> '^' '^^' ^^ "^^o^^n- for the exiled lords, and^he eiyi hL.' T'V^^^^'^' '-^^ ^"^''^^^ty fon. The uuhapp; Ri.zio wh I '"* ^^ *^" Protestant reT^ dragged out by 7e Jn^p^^^anTr 1'!! f'' ^"«-' -^ wounds. Mary, findin.. hLelf 1 ^'^Pf**^^^^ with fifty.,,-,- band, whom she had pr^va^d onToT"'"'' '^' "''^^ ^^ ^us force of eight thousand men she rl 7^ ^''- ^°"««ting a Pelled the confederates to take refur ''^ f ''"'''^^^^^' ^"^ «om! g-e birth to a son. destined to si ! lt° '^"'•. '°"" ^^-' ^^^ ^a.^%Had never been .,i.eS:;;::!;X:^;tS:f^Z:; 204 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEr. I and Bothwell, a daring, ambitious man, with whom she was fascin. atod, engrossed all her favour. He received the most distinguished honours, and aspired to greater. Chance favoured his design. The king, who had been ill with the small-pox, was lodged in a lonely house without the walls, where the queen often visited bim. With the conniyaP'je of some other men of rank, and probably with tliat of Mary herself, he resolved to destroy him; and in the dead of night, blew up the house with a mine of gunpowder. Every one suspected him; but the queen continued to lavish favours upon him and thus increased the public conviction of her own guilt. Attended by a great host of armed retainers, he underwent the mockery of a trial, and was acquitted. His great ascendancy over the queen's mind was next exhibited by her approval of a law, protecting the reformed opinions-a measure by which Bothwell hoped toensure to himself the support of the Protestant party. Proceeding in his ambitious career, h,. invited all the nobles assembled in parliament to sup with him at a certain tavern ; where ' the house being filled with his soldiers, they all signed an instrument recommending his marriage with the queen, and pledging themselves to maintain it. After a faint pretence of reluctance, she married him and thus lent an additional weapon to those who accused her of the murder of Darnley. No question in history has been more ably or frequently debated, than that of Mary's criminality or innocence but the most reliable judgments have decided that her implication m he death of her husband is placed almost beyond a doubt. She had vowed to revenge the death of Rizzio, and perhaps persuaded herself that she was only permitting justice to be executed upon his principal assassin. ^ Bothwell now exercised the complete authority; but his rule was short. Several of the principal nobles entered into an association agamst him, and in less than a mojith he was compelled to part from the queen, and to fly the kingdom. Mary herself, being taken and conducted to Edinburgh, was overwhelmed with insult by the ponu- lace and was finally committed to the castle of Lochlevin, situated in the midst of a lake. She was also compelled, under a threat of instant death if she refused, to sign a resignation of the crown in favour of her infant son. Murray was appointed regent, and the ! pnnce was xjrowned on July 29th, 1567, by the title of James VI ' 1 hese proceedings were ratified by pariiament, and Mary was declared I accessary to the death of her husband. Elizabeth, dreading this ' 3 was fascin- ENGLAND. 205 example of revolt stron 1 attempted to negotiate in linTrZi^" ^^^^PP^^^ation, and In 1568, Mary escaoed fn.J^^ t^e captive princess, -nie of h;r attihld'Sie :^^^ -^ was joined by The regent gave them batt ' W^jf^^.f ^'f * thousand mel eni. The queen w.s compe ed to flv i^'"' .^" ^"^^'^ ^^^'^^^^^^^^ Having arrived, she addresL a leUef to fT^I^ "*^ ^"^land. uiterviev., and desiring assisful? - .^'^^^^^th, requesting an these request, .ere refused, tdt: the7"T '" "^^^ ^^^h sovereign and council it was n V V i '^ ^''^^^^^ ^^ the English 0^ her helpless situat/on, an^d eti ^et""^^"^ ^" *^^^ ^^^-'Ig -on was appointed to investi !! f,'; ^.^ P^^^^r. A commL -natural brother, Murray, be nt th ^^"^^^ •''°''^-«* J^-. her •lecsion was made, as M^y refu°sed to n P^'^^^"*"^- No final '"xcept in presence of the queen and n^irr'!^ ''''^ ^^' defence, though not acknowledged! ;;:;:t: 3 '-'^^f t^'"^"^" ^^^-J .ratuit,. Liberty was°oftbred to" the Z^T^" "^'' ^ '^'^^'-"- orown, or associate the prince wh T^ '/'''' '"'^'^''^ ^^«>> her Murray during the minority T^ sZT T't '''' "^^^^^ *« an act would be acon/c>ssion of .'uilt TT f'"^' '"'^"° ^^^t such was refused, and she was stiU d^tatd nt' '"""' '' ^' ^"*« France I ^Meanwhile a secret t i ^ pnsoner. ( ;7 '7'""^^^' '-^^ bel" madetrtef m'"* "°^^" °^ ^"^^^-^^ i duke of Norfolk, and her recst.l liL , '"^' *° '^' Powerful I , Alhance with England, and ^ ^ ^.^^'^^ ^^« Scottish throne. I ,'!':%*"'"? *'" '^^'>"'^^*^d terms Eli t'^ont ""'' "''°'"«"' • Jars from Leicester, who betr.vod h i ' ^"^""g the particu- and other lords to prison ; 2 "IJ 1*^"'"' ^'^"^""^^^^ the duke ' celebrated "Rising in the NoS" Thl r^'^;^ '""^^^^ ^3' the and Westmoreland, who were "ch . T f ^'^'^-^-^^rU-d dehverance of Mary, raised hi d^^T' '" ' ^'"* ^^ ^J- f..t seven thousand n.en. T c u h ^' 1 '' 7^*^'*' '^^ -"Stored they proclaimed an intention to r^^^^^^^^^ the queen, -'^'ase the lords from prison p'd '^'' T'''' ^^^'S-". ^"d to "movements, that they were i ""^ ''^''' '^"'"« ^"'i'nporta.it -al, their forces ZZZ T'f V the Cathohcs n < f-thumberlandw.:^S^.j:t,:^: Y''' ''' '"^^ '^^^' -^1 died in exile on the Co tten" D""*''^^""' '"^^'^^ thousand n.en, revolted in 1570 M^tf ?T'!' ^''^°' "'^^^ three '^d took refuge in Flanders ' ''*'^' "^^ ^ severe conteH^ 1 / I 206 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HI8T0BY. The English queen and council now began to reap the fruits of their injustice in detaining Mary, and would have delivered her to Murray, but for his assassination shortly after these events. There seems little doubt that at this time there existed an extensive con- federation between the Pope, the king of Spain, and others, aided by the Catholic nobility in England, to restore the ancient religion and probably to dethrone Elizabeth, and place Mary in b stead' The captive queen was informed of the projects, and, almost as a matter of course, approved them; and these circumstances filled the minds of Elizabeth and her ministers witli that constant jealousy and alarm, which finally resulted in the disgraceful execution of their prisoner. One Felton, about this time, was executed as a traitor for posting a bull of the Pope '•.•xcommunicating the queen and denying her title). A further pro ...a was now made to Mary' to release and restore her to her throne, on conditions which would have made Scotland a mere dependancy on the neighbouring king- dom. The agreement, however, was not concluded. The reign of Elizabeth, for the first ten years, had been eminently successful and prosperous. She was aided by the advice of tlie ablest counsellors, of whom Cecil, Lord Burleigh, was the most distinguished. The Catholics had almost universally conformed to the changes in worship instituted by government, and the queen was generally popular. From the imprisonment of Mary, dates a new period; a period of domestic plots, foreign hostility, and that embarrassment which usually accompanies a persistance in injustice Those who believed in Mary's guilt, pitied her unjust and unlawful confinement; and those who were devoted to her person and religion often resorted to the most desperate expedients. " ' _ Religion, as in the two preceding reigns, was the principal element m politics; and the state was divided into three parties, each pro- fessing a different belief These were-the Churchmen, who held tlieir faith as established by government— the Catholics, who remained faithful to the ancient Eomish belief-and the Puritans, who, emu- latirig the continental zeal, would have push.d the Eeformation farther, and abolished nearly all the prescribed forms and ceroinu- nies. A great historian, has considered the reformation of the English Church as the most moderate and sensible of the various religious changes which occurred in Europe. " The fabric of the secular hierarchy was i.^iintained entire; the ancient liturgy was preserved, so far as was luought consistent with the new principles; j ENGLAND. 207 many ceremonies, become venerable fr.^, ^'^^ wore retained; the splendour of tht'T >"' ^^'^^^'^ -«• removed, had at Ioa.tgh.en place to oH 7T^ ''"'■^^'^' ^^^^d ive habits of the clergy, Xji'^f^r^f^ncy; the distinct- contiuued; no innovation ir'r^ted m" 1 ''^"^'" ^'^"^'^' -- former usage." -itlmitted merely irom opposition to woilTS^bfr^^^^^ -d P-^ent measures changes and further severities to« ard h^^'i^ '"'"'''''^ "'^ ^^^^^^^^^ d-scontc-nt was greatly aggr^ted bv R r"*" "' ''"™^- ^be opportunity, by open buffs and oriv., ''"' ^''^^'^> ^^''^^ ^^^t no Catholic subjects. The facLT opCdlT'T""' ^^ ^^""^ *^« and powerful, nu.ubering in its ranks , V'"'' ^'"^ ^^'"^^"'^^ state. The church part,° thoulhTon , it •'' '" '"^ ^^ ^ ^^^e ^vas the weakest of the three anrF>^'/' r''^^'"" ^ -premacy as one of her m^l^^^' ^"^'^ ^^^^^i".' the >nclmed to transubstantiation, im ^ l! "^"''^ ^^"^ ^^^ ^^-•'"tly clergy. This last, however ' "'f ^'°^«'"P. ^"d celibacy of the nine jealousy, wh'ieh le^ L t'd ton T"'" '"" "^ ^^^■^^^" f--" possible, the marriac^os of all ' '^'''''T"'''''''' '^"^ ^reak oiF, if She had occasionally^Ll ^rF^;: ;- f e ^^^ "". cont;oh a"d men. ^^"ch Huguenots with money lu 1571, after an intervnl r.p p , the Puritan interest was i^ealLZ/D ""'"?"* ^"«^'- ^^^ as agamst the Catholics. I was a^ mad " f' r^^'''' '''''^ ^'^'-^^ted person as Elizabeth's succ^or ex e J ,' ' "''"" '' """« ^^^ owmg year, Norfolk, who harbeea r !' T''"' """• ^'''' '''• ior having conspired to releai and , i ' ^'"' "^'^"'^ ^^^^-'^ted to abrogate the laws agai, st C thli^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ queen, and ■-t commission of the lords and fi i ^' '^'' ^^""^ ^'^iltv by August, 1572, on the E ve ;f S ^"" ^^'^<^«"ted. On the 2id of f the Protestants took ^a: fn'w 77; ^ ^^'^^^ ~ P^nshed; and the Catholics on th P ^' ^''^'^ '^'^'^ thou.sand .""bounded exultation. En- Ld Ju w "''"* ™ ^'^^^ with '"J'gmuion, and the Fren h amb^ s^ ?'''' T "^"^'^'^ '^''^'^ strong ;-ived by the court in Cp ^:^\:^ ^^f P^-^^tion, wj he queen nevertheless confinued a f "•'^ l"'^'^ P'''^^^"" J silence. — ., o r 208 THE I'KOI'LE'S BOOK OF JllSTOKY. tlicir prisoner, the Queen of ScotH, for whose release tlie Catliolic world was so daiigoroiisly anxious. Burleigh, Walsinghani, and others, thought it advisable; and the bishop of London, writing to the former, suggested as the first step " furthwith to cutto off tho Scottish queue's heade." It was first proposed to deliver her to the Scots, on condition that they would execute her; but this scheme look no effect. The continental Protestants now received aid from .1-iigland, and their cause began to j)ro8per. A period of some tranquillity ensued. Mary, who had been acquainted with most of the plans for her release, seeing the hope- lessness of her condition, became resigned to her fate; and tlie Catholics, not being actively molcvl ■!, remained quiet. Scotland, under the vile regent Morton, was entirely governed by EnglisJi influence. The national genius for naval and commercial enterprise now broke forth in gi-cat si^lendour. Commerce with Russia and the Levant was established. The slave-trade in its worst form was commenced by the celebrated Hawkins, Sir Martin Frobislier e.'cplored the northern shores of America as far as Hudson's Buy. The most celebrated navigator of the day was Francis Drake, who after various adventures in commerce and piracy, took, with a pri- vate force, a Spanish town on the isthmus of Pamuna, and ascendin" the mountains, beheld the Pacific Ocean, Five years afterwards, in 1577, he set sail, with a very small equipment, for the Pacific, and having lost all his vessels exc(!pt one, cruised along the western coast of South America, plundering all Spanish vessels which iic encountered; then stretching bc^ldly to tho west, he weathered tlie Cape of Good Hope, and reached PJngland, after a voyage of three years, during which he had eircunmavigated the globe, and taken plunder to the amount of near four millions of dollars. The queen knighted him, and partook of a banquet in his vessel. Slie was now deeply engaged in a pr(>jeet for marrying the duku of Anjou, brother to the French king, and a man very much younger than herself. The plan was gencj-ally unpopular; and a zealous Puritan, named Stubbs, wrote a book, entitled, "TlieGuli in which England will be swallowed by the French Marriage.' Both he and his printer suffered the penalty of losing their ri'dit hands. In 1582, while Anjou was at the English court, the quein publicly gave him a ring as a pledge of her acceptance of his suit. The jnatter was regarded as settled; but Elizabeth, overcome bv I the arguments and entreaties of her ministers, again dismissed hini, | and hi the fici In ] former scribed persecu privatel tortured executc( ing beei of Darn] erument appro vec of the yo still retai Conspi, to every i Letters wi Afary, anc cited befo lesser rani have been was excee crowds fell was resoIv( parliament should be b her majestj commission ment as the were also pi was execute he averred, ' In 1685, t were assistec landed by t fortunate, an( soldier and ^ Wounded an hJni, to a wou Vol. I JSNOLAND. 209 former one's -or:Z::':i;^':^^^^^ ^^ f"^'-'-«. -d tho Honbed services was compelled undeTv' '"'^'""'^ °" ^^« P^^" persecution was glutted V 1 tecuT'^ ^''*? ^^"^'^'^i ^"d pnvately exercised their fu^t on T ? '^°^^ J''''^^^" who tortured and cruelly put to S; as tf '"^ ""^ ^^'"''^ ^-^ executed on one accusation. uLlr T"' *'" "^ ^^'^'" ^-"S mg been lately beheaded for hi i^f • ^? '"^^^"^ ^^^''ton, hav^ of Darnley, the Catholi let bn j!t I, ^'"^ '^'^^'"" ^" *^« "^"^Jer erumentof Mary and Jumes whiThtl' " f'' '"^ *^- J-'^t gov approved; but this scheCf elllh ouJh '"^ ""^ "'^" ^^^^ i^-««»^ges of the young king by the P o^e wf '.'° '^"^ "''^^^ "^ '^^« ««i-ure «tin retained its ^cendanfy ' '''^'''- ^^' ^ngHsh influence- c'ted before the council/^ ^11 ^ J^^^^^^^^^ f-'-nt lord, we^e esscr rank, to discover their secret TU ' "^'^ ''' *^°«« ^f have been little ground for apprehension or'' "^^'T' ^°^^'^^'^^' *« was exceedingly popular, and .Ln vo" , ' ''''^*' ^"^ ^^^ ^^eeu -o-ds ell upon their knees, 1:17., ''^"^"""^ "^ p'^'-- was resolved, however, to get some S, '""f "" ^'' ^'^^- I parhament accordingi; ena^ertL^^-.r"- " '■''^' "' ^^'•^' -^ hould be made by or > any person ijV''''''''' ""' '^^'^^'^on i^er majesty's decease, or InyT^JT ""^ '' '^^^ «rown after commission of peers should be aon' n T -T"'' ^''' P^''^^"-" a meat as they might see fit PuX td " ''"" "^ ^^^^ J^^^' f»«u„a«, and that gallant knight s" Phi ' 'ST"^" ""^ "»' ™^ .^--n^CrL'^e^tr?-^ K - ;o.. ii,, - - -. -. .;a. h. J , 210 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF UI8T0RV. necessity ia yet greater tlian mine." Meanwhile, Druko, who had bo( 11 dosputcliod U) tlie West Indies, met with great succeaa, took sovcral towns, and returned with much spoil. In 1586, u Protestant alliance was concluded between Elizabeth and James of Scotland. In the same year, a dangerous conspiracy, comprising an insurrec- tion and the assassination of the queen, was detected by Walsingharn '''lie authors of it were I trayed by one of their associates, and, the , .inist-T allowed them to entangle themselves fully, while he perused all their correspondence. Mary was apprised of the plan, and, it wus i^:ud, consented, though thid has never been proved to the satisfac- tion of impartial judges. When Ballard, Babmgton, and the other conspirators had fully committed themselves, they were arrested tried, and condemned as traitors. Seven of them were executed according to the ancient barbarity of disembowelling alive; the others were previously hanged till they were dead. It was now considered by the court a favourable time • proceed against Mary, and thus rid them.selves of one whose imprisonment menaced them with perpetual danger and alarm. Leicester, \v]u> had returned, i)roposed to poison her privately; but the clergyman whom he sent to Wult,ingham, was unable to pcrsu.ide him of tlie propriety of this course. A commission of forty noblemen and otii. ers was tlien appointed under the late act. Mary denied the truth of the charges, as well as the authority of the commission ; but being told that she would do injustice to her reputation by refusing an investigation, finally agreed to plead, provided that her protest against the lawfulness of the proceedings should be received. This was assented to, and the protest was recorded. The testimony against her was of a very questionable character, and slie affirmed that a letter produced iis her's, and proving her implication in the scheme, was a forgery. During several days, in which the trial pro- ceeded, she defended herself with the greatest firmness and ability. Nevertheless, she was found guilty, an event which was almost equally certain before as after the trial. The sovereigns of France and Scotland interfered openly to save her, but it is said that their messengers secretly advised her execu- , lion. Indeed, the whole affair indicates such a spirit of cruelty, treachery, and meanness among royal and noble characters, as plainly shows the depraving influence of power and jealousy. More strenu- ous exertions would probably have failed. PJlizabeth had now in her power the rival, whose claiuis to the thnjiie, whose personal •ccom rendei ambas; an hoi She private relueta engage tion of aware t refused finding at that f of her V was a sh Mary sixth yei by the fi she died last her ii Whate' "I'y concf crime of i the alarm Her end 1 hypocrisy, mourning. j fined, on th I to punish 1 upon thep James, oi great resen knowing tl future day, Philip of Drake was s » Ij'indred o nal successes attempt was Holland, me 'NOLAND. •ocomplishmouts and fh^ ^ . *^^ -^e.. Her s^s;^:^]-:^:'J^^ ^--^ '"'J «o long «n -r! she an.sv.ored, and abrupt , 1 h' ''*^^' '^'''' "^^^ ^^^ Jshe now most hvoocritinoii '^^ ^ *"*""• - o Mary. „„ keeiK^^^Lwov f "" ° ^,''"™'° -«»'"- refl»d I, „„„^, „,„,^^,j , Xj' °;'«''"'». if 11.V complied, f her VIC,™, ..,„™ri„g ;,.,, „*™,';f ;;*'■' --'he exoc„.i„„ ».x year of .,.. age. Al.h„„g , e?,;^™ -•':•■ in .he forty. 1^7 the fanatical interference J , , "'•-"'er,b were disiNrlil ^ho died With the ,rea.e:.";.: '■';;,';»;'» r,"''"*^ «'" «-« <^ mr""^""' "f any in.™ i'l:' ,:*'■'«'. «"''« '» "' Whatever may have been her forn!: T , "^ "' '^'''•"'"='h- 'lly conceded (hat her execution T, ^ ^ ''"'™'' i' i» goner- ™e of .he b..e,,t eharae.;!:, ,:;:?"'" "f ^'''-''«'' wa^a Her eTK """'"""'^y '"VM C he at' ™°';"' J™'""'^' ""J "" I Her end be.ng attained, however the '"" "'^ "'» C«holics. tj-poensy, reproaohins her eounill! '"f " "'"''"'i'"--') W^o vil« -nrning Davison ^a,, commtedT^h """'"« '"" «>"" " I f"''-''°"''"'P'''"««"ln"lehadexcl.^. '""""' """' "inously j "opunrt him for refusing ftf ofcl?^ "™'"' """'"reali v "oStCit--"^'-'="' """ '" "'-' ' ^^«./eaent™„;h*nrte :ir«5we?rt''^'"'«-P-"'iod D'^keL^en^a^in: ;,r''TMf '"' "" '"™»» "^ «- inland » ".ndred of his've«Is In th J^ .^f '^!;;"' »-na„der de.,tr .^'d nal successes. Thp Fn^r i ^ ^'^""'. and eaint^rl ^tK .'7P. was def™:d^ra';:r'r "."'"' »^sv(;rnnuMit, and all men between sixteen and sixty wen' rocpiired to exercise in arms. A large army was raised, and a fleet of an hiiiulred and eighty -one vessels, manned by seventeen thou- sand seamen, wiw ])rovi(lcd— chiefly by the zeal of the citizens ..f Jiondon and the nobility. It was commanded by Howard, the lord high-admiral, and under him, by Drake, Hawkins, and Frobishcr. The Catholics joined heartily in defen(!e of their country On the 2!)th of May, 1588, "The Invincible Arnmda," as tl,.. Si)amards haughtily styled it, set sail from tlie Tagus, und(T eoiii- niand of tho ,l,dest, and finally eonduded, rather than encounter the perihi of the channel, to sail round Scotland and Ireland. The English pursued them until amnumition failed. Nund)ei-s of their ships w(!re wreckc'd on tlu; coast, and the crews butchered by the mhabiiaats. This invincible expcdi-ion linally arrived at Spain with a ]os.s of thirty large ships and about ten thousand men. Tlie (ineen, throughout the impending danger, had evinced great .sj)irit, reviewing her trooj)s in person, and encouraging them by her elo' quiwiee. llcr oflieers and seamen were generously rewardeul. At this time died the mr] of LtMciester, who, for thirty yeans, had been one of the prime favourites of Elizabeth; leaving the degree and nature of their intinuicy a matter of much qne.stii)ji for ader tnnes, IJis character" presents a curious coi> pound of crimes and vices mixed witli ability, generwity, and magmmimity. In lo80, by way of revenge, Drake and others lilted out a private exj-edition against Si)ain, which, after some sueces-ses, was compelled to return by tho ravagiss of sickness. Half the troops had p(.rished, and of eleven h> .drod gentlemen, not one-third returned. Ueiir; '■"IS, J^' I »NG7.iAND. 213 17. of France, who was n* ^^.• *• ^^' Ho i.ag.e .4 .siZ^i r r:;rf r ^" ^- --^^ ^^« cau.. commanded by Sir Joh„ Norris L Z"''*-^^'' '^"'^ the Englis), o^hor, gained n.any laurols. A natl "IT ""' °^ ^--^'-'f Htill contn.uod, and Frohishor tnd otl?" "^'""'''^ ^^.ain w.u, injury to horconunerce. Maritin e o^to •'"ll^'""''''''^'-^^ ^^'''J >"'.d. Imhes ^re reached by the wav ^ M p^""'"*^ ^o^,r^,^,,,^, ^i,,.,. ^ f ,r;- -- captumi, LdT ; ;2'« ;>;«-^ Hope. s,.r South America. I„ 1595, the Lm i ? t :^''" ^" ^''« <''"«'^t of ontcri,n.si„g voyage and tiur of t -^^ "''^"" ""'^"'»^'' ">" ^d..ca. A fresh expedi::; 'Z: l'''^^ ^^^ *-"^ n.illio,: £s C.X r,nd un.ler him by Kaleig,. and S r Tl "''' '^""""••"'<'^'J by n 1597, but owi„.r to a tempes " '^"^,/ '""""« Howard, set sad '" Ess.x, e(recte,J but little 0^)s "^ *'"' ^'^"t of nanti^tl si il -ncd h,s b..k ,.po„ the „, n, who i^sTM'^r^^ ' ''^' i^tui:, ly box on the ear. flo dapped hi tL\Tv' '^''^' ''"'" ''^ -'"J - j^-ur. At this^tS: a^! ^-;^-7-I; -tored, : il .^ Inland, throughout the rei-n, of K^ 1 " '"^, '^'^'■'^«'-«- re| med doctrines upon the peon lo ha.l '"''""''' '" ^^^^^^ the mstanoe-a resistance which nv ^"' """^ ''^ 'letermin"? ii-.^sted by Si,ain. revolted and d J . ? ''"^' ^"'^ o^ Tyrone . "^"'^^ hastened home with- "HV\ 214 THE PEOPLE'S B>.OOK Oi' UlSTOKY. out orders, and suddenly entered th»e queen's chamber. Taken by surprise, she received him graciously- ; but the next day, vexed at his disobedience, committed him to a mfJd custody. She also refused to renew a monopoly which he had held; alleging that "an unruly beast must be stinted of its provender." Irritated at these dis graces, he began to meditate a conspiracy, and, more imprudently still, publicly abused the queen's person, saying that she was nuw grown an old woman, and as crooked in bod j as in mind Plans were entered into by his partisans to seize the palace, and compel the queen to dismiss his enemies. On the 8th of February 1601 the earl, who had been ordered to keep his own house, mLrched through the streets with nearly three hundred knights gentlemen and others of his faction; but finding that the people did nut joiu him, surrendered to the queen's troops. Being tried for treason before a jury of peers, he was found guilty, and in a few days beheaded; the queen exhibiting a great conflict between her pride and the real affection which she felt for him. He died in his thiny. fourth year, leaving a reputation for high courage and magnanim' ity, as well as for rashness and ambition. Others implioaied in the the affair shared his fate. In 1602, the Deputy Mountjoy reduced Tyrone and thg other revolted chiefs to submission; and six thousand men, sent l^ their aid by the king of Spain, were forced to capitulate. Elizabeth was now nearly seventy, and the good health and spirits which she had always hitherto enjoyed, began to fail. The memory of Essex continually haunted her, and she sat for uiig intervals silent and in tears. Having recovered from an alarnin^ stupor, for ten days she refused food and medicine. As she ,^ evidently dying, the chief officers of state inquired whom she wisied to be her successor. She selected James of Scotland, and scon afterwards expired, on the 24th 'of March, 1603, after a long a,d (as the term is commonly used) prosperous reign of forty -five yea-s The vigour of mind, the prudence and success of this soverei.u' have secured for her the admiration both of her subjects and fir' eigners. Her talent in perceiving merit waa equal to her judgin.j,t in employing it; and . sovereign was ever surrounded by moie brilliant and able favourites. Her defects were not greater tliai those of most of her predecessors, though appearing more ghuiur m a woman. She was excessively fond of dress and display; ' trait which, however, increased her popularity. She was passicuutt' ENGLAND.' 216 eve, alwa,. been an e,^":^:',;^; hte t ,'^ '"• '"^ During her reign, four npr^nne ,^^^^ ^^^ ^-nghsh nation. thirty Catholic priests and sore^h ""f f '^"^^ ' ^^ ^^out fared the horriWe dealh of traTto^f " T \"''""'' ^^^-' «"f- dicancy, and the suppression of Z" ^ '° '^' ^"^^^^«« «f '"en- relieved it, Poor Laws becal L. "'"^^^f'^^' ^^^^^h had formerly enacted. Commerce ^^^1:^^^^^^^^^^^^ a.id oppressive monopolt' L 1 r."''' '^ '*^"^"^^ ^^ S''^^ I lence. Shakspea^e, Spfn e \nd a h f f T"'^'^ '^" highest excel- ' -de the "Elizah^hL a"" 1 k; W '' •" '"'"^^"^ "^"^•-' ^-^ ^^ewspapers, also, at this time nrs m le ." • "^ '" ^'^"'"^^ °^ ^^«-«- With Elizabeth ended the rdt o/ h T "^^T"^*^ ''^ ^^S^^^^'- their dynasty, though to all aTn^nr \ ""'' "^ ^"^'^'•- ^^^^ring most important power ZTh^T^rT^f'""'' '''''''''''' ' "^^ ^^^ commons. They were cautiT ^ '"^ ^'"^"^"^ up-that of tho too far; and sought 1 ou tel"'T"^ ^^"^^^^' ^^ P-voKing i creation of new 'and useles 3;:^ *'" T""«" -fluencebytho creatures. The iniquiTou ^our°;':, . '^"'^ "'^^ *^«'^ °-» from the council sitting " a Zl ^ ^''%^^^^ Chamber (so called trary tribunal, irrespon's^ble e^pt tHhe "'' ^'"^^ "^^ ^" ''^^^^■ Commission was a kind nf . ^ .*'' *^^ sovereign. The Hi-^h others, having almoeVo/cl^^^^^^^ --P^-d of prelates and exerci^se of these authoritiCo ro ^d ^v tL °"" ''""'" ^'^ at no distant day, to overthrU rgotnlT""'' "" '"*^"^^' CHAPTEH 171. JAMBS r. ALTHOium, by the will of Henrv VTTT ^ ,. act of parliament, the succession had bin or '^" ^'^'-^P^-Y^ng ^ho was the hereditarv h^;. ? , otherwise sett ed, Jo.ne^ 216 THE PJiOl'LE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. death. The king left a barren and impoverished country, to enter the splendid ^ . luxurious possession which he facetiouflly called Ihe Land of Promise." The popularity which hailed his first appearance was nearly gone before hb reached the capital. His per sonal appearance was ungainly, his dem* , nour ungracious; and he Jianged a pickpocket on the way, without law or trial. A number of Scots were added to the former council, and titles were bestowed with a prodigality that greatly diminished their value. Jaines was at this time thirty-six years of age, and was, as Sulk the French ambassador remaUed, "the wisest fool in ChrL^tendo.n " The ''British Solomon" (a. he loved to be styled) was learned, wrote with fiicility, and possessed a good degree of shrewdness and sa-a- city; but wiis remarkably destitute of enlarged and practical a- ^«^"^e agent m this horrible scheme It . ^ ^"^'^"^' *^« P"ncipal brought before the councH hkl! , "'"'"'f "" *^^« «Pot. Wl en intention, and gloried in if' T^h ameToftis^"^^'"^.' '' ^^^^^^ ^^ from h,n. by the rack, and they wer' mosi ""T^''' ^'^^^ f-ced number who had openly risen weTet^ 'T"^'^^"^«^- ^ ^^^^^ principal conspirators, eight in nn'J "^ ^° surrender. The barous manner of the'ti^s, vindrat' rT.T "*^^ ^^^ ^'- ba- te the la.t Though attemits h3"^^^^^^^^ *^- -heme and prejudiced of their opponents t^t? ^^^ "^°^« ^^''^'o"^ "Gunpowder-plot" upon the mLfof En r I n' ^'^^'^"^ ^' '^^^^ certain that, great as their provoc^ t! ^^^'^ ^^*^«^^'^«' ^^ «eems with their hearty abhorrence. *" ''''''^' "^^S^t be, it met ^^et:i^k£Z:r;r^^J:- bring about a legal uni^^ -d they, on the olher hSd 'e dZ ' "''" "^^^°"^ -"^ition"* purveyance, and other anc ent b eT sl^H '''^" ''' "'"™ ^^ Burleigh) his chief adviser, died ^ 612 Inl' ^^""' *^« -" ^^ 218 VIIE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOUy. ousy) have ^'tven rise to suapioions of an unnatural crime; but there is 1J!'1..; foundation for such a supposition. The kii.g's prime favourite for a long time had been the earl of Somerset, a luan of high personal accomplishments, but destitnt/ of principle and integrity. Ho flourished for many years I'l ttx; royal favour, but was finally sup;jlanted by George Villiers, a young*^! and more pleasing rival. Somerset's implication in the hofvib1<: murder of Sir Thomas Ov^erbury, in the tower, farnish,v,l a suffici.-ni pretext for his disgrace; and the new favourite soon enjoyed almost unlimited power, controlling the king and all around him. Throiigli his influence, Sir Walter Ttaleigh, nflc-- an imprisonment of thirteen years, was released, and permitted to command an exploring expedition to Guiana. Various misfortunes kud tho hos- tility of the Spaniards compelled him to return unsuccesst'ul : aufl Gondoraar, th', S])ti.rish ambassador, whose near kinsm, n iiud bee; slain ill t^ne o'' {he encounters, sought his revenge. To the 'terjial disgrace of Jam,;'?,, wiio was anxi.) is to marry his son to the Span- ish infanta, he consented to the sacrifice of this great man, and, reviving the ancient, iC'itonce. gave orders for his execution. He died with, the greatest courage and cheerfulness, leaving a splendid reputation as a soldier, a statesman, and an author. Sir Edward Coke, the chief justice, who had boldly defen.K'd the laws against the encroachment of the royal prerogative, was dis- missed from his office. Sir Francis Bacon, a mj^n of the hij'hest abilities, but of a mean and time-serving disposition, was appointed to the office of chancellor. In 1621., a parliament being summoned, proceeded to inquire strictly into he existing abuses. The iriost celebrated culprit impeached by them was Bacon, now Viscount St. Albans, who was arraigned for bribery and corruption in his office. He was found guilty, made a full confession, and was sen- tenced to pay a fine of forty thousand pounds, and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. These penalties were remitted by the king, and five years afterwards this celebrated man died in solitude and disgrace — a memorable instance of high talents and splendid opportunities, debased by the want of principle and honesty. His philosophical works have always been held among the most valuable and original in the English language. The session terminated in a fierce quarrel with the king, who resented the advice of the parliament on state affairs, dissolved thorn, and committed some of the most prominent members to prist- In ENGLAND. hop(;s to conciliate Snain tT,«Po*u v ^^^ great,, relaxed; ani::^^^?^^^^^^^^^^ to the mfanta were diligent,/ a'ld'f^r'^^ '' ^""«^ Char,[ T'- of Buckingham, had gaTned a ."^ i^'' ^^" ^^ '^^^ «>ar. ''--'oftheprince,aswelIasfhatofhisr)^''V^^^°^^^^^ t-- off with hin. for Spain, int^on S'h ^^^^^^^^^ ^^-^es f-^ed his consent. These youCknil^' ^ ^'°^^^^^"^° ^^'« ^^^ - -^^.^-'k and Tom Smith, pCd raSl .^'^u' """^^^ *^« "^-"e received with great distinction arS^^^^^^ -d were were agreed upon, and a day for tl^ . f "^"' ""^ "^«^"^Se who e matter was finally bro/en'ff t tl" "" ''^^'' ^"* ^^« ! who had taken some offence and wl ^ I ""^"'^ °^ Buckingham i ^^resistible. '"''' "^^ ^^^°«« influence with the king wS j ^^'^^o^i:tirS'r^ the commons we. hostile to that nation, exhibited tVelraestri"^ '^' ^''P'^' '^^^ of u war: and parliament voted hreeTnl / f ' '* '^' P^°-^P^<^* I «^'0'ing on the contest. In 1624 ,u ^^^"'""^^ P^-^^ds for Henrietta, sister of the French kinl*' hT, T""' ""^ contracted to witness the completion of his Ztl , "^^^^^ ^'^ °ot destined to 27th of March, il the fol ow n^Z^lr^'^^*- . ^e died on the jea... The mixture of learning Z'mT V Tf '' *"^"*^-^^o monarch, has left his memory asCated^.f'"*^ characterized this crous; while the grossness o^Cp 'jd^T^^ selfishness which marked his JhlZ ?'*"' ^""^ '^' "^^^^ name with deserved odium. ''''''^'' ^^^« oppressed his ^5:irinhlS'^ -^ Ireland with mny o.rcumstanees retarded its p tress th?' scale; and though favourable to the civilization o.^ t'ha^rou'tr; '""'^ ^^"* ^" ^-- tans To the latter, though gloLv IT ^^"^^^^'"^n and Puri- England are highly indebted^ TWatr^TT' '''' ^^^^^'^ ^^ J'ament to defend the laws and the W t ^.' ^^'^ ^"^^^"^^^ i" par- -rpations of the royal prero'att^^^t^ '' -^ ^"'j"^^* ^^^^-^'^e ency, would have altogether do°n d t'^. ' n^. ' '*'""^« i"^«"«i«t. conscience which they so manf \ f.^''^^"*^ *^^* liberty of fo^ deeds have, ho^:;" f^^^^^ iCdr ^em has, in a great '.eas:;e:1is:p;r^ ''' '^' ^ good alloy 220 THK PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOBT. CHAPTEH I?n. CUAELES I. Charles, who became king at tlie age of twenty-five, was of a grave and haughty character. His morals and manners contrasted most fiivourably with those of his predecessor; but he was a bigoted believer in the absolute authority of kings, and Buckingham, the odious favourite, still maintained his entire preeminence. The king married Henrietta, and soon afterwards met his first pariiament. Opposition to the court was excessively strong— the Puritans and the defenders of civil liberty greatly outnumbering their opponents. Subsidies were scantily and reluctantly voted, accompanied by requests for the redress of grievances. An impeachment of Buck- Ingham was in agitation, when the king, to save his favourite dissolved the assembly. He, however, by arbitrary measures, raised money for the war with Spain, and despatched Lord Wimbledon, with a large fleet, to attempt the conquest and plunder of Cadiz! This expedition failing, through the incapacity of the commander, Charies found himself obliged to summon another pariiament. This body at once proceeded to agitate grievances, deferred voting sulsi- dies, and impeached the duke of Buckingham, charging him with venality, embezzlement, and other misdemeanours. He made a plausible defence, but before determination of the case, Charies again dissolved the parliament, declaring that he would give an account of his actions to God only, "whose immediate vicegerent" he claimed to be. He then commenced a course of arbitrary despotism; levying taxes without authority, and severely punishing those who refused compliance. Several persons of note having been thus committed to prison by the council without any cause assigned, the judges, on a writ of habias corpm, decided that the king's authority was siipe- nor to the law, thus totally abrogating the liberty of the subject. Buckingham, to gratify a private quarrel, now involved the nation in a war with France; and with a hundred sail, set out in person for Rochelle, a strong Huguenot city. He showed much per- 'e, was of a 3 contrasted IS a bigoted ingham, the The king parliament, ans and the opponents, ipanied by It of Buck- i favourite, uros, raised Vimbledon, r of Cadiz, ommander, lent. This )ting subsi- J him with le made a ie, Charles Id give an icegerent" fi; levying ho refused committed judges, on was supe- subject, olved the set out in much per- •mil u ot prepa of Jo] inisgu for a ] Sir liberal title ar stauncl rfiasscn Sii Joh j Poperj, I ious cla I confusio ; and pass I pointing ^^' force. otiier lef 'vere hoa resolved absolute ( commenci I'Uiid, 1 "pint, per ENGLAND. ^ -«^y wore all elected to tbr n ^^'' "^""^^ s^t at ]il, Ttv vo^ ^upplics The, i^n.ettVt„^,^ the.:: vott of suI,sKly four condition, ''"'T'"'. but annexed to the --t -J ro,al taxation Ctvvo?"';! 'r^''^" ^^^ -bitra I ^°d then the celebrated ''I\'it on !f T '' f' '"^"^^ ^ay pendin^f ^me particulars, wa. ,,a.ssed and ,• f"' ^'"bracing nearlv tli;' thus obtained the mon J ^h ^' Z""'''\ ''' '""^^^ --"*• Havit P;ri.ament, privately re^olvlg hot"? \'^'"^" P-rogued f of hiB agreement. ^' ''^^^^^^^^ ««* to fulfil the conditions At thia time the duk(« of T^ v preparing to take charge of a fresh ^T-' ^^' '^^ «* Portsn.outh . of John Folt,,n. afanutiLlL f ; Pf ''?' P^^'^'^^d by the hand "".sguided .eaJ Por h is faction t' "'"*'^ '^^^ P"^«tc re v-on J and «taunchest s , . .orter of desnott?^ "'^"'''' °^ Charles, and th. reassembled a < „ft a^spotic measures. In iftoo , ' ^"'' «^;, T u T,7.' ' "™'' seme nrelim.-nn. j- ^' parliament , Su John Ehot in,, duced a set of re, ? '^"*'' ^'^'' *J'« kin-^ Popery, and dw' ^ resolutions strona-1,. a °' "" ;:««^ with „ccla,„„.i„„, „:r !' J"' "•»"""""- was recoiv'd ™> ved to di,,,,„„,e al.„g« ,";:•, 'V'T '" P*™' CLarie, Z .i';»ud. the primate, a man of n„ • "P'nt, persuaded the kinr." / r"'°'' ^^'^^ ^'^d a persecuting ——. . iJ'J 222 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF niBTORY. resembled those of the church of Rome, that the Pojkj even sent over ail envoy, truHfing that England was about to renew her 8abmi«. sion to the See. Severe puniahmentH were inflicted on all who oij^wscJ these innovations. Cropping, branding, the pillory, imprisonment, and enormous fines were freely inflicted. The violence and tyranny of the Stur Chuniber, in those times, fully ecpuilled that of the worst despots by whom England had ever been o])j)re«8ed. The king, meanwhile, raised a large revenue by every species of exaction. Among other opj.- ^ions, he revived the odious monojK)- lies and the forest laws, b} which many jwrsons were ruined. The large sums thus obtained, were applied to the support of government and the maintaining a brilliant and extravagant court. In spite, however, of many cases of individual hardshij), and the tyranny exercised over conscience, the country in general flourished and pr(.Hi)ered during this period— a result imputable, not to the system of government, but to the natural energy of the English people, stimulated by increasing civilization and new fields for enterprise. The tax of ship-inoney, levied upon the maritime parts of the coun- try, for supplying the expenses of a fleet, had been submitted to, * though with reluctance; but the king determined to collect it from all parts of the kingdom, and thus as.sure himself of a permanent revenue. This was resisted, and the memorable trial of John Hamp- den, in which the legality of this imposition was fully argued, occurred in 1687. It was adjudged lawful by a majority of one; but the assumi)tion of absolute, authority put forth by the king's council, and its confirmation by the judges, justly alarmed the people. The money, amounting to two hundred thousand pounds a-year, was paid with great dissatisfaction. Persecution for freedom of speech and action on religious matters had now become so outrageous, that the Puritans and patriots began to turn their eyes for refuge to the New World. In 1(;29 a charter had been obtained for a colony in Massachusetts. More than three I hundred per.sons had already sailed, and numbers, .seeking freedom of conscience, now followed them. In lfi38, muny persons of emi- nence resolved to quit their country; and it is saiil that Hampden and his relation, Oliver Cromwell, were actually on board a vessel, when, by the royal proclamation, they were prevented from sailing. In Scotland, great commotions had been excited by the determina- tion of the king and his advisers to insist" on conformity to the English church. By the direction of Laud, many of his innovations ENGLAND. I I were ordered to bs n«f«. i , ^^* d«turbanco«. Their "meetings r'.^i ""'"' ^"««^ ^^'^'^ violent measures were declared tm^LXu T'""'' ^^'' ^n«i,u.tcful ;e«ort to force. The <'Sol rw^uel ."p "''" ^^^■^--' «- a the u.novatio„s, and plcdginLirHub ,"""''''" ^^'"-'-"i,' y cd by nearly the Ihole leo is^^n "l ?/" '"''^^ ^''-»' "'"^ church ..embly vvus also den ^ J Tr . ^' '[^ ^"'''""^"'' ^'^ i'««en>bl.ng, suddenly assented to ui] I T'"^'^' '"^■'' ^^'« ^^''^ ;.eded to overthrou- the en , r ? ^"' '^^'"'""<1«; ""d thev pro P-er, and advanced inL S „?: ? ''>, ^^^ --. i„ his thousand na.n. His resisting Str, ,' '^^ "^ ^^^'^^"ty-three ^-'i where their can.p resou d d ^^ "'" ^"''^' ^"^' '^^ ^"'- ;^""'^P'-^-.-HlpLln,odv^ Fin r;.'"'"y'^ to night with " "vvn disheartened, the king a^.i e^ ' "/" ^""''^ ""P^'-i-r, and 'lament and an assen.bly were aJ^^ '^on^ented to negotiate; a par- to the dee..on of the l^^^l^Z^^T^' ^ ^''' ''' ^"^^^^ « ttdvice of Laud and of Wen t worth / "/ ^^^■^''^'^^''^■««. by the -olved to nuvke anothc" t 1^^ ' M^' ''"""^'^^^ ^trafford, the lord-doputy, re ur f t r,' 7 'r'""^ ^>' ^-c^ f 7->' "nd aru,.s. U.^ sum 1' l'^'"/"'^ -"^^^ -i'plios i by the royalists of England '" voluntarily subscribed f >"gthem he wanted no adv ce or j,. ty"'"'"^'' '"'^ *'-' ^-'fe'- ply of money. They, however Lad , i!'"';; '^''^'""^^^^ " «"1'- -nmeneed a debate upon the variou ^ ^^"^' i"unediate ly '^■^/'ttempt at udJustLnt w ^d !,T' lT"' '''^ ^^er a fruit^ -ek3. Uostilities with th Scotch wr 1 ^^ '^" ^'"«- '" ^h^eo these, receiving f..ged letters f^vit tin c'r T"'''''''' ^^ •^essiou of the northern En-lish T . ' ^^ "'"^ '^"^ *««k pos- '^thewantof A.ndsa.^''3rdiX;:;n^'^^ '^'"^ ""^^^«' •^'"hciont resistance. His power w .h J V' "■""^^' ^^^ ^'i'i^««e ---«ed in .uch an absolute l^/d !, ^i^T^'^^^- ^'^-^^ud been ■"n^ to ,ts close; and in the ««».!.;' ,7""'^' "^ '^'•«- iiiil THK PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOBY. influence, and having a strong majority of liberal members. Thei- first act of miportancu was to impeach the powerful earl of Strafford of high tre..3ori. The judgment.of Hampden was reversed; and cue of the judges was arrested on the bench, and taken to prison as an example of terror to the 'rest. Laud also was impeached and committed to the tower; while many of the imprisoned Puritans were relejused an.l compensated. The kin- 's methods of rai.sins money were declared illegal; and a bill, to which he was obliged to ^sent, was pass-l, providing for a trieimial meeting of parliament 1 et'tions against Episcopacy poured in from all sides. In hopes to save Strafford, the king admitted a number of libc-al lords into the privy council, and even entertained a scheme for form, ing a cabinet of the chief members of the opposition-which project falling through, increased their bitterness. The trial of the earl took place at Westminster Uall, on the 22d of March, 1641 The favourite had every thing to apprehend, both from his own arbitrary practices and the temper of those opposed to him. Both as Presi dent of the North, and Governor of Ireland, his rule, though vigorous and effective, had been arbitrary and tyrannical in the extreme All his advic! and all his poliiical influence had been directed to the purpose of making Charles an absolute and independent monarch 1^01 tlarteen days, charges were exhibited against him, from which he defended himself with great manliness and eloquence. Ilk acts certainly did not legally amount to treason, and the house resorted to the odious measure of passing a bill of attainder-a proeeedin. fully a.s arbitrary and tyrannical as any of which their prisoner had been guilty. The popular clamour for his execution was great • and after some feeble and ineirecfual atteini.fs to sa.e him, the kin'^ to his eternal disgrace, signed a warrant for the execution of themaii wlio had been his chief adviser, and whose crimes, if such thev were, l,;,d been eommitte.l witli liis own sanction, and for his own advantage. "Put not your trust in princes," said the unfortunate 'iK.n, on hearing of his betrayal. He died with the greatest courage and magnanimity, in the forty-ninth year of his age. The king next assented to a bill providing" that parliament should not be d.issolved or adjcnirned until the grievances in ques- tion were redressed. Feeling themselves more secure, they next voted a large sum to the Syots, and suppressed the court of Star Chamber and that of High Commission. Some supplies were granted; bui. the king incurred renewed distrust by an attempt to iSNGLAND. iu.iuce the army to declare for him P r ^^' various causes. Imd lost much of it T"' r'.'^"''""'*. bovvcver, from aga.a vehemeutl, agi.Ued wi.tut 'al^^f " , ^'^-^ -«-, wt nod, utUtckmg the prelates and enCv- >"" "-^^^^'^^^ ^^'''^^ ««'- wore disbanded, and Charles £ "l f T"f "^ '^'^^ ^^^mies mcreasedt e popular distrust by al 1'" ^"^^^^"^' ^^-e he -veral noblemen, against .honf he h d l^f '" ''? ^''^ l^--«« of Meanwhile, a terrible rebelli,. 1 i "'^''' ''^ ^^^^^^n. "ative Catholics had lon^ hi f" ^"' "^ ^^•^'^-"d. whore the i^trude.. This disln^S i' ^^r ^' ^''^ ^"^^'^ ^^^ Strafford. On the 24th of October 1041 ^^. '^'^ ^^^-'*i«« of by previous agreement, rose simnL ' ^ "^''^''"^^ inhabitants Plaoos, expelled the EnsUrsolZ^^T'' T ^^'^'«^ -'^^ oth^^ acconipanied with circunist^mces o 1 " ' ? '''''^T'' «-"'"-'cec( -J "ars, It is said, were the prhL.n '! ""f^' ''''' ^"-' 'vhich many thousands ..erishe.J ^i ^^'^"'' "^ *'''« outrage in f7 ^'^f ^ome. chaS^i ^i,::':^jr^ "-r^^'^ -- ^iC JeadingSeottisIi nobles, retu ned to his c , '/T' ! '" ""^"^'^''^'^ ^''^ of popular ieoling, his reception wi^ m! ', ' "''7^' ^^ '^ ^-^^ion and loyalty. The om,osition v ''^ '"^'' '"''«'» U'.rmth P-c^d a "iWionstra^^' r^., " i;"^^'-'-'^ ^^-P'oased a^^ th" K',and lading the blan e c m t '" m ^^ "'' J '^ ^"«^-i acts of tl^' Cromuell declaring that if td of"" ''''' "^ '^y'^^'-^^- others would have left K.u.].., ,1 '"' ""^''^^^^ I'o and m,nv J-ed for the ^mre..n:^uJ^^U^^^^f vvhich wei^^^ between the Icing and J.urliamc^.t ,,:,'' ^"'f ''■"'" '''^'^ ^'ite -ent; the, com. ions feired to urt", • " T' ^'^'''^ "^ '"'Pr-s. ""fortunuN.Iri.h Protestants we e 1^; Vr . "" ''''"^' ^""^ ^he oonflietmc f.., ,- ,^^_ ""^'^ wcnliced to the j.-alousy of these --• o ...t. ,,^ia. — - j>.«wua_y or tliese lence stmiulated by the onposi io„ ? ' , '"''' i^^P"^'^^ vio- Jttond parliament, and se^TpS ' ''^'^ ""« "^^^'^ ^o bc^r absence. For this they we e inn! "T""' '^" ""^^ ''«"« iu "o^er. Quarrels between thTcU^.r^ ;''''" ""'^ "^'»'^'"« the -d blood washed in sor!; o 'S ".' "'^' ^'""^^ '"^-^^ ^" "'«nuary, 1642 t'l^ t; «"^ounters. _^Voi.tt_i5 = "«''' OToparable. Having aooused ». *- 226 THE PEOrUVS 1500K OF HISTOET. five members of the House of Commons, including Pym and Hamp den, of treason, he went down to the house in person, attended by a numerous guard, for the purpose of seizing them. It is said tfiat he was stimulated to this rash step by the haughty queen, who told him to go and "pull these rogues out by the ears," or never to see her more. Being warned beforehand, they escaped ; the com- mons were furious at this invasion of their privileges; and the wh >le city took up arms, under the greatest excitement. Parlia- ment dissolved for the present, averring themselves unsafe; and a committee was appointed to inquire into all the particulars. The king, beset with tumultuary petitioners, retired to Hampton court, at some distance from London. The house shortly met, and the five members, conducted by an immense procession, and receiving the highest honours, resumed their seats. Four thousand men on horse- back, from Hampden's shire, came to complain of his accusation, and to proffer their services for the popular cause. The tower, garrisoned by the king's men, was blockaded by order of the parliament, and other hostile measures were taken — instigated, doubtless, by a knowl- edge of the king's designs, betrayed by a member of his household. Parliament, which had long been anxious to get the entire control of the military force, now passed an act for putting all forts, castles and other strong places, into the hands of such officers as they could confide in. This, with other measures, was sent to the lords, backed by the petitions of immense numbers of poor people, porters, women and others, threatening, if refused, to take the law into their own hands. The queen was now despatched to Holland, with the crown jewels, to provide arms and ammunition for the coming contest. An irreconcilable dispute ensued, as to whether the power of com- mand should be first vested in the king, without which he abso- lutely refused to sign the bill. In the civil war which was now approaching, the parliament were by no means free from blame. They had, in many instances, violated tlie constitution and the royal prerogative; they had imprisoned ''hi one case for life) those who spoke violently against their proceedings ; and had intimidated the minority of their own body, by committing them to the tower, on the least license of debate. They had, moreover ^^ncouraged riotous mobs and petitions on their own side, while pr 'v suppressing those of the royalists. Their only excuse for acts may l^ found in the fact, that they were dealing with a . i utterly faith- less, and determined to crush them on the first oppurionity; that it ENGLAND. 227 Both sides wore now hZil^vTV"^"""^ lo London. Before actual hostSs ;2^i, Lrf^^jt' '"''^''f « '™P^- nineteen articles i.uttiri ,11 """""".'f *e king an „&<«„„ of Pl«.e.y changing inH r Si,; " Z t"" V"^ °°- and nine of tho ' ,rcis who hn^ ;.• ^^'"'^'o^'^nt'J refused consent, four thousand n. n ll^adfanTnf \T/ ^"P"-^^^^^^" ^^^*^ Hull, but was comp" ] odT t re p"?" "' ^""^"■^*^''^^-" against -y ; and b, loais a:d ^ZZy I:^:;^;: ''1 \''T ant supp ies. The conntrv wno '"""^«ion«, thej raised abund- i aadbeingsugported iylJtu^nlTZfT,l"''f '""^"""''' j the great body of noliity and "en try muenf ,/ ,°"'"'' "'"'' and a,, the Cathoiie, »; ponsed^wtr ^the W Z"'"'""' i «"">'7. town, and village was divided- nn^j-t'' B"' every i Ike same family mi.ht.rften hi r,i, '^'*'<'"' "'«"'''<'« "f ;»«. chariesn:';:nrvroi;TSf::7i,ffii^-' "■"tors, and summoned all loyal sobieets ,n .^ followers -Votlingham on the 26,h of it« afii> '"';' '"'".'" ™' »' l«„ury for^s; and on tfe 2^ If ^Jbrr t'' ''^ '!"• -...anded by the king and Essex, engaX'ESgeh'uTe'It 228 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPV. eif.inence overlooking the Vale of the Eod Horse. For the first time since the days of Richard III., Englishmen now engaged in battle among themselves. Rupert making a fiery charge, scattered the force opposed to him; but pursuing them too far, was unable to return in time to render effectual assistance to the king. Night ter- minated the conflict, two thousand having been slain, of whom nearly an equal number belonged to either side. Both claimed the victory, but the real advantage lay with the king, who, after some negotiation, marched to Oxford, and passed the winter there. In January, a committee from London waited on him with fourteen unreasonable propositions, to which he replied by others quite as impracticable. The next month the queen returned, having nar- rowly escaped the violence of the enemy with her life, and was impeached of high treason by the parliament. The advantage in various local contests had been chiefly on the side of the royalists; but parliament disavowed all treaties or truces which the different factions had concluded, and Essex, with fifteen thousand men, sat down before Reading, which surrendered on honourable conditions. Here he remained, detained by disease and desertion among his troops. A plot in London for the king's benefit, and another in Bristol, were detected by the commons, and several persons of eminence were hanged — the poet Waller, who was engaged in the former, basely betraying his associates. Stringent measures followed ; but the parliamentary army, under tlieir general. Waller, after some indecisive engagemcnt«, sustained a severe defeat near Devizes, (13th July, 1643). The queen, with a large reinforcement of troops and military stores, joined her husband, and the royal cause, encour- aged by several victories, began to flourish. Rupert, assisted by Colonel Hurry, a deserter from the parliamentary army, sallying from Oxford, had fiillen upon the quarters of Essex, near that town, and had defeated or captured several regiments. In the action which ensued during their return, the gallant and patriotic Hampden was mortally wounded, and died in a few days. His death was an irrep- arable loss to England; for he was respected by both sides, and might probably by his mediation have averted the calamitous soencs which followed. On the 27th of July, Rupert took the town of Bristol, and Prince Maurice about the same time reduced the most of Devonshire. Essex had retired in discomfiture to Kingston. The aflkirs of parliament now began to look desperate, and they ENGLAND. 229 sent a commission to Scotlinr] t« ^„* . also intrenched; but it se ms ^ \ .r . '''''*""^^- ^""^''^" >-«« marched thither a^d perZ ended th ^'^ '"^ "'^^^^' '^^^« to lay siege to GloucesterXr soon 'l^^^^^ "' T' ""' ^^^^'^^"^ with a force of iifteen th;usand .47 the'llf ^"^^^^^^^ an engagcnenl, but was fuHo.ml. n.. ,^Vf ^^"^ ^■"^^'^ to avoid thousand horse and thenex d'v,? ''f ^'- "^^^"^ ''^"^ ^-- Newbury. The contest Wd un^j'S "!r '^''^ ^'^^^ "«- royahsts, the gallant and pat Ltic e I nlp li:; . ?""* ^"" ^° ^^« s^ain. Essex returned to^London a^d h! L " ' '"'"^ *'" Oxford. During the sietre sevpr! ^? ^ ^'"° "^*'^>" ^^'^'^'tered at to the king; but wit tis ru, ";,'^^';^^^-^^^^ coldly, and they were sooraXfcT^T"*' ^' '"''^'^'^ '^^-^ tion. He also did greTbif " tf h l " ''^"'^''^ «^ ^^^ °PPo-- peaoe with the rebellious T ish' eceivinrr, '^ "^'^^"^^ ^ P"-^« and o.dering the regiments station^It = otfrt^ E T t'"' A solemn league and covonanf i,n^ ? *° i^ngland. the Sco^ by which the Z^TL'^- .'"' ^"^'^"'^ ^"^« ^^^^ -en, and a con.mittae from bolh 11 ^"'^^^ ^^yenty^one thousand carry on the war. A new ''gL" Tp ""' '' "' ^^ ^°"d«"' -"^ bearing the impress of the ra,lirrn;.nt '''•' ^""^ '" commission, events, died the celebrated Jol n P '"^f ""• ^^^^^ ''^ft^^ these of the opposition-am"^ ^-^ ^"'^ P^^^P^- but somewhat implicated ^n »:''^* *^'«»^ '^"^ republican principles h^ party. To sat!! fy t e I puhrXt'^f""'^'^^' ^^^"^'^^^^ "^• sunnnonedoneonhisownLToum vvtn " ''' ^'f^'^^^'^^ Charles 16«- The rival body aL Westn^I t "'' "' ^"'^^^ '"^ ^^""-J. any term, of accomm^tion ^ C ^^^^ ^""'''''' ^^^"^^^ *« ^'«ten to means in their power; by forced and vT"? '"f'^ "°"^^ ^^^ ^^-7 and the sequestration or pS of 111 '"^'^' '°'"^' *^^^'^' ^^^^^-^ a^ could be reached. The Trth troT ^7^u'^ "^ *^'^^^ «PP«"«nt detachment of the king' fo "et at Sst ' T"^' ^"^ ^'^^^^ a but were finally defeated]. Xgretl Vf- T"" f ^^"^•^^^^' The royal forces, under the oJlof Z ?/ I '''' '"'^ ^^^^^^on. a so defeated by' Waller. The Scotf^f^' T"^ ^^P*°"' «^«^« advanced into England and ^^7. ' '"^«'" t^e earl of Leven Fa>r.x Lord Kin^ 1 ^ :^-"- their allies, uTde"; wa« defended by the earl of Novv'^lf ' Ch. T^' '"^ ^"•^' ^^^^^ of PWx and A^r,ner, quitted Oxford b^f^' °" *^^ '^PP'-"'^^^ latter near Bunbury, and forced hi^^ntr;tretr""'^ routed the ^■ireat. Kupcrt, with twenty 2;iu XlIK PJiOl'LK'S Book of UISTOKY. thousand men, marched to the relief of York, which was hard pressed ; and, passing the enemy, entered the city. Having received positive orders from the king to engage the besiegers, he marched out the next day, (July 2d,) and the two armies, each about twenty, five thousand in number, encountered on Marston Moor. Eupert with his usual impetuous valour, charged the right wing of the enemy, and drove them from the field. The attack on the centre was also successful, and the Scots fled in confusion; but Cromwell, who commanded the other wing, defeated his opponents. Sir Thomas P\iirfax, rallying his troops, joined him; they took the royalists in the flank; and the battle ended by a complete victory of the purlianieiitaiy army. Four thousand were slain, the greater part royalists; fifteen hundred of them were made prisoners, and all theiv artillery and baggage was taken. Rupert retired to the West, and Newcastle, with other lords, betook himself to the conti- nent. York surrendered, and the Scots, moving homewards, took Newcastle by st<.,:n. In the west of England, however, the royal cause was more fortmuite; and Essex, surrounded in Cornwall by the ibrces of Prince Maurice, left his army, which soon was obliged to surrender. An indecisive action with the parliamentary forces under Waller and the earl of Manchester, during which CharlJ fled from the field, terminated the campaign. The revolutionary party was now much divided, especially by religious schisms. Cromwell, an independent in religion and a republican in politics, was embroiled with some of the leaders of rank on the parliamentary side. An ordinance was passed, requir- ing members of either house to lay down their commands and oflices. The army was at the same time remodelled; Sir Thomas Fairfax being made commander-in-chief (1645). The trial of Archbishop Laud, accused of attempting to intro- duce popery and arbitrary power, had been for a long time on hand; Prynne, whose ears had twice been cut oiF during the late tyranny,' being one of the principal conductors of the proceedings against hun. The accused primate made an excellent defence, and a con- viction of treason being found impossible, an attainder was passed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill, in the seventy-second year of his age, dying with all that constancy and courage which has usually distinguished the execution of religious or political martyrs. Through the Scottish influence, a form of worship similar to the ' Presbyterian was introduced, with penalties provided for fkos'i who JiNOLAND. 231 adhered to the Episcopal rites N.-nrlu . r a«d collegiate officL were atl'l..-^-*''^ ^^'''^'^''^ clergymen ings. On the 20th of January t Z^ f"'' '^'"^^^ '^^™ ^^ ^-- on both sides of the civil c^U^sf 2 'i riT'?""*' --""--ncrs of discussing the sub.iects inXl" but aft' '"' 'T '^" ^"^^^^^^ debate, were unable to agree upo \erl ^Tr ''"\' """^'^'^ gUHie, waa rendered more confldenf nf !i . ! ''"^' always san- ^" power by the late suc^lf f ^tl'l^^t 7?' ^" "^ ^^^'^ devoted 2)arti.san, with a force of Irish li rr tf ^""'^"«e. That ^ brilliant series of victories in SoH "f,^^'shlanders. had gained by numbers, was compel rtoll'ilth' ''""^' -erpowered 9th of May, Charles, with tJn iTo'V ^"^"'^^^in^- On the r'-y retiring befor him He Zlf ITL^I^ ^^.^^^H the but on the 13th, Fairfax, " wit theT'r'"^ Pl-^ndered Leicester; him near the villLe of Nasd. ' R P'''f ^'"«»tary army, engaged Mly, but, through 1^ ntLent'C" "^ whereas Cromwell, who commt ed t^^^^^^^^^^^^ *^ -^™age; the opposing ranks, fell upon the rlr of tltn '"^^' ''''^"° ^^"'^^" tl>e day. After an obstinnte nmlK ° ' ^'"*'"' ^"^ d«<^ided which the leaders on Si £^,1 I'" ^'u'"'"*'^^ ««^^-' during - compelled to withcW S ttS'^'^' *'^"^^^^^^' ^^-^- would not- consent to any oth term" th ^'/*'""°^'^^'^: ^^^ ^e offered at Uxbridge. Afl^r ravlw. "'°'' ^^^^'^'^ ^^ ^^^ took refuge in Oxford, .^ re If wl" T'' ^"""^^^^' '^'^ «§-" of the fresh and brilliant stes!: oTS ^ ^Th "^^' '' "«- from the mountains with a force of .iVT , ^^'^''' ^'^"^'''S the Scottish army with terrible si Lwr"'"^ "^'"' '^'^^ '^'''^^ submitted to him; and Leslevwithf • / ^''''' P'"' °^ *'^« «°^^«try polled to return i^ haste Tot^ltmr '\^T.'''' T ^"-• men, the king again sallied forth from Ox Sd bat ft " ''""'"^ cesses, was defeated with loss hyGeneZvTT'''''- returned with only five hundred nP l ^'if ''°^' ^"^ ^"^"y "ft- H g,dlant def'nee. had tl . '" o ""\ ''^"*^^^'^^' *-' H- again forced .. retii. i^o^'j^Tri'^T .^^ ^-be., and ■iJl'lands. The king, meanu'hile, 232 TUB PEOI'LK'B BOOK OF HISTOBV. had been in treaty with the Irish Catholics, who, in consideration of religious toleration, engaged to supply him liberally with men and money; but the misfortunes of the royal cause in England pre- vented any fffectual aid. The whole south and west of England had been reduced to submission ; and many strongholds, some of which liad held out for years, were reduced, one after the other The i)arliaincntary army, new-modelled by Cromwell and other able commanders, had become, for its numbers, the most irresistible which the world has ever seen. The remarkable men who com- posed it, were mostly zealous Puritans, men of sober life, but filled with political and religious enthusiasm, fighting alike with tlie sseal of i)atriots and fanatics. Nevertheless, Charles kept up separate negotiations with the Scots, the Independents, and the Presbyte- rians—thinking, and justly, that his name and party, joined to either of these, would secure it a preponderance. As the pariiamcntary forces closed around Oxford, he left that city in disguise, and trav- elled into Norfolk, sending an emissary to negotiate terms with the Scots. They agreed to receive the king, and, it would appear, held out hopes of assistance never intended to be realized. He repaired to their camp at Newcastle, on the 5th of May, 1646, and soon found himself held in a kind of honourable imprisonment. He there rejected further propositions from his revolted subjects, the same in effect which had been debated before. On the 1st of Feb- ruary, 1647, the Scots surrendered him to the parliamentary com- missioners, four hundred thousand pounds having been voted them for their services. This has given rise to the accusation, which seems not entirely unfounded, that they delivered him up to secure the payment of their arrears. The civil war, which had endured nearly four years, was now at an end. The king wa.s in the hands of bis enemies, and the last strongholds of his party soon surrendered. Montrose, by the command of his master, laid down his arms, and retired to the Continent. Dublin, and other Irish towns, with their garrisons, were surrendered by Ormond, the lord lieutenant. The contest, carried on so long, and with such bravery on both sides, was disgraced by few of those excesses (either during its continu- ance or after the final triumph) whicli commonly distinguish a social war. The Presbyterian influence was predominant in parliament, but the Independents controlled the army; and, moved by Cromwell, aow their leading adviser, they stubbornly refused agreement to the isideration with men gland pre- f England s, some of the other and other irresistihle who corn- but filled with the p separate Presbyte- i to either iamentary and trav- 3 with the pear, held J repaired and soon lent. He jjecta, the it of Feb- tary com- bed them ich seems 2cure the ed nearly ids of his rendered, irms, and v^ith their ,nt. The )th sides, continu- nguish a nent, but rotnvvell, nt to the OLIVER CROMWELL. X.OIID PROTBOTOR Of TB« OOMIIONWltALTH Of BNaLAND Tai* aingaUr man, perhaps th» moat original oharaoter in British historj, was bora in moderate oircumatances, at Huntingdon, on the 3&th of April, 1091 Both ia parliament and at the bead of the rerolutionary forces, he played a most oonspicuous part against Charles I. and the loyalist party After the exe oution of the king, he attained, under the title of "Protector." the actual •OTereignty of the three kingdoms, and, during the remainder of his life, held the goTernment with a firm and prudent hand. His character appears to hsTs been composed of an extraordinary mixture of piety, courage, ambition, hypo- oriay, remorselessness. and love of country. He expired September ad, J«6i, worn out with the cares of war and of empire KNOLAND. 23S sfhcmos ;„ agitation for their disband., .^nt n. i lund. Tl.r.ir arrearatres of ,>nu ' ''"'P^"."nont in Tro- l-ercnptoril, derna S A T , ''''?'" ""'^'^ -''^^^nctionH, were iude of their ^ .ful at dT ' '""""' "'^"'"''^ "^ *'- <""• orders to disba d th n T th^f '' vT"*^' ''"'^^^ P°«'"*ive r-on, and condncti:;hi.n ^tw^^.k!':' ';^' ^^'^'"T ^'"' ^-'"^^''^ - Charles. vvh„ was eneouragcd " ^hts ^v S '"' ^ '^T"'''*^ secretly planned this MumMnem) w fl tluhn ^ r •' '' "^'" ''"'' port of the soldiers P.rli..M . - \ ^'^ °^ receiving the sim- .-'"yl.t to a,,pease it eleven fll ' '' °"'"''^''^ ^'"''^^•' "^'^---wed, treated with great respect a,>d indui.enc; "^ ^""'""'^ ^'"^ i-uirfax, thoparliainentarvcrenerir^v.«"«nf i of Cru.'nvveli and his son-in Intv T . '''"'.^"^"-'^ "»der the control designs of resto i r he ^^^ 'auti '. I ''"' "'^"^ ''''^'^'^'^^^ belief that the peo°ple w. n ir '' ', ^"' ^^'"'■^^^' ^'^^^^'^ by a posal.s"fron. the army Ir^ "^ '^ h.s favour, refused "Pro- been offered ^ 7a; [n'T "Tf \''"^ •''""^' ^^''^"^' ^ad yet pared for re.i.tanie/a^f ^^ ;rd^o'Ie:^^ ^^^'"^'"^ " 'T '''- to their interests. They were never.) i ' ""' """'^ ^'^^"^^^ Meanwlnle, the king enjoyed ere'it UK. r. i • >'ot carry out their views. It is said tW ^'^^t they could Cromwell was to have been mad n eaH an" vXl^T::;' certain important offices Charle, hT ' ^"'^'"'' ^""^^ a letter to the queen, decla ing h intTntion of h""" I"'"'"^^^^^ "Hies, whenever he should recLr 1 rpowe/ The"''^' T""^ '"oreover, wa^ too stron.. and a DWxv!rr' ^!'".''^'.'*--«)'al P^rty, levellers, to get possession' of the WW ^7 Vh .' 1 "''' '' ''' "'g this, (probably from Cromwell, vvho deled S^ 'v" 'r"' vately escaped, and repaired to Sussex V T' ^""'^ P" to the Continent, he betook htTenoth'n '"*!^^^^ '^ ^ "ammond. the parliamentary g" no ^e "ivS H ^''''' "'"" "nd permitted him to go at large ^''^ l^onourably, MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) ^ /APPLIED IIVMGE Inc SS-^ 1653 East Main Slreel IT'.S Rochester, New York U609 USA •^ (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone ^S (716) 288- 5989 -Fax 2?A THE I'Kori.K'S ]iOOK OV lUSTUKY. Cronnvell, meanwliile, had suppressed a dangerous mutiuv arnong the troops, and had executed one of the ringleaders. Per- c'civing, however, the fixed determination of the army to destroy the king, he determined to preserve his popularity by joining their party; at the same time, warning Charles to escape as soon as pos- sible.^ The latter, however, was in treaty with the Scots; and, rejecting terms again offered by the parliament, entered into a pri- vate agreement with the Scottish commissioners. On learning this Hammond immedV .ely put him in greater security, and thus frus- trated all t]u> measures which were attempted for his escape. Par- liament in-iiiicdiately (January, 1648,) passed resolutions to use no furtjicr negotiation with him; and made it high treason for any one to communicate with him without their permission. The great body of the people, though in favour of royalty and the existing constitution, were held in check by the army, which was mostly opposed to rnnnarchy as a matter of religion. The Scoltisli royalists, in pursuance of their agreement, attempted to raise forces, but found much difficulty, from the opposition of the clergy, who were dissatisfied that the Presbytery was not made absolutely compulsive on the English. The English partisans of the royal cause, tired of waiting, took up arms prematurely, and after a few successes, were defeated by Fairfax and Cromwell. The Scots, with fourteen thousand men, finally entered the kingdom. Sir Mnrmaduke Langdale, with four thousand men, engaged the parliamentary army at Preston, and fought with such intrepidity, that had he been supported by his Scottish allies, he would undoubt- edly have defeated them. But the la.ter concluded a series of feeble movements by a nitreat on this occasion; their infantry was forced to surrender; and the English royalists dispersed. Colches- ter, after a gallant defence of three months, was taken by Fairfax, and several eminent royalists were executed by sentence of a court martial. The prince of Wales, with nineteen ships, sailed from Holland to the Downs, and for some time negotiated with parlia- ment; but was unable to bring the enemy's fleet to an engagement, and was finally compelled to return by the want of provisions! Parliament, alarmed at the feeling in the army, opened fresh com- munication with the king; but nothing was agreed on— Charles firmly refusing to abolish the Episcopal church, or to surrender his friends to their vengeance. Petitions for a republic in its fullest forms were presented to parliament; and in some, especially from J BNGLAXD 235 the san. things in expliri:^ T:^^^^ ^^^'^^^ some alarm, yielded to the demand, nf I T ' ^"* ^^« ^i"& '» ostensibly. He wa^' th^n I ^^'"'^"^^^ of parliament, though only the Isle of Wight eZ hTLTT ' '' ''^"^^^^^^^ -^^^«' ^n break his parole! He wa Loon f '''ZT'^"^' ^^* ^^^^^^ to soldiers, aid eonfin.! Z^Z SeTn '" l'^^"^^"* °^ ^^^« ar.ny innnediately marched to T o ? /°f '" *^' ^^''^- ^he quarters. Parliaint a uld , fi ^'°' •'"'^ '^''' '^'^ "P their all members oppose] ;;1r ^, ^^^ ^-' ^-^% detained and others excluded from ih.hT I- ,^°"^« ^^^-^ imprisoned, about fifty ^.embers and v?asalrv'; ^ "''^ ^'^ ^^"^ ^^'^^"^-^^ to I ParliameL Crom;:ifh:d , ra W I of the proceeding. ' ^"^ °" ^'^ return approved j Every thing was now done according to the will nf .1, ,^- the real arbiters of the fate of the kin^cLm Th uf ^'"'"^ ' nant of a parliament tried in vnin .. ^ ," "Miserable rem- king's arraignment u^on^^:"^!^,';^;;^ ^-P^^bility o^ j pelled to continue thdr work On th' 1 ofT'' ''' T" ^°"- I voted it treason : in a king of Endand to ! '^' ^^^^' ''^^^ ' hamcnt and people- and sent 1 r 7^ ''^' ^^''^^"'* ^he par- lords. The latter 'ol "Ln T >! " ^'^^ ^"^'^ *"^^ ^^ *^« it, and the commo s votin' t 1 o T ' T^^'^^^^^'y ^'ejected o^he nation, passed r^oriVcTher^^^rr^^^^^^^^^^^ tl'-rty-five persons, members, lawyers, office sTf tlit n 1 '^^ ^ens, were appointed as a court; and on the 2ol l 7' '"^ ^'^^■ them attended at Westminster Hall vWite r* ""V'^'"*^ «^ opened with considerable state JCj^ZT^ "" publicly read, charging the kincr with T ?'• «^cusation was to his will," ;ith t^raifoL s^"^:; ' ^^^^^ '^ "-^^ hording parliament, enumerating the vSus baTtl . • I- ^ P'°P'^ ^"^ present, and finally in^ptachin^; Zas ^a trTnt" t . '^ ''' '^^° and a public and imphicable e^u^my to the Com ' " '' u"^"'"^'^^^' ind." He smiled on hearing th" e .bu^il ! .TT^''"'!^ °^ ^"S" by demanding their luthorlfv f Ti P'*''^*'' ''^"'^ ^inswered acknowledge fh t . h "f , " P'^^'^^^'^i".-- and refusing to oe ie^ahtj of his arraignment. The trial lasted several | 286 THE I'EOPLK'S BOOK OF HISTORY. daj's, Charles still denying both the authority of the court and the crimes alleged against him ; and reasonably asserting that their pro- ceeding was a tyrannical exertion of "power without law." On the 27th, the king waived all further defence, seeing that it was useless. He was found guilt}', and sentence of death was passed against him by a unanimous vote of all present, sixty-seven in number. He was refused liberty of speech, and various insults were offered him on his way back, which he bore with much patience and kingly magnanimity. On the next day, a proposal was made to him by some of the principal persons in the army and parliament, that his life and crown should be secured to him on certain couditions, which would place almost entire power in their hands and those of the army. This, to his honour, he indignantly rejected. Ambassadors sent from Holland interceded for him to no effect, and a warrant for his execu- tion was signed by fifty-nine of the commissioners. It is said that Cromwell, with that strange buffoonery which he would sometimes mix with the most serious business, marked one of his fellow-judges in the face with the pen which signed his name, and received the same compliment in return. On the 30th of January, the king, who had throughout evinced the highest calmness and self-possession, was conducted through a window of the palace at Whitehall, upon a scaffold built in front of it. He made an address, in vindication of his career, but admitted that he suffered justly for having consented to the execution of Strafford. He also declared that he died a martyr to the rights of the people. Having performed his devotions, he said to the attend- ing clergyman, "Eemember," knelt down, and was beheaded at one blow by a masked executioner. A dismal groan broke ' from the multitude assembled before the scaffold, and many j. i for- ward to dip their handkerchiefs in his blood. Charles Stuart died in the forty-ninth year of his age, and in the twenty-fourth of a reign which, for several years, had been merely nominal. His pri- vate morality and domestic virtues have, in the eyes of many, thrown a mantle over the crimes and errors of his political career. He was bigoted, despotic, and insincere; and had doubtless forfeited his throne by many acts of injustice and oppression. Still, his exe- cution was a violent and unlawful procedure, wholly discountenanced by most of the English people. It was the work of men equally unprincipled with himself, and especially of a body of military ENGLAND. 287 CHAPTEE 2?in. THE COMMONWEALTH. Immediately after the execution of Charles, the office of kin^ tt ex euLe V^^^^^^^^ --"bar, was'chosen fj pr s dent of •; . T t "T,' "^^-^ ^''^ P^'^'^^*^ ^* *^^« *"^^ ^-« ™ade n V pt • ' f . ' '""''"""' ^'^*«" ^'-^ I'^ti" secretary. By new elections, and the read mission of certain members parlLen^ was increased to about an hundred and fifty in number ThlZTl ^e e opposed to the new government; but it was supported by the zealous Independents, and especially by an army ably officered ^^ forty thousand strong. The levellers, hovvever,\oth in the nrn v nd elsewhere, poured in petitions for yet fur her changes fZf dable mutinies broke out, but were suppressed by helne,!^; f' Croi„.vell, who defeated the malcontents,' and exeLed Tlt^Jr When the news of the king's execution reached Scotland the a jcnt..ers had landed in the North. He ^a^tv^^^ ^^^^ ad captured by Ins enemies, the Presbyterian paky, and was i ,^5 ud miu.h Ignominy at Edinburgh. lie perished fn the th rtv n h }ear of his age, having won a wide renown for valour and C y 238 TI.'K I'KorLK'S rluOK OF iriSTORY. rlioiigh occasionnlly stained with cruelty. Other royalists of distinc- tion shared a similar fate. Charles, on learning the event, publicly declared his approval of the fate of his devoted follower, and at once closed with the conditions of the Scots. He landed in their country, where his insincerity was sufficiently punished in the miser- able treatment he received. Tiiough allowed the title and forms of royalty, he was constantly watched; and was harassed almost to death by the interminable prayers and sermons of the clergy, reflecting on the guilt of his father, the idolatry of his mother,°(a Catholic,) and espcoially on any levity of his own. In Ireland, the royalists, assisted by the Scottish army, had gai)icd considerable successes; and Cromwell and Ireton, with other able officers, were sent over. Their enemies had sustained a severe reverse already; and, two weeks af\er his arrival, Cromwell stormed the town of Drogheda, put the garrison, upwards of two thousand, to the sword, and massacred a great number of the defenceless inhabitants. "Their friars and priests," he remarks in liis despatch, " were knocked on the head promiscuously with the others." In the church alone, one thousand of the unfortunate people were massacred. At Wexford, which he took .shortly afterwards, similar atrocities were perpetrated; three hundred women, who had gath- ered around the great cross, as some protection, being all murdered together. The utdiappy prisoners were shipped as slaves to the colonics. By these and similar exhibitions of courage and ferocity, he took many strongholds, and departed in May, 1650, leaving the command to Ireton. P'airfax resigned his command, and Cromwell was appointed by parliament cajjtain-general of all forces in the commonwealth. On the 22d of July, he marched into Scotland with sixteen thousand veteran soldiers. His opponents, occupying favourable positions, might have repulsed him; but were embarrassed by the fanatical zeal of the clergy, who in.3isted that all " malignants " should be dismissed from the army, that it might be composed entirely of "saints." The army, thus purified, under Lesley, engaged the invader at Dunbar, and was entirely defeated, with a loss of three thousand slain, ten thousand prisoners, and all their artillery and baggage. The whole country .south of the Forth submitted to the conqueror. The defeated nation now gladly allowed the proscribed malignants to enlist in their behalf; Charles was ci-owned at Scone on the 1st of January, 1651, and by great exertions an army of twenty thousand L ENGLAND. 239 L ' JTZfn '"'''""■ ""^'" ^^"^ ^* ^^'^'-S. Cromwell, however luia pushed his conquests so ranidlv tliot t1„>;,. . • ■ ^^'^' oi iiiirt_) thousand men, and spcedilv encrn,rorI , tlie Scottish iirruy, consistin<''='l V one. greatly venerated by all lo\ul suhieets nV n ^ ^ak," and -uly, after havin Jbeen a^^ ^ too" " "' TK ^^f ^^• persons, not one of whom betrayed h.m ^ *'" ^°'*^ Scotland now entirely submitted ind n ..^rv, • • by the E„g,L,h „,r,ia„,i,t ,„ C ," • arrTT,:,' "'''°'"'^'' JMed; but be(;,re the terms were .etlled^; A nn on ,vaa pro. "■«»J of them D.o„le of r."|. """ ""■"""■ T'™ l"".rity:^St:::^,:""^^'^^^-"' -^-^'. ^^Pon Cromwd. an On the 16th of December 1«-.q ;,„ • „ , lo TO to hold the sui,re,np "„r . ?^ " """' "»«™mci,t «ned once i„ thl ° ^ . J^/ """"l'"™' «- 'o •>» sum- '"■vcd, except by i s"^^."' eltt P, "'"' "' "" "■" '" ""^ "'»• Vol. Tr,-ie iiovisioii waa made against 1 242 Tiiic ric oi'LK's nooic of histopy. royulists, Catliulies, and other cnctnios of tlic commonwealth. This piece of usiirpjition was probably a fortunate thing for the nation which might otherwise have fallen from one state of anarchy into iinother. The protector took advantage of the authority placed in his hands until the meeting of parliament, to decree an ordinance of union with Scotland, and other important matters. A conspiracy of the royalists for his assassination was detected, and several of the contrivers were executed. Success had meanwhile attended the British arms. On the 2(1 of June, the Dutch fleet of an hundred sail, commanded by Tromp, Do Huytfr, and others, fell in with that of the English, of erpmi force, under General Monk, Dean, Penn, and Lawson. After an action of an entire day, the English fleet, reinforced by Blake, gained the victory with the loss of a single ship, while their oppo- nents, who.se ves.sels were mostly smaller, lost twenty-one. In an another action, with the same force, under Monk and Tromp, tlie latter, after a long and doubtftd contest, was again defeated, and fell in the fight. Peace was declared in 1654; and commercial treaties were also made with other powers. The elections for parliament had been perfectly free ; and it was soon evident that the party of the protector was in a minoritv. The members immediately commenced a vigorous debate upon his authority and their own ; and for the third time he employed mili- tary force, and excluded all who would not sign a "Recognition" of four jxiints. These were : Supreme power in one man— successive l^arliaments— liberty of conscience— and a united command over the army by both parliament and protector. About this time, Cromwell, in one of his usual frolics, attempting to drive six fiery horses, presented to him by a German prince, was upset, and nearly lost his life, much to the delight of the Cavaliers. As soon as the five months Avere at an end, he dissolved the parliament in the midst of their business— reproaching them with their inertness and encouragement to the enemy. A singular coalition between the royalists and ultra-republicans was now planned, and an ineffectual rising was made. A number of the leaders being apprehended, were executed, and the other pris- oners were shipped for slaves to Barbadoes. Severe measures were now taken against the royalists, especially noblemen, cavaliers, and clergy, and excessive taxes were imposed on the disaffected party. To levy these, and to carry out his other arbitrary measures, he ENGLAND. fo,.n,l ,l,a, Act n„,r„ ' 't !"?';',""'' ""-• "°''°" »"" -"' •>"■ iron rule ,Ir Ir:;;' 1^:'""' ""'• •-'■ f-W". -M.-d molestation of En-rlis], s ihL? ' ?, t *'"' ^^''^"t'". '-^'-l ..on- of his ...as r.ih r T7"'"^ '" ^"^'^^•"" ^^^^« t^« ^^vi eyes well had ;: : ^: : . '^r';]'^ f '^^^ ^« ^« i^^^ -^^-^ ^ri. Hail, under Blaico . d uo e t h M I ' ""' "^ ^^■^''^''' "^ ^^'''-ty religion.^ Thi^ol t" ',,, ,"' °" f'l *° f'"" "■"^'^ °f «>"' I An extraordinaiy ami somewhat fo™ Im „ ^ ^"■'"''' '• made between Charles, the I velL aTjt. ""T'I ""' '"''■"j' iihile, Cromwell summoned Jn!]' , T" °' ®P°'"- "«'"• 'Cturned: but, as the eoiflT ' ^ ''°"''" members were ■.«.if.oatio„, ;Ctte°;;3L™r:TeS ::r'^''" *^^' texts, such as iramoralitv Ap T ^'^^'"^'^d- "nder various pre- - with Spain; Idtr.' i, enS:&:T ^"^'"^ ^'^^ •ng the title of king, to which he Tad I. !• ^'^ ""^ ''''^^■ conciliate the populf; favour te refu ed to Jo7: ^ "P"''" ^° from suits for their previou np ess" n Tot ^^^'^^^^^'^ ^^mssination was disconcerted but tT.^V f ''^''^' ^'^^ ^^« teriously before execution ' °^^'' '°"^P"^*°^ ^^^ -J- t^e'^Jrs^'^s^rt^^^^^^^ tdT :[ '" ^^^^^^'■^'^ -^ -^^ - , great excitement and disorder ensued; but after Jon.' 2i4 TUK I'KOI'l.K'S HOOK OJ; HISTOKV. dobiite, and strong opposition from the army, it was voted, in a *IIiunblo Petition and Advice," that he should be requested to accept the title of king, lie atYected great surprise and consterna- tion, deferring his answer. The opposition of the army, his main dependance, was, however, so implacable, that he perceived the danger of assenting; and in a long, embarriissed speech before par- liament, to the surprise of almost every one, declined accepting the new honour. Tiie word "protector," was substituted in the "Peti- tion," which empowered him to appoint his successor, and to nominate members for the "Other n(juse," as it was phrased. Ik: was inaugurated witli great solemnity, and with somewhat of reifid ceremony, at Westminster, on the 12th of May, 1657. The house then adjourned for six months. At this time appeared the cele- brated pamphlet of Colonel Titus, entitled "Killing no Murder," and strongly advocating his asstussi nation. Admiral Blake, after several brilliant exploits against the Spanisli fleets, and the ca])ture of much treasure, died while reentering the harbour of Portsmouth. lie was interred, with a magnificent funeral, in Westminster Abbey. Parlianiont again met in January, 1658, the protector havin^f summoned sixty persons, mostly nobles and gentlemen, to form the "Other llouse." But the excluded members of the commons h;ul been allov/ed to resume their seats; the riglits and title of the other body were immediately discussed; and Cromwell, perceiving tluil his authority was not preponderant, went down to them, and, after various reproaches, dissolved them — thus for the fourth time taknig the entire goven.ment forcibly into his own hands. lie now seemed at the heigla of his power. Conspiracies and preparations for invasion were di.sconcerted by his address; his arms and i)olicy prospered abroad; but lie was opjjressed with deep niel- unelioly, and constantly dri'aded assa.ssination. The death of his favourite daughter Elizabeth, added to his grief; and it is said that, in her last moments, she remonstrated with him on his course of \iolence and U8ur()ation. His own illneea soon followed, and ho seems to have manin-sted .some anxiety concerning an hereafter, though comforting liim.self with the reflection that lie had once boon in a state of grace, from wliich, his chajilain assured him, it was impossible to fall. On the 3d of September, the anniversary of the victories of Dnnbar and Worcester, and which he had ever regarded as his fortunate day, death nracies and ENGLAND. And k.d h.m with the earth's preceding day " 246 inttpSVhHdh^tt S^^^^^ ;^^^ --*. - various, sentiments. The Zrrrtfr'"^f^^^^^ obscure countrrgcnt ennn fot" ^7''''''' ""^"' -^-^"^ an actor and principles Commo ^?* '"™'"^"* "P«'^ ^^^ c^^ar- ontlmsia^rn (^vlJ h Lver oZ r"° T/^ P^^"°^'^"^ ^^^^ ^^'^gio^^ ing ambition. ^ ''' ^"^'""^^ ^""'') '^^ «"ded with engross- Kichard .a. proctimef ^^^'^1^^.:^^ ^^ -dh'isson wa.s a man of anuuble tempe/but W. f °f '"^ ^^P"^^'^'^"" ^' t-s in which he assumed ihi: we gL^Vffir^^^^^ obhged to make concessions to the army Id - T '^"'^'^^ summoned a parliament. The Proteofnr^f ' ''""''■^'' ^^^^^' half of the house; Republic nsa^rM^ '""'^ "'''^ "^«^* «"«' «ome royalists, the rennindor H '"'''^ '^"'^"^ ^^^«"^ ^^^e great dimcult,; after rC:edobae.?K'"b;"^ ''''''' ^^^^ the arniv; and the m-unriur 7 ^ I^«publicans united with no long;; rni''^:::^'''^^^^:'''^^^'''''''^''^^^ protector, and adhered to their own T' 7"'"'' ^''^^^^'^'^^ '^^ queutly obliged to dissoL ni '^'''"'"^nders. He was conse- hands." B, 'a J::JT1:JS^'' 7' P^^*^'"-'^ "^t« t^eir "Long Parliam'ent" (disso^ ^'oi vl" i^ ^3?"'^^ '^^ ^'^ ^•mmoned, and sat in their house Vn tl f ^ '^''' ^^ain While the various factions Tn th! v! ,°"'"^''' °^ f^^-t^-t^o- overtheir respective 2s he rn r?' '"'^ ^^™^ ^^^« ^^^ating leading Presbyterians were al T "''' ^^^^^^^^ '''^-^' The and it is even'sa thaTliicWr" ''" ''^ *'^^ ^'^^^^ ^^ Charles, tenanted by the offer of a^'t "^^^ ''' --«. ^^-^o- of a ruler Bame views. A prema ure i in" . '^' P'""°"' entertained the suppressed by LLiber who 1 " r''"'' '" ^'^^^'''"''^' ^a« easily w^^ in ';"Pes"to::;:;il^; r;^^^^^^^^ where h^ among the ambitious officers and .n^ I . ^''''^ altercation 216 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. government. Lambert was sent against him by the army ; but be amused him with negotiation, meanwhile strengthening his own authority in every possible way. In England, the officers continu- ally lost ground ; the fleet and various strongholds declared against hem ; and finally, in November, 1659 the soldiers in London, desert- ing their officers, declared for parliament, and reinstated the remains of the Eump. These immediately remodelled the army, dismissed fifteen hundred officers, and proceeded to punish their late dis- turbers. Fairfax and Monk had seized upon York, but the latter profoundly dissembling his real sentiments, refused to proclaim the king, and even caned an officer who charged him with the design. Being invited to London, he marched thither with five thousand men, still keeping his intentions wrapt in impenetrable secresy. Meanwhile, the royalists were every where busy, and the loyalty of the city daily increased. The common council was at open variance with the parliament; and Monk, seeing that he could act with safety, insisted upon a dissolution, that a free parliament might at once be summoned. This resolution caused gi'eat joy and excitement among the citizens — the excluded members, some of whom had been expelled for more than eleven years, resumed their seats; and all acts against the king and royalists were annulled. Monk was made commander-in-chief, and this memorable body adjourned, for the last time, on the . 6th of March, 1660. Monk, though still pretending to support the new commonwealth, entered into communication with Charles, advising him what meas- ures to pursue. Partially following his suggestions, the prince forwarded a declaration, with letters to the two houses, the city, the army, and the navy. The parliament, which met on the 25th of April, had been elected in the freest manner, there'^ being no inter- ference on the part of the government. The royalists were in a decided majority. The Republicans, with Lambert at their head, had attempted to get control over the army, but he and his coad- jutors were taken, and committed to the tower on the 24th. The House of Peers also gradually reassembled, no one opposing them. On the 1st of May, the letter to the House of Commons was delivered, and the bearer received the thanks of parliament, with a handsome reward. Those to the city, army, and navy, were also read to them, and addresses to the king were unanimously voted. The declaration contained promises of amnesty, liberty of conscience, and the settlement of titles and military arrears — all, however. K.NC A :iD. 247 referable to the decision of future parliaments Th.. we. plaini, of little value, since ej^^^, J^Z ZT^ paH.an.ent would probably consist of devoted royalil and S ! Matthew Hale and others urged a final settlement^of d 'poTntst dispute beuveen the crown and parliament. Through th inTuen e of Monk, however, this was overruled; the house rung w th Lela- S Tt"'" "" "^^^^'^' *^ '"^^ *^-- without! tl St hmitation. lie was proclaimed on the 8tb. of May with°la soiema. y, and landed on the 25th at Dover, where hf;! received bjMonk, with many of the nobility and gentry. He made a if reZked^hatTn. Tr t"" ^.^-'^ '^' ^''''''' ^^^1^^*^-- -«d he remarked that t must have been his own fault that he did not come outmgtrue liberty, and associating the lanoverment n!7T enough with n,i,ita.y rule and heajy taxatL' Th Tm' h wet.' been of great service in destroying slavish reverence 1 anZi CHAPTER 2X. CHARLES II. The nation, after its relief from the ricrid rnlp nf fT.n p •. .i«n™it:r\rhttrsr Sir :^ rj'-'^"' ™ CO s Srof™ ttT' ^/*"^ *'' "^- -1— Th ■n'' 218 THE PKOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. nine of those who had officiated at the trial of Charles I. were arraigned before commissioners, all were found guilty of treason, ten of them were executed, and the remainder were imprisoned for life. The bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, were taken from their tombs in Westminster Abbey, ignominiously dragged to Tyburn, and hung on the gallows. Their heads were afterwards fixed on Westminster Hall. The king was crowned with great solemnity on the 23d of April 1661, and the new parliament met on the 8th of May. Titles gained by action of the lute government had been already annulled, and » the new assembly, which was strongly royalist, proceeded at once to restore the Episcopal Church and its ceremonies, by the most stringent measures— enacting, among other things, that all officers of corporations must take the sacrament according to the rites of the established church. Sir Henry Vane, who had received from Charles an assurance of his life, was, at their instance, tried and executed, justifying to the last the late king's sentence and his own political career. In Scotland, the royal commissioner summoned a parliament composed of unprincipled wretches, and called, from the continual inebriety of its members, "The Drunken Parliament." A law was passed annulling all previous acts, since 1633, and the country was at once laid open to the mercy of a greedy and revengeful faction. The duke of Argyle and other distinguished covenanter.5 were exe- cuted, and it was resolved forcibly to replant Episcopacy. Charles had been for some time in treaty for marriage with Catha- rine, the infanta of Portugal. On the 20th of May, 1662, she arrived in England, and was shortly afterwards espoused to him ; but fell down in a fit on being compelled to receive as one of her chief attendants Lady Castlemain, the favourite mistress of the king. She was, nevertheless, obliged to submit; and' the king, for many years, was ruled by a succession of favourites, who, by their num- ber and beauty, seemed rather the appendages of an oriental seraglio than of an English and Christian court. The "Act of Uniformity" was strictly enforced, and about two thousand of the clergy forfeited their livings rather than give assent in full to the Book of Common Prayer. A severe statute against all who should attend any religious meetings except those of the church, soon filled the prisons with persecuted dissenters, especially with the Quakers, who had now increased into a considerable sect CBASLXS U. Avraa tmm obxmvai^ as ■» »xx« ji^i.*. "7aeM aueli a Mhool, tt might bkr* bten azpeotad that • joung man who waatad neitKat abilitiea nor asai*bla qaalitiaa, would hava ooma forth a great and good king. Charlaa oama forth from that aobool, with sooial habits, with pelito aad aBgaging xaaaaera, aad with soma talant for Uvaly conTarsation addiotad bayond mvMura to aanaual indiUgaaoa, fond of sauntering and of fi^Toloua amusamtnta, inoapabls of aalf-denial and of exertion without faith m humaa rirtaa or ia human attaohzaank, without desire of raaown, an' with- out aaaaibUitjr to reproach." — MAeAaL&i s Histort or Bnglano. ENGLAND. 2-JD 24;» In 1664, the Dutch settlement of New Amstr^rdim in AT ,^. Amenca, was claimed as belonging to En^lald by . ht of d and sinnar acts of hn^Hliiv ,., i "'v ^lus, of Suffolk Cc iii™ '^^i r ° ' "'"' '"^'S^'l ti>" ofrthe c„a.t ei«i..e„ ship, ::;:e:e: .tt;;i*° -^ -^ '"--^ »"-^-. &,x,p„lalod bfthe death ' J «"T"" "' '.«f ' "» «">' «' l-alf. F.»-ore d„/i„ whir ird„ trt .t„:n''T''': • 'r-"" natelv Morotlmn n i, j i , tbrown almost indiscr mi- and tie n^^^ iXf !? '""^^"^ ^'^^^ «^ ^^^ ^-^^^le disease, of their popuS> Ottrtr; 7" " ^"^"^'"^ *" ^^^ ^--^^ defeated witL gr at oss bt a J ' ^''^ ^^^ ^'"i"' ^'^^ De Witt and DeRuvtr Tl.t 7""' W of the Dutch, under terbalanced by a mo succ f J" " ^" ^'^ ^""^ °^'^'^«-*^ «-"* v^- number o'f 1::!^^!::^^''^' '''' ''' '^-*--- or a On tbe 2d of September, a fire broke nut in *; • , -eased by a violent wind! spread '1^1; ovt^tX'^^^^^^ 1^^'' sbowed unusual energy and humanitv • h, ,17 ,-^" ^^'^ ^*"S struck by the suddefLs and W /f'tL *'^„« P^^P^^ --e panic- for several days, and was at last ubd d til b T •"' '' "^"' liouses with gunpowder Two 11,1^17 f.^- ^ '""° ""P '''^"""'' thousar>d hoLs'and e ghtyrne hto ^'rTl'""^"^'"^ ^'^'^^-'^ vast numbers of the peop e we ! rL ?'. ""^ ^''" '^'^^'^"^'^^ ' -"-l want of shelter. The e^ Wvef "l''^ -tre-e distress by the ■■'"proved manner and a Lv ^ ' " ''^^^^* ^" "^ ^rea'^Y ^^e Papists, was eC'd^oItc ^rS tit? ^'^ '^T'" ^^ Tliese misfortunes and the ntfl commen.;ed. - crippled the resJu; t ^ hrcZrT T"^ f ^'^ ^^^""•^' Putch fleet entered the Thame., ith irn^t '^^^ ", 'r^ ''''' '^' • "- ™P»nity, ijailed up to Upnor, 250 THE TEOl'Lii'S BOOK 01' UlSTOBY. and burucd several ships of war. Their cannon were heard even in Loudon, iiiid men now turned their thoughts to the memory of one whose body had been dragged to- Tyburn, and whose head was yet bleaehiiig on the great Ilall of their city. "Whatever had been hijj faults of violence or usurpation, Oliver Cromwell had, at least, never sufllTod a foreign foe to alarm the shores of England. After the coasts had been insulted by De Ruyter for six weeks, peace was concluded. Lord Clarendon, the high chancellor, and father-in-law of the duke of York, had heretofore been the king's principal adviser. He was bigoted anil intolerant, but superior in principle to most of the statesmen of his time. Both qualities had made him many ene- mies; the king was weary of his lecturing; and, more than all, he would not permit his wife to visit Lady Castlemain. The nation was incensed at the recent misfortunes, and his dismissal from office and banishment from the kingdom were generally satisfactory. In his foreign retirement he completed the able and elegant historical \\'orlis which, more than his political career, have preserved his reputation. A new ministry was now formed, consisting of some of the most prolligate men in England, and called, from the initials of its mem- bers, the "Cabal." The duke of Buckingham, son of the favourite of Cliarles I., and a man of great ambition, talent, and levity, was the prime favourite of the king, and, though without any ostensible office, was the most influential member of government. Most of these venal officials were soon in the pay of Louis, the French king. Charles and his brother were both secretly Catholics, and in 1669 resolved to remove the obstacles which prevented them from making an open profession of their faith. The aid of Louis was sought, and promised, in event of the change producing an insurrection. Mean- while, persecutions against the dissenting ministers continued with much rigour, and the odious trade of informers was oper^ly encour- aged by parliament. The court viewed these proceedings with satisfaction, hoping assistance from the dissenters in obtaining uni- versal toleration. A secret treaty was concluded with Louis, by which the two nations were to conquer and divide Holland, and to seize on other important possessions — the French king bearing the chief expense ; and Charles was to declare himself a Catholic as soon as the measure should appear safe. The Cabal commenced raising supplies for the contest by the most odious means. One million ENGLAND. 2ol for .h. payment of pr v"„ tb J TI'TT "r" "'"^Sod tepatcbed to seize , be Smyrna fl^VfT" '^'J'edition wa, ak„ rticl. power tbo nation o7. "'"''. '«=''>"«">g to Holland, „itb however, di Jncerted^^.f ^hT" '" /T"'^ ""'""-• » «». VVar was .ben form", ,dt,*:datr "^ ''"'°'' «°™™"-'' reasons being alleRed bv thTvt *"7^>-™"<"'» P«y and frivob,,, trucmotives^bowfver wcletfrr ""''/"e"* »»«'cigns, wbose .Win. a fatal bWto S Pro^T'T ""^ '"°'^'"''' ""'' '>"> ''"P" "f .i.s;xrd:ro;'a'''i''".'''..r- ^^ ^^y^. ,„sing men, ponred into Holland 1 j ""' "''"' "" '"'°^™d thousand i .*W ' three leagn^ ^^1! '^reCpt "' '"' ''-'"^ I phrensy, murdered the De Witts thofr nW^! ^ '■ '"^ """ 'Snorant leaders, and put at their head Wili!l ,'''''* '"^ °^°«* P'^*""^^^ (a son of Mary, daughter of cl ?! WhC '""' ^I ''""=«' I saved them from the impending run H'^^rv^T "^'^'''^-^^ ; measures of resistance Thpr^vt ""^ ^^^^ the most energetic try was laid unde^ate? if'^r '^'°f ' ''^"^ ^^^^ *^« ^ Hollanders, if all resisr^esLrbtVuTt \*^.^ P^^^^^ or ever and found a new nation Tn he East B^f f" '"""^'■^' their endeavours, and Louis returninltnTr i ^""^""^ ^''^^*«^ left the war to be sWl, pr^ZT^^l^^r ''''' ''''''' Parliament met in Februnrv 1 fi7Q 7 ^®"®™^- I on the war. They however vlf' '""I ^"*'^ " ^^''^^ «""^ *« <^-^^y of Indulgence" I'ich Te kinfn"*'^ '^ ^^^ ^ "Declaration large majority, that no ofeextpUhlsT'^'^^^ ""^^^^' ^^ ^ with the penalties in matte^f eS'ch /'"" but was compelled to yield and wJfl!-^^ V Charles was indignant, Act" was also pa.se7 eauirl ^ '"^ the declaration. A "Tes to receive the sLaln'of the En vT^ ^'^u^'"^ ^«^°^« ^' *-«* York, against whom with othtcatS .t"''^' *°' '^^^ ^^^^ ^' laid down all his offices and 0^,?°^ ^'' *^^' '"^^^'^^^ example. ' ^"^ °*^"^ ^«^« compelled to follow hi^ ^^^^rll:::^^^^^^^^ ^^-^ the Butch,. fc at sea continued and Count 9 1 '\ '''''"'' ^"""^«^- ^ostili- ^-. on their coasi:lX^---£g.^^ 252 THE PEOl'LE'8 UOOK OF HISTORY. fissistod by Austria, defended hia country with great courage and success. Peace with England was concluded in February, 167-4, the questions in dispute being settled by arbitration, and a subsidy being paid by the Dutch. At the same meeting of parlinrncnl which settled this question, several of the ministry had been attacked; and Buckingham, deserted by the king, joined Sliaftcs bury and the opposition. Louis, anxious to keep down the Protest- ant influence, procured the king to prorogue parliament for fifteen months, paying him five hundred thousand crowns as a considera- tion. He further privately engaged to pay him a yearly pension of one hundred thousand pounds, on condition that the two nations should be in strict secret alliance— a dishonourable bribe, which made the English tnonarcli almost the vassal of his French ally, Louis had again entered Flanders at the head of a large army, and the parliament, which met in 1667, strongly urged the king to declare war in favour of his Protestant allies. "lie tried to obtain a large sum from thera, perfidiously pledging his word that it should be applied to the purposes for which it was granted; but they dis- trusted him, and the French king, by further bribery, prevailed on him to adjourn the parliament. Soon afterwards, the prince of Orange was married to Mary, daughter of the duke of York; and Charles entertained serious desires of permanently settling the long- disputed contest. Louis, although winter was at hand, refused the terms offered to him, and again took the field with his forces, stop- ping the j)ayment of the pension, but still offering large bribes, in case the king would continue to sustain his interests. Charles, however, informed the parliament, which met in January, 1678, that he had concluded a treaty with the Dutch for their protection, and thus gained large supplies from them; but afler some forces had been despatched, distrusting him, they refused to vote further subsidies until satisfied in respect to religious matters. Enraged at this, he immediately prorogued them, and concluded a secret treaty with Louis, engaging, in consideration of four hundred thousand pounds, to withdraw his troops, if Holland would not consent to the treaty of Nimeguen, which was greatly to the advantage of the French monarch. The treaty, with some modifications, was, how- ever, signed, and peace was concluded. In this 3'ear, a most atrocious persecution, under sanction of the law, was perpetrated against the Catholics. Titus Gates, a man of infamous character, pretended to have discovered a great conspiracy £ 'N' bable e fc^ .L !n T''"'''^' '^^^^^ ^^^^ tor,, ho dotuilod b iU-e th cou " H '''''' ''f^'y -'^'-^i- waa i.icivu.se.l bv tlu' .nv.n.ri i ■^'^e public exciteiuuut ; wa. found iu a ditcli th u \, ' . '^?\' '"" "'" ^''''- ^'« ^^^^^ j fsuicide. Many persons wor. f. "^"'^^''e'l or had conmiittcd evidence of (^a^a d par a n^^^^ n /""^ "T *'^ ^^'^^^^ i -bJe and hell.h^,lot'Cx j Ld t ?'!. *''' "^ '""• i -noved fi.om London and t s^! t A 1 ,^"^''"^^' '^ which, for an hundi'cd and lift. •'^" , ^'^^ '^'"^ '^^^'^ P"«^^'J, i great tyranny and 1. til 1 "^^"'^^'^ ^^^^ conducted with i Oate«, assisted by BcZ 1 d o I "'"^ ^"'"'^ '''''' «^^'-^^J- I i-o--n,saarewlditr7.is h '"r"'^^' ^^'^T''^' ""'' ^^''' I but Charles refused to abando 1^' . ^ ^'"'" ^'''"^* ^^^^^ ^'^«"«-'J, locution. The c y vl W ' ^ '^"' "'^^^"^^ ^^^^^^-'^ P-' or the public n -nVr J; CutdTr' '"t ^" \'^ ^'^^"^^ ^^^^ tl'is pretended plot In jlnum l«7^ ^ r " '''' ""''^^"'^^^ ^^ attui- having held their ul-tces W 1 / ' ^"^■''^"^«"* ^^"^ ^i-^^olved, «t.ll continued so ^L fi^ 1^^ 'T : '^"^^^'^^' "^"''^'- ' depart ibr the continent ' ' '^ ^ '^'^' ^^^ ^^"1^^''-' ^o j The new parliament met in March 1fi7Q on^ • v i I'npeacned the earl of Dnnbv tl.P l . ' ' ^ immediately coMunitted to the toLr uJ . ^'^ ? ?''""^''^ "'^^^^^^' ^^''^ -'- ^aa resolved not ^^ ^i J^tr^X^,!^^^ !^ '^ w!;;r T:;f t.t -r -?-^^^^^^ I ^ r m THE VEQl'hK. » BOOK OF 11I8TOHV. the hiTcilitwy heir, from tlie throne. To prevent farther action, Charles immediately prorogued parliamt'iif for ten weeks. Perseeution still co'itiuued; and a considerable number of Jesuits and oth'T priests were executed — some as accessaries to the pro- t'l'i'i 1 plot, and others for rxercn-ing their ministerial function.s, Thivj.igjj' the influence of the king, u vvas at lixst abated, and several innocent prisoners were acquitted. In Scotland, the greatest oppression had prevailed. The people, attached to their own form of worship, and seeing their clergy expelled from their livings, held meetings, culled "Conventicles," in the open air. These were forcibly suppressed, and the people, driven to desperation by many acts of cruelty, took to arms. After sevejal actions, they were defeated with great loss at Bothwell Bridge, by the duke of Monmouth, a natural son of the king. Many had already been executed, and though the duke, a man of humane disposition, adv(jcated the cause of the unfortunate covenanters, they were for i long time harassed with the most cruel persecutions. The king dissolved the parliament, and a new one was elected Finding this assembly constituted much like the former, he pro- rogued it on the day it met, and prevented any action for more than a year. In January, 1680, the duke of York was rScalled to court, and was soon afterwards presented, for recusancy, to the grand jury, by Shaftesbury and other leaders of the opposition. The attempt was defeated by the chief justice, but the duke was compelled to return to Scotland, where he had lately been residing. Parliament met on the day after his departure, and immediately resumed the subject of his exclusion. A perjured witness swore to his plottiii" against the king's life; other questionable evidence was taken, and the bill of exclusion was passed by a strong majority, and sent up to the House of Lords, where, however, it was rejected by a large vjte, Ti;e House of Commons had now become so dictatorial and insolent, that another arbitrary parliament was feared ; but a private gentle- man having resisted their sergeant-at-arms, they discov-ipd llial they had exceeded their lawful power, and reeded from their i '■' ■ tensions. Enraged at their disappointment in the matter of ■.cli':,! ju, they attacked the king's ministry, and maliciously impeached the venerable Lord Stafford, a Catholic nobleman. He was tried in WeB:r''iuster Hall, and convicted of being accessary to the plot, on the Yi, -.Q^s testimony of Gates and other perjured informers; and shorij ; ^ ': a exflouted. ENGLAND. 266 mcmths— the object l,ein£rfnfrnn,r *i ^^''"^ '" t^o monoy, aAlre,»« «,,.„ , „,™!' f ^'°? '<""P°'W to sue for tion of 111... co.iiitrv ivl.u.l. ,.. i ' *° ^'''^ S'-'-''^^ satisfac- f>,*.yod tod,; „„ci sbafte, :/;r I'in",""™*"'^' of .!« deriff,, nd X; e„ "f "■ °°"' ■*'"'""'' ""= W-'-.^.. ! .nd U, charter ..r d^c TS "dtT "• ' f'^ °'H "^ '^""^°»' : mere tools of c.,„rt. The Zl ^ "";J"''s=s. "'ho were the ' oor,,oralio„,>va„h„s thrown ,!,',.T".1 "''" "'"' """•' ""■<"• ; Wow still was ,„ he struck at .1 . - ' ^ """' *''«"j' j of parha„„e„, the poX C*nUe T"' h'i,"? "^ '"''°""'''" of holding consulta'ticns, andThTnr" c "f '"=''" " ""^ ''"''" «nt was no doubt entertained nTVJ "'""''' ''='"'"" «"™- '"-■'M. lord Essex desmii,» f '"''" '"'°'"=" ''•'"' '«" »■'"'. J Russel,, being trTbLa '""'' "'"'^' ■"'' '"™ »fe. irason. This amiableLd , , ■',"''^'' "■'■" '^''"=' S'""/ of hi-h 'o^lf -ithinTet: s '7.:: ": fZt r -«»'"'/^~'«>-' "■= king obstinately refused to . er, 7^ ' ,„t, V ""T' "'"'* m act of crneltv. Algernon Sil, "npohtio and unncces- "0 party, wa., ;ex,^rW b w T' '" "f""' "P'^'i".™ »f the of tke ting's bench, nd It ^S 'a " ''""^^ "'"'^^ J"="« convLted in a manner utterly oj,p„sed to ^ J 256 THE I'KOl'LE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. law atul evidt'iicu. Like Russell, he died with gi'eat coustancy and heroism. The dida> oC Moiiinouth, who was also fully implicated, was, nev(>riheless, paiiiully reconciled to the king, his father. The opposition now seemed annihilated; for a scheme to murder the king (the celebrated "Kye-house Plot") had been discovered, and the people, confuunding this with the charge alleged against the condemned, every where supported the court. The Princess Anne, daughter of the duke of York, was married to Prince George, brotlier of the king of Denmark; and from this time the influence of the duke, owing to the indolence of Charles, was predominant, and he had the lu-incipal direction of affairs. On the 2d of February, 1685, the king was seized with a fit of apoplexy, and on the 6th expired, having previously recei^.'cd absolution in private from a priest of the Catholic faith, to which he h-.d alvvaya secretly inclined. This king presented a striking picture of an)iable manners and .strong private affections, joined to almost all the qualities which can disgrace a monarch. lie was deceitful, mean, rapacious, ungrati'ful, and utterly careless of the national welfare and honour. The license and immorality of his court exceeded all that had ever been witnessed in England. Nevertheless, the people, charmed by his gayety iuid affability, were alw.iys fond of him, and lamented his death nmch more than they would probablv have done that of a better king. CHAPTER III. JAMES II. Jamks, immediately on his accession, conciliated the people ami tlie church, by a most express and public declaration that tlu; Kstalilishment should not be disturbed. The ministers of the latu king were continued in office. lie ma'dc, however, no secret either of his own religion or that of his brother, and was at some piiiiis to publish the secret views and conversion of the latter. lie also gave much uueasiuesa to zealous Protestants by attending the ENGLAND. 257 CathoHc worship in the mn«f r^„^,T i fi-ther still, b/ordeSgTh d'S:::Vr?r^^^^ -^ also a secret Catholic council ^1^7? '''"'""*^- ^^« ^^^^ with a mental reservation Vil'rwTr"' ''"' *'^^ «^*^^^ surrender of charters to his brotl 0^" ' ' "" ^''^°""* ^^ ^he of loyal subjects, voted him m,? ' f '°'"P°'''^ "^"^"^^ ^"tirely of the late king yt wWb deoir""'^.' ''''"'^^ ^'l""^ *« t^a^ lii« declaration, !;.n 4 1; L"^ *''' ™P^'«'t ««nfidence in Meanwhile, ho^e ^S^^^ f". l^'^"^^^ ^^ ^^'•^"- the Protestant exiles, headed bvMnn ^.t ^''" '^^^^''^^d «™""g landed in Scotland on JL 2^0/^;" 8^^^^^^ ^^« ^^^*«' raise two thousand five hundred m J' Thf' J"*;^ ""^^ '^^^ *^ F^ed, and the duke, attempting o escape TnT '' ''" '"" and on the 30th executed at Eclnburlh mI ^ ^r^, ^"^ '''^^"' vanous circumstances, did not arrTvef ,1 ^^Tuh oVr'"'.'^ lie landed at Lyme, in Doraetshire and nut lil ""'' ''^''' styling James "a usurper " and Z ,^ "^""^^ ^ proclamation, don, and of other crimes' La " ""f ^'V''' burning of Lon- and he marched witTfour fhou^r '' ""''^'^ to his standard, himself king. He ecefved som f .,"" '^''*'^""^^"' P™«l-ming but learning'of the deC oVl";; t" 2^ t-^T' '^^ '^^^-' none of jhe gentry, began to desfa 'of sufcet"' ^Tf.r^' ^y 1st of July, encountered the royal forces unir t " 1 ^^f^' °" '^« ataplace called Sedgemoor The ^hT f ' ^^^''''^'^^"^' army was composed, fought bravelv h T ^'"T""''' ^^ ^^^«^^ ^^^ of five hundred kill d and fifteen ^'un, T '^'^''^*"^ ^^''■^^' '-^ 1"- himself; with other leaders attempting ^"''"'^'- ^^^^« ^^^^ ! The hatred of his uncl'e TxT ^ I T'^'' ^^ *'^^^'"- implacable; and on the 14th'of Julfthis ^nt' 'T "''T^'' ^"^ man was beheaded on' Tower-hill ^nd^ttll' f^"^'^'' "'^^'«- people, by whom he had always been hi , '^^^.^t'-^tions of the and ambition. He perished in the h.Vi! ^''^''' ^"^ '"'^^^'^^ . The most barbaro'us v gea" e wtlak' '"^°' ''^ '^^- ■porant insurgents. The infamourtfJ " "^^ '^'' ^'^'''^'^ ^"^ the country, trying the ace s d : "iSrt T'""'' *''^°"S^ by his orders, after a species of mocktrW O "' T' ^^^°"*^^^ beheaded, and another burned alive L off . '^'^ "'^'^"" ^"^ "^es. The air was infected from tl^ ^u^ '"'*'°" ^^ *''^ %- '"angled remains were expld w t e r^f T "'""^^'"^ ^^^-« --c^Jnto slavery, and rtJelt'Sr^^^^^^^^^ V VL.. LL— 17 ° " '^ "le Maids of Honour 258 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. who sold their liberty at exhorbitant rates. The king instigated and approved all these murderous proceedings, and Jeffreys is said to have declared, on his death-bed, that his blood-thirsty master was unsatisfied even with these extraordinary and sweeping executions. The chief instigators of the insurrection, except Monmouth, saved their lives by bribery and other means. James now felt secure and highly elated. He addressed the parliament in a tone of authority, and finding them not completely submissive, prorogued them, tw act no more during his reign. He kept up the army from his own revenue, and resolved to fill the principal commands with Catholics. To annul the act requiring their compliance with the rites of the church, he appointed judges pliant to his wishes, and gained from these a decision that his dis pensation (an ancient, but disputed branch of the royal prerogative) was sufficient to render the required conformance unnecessary. He gave similar dispensations to certain Catholic officers in the Univer- sity of Oxford. These measures alarmed the Protestants, who saw his intention of reestablishing Komanism, and prepared the way for his overthrow. Father Petre, the king's ' infessor, a zealous and fanatical priest, approved and stimulated the almost insane projects of the king. By especial request of James, a papal nuncio was appointed to the court of England. The pontiff, however, and his emissary, more prudent and moderate than their royal partisan, endeavoured vainly to restrain his rash proceedings. Convents were openly established in London ; the Jesuits opened a school; and the earnest Protestants were scandalized at seeing friars ranging through the city in the long-proscribed habit of > their order. To overawe opposition, the army, fifteen thousand in number, lay encamped on Hounslow Heath, mass being publicly performed, and great efforts made to convert the soldiery. These were mostly unsuccessful, and it is remarkable that in an age of such shameless venality and dishonest ambition, so few could be found to barter their conscience or their prejudices for court favour. Even Kirke, a brutal officer, refused the king's solicitations, alleging that he had promised the emperor of Morocco to turn Mahometan, if he changed at all. The few men of influ- ence who complied, were promoted to high stations, and both the cabinet and privy council were partly composed of Catholics. Great numbers of Protestants holding offices under government and in the army, were dismissed, or resigned their commissions, the vacancies J ENGLAND. 269 being filled with Romamsts. A declaration was issued susDcndin. the penal laws and the requirements of tests; and wrrtT remved with mueh joy and loyalty by the dissentei.. T^ ir anW. by to the Cathohes, however, proved in the end so much trolr than their desire for toleration, that they vehemently opposed the kings measures, and supported the bishops in their resistanc Ser' mons were even preached against the very act by which aJone tie speakers were permitted to occupy their pulpits Great excitement wa^ caused by the king's persistance in attempt- ng to convert the universities into Catholic institutions, and by TbeZTS ':ri '' ^^^° ^^^^*"- "P- *hem for' Z^l Ihe people had now become generally alarmed upon the subject rehgion, and turned their thoughts for assistance to the pS o{ Orange, the acknowledged champion of the Protestant clus? S^veral noblemen opened a secret correspondence with him. and an an, ^ resistance was contemplated. In this state of popular feelint .he oppos^ion of the Episcopal clergy determined the fate of J me!' In M.y 1688, he required that his declaration of general toleradon .ould be read from all the pulpits. The bishopslnd oth t^^^^^^^^ clergy remonstrated; but the king was firm. He accused them of rebeUious practices, and persisted in his demand. Out of a body of ten thousand clergymen, not more than two hundred complied James, m spite of the advice of even his Catholic counsellors resolved to prosecute the bishops for the remonstrance which thev I had signed; and, amid the lamentations of the people, sevin of them were committed to the tower. At the trial, in spL of every exe^ tion on the part of the crown, they were acquitted, and theTopIr cause gained a vast accession of strength and'confidence. Th'eW who had been grievously annoyed by the confirmed ProtestantisS of his daughters, was somewhat consoled by the birth o^a son an" h ir to the throne; but such was the prejudice against his cause and all that seemed to strengthen it, that hardly any of the Protelnt. would admit the reality of the birth, though atLed by fhe st^l est evidence. It was maintained, and generally believed tha" a supposititious child had been palmed upon the people for h sake of securing a Catholic heir to the throne "^ ine saice The occurrence of this event decided the leaders of opposition- and an invitation, signed by a number of the nobility and X^' A great part of Europe wa^ already in alliance, under the direction 260 TUi; rKoi'Lic's book OF HI8TCKY. 4 of this politic and able sovereign, to check the ambition of Franco; and he was enabled to make large preparations for the invasion of England, under pretence of preparing to defend Holland. Louis, who saw the impending danger, hastened to offer his aid and alli- ance to James, which that infatuated prince refused. He soon, however, perceived his error, for the designs of William became unmistakeable ; and' immediately commenced the work of conces- sion, neglecting no means to conciliate his offended clergy and people. A large fleet was also kept on the coast, and an army of forty thou- sand men was enlisted. But these acts of prudence and vigilance came too late. The prince, supported by the States of Holland, had in readiness a fleet of sixty men-of-war, and seven hundred transports. A force of fifteen thousand men was also ready to embark, commanded by Schomberg (William's former opponent and present ally) and by other able continental officers; and a number of noble English exiles and others were engaged in the undertaking. The sailing of this armament was, however, delayed for more than a month by furious gales from the west, and it did not leave the shores of Holland until the 1st of November (1688). The king, meanwhile, had done every thing to prop his sinking cause. He had proved, by a most formal investigation, the reality of the birth of his son ; had dismissed Sunderland, his unscrupulous adviser, from ofiice, and removed Father Petre from the council. On the 5th of November, William, with his forces, arrived safely at Torbay, in Devon, and landing, marched to Exeter. He was at first joined by very few, the people being overawed by the late executions; and had serious thoughts of returning. At length. Sir Edward Seymour setting the example, numbers of the nobility and gentry came to his standard. His partisans also began to raise men in the different counties. James beheld himself deserted by one adher- ent after another, and his daughter Anne herself fled from him. "God help me!" he exclaimed, in tears; "my very children have forsaken me." Disaffection spread rapidly through the kingdom, and the most important places were soon occupied by the adherents of the prince. The queen and the infant prince of Wales had been secretly despatched to France, and James, after an ineffectual attempt at negotiation, resolved to follow tliem. He privately posted to Feversham, flinging the great .se.'d into the river on his way; but, after having embarked, was detnined, with his companions, on suspi- ENGLAND. I cion taat they were Jesuits. His rank hpm„ o _ • , was appointed for his protection ITl, ^ ascertained, a guard he was received with Lea dZ' . .' ""'^ '° ^'°"^""' ^'^^re the functions of £ foval 'T ^^T/' ^'^^^*^' ^"^ '^^^-^^^ ambitious desi^s had bin "*f' .^^"^^™' ^°^^--. ^"'^ose compelled hi:ru„der p etevfoT^^^^ ''?""*^' ¥ his' return, C.PM and take up ii^;5sL:'rB::h^^^^^^^ %tT ''. ^-- ?.^ His friends rem~,^" ^^^^^^^^^ ^^ could easily escape, by the fate of his falhe") a' uaiv fe . T'' ^^""^^P^ '^^''^'^ January 22d, 1689 when a oonl .^ f administration until I capital This body on ^ ? """" "^''''"^ *° "^^^^ ^* ^^^ AbyhisaLustVthet ? "^' ^^^^^^^^^l^ ^-olved that withd;awd from Ltilt^^^^^ -^^^Pop-y, and his the same waa vacant. The rnvenin tr .\'V^'°"^' ^"^ *^^* and his wife a ioint-title to Zl '^f^'^'^ "Pon the prince 1st— tdS^F^s^^^^^^^^^^ •He throne, the power of the »vp J, f °' ®'°" '^'=«<'<"' <« Increaaing'clviLtion andl° r S „7Jlf:1 1^'" f*™'' "P an almost continued content I? f^ '''"'"^' '""' ^eP' -.alUhepreaentprij;,::?;^^,:^— ;"^^^^^^ L_ 262 TUB PEOPLE'S BOOK OS HISTOKY. tiJtli/lxJLJuJu AJltilX* WILLIAM III., AND HART II. The new reign commenced on the third of February, 1689. AH Protestants were confirmed in their appointments, and the officers of state were chosen from the ranks of both the Whigs and Tories — names wliich though with very different significations, have been ever since adopted by the leading parties of Great Britain. By act of parliament, any Catholic, or any person marrying a Catholic, was excluded from the throne. An "Act of Toleration," through the king's influence, exempted dissenters from certain penalties, and the Catholics, though not mentioned, shared the benefit. Louis openly espoused the cause of James, and on the 7th of May, war was declared against France. In Scotland, a convention had been summoned immediately after the flight of James, and the Whigs being in a majority, it was declared that he had forfeited the throne. William and Mary were proclaimed in his stead. His adherents, foiled in the convention, appealed to force, and Viscount Dundee (infamous, under the name of Claverhouse, for his cruelty to the Covenanters,) hastened to the Highlands, and raised a considerable force. General Mackay, who with a superior force was sent against him, was defeated, with a loss of fifteen hundred men. Dundee, however, received a wound, of which he died the next day, and the clans, deprived of a leader, laid down their arms. This decided the cause in Scotland; and Episco- pacy was soon supplanted by Presbytery. In Ireland, all the power was in the hands of the Catholics, and Lord Tyrconnel, the governor, declared for James. The dethroned monarch himself, furnished with supplies by Louis, lauded with twelve hundred of his own subjects, at Kinsale, on the 12th of March. He entered Dublin, amid the acclamations of the Catholics, and took command of the army. Enniskillen and Londonderry alone offered any resistance, the latter being defended by the Protestants with desperate courage. After a close siege of some months, it was relieved from the sea, and the besiegers retired, after losing eight oi nine thousand men. They were equally unsuccessful at Enniskillen. An Irish parliament was summoned, the "Act of Settlement" was ENGLAND. 263 and tithes were .ade payable to thfp;Tests^"''^ "" '^'''^''''^ In August, the duke of Schomberg landed with t^n ,hr. a men and wasatflrst successful; but at;t.' g otSf h s^'^^^^ bv disease, was compelled to go into winter-quarters. An E ." h nuadron, sent to intercept the French supplies, was defeated and forced to retreat. In 1690 Schomberg, wfth a reinfo emen't of rnTwimZl T^ ""'"^"^^' the Campaign successf^n; I June, Wilham landed m person, and found himself at the head of WUham, after reachmg Dublin, and proclaiming an amnesty to the common people, attempted to storm Limerick, but waTrpulTed w th great loss, and embarked for England, leaving the war n' the hands f h,s generals. The combined English and Dutch fleer under Lord Tornngton were, on the 20th June, defeated by the French Displeased with the conduct of parliament, he had dissolved it and summoned a new one to meet in 1690. ihe Tories wereTn the majority, and with great difficulty a bill had been p" d d'cLU! the king and queen "rightful and lawful" sovereigns of Grea BHt ain, and ratifying the acts of the convention, as%rig nally v^^^^^^^ Through the influence of the crown, it passed, and theTori Lla ed to question the nghts of the new incumbents A bill of ndemn !v and other important measures were carried through. On his return from Ireland, William obtained a grant of four millions and t h h. con.nen.l allies, undertook to prosecute vigoZ;:^ :t w/rlTtVT''' *^'* ^^'"^ of the leading politicians in England were at this time, m correspondence with James; and the earlof Marlborough, who had recently commanded success'fully aga ns tim mer of 1691, William, accompanied, among others, by the earl corned on the continental war, and, on his return in tober, Lnel hat Ireland was completely reduced to submission. Eeasonul le terms were granted to the defeated party. ^easonalJe r^ 264 TllK PEOl'LE'S LOOK OF HISTORY. In February, 1692, a most barbarous massacre was committed in the dead of nigbt upon the tribe of Macdonalds at Gloncoc, who had been adherents of the expelled dynasty. Misrepresentations had been made to the king; but his readiness to sign an order for the indiscriminate slaughter of a defenceless people, will alwavs attach to his reputation the stain of cold-blooded cruelty. He returned to Holland in the spring, and great preparations for an invasion of England, were made both by James and his English adherents. Louis had furnished him with troops, which, with the exiles from his former dominions, amounted to fifteen or twenty thousand men. But the fleet which was to have transported this force to the shores of England, was defeated with great loss by that of the English and Dutch, and the attempt wa.s, for the present, abandoned. During the continental campaigns of 1692 and 1698, the French were almost uniformly successful ; they took a number of strong- holds, and, intercepting the great Smyrna fleet, captured and destroyed property to the amount of a million sterling. In the following year, however, the advantage was upon the side of the allies. The machinations of the Stuart party still continued — Marl- borough, Godolphin, and other influential politicians, still holding forth hopes of a restoration. Owing to the treachery of these men, an expedition against Brest was defeated with much loss. On the 21st of December, 1694, the queen died in the thirty-third year of her age. Her duties as a wife and daughter had for a num- ber of years been in constant collision ; and it is not too much to say, that she f i.crificed the latter to the former more than justice demanded. Almost the only point on which sympathy can be felt for James, is that of the undutiful conduct of his children — whose demeanour toward their discrowned and exiled father has been com- pared to that of the daughters of King Lear. In the campaign of 1695, William, to the great joy of the allies, took the strong city of Namur, after a siege of seven weeks. In the new parliament, which met this year, an act was passed, regulating trials for treason upon more humane and liberal principles. The coinage, which was in a miserably debased state, was also restored to its purity, under the superintendance of Sir Isaac Newton. Plots for the assassination of William had already been detected, and in February, 1696, a most nefarious scheme for this purpose was discovered, originated by the Jacobites, and probably sanctioned £NGLAN I) 2nn by James Mmself Upon tnaJ, seven persons were found -nulty and executed. S:r John Fenwick, who hud contrived to sutTr s^ ^o.pan.d this pHS:r ^ar- ^ ^!£Z vz attempt of the partisans of James, and in September IfiOT ll treat, of Eyswick restored peace to' the nationstw^ J n c^ Thri.m.r " '^ ' 1 '^' P"""*^^^^ ^°<^ manifestoes of Jan.cs-the la ter, on account of his faith, or bigotry reiectin- \ proposal that the succession should be settled on hi's so^' if he 2h receive a Protestant education. ' ^ * The parliament of 1699, jealous of the king and the forei<.n troons I the nation at large, remained inoperative ^ ?Ji ^?^f ? regulatmg the succession. By this "Act of niere to Charles T Z^ ^^^ '"''^ ^ Protestant, and jortant matter,. Great indignation w4 exoW 17,^ °c„„t:i teth.bed, had publicly recognised Lis son as kin» „f l? i ■ Stnngcn. measures were passed against all LZZ^o/th^t ' .ad „,„c^ thousand men we,, voted for the ttC^il"" ™"'' .. February, 1702, ^ Jlt^^i^'':,^:^^^'''^- ^^ p J^rattrrt;!^^^^^^^^^^ :iti"?- ? ise 206 TilK r I'LK'S UOOli Of UliJTUliY. of Glencoe, he had littlo compunction at shedding blood. The cold- ness and formality of his manners prevented him from ever becoming personally popular. uiiAFxEH XXIII, ANNB. The queen at her accession was in her thirty-eighth year. She was a firm Protestant, and strongly inclined to the Tory party, which she preferred in forming her ministry. The abilities of Marlborough, despite his well-known treachery, procured him the command of the forces, and the chief charge of the foreign interests of the nation. On the loth of May, according to the previous agreement, war was declared against France by England, Holland, and Germany. Marlborough, who commanded the allied army,' effected little during this campaign, being hampered by the vexa- tious conduct of the Dutch deputies accompanyin,;: the army. An expedition of great force, planned by William, was now sent against Cadiz, which was regarded as a portion of the French dominions. It retired, however, without effecting any thing except the taking of plunder ; but falling in, on the passage home, with the great treasure-fleet of the Spaniards, captured and destroyed property to the amount of eight millions of dollars. The contest entitled the " War of Succession," in which England was now engaged for eight years, was founded on an alliance made by William and other con- tinental powers to repress the ambition of Louis, who, by intrigue, had succeeded in placing his grandson Philip on the throne of Spain! The allies, impeded by various causes, effected little in 1703 and the early j)art of 1704, the genius of Marl'jorough being still restrained by the pertinacious deputies. In August, however, assisted by Prince Eugene, he engaged the French and Bavarian army of fifty-six thousand men, under Marshal Tallard and others, at Blenheim, with a slightly inferior force. After a desperate con- test, the enemy was entirely defeated, with a loss of forty thousand men. Other successes followed this remarkable victory, anu the H- K N L A N D. 267 L. duke received splendid tentimonials of gratitude f.-oin tlie nueon and parliament. In the same year, the strong fortress of Gibraltar wua taken by an English force under Sir George Rooke. In 1705, little was effected in Flanders, the principal seat of war but an expedition to Spain, headed by Lord Peterborough and the Arciiduke Charles, (the rival claimant to the Spanish crown,) was very successful and several provinces espoused the cause of the lat- ter. In 1706, Marlborough, with an army of about sixty thousand men, encountered that of the French, of equal force, under Marshal Vi leroy, near Ramillies. The latter again sustained a terrible defeat, with a loss of thirteen thousand men. A large part of the disputed territory surrendered. Negotiations for peace being ineffect- ual, Marlborough again took the field in 1707, but with >tle result of importance. In Spain, the allies were entirely routed uv Philip and the revolted provinces were again subdued. In 1708 a fleet fitted out by Louis, and commanded by the son of James IL,' (called in England the Pretender,) sailed for Scotland ; but owing t<^ storms and the presence of an English squadron, returned unsuccessful. In the same summer, Marlborough besieged and took the towns of LisJe aLd Ghent. Louia was now desirous of peace; but the allies insisted on .uch unreasonable terms, that he renewed the war. On the 11th of September, 1709, occurred the hardest-fought battle of the whole war. Marlborough and Eugene, with ninety thousand men had invested the town of Mons, and Marshal Villars. with an equa force, hastened to its relief. The two armies encountered near Malplaquet. The French lost fourteen thousand men, and the allies twenty thousand ; but the advantage remained with the latter After another ineflfectual attempt at negotiation, in 1710, further hostilities ensued; and in Spain, Charles, with twenty-three thousand men, defeated his nvaJ, Philip, and compelled him to quit the capital Thesuccesses of the duke of Vendome, however, restored the failing fortunes of Philip. The English and German allies were captured or discomfited, and the conquest of Spain became evidently hopeless Meanwhile, a most important political event had occurred at home' 1 he necessity of a closer union between the kingdoms of England and Scotland had been deeply felt ever since the accession of James L, with whom It had been a favourite object. This feelin^ was strongly increased by an independent and rather dictatorial resolu- tion of the Scottish parliament, called the "Act of Security"— a measure which called forth a still more violent response from the ?.n8 THE PEOI'LE'S HOOK OF IIISTOUY. English assembly. By adroit manngcment, however, the meaaure \va.s entertained by both, and the queen was empowered to appoint commissioners from both kingdoms, fur the purjjoso of a settlement These met at Westminster, in 1706, and, after some dispute, agreed upon the particulars. Of these, the most important were, the succession of the house of Hanover and the distribution of repre- sentation and taxation— a share in each, very feebly proportioned to her population, being, in consideration of her poverty, allotted to Scotland. When these terms were made known in that country, a storm of public indignation arose. Some just, and many ridiculmw objections wore urged, and two-thirds of the nation were vehemently opposed to the scheme. Nevertheless, when their parliament met on the 13th of October, 1706, the court party was sufficiently power- ful to carry the measure— a result due, partly to the necessity of the case, and partly to the "Equivalent," a sum of three hundred and ninety-eight thousand pounds, paid under pretext of recompense for the loss of customs and excise, but in reality as a fund for bribery. On the 1st of May, 1707, the two nations were incorporated under one government, by the name of Great Britain. On signing the deed which destroyed the separate existence of his kingdom, the Scotti-sh commissioner coolly remarked, laying down his pen, "And there ia the end of an auld sang." During all the time of the war, a fierce struggle had been main- tained between the Whig and Tory parties, involving, however, few principles of national importance. In this selfish warfare for political power, the queen's private feelings and attachments deter- mined the result. She had, for many years, been warmly attached to the duchess of MarlboroUgh, whose husband had thus been loaded with wealth and honours. This ambitious and imperious woman was supplanted in the queen's affections by Mrs. Masham, one of her waiting-women, of whose influence the Tories, directed by Harley, took advantage. The government, however, was principally Whig in 1710, but was overthrown by a ridiculous incident. Doc- tor Sacheverell, a fanatical high Tory preacher, had in a sermon reasserted all the exploded doctrines of passive obedience, &c., and had vehemently attacked the administration. Godolphin, the treas- urer, had the folly to bring him to trial; the whole Tory party espoused his cause; and the nation generally, considering him a martyr, were enthusiastic in his favour. A lenient sentence was regarded as a victory by the Tories, and Harley, sure of the temper BNQLAND, 269 of ko „afo„, a,,d „,doe.vsurcs and uf mm.stnes. A bill, however, which George (to L_. 272 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. griilif)- his hatred to the prince of Wales, by injuring the prerogative) would willingly have signed, for limiting the number of peers was defeated. In 1720, a most extraordinary delusion seized upon the people. The South Sea Company, an unsuccessful establishment of 1711 made a large financial contract with government, and, being in the hands of unprincipled men, used every effort to inspire the public with a belief in its unbounded resources. To such an extent did the infatuation reach, (founded on improbable stories of gold mines and enormous profits in trade,) that the stock went up to a thousand per cent., and all classes hastened to invest their property in the treach- erous concern. Many, by speculating in the stock, made fortunes; but the bubble soon burst, and thousands were ruined. The kino^'a mistresses and several members of government were deeply con- cerned in this iniquitous transaction. Lord Townshend and Eobert Walpole, two men of high ability, who had lost their places in the government for a time, were enabled, by the odium which this transaction cast on the ministry, to regain a high position— the first becoming secretary, and the latter first lord of the treasury. In 1722, died the duke of Marlborough, the most able commander, and one of the most sagacious statesmen of his age. He possessed many excellent and amiable traits of character, though his public life was stained by treachery, and his private life by covet- ousness. The remainder of the reign of George I. was chequered by few incidents worth recording. An unsuccessful plot of the Stu.irt fivction was detected; one conspirator was executed, and Bishop Atterbury, with otlier persons of high rank, was commit- ted to prison. In Ireland, a great excitement, fomented by Dean Swift, was occiisioned by the attempted issue of a debased copper coin, entitled, from the name of the i)atentee, " Wood's half-pence." So great was the clamour, that government was compelled to retract from the measure. Daring this reign, the foreign relations of the kingdom were entirely changed, a close alliance existing with France and other powers, and a state of jealousv or hostility toward Spain and tlie empire. Sir George Eying, in 1718, destroyed a Spanish fleet of twenty-seven sail of the line, oli" Sicily. In 1725, Admiral Hosier made ■.m unsuccessful expedition to Spanish America, and perished, with gi-eat numbers of his men, from disorders incident to the cli- mate. The king died in his yearly journey to Hanover, on the lltJi solicitous for the welfare of their ZT i T ""^ ^^^'^ "'^^^ hold the chief control of government hi.llf^ fifteen years to resigning in 1730. During^ll tdl '°"'' ^'^™'^'"^' opposition composed of t!^^ :!:^^:^^'''tZ:^ most formidab e adversaries^ wpr« P„u Tt, T" ^™°"g ^is .heir own hands; b„. WalpoH X had rSt^d ft/:r:fT'h"*° rivice, and during ll Zf«" . ^ '"™' ""f""'"^ "^ ''«' «.rol of affain,"t Z b3s '° '"'°''^''^' '^"''>' '"'ft ""> .e-XrbTenrp'::fi"t;f Tn tr!;^ r *"'-' -^ ^ -'«« "■™- kirn to declare war A,l,„Ll v ■ ! "oIonieB, compelled expedition against CarthllT f„''nl"''l'' " " "T, '"'•^"»'" -l*™.ed v4age. After Cg a 1 hi tt^lXtte "H "^ much niurv to the c;nn«;.u ?i vessejs but one, and domg of four yea„, during" hiob bke £,1 ^ ^ ?°'"' °'^'' '" "'«"'""» tloba Th. L T ;,' '""^ *''''«i he bad circumnavigated the 274 TIIK I'EOl'LK'S BOOK OF UISTORY. made to remove him from office. A parliament newly elected con- tained a majority of his opponents; and in Februar}^, 1742, he resigned his office, and was created Lord Orford. He survived the loss of his power but three years. The peaceful and able adminis. tration of this firm and consistent Whig minister presents less lustre than that of others, from the corrupt means by which he acquired and perpetuated his power. Of the leading men who opposed or succeeded him in the adminis- tration, the most distinguished was William Pitt, already conspicuous for his talents. Henry Fox, the rival of Pitt, was also a man of great abili+j and eloquence. Murray (Lord Mansfield), Conway, Townsend, and others had already began to play a conspicuous part. The ministry, however, was now chiefly directed by the duke of Newcastle, Lord Carteret (afterwards Granville), and some others. By virtue of a treaty with the empress of Austria, (now at war with Frederick the Great,) a subsidy \vda granted, and a force of sixteen thousand men was despatched to her assistance. The king ( f England, eager to acquire martial renown, joined it in person in 1743, and, at the age of sixty, distinguished himself at the battle of Dcttingen. France next entered the contest, and the English, with their allies, commanded by the duke of Cumberland, the king's son, w^re defeated by Marshal Saxe, at Fontenoy, with a loss of ten thousand men. It was now resolved by the court of France to embarrass the British, by assisting the long-neglected house of Stuart; and in August, 1745, Charles Edward, son of the pretender, landing with a few adherents, was joined by many of the Highland clans. He nioved rapidly southward, entered Edinburgh, and took up his abode in Holyrood House, the ancient palace of his ancestors. At Preston Pahs he completely defeated General Cope, who had been sent against him, and then, with a force of only five thousand men, marched in the most daring manner into England. Taking Carlisle and Manchester, he advanced as far as Derby; but finding himself joined by few, was compelled to retreat. He gained one more vic- tory in January, 1746, but on the 16th of April, with four thousand men, was defeated at Culloden, by the duke of Cumberland, with a greatly superior force. The brutal victor ordered that no quarter should be given; and the most atrocious acts of cruelty and military licentiousness followed. The unfortunate chevalier, after undergo- ing great hardships, and experiencing many romantic adventures. ENGLAND. 276 , Granville, who had pnncipally controlled affairs since the fall of an important office In 1748 nft '"'""° '"^^"- -f'tt also received t^ uuL uuiLB. in 1/48, alter an inimense effusnon «f i^i i apparent to «,e three ttgl* ' b"''."" «-'«« W„e heir. I cVed, whea a fresh wa/w,.rFraf ^o w jTjr K^T ""^ The event, which followed be ong proneX toT.^. t."*"""- »rf may be very briefly detailed. SXtJiZ'Z,'''''"''' Arable force, wa, surprised, defeated, a'd sfa ^ a'd iT 7,"/™" ina forma V deolarml Tr, .1,;. , ^''""' ""'' "i 1"68 war "Seven YeL' wT-in , ^ ^,TV^'° °<'"""<'"«'i *e famous oeven rears War, m wliich all the powers of n™t.„l v «re engaged-Frederick the Great, supported bvjS] f ^^ i taibly seized the Austrian provine; oTstlil ' "^ ' ^""^ j «;:; nSan *d o.r?o:if tr-^ -•-^'™^. -^ ^ defence of the country The flTeven. S •"""' I"''"""' '"' *' ..sthe failure of Admiral B™! iJom a too'", T.f ''°«'''"'" I ».d tactics, to captu« the Fr'nfhfl e", Z k^ """'^ "^ Wy yielded ,0 the popular clamouratinl him Idlh"""".'*^ and patriotic man was judicially murdered by a ^rtLrtal a! ta execution, he displayed the highest calmnL an llgf effd :^::i7.t;f„7him°.'"""^'°^ "'"'' "'» »-'^"^ After a curious vacillation of power, during which Pitf v , .1 ^x and ethers in turn controlled the mS; fo/al^^^^^^^ I former became the actual minister, (Newcastle retaLing tie t^ ml, by his boldness and genius, rescued the nation from tie dS ' of despondency. Misfortune, however, continued for a ti^e in 278 TUK I'KOl'LE'S BOOK OF UlSTOKY. expedition against Rochfort utterly failed, and the duke of Cuw berland, with an army of forty thousand Hessians and Hanoverians, was forced to capitulate, and abandon the electorate to the French. In America, Montcalm had greatly extended the strength and territory of the latter. In 1758 the arms of England were more successful; and in the following year, great successes awaited them. Boscawen, in the Mediterranean, and Hawke, in the Channel, gained decided naval victories. In America several forts had been seized, and the city of Quebec was taken b}'^ storm by the gallant General Wolfe, who, witli his rival, Montcalm, expired on the field of battle. The battle of Minden, on the continent, in which the English gained much distinc- tion, occurred about the same time. On the 25th of October, 1760, the king expired of apoplexy, in the seventy-seventh year of hij age, and the thirty-first of his reign. Hia grandson, George III., succeeded him. During these two reigns, the monarch being a foreigner, and compelled to govern according to the will of majoritie.N, the Whigs had retained almost the entire control of government. The most shameless venality had prevailed, and all branches of munici- pal government were indifferently administered. The police were inefficient, and' crime, consequently, was of frequent occurrence. Compared with the present day, morals and manners were in a very uncultivated state. tjJilArj.i!iJt\ iLiAiV, OEOROB III. Thr young king, at the age of twenty-two, came to the throne under most favourable circumstances. The country was prosperous and united, and his parliament was generous and loyal. The war was still continued, though the king, whose predilections were for the Tory party, waa anxious for jwace, that he might dismiss Pitt, the principal leader of the Whigs. France had suffered greatly especially in her commerce and colonics, and was anxious for tRe ENGLAND. 277 evinced ^Itt'::!!," Zt^^^ ^Kf^l "^'"^ l-^' aged to teep in office for mo" h " th^l ' "'"" """* ""'"• lord Bute, a Scottish nohZZ. hi™ ?-^ ^ °" "''="'8°=''' ""<" with shipping and treasure to the amount of IZ \r^ of Havana, By the taking of Manilla and r'cr.'le " of plunder was obtained Fr,Jfi 7 ^,''^' ^» ^^^^1 amount in the West Ind^s " ^""' " """^^^^ «^ ^er possessions and elsewhere. Others shp rp«f«,.»^ tr ■ Indies i.c..ed,eve„t,.flvrjLTr;;ir°"'°"°' '*' ""'' •-- ;..po™G«ta.„o.„oe::ril"er:L^ -ii'^d tti: r;r aTeitid ^-n-' -"^^ ™"'-' -" North Briton 110^^™!.™!? f'^^-^l'^y '" » P-Per called the ,* Of (or p;A7orr:'^':frr;^t.*:or'^' "^°' ^" adhered to him faithfulW TT. u P'^''^^°'^*'on of government, F.i.ed to ^^^e\T'^'^^zTJ::Zr:sT^- r "-' reveroprl nn,i T,„ ,. "^''^^"'"g ^ i7b«, his sentence was eT;L\;ih "^r'St'? '""""»"■»'• -^ -<>^" to him Mr Pitt who al -^^ °' ''™='''"«1'»'". i" 1766, and control, "^i;„e\offi;fr'*™^^^^ " ""'"'^^ '""* •■« «"M not .fiord S;i TbfdurorGrat"'' 1" "f' "'* ""»"* 278 TIIK I'KOl'LE'S BOOK OF IIISTOIiY. For several years previous, a storm had been brewing upon the western sliores of the Atlantic. The prudent Walpole had refused to lay a tax upon the North American colonies; but in 1764 tiiu king himself compelled Grenville to introduce a bill asserting the expediency of stamp duties on the colonies. Strong remonstrances were made by the colonists; but in 1765 the bill passed, and was met by the most determined resistance. It was repealed the follow- ing year, but in 1767 duties were imposed on various articles. These, except the tax on tea, were taken off in 1770. In 1773 the ships of the East India Company, carrying a supply of the obnoxious article, were not permitted to land it; and a portion was forcibly thrown into the sea in Boston harbour, by a party of citizens dis- guised as Indians. Eetaliatory proceedings were immediately insti- tuted, and the provinces made zealous and patriotic preparations for an armed resistance. The long and desperate struggle which followed, belongs properly to American history, and may be briefly stated. A general alliance for mutual defence was made among the numerous colonies on the Atlantic. By the result of a new election for parliament, it was obviously the determination of the English people to reduce their revolted provinces by force, the celebrated Burke vainly attempting a reconciliation. The first blood was shed at the little town of Lexington, in April, 1775; and Boston, where the English troops were stationed under General Gage, was soon surrounded by twenty thousand of the American militia, eager to avenge the death of their countrymen. The battle of Bunker's Hill, whore the English, in attempting to drive a small body of troops from their intrenchments, lost a thousand men, was the first action of importance. George "Washington, already distinguished in the French war, was intrusted with the command of the provincial forces — a task which he fulfilled with wonderful courage, skill and perseverance. He blockaded Boston till the spring of 1776, (a daring, but unsuccessful attempt on Canada being made meanwhile,) and finally compelled the English garrison to evacuate it. The provincial forces were defeated with great loss on Long Island, by General Howe, and the city of New York, surrendering, was held by the British during the remainder of the war. On the 4th of July, 1776, a general congress declared the independence of the colonies, and all prospect of an adjustment became hopeless. In 1777 the Americans were defeated at Brandywine, but retrieved ENGLAND. 279 ,n 177Q i ', '■««^"^'nencing hostilities with Enrrland- and m 17.9 Spain also joined the hostile alliance. In Arneriea 1 T.r was conducted with alternate fortune. The brave pro in iah loZ suffering extremely W the want of food, clot'hing and sheltl |u.d Cornwa lis were highly successful in the southerVstate In the North, at this tune, occurred the celebrated treason ofTrnold and he execution of the unfortunate Major Andr., as a spy '''' meJures tt'tlL'n ;^ '"'^ °""^""^ "^ '^^'^^ °^ --"-tory measures but the nation was mostly desirous of carrying on the «-ar. The idea of a dismemberment of the empireClf inde d generally regarded with great aversion; and in 1778^^1^; ham who had been a vehement advocate for eonciliatiin, cam to t^e Louse, though suffering severely from disease, and spoLeTth mo impassioned manner against a motion for acknowledging the ind pendence of the states. Having finished his speech this In statesman fell backwards in convulsions, and four^s atrw'ard expired, in the seventieth year of his age. arterwards About lue same time, a terrible rinf onn<,c.A \.„ the Catholics, and instigated b^W G^^ ^^r Tr:^^^^^^^ son. time in London. A mob, composed o? fifty thous^d ? atica Protes ants destroyed the Catholic chapels an'd dwe IW^^^^^^^^ burned or threw open the prisons, and plundered the residences of Lord Mansfield and other obnoxious persons. It wa. fill! y sup pressed by the military, many of the rioters being killed "^ ^ The blockade of Gibraltar still continued, and it was repeatedly attacked and defended with the most desperale courage ; b TnS ^ on.bardment nor famine could subdue the resolution 'of he gt son. The Dutch had joined in the hostile alliance against Englnd but were defeated at sea, and lost the island of St. Eustathiusw^l' much valuable property. The war in the southern S was I trac ed; but on the 19th of October, 1781, Lord CornwalHsw " his wnole army, was compelled to surrender at Yorktown, to a c^m 280 TUE PEOP.LE'S BOOK OF UI8T0KY. billed force of Americans and French. This event effectually teriiiiiiutod the war. Tlie administration of North, unpopular on account of this and other misfortunes), grew weaker and weaker; it was compelled to sustain tlic united attacks of Pitt, (so*' of the earl of Chatham,) of Fox, and Sheridan, the most brilliant orators of the day, and finally, m March, 1782, the cabinet was dissolved, and the offices filled with the most distinguished members of the opposition. In the West Indies, Rodney had completely defeated the French admiral, De Grassc, capturing or desiroying most of his fleet. Gib- raltar was besieged and bombarded by more than an hundred thousand men; but by its im2)regnable position and the gallantry of its defenders, maintained a successful resistance. Negotiations had, however, been for some time carried on, and, in 1783, a general pence was concluded, by which the independence of the United States was acknowledged, and the concuests of England, France, and Spain, were mutuall}' restored. Another hundred millions of pounds had been added to the national debt. By the most singular coalition of North and Fox, the ministry, headed by Lord Shelburne, was overthrown, and the former oppo- nents entered office together. This union was, however, too unnatural to last long, and the scheme of Mr. Fox, to effect a change in the affairs of India, having failed to command a majority, they retired in their turn. Pitt, at the age of twenty-four, now ibrmed a new ministry, of which he was the head; and, with a single interval, continued to hold the post of prime minister during the remainder of his life. The opposition, henceforth, was led by Fox. The new minister was, however, in a decided minority himself; but, with wonderful tact and perseverance, allowed the opposition to become unpopular by defeating his measures. Then, dissolving parliament, he secured an immense majority at the next election, great numbers of the Whigs having lost their seats in the House of Commons. His power, however, was nearly overlAirown in 1778, by the king's mental derangement. George, prince of Wales, and a fi-iend of the opposition leaders, was about to be appointed prince- regent, though with very limited powers; but his father's sudden recovery, just before the passage of the bill, confirmed the ministry ill their position, and disappointed the Whigs, who were daily expect- ing to step into office. During the incidents which have been narrated, remarkable events ; effectually of this and ompelled to /hatham,) of , and finally, 15 filled with the French I fleot. Gib- an hundred be gallantry Negotiations 33, a general the United France, and as of pounds be ministry, ormer oppo- 30 unnatural ange in the they retired rmed a new gle interval, 16 remainder c. rity himself; e opposition 1, dissolving jxt election, I the House »wn in 1778, Vales, and a nted prince- ler's sudden the ministry laily expect- kable events THl DTJH or WELLINGTON. A«,„„n W...,..„, D„k. of w.llinston, w- bom in th. county of ul.th .n Ir.land, on th. fir.t of M.y. 17fl9. H.. prof.a.ional education w„ oom».n..d ..«ht..n. Th. high miht.ry reputation which he acquired in Indian warf.r, wa. .u.ta,n,d and widely extended by h.. re n.rkahl. .chie.ement. ,n th. i>.n,n.u.ar war. and, le.. deeer^dly. by th, v.ctory of Waterloo, which Bnt..h paneeyri.t. ar. aocu.tom.d to attribute entirely to hi. talent. S.no. th. sen.ra. peace, h. ha. alw«y. taVen an active part in political affai,., and hM generally b..n found at th. h.ad. or in th, rank., of th. ultra to... Very recently, at th. advanc.d a,, of .ighty-on.. th. .,tU.m,nt of th. Briti.k Cab.n.t WM again placed in hi. ha«d.= a.d hi. adr.c. to the Que... of r...l,i», 'utf ounjBier. Uota John Hukaeil, wa. adopted ENGLAND. 281 »..pa„, „? merchant *d:;n°!l, 1*" T^ T^^ "' " succeeding reicns thev p.,„i, • i, j^ ^"""S «liat and the outta, a„l BombV rS a .""7"" "' ^'^'"' "'"'"^ ^al. charier, but in 1702 the ,:„ "™' °™pany had obtained a title or .The u2 r Lrrp^^^^^ ^"" -' -^- ^^« to the latter, and a Fr nch an" 1771'?' ''"' *'^ ^"^ '''''^^^' In 1751, th; affairs of tie ^llM ^ ^ ''''" war was commenced, and genius of Eobert C iv! f "''' '''''''"^^ ^^ *'^« «°"^^^ge French and natives aLfinll . ''^''f '^^>^ ^^^'^^''^*«*i ^^e allied In 1756 Calcutr:iTate:tst:[rD 'T f^^^^ °' *'^ ^"-'-• prince, jealous of the En^li^^f powe' aT n ^'""'"^ "^^'^"^ this success. An hundred and fort "i, of ' '""' '""^"^"^ were shut up in a small dungeottrdlh '^. B^"^^^^^ all, except twenty-three nerishprl Lr • ''^' ^'''^•''e air and water. Clive who wt tl rj"f ""'^' ^'''"^ '^' ^«"t of savage nabob, andcomyilt7M„^^^^^^^^^ T'''''' "^^'^'-tthe after, finding him allifd w^, The C:ifr" "^''"'^^^^ '^''" with only three thousand men attired 'l^^tp^^^^^^ f "^^^'' was stationed with fifVv tl.,. . ^ PJassey, where he dethroned him. ffis uL o7m" rr%r^'-^' ^^^^'^^^^ -^ ures on Clive and the 00";^' t mo^r.' '^^^^"f ^"-^"^ *-- returned to England, at T^ge o thlt^^ ''""*""^ forty thousand pounds Snrh „\ **''"^'^^«' ^'th an income of vailed in his absence that ^onr'"' T^ '''^"°'*^' ^^^^ver, pre- return, with the 2::Xo^ZZ^:T1: '' ^'' '''''' '^ effbcting this, he made so ^^^'^"'°' ^«"«r«'. to attempt a reform. In of the comp;';, that an Zt T'^'r"""^ *^^ ^'^^^^"^'^^ — ts censure him^nVart^en^^ftt7 """""'"'' ^'^ ^^"^^ ^ great wealth and powTr he dtd . J'"^ ™^ '^' ^^'"P'^"^^ ^ own hand. ^ ' ^' '^''^ "* '^« %'« «f forty-nine, by his In 1778, the notorious W'lrron p-„ *• an>' » g"""™! .ban.eL,,nt;,::r,..^LroL:nr«LTr^^^^^^^^ imprisoned or sent ushore their offleeranrw *' ''°"' ' ve^el, till parliament compli^ wM, IW ^^ ^TT" "' '^o o.her ringleader, a. the No^et" ItL 7^ ^7 "' crpir;„r:::'rrBtr'"^ ^-^^-^ .Ba.^o.B„„»;:^ Iretod" Ttr^ f '"'">"'-' ■"■« t-n gradually inereasing in prevailed; and the mi^Zl" ™° . '""''■ the greateat abuses party s^n ..ed an a,.ia„e::;^a^'::^2;rirr *' ''»" '"° ..«lves into a society oTJ:~tl^fj^" ^!:'^^^Xf. and barbarously expelled their rivals from the e.u"trv Th. '' assoem on, like any other which appeals to s^M h^rand btolT met w,th success, and spread rapidly over the kingdol^. " fs^: formidable armament, which, nnder command of federal 2„ . .lod from France to assist the Irish republicans, was dl™,^^bv ■terms, and retired, unable to eifect a landing ""P""*! by .»n were unable . get sJ^^^^^^^^:^:^ ZcTrrThtrrar r r ^^ "™"^, ^'^ . Hecntious and brui, soMier;,*:!.!'-!'.^^ To^sX^! | J >M THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. Edward Fitzgerald and a number of others, were detected and arrested. The persecutions which followed were of such an outrage- ous nature, that the object of government was at last attained, and the people, by a continuance of savage oppression, were forced into insurrection. T'lo peasants were at first defeated, but in May, 1798 with fifteen the ;8and men, took the town of Wexford. A despe- rate attack, which they made upon New Eoss, was repulsed with the loss of a thousand of their number; during which, two hundred Protestant prisoners were brutally massacred by certain ruffians. A division of the English army was defeated near Gorey, but the insur- gents, twenty-seven thousand in number, were repulsed in Wicklow by a small force under General Needhara, and their leader, Father Murphy, was killei by a cannon-ball. The English forces being finally concentrated, the insurgent army was defeated and dispersed at Vinegar-hill, their chief station, and war, in effect, thus ended. During this contest the Irish Catholics had murdered several hundred of their Protestant prisoners. But a far greater amount of butchery — accompanied, too, by studied and deliberate tortures — lies at the door of their foreign and Protestant conquerors. General Humbert, with about a thousand French, landed at Con- naught in August, 1798, and was joined by a portion of the peasantry. Being surrounded by Lord Cornwallis, with a large army, he was compelled to surrender, and the insurrection was thus finally crushed, after the loss of fifty thousand lives, and an immense destruction of property. The government now begp,n to feel the necessity of union or extermination; and Lord Caatlereagh, to whom the affair was com- mitted, succeeded, by the most open and shameless bribery, in passing a bill for the former through the Irish parliament, and in March, 1800, the national existence of Ireland was effectually terminated. The British arms had, in the interval, gained some brilliant successes at sea. Nelson, in 1798, attacked the French squadron which had lately conveyed Napoleon and his forces to Egypt, and gained a complete victory in the Bay of Aboukir. An expedition to Holland, however, in the following year, commanded by the duke of York, met with a most disgraceful failure. In 1801, Mr. Pitt, unable to redoem his pledges to the Catholics, went out of oftice, and his place was taken by Mr. Addington, who was, however, supposed to be only a puppet, noved by the retired minister. In the same ENGLAND. 285 L year, Nelson, after a tenible battle at Copenhagen defeated tV,. had again been terribly augmented. ' The treacherous and periidions eondnot of the English minUtrv embargo „n their vessels. N.apoleon xet^J^tpris " 2 British subjects within his teiritories and wnr JJ'^r'"'"'^ "} 1 W the crisis, Pitt again assnme^Vc prer, ITp TZlm JUS as Napoleon was proclaimed empcL at Pa fs A briE ZTIT/^'^T"'"'^ "-' """ "■i-i-i^.tion. Adti™ Ncl 7h,l ,t"^ ''"=" '" ="'"■"'■ "f ""= '"^y. finally on the 12A of October, 1805, encountered the combined French n^d t u fleets, under Villeneuve, ofl' Cape Traf. Var Will, . , ' * ..il of the line, he completely d'cfeated^.th^ mn^Jl hem were taken, but the British admiral, haWng von ITTZ"^ no one can question; but from irZrLim f^^ri;"?::^ Ihe king, m sp.te of his a„tipatl,y to Mr. l4, was comneii. .1 ■ appoint a new ministry, of wl.idi fl.nt .v.,.,1 compelled .-> Durin-. his brief r,^rJ\ r , feentleman was tJie chief: ..„uou.;^72ur. ;:,;;":■;';:! !:z:z z^:tz African slave-trade. Death, however, closed his brilliant „.T ? ■ career, and in a fj^w n.onths after h. de^^^bJ^t: p^^ fc of h,s great rival and predecessor in Westminster Abbl.' £83 THE FBOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. Hiij favourite and philantliropic mea'.ure (against the slave-trade) was carried out by his party; but, having in 1807 introduced a bill for the relief of the Catholics, the ministry were dismissed from office, and their places supplied from the opposite part3% Cas- tlereagh, Canning, Percival, and Eldon were the most prominent members of the new administration, which, owing to the prejudice against Catholicism, commanded a great majority. Napoleon, whose influence, after the conquest of Prussia, extended over all continental Europe, had declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and succeeded partially in preventing inter- course. The ministry, fearing lest he should sev^e upon the naval resources of Denmark, sent a piratical expedition against that power, which was unsuspicious of hostilities, took possession of her fleet, and capt^-red a great number of her merchant vessels. This atrocious act excited the indignation of every civilized -ation. In 1808 an expedition of considerable force was despatched to Portugal, to operate against the French. Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Lord Wellington), with sixteen thousand troops, defeated Junot, the French commander, at Vimiero, and, by agreement, the French evacuated Portugal. On the 16th of January, 1809, Sir John Moore, with fourteen thousand men, repelled a furious attack of Marshal Soult, with a. superior force, at Corunna, but lost his life in the engagement. Operations were much hampered by the folly of the ministry, which undertook to plan campaigns, and thus discon- certed the schemes of their ablest commanders. On the 27th of July, 1810, a terrible battle was fought at Talavera, between Wel- lington and Victor, the French army being fifty thousand in number, and the British and Spaniards about the same. Seven thousand men were slain on each side without any very decisive result. On the same day, an expedition of forty thousand men sailed for Holland, but met with no success, the greater number perishing on the pestilential island of Walcheren. In the same year, the king experienced another attack of insanity, from which he never recovered. His son Geor^s was made regent, and, deserting his old friends the Whigs, retained the Tory ministry. Hostile operations were still carried on with great vigour iii Spain and Portugal, and at Busaco, Albuera, and other fields of battle, both parties wasted their forces in indecisive engagements. At length, in 1812, the attention of Napoleon being engrossed by approaching hostilities with Russia, Wellington commenced an active Ji^GLAxND, 287 placed i,. the supr™* S '',' f ""^ »"W'M. ''« »»» at la,t the PenCsulf itZTN^lT'"""- ''''""'"' ""= ^«-'' f™'" alli», and Ui» fl aWil?" usir"''""?^?'^ ''^"'^ ""'"'"" "7l8\f trr ""'= -""^^^ 5?"- C:.S:f '"^ ^'''^" declared war. I„ tLTe^rrT' '"^ °""" (-'""Vauces, had attempting the tvtrrfrT""™^' ""''«' »''"-»' H"". ...capa'ii./of theiri:X;t^ ™trra„Tr"n *^°"«'' ""^ andon the lakes the Amerieans slj^ rtt, l. *'™- '" ^'"' the naval character oPZZ^ ^11 , "' '"°'^'' """J P™'"-! generally supposed in ISH ,1 ^ "^ '""°°"'''= *"" '"^ >«=-' continued .fhAnierica tte B '1^1, """*' '" °™' """"i"'' *» In the following yar a lalf "T"^ '°°"' ""^"'^ "" '""<'■ .be Chesapeake! dTaLTo Sirtw'Tl ''"'=■ '''" "" and destroyed all the nnhlic l,„ , °" *" °PP™<= "'™. Toward .he close of ify r ^^Zrk "''' "' '^"'""«""' reverse. General PakenC; ■^itbXj'T '"P"™""' " "'«""' an the city of New Orle.™, wr .. ™f /"™' "aking an attack »~, the American contanlr T'^^ ^"'"''"'^ V G«="«al Jack- American intrench~« ' i.fvX °" '°™"° "" '''■°™ *^ retreat,Ieavin.rontheflpM !■ I 7^ ''"' "" impelled to ™d of the Po°ni t vela "wtt:,?;' ."T *"" '"'° "">"■ . Wice. Peace was rSe'd'hetmrytr':'™ '""^'^^ - indtrrrd'tht^tr: :' '"t'^-' "'^ "^f -^ ^"»-' Wd of Wate loo After ht ST "w' .°^"' P""" "" '^« -1, and found i. Tn^i^^^Zl'Tst^'i'''''''f''T «rvived for a few miserable years ''"""^ "'™ ''« -li wi'irlSd" "Ti"' ""7""' 1»™ partitioned Europe a. ^.n*oon.;;.ritraht:„:d"t^:^S"dV^'^^^^^^^^^ were caused by the sntTeriigs ofT 00^01^""' ™™"'-" lUeking, whom blindness, insanity in,^ nc,o i ^ i «'.H *a. rende. life desirable, .::i;rSi:'l^^Jr:! ^^I^ L.... 28S THE I'EOl'LE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. 1820, in the oighty-sccoiid year of his age, after a reign of iicarlj sixty years, tlie longest iu the annals of the nation. The tomj)L'rate and domestic private character of this monarch secured him the respect and aflection of his subjects, although his incapacity, obsti' nacy, and bigotry caused them incalculable injuries. During this long and troubled reign, which seemed to connect two different ages of the world, the most important changes had oc rrcd in almost every political relation of England. Her territorial pos- sessions had greatly increased, and in particular, almost the whole of India had been brought under subjection to her government. GEORGE IT., WILLIAM IV., AND TICTORIA. On the death of his father, the prince-regent, under the title of George IV., ascended the throne. His queen, Caroline of Bruns- wick, from whom he had long been separated, now returned from Italy, and claimed her title and conjugal rights. To gratify the king's aversion and evade her claims, it was resolved to bring her to trial on a charge of conjugal infidelity; and evidence of the basest character was accordingly sought out. So great, however was her popularity, and so questionable the proof alleged against her, that the ministry were coini)elled, in the midst of the trial, to with- draw their charges; a measure which was regarded by the people as a triumphal acquittal. She died soon afterwards, overcome with grief and mortification. Lord Liverpool, who had for some time been premier, was suc- ceeded in 1827 by George Cunning, the brilliant and accomplislied orator, who, however, cxj)iied, after holding office only lour months. In 1828, the duke of Wellington lilled the same responsible office. The odious test act was repealed ; and in 1829 a bill for the emanci- pation of the Catholics wa.s introduced by the ministry, who saw no other means of preserving order in Ireland. Supported by Welling- ton and Sir RoVjert Peel, it wiis piissed by a majority of an hundred and five, in spite of the sticnuous opposition of the more bigoted or interested adherents of tli^ church. JiNOLAM). 289 was su(!- Oeorge IV. expired on the 24th of June IS'^0 ■„ .1 • . • , , rear of h:s age uud the tenth of is ' • I, ^'v • ''^ ^■'•°''*^ l"g% ponuhir in his vontl, j""/"""- ,^^18 prince, though utnVofhisnlnersCeftan '^'^^'^^T, ^"'"^'"^^^'^ ^^^ *^« ucss, sensuality a^d 2ann.l . ''"^'' '''P"^^'«" «^^ ««Jfi«h- .Uh..e. ^^f^-;\:i::;-^^ - - want of of Wilir r ^ H^^^^^^^^^^ -T'^^ ^^ -der the title distinguished by a sailor like f"r° '" '^,'^ "'^^' ^""^ ^^ ^^ther tLan by any de'ei^tle rftto:rn:elrT^ Bevolution, which l,rnl-„ „.., °°™™™°'' The second French Jucedast^gd ,^°'En:' T; "!,'"' -«»" *'' «™ne, V'o- Earl Grey w„, placed at the hfad of the *' °""' '"'" '''"°''' "'"' .hich ho introduced for the reform If r """""■^- '^'"= >>'" -s. furious opposition Lm^^eX la'rL'Tl^f /f ^ representation of minv Ur„. . ^ ,^' P™vided for the heretofore been ex M 3, h 7.7'^ ""^ "'""^^ "•>'* ''"^ boroughs," whiel^l^^ L " r 1 " ^"'"' •"'"'^'" "^ "«>"'=" aristocracy, rf h slet " Tv t"'^' °"''" "■" ^"'■■■>' "' *<> of .he pe'ople. 'htgh Tt 'l;'';L"LTa'd" "''■/"^ ™'"= accession of strength and authorHy ^ ' «""""* " S'"" n-elrje';: cl!:Lrte 1™"°" '^- °*^' ■"«' -!»«-' .le a^ndme toT e poor , ra?d"s"°V' ''""r '" *' °*°'-. He died on the 20th ofT, 837 ,7 ^ ''*°^'' '"'™' ""'""■ Ticoria, daughter of thelL of K rirT^'^f n^ '"■' *"»' and the present sovereign of Grfat BritVn "" °' ^""''' "'-^ pacifc attLde to^d^X c': ■*,"'* iorSrT""" ^ ned on an extensivp nnri > * x V "™<^"s ot iiurope, has car- i-iiit,ieswitrtr:x'n irret:^^^^^^^^^ 'Vr ''- 1- forees suffered materially, and Thl tkh Chi" "^^''VV''"^^ ancient emp.re was eon.pelled to sutrt to^l^ZT ^''^^ ''''' humiliating conditions of hphop I, , ^°^* °"^^°"« and -portanee^ in horf e^ ali^? Z'X ^''^' ^^"^ ^'^^^* preserve the so-ealled ''baW of n ^^ '"^'""'' '^ ^^^'•' "" Htates, her government In "n. T '™""° **^^ ^^^^P^^^^ «piHt of^ictftion an.! i::;:;^! ,^:tL:r:z S"^'t i ^^^ Vol. II.— 19 ° °™° "'^s involved her 290 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. in hostilities, and thrown such heavy burdens on posterity. Her present policy appears to be one of conciliation and non-interference, a result due partly to the more enlightened spirit of the present age, and partly to the obstacles which embarrassed finance, and the fear of popular outbreak, would present to the success of any important oi protracted contest. The domestic policy of England has also under- gone the most material modifications. The duties upon grain and other articles of general consumption have been repealed or essen- tially lightened, under the untiring and patriotic exertions of the League. Other relaxations in the more obnoxious features of ber system have also taken place, the leaders of the Conservative party seeing the absolute necessity of a conce-ssjon to popular feeling. A very material extension of the right of suffrage is proposed, and will doubtless, at no distant day, be carried into effect. The few last months have witnessed with amazement a strange revival of the Anti-Catholic excitement. An apostolical letter of the Pope of Rome, constituting a cardinal and other ecclesiastical dignitaries within the queen's dominions, has awakened a perfect storm of indignation among the zealous Protestants and church party. The most exciting meetings have been held, and addresses to the queen, couched in the strongest language, have been voted. In compliance with this strange spirit of alarm and displeasure, a bill has been introduced into parliament, which, though materially cur- tailed of its most oppres.oive features, nevertheless provides a con- siderable penalty for the assumption of ecclesiastical titles conferred by the Pope and derived from English localities. Great Britain presents, at the present moment, the singular spectacle of a nation controlling the most extensive dominions, dis- playing the highest magnificence and the most lavish expenditure, yet deeply involved in debt, and perhaps liable to suffer great convulsions from any trifling cause which might increase the pres- sure upon her suffering operatives. That gradual amelioration, in preference to sudden, disuttrous, and perhaps fruitless revolution, may be her fate, is the hope and belief of the most wise and benevo- lent politicians. No American, who regards at its due value, the glorious heritage of heroism, genius, and national spirit which this country has inherited from England, can wish otherwise than that this splendid nationality, purified from its corruptions, and expanded by perfect freedom, may yet emerge into more real greatness and more universal prosperity than it ha§ ever yet experienced. erity. Her nterference, present age, iid the fear uportant oi also under- grain and jd or essen- ions of the ures of her ative party feeling. A 3d, and will t a strange il letter of 3clesinstical d a perfect urch party, jsses to the voted. In Lsure, a bill erially cur- ides a con- 8 conferred XMOLAND. THE BDLBB8 OF B H fl 1 1 If D. The Ro2iMii% The Britona and their Saxon imraden.' The Anglo-Saxon Heptanshy, B. C. 66TOA.D.420 A.D.420 « 684 • 684 « 827 Egbert. . . . *-"-"XOK „.o,. Ethelwulf, son of Egbert, ' . ' . * ' * * Ethel bald, son of Ethelwulf, ' . ' . ' Etiitilbert, son of Ethelwulf, . * . * ' ' ' Ethered, son of Ethelwulf, . ' * ' * Alfred the Great, son of Ethelwulf ' * * • Edward I., son of Alfred, ..'*** Athelstan, son of Edward I, ' . * , ' Edmund I., son of Edward I, . ' . ' Edred, son of Edwaid I., Edwy (the Fair), son of Edmund I ' ' ' Ef the first gave out, /^cntcd the )nly saved o hundred Siriua, to vessel wiis semojance ontribnted 1 o exertion^ 1 lave done, 1 r, and the 1 ; the year 1 ro millions 11 ordered to proceed to the coast of China for fnrtT,.. v , Irea], »tora and mw cargoes of orimiimla fuiallv arrived fm,,, ^Mcm of collcctnig the mmt degraded a,id corrupt of a whole „ on «b, fetter, were e.p,o,ed ."^TCl'.JX "pl.tr;:: I bytel™'! «"t '^•■'"'■°-. "df i-l privilege, eould Ik, secnred nj tne crimnial, extending, in the first instance, to freedom dnri,,,, ^0 "=1*''^ *" *° '""? """ »^™-'» '"X paraon, except that a continuance in the country until the oxnir ifin,, the ongmal term of conviction was still required t '''i'"'""." p..ortho.whose term had expired, gener^y^^^^^ b ect to ZT? " "" n'"^ "^'^^^'^ "'^ "'«"«"-. -^1 no l-^or wrmea the most dangerous portion of the community. Fcelimrs of ^eat^jealousy and rivalry existed between them and L f ee t^W intemperate. Nearly all cl^::f .^Lt^ ^X^:^ Z to have indulged in gross intoxication. Intoxieating^iquors bee 1 ' o^i-st^iri*"'—'''"^™-"*-^^^^^^ Notwithstanding the manv obstacles in the wav of nnl.li. „. l»n.y in New Sonth Wales, (the name bestowrfbyOn ta Zl «ponrf„ ,„/,„(, eastern coast) emigration continue, an tl,:* «« of cattle, sheep, and horses, to the raising of 1, htfe^,, r" agriculmre, the self-sustaining powcia of the colony were n„i,llv ■rom 1809, to 1821, made special elforls t„ elevate the ehir Ji I , »c.a, ^itien of the emancipist. The favour I!: h^rXl .0 th» class of the community drew down »,,o„ him ,„nclu,ppr„hrtm 296 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. I'roru the free settlers, " exc]usionists,"a8 they were called. It became uotorious that convictions for crime were exceedingly difficult to obtain when a considerable portion of the jury were moved by fel- low-feeling to sympathize with the accused. Many of the former convicts, however, soon learned to aspire to higher dignities and responsibilities than those attendant upon a seat in the jury-box. It was under Macquarie's jurisdiction, and by means of the large force of convict labourers subject to his direction, that communica- tion was first opened with the interior. A chain of rough mountain country was traversed by a passable road, and the vast plains at the westward were laid open to the shepherd and farmer. At the ter- mination of his official career, the English colony numbered no le.ss than twenty-nine thousand seven hundred and eighty-three, of whom over thirteen thousand were convicts. Twenty years later, the town of Sidney alone contained a population of about thirty thousand A few years subsequent to the period of Macquarie's government, it was determined to make a new penal settlement at Norfolk island, lying not far from one thousand miles east from Australia, whither the most incorrigible reprobates from New South Wales should be transported. It is not to be wondered at that the island should soon have become, as it is described to have been, "a cage full of unclean birds, full of crimes against God and man, murders and blasphemies and all uncleanness." The hardened and desperate convicts, at the end of eight years from the formation of the settlement, made an attempt to massacre their keepers, and effect their escape. The insur- rection was with great difficulty quelled, and eleven of the principal ringleaders were hanged. The present condition of the English settlements in Australia encourages hopes of permanent prosperity. The customs are more and more closely assimilated to those of the old country : " Nothing," it is said, by an English writer, "surprises a stranger in an English colony more than the pertinacity with which our ways, manners, and dress are spread in these outlandish spots. All smells of home." Many formidable obstacles to the progress of civilization, agriculture, and the arts have been perseveringly and successfully overcome. The greatest difficulty ich farmers have been obliged to contend with is the want of fresh water, consequent upon seasons of drought. Upon the comparatively barren fields, in the immediate vicinity of the capital, the soil of which lies upon a substratum of sandstone, this want of rain is severely felt. AUSTKALIA. 297 miles westward from 4^2 and f '1^'', *^'^ °°^ ^'^'^^^^d , road opened by Mao Jat'' Ske "oft" '^ *^« ^ - I explored, these plains consist nf I !-.i^ ^' '°""''^ *^^« *^^ I Their elevation of two thourndf.ru^ ^^dul^ting prarie. i ders the clnnate cool and Shy ''"' °' *'' "^ "" valuable coal mines The "hvalfi n" ^'-^ ''^^^^^^^'^ ^^ ^^ I trict, yields abundant crop of wW L ' 7''' '"^ '^'' ^^'• I J'^.^vback to its prosneritv^s t ™ "'^'''' ^^* ^^« S^^^^^st floods, which nsl7"sZd l^f^ZI '"^^''^ • -^ ^^^"^^^'l^- I nearly sixty feet. ' "*^ ^"^^*^'^^ "^^r^'^ity, to a height of ' more beautiful ^e e to b ' n ' T"" '' ^^^^P" ^° ^^ere is i ; of the prices pafd by Endish m^ f' 1 " '"^'"* '^°" '^ ^^^P--" : — -..^nthf^sc=tr^^-^^-^-^- British Australian colonies and whil. f^ ' ''""' ^^ '" ^^'^ supreme, by virtue of hi 'beTnt The J ^T"""'' ''^"*^°"*^ ^'^ crown^ his power is rest aineTL ''P^^^^"**'^*'^^ °^ the British legislative council The forrn ^T 'f "'^^^ °«"^^«" ^^^ by a governor in car^Jing t Tarinro'^' "'"' '^^^ ^^ ^° --* ^^^ colonial secretary^! treasurer hi T '""^ '' ^^"P^^^^ of the * (ifthe last-named oleT not'l r f.? '"f ^'^^^^''^nt-governor tbegovernor himself The le^^^^^^ ""t' '''' F-sidency of persons, with the addition of Tfvf ''^ '°"'^^*« °^ th« «^'n« the chief officer of the custol tl .r'^^'' '^' ^"-''"^y-g-^eral, gentlemen of the co W wZ L , '^^!*^Tf ^''^^' ^"^ ««^«n private : Wthirds of this leSh e Todf "^^^^^^^ r^ ^^ ^^^^•" ' any law before it could take effect andnil ^ ^"^ ^^'^^ "^P^" accordance with the laws of iSnd ^" P-v-ons were to be irf only be tolerated in a societv whPrP t ^''P"*'' '^^*«"^ «°"'d conscious that any attemntTtllf '"'^'"'^ "^ *« «^^'^«"« ^-« chy and the overfur S o^S^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^"'^ ^^^^'* "^ -- au uiutr ana necessary restraint. r 293 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF I1I3T0EY. Some years t ■^'? the whole sytitem underwent a radical change. A liberal representative government was allowed to \he colonists and the importation of convicts was stopped. Those belonging to this unfortunate class now residing upon the main land of Australia are, whether by tickets of leave or emancipauon, in effect completely free, providing they remain in the country during the continuance of their term. This change has been att.inded with the most import- ant results to the prosperity of the country. The line formerly so strictly drawn between the criminal portion of the population and the free immigrants becomes every year less defined, and in another generation will probably almost cease to be recognised. Bright pros- pects appear to be in store for Australia, especially if the parent- country, taught by former experience, shall pursue such a course of just policy as shall cause the colonists to retain their affection for the land of their birth, and regard her control and protection as blessinfrs, The large island of Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land, separated from the southern point of the j^ ustralian main, by the Bass Straits still rt nains a penal settlement. Thp continu-'fl r'^r jnstrances and vehement exertions of the inhabitants to have a ,Mop put the import- ation of criminals, have been within the past year successful, but great numbers of prisoners are yet under restraint upon the island. The honest and industrious portion of the colonists must have looked with continual regret and apprehension upon the constant arrival of ship-loads of the mo^t depraved wretches from the old country, to be turned loose in the course of a few years to prey upon and demoralize the commanity. Two thousand eight hundred and ninety-four criminals were transported to Van Diemen's Land alone during a single year, from 1850 to 1851. Tasmania receives its name from that of the Butcli Admiral Tas- man who first discovered it. It was by him called Van Diemen's Land in honour of the Governor of Batavia, Lying farther from the equator than the English settlements of Ntjw South Wales, il 'ias a climate generally considered more congenial to English consti- tutions. It is rather mountainous, with a bfautifully variegated surface and a fruitful soil. 'J'he principal towns upon the island arc Launceston, on the northern const, and the capital, Hobart Town, at the south. The other English Australian" colonies are Australia Felix, at the extreme southern point of the main island; South Australia, lying farther westward; West Australia, at the south-western corner; and AUSTRALIA, 299 to^asiag ia aa aim* injculab l^i """ " "^^ ^"^ '« " CHAP TEE II. In- the month of February Ifi*?! \r t?j greaves, having recently returner? f. A .* , """"^ Hammond Ear- of California L struck rcelltm^^^^^^^^^ ""^^ '^' ^''' ^«^°- tion between that country and J^™r^^"ties m geological forma- "e at once commen eTermfn ^ttt^t^ " *',^ ^f' *^ °^ Bathu.t. himself that a new and uStedXid "i' ^^^^ ^P^^^ily satisfied acquisition of wealth. Some s^e^elsT ' n^^^ ^P'^^ ^^ ^^^ different localities, long pSsT " ° .^^'^ ^^d been found in tion, and no one dreamed of a st ? '^ ''''''''^ ^^«^« -^ten- -etal until Mr. HargrelvTs made k^!'"?-' T'"'"'* ^' '^' ^'^-^-^ government in the month of m'j '" ^'"'""'^^ *° *^« ««^o«i^l ^ th^^H^tssrri^r ":r ™«^^ *^ ^ --« of and the weather was coM a„d w t 2 ,',"'"*" ""^ ^^^^^^ -' tl'iH was the name bestowed 17':^. -'^^ *° ^P'^'''. ^^ discovered. The ^Bathl' iC t^-^slf 1 ^^^^^^^^ «^^ (1«-'>1) speaks as follows of the transn'r. ""^ .^f'^'^^y^ ^% Hth. con-ry of the fact by Mr I ' ! ^ /' ""^ "'" ''""''■ '"^'''^ ^is- n.o.u,taia ranges to an ind;fi„ite°exSnr''r '"""*''^' ^'•"^" ^''« gol'l (5eld, has produced i J'tfr "*"''''''' ^^°"«''""'cnso faH.u.tandtlisur^ Lh^Zi^ --tement in the town of J«Ht publication the business I ZT """'""^ ^^'^'^ "^^'- °"'' con-plete mental madnej a .; an o t""" T'' P*"^^^^'^'^^' ^^ -c.ulx.rof thecommunity,'i 1" t ;T "P"" ^'"^^^ ^^^'-^ been u universal rush to the di.:.^ I ? ^""^^•1"'^"««' *''«-•« has 800 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. paper. * * People of all trades, callings, and pursuits, were quid v transformed into miners, and many a hand which had been trained to kid gloves, or accustoned to wield nothing heavier than the grey goo.^'squill, became nervous tc^ clutch the pick s>u(] crow-bar." Great numbers of these adventv; rers were entirely unprovided with any kind of shelter, an'.i, for their entire outfit, carried a siuijlo blanket, and some implement for digging or washing tl< soil. I he consequence was a scene of gretd misery and disappointment -, many who had come to Ophir flushed with hopes of success. Gold was indeed found in abundance, but K>'tune as mnrl. as industry anf^ useful appliances seemed to govern the result of Hcarch. "As an iiistanoe," a writer speaks of "one little man, or, as he terms hirn, :. 'sbriinp of a fellow,' who, v ith a forked stick and an old fry'ng pan, ra];jd up Ave jiouii'lb worth of gold in half a day." Throughout the winfer months of June, July, and August, no extremity of cola iaul e>;po3ure could deter the excited throngs from crowding to the di-. On one day in July, eight hundred peo- ple were seen ypon vb.i road 1 )tween Bathurst and Ophir. Large masses of native gold were coi\tinually brought in by lucky tC i^r*"' "'°' secure an ncome more ih,„ .„<• u i , ' '"««38. can other manual olupron o^e - ''''" ■" ~°''' '^"<' '""^ ""^ jear 1861, from S^°„,° L ("to .r^' '"^'" '"^ °'°" "^ "'' generality of labourer Z, T ? r ™°""'' P™™'' V "-e d«d po/„d. a^XTei^lirre^pisxt'S":*^^""- been made of the want of anTfflr ? T ' ^ S^^^* complaint ha^ and lawless ^io^eZl ll^Xe'^^^^^^^^^ cial cause of difficulty has been heTnfltx f ^^- '°^'; ^"' '^^^^ nia, great numbers of whom upon tLk^ °^„7"^^«t« ^om Tasma- to the mines upon the ma,n E- ^. ""V'^"^'' ^^^" *'-°"g^d -ed men, or'a d^^Ziion o 'S Slf th ' ^ ^^- ^^ '^''^ '' minera to preserve order L fZ ^ J *^^ majority of the every oife.Lr, lomlXtlTZZ "T^ ^^'^'^"^^ ^P^ niunity. AtonelocalitvJ ^ ff''^ '''^''' ^" ^'^'^'^ ^ ^'^"^■ itw^computXt^S^^^^^^^^^ than thirty thousand laboured! teh of^oT G 'T "V^"^ of these being men who from ohn^r ?u ? ^''^''** """^bers .rparti;3w2,r "exi^Tn/td*' f""', '-"" °' "-^ P'-*d emi,.tion to A«ri'Sl-rilt Stel 80: TUB PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IlISTOBY. of that colony or the welfare of the world.. Europe has a surplus population sufficient to bring the whole fertile country of the immense island into immediate cultivation ; a population whose removal would be an unspeakable relief to the old country, and to which a condition offering opportunities for hopeful and profitable labour would be like a new life. Individual distress and suffering must, indeed, for a time necessarily attend the neglect of husbandry and the improvident venture upon an untried occupation, but these evils are much less overwhelming than was at first anticipated. A degree of forethought and prudence has been observed on the part of the agricultural pop- ulation that excites our admiration. A knowledge of the hardsliips which the nature of the country must entail upon those who expose themselves without shelter or propfer food to the fatiguing occupation of mining, caused the great body of the settled inhabitants of the country to proceed more cautiously than the floating population of the cities, or the adventurers freshly landed on the coast. Some idea may be gained of the extent of emigration to Australia during the current year, from the following statistics: From the time of the discovery to the close of January, 1852, about seventeen tons of gold, valued at upwards of one million five hundred thousand pounds sterling, were shipped to England. Since that period emi- gration, and with it the yield of gold, have been so steadily and constantly on the increase as to outstrip all calculation. The sailing of ships for Australia from the principal sea-porta both of Europe and America, has become a matter of daily occur- rence. From London alone, according to a late account, two vessels freighted wi'ch emigrants were taking their departure every day. Large establishments are maintained at this metropolis for the express purpose of furnishing Australian emigrants with the necessary outfit; and so systematized are the arrangements for this purpose that, for the surprisingly small sums of from four to twelve pounds, all the essentials for an utterly destitute applicant can be procured. This outfit includes a sufficient stock of comfortable clothing, a bed, blanket, sheets, chest, &c., &c., of various qualities, according to price. Passage from England is provided by government to "approved" emigrants, upon the following exceedingly moderate terms: — "Agri- cultural labourers, shepherds, herdsmen, female domestics and farm- servants under forty-five years of a^^e, on payment of one pound a head. Mechanics, countrymen being preferred, two pounds. Chil dren under fourteen years of age, ten shillings each." The price of AUSTRALIA. sod passage in comfortable private vessels varies from fift^«r. ♦ * . pounds in the steerage, Ld from foriy rj^tyTthe caL ' cZtTEnTT' '" ""°^^^' ^^'' -'^^^ ^^^'^^^^ poorer . MhTi England are eager to try their fortunes in the newCld e t; "n with IT *'f °"" P^^^P"^ -" be nothing buf a fr thpir ').Tf T^^ " ^°P" °^ '^^"^^i^g t^«i^ condition wh le for the r children they must suffer still more terrible anxTeJv in Aus raha. on the other hand, there is no position of wealthTnd pros ^^X^Tl^l^t'^J't descendants!;;:; and tiP« if fhlZ fr ^ ^^^y ^'^ ^^'«^ to old associations Iti uln oZ r:\" ^^^""^P^"^«d by privation and prospective destitution^or at best by an unvarying monotony of unpro^re^ v! w^est policy must be m accordance with the spirit of the pithy JiVench maxim: -Za route vaui mumx que Us eauv^nm." ^^ SWEDEN AiND IJOBWAY. LxiiniiTJijiiitix* BABLT HISTORY. — ODSTAVDS VASA. — ERIC XIV. — JOHN.— 8I0ISMUN0. — CHARLES IX. — GUSTAVDS ADOLPHFS. These co > itries, forming the great Scandinavian Peninsula, are now, tlioiir;'i with separate constitutions and legislatures, united under a .-inglo sovereign. Originally peopled by the same race ns the ancestors of the Finns and Laplanders, they were at an earjv period, occ pied by the Gothic and other Germanic tribos. Tlio famous Odin, (rather a mythological than an historical cliaractcr,) removing from Denmark to Sweden, became the founder of the f5r.«t royal dynasty of that country, (the Ynffh'nga', ,) which was succeeded by the F/icarkm, reigning until the middle of the tenth century. In Norway, the famous Harold Harfagar (the "Fair-haired") in 875, re lowd the various principalities of that country under his so!" sway. Other dynasties .mcceeded in Sweden, but in 1397, both kingdoms were united under Margaret of Denmark, who had mar- ried a Norwegian prince. The Danish "ule continued, for tlso most part, until 1523, when Gustavus Taaa ascended the independci.i throne of Sweden. This distinguished mon : :\i waf ' Swedi?' noble, and a kinsman of Sten Sture the Younger, administrator of Sweden during the reign of the last king of the three united kingdoms. Christian II. He was one of a copipany of m.v .of the Swedish nobility, w^io were treacherously seized and throwo into captivity by Christian in 1510, when tliat monarch was vainly attempting to estab'i.sh his anthorit\ over Sweden. Escaping from confinement, he -.ndeied from plaee to place in diagui.se. A reward was offi' ' for his destruction, and it was only by constant change of plac. I observance of ihe utmost vigilan(,e that he avoided the which beset It iY. — JOHN. — ,PHDS. eninsnla, aro ures, united ame race n-^ at ail early tribes. Tli'c 1 cliaracter,) r of the first as succeeded century, -haired") in ulor his sole 1397, both lo had mar- br the most independci,: 1 a kinsman during tho christian II. Y, w!io were ian in 1510, lis authorit} I from place ruction, and '■ance of ilie be-sot li'ii. Baaiab Costs oai Ca*lua« of tb« Swadta HWIIDEN AND NOBWAV. 805 Taking refugo in the wild and mountainoun .listriot of n i ,• , commenced hia work of rousincr „n a ^ Dalrcarlia, ho natural ol.,uencc, upon the rnind« of the rude 1;^ u it lu'V ? gained complete ascendancy over them. ''"'^ Ills Hrst public demonatration waa at Mora. wl. :»»,„. ,\. had aasembled from far and no.r ! — ' *^® P^P"''*^® amusements of cZstmr Ad/r "'"''V" '^" '"^'"""'^''^ '^'"^ Fwerfullvandfee ^Tftho *^ '^T^'^' '^^ •^l'"'^-« «« » three thousand men, and, Mow g ^i.^^tXr^'ur'' session in 1522 of everv stmntrl, j i • c i ""^'^"^gc. ^^ had pos- .»e.b,ed a.'s.reng„^;t:w rLtt^ ri" ''°" *^ .,«.onty, and he wa. formali, ,,r,«iai,ned 1 g „f Sw t '"■"'•■" »a« principally ronmrkoble for the overthrow „ r h, , I ?' ! entablbhed chnreh and the rise of Prol"" Z. 't' . i" .r'th:;:::;:-^^^^^^^^ ajred arif] w>if.n nf 1 wi . '"^^ "'^^ ^ very where encour- iitn?:r i" x&nr'i'T '"^ "''°"«'' -" 806 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. ant with the spirit of the times, and although in his latter years his autJiority fell little short of tlespotism, Gustavus Voi^a has ever been looked up to as the great liberator of hi.s country. His son, the weak, cruel, and capricious Eric XIV., succeeded to the throne. After an inglorious reign of eight years he was dethroned by his brothers John and Char'os, the former of whom being the elder, was proclaimed king. Eric died miserably in prison, after a long captivity. John had previously married the daughter of Sigismund, king of Poland. She was a devout Catholic, and, by her influence, proceed- ings were set on foot for the restoration of former privileges to the church. The consequence was that most of her husband's reign was disturbed by bitter religious controversies. He was strongly opposed, in the measures which he was desirous to adopt, by his brother Diiko Chai'les, v.'lio headed the faction of the dissatisfied nobility. lie died i'l 1592, leaving the crowti to his son Sigismund, who had also suc- ceeded, by regular descent, to the throne of Poland, Duke Charles had the real authority in Sweden, and after twelve years of quarrel and iTitrigue, during which Sigismund, embarrassed by the cares and conflicting claims of two distinct gcvernments, was greatly at a disadvantage, he was made king. His reign was marked hy unprofitable wars with Denmark, Poland, and Russia. On liis death, iii Kill, his son, Gustavus Adolpluis, a young prince only eighteen years of age, who had signalized himself in the Danish wars, came to the throne. Sweden appeared, at this period, to be in a critical position. She still held large possessions in Livonia, the great battle-ground of the Northern powers, which were threatened by both Poland and Russia, Her funds and forces were grievously reduced by the wars of the preceding reign, and the difHculties with Denmark were as far as ever from a settlement. Christian TV., king of Denmark and Nor- way, a warlike and enterprising monarch, was encouraged to hojio for more extended success against a kingdom so surrounded by ene- mies, and under the dominion of so young and inexperienced a mon- arch, Gustavus, however, soon proved himself worthy of his liigli position by the exhibition of military talents, statesmanship, and policy, which gained him universal renown. Denmark was glad to accept the mediatorial offers of Jatnes I, king of England, and a treaty of peace wfis concluded with Sweden m 1613. Ru-ssia felt the power of the young king, and after varioiLS in dispi Poland demand whole f opened j six yeai I sion of stronghc Tlius the pow( his rnilit uously (I people b i'lilture a man Oxe removed governmt At this weightier the lead Kurope, and his e and the re among all 110 longer the encroa Wallens'toi the a.ssist.'t; Kurope; ai Ferdinand When th many were Ijiit the ene ')f veteran wl'liers, unc f'v.ssion of tl 'iftoen thou; sflf at the ol' Km^'lish i SWEDEN AND NOBWaT. 807 whole fcce u> fe",uln° rr "■'"■"°" "'"'' "^ """8 W* oF"cd tI.o way for «° ^d '„ f/ ' ' '°™' "^ ">""!»« sucocs™ "0. of tt,ei. ,f.e acqSi rrt :r:„d°r':i,"'"= "°'-'""- strongholds. ^-ivonia, and of other specified thJ^i:a^::Z^;t^i:;r ^"7^'^'« -^^^to strengthening i.i« -.i.^ opener ^ :;::r =: j^ ^ rr-^ •• -Ituro and the arts. By Cid of tloT n"Tr "^^ ^' *"^'^' "^-i" man Oxenstiern, whom he rli sod f''''^^'''''f «oldier and statcs- -vmoved abuses estrbTishedTder ^ "^ '^'''''''''^ ^'^ ^^^ government. ^''' ""^ ^^'stemati.ed the affairs of tbe lead in u eonfliril , 1 !' 7" '""«'^""^' ''^"'J ^o take Europe. Thegro.':! ::;::s rs:;?; :^;^t"^ ^^^^^^^^^-^ and his evident plans for the «ubv ^ ^ o 'h 7^" ""r'''^' and the reestablishment of papal supre ncv cxHf T ""''^ ''''^"'*^" I among all those European staL in wl hTho o d I /v7r"' ^'"™ I "0 longer maintained. Christian IV ^ in " t f ^'''^^"""^ ^''^ tl-.e encroaehment^ of the emperor \ i 1 1 """'' ^ '^''^ ^^eu^UAn, perhaps the greT. ' ,„ Hta vT TTu""'""^^ ^''^ ^'^ the a.ssi8l.mee of the fon-es o o , ^ n T '^ ^''^ "S-^'' ^^'^'» Kurope; and w;th opponents nnL'^f? ^^^^"^'"^ ^'"g"="'«»lly g«inert by this »nd .though *: ::: p„^ :„T ;rTw'"j'-'"""'°f *" ^*^ where suoccs^ni' h:. = Sweden was almrat even- Upon . L uli^';: "™? :,7 ""' "'™™™ to he redu J M;r-]r nu 1 Hostile movements on the r mark, Charios at once took up his march through I,^ !!tcrvening 812 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. provinces of Pomorania and Mecklenburgh, and fell upon Holstcin like a thunderbolt. " That province was speedily overrun, and planted with strong garrisons. The Danish admiral, Bilde, fled to Fredericia, while the Swedes spread themselves over the adjacent districts, and completed the subjugation of the whole peninsula, from the Elbe to the extreme point of Jutland."* During the wint':- of 1657-8, the Swedish king took advantage of a season of unusual severity to lead his armies successively across the broad arms of the sea called the Little and Great Belts, flowing, the latter between the islands of Zealand and Fionia, the former between Fionia and the main. The hostile armies were within a few miles of Copenhagen, and a negotiation was hastilv opened by Frederick of Denmark, for the purpose of arranging terms of peace. As might be expected under such circumstances, very considerable cessions were demanded on the one hand and yielded on the other. A treaty was concluded between the two nations, but the restless spirit of the Swedish monarch led him to violate it during the follow- ing year, and fierce hostilities ensued. An unsuccessful attempt Wiis made upon Copenhagen in February of 1659, in which the assailants met with heavy loss. By the aid of troops from Poland and of their Dutch allies, the Danes were more successful than in the former cam- paign. The Swedes were utterly defeated near Odensee, arfd the fortress of Nyborg soon after fell irfto the hands of the enemy. In these disastrous engagements the flower of the Swedish army per- ished or surrendered. The indefatigable king of Sweden only bestirred himself the more actively, in consequence of this reverse, to obtain new forces and prosecute the war with vigour. His enterprising designs Avere cut short by a fever, which carried him oflf on the 11th of February, 1660. His last aflvice to those into whose hands his power was transmitted was, that the storm, which his whole reign had been spent in arousing, should be calmed by immediate overtures of peace to every hostile kingdom. At the death of Charles Gustavus, his son Charles XI. being a minor, the government was carried on by a regency of the five princi- pal officers of state. Distressed as the country was by unprofitable wars, these nobles lost no time in complying with the dying injunc- tions of the king. Before the end of June, advantageous terms were ♦ Criehton and Wheatou's Scandinavia. SWBDKN AND NORWAY. 813 made with all the bellitreront nour,.ra n • • aU claims to the throne of Sweln , T '"''"""^^^ '''' «^«' nation to its possession in nr'c ^"'^'"'''^ *^« '^'^^ <^f t^at came to ter^ ^d Ttll !"' ''' ^^^^'^ ^^ Holland readily difficulties wth Smark we^ "n' ''r^' ^"^ ^^"S^-^^- *^'« favourable to Sweden ^'"^^-l^ly adjusted upon conditions the French kincf Louis XTV TT . By an alliance with is.8i.nd,no,,a,fi tl^ :;;frrj-; ^- *» -...it, „r ency and the good faith of r,. • ^^*"f ^^^^ nnlitary ascend- aristocracy, tt ,W dS? ""? "^ °°"'P'*'J' *« 'I"™" "f «« He„ce the; «re eLZLlr^ ""3- ""' of tbeir own. Kuoia against tne encroachmentq of i'Uo. >^^v.^ r~, tyrant waa found preferable to a multitude But ^^ ^T . T so ar a. temporal «urity i,, co,,cer.e(-f„3'civi ri.\,rrn ' .« far as co.icor„s Swodr^ tT„ 7 "!*" '" " P°-'' "S«^ I-"' .naybestricUytrue a1° ,t II °"''" """■'''^' ^* "'"-^^^ :j 3U THE I'KOl'LE'S BOOK OF IIISTUKY. upon payment of the original consideration for their bestowment, the public debt was suijiniarily reduced by advancing the nominal value of money; a great standing army was maintained, subject to the king's orders, in time of peace; and, more than all, a decision was obtained from the diet that, "although the sovereign was enjoined to govern his dominions according to the laws, this did not take from him the power to alter that constitution of his own authority, or to put the kingdom in such a situation as he might think most conducive to its interest and security. The authors of this decision, which I'eudcrcd the monarch absolute, were the deputies of the bur- ghers and })easants, who overlooked all consequences in their blind zeal to oppose the aristocracy and bring them down to their own level." — {Dnnham^s Scandinavia.) Cliarles XI. died in April, 1697, at the age of forty-two, and left the thione to his son Charles XII., then a youth of fourteen. uJili/iJrXiEjJii XXX* CHARI.es XII — HIS WARS WITH DENMARK. RUSSIA, AND POLAND. — HIS DISASTROUS RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN — HIS EXILE IN TURKEY HIS RETURN AND DEATH. It had been directed by the will of his father, that Charles should enter upon the responsibilities of his position at the age of eighteen, and that meanwhile the administration of affairs should be committed to the qiu'cn-dowagcr, aided by a council. The young king, Iiow- ever, seemed, at this crisis of his affairs, to have undergone a radical change of character: a fondness for dress, dispkiy, and amusement, gave place to the sternest ambition. Before the expiration of a year, he obtained the assent of the councillors of the regency to his imme- diate a.ssumption of power, and the queen being drawn by compul- sion or persuasion to consent, the convened authorities of the states set aside tlie will of the deceased monarch, and Charles was crowned at Upsal. He evinced the natural impetuosity of his disposition by seizing the crown from the archbishop, and proudly placing it upon his own head. On his accession tlie kingdom was at peace, but the youth and SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 815 Sweden Jth, priee of hrS l'*'* ""''"^ ''^ """' «» and Frederick IV, „f Denn ark frn ^ ' ', « ""^ '^°"'"'^' .«ned .0 ,e r„„s„d\ pro o^tol, ' r:^'"^.;! r"'" s:% «:r^,]:s iiiT,-'^ ^-onneJiirL an::; more dan^roIaXnt; ofT "1 ""'"^'™'^ ™''™^ ''■» Sweden. /rederi„wr,Swirtrr Aht"'°" "' rant and undisciplined were his troon, fhniT T ' * ^'^ '^"°' ;W shadow of Ls^nee ^.^ ■::Srra^ rftSC'^cTE were swept awa, .XrrL'o itrd^^Tur '' "^^'''^ JUcaU;d before they were aequainted with the disaster of the flit " Arrivmg at Narva, Charles immediately fell m,„„ ih. n wu„ umnbered ahout ten times hi., own fori Id »!,„ 7'""^ iitr..n,.l.,.,l ;., 1 i^rees, ana who were stronylv a o rt*Hit«Uices u. elsewhere unparallelled ir the annals of war but such au advanu^e di.l uiilitarv skill a-d ll ' " ' ■ 'r-iienco pussoNj over sir, TlIK l'KOPLE'8 BOOK OF U18T0KV. brute force, that the result was the complete annihilation of the Rus- sian army. Thirty thousai d ware .slain, and the number of prison ere who laid down their arms and submitted to the conquerors wvh three times greater than that of the whole Swedish army. The no 8 of this event spread dismay throughout Russia: the Swedish power was attributed by the superstitious people to necromancy and sorcery, and prayers were publicly ordered for the protecting influence of Nicolas their patron saint. Peter was not present at the battle of Narva ; he was engaged at the time in bringing up an enormous rSinforcement, but, learuing the fate of his army, dared to make no further demonstration, and drew off his remaining forces into the interior. After wintering at Narva, Charles proceeded into Livonia to punish his third enemy, the king of Poland. A Saxon army was stationed to oppose his passage of the Dwlna. The Swedes immediately prepared boats, with high temporary bulwarks, affording a partial protection from the enemy's fire; and, concealing theif position and movements by burning an immense quantity of damp straw, they embarked under cover of the smoke, and forced a passage. The Saxons were routed, with the loss of three thousand five hundted men in killed and wounded. A large army of Russians was driven from Cuurland, and the whole district was reduced. Frederic was now anxious for a truce, but the impetu . .';; king of Sweden avowed his determination to treat only at Wa;'s,ii.v, whither he directly took up his line of march. Frederic, - • h]x court, fled at his approach, and, without opposition, the Sv< di ;■! .*rmy was quartered in the ancient capital. Charles had now del ^i:i.iined upon the dethronement of the Polish king, and the elevation to the monarchy of some noble of his own choice. He trusted that sufficient inducements, in tl.e way of enlaiged privileges and a more liberal government, might be presented to secure a ready acceptance of the change on the part of the inhabitants. Frederic meantime gathered an army of thirty-three thousand Poles and Saxons, and offered battle to the Swedes, whose whole forces amounted to but about half that number. An utter defeat was the result, and Charles followed up his adv-antage by the seizure of Cracow, upon whose inhabitants he imposed a tax of one hundred thousand rix dollars. This took place in July, 1702. The victorious leader was about this time disabled by the fracture of his thigh, which gave his opponent an opportunity to recruit his broken forces. Notwithstanding the alliance and assistance of the czar, the unfor- tunate '. ill field 1703, hi year, a from fu the kin; was elec The c the Swe tompora checked loss i n se from the Swedish crown of laus were schemes c Such V enabled S( outSilesi privileges recalled. sought hi bent upon ions; to d to push hi formed soi Italian cai conquest o would be have been for he sent and plans < Charles led with bim fc passed, wel the fruit o: twenty thoi haupts, and SWEDEN AND NORWAT. year, a diet nssemhUl nf w„, '"' ^^^"'^'"iryoi tlie following L,: r,.,„„ ,.xtj r rre^r: 't™ : =^"'""'"« ■■■- the kin- of Sweden one of. i '^^"'"'«"^- /pon the nomination of was e]e:..d a« hir"ure:sor " "'''^' ^^""^'""^ ^-^'-J^'' temporary successes ^t 1, ''•'"^'"'^ "™^«« ^^*^'"«d some loss ir, several nXa'v enl '7T ?'' *^" '^^'"^ ^"'^ -— from the contest anTpvS TT ' ^?'' ^"^ '^^''"^'^ *° ^^^W^" Swedish monardltSLr"'^^^^ crown of Poland and a. a^ n T^^ renuncmtion of all claims to the laus were wrung 'f"m h m a d'Sr'' "V.^ ^"^'^"^^ «^ ^^"- Such was the terrorof H tm thr.^ /'" 'T^'"^ ^"« ^^^"^-n- enabled so far to dictate terms toT ^^^'^-^^""^ ^^^OP^. that he was out Silesia, the L^tn^we^r ett:dT^^ *'!!' *'^^"^'^- privileges, and th<, German offieerst the • "'"' T^ ''^'°'""^ recalled. The great powe. of Franc' „d^^^^^^^^ '''''' :^''-^ soujrht his alliance- Knf It ^ . ■t-ngland respect vely ioM; „ dethrone h^ £1.7 , . "''T'' '''" ™ ■■■ ^s o»n domi,.. oo„,,„.«. of tl. , fe^ l'^: ''« ''■''^M would .ufflce f„/.„e a.Kl plan, of the c t?e,'^ W^ '7"^r ^"" ""''« "^ "'« '""-i^ OI,a.l« led his fowa „u, oTt T"'r™''""'='''8''i''P"J>"»«», wiU, bim for.y..hT.h„ ' °„,i^ °"^;" '^P'"™''''-' "O^' H" iJ P.»ed. well /quipXnd pl^ "itit""^"",' ?"'•"""= ™»"- tl.« frnit of a long «rie' of v I " r J!.**'^ ""'* "•<'"«^. baupte, and fifteen thousand stationed in Fmlli ™' • Dunhora's Sciindinavia, MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) ^ APPLIED IM/IGE 1653 East Main Street Rochester, Ne« York 14609 USA (716) 482 - 0300 - Ptione (716) 288- 5989 -Fax THE I'KOi'LE'S BOOK OF lUSTOKY. Not doubting his adversary's intentions, and hopeless of success- fully opposing such a resistless force of veteran soldiery, C?;ar Peter retired before the advancing army, laying waste the country on his march. Charles directed his course towards Moscow, and reached the Beresina before a blow was struck in defence of the country. "Worse enemies, however, than the Russians had already begun to thin his ranks. The season was unusually severe; forests, deserts, and marshes must be crossed, and the retiring Russians had broken down all the bridges on the route, and stripped the country of provisions. A stand was made u- a the opposite bank of the river, but the Swedes easily forced a passage, and took the town of Beresina. Tlic river Halowitz was also passed, in spite of the horde of Russians stationed to check the progress of the invaders. The czar was now anxious to open a negotiation, but the only rej^ly vouchsafed by Charles to his proposals, was a stern avowal that he would only treat at Moscow, the capital of the empire. From this period commenced a series of terrible reverses, which ended in the overthrow of all the t^mbitious schemes so proudly cherished by the young conqueror. The obstacles to an advance upon the Russian capital proved so great, from the severity of tho winter, the constant opposition, and the uncertainty of supplies, tliat Charles was forced to change his plans. Unwilling to retreat, he madly determined to pass into the Ukraine, where he expected to be joined by Mazeppa, the hetman or chief of the wild and warhkc Cossacks, who had promised the aid of an immense force of his fol- lowers. After a terrible twelve-days' march, the famishing and ex- hausted troops reached the Desna only to encounter fresh forces of the enemy. They still conquered, but victory only opened a surer road to their own destruction. Mazeppa now appeared, with oiilv about six thousand followers; the rest of his forces had been destroyed or scattered by the armies of Russia. The infatuated king was -still firm in his determination to make a way to the Russian capital. The horrors of the march, during the fearful winter of 1709, can only he parallelled in history by those attendant upon the retreat of the French army from Ru.ssia during Napoleon's campaign. Tlie shoes and clothes of the soldiers were worn out, and, destitute of baggage and provision, they were constantly harassed by the enemy. The gallant army of Sweden was speedily reduced to onlv about sixteen thousand men ; two thousand, it is said, perished in a single day, from cold and famine; the artillery, with the exception of about ^^ipr SWEDEN AND NOBWAY. 319 thirty pieces, had been abandoned or taken bv tl,o . hod Wcome „„. and .„. dUSc^fC.t t SI? ^ disasters and losses the iron will of ih. i a *^^ and immoveable. He nUTd nn 1 ! "^'^ ''™''"°'^ «^«^ fortified town of PuuLrb the Uk '"^ .P'^'"' ''"^^^^ ^^ ^^« south-west of T^«i T V Ukraine, about one hundred miles ;^:ir :sr '.irrr -""-'"'^^ °^ '*-- -» -^ tion with tl,e R„sZ ,™v T™ """""^ "^ «»' off communica- »verc a wound ^1 CuJAT "'S?™;"' '= "^'^^'^ ^ iitter durin. A. j " "°* "''''8'="' t" be carried on a I aUhe heal of sertT*^^* "T' '°™- °^" ^^^ °°- W--^ Peter, .i* hi, aeIrXt™« w'"' ''".f °" ""■"""'«"■ I Fwonal superiiitcnden,-, f™^™«. . '"'I given the most careful •rt of «,, and, as hi, foi"', wL°l ' '»<' ^ught him tl,e ase, such an immc„r Zv Thr i°° T™ *''"'"" ■» <"""■ Swedes „i,h. harawTnel t;;! •ol'' eCSTthe i'^r Copies, (great »„„,'! ofll'r'ii";"" '™'^ '^'""•'"' arc, ™ f„„g,u=i'vra:rs:tatt,°"oft,r ^ ^-'^ i5vvedes sustained a tof'il riofonf. • .1 """"- "^ i uitowa. 1 he m; the camp ^£^^ Z tZ'tl^fP- '''V'' stationed slain or captured- and nlltlni ^ ' . '^''^'''°" ^'^^''^ tell into the hands o'fthe ^Tian^! """" °' '^^"^^^ ^^«^-- ^\ ith the greatest difficulty the king was snvpri o.^ small boat across the Dnieper Wit), oT Tf'.T^ '''''"'^ '° * fastened towards the confine "of T '"f"^ °^ ^'' ^""«^^'^^« ^^« -;y parties of .be nlir ^^!^:: Im^S ^07^^ ^Tt 'lerness of the Getre") was crossed undor 1 ^ ^ °'''"* '^'^- 320 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY, The hair-breadth escapes and singular adventures of the wounded king during this disastrous flight seem more like romance than history. The Turkish government, whose generous policy has ever extended an asylum to political exiles, received the fugitives with protection and kindness. Charles was allowed to establish himself at Bender and to collect about him such of his scattered followers as from time to time, escaping from the search of the Eussians, came over the boundary; his company soon amounted to about one thousand men. Achmet III, the Sultan, allowed the unfortunate king five hundred crowns a-day, for his support, and further sums were forwarded by France. Here Charles spent several years in vain intrigues with the Turk- ish court. Alternately encouraged and disappointed in his hopes of obtaining the assistance of the enormous force of the sultan against the czar, he was at last forced to yield to the superior wealth and the judicious diplomacy of his rival. Peter, in the mean time, was enabled to carry out his plans for the improvement and education of his subjects. The great body of intelligent Swedes whom he held in captivity was distributed throughout his immense dominions: the officers and educated men were employed-in teaching the sciences and ornamental arts; while the private soldiers, forced to betake them- selves to useful mechanical operations, did more to advance civilization among the rude inhabitants of Siberia, and other remote stations of their exile, than a century of ordinary efforts could have effected. In the absence of the master-spirit, Sweden lost many of her dependencies, gained at such an enormous sacrifice of life and trea- sure. The deposed king of Poland repossessed himself of liis dominions; the czar seized on Livonia, Ingria, and Finland; Den- mark again advanced her claims to I lolstein,. Bremen, and Scania, and bloody wars ensued between that power and the diminipii'>il forces of Sweden. The overbearing conduct and vexatious intrigues of the e.v a monarch at last determined tlie Ottoman government to rid itself of so unprofitable a guest, and money and an escort were proffered to Cliarles, if he would return home. Obstinately refusing to comply with the requests, and iiftiTwards with the orders, of the authorities, the ungrateful and irrational mad-cap attempted, with his few attend- ants, to resist the power of the whole Turkish army. Most of liis followers surrendered on the first demonstration, knowing that resist- ance would but insure their own destruction and endanger the life I SWEDEN AND NOBWAY. spurs becoming entangled he fell L , ,„ 1 1°™°" '""''■ '''■■' "tely sei;,ed by „, many „f L ° «''°"""'- °<' '"» -"""Ji- ».Ki carried J is sTid bv ,1 T' "" °°''''' '"J" '""'• »f Wm, "■lience he set ou. for Sw„,l T', ™ ™ovcd to Denmliea, of October, 1714 Aftl etew"' r "T' "^ ''"'■"-^ <"' "- '"^ ions, he dismissed ht a t^ndt^ar";""'"'" """»"'' ''"""■'■ only Uvo offlcers r,„«l,!l ^i ' '" ''"'=■"'«■ ""ompanicl by ■.orLack o?re^::" po^stS in""' ''"^' "'r? '^ '"'"' "" reached his own countr/ A !>!,« ?°''"'"' "'"'"'''■ "'"» '" I'cmotiea he made Us L.t^,^ ™ "'*' '''•°"' "= ^''1»«"" f""- His arriv,! „7 1. 1 "°fP'="""' "PPoarance at Stralsund theeneroacLents 7'hrs^,r*J.°°f =^'<'"*'J ^^I". '» -sist , l»-«f Aenatilt*; XrfpSr '"" *» of war, and, after seeing rr! i j t ^ ™* ° '°"8 "'""mance CharleLwas'f rcedrevS"" T^ ?"«t? '"'"'" ''^ '"» "-"i"^ croon, where he spent rSr:::.:''°f ''^'°'^° "'"'*'° «"'' thronghout his kiLdom uT-,'„T ^ , """""' '° ""^ '■■''"^ ae.s the Swedes patnTly elldrdt: -'"irrrt'' """/""• to an invasion of their countrv T *i, ' ^ *^''" ^'^"'"'^^' »ve- thousand men .^»^ aurSpot, onElfgldTti:: '"■^'"^• conJ:.:,? :f ^:::r„trf:z,^:^™"'- '- "- "-«»»^ tlic circumstance hi, h.,„ ■ , ° "■""""■•wonntable, but --.e project fLertcdXoZ/Sr "' '^ 'T'"'" "^ " Oorlz. It seems th,. tl,« , ' '"'"'»'««, the Baron do .l.e «>rces ofRus i 1 S W ''*""lf™"-% 'o a proposal that to the throne of pl^d to t """°' '" "^'""^ S'"'"""""' of Sweden on tirconti'n nt d r" '^r" °°'*"° '"»' !«-»» England, for the mtrZe "f '" '■; ^ "* "■'''"= " <'<='^«<^'" >'I'™ power, by the def ITn: tofThfr' """" "' """"" ">•'''»' tioa of the Pretender a son ol hZ^u"' iT""?' •''"' '""*"• expeotod f?om\he Cathd!^^" -1 ''" -"^' "^^^^''^"^^ -■'- .—21 ■ population of Ireland. 822 THE PEOPLE'S BOOR OF HISTOEY. Fntil tliese arrangements could be concluded, Charles continuej to turn his attention against Norway, In October of 1718 he a^ain invaded that dependency of his Danish enemy. Ten thousand men under Arenfeld were dispatclied into the interior, while Charles laid siege to Frederickshall. On the night of December 11th, the king was making his usual rounds to inspect the work on the trenches which was carried on under a constant and heavy fire from the ene- mies' battery. His attendants, seeing that he exposed his person with his usual r<^o.klessness, begged him to observe more caution, but their requests were disregarded : as he stood leaning upon a portion of the parapet, he was killed by a small cannon-shot from the fort. "His fall W118 destined to a barren atrand, A petty fortress and a dubious hand; He left the name at which the world grew pale To point n moral, or adorn a tale." There have not been wanting those who maintain, from various circumstances, that he fell by the hand of an assassin. The question has been examined and discussed at great length by various writers but as men of equal candour and means of information have adopted opposite conclusions respecting, it, we can scarcely expect that, at this distance of time, any new light should be obtained upon the subject. CHAPTEH I?. ULRICA ELEONOJIA. — FREDERIC I. — AD0LPHU8 FREDERIC. 0DSTAVD8 III. — GUSTAVUS IV. — CHARLES IIII. BERNAUOTTE. — OSCAR. Upon the death of the king, +he Swedish army was immediately withdrawn from Norway, and the senate, convening at Stockholm, proceeded to settle the affairs of the kingdom. Baron Gortz was arrested, and being convicted of having lent his counsel to the more disastrous and oppr|ssive acts of the last reign, was put to death. The crown was bestowed upon Ulrica Eleonora, a sister of Charles, but her power was curtailed by many restrictive provisions. By the new constitution, which was solemnly guaranteed by the queen, es continued 718 he again lousand men Charles laid th, the king ;he trenches, rom the ene- i his person ! caution, but on a portion m the fort. rem various rhe question 'ious writers, lave adopted pect that, at 3d upon the EDERic. — [II. immediately Stockholm, 1 Gortz waa to the more lit to death, of Charles, visions. By f the queen, ♦ BERNADOTTB JaAir-BAPTiiTB-Joi.xi-BBRiiA.DOrra was ^30111 at Pau. January 38th, 17A4. Eii fathar waa an attomsx- B7 distinguishod bravery, he rose to be a llarahal of franca nndar tha ampira , and on the dethronement of Quatavui IV. of Sweden, vaa alactad Crown Frinca of Sweden, of which, under the title of Charlaa XIV , in 1816, ha baoama king. Offended by the arbitrary conduct of Napoleon, he joined tha boatila allianoa of Russia and Austria, and used his influence and military skill against his former master. After the fall of the latter, ha ruled f>eaeeably under tha Russian protection, and at his death left his orown to his •on Oseat. \ SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 823 the crown was to be elective, as in fonner times; the absolute power - at to the passage of every law; office was to be bestowed onlv upon natives; the senate to have supreme authority dur ng te a^ence or .ncapac.ty of the sovereign ; and the sovere^n to pfo^s. the reformed rehgion. Many minor articles were added in Zonl of the ancient nobility. ' ^ The grand desire of the nation was now for the establishment of a permanent peace. Negotiations were immediately open d fo thi purpose wUh all the hostile powers. England waf pacified by tl ces.s,on of Bremen and Verden to her sovereign George I. 1 electo e XfTe'rVr™ '"^"'^ •' ^''''' ^""^ oTmoney^w.^aid and w ,T r "'^7„^^ P^«™««d in the Baltic. Stettin, Usedom Wollm and part of Pomerania, were ceded to Prussia; and Denmal' wa. still more easily induced to lay down arms. The Eusln Zot eehng hjs power and the weakness of Sweden, was more exacT. tolr Vr™'"'^ °'^*'^^ "^*^^"^' ^« -- compel! dtocrnfe to terms. Plempotentianes from both countries met at Nystadt a September, 1721. The ozor agreed to pay two millions of orovi-ns .n consrferatton of the eessioa by Sweden of Ingria, OarelU, Zho ma, V.borg and ,t, territor,., and the Wand,' of oLel, DaL and stSi* rihar "■™" ^''''- -- — --^ "o During the year preceding the consummation of these treaties o h r,, ?"? ™ '"'' '"^" '™»f»™'i. % -^"est of thc3e„ co„d,t,on of h,s conutry. I„ 174I he became involvedta Tar wft Su2 b th "" "'°;;""""™ " '^'^ *" p™"- of™:,:* rc luced by the enemy. On the conclusion of peace, one of the con- i.t.o„s .mposed by Elizabeth, then empress of Russia „ ffie .ippomtmontofone of her connections Adnlnh,™ If.T • ^f .T trator of Holstein, as Frederic's snZot J S'h^eTf fZZ :f Ss„^T£<:«r ^ "*' " *' ^''"'-' "^ ^^^ Frederic died in 1761, and Adolphug succeeded in accordance with .he prov.„o„. of the Russian treatj. This monarcr^L^^ed ""Jy 52-k THK rEOPI.E'S BOOK OF HISTORY. yeais, during which wars with Prussia and the intrigues of tlic grciit powers of P'ranco and Kussia, disturbed the quiet of his kingdom. Two great parties were formed in Sweden; the one whirnsicully styled the /fat party, under the influenee of France, inclined to sup- port the power and independence of the crown ; while, on the other hand, the Cup faction, fovoured by Russia, aimed at rendering the king a merely executive officer. G' stavus III., a son of Adolphus Frederic, came to the throne in 1771, upon the death of his father. This prince, more artful, holil, and ambitious than his immediate predecessors, evaded the signutuif of the "Royal assurance," by which former sovereigns had bound themselves to the support of the late constitution. Partly by man- iigement and partly by force, he succeeded in restoring to the crown a degree of independent and arbitrary power unknown since thi' time of Charles XII. By an alliance with Turkey, Sweden, in ITS", was drawn into a war with Russia, which, after several years of hostilities, was concluded without advantage to either party. Upon the first signs of the French revolution, Gustavus eagerly lent himself to the support of the monarchical interests of Europe, and was engaged in plans and preparations for a mighty coalition with various nations of the continent, for the invasion of France, when he was assassinated in 1792. His successor, Gustavus IV., wii« then a minor, and the government was for four years conducted by a regency, during which time the judicious policy of avoiding all interference with the revolutionary proceedings at the south was steadily pursued. The marriage of the young king with the Princess; Frederica, of Baden, a connection of the Grand Duke Alexander, which took place the year after he attained his majority, brouglit him unfortunately under the influence of Russia. Gustavus joined in the great continental alliance against France, formed in 1805, and, after the brilliant victories of Napoleon over the Anstrians and Russians, was left, in a great measure unprotected, to cope with the formidable power which he had ventured to oppose. The seizure of Stralsund, Rugen, and all the contiguous islands, wns the speedy consequence. The immense power and influence of Napoleon, in 1808, brought down the hostility of Russia, Prussia, and Denmark, upon the kingdom of Sweden; and England was the only power from which Gustavus could hope for assistance against this fearful array of enemies. Finland was seized by Russia; in an attempt upon Norway fcho L SWEEEN AND NORWAY. causes of offence ret^^'ToV^i'l °'..^"'^r^ '''-'' reverses, a large party in CJ ■ , ^" *^^ '"'^^'^^ «^ these competent to governt "or ' '"""'"'"'^ ^^'^^ *^« '^''"^ ^«« ''n- The attempt was succrs^l^r"^ ''"^P"^^ ^'^ '^^rosition. Duke of SuderlnTa ;! mad^ f '' ^"^^""^ ""'^ ^— '- ^ho atonee opened Tthrrilroru' ^^^ -^otiations .ere ble to conclude any terms with tC ''' ^"'''^''■' "^P"'"'^''- the king of a formal ZloT 7 !''"'''' "'"'^ '^"^ ^'S^'-^^ure by On the 6th of jlne'r^^^^^^^^^^ king, under the tfZofZt: Xlt ^t'^''^'''''.^ ^ ''''''' hereditary and bvn .«« r . . ^^ succession was made and the power of the S,„ ' ■>'''' P'*™g'«ive» were fixed, •bat he shorfdLve TlS helf .r "" " '""'"^ ■"'P''**'" «nt*.Tdr o^:'::;.rwih"B^"*- -o:::r „,.™ on «he interest, of the former ki2 T ^^ ™"' ™ *"'*°'« »• «ged, and peace ™ZltiL^r°"''™ P^ and Ea„ and West Bothnia The^fct'*"'™ "' '''"'™''' ^'»"'^. alliance with France a^d i^. "'V°"°"""« year saw Sweden in of the e,n,«,r„r • *~* ""'^''"' »"''J«=' '<> «!>» eontrol .he''aLro'nr;F™:h''3 " Tf" ''*^' °' '"'« ^-^ i« distant and northo^Tngdl V/C "! "^ "' *™™ "^ *" "udden death of the heir r-T' .• ' *" """""■ """'"gh 'W obliged .„ seeklt om ep^^n? rffl'° f. f ™'' '"""^ '-'f «o sustain the wei.,ht of theT °' '°'™' "'* "^P^tation 'ingnished in .hetr:L*7Zr„rhad ''^'"' f?*"'' ''- of a portion of the Swedish armth^r ""l' "' '^ ""' ««'*»"1 koslilities; and waT ae«,rdi„r h. .1.' ^T"™ '""='""' '" *" '"^^ 'eon appointed ero;nXtiltar^:-« The resolute maintenance of fJ,. • a "7^^'g"*^ ^^ the nation, -«. no doubt. honour^MeTo ht ftlintl". ^ "' ''' "'"''"'^ •be allied powe« in p,„.ti„, .,. ovtZwtf FZe^Tudre;* 82(3 TIIK PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. Bonal part which he took in hostilities against the country of hia hirth, mast always attach to his name a degree of opprobrium. In 1814, the sovereignty of Norway was formally annexed to that of Sweden, and in 1818, by the death of the king (Charles XIII.), Ber- nadotte assumed the crown, (which had already in reality been his,) under the title of Charles XIV. He died in 1844, and was succeeded by his son Oscar, the present sovereign, a prince, it is said, of ami- able and enlightened character. The present position of Norway and Sweden is far more favoura- ble to the prosperity of both countries, than was their condition when politically sundered. From the time of Gustavus Vasa until 1814 Norway continued under the jurisdiction of the Danish monarchs, and when, by the treaty of Kiel, it was annexed to the dominions of Sweden, a strong spirit of opposition was exhibited by the native inhabitants. The liberal policy by which their local regulations and privileges were preserved, after the confirmation of the union with Sweden, served to reconcile thera to the change, and old feelings of national hostility have long since given way to a sense of mutual dependence and identity of interest DEI MARK. CHAPTER I. "■""•— "HN.— CHRISTIAN II. ling the oountrv to f, „,„?? '""'"''■' '"""<»' Odin, quit- piiticipalifa until slslh^ , f -^ ™ '^'"'^'"^ '■"» '""•■''1 Gorm.'^ laTeSlowil 1,', ■".?"'.''''.'' ""^er a >overeiga namod diir^ed through ttllr'""^ Chr.faui.y w. introduced, and of ulT-Sturir^rntZ'Td th°' f °^°'"™ >«" '"^ '^-' wuiitry under Swevn and n™ , ■ , ""' ""'"J""' "f that oemur;, ha, a.»d^Ju^'^ratd'^5tr'"rr'•'=*™■•'' over the English, however Ti. W • -^ """' '"^"■■''"W" lOil Their m,rW Jl ' ' °-''P'""8 ™'> U^daenute, in upo,, the nu.erouf ve^eVl't'^p'^d I'lt'""' ^^^^ '^'"^ '">' bpon the death of Valdermr TV ♦>.„ i . /« i '^::Si^:^:rir:S£Sf?f?^^ Ingeborgand Margaret. The Ll bl!f>> '"^^''''''' appointed to the re..ncv of the ^okh ? ' -^'^ "^''^"'' ^^^^'^ -^.ucv or tbe t\^o kingdoms auring his minority. 328 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. Olaf died at the age of sixteen, and by the concurrent act of the Norwegian senate and the Danish states, Margaret was appointed to a dignity never before enjoyed by a female, that of queen of Deu- nmrk and Norway. The succession was limited to Erik of Ponie- rania, a grandson of Ingeborg. In right of her husband, who had been formerly possessed of the crown of Sweden, Margaret now com- menced a scries of successful intrigues against his successor Albert of Mecklenberg. By large promises she conciliated the aristocracy, and finally obtained the consent of the Swedish senate to a union of the country with her own dominions. Albert, endeavou»iiig to sustain himself by means of an army of German mercenaries, was defeated and taken prisoner. In 1397, a meeting of commissioners, from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, was held at Calmar, and the famous treaty of union was discussed and settled. Erik of Pomerania was crowned king of the united kingdoms, and the regency was conferred upon Margaret until he should attain his majority. This celebrated woman, who, by jtol- icy and force, had attained such immense power and influence at the North, died in 1412. The young King Erik proved but a capricious and unworthy sov- ereign. His reign was disturbed by wars with the counts of Ilolstein. and with the Ilanseatic republic. This famous confederacy claimed exemption from the heavy imposts which were laid upon all vessels pa.ssing the straits commanded by the Danish castles. Erik w;ia married to Phillippa, daughter of Henry IV., of England, a woman whose energy and wisdom served, on various occasions, to preserve her husband and his dominions from the consequences of his rash- ness or short-sightedness. Upon one occasion, when with the wild r(;ligious enthusiasm of the times, he made a pilgrimage, in disguise, to the Holy Land, the charge of the government w.ig entrusted to the queen-consort, and her prudent administration was productive of the happiest results. She died in 1430, in consequence of brutal per- sonal violence from the hands of her husband. The tyranny and oppression exercised by Josse Erikson, one of Erik's provincial governors, excited a dangerous insurrection in Sweden. Commencing in Dalecarlia, the spirit of revolt spread so rapidly that, in a short time, the whole kingdom, with the exception of Stockholm and a few fortified posts, was under the control of the insurgents. After a temporary quiet, brought about by the inter- vention of the clergy, who were deepl}' interested in the preservation DENMARK. 329 on tho island of Gothland T, ^ .' """' '"* "P "» ""o of DenmaA aadZtedish di rantcbt'h"'!^ "^ '"° ^™»'" of Bavaria, a descondanl of v,ir Chr Btopher, Count Palatine tied and lawirrte of ft3'''™"' "'l"^"^'' ^ing. The unset- in the „eeonn?oM°s eonrSh-fr "^^ ''"""'"*»« «'»" r. is said that he re^ate^ en Vel * G S ' '° '' ■"''"'■°"- "elf by eommissioninK piratical IZJl ,,'""''■ """nta.mng hi,n. and tamake decredli^r , .. "* '^ "'"""'"'''''''""'^oH afterwards ^JZGtZy''" "" '=«°"^' "^ '^« =""- "e Upon the death of Christonher th^ n^ • i, choice of Christian, count of ot^^^^^^^^^ ^^"^^«' - l^^^, mudo and Norway the ambition of thTnr • ^ '""''"''^ "" ^^^^^^'^ diate acquieLnce irtso *t "^"I'^f-^tor prevent an inune- er. of a'sovere^t in botrthot "''/"' ?™^' *'^ *^^'« ^^ i-- t..in himself, anT Chrlt an's Ith""^"''' ^""^ ^" ""^^^« *« -- over the thr'ee united t^^domr 2 7 '"'"'"^"^ ^^^'^^''^'^^ ever, even in exile to r^ult ^ ■ ^^^^^^^ry continued, how unpopular actSo 'the W "^'' '"^' ^" ^^^^^q^^ence of some throne. ulT. hs death if iZ T'T'"' ■''''''''' *^ *^« S^^^''^'' dom was coLitted to tt celebr^^^^^^ S'sr''"';^' "^^ '''"^^■ thereafter little influence in th! Iff ^^°,^*"^ ^"^ Christian had his dominions. He attested ti!^^ ''''' '^^''''''' P^'"^-" «f establish his pretensions Tti, ^ "fgotiation and force, to tiau I. left theCon to ht^^i^^^^^^^^^^^ ™^^^ ^'^^"^ ^-^e^- Chris- ten, Frederick, was m^d du e of 91"""^ "."'J^^"' ^"^ «-->'^ accession of tl.; new^bT. toll 1 ^'^^^'/^-"d Holstein. On the way and S.^den, ll^^^ tV^T :Z::Zb -. ^^Sj; ^or- "PFared to be, in eifoet ™,„„ . j ^ ' *" '" Junsdiotion. vem of ne^otii th ' ™" "f °'" '"'' '»""■'''• '^l^' '"'o fomal elcctC but h ™;Ld »°"^™.'"-=*«i tis righu by a V the artieles' of an tuhZ rtlH"'*™'"" ""' ^° '"""""'"«' 'He dignity of .he title „ry\^^^^^ .^--O.'" "8". that with the erown of Norway '" ■"'" '" """"ootion In Sweden, where the adn,in!s,ra.ion of Stcn S.u„ had been gen- 330 TU£ PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. erally popular, still greater difficulty was experienced. Negotiations were year after year continued, but were rendered abortive by the imposition of vexatious conditions, at the instigation of the admin- istrator, and it was not until 1496-7, that the question was settled by force of arms. A strong party had been formed in opposition to St re; Eussia had been incited, as is said, by John, to ravage Fin- land; and, in the midst of these difficulties, the Danish monarch invaded the country. Sten Stare was forced to yield the sovereignty, but such was still his power and popularity that it was deemed necessary to conciliate him by the bestowment of the governorship of Bothnia and Fin- land. John was now confirmed in his claims to the crown of Scan- dinavia, as incorporated by the union of Calmar. He was, for a time, exceedingly popular, but a reaction in the public mind resulted in the loss of the territory acquired by such long-continued effort. Sture again saw himself at the head of affairs, with royal authority, but with his former title of administrator. By the efforts of a pow- erful and influential Norwegian noble, named Canute Alfson, whose Swedish connections influenced his conduct, the opposition to the claims of John extended to Norway. This chief was treacherously murdered on board a Danish ship, as is supposed, by the directions of the king; but the indignation excited by his death only strength- ened the cause of the revolutionists. The southern pro inces of Norway united with Sweden, and John, determined upon the reduction of his rebellious subjects, dispatched all the forces that he could raise, under command of his son Christian, upon a northern campaign. Christian was but twenty years of age, and the bishop of Hammer was associated with him to guard against any youthful indiscretions. The prince soon proved himself impa- tient of counsel and restraint, and of a cruel and revengeful disposi- tion. His successes were marked by sanguinary vengeance upon the leaders of the opposition. One of these, Herlof Hiddefad, was put to the torture to compel a revelation of his associates, and was afterwards broken on the wheel. Numbers of the nobility of Nor- way were put to death ; others were deprived of their estates, and the country at large was reduced to complete submission. Proceeding into Sweden, Christian met with some success, and exhibited his usual cruelty in the treatment of those of the enemy who fell into his hands. The hardy and warlike Swedes were not, however, to be easily reduced, and the aid of ships and money fur- DEN MA EI 331 himself bv fripn^ ^ ^ ' ^"^ *^^ prudence to strengthen l^^^t^lo^:^lueSrjt ^^^-- -*^ ^'^^ powerful Austria, grand daXTofFl^ J ' ?'™'^' ^^*^ ^^^^^"'^ '^ wards the'soveregf ofa I^^^^^^^^ °^, ^^-^- (^ft- Russia and Fn^lnn^ Germany and Spain). He also united with 111, , vTusravus. bture was, however suoopssfnl • ii^ hb 4ltn " *°"° '^^"^ " <"-'■ »«">Wed a. Stockholm, f„; k«?.-. \:kmn 83 OO THJS PEOPLE'S BOOK OF UlSTOKY. Arcemboldi, eager to occupy the vacant office, now exerted all his influence in favour of the administrator, but Leo, fathoming his interested motives, still favoured the cause of Christian. The fol- lowing year saw Stockholm invested by the Danish monarch with a fleet of one hundred and twenty sail. For the injury done to the pri- mate, Leo X. had lent the countenance of the church to the invader, placing the kingdom under an interdict, and authorizing the king to conduct towards the Swedes as towards rebellious heretics. In the first active operations the royal forces were driven back to the ships with loss, and, as winter was approaching, Christian pro- fessed a desire for negotiation. He avowed his willingness to pre- sent himself, in person, before the administrator, if a number of hostages would consent to remain on board the vessels as security for his safety. Six of the nobility, among them Gustavus Ericson Vasa, afterwards the founder of a new dynasty in Sweden, accord- ingly surrendered themselves; but the treacherous king, instead of fulfilling his promise, put them in irons, and sailed for Denmark. By the aid of an immense treasure, collected by Arcemboldi iu Sweden, and intercepted on its passage to Eome, Christian was ena- bled to make more formidable preparations than before against his refractory province. la the winter of 1520, Otho, his general, with a large force of Germans, and experienced mercenaries from France, Poland, Prussia, Scotland, and various other countries, passed the Sound, and made his way into West Gothland. These veteran troops were at first completely successful: the Swed- ish army was defeated, and the administrator was slain, in the fii-sl engagement; the neighbouring provinces submitted to the invaders; and steps were taken by the senate, urged on by Gustavus (now restored to the primacy), for an acknowledgment of the royal claims. Christina, widow of Sture, at this disastrous period, with astonishing resolution and masculine energy, roused anew a spirit of resistance. The fortress at Stockholm was provisioned and supplied for the pur- pose of making a stand against the Danes, and, as the severity of the season presented obstacles to active operations, a temporary check was opposed to the progress of the invasion. In the month of May Christian appeared in person, with additional forces, and laid siege to Stockholm. The brave and patriotic Chris- tina still held out, and after spending the whole summer in fruitless efforts to reduce the capital, the king was obliged to resort to nego- tiation, false promises, and the intervention of the church. DENMARK. 333 an was en a- L and hereditary moL" h or^den Tte". *''' '^ T *'^ "^^*^"^ a public administration of ano th oJf l."""'^' '^ *^' '*^'*-'^ «^^ formal coronation at Upsal anVchn,? ^'"^*^V.^^^« ^^"^^ved hy a sion of the power and^i^'wh tTrh'^^^^^^ '^" P^^^^^" vious to the acknowledgment J v.? T ^"""^ *'°'^^*«^- I'^^e- seeuring to his new u W " h r e!f .^^^ ?^"'"^ *° «^^- -ticlos and limiting his own power bu th f ^'''^ "^^.^ ^'^^ P'-'-J^-&-«. garded by the tyrant Umlr .K T """'" '°°'' ^°^^°"^^ «^ ^isre- -llors, men of low birth a^d h' hV ."''' " " ^"^' °^ ^^^^ -- be determined, Ztt^^Jtl'T"^^'^^^^^^ granted, to make rexaml '.^ '^' T^' '"^"^^^^ ^^^^«^ ^^^ ^«- Professing to act und?hff'^?"°'^'P^^S^^«dish nobility. caused an -trao^^^t; ^^^^^^^^^^^^ entrusted the office of accuser toTh'r n ^' ^""^^'^^^' ^"^ of Upsal. All concerneTrt dep :Srof !hT""' ^"''^^^"^ rested, tried, convicted of heresy an7,.T ] P"™*"*" ^^'"^ ^'- square, all demonstrations of h 7 T' ^'^'"^^^ ^" ^^« P^^^'''" whelm'ing force oft 1 dartre fl' '^f^' '' ''^^- was among those who perished T>./ ,7, ""^ ^'^^'"^"'^ ^•'^'^*'^ menced was repeated, n't onl, in Stnokr, "f ^^-g^ter thus com- cipal cities of Sweden Gre t n ^'°''^^;'"^' ^^t in the other prin- te^pted .y f,set:;s oT;:rdr hTd^lt^-^^^"^ public, were sei.ed and malcred "'' appearance in and children, were thus execu Id . ! ^ ^ """"' ^"* ^^"'"«" out the form of a triaM^robabth "^"l^' ""''' ^^^^"^^ ^"■^''■ pcssessions."* All k-se UroHK^ TT '^' *^''"* ^^^^^^^ ^'-i' -rely as the se/v t^thHur^ '^ P-f-*'-^^' of the infallible pontiff ' '"'^ '" ^^^'^'^'^^^ *« t^e mandate The .cape of Gustavus Vasa from captivity, and the establishment * Dunliani's Sc-andanavm. 334 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. of Swedish independence, were contemporaneous with the total down fall of Christian. The nobility of Jutland formed a powerful league against him, renouncing their allegiance, and proffering their aid to t'rederic, duke of Sleswig-Holstein, if he would seize the crown of Denmark. Against the combined hostility of Sweden, the Hanso confederacy, and his own rebellious subjects, Christian was unable long to contend. Driven to Copenhagen, it was supposed that lie would make a strong stand ; but to the surprise of all, he collected what treasures he could secure, and sailed for Holland, with a few faithful adherents. He was thrown by a storm upon the Norwegian coast, and, with the loss of most of his effects, afterwards made his ■way to the Low Countries, a powerless and miserable exile. With the deposition of Christian terminated the famous union cemented at Calmar in 1397, and the crown of Denmark and Nor- way devolved upon Frederic. Although the character of the last sovereign of the three king- doms was blackened by a thousand acts of cruelty, it was not with- out some redeeming traits. His tyranny and ferocity were chiefly displayed in his treatment of the aristocracy; to the common people he was affable and kindly disposed. The immediate cause of the disaffection of his own nobles was the passage of two laws, through his influence, the justice and humanity of which could never be called in question. By the first of these, the power of the nobles over their serfs was abridged; and by several provisions the rights of that unfortunate class were protected. The other obnoxious refu- lation struck at a very fruitful source of revenue for the privileged landed proprietors of the coast, viz: the custom of forcibly seizing all property shipwrecked on their domains. The royal estates had previously been greatly benefited by this system of plunder, but when the impolicy of thus restricting his own privileges was pointed out to the king, he replied : " I would rather have no revenues at all, than that the poor mariners should be so inhumanly treated." From his earliest youth the king had evinced a fondness for the society of the lower classes, and by mingling with them in his juve- nile amusements and dissipations, he had acquired a sympathy with them in their oppressions almost unknown among the higher orders of that age. That these natural feelings of humanity may be com- bined with the most sanguinary cruelty and barbarity, a full recital of the acts of his life would sufiiciently bear witness. IL DENMABK. CHAPTEB n. FREDERIC I_CHRr8TlANrri._p,,,,,,.„ the Danish nobilit; The nnfS T'' '' '^' ^'^'^'^ ^^^y of I ever humbled and ^eted th ^^^ ''''"*''' ""' ""^^ *''^" pcsaession of discretional; X^Lt '""''"^ '" '" been enjojed by their order si! ,^'^°?^ ""^ *^^^* ^^^ before i Christian, and fhat prin fmadeTuUr^'^^'^ ''" '^^' °"* ^^^ ; procure efficient assistance fnlhe "? TJ'^'""^ ^"^"P^ ^o various European powe:^ ' Eal' in H^.f ''^ '°"^°^«-' f^- ' ^'' «J«^ation to the throne, Fredfr c olf ' ^ ^''' '"^^^l'^^"* to : h.^gen, and saw himself uidisnuted . ^'^^'^^^^ ^^ ^^P^"" i doms of Denmark and Norway ^"'"'^'' °^ '^' ^^^^^^ ^W I The ambitious Adminl IM^^W tian, still maintained a i^^e if 7" r °' ^^^^^^''^ ""<^- Chris- J^^d strongly entrenched hiL'^r^^^^^^ J^-- this island, where he ; earlier age, he sent his piraS !. ^*°°' °^ *^" ^^^•'^^"g^ of an tic. and prey indiscrimin' "^^i:^^^^^^^^ throughout the Bal- kmgdoms. He aspired to theC T'''' °^ '^' neighbouring Ws own ; but his /epredltirnl Mvh' ' "P"^*^ ^^^^^'g"*^- «? oombinedforcesofDenmarrSwSandTK'T^^^^^ *^^*' ^^ *^« Gothland, and forced to % for lf2 t .J^ f ' ^' ^'^ ^"^^'^ ^''O'" The last effon made byM Sfd cVri V °"""" ^^ ^'^^ --• dommions was in 1532. Bvthe Jd nf '" ^"^ '''°^«'' ^i« io^t t brother-in-law, the Empero! ChlsTl"' r'^^ ^^"* ^^' "ble force of mercenaries, and re W T" ? '''^ ' ^°"^'^^'- "orthern dependency of his kinZ? "H .*^' ^"^"'*^ ^^ that '"s habitual ill fortune he lost nf ] ' T"^ ^"' ^""'^^y- With «tonn; but reaching Op;ioJrh ^ IT ^T "T '' ^^^ -««««'« i" a favourably inclined to Ws cause 7^^^' ^'"""""^ *^<^ ««"ntry ,«lared in his favour, and whh Jhat^n \''' ''''''' '' ^--^v de"^ laid siege to Aggerhaus. .^rt 1' rpost^^^ T^^' ^^^'^ing The sequel proved that he hS/g^X l^t r T ^ ''' ^^^ • j.ut ,, nip own power; 336 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HI8T0EY. beset by the powerful armaments of Frederic, both by sea and land, he was compelled to surrender at discretion before the close of the year, and, relying upon the assurance of the Danish officers that he would be treated with all consideration and protection by his nephew, the king, he proceeded to Copenhagen, It was determined by Fred- eric and his counsellors to place the unfortunate fugitive, who had thus thrown himself upon their protection, under close restraint. He wiis accordingly immured in a fortress upon the island of Alfon: the door of his dungeon was walled up; a small grated window, looking out upon the sea, and an aperture for supplying the wretched inmate with food, were the only openings of communication witli the outer world; and here, with no companionship except that of a faith- ful and favourite dwarf, who shared his captivity. Christian spent twelve miserable years. At the end of that time his place of confinement was changed and his condition was in some measure alleviated, but he remained a prisoner until his death in 1559. Frederic died in 1553, 'he year following Christian's attempt on Norway. During his reign, the spread of the reformation had pro- duced a great change in tl)e religious aspect of the country, Lutlieran preachers had been first tolerated and then encouraged, until men's minds had become so far disabused of former errors and superstilioniJ that they had learned to think boldly for themselves, and the suprem- acy of that mighty system by whose spiritual and secular power they had been so long enslaved was now virtually at an end. Christian III., son of Frederic, did not obtain the Danish crown immediately upon the death of his father. A period of turbulent interrer/iium ensued, during which the powerful ecclesiastics belong- ing to tlie old establishment made the most strenuous exertions to prevent the elevation of a monarch known to be favourable to th(j reformed religion. It was not until the country became embroiled in a war with Lubec, the chief of the Ilanse towns, and until a hos- tile army, under Count Christopher, of Oldenburg, had reduced Zea- land and the neighbouring islands, and was ■'Jireatening Jutland, that tlie necessities of the times compelled the appointment of some efficient sovereign. Christian was chosen by the senate, upon giving promises of protection to churcli rights and privileges. The country was in a most disastrous condition. It was surrounded by enemies, and distracted by the intrigues and quarrels of the differeut factions. The peasantry, taking advantage of the disturbed state of DENMAKK. 837 fell into their power. The .irTof T / ^«"f ^'^''^ "Po» those ^vho ioGernaany, L all that Chistinn f?f"' '"^ '' '^' ''''"^'^ ^^^^s The general sp efd of W ' 1 '"^''' ^" ^ of the Danish government Ch!!;;- "7 ^"^^ ^'^^ ^'^'^S^-'J the islands wrefted fror^'^, eon tro iTe 7"^ '"^'i^' ^^ ^^^^^^^ establish his power over the whot f 4 "''"' ^"'■'''' '"^''^ *« the church was nearlv ann l;, .a ""i ^°'^^^' ^^« ^^^^hority of established religion Tf the .n T ' nf ^^^^^^^^^'^"^ became the reign of t.entyZje^, ""'''■ '^'"^^^'^^ ^^^^ ^ l^^^. after a had'tet^l;:^^^^^^^^ ni.. previous to his father's death. without opposit on SnerfhsfiTtTr '"' ""^ ^^ *^^« *^-- Adolphus ind John Dukes o^^sll Tr? f ^" ^^*^ ^^« ""'^l- tion of Dithmarsh ^omTnalW B ! "f ^°''''^"' ^'^ ^^^ ^^d^^ "republic, in allLe T h i^^f .f^^^^ ^^^ in reality auring the reign of John a siloll . Sixty years before, lobd to 1570. When a peace was concluded at\ptf,-n -T mutual restoration of conquered territo rThe Sof '^.^ "'? •ve countnes continued the childish custom of quaSnlach I f " arms upon their shields. quanenng each others Little else of general political interest attaches to Frederic's rei^, 338 THE I'KOI'LE'S ROOK OF HISTORY. change in the condition of his people. Under his patronage, the renowned astronomer, Tycho Brahe, was enabled to pursue his bril- liant researches and discoveries. Christian IV, was a minor when, by the decease of his father, Frederic, the kingdom was settled upon him. A regency of four was established by the senate to take charge of public affairs until he should attain his majority. The policy of the officers to whom the duties of government were thus entrusted appears to have been, for the most part, wise and equitable. From the death of Frederic II. to the year 1625, a period of thirty- seven years, the peace of Denmark was little disturbed, further than by a two-years' war (1611 to 1613) with her old rival Sweden. Chris- tian IV., on attaining his majority, devoted himself rather to the increase of the power and influence of his kingdom, by enlarging its internal resources, than by warlike operations abroad. He caused the rude administration of the laws in his dependency of Norway to be systematized by the compilation of a fixed code, digested fmrn the common law of the country. Throughout his dominions a great impetus was given to commerce by the building of dock -yards, and the establishment of manufactories for the production of articles requisite for the out-fit and defence of the shipping. The name of this monarch is principally associated with the dis- astrous commencement of the famous Thirty -years' War. Christian was chosen, in March, 1625, in preference to Gustavus Adolphua of Sweden, to head the Protestant union. He proved utterly unable to cope with the enormous power of the Catholic league. Afler repeated defeats, and afler seeing Sleswig and Jutland in possession of or overrun by the forces of the enemy, he was driven to retreat to his insulated capital. The victorious Wallenstein, leader of the imperial forces, sanguine in his hopes of the entire reduction of Denmark, only delayed his advance until he could obtain possession of Stralsund. The siege of this place, the defence of which had been undertaken by the great Gustavus, led to such heavy loss on the part of the assailants, that their general was obliged to retire without effecting his object. The diversion thus made enableJ Christian to obtain singularly advantageous terms with the empire, and to retire from the terrible contest with small loss, leaving the danger and the glory of his position as champion of Protestantism to the more able and successful king of Sweden. In afler-times, the old cause of quarrel — heavy impositions by DENMABK. S?,0 'rotestantisra , Denmark upon all vesssels passing the Sound, drew the country into . war w.tl. Sweden and Holland, in whieh, for a time, its independc-nt , exw ence was threatened. Peace was only concluded upon the relin- , quisliment by Denmark of hor clai.ns to the ancient and onerous levy ; _ Christian reigned until his death in 1648, and was succeeded hv , Ins son Frederic III, although the states had refused to elect him , prospectively, during the life of his father. Upon his election , many restrictions were imposed upon the royal prerogatives- the senate was thereafter to supply vacancies in its own body; the ki.,g . was no long(.r to appoint the viceroy of Norway; the independence ^ of the senatorial decrees was confirmed; and by various other pro- ; visions the power of the sovereign was rendered little more than I nominal These limitations stand in striking contrast with the abso- , lute authority afterwards conferred upon the same monarchy , The war with Sweden, in 1657-8, during the reign of Charles I Ciustavus, has been already briefly narrated. After a series of the , most humiliating defeats, Denmark was, contrary to expectation I enabled to conclude a peace upon comparatively easy terms Upon , a renewal of hostilities in the succeeding year, the bravery and , mihtary skill of Frederic in the defence of his kingdom excited j universal admiration. j The political revolution of 1660 was the most prominent and , important event of this reign. It seems scarcely comprehensible to ; the inhabitants of a free republic, that the commonalty should asso- I ciate the idea of their own freedom with that of an absolute and irresponsible power on the part of the sovereign; but such as we have seen, was the case in Sweden, and, for the same causes like results proceeded in Denmark. With consummate art and secresy, the plan for the annihilation of the power of the nobles, and for the securing an hereditary and absolute authority to the king, was concocted and carried out So powerful an influence was brought to bear by the clergy and the citizen deputies, who favoured the revolution, that the nobles were obliged to succumb, especially as a large force of soldiers subject to the orders of the king was quartered in the city where the diet was m session. The accounts given of the progress of this conspiracy of the measure adopted to secure the favour of influential officera «nd the precise manner in which the result was brought about are neither distinct nor fully authentic. It is evident that the change must have been highly acceptable to the great body of the people £40 !« I'EOPLR S BOOK OP HISTORY. wiMi bad for so nualiy ageH groaned lx-.K..rli tbo oppTCtoluns of a ^ranuical aud inaulent uristD'-nicy. Sut'li au uuliiuited scope of uuthority as was bcnttowed upon Fred- i§m\>y ihe now constituii.m cannot bo parullellod by any similar 4t^ment iu the history of Europe, TLc supremo power of making aud uiUiri»i'*'«ting luws; of coiiforriug w*'^ removal from ofTtecs; of declaring wiu»; of tbo conclusion of treatiea, and the imposition of taxes; the command of the army and of the fortresses; a control over the ordinances of the church; and the absolute property in all public possessions; all were secured, by the broadest and most inili:v putablo terms, to the king and his hereditary successors. The king wielded this immense power until his death in 1670. Although divers instances of cruelty and despotism are recorded of him, it may well bo doubted whether it was not aafer for his poopli that power should bo so centralized. The publicity which must attend his more important acts should operate powerfully to restrain an exorcise of wanton oppression by the monarch: the acts of pri- vate cruelty and injustice practised by a privileged order, were far more to bo dreaded. That all the advantages hoped for by tin; commonalty were not derived from the change, is but too true. The nobles were impoverished by deprivation of ancient privileges and freedom from taxation, but the peasantry felt little alleviation of their own Viurdens. Different historians have arrived at widely variant conclusions with respect to Frederic's character, and the use he made of unpre- cedented power voluntarily conferred upon him by his subjects. CHRISTIAN T. — PRBDERIC IV. — CHRISTIAN VI. — FREDERIC V. — CHRISTIAN VII. — FREDERIC VI. — CHRISTIAN Tin. — FREDERIC « II. Christian V., son and successor of Frederic, came to the throne freed ^Tom the embarrassment of an election, and untrammelled by any of t^ ^ assurances exacted from the sovereign at the commence- ment oi" li. -<^r ToigiiiT, The more interesting and important evente DE^TMAUK. 811 Of lis administration, together with that of his .son Fn-rleric TV being intimately cMmected with the affairs of Celn , , ' before alluded to ThftlA«f,,p»i i^^l [ , «^eden, hav, been »>re for .he pr^eri., „f his'e^-j:' ™ SmiT:;:;; of ."ii^r ' "' '"" """'"8 '° "^""^ ">= '-« "*" During the su.iceedinLr reicn of FrpdpnV v o ^ • j /. . A w,8o, eqmuW, and economical a,lmi„«,ralion of K„vcr„n,cn I l::i t:ri 'zr "««" '-"' '^= -^= -^ »" -h! Georl mTf 1 ? ? cu"'"""'^ ^'''•"^^"^ ^'^ti'd^ a sister of EEc=~^^ lavounte ot the king, who had raised him from his fir«t Un e court pVsician, .o a pcUion of inflnence and Lthori." w<^eff«cdt[rr.;; t "" T™« "»"- « -°ncilia.ion flSLrblr^ltd mS'T/™^'"'''' "' PO'^tance awarder effec. .he ruin 'f bmh ^T?»? 1""' '"'"""^ "" W'-^'J «<> thing further than y'^ L,l&t,ona;*'''\«""'^ "' ""^ rily proved. waiscrebon has never been salisfocto- In .He course of a few vearq ttia Vi„™ „ i - . 342 TIJK I'KOl'LK'S BOOK OF UIBTOKY. serfs, aa enlightened religious toleration, the abolition of torture, and many other useful changes, were, by his influence, either directly effected, or received an encouragement which eventually resulted in their full accomplialmient. A powerful conspiracy of the nobles was finally organized, and Struensee was arrested, informally tried upon charges of criminal intercourse with the queen, the abuse and usurpation of power, &c., condemned, and put to death, together with Brandt, one of his asso- ciates. Matilda was thrown into confinement, and died three years afterwards. Juliana Mariii, the queen-dowager, with her son Frederic, was now, by the incapacity of Christian, enabled to seize the ruins of government. In 1784, Prince Frederic having reached his majority, (his sixteenth year,) was formally associated in the governme; , and the imbecility of the king was publicly recognised. The general policy of Demnark continued, under Frederic's rule, to be pauilio and conciliatory ; but during the stormy period of Napoleon's suc- cesses, she was drawn into the great vortex of European warfare. Joining in a coalition with liussia, Prussia, and Sweden, to resist the English claims to the right of searching neutral vessels in time of war, she was the first to sufter the consequence. In March, 1801, an English fleet, under Sir Hyde Parker, consist- ing of eighteen ships of the line, four frigates, and a large numi)er of gun-boats, forced the passage of the Sound, and came to anchor befoie Copenhagen. The city was admirably defended by fixed and floating batteries, and by a powerful naval armament. A force of ten thousand soldiers was stationed for its defence, and the whole population was roused by patriotic enthusiasm to share in t^he prep- arations for resistance. The entrance to • the port was rendered difficult by the intricacy of the channel, but, after the necessary explorations and soundings, the harbour was gained, and one of tlio most desperate and bloody naval engagements ensued, of all recorded in modern history. Nearly the whole Danish fleet was destroyed; only one vessel was taken to England, the rest being burned or sunk. Nelson was sec- ond in command of the English fleet, and to his efforts the brilliant result has been mainly attributed: after the battle, he said to Colonel Lundholm, aid-de-camp to the Danish prince; "I have been in one hundred and five engagements, in tiie course of my life, but that of to-day was the most terrible of them all." The English sustained a DENMARK. 848 After this reverse, Denmark wa. obliged to vS o tl,. • • tions of her nowprfnl .i,>f„„ • .^ ., ^ •'^ ^ '° *°® requiai- tion of the contbetliwro'f ' "^' ''"'* "'" *^« «"*^^« d^^l- Tn 1807 ""f"^*'^ ^<^'^g"e for resistance to English claims complete surrender of *!«£? 1 ** '''"'"^' *">anji„g a neighbour, on "he plxt ,W ort """'"! """^ "' '"=' ™'-- han* of France Th uLn .^ " herwse they might fall i„to the the partial destrlS or„h ^farr' "'T"' '"""'"'' '" the complete ,uece. of the pSX^™"" "^ °' '"■"■ ""'' n.'"i":s:tr;"f„rr;irnf^^^^^^^ .e. Of .apot::! r:r;ti^-:i:t:-''"-- - £t=rf-L:t::z[=/7rrbr of Leipsic, Holstein and Sleswig were reduced hv tl, ii t , , treaty of Kiel, peace was cone uded with En-rlnnr? nnrl Q t i Vederic w„, eompellod .0 give up all elai:';':;? ,, ti^^ «._ Norway, rece.v,„g, i„ .exchange, Pomeranir and the SlnH-? The aWute authority b«„wed up,„ the Danish soverei-n bv ttie constitution of ItifiO has bf^n nf u*^ sovereign by of the sovereigns to whom the power has been intrusted tL re^n of Frederic VL terminat^ by his deatS ^ S hi t^" and successor, Christian VIII, died January 20th, 1848 lenvirZ crown to the present sovereign, Frederic VIE ^ Cvil hostilities, of a sanguinary nature, have recently occurred in Donmark The inhabitants of the duchies of Sleswi. anrm i 1 stimulated by the revolutionarv snint .f Germr^ 1 ' ,. i i-i „i iifirmany, imvc made a 844 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. vigorous eflfbrt to establish their independent nationality. At the obstinately-fought battle of Idstedt, on the 25th of July, 1850, an army of forty-five thousand Dane^ under Von Krogh, attacked the revolutionary forces of twenty-eight thousand, under Willisen, and after a contest of two hours, in which seven thousand of the combat- ants were killed or wounded, compelled them to retreat. The suc- cess of the insurrectionary movement, at present, from the attitude of the neighbouring powers, appears hopeless. The present dominions of Denmark are divided as follows: the peninsula of Jutland, including the duchies of Sleswig, Holstein, and Lauenberg; Zealand, Funen, and various smaller islands on the coast; Iceland, and the Faroe Isles. She has also colonies on the Western coast of Africa, in Upper Guinea; on the Nicobar lelands of the Indian Archipelago; on the coast of Greenland; and at the West India islands of St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St John. THE NETHERLANDS. CHAPTEE I. '"r.V/. !!""/" 7""" «' »"«"",-cH»„,s o.?., ' "■*"• -"»"CT Of KAR. OA«BT.— THB BXPMORCHAEIES T. the most fenneS^,t^^nd,^7r ""I '"•' """""^ " '"'° About the rear BO Si; ?."'' ''"*'yP0P>"'>«e« ">«-"'''"' and weapon . Extravtan, '„ '' > ""''• ''"''^''y »f """» "•astern Plandc a udTob '„ "T ?"'"''"'• '» '^"'"''^ »" o ^^^^^^^^ ^«^r'"^' ^^ ''•^^"■■^^'' only resource, "Ind despte eZr'?''"^"^' ^^'°''* ^^'-'^ ^l'- restrain ernig atiorMhou ' 'drnf ^. '™^' '" *''^ ^''^ '^ ^^^^-a to led her to Lcourage;':' eS^^^'^^- *^^^P«^^«^ «^ ^^'-^beth to the resources of that counZ T'* ''"P^^'^n* ad. tions of manufactures wh eh had S^T T'^^^ ^^ ^^« establi,sl,.aent j Countries. ^^ ^'*^"^*° ^een confined to the Low i 3'e^rs^administrati^n no lis than r^^ *'"* ^"""° ^"'^ -- itants were put to deLth confo.'^^ ''-'' ""^ "^ '^' '■"''^^■ council. Industry and eCtr^^^ loss and destitute'^rethenrc J?:^'^^^^^ ^"^ ^°^^- «f »-'- -d forests, only issu bg for h to nf ^ ""' '""'"^ *^« "^''^-^- as occasion offeL, upon the l on '' °' '° '"^^"^^ ^^^'^^^^v^^^. I -d the coast w. i'nr. 1Z E^el/^"^ *^^^ ^ ^^« ^^ ' the Life of E^frd ol t^^' ''^^''"^ ^^'^^^ ^ ^^^ ^y -any, entered the Netherlands and f .-"^'^"^ ^'^ ^''^'^^^ ^^ Ger^ ngainst the royalists. H7couid nnf 7 ' """' ^''^ ^'^"^^ «^«^-« tage; a portion of his ar^ fo.m ' Z"''""' """'"^^^ ^'"^ ^^van- -other Louis, was ut te n;^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^'"^ ^^-^g- under his i 21st of July, and before Vecbleyh^^^ "" '^'"^'^"' °° *^- of funds and supplies compelled ^^1,^'"!."'."^ ^"''^''' ' ^^"* from the campaign. ^ ^ *° ^^'^^"^ ^'« fo'-ces and retire tunt;if "pp'^etbn an^ ™^^^^^^ '^'^"'f ^^^^^^ ^^^ free oppor- the most enormous taxes and tl 'f "*^ ""''' burdened with we^ driven to betak themselvesT ""^ ™°" '^ *^^ ^""^^bitant. belonging to the patriol 2 ^^^^7^-' "" ^'^'^^^ '^-* no longer pass the channeTb safety ' ^^'"^'^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ Vol* II™!!"23 "''*°'^ °^ '^* Neth.rl«nda. 864 THE l'EOrLE'8 BOOK OF UISTUKY. Tho celebrated William de la Marck, count of Lunoy, ciiUed from his violence and impetuosity the wild boar of Ardennes, was tho principal commander of the patriot naval force. The asylum oflliod by the English harbours to the Dutch cruisers enabled them to prey upon Spanish trading vessels with impunity, and it was found neces- sary, in order to avoid war with Spain, to prohibit those lawless rovers from resorting to those places of refuge. The cipun tin; island of Voorn, between Zealand and Holland. That the succe.ssis of the corsairs of tho Netherlands were ofleu accompanied by cruelty and excess, is but too evident. Almost immediately upon Lunoy's seizure of Voorn, a general insurrection against the government broke out openly throughout Holland. A desolating and horrible civil war ensued. The inhab- itants of such towns as were reduced by the Spaniards suifered every extreme of cruelty. As an instance, upon the fall of Haerlem, after a siege of seven months, "in pursuance of Alva's common system, his ferocious son caused the governor and the other chief officers to be beheaded ; and upwards of two thousand of the worn-out gar- rison and burghers were either put to the sword, or tied two and two, and drowned in the lake which gives its name to the town." On the other hand, these outrages were oflen fearfully repaid. William de la Marck conducted his operations with a ferocity wliich occasioned his removal from command by William of Orange, a prince who united the most undaunted firmness and courage with modera- tion and humanity. The enormities perpetrated by Alva became, at laat, so glaring, that even Philip was convinced that his rule could be no longer endured, and he was accordingly superseded, in November, 1573, by Don Louis Zanega y Requesens, a man of entirely a different dis- position and character. TUB KET11£BLAND8. CHAPTER in. fiOO ALBBRT AND ISABELLA I '^y thTa^ a^^^^^^ adopted b, Re,u.en, and bold and defiant. tZVoIo^L^^^^^^^ to be .naintnined onirbffo c l.fd "7 '"' '" ^'^^'-i^^-- menced. To add to the hor or of th. T '^'^'^''^ ''''^^^■ i«h soldiery, discontented t^tr^"' P"* ^°^'^« "^ *he Span- Alva's wbLale ; tem o^lnd' '?°7'"'/^ °' ^^'^'•'' P^^-^- enriching of hi.self tnd ht cr tul tl ' T '"'"^^^ ^^' ^^« lion. The commanding influence o/I^^^^^^ I and bands of brutal ruffianrfnfM !t " *'"''" ^'^ withdrawn, i ^listinction or restraint ""^ '^' '^°""^^^' P'^'-^g-g ^ithoui period w. the atta^ b^ To;:!! ifr^:- "^^ ^^.^^^'^ ^' '''^ ' of September 28th 1576 ' '^f I'f "" ^^rickzee. On the night hundred and fiftym n effeetcdn '"" ''/"^ ^''"^^'^ ^''^-» that town wa.s siCe , ^t'd nfaTrVd ''^ "''7."^"" ^^^>'«^ «'Ater wa., in some pkoes mlV T °^ *^" ^^«- ^he -eedinglydark; anS trilaThaX C gi^ of^h ''''' ^T the island, and lat s!:^;:^^^? '''' °' *'^ "^^"^'^^^^^ ^^^^^ istrir:' Re^tir sri"' 't't ^"^-^^^ *^« a^-- were proseribe?by the coune^-I^ffr ^°'^ "^ ^P^"'«^ ^^^^i^^s it was the duty of al to aTd L "^ "^ ''^'^' ^"^ ''^''^' ^^om bjthis decreeVf ou lawrv hevtnT'.""f- "^^ , ^^^^^ ^esperation wilder license. ^^FuZ^^^^ ^f'^'^ *^«™««I^*« "P to the Piace characteristics'^r.t :^ thfS- "^^V^; — " i-H. lao exertions or the patrioti(, 856 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. prince of Orange in behalf of his afflicted countrymen were unwea- ried, but so desperate appeared their condition and prospects, that, at one time, he advised the destruction of the dykes, and the entire submersion of the country, as the only means of freeing it from its foreign oppressors. A congress was finally held in the town-house of Ghent, on the 10th of October, 1576, and the famous "Pacification of Ghent" was agreed upon and formally promulgated. The principal articles of tliis treaty or confederation, made between "the estates of Brabant, Flan- ders, Hainault, Artois, and others, on the one part; the prince of Orange, and the states of Holland and Zealand and their associates, on the other;" stipulated for a general union in war and council, for a united effort for the expulsion of the Spaniards, for religious toler- ation, and for a general amnesty for former offences. The vice-regency of the Netherlands was next bestowed by Philip upon the famous military chieftain Don John of Austria, a natural son of Charles V. Such was the dangerous and troubled state of the country, that Luxembourg alone seemed to offer a safe residence to the new governor: from this town he sent formal notice of his arrival to the council of state. In accordance with the advice of William of Orange, his authority was only acknowledged upon a ratification of the pacification of Ghent, and the withdrawal of the Spanish soldiery from the country. Don John, after his formal acknowledgment by the states, in 1577, appears to have soon become disgusted with the limited authority conceded to him. He first endeavoured to obtain from the council of state an enlargement of his civil powers, and the absolute com- mand of the armies. Perceiving that the states were detennined on adhering to the articles of the pacification, he sent letters to Philip, requesting an armed force to aid him in the extension of his authority. These letters, intercepted by Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, were put in possession of the prince of Orange, and upon Don John's first violent demonstration — the seizure of Namur — were made public. The states-general now bestowed upon the prince the title of "Ruward," or protector of Brabant, with almost absolute dictatorial powers, for the purpose of resistance to Spanish tyranny. Namur and Luxernboillg were the only provinces of the Netherlands that still adhered to the royal cause, and acknowledged the authority of John. Jealousy of William's influence and ascendancy caused tlie forma- THE NETHEELANDS. were unwcfi- 857 tic influence otmZZTtott' ""f-^.T I"'"®''=<'' "'""8'' of tie Emperor Eudoirn anrf f °° ^'°^'^''''' """■»=■ ''«'*=■• Prince Wi li„m oZ™,! ' ~"=o-. ^'^ -ore *.n .he title ZTI Wm ^"™'°' ° ''""'°"'^' """ '""« John; and LZl^rilH T """ ""*' ""■"""J <>' Don of th ducked bS.t T ''/"■"'^' P"""" ■"■ P''™'^ » »on -dnetio„ofTeS;pr;;i°'lle'fl"r '" '"''^' '" '"^ -nMhe ro,aIis.«, under":::: J of ^ .! l™'!:;!?"""*" Signal victory— the e^tpnt nf ti • . • ^V ' ^^^"ed a most ening, Do,, Joh'wa, taken wira„dZT* *'" """ ''"«'■'■ believed, from the effeeM of „„i j , '^' "^ """ currently I :-^v ocher, IS? "^-rieS ^LH; t -i Gro„i„,L, to S ^n" 'c^elT'^S fr'^o'^ "r'"- °"^ ;«9, thi,, body adopted a mutual eo™a„. of a tnoe V •'""""'•^' Pn.on of mrechV by which the sov rei^nf „ Sol T " """ Mry implication, renounced and » Z, . -^ ' " ™' ''•J' "«=«• "Andth,,s,..«y;TempTe"^h e^rt^lrr^^^ but in so low and uncerta n . «n,. Vat , " Commonwealth, motion, and affeet,'o,rrmetr„df'rdi/™rrJ*''""™»' e»ts of the several Partie, ",,"""*• ."'=»»" '•'■■■^'"'"l '■> h.-gh,„„,acaao::„ Si r^ ;^r Th:fuke":fr ''^°""^° °^ pushed his conquests from ™ • . "= onks of Parma, in I080, -rtat is now ealW Bewl srt niL^ T""" "'"" *^ "'>* "^ the reJueed distriels befir, ° '"' '^'""- Tte suspect of *.io., is .hu,1:SiSX gS"'tL'7 Tf ''™''^'°"' p""- 'lepopulated. The inhabiKn.. 1 j ' '"'^ '"""^ "<"■" •'"''"ost , |» .-a, pestilence, and f^r -' tV/S "'T"?' f»"» "««»- liaJ covered the face of thr;. . "'O""""* of villages which rt.e wolves, which hndL' T '^ "™ **>'""''y *»"'ioned ro ".erelycatlea dehMren Zt"""""''^' """ *ey attacked no. »l>™ad h, H„nger,ti^Te;lretrr;lrreh "'^ ''°='' '"'™ an;l joined in large packs to h„n, dowrbrnrlnd ^"'^ M T' fields, nor woods nor morla „, , ^ ™®"- Neitlier visible limits, lilw" anel-l'l"'"*'^ ^-tinguished hy any Unable to obtainrs^ntfrt'ircf t^f' T'^' ^"^^'^^'^ " v.'ars, the states had recourse to Fnl r' 7\^' '''' '''"'' ^^ ^'^''' '^eth large supplies ofZl L^^' Withte"' '^r."^'''^'^" ^pection, she demanded the surrender of Zf- 71^^ '"■'"^"• t'le castle of Eammekins as securkv f - ^"^ '°^ ^""^' ^^-'^h I'oicester, who had command of IJ ^Z.T^"'''''- ^^' ^^'^ -^ ''im^elf with an arroIncTrnV ^ ''"^ «^-^^'iliaries, conducted .-ed the peopHf Zs 1^ t r :r r T^^ ^'" ^^^- Knsland, the yonns Prince Hf, ■ ?t ^P"" ""» >■<"'"•" '" >'• «re„glheni„. th/defe ces of hi, orC '" '"""" ""'""''""j' a«ording to Temple, "the grels c2t„ /rT"'"' P"'™°S'" '-.larly in .he Discipline S^l^aCof 1,'" ^S'''/™"- P- i:"::rs?ta;;^--=-^-K;Jti:t ■iia.: St: sr-of p^'fi; ttc\,tr f !,'' "- cncies in the Netherlands- and in iSl 9 t I T ^'' ^^V^nd- «•- engaged in behalf o the C hoHc f!' " "^' ^"'^'^ '' P'''™''* F.'ance, Maurice had opportlS to e^iT^ ^-"^'"^V^«-7 I^- of of .several Spanish fortfesse Aft'l ^l' P^^^er by the capture -"1 fully sustaining hisTLer find ""'n '""^'^ " ^""^^• aaderofParmad.din... ^^^^I^I :r^i^- 860 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HI8T0KY. the Discipline, and with that all the Fortunes of the Spanish Arms in Flanders" To enter upon a history of the long career of Maurice, as the chief civil and military officer of the northern provinces, would involve a lengthened detail of political intrigue and warlike operations. We will pass rapidly over some of the more important incidents. The sovereignty of the Netherlands was conferred by Philip, in 1596, upon the Archduke Albert, brother of the Emperor Eodolph. The Spanish tyrant died in 1698, and in the following year the new- sovereign of the Netherlands, in accordance with previous arrange- ments, espou'^ed his daughter Isabella. The free provinces maintained their independence in spite of all the efforts of the royalists. After various successes, the contending parties agreed upon a twelve years' truce, the treaty for which was concluded on the 9th of April, 1609. This interval, which should have resulted in universal prosperity, was disturbed in the northern provinces by harassing religious dissensions, and by the ambitious intrigues of Maurice, who, spoiled by success, aimed at regal authority. The ten southern provinces, (first known collectively as Belgium abort the period of the twelve years' truce,) under the humane administration of Albert and Isabella, recover<5d in a remarkable degne from their desperate condition, consequent upon the long-con- tinu-3(i desolations of civil war. The commerce of the Netherlands, now enormously extended, was, however, mostly confined to the ports of Holland. The part taken by the provinces of the Netherlands in the famous Thirty Years' War must be sought in the history of those nations which were more intimately concerned in that great struggle for religious liberty. Prince Maurice died in April, 1625, at the age of fifty-nine. The despotism of his latter years contrasts unpleasingly with the patriotic eervices and generous enthusiasm of bis youthful career. )ants7i Arms THE NETHERLANDS. CHAPTEB I?. 361 '~1 lion and valour" Under H, 7 '°''«"'^' P™*°='=' '"1«-' successes, princTnallvi; „: ', 1 r'"'*"'?' " ™« "f brilliaM, acknowledlenTof fte Ldetl ' f I"^ "'""y''" ""= «"'»"' the Do,™," rough, near .he1„X»L'l;'2iror."' f—r*.;:? ic/j; :i t'T d7 f "■= ^^- -™^"«. *» United Provinees Bvl. '"°°'''" '"«™ %»» »■«! the Spain to the s^;reS.v ofT'T "' *" '™'^' '''' "'""- «' «no„need; pr vZe o/trad 7 "" '"°""°'" "™ '"' ''^ reared to the dS and S. T"'""''"' '" *"= ^"•l''« ""re «o.a,i.erH::^.re^ri:rare;aTof'"'^ '" '^^-• resources, devoted to imbiri ! j j "' " "°"'"«'' <>f vast -d the ;efor:^d 4l'''SeI„kthr:i°^ ™""^ "^ "^■"^' «- -a. ^athe^ - -t^^.^Z^^^^^^ OP I J 862 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. tholicism to take sliipping, and transfer their entire nationality to the Indian Archipelago. "There the Dutch commonwealth might commence a new and more glorious existence, and might rear under the Southern Cross, amidst the sugar-canes and nutmeg-trees, the Exchange of a wealthier Amsterdam, and the schools of a more learned Leyden." Happily, this bold and romantic enterprise was rendered unnecessary; the invader was repelled; and during an old age of misfortune, their grand enemy experienced the defeat and humiliation which ho had so often inflicted on others. By tlie peace of Utrecht, concluded in April, 1713, the province.^ of Belgium were transferred from the jurisdiction of Spain to thnt of Austria. Their condition, under the succession of Austrian gov- ernors until the accession of the celebrated Maria Theresa to tho empire in 1740, was generally peaceful and prosperous. The nortl;- ern republic enjoyed an equal exemption from the desolations of war. Few absolute sovereigns have ever exercised their power in a manner more satisfactory to their subjects than did Maria Th have conducted all plans of improvement and reform with great circum- spection, and with all consideration for the deep-rooted prejudices ot the people. Her more impulsive and zealous son and successoi-. Joseph TI., in his enthusiasm in behalf of religious liberty and the reduction of papal authority, thoroughly alienated from himself the affection of his Catholic subjects in the Netherlands. A wide- spread and temporarily successful revolt was the consequence of his well ;neant, but ill-timed efforts. In 1790, seven of the provinces formed a treaty of union, constituting themselves a confederation, with the title of "the United Belgian States." The anxiety and distress of mind occasioned by this ungrateful conduct of Belgium hastened the death of the emperor. His suc- cessor, Leopold, lived but little more than a year from the time of his accession in January, 1791. During this brief period, however he forcibly reduced his Belgian subjects to submission. His first attempts were by negotiation, but his overtures were contemptuously rejected. "The states-general, in their triumph over all that was truly patriotic, occupied themselves solely in contemptible labours to reestablish the monkish absurdities which Joseph had suppressed. * * As might be expected from this combination of bigotry and rashness, the imperial troops, under General Bender, marched quietly to the conquest of the whole country." THE NETHERLANDS I , ^* l-eopold's death, the affairs nf ^\.^ • tl e same state which had be^ so ^^ ^'"n ""''' ''''''''^ '^ "^'"^^ reign of the empress. Frauds ?i son ?^ ''''^^^^^ ^""°g '^- the last of the Ai^strian eC o^ ihoV^ /'''''^'^ "^ ^^^P^^^' ^^^^ of tne Netherlands. The Xch rlllr °"^^"^°° over any ponion tries into a vast hmtJjZ\Zt'''^'^^'^-'^o.^^ the allied monarchies of Europe ''"'"^ '^ *^^ ^^^^^^^^^ -th «::::S^ the Trench troop, trian Netherlands, ea Tin 1793^^" "'" "" '^'^^^^-^' *^« A- republic. During the ^oSS l" TTT' "^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ temporary success, and Belmnm ^^"strian arms met with viceroyaltyofthekrchdukeCiri! 7^°^' "^^ P'^* ^^er the It was, however, utterly .^Is^fo^^^^^^^^^^^ «^*^« ^-P-r Francis, to maintain their posiL? In L . f "'"' ^"^ ^'^^'^ ^^"''^^ sion of desperate conC were 2^^ °^ ^^^ttan: "A succes- The battle of Fleurs, foughTo: Sth fT '^^'^ *^ '""^ '''''' ^--- complete masters of Belgium '' ^'^' ''^^^^^^ the French Immediately upon the reconquest of tl.« *i. immense army of the republic led bvP, ^'''^^"'''' '" The inlets and arms of the sea whth ^ f"^^ '"^"^^^ ^o"'^"^^- defences of the countryXe b^MlV"^ *" -1 '^' "°^* ^"^P^^^^ -verity of the season,t7every1h L/fTlTf "' ^''^' "^^^^ strong party favourable to the F- ^. ^ ^'^"'^ *^« ^"^aders. A , the last stadtholde^timanfy^L ,oTri ^^^, °^^^"^^^^ country was in possession of Frlntor fo ^ ^^f' """^ '^' ^''^"^« A new form of government and!"' ^"^^^^^^e to her interests. Bepublic," were'impoLlt'rsuld"^"^"^' '''' '' "*^« ^^^-- the northern provinces dendrdenrr'^'''^^ independent, but for their support and" rtport ' "'" *"'^ '""^ ^^™— ""KF^'i-ana prosperity. ""'° >">«ble disposition „„,, geMk°2dTc. „^ ^1 "'^'' f""'"' '''"' ^-a.d u„ .i. ,, slyeorstiirr^airtl .t* r: 361 THE I'EOl'LE'S BOOK OF UlbToia'. consequent upon Napoleon's policy, he connived at an extensive non-compliance with the restrictive laws, and thus acquired the ill- will of hip superior. Wearied at last by the continual conflict be- tween his sense of humanity and the necessity for compliance with the stern decrees of Napoleon, Louis in 1810 abdicated the throne. The kingdom was immediately annexed to the French empire. Tt was at this time that the conscription was first enforced in Plolland, and by the operation of that cruel but impartial system, " nearly one-half of the male population of the age of twenty years was annually taken oflf"— taken off to serve as "food for cannon" in foreign wars. Three years later, an extensive insurrection in Holland resulted in the proclamation by the people of the son of William V. as their independent sovereign. The speedy downfall of Napoleon and the success of the allied powers placed Belgium again under the domin- ion of Austria, but the consent of that sovereignty was obtained to a new arrangement, by which the whole of the provinces of the Low Countries were united under one government, constituting the " Kingdom of the Netheriands." By the revolution of 1830 a fresh separation occurred; and while the northern provinces still retain the title of the kingdom of Holland or the Netheriands, the southern are united under the new name of the "Kingdom of Belgium." By regular succession from William L, his grandson William III. came to the throne of the Netheriands, in 1849, In Belgium, Leo- pold, duke of Saxe-Coburg, was elected king in 1831. In the character of the inhabitants of the Netheriands, from the first dawn of civilization to the present time, we are most called upon to admire the eminently practical nature of their disposition and aims. A noble spirit of enterprise, an indomitable perseverence, untiring industry, and love of country, have ever belonged to their national character. Sir William Temple, in his "Observations upon the United Provinces," written nearly two centuries since, concludes his chapter upon "their people and dispositions," with the following quaint summary: " Holland is a Countrey where the Earth is better than the Air, and Profit more in request than Honour; where there is more Sense than Wit; more good Nature than good Humour; and more Wealth than Pleasure; Where a man would chuse rather to travel than to live; Shall find more things to observe than desire, and more per eons to esteem than to love." annon in SVITZERLAID. C.HAPTSH I. ANCIENT INHABITANTS OP S PRANKS— CHARLEMAONB.- EI'PKCT OP THE CRUSADES.— FIRST ; NCIPALITIE8. »n,posed, have 1 „„,y served":: Wde'tL f " """!, °';""'^ of the lake, of Geneva and NTnAat .he A '^ ■ ° '5" Z'"'""^ innamtants of the various cantons. Within a few vears fr„„ .1 period the Franks bad conquered and subieolpd .LT , ' which became an integral portion of .L^tXtTLTor' pop»!a..on and the aboriginal inhabitants ocenpTedTn inWofZ" tion in society, and were excluded from the oriviwr fT "^ .™. The introduction of the feudal sy.:^ ^;!^Vi^:! I .. """'"lA«T80PSWTT71i;nTiwn „^„ PRANKS. — CHARIF«Anvp^~"''^^^^^^ ^^ ^«» tilARLEMAONE. INDEPENDENT PRIJ I 366 THE I'EOl'LE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. eign tlic command of a numerous and efficient force of well-appointed warriors, while it gave opportunity to the conditional proprietors ol the soil so to increase their individual influence and possessions tliat, in the course of events, the more powerful of them were enabled to throw off the yoke of tlieir superiors, ar.d establish independent principalities. Helvetia was ruled by a succession of Frank sovereigns, of the family of Meroveus, until the establishment of the Carlovingiiiu dynasty, (so called from Charlemagne, the second and greatest of the line,) in the j'ear 751. Most of the country was in an exceedingly rude and uncultivated state. The clergy were almost the only por- tion of the community who devoted any attention to literature: very few among the laity could even read and write. A superstitions form of Christianity was the prevailing religion, and constituted the only light thrown upon the darkened minds of the lude and ignorant inhabitants. Charlemagne bestowed no little attention upon the extension of education, and the introduction of agriculture^, improvements in these mountainous provinces of his immense empire. He even took the extraordinary step of forcibly transporting a population of Sax- ons, placed in his power by the fortune of war, into several districts of Helvetia. The cultivation of the vine, since such an important source of wealth, was introduced by this energetic and politic emperor, The death of Charlemagne, in 814, was the signal for the dismem- berment of Helvetia from the western empire, and many of the chiefs and nobles of Switzerland, secured by the inaccessible nature of their domains, succeeded in maintaining their independence. For some centuries no fixed or regular form of government was estal> lished in the country. The lords or counts generally acknowledgea a nominal allegiance to the German emperors, but each exercised despotic sway over his own principality. Endless strife existed Le- tween rival aspirants to power: "even the servants of the church began to stretch their holy hands in every direction after the treas- ures of this world. Enriched by perpetual picus bequests, they at length found themselves strong enough to push their pretensions, if need were, at the point of the sword." In the early part of the tenth century, the incm-sions of the ferocious Magyars, from Hungary, desolated mar.y thriving and prosperous provinces of Germany, Helvetia, and Italy: the fierce barbarians even penetrated into France. It was in this emergency L........ L... SWITZEBLAND. From this beginni:^ !rZ\i ^" "«"^"'* '^' '^'^^ invaders. operate, a iuo^ThTcapr^il.rart'^ ^'^ f^te, destined to .-^ a most efficient aid in enforcW thf '^'r''""^ 'f^^'ooracy, and The inhabitants of the wallTdr ^ ''"'^'""'^ °^ "^« '-^P'^^ors. erful eonfederacie o con!! . "' "T'"'^ '^'''"''^''^ "'^^ I--- co:,e, not oni; wk the S '/"'^ ""^ "'^^'^^ ^"--^^^''^ to no Wsdangef nstel;r^o/rl^^^^ "^^^^ ''' ^^^^'^'''« invlTi:1hrLttaCr^^ ^-I^--« -tests during the eleventh tnt "J'"^ *° ^^'' P°"tifieal decrees establthme^t:!: •;^r^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^'vetia. The period of the first crusade"^, J a pXde ° /"""=""' ''"'''' '^' nod. The beneficial effecta nAJ ^ "''"'' prosperous pe- the people at harge L ttt J ^^travagant expeditions upon have been enummt d as foH '" "T ^*^^^ ^^^P-" -^^tis, i their death in Zttatos 7''' ^^-^^^^ ""'^^^ ^''"^^ ^'^^ f-- forced to alienat:;ieT;^pS 'T'''^'''^' ^'^ estates were brought into nuir' I . '"'^ *^' '''^'"S^ ^^^"dcd -n but bondsmefi^poved reir^tratr'"^''^' ''''''- acquire property The ktfpr ll ''*"^*'°'^' ^"^ were enabled to saders; „„d received tracts of kL f , ^''^ "'* "'» ="'■ ™ the pa,„en. of ^td It'ndX :,:r™^l T"""7 aspect was taken bv Helvetin in . , gradually altered fl'is side the Alps Ltlv thl >< T""""" "'' "*'' ^^'"^^ «" .hrough the effec 'o'f hf ctTadt J '""'' °' ^'^ *"^^"'^' P^^l^' agriculture. Not only ^ry t^ '^'^^Tf ^^ ''''' ^^-ted i; were introduced from Te Lo T "'"?'' °^ ^"^'-^^ «"* the land I species of vines, f^itlt vegeTat Idt^ ' """'^:^' '"^ "^ ' About the middle of tC Tw v. ' ^ ^'"' ^^'^ imported."* the turbulent p nod o nte '^^^^^^^ "'"> '"' "°* ^^"^ before 'lolph of Hapsburg to he S- /.'. "^ '^' '^'^'''''^ «^ ^'^' protection was fomedbiween 7 .*^T? ' ^''"^^"^ ^^^ ™"tual lormed between Zunch and the three districts of Uri, ♦ Lardner's Cabinet Cycloptedia. 868 THE I'EOl'LE'a BOOK OF HISTOBY. Unterwaldeii, and Schwytz. From the latter the name of Swllze^ land was aftcrwarda derived, and applied to the whole country. These districts had for 'many years maintivined a degree of independ- ence, having succeeded in abolishing the ofRce of " Vogt," or imperial bailiff. In 1257, the disturbed state of the times induced them to revive that ancient dignity, and it was accordingly conferred upon Kudolph: Zurich also invested him with the command of her military force. As emperor, Rudolph at first showed great favour to the compara- tively free provinces of Switzerland, but with the increase imd extension of his power, he exhibited a more ambitious and tyniium;ul spirit than in his earlier years. Having created his sons Kudolph and Albert dukes of Swabia and Au.stria, he formed a design of establishing his favourite son Ilartmann in the sovereignty of tlie ancient kingdom of Burgundy. In endeavours to carry out this project, he invaded the liberties of Berne and Savoy ; but the death of Ilartmann disappointed his anticipatiojis, and the native valour and patriotism of the Swiss rendered his military operations abortive. Rudolph died, after a reign of eighteen years, and was succeeded by his only surviving son, Albert. The diet of the nobles of the empire, at their first convocation, elected At'olphus of Nassau to the imperial office, but Albert, by intrigue and force, procured the deposition of that unfortunate sovereign and his own elevation. ALBERT OP HAP8BCR0. — HERMANN 0ES8LER, AND BBRBNOBn OP LANDENBERO. — COMM ! N CEMENT OP THE 8W 38 REVO- LUTION. — WILLIAM TELL. — SWITZERLAND INDB- PENDBNT OP AUSTRIA. — INVASION BY LEOPOLD. BATTLE OP SEMPACH. The character of Albert of Ilapsburg was marked by fe^ of the redeeming traits which, in spite of his ambition and love ol power, secured to Rudolph a general popularity and the afiection of his associates and followers. lie was "hard, unfeeling, rapacious, and ] iiidignati I horg, tha; of his rel trifling of liimself ai of the Me the origin plans and tions to it from time their hanc each broug the little sa a restoratio Among ated with tl 8W1TZEBLAND. 869 unacrupuloufl in his view« np „ v I'y all, hated by rn / W .d tvT" TT'' * * He wa« foared I wore .speedily alienat^l ; 1. rn" \r n '^ 'f "^^ ^"^'^' ''-^^'^ was to procure the annevftion of rVri ll '"^''' '" Switzerland Austria, a. distinct fronfthd; 'ener'l ^ "'''■' "^"^ ^'"^^''-^l^l-^ to c'.ce o„ the empire. Ho ceo J ^r 'ZT''''' ^'''' ••^"'' '''■I'-nd- '"-t to govern'the;e pro ,^C a^I'T . " ^"", '"'"''' ''^-'^'■ tl.e innovation, and vlthMf.T "'' P'°P'^' ^'omplaiMPd of tl.e connni.sio; of ''Ws " he . " ""Tfr '^ ^''^ '^'^^ '''>'-^^-> '^^ J"i"tly the duties of baili/r. ^ Landenbcrg, to perform -=tir:/~^p^ o^ -'diey. A pride ndlent of d "'^'"^^"'"^'^ "' ^"^^^'■-- action, of the tyrants- their dtnln °^ '^'^'"^"•'»"«"'- ^^''^rk^d all the l.ai.s as mueh a^Lir a^tlron t Ti^ 1 ''^°°'^"^' contributed por- '-n whieh re.sulted in : S "r, ?• ""*' *'^* ^^'^'^ "^ -^<'>1- •^aid to have set a hat upon a ni t^u ^' ^''°^^' ^-^^-^^^ i^ ers-by to do it reverenee^L sv^tnl'"? ." ^'^^ ^'^"'^^"^^^ «" I-- i Although this co.p::::i;e7triv"j^\^"^ -^-'W med.ate exeiting eauses of^the rtbr'^ ttr '^ '''' ""''" '"'"• I :nsta„ce.s of diabolical cruelty to l.out' ] T '"* ""'^'"^^ '"dignation and revenge It k L T^ J"*"''^ emotions of •'org, that he cnused thf eyes of an Tf '^ "' ""''''S'' ^' ^^-^-J- of his refusal to reveal the hil!^^ f '"?/." ""^ P"* ^"^ '>^-^u.e tn-flingoffenceandre Inceto e^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ""' -^«' ^y .some I'imself an object of vengeance T ^ ' T^' ^^^^ ''^"^'^^^''l , of the Melchthal, and Walte Pum of'^n"^ """' ^"^^" "« ^^""'•' t';e ori^^nator of the Swi^tv^We ner'S f '"^ ^^^ ^^"'^'" plans and hopes. CautiousK pvL!! ? '''^"■' ''^^'^^''^'^^l J"'^ tions to their'most C^^iC^^'^^t'':' ''''' ^"^ ' from time to time by ni'-ht and wi^r / '""stnous trio n>et their handful of coSls thfl thTS '' T^'' ^'^^ each brought with him ten companLs o till T'"'"' ''''' the bttle assembly engaffed bv a aoWn 1 ^l ''' ^^ "^''*''^'. ^nd a r^toration of th^e anS'f^L^^tt ^^^^^^^^ - Among the company was one whose ^J^^^^'f ^'^^ir country, ated with the history of Swis^ indenen 1 T ^''^ ^""'^ ^^««'- Vol I1I2T '^'P'"^'"^^' ^"d whose adventures 870 THE TEOI'LE'S BOOK OF HISTOBY. have furnished a favourite theme for legend and romance. The traditions concerning William Tell, and the part taken by him in freeing Switzerland from the Austrian yoke, have been discredited by several modern historians, some of whom even deny that suffi- cient evidence can be adduced that such a person ever existed. The minuteness of detail given in the popular tale of his achievements may excite incredulity, but, making due allowance for exaggeration and poetic license in the metrical legends by which they have been perpetuated, there seems no sufficient reason for considering the whole account as fictitious. "It is far from being a necessary con- sequence ^"s is very justly observed in Coxe's Travels), that because the autnenticity of the story concerning the apple is liable to some doubts, therefore the whole tradition relating to Tell is fabulous. Neither is it a proof against the reality of a fact that it is not men- tioned by contemporary historians. The general history of William Tell is repeatedly celebrated in old German songs, so remarkable for their ancient dialect and simplicity, as almost to raise the deeds tliey celebrate above all reasonable suspicion: to this may be added the constant tradition of the country, together with two chapels erected some centuries ago in memory of his exploits."* According to the account ordinarily received, Tell was arrested by Gessler's officials for refusing to comply with the orders relative to the hat. His proud spirit could not brook the degrading expres- sion of abject servility, and rather than submit he chose to brave the fury of the vogt. Gessler had gained some intelligence of an intended uprising, and hoped by promises or threats to extort further informa- tion from his prisoner. Failing in this attempt, a fit of tyrannieal caprice led him to promise Tell his life if with an arrow he would hit an apple placed upon the head of his son, from a distance so great as to render the feat exceedingly difficult, even were no responsibility attendant upon the archer's skill and steadiness of nerve. Tell was successful, but the tyrant was unsatisfied that he should escape so easily, and observing yet another arrow in his possession, inquired for what purpose he carried it. In a fit of unrestrainable indignation Tell replied, "Vogt, had I shot n.y child, the second shaft was for thee; and be sure I should not have missed my mark a second time." The consequence of this rash speech was, that Gessler took him on board a boat to transport him across the lake to a prison in Schwytz. As the story goes, a great storm coming on, the company * Appendix to the History of Switzerland, in Lmdiier's Cabinet Cyclopccdiu. The I .'ill inten tion for iiis own son of th ; I rose fro i'lg from separated who "fel] iefl; him 1 His da rienry V: towards f An almos without a of the emj fo the re\ Austria, ai During l-copold, ^ "Pjwrtunit hloody batl over the A the former SWIT2EKLAND. in the managemrt of7b»a It ^^'^- '^ •■« ='"»'S«'' ""d «kiU I-.^ing.pIa»Lanex.entrf J:l S7;'r™''' *^ °»'^ - loaping on sho,^ and effecting hT s™ "it !!"'; ™°°'*'' -1.0 *™, but onl^ to meet a fate mo'^al frot M '» t ""^^r" nnrrow pass near Kussnacht. • » Thei!! jl """ "'* •lose of 1307." ^'"' occurftnces marked the "«"'''0ntSe:et e°"r'"f J"' *^ '"'»'-«» I"-'- •T-di,/*ared\herm Z'^^hftX otr''"''"^' '■''*'^'- "■)1 M free commoner and vCl e , / P°°P'"' ""'''"» »» ■n." three "forest e°n,ons ' 1^, ' ^^^^''"'"'^ '" ""^ '■=™l"tion. ^■»...eform„t„a dX" and'^.tL^r:":''''' f™"'-' « "- The Emperor Albert i/™,! J '° '^"""''" usurpation. .ion for their roduetion Tn^tlirWM T"'""^" P^P"" ins own nephew, John, nJs^^TflJ^T}" ""' "'""'"'■'='' ""^ »n of the deceased Dul e R^doh.h • h" *?" ~"'^<'':"^'='- John wa, a :.ose from van-ous sligh^^'itniri^e^'^'Xr "" ""* >vho ..fell upon hTm td ^XIT^' ™ f "P™ •>>■ «"' ^^in-^ -eft him . L in titpr :?rm:' : t s^ot^- ^»- - C ^vt Ltr; er ™ ff t"S ^n ' ""- ™-- without a shadow of prToTrtelrr"' '""°"' «'-° '""""''^ of the emperor. Henrdurtl hi, L T '"'"^Z"^ '" ""^ """der -o the revolted canton^ a raetnowl^^'r".*""'^ ''"™" Austria, « distinct from the empire «^ """' "'d''P™'ie„ce of -rtheAustrians. ^At; g^^^ur ir^rTC-'r the former partner of Gessler. -oerenger of Landenberg, 372 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. The confederate cantons were successful in maintaining their inde- pendence of Austria, and that power, in 1318, was content to con- clude a treaty of armistice. The peace continued until the Swiss were called upon to aid the empire in the war against Austria in 1328. It was again renewed in 1326. Still acknowledging a sub- ordination to the empire, the free cantons lent their assistance to the emperor in his Italian expedition, and thereby subjected themselves to excommunication. The bold and independent foresters were little moved by the papal sentence, and gave the clergy their choice, either to continue their clerical duties, regardless of the Pope's prohibition, or to leave the country. The spirit evinced by the pppulace in resist- ing the tyranny of the church, and the violent character of the times, appears from various incidents which occurred shortly after the issu- ing of that terrible decree, which, by the power of superstition, so often overspread whole countries with gloom and terror. At Basle, a legate of the Pope was seized and drowned for presuming to affix the bull of excommunication to the church wall, and the act is said to have met with general approbation. The clergy of Zurich, yield- ing obedience to their spiritual head, were expelled from the town, and no regular services, other than those performed by the bare- footed friars, were held for a period of eighteen years. In 1332, Lucerne was united with the independent confederacy. Twenty years later, by the addition of Berne, Zurich, Zug, and Glarus, the number of towns and provinces included in the league wa.i increased to eight; a number neither increased nor diminished for more than a century. The year 1386 was memorable for the invasion of Switzerland by Duke Leopold III. of Austria. The principal cause of offence was the aUeged extension of the authority and protection of the confed- eracy over places subject to Austrian claims. Swearing that " by God's assistance," he would "dissever that insulting league of the Swiss, the source of so much unrighteous warfare," the duke marched into the country with a body of chosen troops. As an insolent expression of contempt and menace, quantities of ropes and cords were ostentatiously displayed, for the avowed purpose of hanging those of the Swiss who should be taken captives. On the 9th of July the invaders encountered the army of the con- federation on its march from Zurich. Near Sempach, a town in the canton of Lucerne, a most decisive battle was fought, in which the Austrians were utterly routed and driven off, with the lo.ss of six hundred of their nobility, of various ranks, and two thousand SWITZEKLAND. 373 WinWried, a hight of ult^,* ^tZZfteT'! "' army consisted of a bodv of l'n,-„r,f ^ A ° '^^ *^^ Austrian from their horses and with^hfrf °'^^"' ^^' '^^^ ^'^"^-"^-^ impenetrable line Thlst- s hillL^^^^^ ^PP^^«"*^^^ several desperate but unavl S,f t T^ J '"'^^ ^'"'^^'''' ''^^^^'^ invaders. Many of tl^elr b.^^. ^P"" f° ^''"''^'^ ^'^^ '"''^"'^^ «f the -Mn^tosaei^::;:;:;;;?::-:!:::^^^ wayforvou. confedprotoa ,^^ -j r 'J'> ^'"^ta out, 1 will make his arms a number of the weapons dirp.t i ^i • ^'^^''^'"'"g '" ward, and his companions pSthro't^^^^^ '^ '^" '"'- with resistless impetuosity.^ TreheavvS^^^^ °'" '' ^"'^ so effectuallv protected the IV^Tl 7' '™^"'' ^^'^^ had swords of the enemy Vhile r i;"'P' ^'""^ '^^ ""'^^'^^^ «"d encumbered and op;i;"''^27n I e^^ ^^^'^^' ^'^ The SwiKs bore 0!?^ ■ . 7^^ ^ "'"'^ '"^^'^^ ^^'«^ «"«"ed. victory. " ' ■' ' ^^""^ ^'^'^^^'^ «« memorials of tKeir CHAPTER HI. STANTZ—SWABIAN WAR.—TIfR REPORWATION AM. THE THIRTY YEARS' W A R.-PORMlno,' OF THE PRESENT HBLyETICREPUBUc Leopold IV., after some vain attempts to carrv nut t\.. a ■ hs predecessor, was content to conclude a trie w"h the s"'" rf was at this time, (1387.) according to many his oritthatr federate cantons became, in effect, rndependent of thTr "" Towards Austria the bitterest Id Z f ?'™^" ^'"^'"«- Btill borne by the freel^^^r ^'Tl.rc uTdTort^'^:/"^"' ^" that house without exasperation m , '' '^'^ """*' "^ 374 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY with peacock's feathers, the ducal ensign, would have lost his life by the fury of the people. It is recorded that no peacock was permitted in all Switzerland; and Peacock's Tail became the most offensive of all nicknames." Upon a renewal of hostilities the patriots were again triumphant /ver enormously superior forces of the enemy. The victory at Na^xels, in April, 1388, proved as disastrous to the Austrians as that of Sempach. Defeated, and in utter disorder, the fugitives were crowding over the bridge at Wesen, when the frail structure gave way, and precipitated them into the water. 'J'hreo thousand privates and nearly two hundred knights are said to have fallen in the engagement, or to have perished in the attempt to escape by flight. Thus terminated the hopes of Austria for the establish- ment of her power in Switzerland. A peace for seven years was negotiated, which was afterwards renewed for twenty, and, in 1412, for fifty years. At the last-mentioned period the Austrian duke, Frederick, was so fully satisfied of the determined resolution and patriotism of the Swiss, and nad so disastrously experienced the power of the free cantons, that he was eager to form a treaty with them, although they would come to terms only upon the cession of all territory conquered by them or their allies. In 1436, certain disputes arose between Zurich and the cantons of Schwytz and Glarus, which eventuated in a desolating civil war. Zurich entered into a league with Austria, upon which all the other members of the confederacy united against the coalition. After sev- eral years of hostilities, the old league was renewed. During the reign of Louis XI. of France, former friendly alliances with Switzerland were solemnly ratified by that monarch, who lent his aid to the cantons, as heretofore related, upon the occasion of the invasion by Charles of iiurgundy. The terrible battles of Granson and Alorat, fought in 1476, gave proof that the courage and patriot- ism of the hardy mountaineers were as active as in the earlier doys of their struggle for independence. At the last and decisive battle, fifteen thousand of Charles' troops are said to have been slain in the engagement or during their flight, and an untold number perished in the lake and the neighbouring marshes. "The ossuary at Morat, which received the bones of the slain Burgundian^i, exhibiled the following inscription, till its destruction by the French, in 1798:— Deo Opt. Af(vr. Curoli inclyti et fortissimi Duds Burgnndice, exercitus, Mtiratum "hsidieiis, Hoc sui monumentum reliquit. M.CCCC.LXXVir 8WITZEKLAND. 876 L_ ilary renown stimn1,.„/.), • Ti ° confederacy, this mil- ^ be obtained ^:^X^'^r^::^ 'H"' «""' Sxxr;„dTi„"r ^^ *' -- ^^^if i:,t::z: the canton 7Si„,Lked,rMr" *""° *«"" '='"'« "f q"™' Internal dissensions threatened the very existence of tl.. TT ■ Uunng a stormy session of the diet in 1481 ^1?? , '^"• Nicolas of the Flue madp hi 1*81 a noted recluse, named eloquently set forth thTfL "PP'^^^"°« ^'^ '^' council-hall, and unild effort' of teeLt"^^ '^^ ^**^"^«^ *« ensue if their inters shouS be ^ttrk^f '^^'^l "^"^* settled and defined. ' ^ ^''* *""^> distinctly About the close of the fifteenth century the aid of ^,v,-=» was purchased by France in her war withVe ^plre fnTThr^ nfederacy became involved in hostilities with tha't imm nse X. Austrian. Finding t^^^X^d'^^^^^^^^^^^ the emperor was ready to conclude a peace with the unit d can on ' confirmmg them in all their conquests and possessions Vo 'n^. a::mrz;^r^^ ^ -'-^ -- ^^^^^^;:^ From this period the political affairs of Switzerland and her mil tary expoite are too closdy interwoven with the history o^X nations of the continent to permit a connected narratirnJf t l ^ry without ex^nding the fubject far beyotd it ;^^^^^^^^^^^^ or without a useless repetition of events elsewhere chroSd The memorabk campaigns in Italy, in which mere mercenar;7or:sidm tions guided the conduct of the Swiss in their connection "h 2 876 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HIbTOBY. French, with the emperor, or with the Itai:ans, served to keep alive the martial character of the nation, while, at the same time, they demoralized the people and weakened the bond of the federal union. The most important and interesting topic connected with the history of Switzerland, as with every other portion of Central Eu- rope during the sixteenth century, is the rise and progress of the Reformation. One of the earliest and most influential advocates of Protestantism in Switzerland was Ulrich Zwingli, parish priest of Einsiedlen. He opposed the infamous sale of indulgences with groat power and effect. A few years later, the still more celebrated John Calvin was foremost in the woik of reform at Geneva, and acquired an influence and authority little inferior to that before enjoyed by the dignitaries of the Catholic Church. During tho Thirty Years' War, the policy of the united cantons was generally neutral, and as their territory presenter little temptations to the contending parties, it was preserved, for the most part, invio- late. At the conclusion of the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, by which that long and bloody war was ended, the claims of Switzerland, so long maintained by force, were, for the first time, deliberately and formally acknowledged by the German empire, and the confederate cantons were declared free and independent. Although placed by this important treaty upon an equal footing with the other European states, the condition of the Swiss confederacy was by no means pros- perous for many years subsequent to the peace. Insurrections of the peasantry, jealousy between the towns and provinces, and intermin- able religious controversies, still continued to disturb the tranquillity of the country. Switzerland, from its central position among jealous and conflict- ing powerful states, has been, during several centuries, occasionally exposed to the march of hostile armies; and the magnificent scenes which it every where presents have received fresh interest from the encounters of German, Russian and French batttilions, amid passes where the difficulties of nature and the terrors of climate added immeasurably to the horrors of warfare. From the time of Han- nibal, it has always been considered one of the most dangerous and difficult feats of military enterprise to conduct an army safely through the Alps— and the losses of Suwarrow, Macdonald, and other re- nowned generals, sufficiently attest the formidable nature of the undertaking. The effect of the French revolution was to create a great ferment SWITZERLAND. 877 throughout the country and wUI, fV,. Switzerland became a m;redeplno^^^^^^ ^^^'^ °^ ^'-^P^'^^. league of confederatiorwhich had so^ ^'""'"i '" ^^^S, the old inces, wa. forcibly dissdved and al % f Tf '''' '''''^' P^^^" unavailing resistance on the U" of i^T'^^^^^^^^^ ^'" ' ^^"^^ but "nd others of the older canton! ^ ^^^^^^^bitants of Uri, Sch^vyt^, the Helvetic Repubhc Itto!' T Tf "*° ^ °^" ^^^^«' ^-™ed Grisons, Luzerne, Neuchatel ^ohJu^^. """' ^^"^^^' ^larus, Thurgau, Unterialden Uri VaW T":,^f ^"■*^' ^''^^"-. ^csino The Helvetic RepubHc h^ lt\ ^''''' ^"^' ^"^ ^^-h- -bitrary governments^ wUcfa' it T !' '""''I f ^^^^^^^^ *« ^^^ aggravated by the late co'Lvul sou ofVuT' !?""' j"^'^'^"^^' ^^ »ts nature, that Switzerland looks eLerlvf^''""^ '" "^™^"^"S ^" of liberty throughout the wori? ^ ^ ^ ''"'*^""" *"^ ^^e friends f-dom." Thel!t:ie ;r H^^^^^^^^^^ ^^-^^'^ for her plj commercial) has been relived ^^^^^^^^ Z ''""^''^ ^'^^"^'^ «'"^- Bi-m. With a population T Tel'^an'^^r^ T^''^'^^ '^"^ ^"^^- would seem that Switzerland T I 7^ "?'"'°"' ^""^ ^ '^^If, it of the greater powe^frr he ' Tt^^^^^^^^ ^^f *« -^ «^ort not always to the strong and Lv t ^T 'T' ^"* ''^^ battle is 7et I. answered by a ^^Z^TZZ''' "'^'^^"^^ "^^^ I PORTUGAL. ANCIENT HISTORY. — MARITIME ENTERPRISE AND DISCOVERIES. — CIRCUMNAVIGATION OP AFRICA. — PORTUOUESB COLONIES IN INDIA. — EXPEDITION OP SEBASTIAN AGAINST THE MOORS. — HIS DEFEAT AT ALCACARQUIVER. This country, the^Lusitania of the ancients, was invaded by the Romans, B. C. 148. The struggle for its conquest, with some inter- vals, was protracted for more than a hundred years; but, in commoii with the whole Spanish peninsula, a little before the Christian era. it was forcibly subjected to the sway of the empire. The Visigoths included it in their conquests, and after them, the Moors, who, in the eighth century, gained possession of nearly all the great south-west- ern peninsula. As the power of the Christians revived, the Maho- metans were gradually expelled from their possessions; and, about the middle of the eleventh century, Ferdinand of Castile wrested from them a considerable part of Portugal. At the close of the same century, Henry of Burgundy, who mar- ried the daughter of the Spanish King Alphouso, received with her a portion of the country, erected into the earldom of 1 oitucalia,* whence the present appellation of the country. Further victories over the Moors, under his son Alphonso, increased the limits of the principality, and elevated it into the dignity of a kingdom. Pri- vate wars, feuds, and deadly revenges, both with Christian and Sara- cen neighbours, present little of interest until the commencement of the fifteenth century, the famous epoch of Portuguese discovery. The names of John I. and lis enterprising son Prince Henry, will always be celebrated as the earliest and most enlightened promoters • Derived from Partus Cale, tlio niicioiit niimo of Oporto. of ma Pedro fate, w bereav tory. legitim ance w; Aftei turned gained of Ceut ter of tl order, w devoted quest ar engaged % in ardent d to his pi wards in From th Henry se He had c of Africf earliest ti must pre( whom he expeditior oilier islai ever, were within ab( important was that u For moi ings, the p nected witl H., the dis ingly profit Guinea, anc which adde PORTUGAL. 879 oi maritime enterprise. The fir«.f nf fT,no« Pedro the Cruel aTd the beltifLTnL / P '"''''''^"" ^"*^ ' ^"" "^ fate, with the fierce etriS!n ^Z ''*'°' '"^°«« ™ bereaved husban^ orC^^^^^^^^ her murderers b, her tc>ry. The marriage ofTdro with W ! '^''°^^ ^" ^"'^"^^^^ '-- legitimate, but their son John Jnf T .?* ^'""''""^ considered --0 with 'the poX; i^hes toZ T-^ ^"/ " ''«^' ^'^ ^-^d- After establishi^^g irpot^rL Po^^^^^^^^^^ f " ^'^^"^"*«- turned to an invasion of thlM ™"^^^J«h" « A'^t attention was gnined brilliant b runprofitat^^^^^^^^ '""""/ " ^'"««' ^^^^^ ^e of Couta in the kingdom of Pe, H^T'r' ^^'"^^ ?-«-'- ter of the " Knic^hts of Chrii » '^ '°"' ^^"'•^' g''''^"*^ "^^s- order, which bound ht to o^tinXT" '' ''^ ^""^'>^^^ '^^ ^- •levoted himself to the fl^rt ^ X^or^' Mahometnnism, quest and conversion than those in wS t Z" "'"'i' '^"" engaged with his father, in Mauritanil ^''^^'^"'^^ ^'^'^ to his projects for thfSel'tenrnTf'ch 'T °"^V"^'"-^ wards indulged from more enlS.V T . ^^"«*'«"'ty. but after- , From the hLour of sZs fot^^^^^ 'f praiseworthy motives. Henry sent out vessels Sow the 1^^^^ P^*^''"'^^^ ^y himself, He had convinced himself o tie pL^^^^^^^^^^ *« *^- -"^^ward. of Africa, notwithstanding the Son Vi?rr'""r'^'^^'""" earliest times, that the inteLity of tCheltlth. T-f " ^'^ must preclude the possibilitv ofLU ?u «q"atorial regions whom he had led to^^Ire r^nZsLC- ^^^^^^^^^ f ^ '^^"=^' expeditions, and the discovery of the A^llTn. °"* ^''"''"' other islands, rewarded the enttlt ZT%T '' '''''^' ^"^ ever, were able to reach the equaT he nl " . " ?^'''^' '^"^^'■ within about three degrees. TiS^I^rhro?'^^^^^^^^ important settlement resulting f mm Ik ""^^ ^•' *'^" ""^^ was that upon the islanTof Madl '' "^'^"^'^ ""^ explorations For more than h^.L^tnr^^^^^^^ ^" ^*^^- ings. the principal noticeable ev'entTn PoTtf T'^^ ""'^"^^^•■ ingly profitable. Ardin^^n r ^^1^ "^'T' ^^^^^^^■ Guinea, and an amount of leasllTulId 1 •"''°° ""' '' which added greatly to the n«finn„^ ^ '''''''^ "^^ ^''^^"'•«'^' g tatiy to the national resources. Tt was the policy of 880 TIIK I'KOI'LE'S BOOK OF lUSTOUV. tlie king of Portugal to monopolize this traffic, and representations were generally circulated, exaggerating the difficulties and dangers of the voyage. Threats and violence were resorted to, to prevent the Portuguese pilots from lending their services to any other nation, and by negotiation with England, the fitting out of an African expe- dition from that country was arrested. In 1486, John commissioned two emissaries to visit India and to explore the eastern coast of Africa as preparatory to a new exj)cdi- tion of circumnavigation. One of these, Pedro de Covilhan, niiide his way as far south as Mozambique, and reported to the king tliaf, as far as could be gathered from inquiry in that region, the contiiiont terminated in a cape far to the 8outhw;ird, Encouraged by this informatioUj John dispatched severul squadrons down the coast. The country of Congo was visited, and intercourse was establislied with the natives. In the following year (1 187) the survey of tlio western coast was completed, and Bartholomew Diaz, an enterprising and experieiiced navigator, succeeded in reaching the stormy cnpc. His voyage occupied a year and a half: without having passed tlie promontory, he returned to Portugal to give an account of his dis- covery. The king, now sanguine in the expectation of reacliing India by sea, changed the name of "Cabo tormentoso," bestowed by Diaz upon the extremity of Africa, to that of " Cabo de Bona p;sp<'- ranza," or Cape of Good Hope. The glory of consummating the long-cherished project was, however, reserved for John's successor, Manuel. In the month Oi" July, 1497, five vessels, commanded by the celebrated Vasco de Gama, were dispatched from Lisbon for the purpose of doubling the cape and proceeding to India. The pordeverati?e and courage of this great admiral, in braving the storms of an unknown sea, in quelling mutinies, and encouraging the broken down and dispirited crews of his squadron, are compar- able only with what is recorded of the still more famous discoverer of the Western World. It was not until the 20th of November that the little fleet doubled the cape. Pursuing his adventurous voyage, Vasco de Gama continued his course to India, stopping at various places on the coast of Africa, and holding intercourse with the natives. At Calicut, on the coast of Malabar, he was surprised to find many traders and merchants from the Barbary States. These Moors, jealous at the prospect of losing their profitable monopoly of traffic, did their utmost to prejudice the native sovereign against the Portuguese. Their intrigues were successful ; the voyagers nar- king of ereign o a valuab' returned The ef versal in sent thre of retalia dominion of the lie extend hi by forts a Ahneida, repelled, a immense e tween the irjlT), he r dethroned PORTUGAL April, 1499, and, in tl.cemuiZ w V , "'^ *"" ■'""''I"'' i" , ^-.in. in M, .uZ: f4S':j*;£.-''^Li*o„. traflic w,th the E.aat, Don Manuel If \ [ «« ablishmg a profitable lowing vea, to Tolb/up t" i ^Ir^^^^^^^^^ ^Ij^P^. i" the fol- wa« ontrnsted to Pedro Alvarez 7Z7 / r^'- • ^^' ^"'^'""^'^"^ tended course, caused by foul wLi^ \ '^'^"■"°" ^''""^ **« ''»- tl- fleet .so far we,stw.td that land w "^T '^'' ^^"°'^" ''^^^ thre^v "^ ''-il. This chanee d X:; Z T '' T"^*^'"" '^''^"^'^y -onid have ^ivon Portu^^a theT.7 °/r'''^ " ^^^•^^^^''^ «»«"«^, -rid the eLenee of tfe Wei^^^^^^^^ -f the eoa.st, and dispat hinl one" ^'l' " ^^'^'"^ ^^'"''^''-^ intolligeneeof hisdisrvet IZ Alv" '""'•' '""^^^'■■'^'^' ^'^^ Tndia. ArrivingatCaiicut,'t'hrtt,f«^^^^^ trontment at the hands of the inhab.V n ! bnf "T"'"'"'' ^'"'^^ fmo excited a conspiracy, which result d'. " ' '''''"'^ the Christians. The admiral hi 7,^ IV" "''''''''^ «^ ^'^y of i tins treachery by the d!;:;ru t of t;:;Tat^r;1' "T ^^ ^''"''^^ of the city, which he bombarded. At Coc in ff n"''^' ' ^^"^'""^ tion was held with the native governor with .T" ^ -/"^'''unica- king of Cananor, an alliance waf ceTe Id in t '^ "'"^ "'^■'' ^^^« ereign of Portugal Tradir.cr ^^ "" """''' "^ the sov- a valable freight'of ^Z^^ZZl :^f'f' ^"^' ^^^^^^ returned to Europe. P'-ouuctions of the East, the fleet The effect of the Portuguese successes in India was to e v.-. • versa .nd.gnation among the Mahometans. TlTultan of P """ sent threatening messages to the Pope annonl ^"^'^'^ of retaliating by the destruction of Si' C r ?. ' """''■"" i dominions. The.se menaces oZl ■ ^^ ''''"^"■'^ throughout his of the Holy FatheV"r SrXC^l^rlut "1 '''"'^'''''- extend his Indian colonv n.ul f« t ^^""^^J ''« continued to b. «.. and addi«„::irrorj:7tdr .rs'^ ""™'- Almeida, the attacks of the M-ihom,>i..n= * governor, repelled, and his successor. Alb^^^^^^^^^^^ TJ- """^'""^ immense extension of his sovereir-r?] ^"^ ^""""'^ ^^ «» tween the time of his acceTsLn t /o'trtLT rt- Y ^^'■ 1M<>, he reduced the whole w .stern co'tnf^V ''•' ^'''''' '" dethroned the native king of Seca Teeni ''""""'^' '"^ o iuaiucca, keeping possession of i.;. 882 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HI8T0BY. capital. The city of G.ja, situated upon a email island on the Ma- labar const, was made the capital of the Portuguese colonies in India. Under Manuel's successor, John III., these colonies became more than ever wealthy and powerful. The settlement of Brazil still farther increased the resources of the government, and presented ii new field for enterprise. At no period in her history has Portugul taken so proud a place among the nations of the world as during this r< ,'n. The commencement of her decline was the loss of most of her provi ices in Northern Africa, provinces obtained at the ex- pense of so many lives and so mauy yeai-s of desolating warfare. Seba: tian, a grandson of Manuel, attained his majority and eaino to the throne of Portugal in 1563. The religious training of the Jesuits, to whose care and instruction he had been committed during his minority, had so wrought upon his excitable and entliusiasti^ temperament, that his whole soul became bent upon a restoration of Christian ])ower in the African states. Even his uncle, Phili). II. of Spain, considered Sebastian's projects as visionary and ill-advi .1, and vainly strove to dissuade him from any attempt upon Africu. The representations of his own nobles and counsellors proved equal! \ ineflectual. A quarrel between two rival claimants to the throne of Morocco, offered a convenient opportunity for a crusade among tlie Moors. Sebastian espoused the cause of Muley Mahomet, who wa.s contending for the crown with his uncle, Muley Moloch, the rightful monarch. With about sixteen thousand men, the young sovereign of Portugal set sail for Africa, in June, 1578. A great number of hot-headed youths, from the noblest families in the land, accompa- nied him from a mere spirit of adventure and love of military g](;rv. On the 4th of August, a pitched battle was fought near Alcanir- quiver between the united forces of Mahomet and his Christian ally, and the immense army of the king of Morocco. This sovereign was at the time prostrated by illness, but his courage and nerve were superior to any bodily infirmity, and he advanced to the engagement, borne in a litter. The fierce attack of the Christians produced a temporary confusion in a portion o'" the Moorish army, and Muley Moloch, regardless of his own critical situation, mounted a horse for the purpose of rallying the fugitives. The exertion proved fatal to him; he again took his place in the litter, and bid- dmg his attendants conceal his death, breathed his last while the battle was still raging. The Portuguese were utterly defeated ; half their number perished, and nearly all the rest were taken prisoners. PORTUGAL 888 that 1,„ wo„H v«t return t 1 f'"'' '"" ™«"» "•"P.^cWion. «" long .fte/i„,I S W r^rbi ,° °"°r' ''"" <"' "'™'^'''. Cflrrlinoi rr , ** y subjects in Portugal Bucces«iun. PhiJip jr. ^f g^" ^^^««» ^«"ou8 claimant, of the 'nother'H .side, and be n«. },« ^"'''"^'°" °^ ^«""«J. bv his pretensions to the vaclift h oT ''T"'"' '^ ''" "^° -* "P ^''-r to his extensive doSo^ An '"'"T"' *^ """^^ ^^^ugal r>uke of Alva a leader Ti ^'"^' ""'^''' *^« «°"^'"«"'l of t\e cnterpnse. tha^^li^rfc^^ire^elf '".'' '""'^^^^ «^'" ^^ Netherlands, was marched intnr^ ^' "^ ^'"' "^^ ^^^^''^J^ '" the reduced the whole kTngdor '"°''^' '"'^ ^''- ^^ ''^^ '^^^'^^^^ CHAPTEB H. PORTDGAn SUBJECT Tn flDir« «"d her possesaion, w^ irlrf' "1 ^^ "«J'3'«'"- Po«agaI c.«^ Philip .he ™ra„rpi r ™t a'"'"'''''"' ''- ^°- twduced to submission and the „ T ^°" » "^ '""''^y iAed with savage °uet„ Dur n'Tv"^ °"5" °'"™'"-' ™ 1'"- Portng^, various ambiS, adv ntt''" '"™' r^^P""'* ^'^ '■» ;?r;rt;itrfr ^^^ ^f - --:- '.... P..na. .esembiar ;^Kase^r:S;-„TS J 384 THE PEOl'LE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. markable knowledge of Sebastian's diplomatic negotiations, excited great attention, and sonie historians have been unwilling to pro- nounce positively upon the truth of his claims. The report of his appearance excited a revolt in Portugal, but it was easily repressed, and the unfortuniitc adventurer, after being flogged through the streets of Naples b}' order of Lemos, the viceroy, was imprisoned, and perished in obscurity. The prosperity of Portugal, under the sway of Philip IV. of Spain, was grievously on the decline. In Brazil, the Dutch had gained large jjosscssions, and in India and China, the bold navigiiti^rs and enterprising traders of Holland had put an end to the Poitui^ucsc? monopoly of traffic. A general di.scontent with the gov(>)nnient prevailed, and in December, 16-40, an insurrection against the Sjnui- ish authorities resulted in the reestablisliment of the national in(l(>- pondence. The Duke of Braganza (descended from a natural son of .lohrl I.) was j)laccd upon the throne, under the title of John IV. of Portugal. Ilis descendants, except for a brief interval, liave ever .«ince contiinied to occujiy the throne. The remaining Portuguese dependencies, with the exception of Ceuta, in Africa, hailed Hie elevation of John with exultation, and instantly deposed the Spanish viceroys by Avhom they weregovm'iied. Secure in the aflections of his people, and conntcnaneed bv those Kuropcan states who were engaged in hostilities with Spain nnii Austria, the new king of Portugal was f:-oon firmly established in authority. Upon his death, in 1656, his two sons Alfonso and Pedro being minors, his queen, Louisa, received the administi'ation of government during the non-age of the heir. Unfortunately (in his kingdom, the bodily and mental powers of the prince had been greatly impaired by a paralytic attack in infimcy. The violence, vices, and (iapricious folly of Alfonso, ovetituated in his depositiou in 1667, and the elevation of his brother, Hon Pedro to the throne. His son, John V., succeeded Pedro in 17<)(!. and reigned until his death, in 1750. Since the revolution Portugal had lost most of her possessions in India, but she still maintainen her hold upon an immense territory in Brazil. Vexatious disputes were carried on between Spain and Portugal relative to territorial rights upon the borders of their -espectivc dominions in South America. In Paruguay, the society of the Jesuits had established what were termed "llcductiorus," for the instruction and civilization of the natives. At these localities great numbers of Indians were collect ascend been a John ^ ReducI territoi nients, wildern selves 1 authoril The 1 1750, w desjiotic under J( man wer l^ingdom furtheran 1 755 oeci hon was supposed perished i One of the comp! Portugues society ap] over the at great jeak tnembers o engaged ir moved fro /)risons. 1 many of th In conse Afaria I., h( islration of nental syste licr in the ^ extended sej of English ports of Eu: POKTLG,. J. 385 l»c„ able to ralZ ™ "''"''' °°"° >"" ">= J-^'"'- We ever John v., SpatahS ecld i7T .^'T'^ '"*"' "- ^-'h >" Reductions, and the rctl^ «"i "" '"'' "'"" «'™ "f *« torritory. Indfeitt „, "''" °"''"^"' '" "^"'"^ i"'" Spanish .nents,a'Ld,<^bS "a,,«'hrf,h'''"''1''t'° *"" *- ™P-- «'lvo, sanguinary v™— f ' ^. "j"' '''"" <'°"" "I'"" *«<"■ anthorities ^ * '"°° "™ '"'* Spanish iind Portngnese .'»,».io n,ini,.e.%:„ sZt vtVd:c"rT;,rv M ""'"• "r nndcr Joseph, Maroais of p„„b„, Th„ ""f" '""' °™"'''' ■niM, wore direct,.d to th. \7 T , ^"'"^ "'"'* "' «'» ""hie. kingdom, bnttfZ'n :'rZ''l "^J"*""'"' ™'^'^ '" "'« f..rther,nee of l,is dejfe^! nrl^J i"*"* '""""» »''°I"«'i <" «•» I .755^e„rred.he m^S, tXn^rbfr^'"'""''"'- '" l»n was laid in rnins Mor» T^A ^ ""'' "'" ""-^ "f ''»■ I «"l>PO-dtohavebrer„,rdWheTn" "Tr" P-'™"- |.eri,*ed i„they«„„i„gerrs!^tt ':f. ;■' X °"" ^« society appear ,„ have b^n utwl ^nf "T, v""" " "«"""" *" o^er the aboriginal population of rt, A ', "' "" ""«"Tr ^e *u Mori. I., he? son, a^.^JiZXlVrnTT""', T"'^' islration of affaira. The refusal of IW , ' "'"' ""> "•<"'"■■ nenulsystemof Napoleon t^hefn * t'"'" '" *« »"«• I'er in the general w»r°,„',eal„ ""TT'"' "■"«'""''■ '"™'«'i extended slcoa^t oSr^^ZlTt , ""? "™"'"°"- "- ef Knglish gooas, the exc^ir 'wStm^V'r,'""'''" 886 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. The attention of Franco being elsewhere directed, this course was pursued for several years. In 1797, a formal demand was made upon Spain by the Kepublic, for a free passage for an army into Por- tugal. The news excited the greatest alarm in the latter country, and aid was solicited and obtained from England. A force of some forty thousand men was raised for resistance to the anticipated invasion ; but the unexpected departure of Napoleon for Egypt rendered these extensive preparations unnecessary. Upon his return and elevation to the rank of first consul, Spain was compelled to join with France in enforcing a compliance, on the part of Portugal, with the general system of non-intercourse with England. Utterly unable to resist such a combination, the weaker kingdom submitted, and obtained a withdrawal of the hostile troops by consenting to the demands of France, by the payment of a heavy sum in money, and by the cession of a portion of territory in South America. No concessions could finally preserve Portugal from the grasp of Napoleon, when fairly established in the sovereignty of the empire. In 1807, a French army, under Junot, invaded- the country. The prince-regent, seeing that resistance was hopeless, determined to transfer the seat of government to Brazil, until more prosperous times should restore him to his inheritance. With all the royal family he set sail from Belem, on the 29th of November. The com- pany consisted of "the old'insane queen, who had not been seen for sixteen years, and who appeared to have just recovered reason suf- ficient to feel the humiliation of the step she was compelled to take, of her sisters, of the princess of Brazil with her children, and of the prince himself. They were accompanied by all the ministers, and great numbers of nobles." The illustrifius fugitives barely escaped falhng into the hands of Junot, who immediately possessed himself of the vacant kingdom : he was shortly afterwards created duke of Abrantes by the emperor, and invested with the government of Por- tugal as imperial lieutenant. The legitimate heir to the throne, John VI., returned to his coun- try in 1821; but his eldest son, Don Pedro, who remained in Brazil, in the following year, converted that province into an independent empire, such as it has sinL remained. At the death of John VI., in 1826, his second son, Don Miguel, advanced pretensions to the throne, and in 1828 was proclaimed sovereign by the cortez. His bigotry, cruelty, and illibcrality, how POBTDOAL. 887 dyu>g m 1884; but hia daughter. Doon. ST. H th, ^'"'^' tinct from its colon es Tev onS^ ^'^°°,"^ *^' ^^"S^°^' ^ dis- dred and W tC«^i tS^^^ P'^P'^^*'°° o^ ^bout two hun- present, <^Jst 7^t semL^Z^"^ .''''''''' nossessions, at coaate of Africa of Zm 7^ o ''^'' *^^ ^^*«^- ^^d ^^e^'-tU islands i4':^'thf<^:t'^^'s^^^^^^^ -- -lie: India; of a portion of IW one of 1 ^1^?!?* °'?^*'^ ^°^= ^^ of the town of Macao in cS^r^e Polt "' '^'"^' ^'^^ 8ion of this port durinir the ZL ;^;ti, • ^^'^ ""'^'^'^^^ P'^^^es- a reward for'US tXd^by tt^ Hfch'^^^^"^^' ^ agai^t the pirates of the ooasl ^fTvif *^.^.^^^^ ^°^Peror town is ahaii between pLn!! 5 ^ administration of the »uiuw Between Portogueae and native offioiala. ITALY. CHAFxliA !• CONDITION OF ITALY 8VB8BQUENT TO THE PALL OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN EMPIRE. — NORTHERN ITALY. — ^THB XINGDOH OF SARDINIA. THE KINGDOM OF LOMBARDY AND TBNICB. — THE FORMER VENETIAN RBPITBLIC. Aft: B the dethronement of Augustxilus, and the destruction of the Western Eoman empire, (A. D. 1476,) the \ • •j/ious Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, assumed the title of King of Iiaiy, and for four- teen years held possession of the country. In 490, Theodoric, the famous king of the Ostrogoths, by agreement with Zeno, emperor of the Eastern Koman empire, invaded Italy, defeated Odoacer in three battles, and was proclaimed as sovereign in his stead. At the death of the Gothic prince, in 526, the Emperor Justinian, anxious to recover the ancient seat of the empire, dispatched into Italy his generals Narses and the famous Belisarius, who, after a struggle of eighteen j^ears, succeeded in wresting it from tl .-i invaders, and, for a brief period, reuniting it to the empire. In ' e year 568, tbe Lombards, a powerful German tribe from the Elbe, invaded Northern Italy, and gained possession of that fertile region, since called, from the name of its new masters, Lombardy. Other conquests followed, and Rome itself was only saved by the interference of the warlike Pepin, (the Short,) king of France, who, at the intercession of the Pope, repelled the German invaders, and compelled them to cede to his Holiness those territories which have formed the foundation of the states of the Church, and the origin of the temporal power of the Papal See. Lombardy, soon after, was conquered by Charlemagne, whose devotion to the Church increased the power of the pontificate yet farther. Sicily and Lower Italy remained provinces of the Eastern empire until 842, when that island ANCIENT OX 0? CE. iction of Odoacer, for four- loric, the iperor of ' in three ihe death xious to Italy his ■uggle of and, for 568, the !^orthern led, from sd by the ice, who, ders, and ich have origin of ifter, was increased fer Italy lat island Italian Coatuttta* :\li f],« i i >, , in the tenth century dnZlT f^ °^ '^' S^''^^^^- Earlv i of the Saracens, and of fe td^T ;?T"^"^ *^^ ^-"--s r^ai., had become so frelent and fn.n^^^^^ ""^"^^"-^'^ -to c.>a,p.ned to issue gene al d re"^^^^^^^ l^/^* the sovereign was t« U. wealth, cccL^tical ^Z^f^^^' ^ '"' ^"^ tlicz. possessions independently "ItZ ' *^ ^"■^'''* came covered with fortresses and cfstt T'"'^'''"''' ''°" ^'■ country, relying for safety unon^f^ '''"'^.' . «^«^J Port.on of the divided into smdliso afe/Ze FoTS^!.''^ ''' '^''"^^«' ^« ..'fficer. for their guidance ttL o -^ "" '^" "^^'^^'^^' ^^^ ^^^^ f •■•''» of public ordi Henrtt ";.^f ^^rates for the preserva- Tl^o number and freqVe rnl f V'*'^^ Italian communities."* palilies into which the 1,^^ ^^ "^ *^« "'-^"^^^ P""ci- been divided, forbid ty 'hi ^r"'^ '"' '" "^"^ «-'--> andabriefsurveyoftheffr't 7.,^'" ' ^'"^^^^ enumeration Upper Italy co'mpi IZZJoZT^^^^^^^^ Lombardy and Venice and 2 r, /""'' *^^' kingdom of The first and most ilortant of ho T f ^'"''' ^"^ ^'^^«^-«- portion of Italy, togeCtith rLlll^ f tinental district was formerlv .J u , ^^''^'"'a- The con- after the cession "y ZS Tmo\/.^'';'''f °^ -"-°^' ^^^ Victor Amadeus IT then t " ' . ^' ' '"^ °^ ^''^''^'"•^ *« Sardinia was assumed bv °"'"? ^"'''' '^^ *'*'« «^ J^'i"g of I The invasion by France sub ^u'lTT '' *° ""''''' ?---- in the reduct^o^n oTthe wS 1 I ^ ' ^T* ^^"°^"*'«"' ''-"'t'^d insular possessions. Upon t^^^ ^j^^ *^« «-'^^P*i«" of its fall of the empero the kTn! of f ?' ^^ European affairs, at the dominions, an'l his' ^^^^ Z:''""'"' '"^ ''' '^'^'^ corporation with the rep^ublic of Genoa. TheT Tf"" ^^ '"^ '"• the struggle with Austria, in 1849 ind„ J f> ""^^^^""^te result of Charles Albert, to abdicate .nr;^*^ ' '"'^"'"^ monarch, present king, Victor EmTnti '""""■ '^^^^^^^ "P- *'- empt:'';tTvX'^^^^^^^^^^^^ duchy of Milan formtfte^V h s^btcrof f ' '\*^« --"* Emperor Charies V. and Francis I TfiT ^rT'' ^'^^^^'^ *^« Philip II. of Spain, andrema n^ d^^^^^^^^ untU UOe when Austria obtained p^^ i^tj f 'it^l^Z ■ G.C..C. traa«ktiun of Sf.rzosi'. Co.pend ufltalian History. 890 THE PEOPLE'S BCOK OF HISTOBT. into a republic in 1797, only to be again restored to Austria upon the success of the allies against France. The ancient and wonderful maritime republic of Venice, after an existence of twelve hundred years, succumbed before the victorious arras of Napoleon; and since his fall has been, with other Italian states, under the hated and tyrannical sway of Austria. Her origin and duration were alike remarkable. » • • * * A few in fear, Flying away from him whose boast it waa* That the grass grew not where hia horse liad trod. Gave birth to Venice, lake the water-fowl, They built their nests amid the ocean waves; And where the sands were shifting, as the wind Blew from the north, the south ; where they that came Had to make sure the ground they stood upon, Rose, like an exhalation from the deep, A vast metropolis, with glittering spires. With theatres, basilicas adorned; A scene of light and glory, a dominion Which has endured the longest among men. Through many an age in the mid sea she dwelt. From her retreat calmly contemplating The changes of the earth, herself unchanged. Before her passed, as in an awful dream, The mightiest of the mighty. What are these Clothed in their purple? o'er the globe they fling Their monstrous shadows; and while yet we speak, Phanloni-like vanish with a dreadful scream! What — but the last that styled themselves the Cosom, • * * followed fast by shapes As new and strange, Emperor, and King, and Czar, And Soldan, each with a gigantic stride Trampling on all the flourishing works of peace, To make his greatness greater, and inscribe His name in blood. * * among the rest, Lo, one by one, passing continually, Those who assume a sway beyond them all, Men gray with nge, each in a triple crown, And in his tremulous hands grasping the keyi That can a)one, as he would signi.y, Unlock Heaven's gate. " — RoosRa' Italy. • Attila. ITALY. 891 CHAP TEE 11. ''vr»— .'-'oV-r^-'ar.vr- Tuscany are nearly tl,,rl„'^?, i^" *'°"»°- ''''« '""itsof m« among Set „r.rr "' "■" '"'^'"" ^"""'^ T™' cany consild Ci^X^iZ!'^"^ 7 f^f'"^<^<:'' of whiol, IW For about three eentnri™ .1 ff' °'°°^ *""P''''''° »"■'<''■«'«• renowned f„.Wr2T„l!r,'°""''"' Z™"^ "^ "■« ««"-■ fl-t position in w; ?hf t Zf"f, r' ""' r ■ """'""" "-' In 1737, npon .1,0 ™in?,b„ Tr t''''""'^''' ""=«»»■•. Co»no I. of T»sea„y. " ^'"''™' of A™'"». beeame tLe sovereign in 1814, .0 i.3 bereditatTot^i* I'eT TrT' ^' "'" '^•^"'-<'. ir., the pre.„t Grand lZ.Z^!^tZt Z, "1™ '"'"" 111 Europe can boast of n mr..^ k n Few countries and ii^^r^ti than thltrCe t'SedTr' "*''*' ^''^ of Tnscany, The eapital, Flolr fril """""', '"■"''"'='''' indnstry and talent ' * '° ">™orials of their su.retrnffto;?h::i;™T;^ °™*™' p-"'™ -^ '-» >->^- p^.en, aivide^dtr .iT;!rn:pr;:er T,,:r"' r-" ™' °' the Pope, once eOe.,en,ive with'thel «d of 02°" ''°"'"°' restricted to the sovereimtv of tl,^. Catholicism, is no«r . The wonderfn, HiS^ndl^^LrCr !jnhe 'f ■'""• sion r' x>njil6 v.;.io have filled t), ■ chair of S^pr "« "'"'="* lar instance of the success of h.: ; '"iufl tun^' '''"™'" ''""^^ i-1-iiuai av^umpijuu over ignorant 892 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. ami superstitious force. Their fierce and protracted contests with the iinpcriiil j)ower of •' ibe a the genius of ♦ Greene's troiialation of Sforzosi's Compend of Italian History. MURAT JoAOBiM MoiiAT. Mar.hal of Franc, and Kins of Naplaa, wm torn in humbl. Ufa in 1787 at tha littla TiUaga of Baatide. In attempting to ragafn hia throna, aftar tha fall of Napoleon, lie waa taken on the ooaat of Calabria, aid .hot. Ooto bar 18th. 1816, by order of the NeapoUtan goTernment. "And thou, too, of the enow- white plume, Whoee realm denied thee even a tomb ' Better thou hadat fallen while leading Tranoe o'er hoata of hirelinga bleeding. Than .old thy.elf to death and ahame " for a meanly royal name. • • • • • There, where death', brief pang wa. quicka.t, Where the battle'a wreck lay thickeat, Where the broken line enlarging, Fell, or fled acro.e the plain — There, be .ure, waa Murat charging! There he ne'er .hall oharija again " raou TBI THiHca. * that prouc The ( 8or}je< stone J'aul ' Was n( ished I five y( tiiriL' ni tll(! wo of a Hti pete, fe requisit and the prcdom With of little tuined, \ nearly fc of the p the cragi of the tc undisturl the surro grasp off quity, th( preserve ( by the sui The ori as may we pride upo republic n the Mont€ named Ma artisans an of Rimini Christian C prominent i ITALV, 898 The magnificent church of St Peter'8 "tl,«„ . , . that haa ever been applied to thV./J^'r ,.'^*«'°"°"« «*'-"«t.,re proudest monument T he n 't . ''^'^"°'" ^«* '•«">'^i"« the '^'he erection of this wonderful edfl"'^ "^^^T °' ^^« ^«'^ '^- «orl,ed the spare revenues of Ifnl'! ^^'^^^'^^ *^^« ^-«"« and ab- Jtone was laid in I0O6, by jX^ H '7?^'? ^"^^^ ''^^ A™* i'aul V. an hundred and &lTl ' "l^ *^' ^'"^"^ «°'"PJeted by .7 not perfected, an57mmen^ suT 1"^'""^^' ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ '^ -l-J u,,on its acce^ries a^d wlt^^T PT"'/ '"" ^- "ve years were requisite for ;♦ °™^"^- ^ «^<^ hundred and sixty- tj-e nearly an hun'd'd mi^L ^Tdd, 'T'^'T' ^"'^ '^-<' ^''^ t';- work. The ^eaIous PrZa.t whr ""■^''' ^"^^^"^^^ "P-» of a structure with which 0^. erec^dt r""' '\' '-^--^-'ce pete, feels a certain satisfaction L T ^ °''" "^"'"'^^ <=an com- requisito tre,u,ures, indulgences wer« '?'?"; ^'"*' *° ""PP^^ the and the Great Reformatb^ rol edTn ^'^^ ^"^^^'^ ^^^ --->d. predominance of which this idXttTrf '"^ '^ ^^"^^ '"'^ W,th an area of only thirty To T ? °°'' ^"* ** "iemorial. of little over eight tho^and fhe reoJr A'''^' "'"^ ' P°P"'-''^'«'^ t-ned, by sulTerance, au inde^nd^t «v° . ^^^^^""« ^a. .nain- nearly fourteen centuries. ItTcl LtT ' '^"""^ ^ ^^'-^ of of the province of Urbino on! '"^^^^^'^ encompassed by territory the craggy mountain of Than" wh Lt ''''"' °' 'u^ '''''''''■ ^-™ of the territory of the repS ttr^P'"" ''^^ ^^^^^'^ Portion undisturbed upon the chaTes and con A ""^'"l^ ^"^ ^'^"^^^ down the surrounding states andTngdomT'^""^"^'^^ '^^« '^'"^-^^^d grasp of ambitious and avaricious conau^' 'T P°"^' *^ ^''""^ ^e qu.ty. the protection of pow rJu] 1^7'^ ' '""''"^ ^'' '"^ ^"*^- preserve the integrity of ite don^rT^l^V" ^'" ^^*«"^«d to by the succession of Popes wiZ thl ^ ^''" ''^''''^^y ^^''-^^^^ The origin-of the statrda^f ^"I ^ ^""^'^ '^ " '""^'''^• a- may well be supposed, tCeTent inh b'^ f' f"" ^"^"^^' -d, pride upon the fact tha theiralthon\ Ii "*" ^«««<^^ ^^th no little republic now existing in Eu^^e tS ^ T'''''' '' *^« ^^dest the Monte Titano was co^me Ld b/a'^lT''"?'"^ '^""^^ "P°- named Marinus or Marino who ell. Sclavonaan stone-mason, artisans and laboure.^ tolTst in Z T ""''^^ ' ^'''' ""'"ber of Rimini upon the AdriaT Sl^^'tT' ''^ '*^"^" ^^ Chnstian Church," by the Emperor DfocletiaiM ^'"'""?"' '' '^' promment m resistance to the imperial deel ' ^^r/. ""'^^ ^'"^^^ I —''2 aiiciwaras retired 894 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF UISTOKY. to lead the life of a recluse in the rugged district which still bears his name. He became noted for sanctity and devotion, and many of his Dalmatian countrymen, with others of his followers and admirers, collected about his hermitage, and laiJ the foundation of a future republic. In after-times his reputation for holiness, and the miracles saia to have been performed at his tomb upon the summit of the mountain where he had dwelt, secured him a place in the calendar of saints. Napoleon, in the midst of his brilliant successes in Italy, testified his reverence for the ancient republic, and his regard for its welfare, by an olfer of additional territory, and by a present of four pieces of artillery. The commonwealth prudently declined the proposal to enlarge its domains, thus securing a continuance of favour from the surrounding states, when the power and influence of France were no longer felt in Italy. The government of San Marino is said to be in effect aristocratic, the council by which its affairs are adminis- tered consisting of the wealthiest and most influential inhabitants. The supreme authority is nominally, as guarantied by the ancient constitution, reserved to the "Arengo, or great council, in which every family shall be represented by one of its members." This truly democratic assembly has, in times of emergency, been called together by the primitive method of "ringing a great bell, whose tones can very well be heard all over the republic." The beautiful kingdom of Naples, occupying the southern extrem- ity of Italy, was, at a very early period, settled by Grecian colonists, who founded, among others, the famous cities of Crotona, Sybaris, and Naples — the latter of which is still the capital of Southern Italy. It was an important and favourite portion of the Roman empire; after the fall of which, it came successively under the sway of the Goths, the Greek emperors, and the invading Saracens. In the year 1016, and for some time ailerwards, the roving warriors Ibf Normandy flocked to this delightful region, expelled the Saracens, and extended their conquests over the greater part of Sicily and Lower Italy. Roger II. of Hauteville (their principal house) svas crowned by the Pope as " King of the two Sicilies." With the extinction of the male line of this family, it came by marriage under the imperial nouse of Hohenstaufen, with which it remained until the middle of the thirteenth century, when, by arms and the papal influence, Charles of Anjou (brother of Couis IX. of France) gained possession of Lower Itiily. ITALY. 895 continued to form a part oTthe L "IV '•'?^' ''''''^^' ^^^7 by treaty they were^surrenderedt^A ^^^^T '^^^^ ^^1*' '^''^" wards they were regained by Snai^ .."; . ^^'"*^ ^'^'^ ^^■ an independent sovfrei^ty u„trpe^^^^^^^^ ""^ ^^^^^^^ "^^ royal family of that country tL I T"^' * ^^'^''^^^ «°° «f tb. the Great Eeyolution, w" fnduded ttV ''^^^"' «-" ^^^ conquests, and Napo eon in 806^V JT^ ^'^ *^^'^ ^^^i^" brother Joseph. In 1808 th.oX!.'"^^ *^" °^°^^'" "PO" his %.oleon, Z placed IptLtttr j^"l^ ^rothaJlaw of hberal administration beLL i JtW ' T^ "^ ^'^ enlightened and bnlliant and successf^Tui j^l^J^^^^^^^^ ^- -bject.. The and h,8 melancholy fate, hayebeen^Z/ / ^^t^aordinai^- man, ;ng,in emulation of Vo^eonwi!^;^''^^^^"^^^- ^^ attempt! kingdom, (which he had b Hn £ «< ^"""/'"^ *" ^'^^^"" ^- y ured. and suffered mil ia^e Jc:ti;nT 1 *'^^"'"'> ^^ -- ible Ferdinand, who had been resto'Tl ^ "^"^^^ °^ '^' '^^"ten.pt. Italy has had even more thanTjl ^ ^'T "'"^^ ^ *^« ^^-'^no. lutionary contests by whlh Euro « ^ ' ?' ^^^^''^^^ ^"'^ ^^^•- been conyulsedj and here unlT' .T^ *^' ^^^ ^«^ >^^'''^^«. ha. of the people f;r the tlTf^er^^r^^^^^' ''^ ^«'<- foreign policy and foreign bayonete V 1 «uppressed by ^igainst her Austrian tyrants wE T""' "^^ " ^««'«t«nce -d..d, rather by famiS;L^^rWd' '^"^ '^^' ^'^^ ^-" hasti]y.e,ni.^ating citizens at tL ' ^'" ^^P'^P'^ated 8tree^ and ;>eBtc«mme.ton'thettu;of hXT T^"^ ^^^'^^^^^ '^« been ^o often lauded by the admireL of T^ ^"P'^*'^"^" ^^^«'' i^- Naples and Sicily by an ill Z^^ '*"'*'' usurpation, have gained only a\;Vac^^;lT5t "' ^"""^"^^ '"'—*, :linia, the forced abdicationThrpa^^^^^^ .'^^^ defeat of Sar! 'ng ascendancy of Austria Irhf North 7^^' """^ *^« ^^i- preclude the hope of a reneld o aucl^"^^' "^" ""^^^^ ^ in any of its ancient strongholds ^^^ ^^^"^P^ for freedom of Sus^?Y f S"""' ^"^ ^'^° "'^^ melancholy still Th. ot I'lus IX. to the pontificate was hailed n, fhl ^ accession era of reform and liberalUy S, a oirt «°™°^encement of an '-ealized; but the time-hof;, ... l^A'^^^f "* '^^^ Prospect w.. "" ""^^^'^ °^ ^^« Papac>', sanctioned 896 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY by neighbouring despotism, could not suddenly be swept away: the people, impatient, took redress into their own hands; and the head of the Catholic Church, but lately almost worshipped as a divinity, sought safety in flight, and assistance from foreign arms. Ihe utterly selfish and unprincipled action of France, in this emergency, has procured her no sympathy, except such as is awarded to successful violence. The government of a republic, which but yesterday owed its existence to a sudden revolution, lent its influence and its arms to suppress the most noble and hopeful struggle for freedom which Italy has ever made. The advocates of this armed interference have, indeed, attempted to justify it by pleading the necf 3sity of anticipating Austria, and of maintaining the influence of France on the Italian Peninsula. Whether the motive were sympathy for despotism or a mere scramble for national power, the result has been the same. — Borne, after a defence worthy of the ancient republic, has been obliged to succumb to the artillery and bayonets of a republican army; her brave defenders are slain, in prison, or in exile; and the puerilities of the hierarchal sway, pro- tected by the arms of foreigners, have once more ventured back mto their ancient haunts, and brood over the Eternal City. PHYSICAL I COMP DESCRIPTION. STATISTICAL AJfD GEOGRAPHICAL or nm COUNTRIES OF EUROPE; TO WHIOR la AODIO ASIA AJVD AFRICA. ■MiBAonr* -™™»., „„^, ,^ ,^,„ „„^ ^__^^^^_^ ^^^^ ^^^^_^ J», A»D ScmCBS, STilB OF THK ra,P,,B, TO, COKPIIBB PSOII TUB I I .„.. L_. cc CONl with tl in vari( posed c United situated nenta] ] W. lonj about 5) 367 mil( in most miles; c elusive c Irelan^ b^and l: its great* square m The so cultivatet in abundi excel lenc( may, in DESCRIPTION, STATISTICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL OP TBI COUNTRIES OF EUROPE; COMPILED PKOM TM BEST AUTHORITIEa THE BRITISH EMPIRE, Consists of the islands of Great Brita^in on^ t , ^ with the smaller islands contigurs L C^^^/.^''^'^;'^' "f"'^'' 'n various parts of the world.^ T^e sland of ?! .''^ '^^P^^^^"^'^^ posed of England and Scotland, Thich with i?!. ''"" '' '""" ITnitedK^^^m of Great BriMn a^V'Li itrT'T ''^ situated in the North Atlantic Ocean offtT' .t ''^''"^' ""'^ nental Europe, between 50" andt^Vfat ur^ d Pe ^a 7t W. longitude. The ffreate^t Ipnrrt;, r n ^' ^- *"^ ^ mile,; oLhich sT^Ld ™w„, 60 ^TT,' "S *''«'« ^''™™ elusive of it, depend!. 2Z ' ' "'* ®°°'''""' "'^^l ex. .n abundaaca. The climate is mild" eqS i?dT^ Z "'^""^ excellence of .he harbors, in connexSTw ,h .„ i ,"'^' ■ ^° "'° ™., in a ^. measure; be .t.ribu^d''.;;^ ::^rstr.:'2 I £UROF£. Great Britain. Her mineral riches are equal to those of any other country. Mineral Products. — The average yearly value of the mineral pro- ducts of Great Britain, consisting of silver, copper, tin, lead, iron, coal, salt, &c., is estimated at £20,500,000. Population. — For a long time the progress of population was slow, but latterly it has increased with great rapidity, so that the entire population of the three islands amounts at the present time to at least 28,000,000. Ayriculture. — The cultivated lands are reckoned at 48,779,613 acres, and the uncultivated at 28,227,435. .The annual value of the crops in England and Wales alone, has been estimated as follows : Wheat, .... iB30,875,000 Barley and Rye, . . . 5,400,000 Oats and Beans, 16,875,000 Potatoes, Turnips, Clover, dko. 13,125,000 i;66,278,000 The Pasture-land of England and Wales, estimated at 17,000,00. acres, yields an annual value in cattle, horses, sheep, wool, poultry, dairy produce, Ac, of £59,500,000. The total yearly value of the land produce of Scotland, amounts to £20,455,375, and of Ireland to about £44,500,000. Hence the aggregate value of the agricul- tural produce of the United Kingdom would be — England, X132,600,000 Scotland, ..... 20,455,375 Ireland, ...*.. 44,500,000 £197,455,376 Manufactures. — The manufactures of Great Britain are most extensive and important. The following estimates are considered near the truth : YKARLV VALOB OP MANUFACTURES, Cotton, £36,000,000 Wollen, 22,000,000 Iron and hardware, .... 17,000,000 Watches, jewellery, Ac, . . , 3,000,000 Leather, ...... 13,600,000 Linen, .' 8,000,000 Silk, 10,000,000 Glass and Earthemwara, . . . 4,250,000 Paper, ...... l,50t,(WO Hau, 2,400,000 TOTA^ £116,650,000 THB BRITISH EMPIRE. &c. Nearly 1,000 000 Zn7T '''''' ''^'^"'''^-^^rs' goods, land and Wa es and S OOO T "'" c ""'"^"^ ^''^'^'^ '» Eng- cotton exceedsT50:^"oo,Joo'rundr '" '"""'• ^'^ ^^^-^ ^^ ^54.000,000. ^ ^ '" ^"'"' ^56,000,000, and the imports amSst^oTe?2\oo7carrvf "'"^^^^ '" ^^'""^e^ce, by more than 200,S' Zn' le^id ^t'''''T *''"^' «"^ ^ steam-vessels. ^""'^'^ '^'««' tbe^-^ ^re about 800 in wrh" t^eTnt:?!^^^^^^^ ^^ "° ^''^ ^-^^ ''" ^^e world high roads areprbabi; ri:^^^^^^^^ ^^« ^"P-'- ^^^ supplied with canals and withinM . ^ '' "° '°""*'"3^ '« better tion of railroads hrplrdV>r ^^^'^^^^^r^^' ^^e construe has absorbed oa^tll ^ZtL^Z:^^^^^^^^ -^ center for no less^han nine ofTe pnncU ' ''' ^"^* icin?:x7:i~?i^rrtir -' ''i-'-' ^'-"^^^ '•« ^^ ^^-e and parti, democr^"' C 1^^: ^ T^^ ^^'^'^^-^^^ sovereign, or more properlv in th^ f ! "*^ '' ^«'^«'^ '» the while the iegisiativrSri;t^rr: r r^" '' *'!^-^-'^". houses of Lords and Common"^,. TCLlJon7'!^"' ^"^ ^'^^ of certain dignified clergymen and of nnK, ^^^^'^ '^ «°'"P°«'^^1 hereditary, and who usfflly "p'ossl 1 rg t^^Lr'^h "''"'^k ' ' of members is about 450. The House fcT u ' """'^"^ ating power of the state, consists ofi.«"^ "'""'' '^' P''^'^'^'"'""- electors, and though the'sov gn i nft Z"""*^'^"' ^''-^ ^- bleto it, and to tL other house' foI^t^^rT'u"' "^P""'^'- public capacity. In theorv tK S , ^°"^ ^^ ^hem in their and is thLxp'onen ^ Z'wi hefX'irr^"^?"^ '" ^^•'■^^" ^^^. -ass of the people; bit, pracJcal'y l; Z'th" '"'"'"" °' *^« IH.pulation has not and has nevJ^ 1 1 ^r'*'' P"""' "^ the with the choice of^helmbers " " '• "^- '^'"^ '' «" *" ^'> in which elector, are quaTfi^and ^ '" ""^'"f ''^ *^« '"^'''^^s which cannot be detald here Zt VT"' ""'^'^ «i'-C"™stanccs 28.000.000, allow the pHvite' of LT I ""' f ^ P^P"'"»^'°" "^ of P^r^ona. ft seems' hig^; p JSf h " ' ^'^^ ''''''''' e"'y probable, however, from recent 4 EUKOrE. occurrences, that the people will not much* longer endure the restriction of so important a privilege. The press is nominally free it was in general made the instrument of the projudices of the peo- ple; but owing to the great reductions taking place in the stamp department, many cheap publications and newspapers have been introduced whereby the masses have a better opportunity of seeing into numerous abuses which they for years have been laboring under. Army. — The British army consisted of about 140,000 men in 1848, but owing to the rupture between Turkey, France, England, and Kussia, it must necessarily fluctuate. In 1853, it was 175,919 men. It is recruited by voluntary enlistments. The imy of privates varies from Is. 9c?. to 2s. per day, according to the length of their service, and the department of the service to which they belong. Pensions are granted for casualties in action, &c., and to soldiers discharged after certain periods of service. In addition to the regular army, there is also the militia, the yeomanry, and the police. Since 1815, the former had not been embodied, but it has, within the last year, being called into requisi- tion, and many have either volunteered or been drafted into the regular service. The number of enrolled militia amount to about 80,000 men. The yeomanry is a kind of volunteer cavalry, of no great utility or importance. The police, however, constitutes a very efficient and valuable force, and is extensively employed in London and other towns in England, and particularly in Ireland. Navy. — The naval service has long been the especial pride and boast of the nation. The navy is governed by a body of commis- sioners, called the Board of Admiralty, in the first lord of which the power is really vested. This board has the superintendence of every thing relating to the naval affairs. An officer of the navy is obliged to begin as a volunteer, serve as a midshipman for six years, and then pass an examination, before he can receive a com- mission as aeutenant. This commission, as well as all subsequent promotion, depends, however, entirely on the will or caprice of the Admiralty ; so that in consequence of a private grudge, or some other trivial circumstance, the most deserving man may be for ever debarred from the rank which he merits. Sailors enter the navy by voluntary enlistment, but in cases of emergency impressment may be resorted to. PuUic Debt. — The debt of the British government, prinoimlly contracted during the wars with America and France, amounts to the en Ave th expenc terest t Variou it oC- of reve cable. The . principa New B Island, Bahama Jamaica, "Vincent, British ( Cape of ( South W St. Helen council, { sovereign and pow( distant co greatly to were left l The gref with low h from Ts-vugl 45 miles, oi its whole ct: is Ix>ugh N The climate expenditure of Un /S^^^^^^ """'^ ^^"" '^"'^ ^'- ^°^«' annual merest and the expense S^f'„5°"' t''^"""^^ '° ^^^''^^ ^^^^ ^n- Various schemes have u..^ °'"^.'^"' ''"'"^"''""^ ^'^^'d of debt. it 0-; but the only true meth'od'r' *'i''''^^"'^ ''"^'^ ^^ P^^-S of revenue, or .irlZZofX " ^«'°g-"a-e'y> an increasf cable. a^«»nution of expense-eeem to be alike impracti- p^^lrcl^^!^ ^^^-I«^^-^" -i. Nev. Brunswick, Nova li^t^ cl n""""' '^' '^° ^*"^d«^. Island, Newfoundland anS h1^ '^ '*''"' ^""'^^ ^'^^a'-'^'^ Bahama and Bermuda ilani Z^' '\^^l ^-* ^"dies, the Jamaica, Montserrat, Grenada ^1-^1; I^L^^^' ,^°--^ Vincent, Tobago, Tortola, An^uih THn^^ . 'c^*" ^""'^ ^t. British Guiana; in othei tarl % T^ '^'" '" ^''"^^ A'»«'-i«a, Cape of Good liope, sTrrl Leo 1 T k' T^'' ^'^^^^*«'-' ^a^**, South Wales, Van Dieman's Land w ' ^'^^°"' ^^""'•»«. New St. Helena. Nearly alTtLse do'i'^"^''" ^•"^^^"«' Heligoland, council, and a^semwj orby aTv""' "' 7''^ '^ * ^"""^'^ sovereign. It has beei s ppLd bv sT^'.k'"' *'^ ^''^^'-^ ^^ ^^e and power of the kingdom del J " \'' "''''^ ^^ '^' wealth distant colonies, but the better ?n^' "P"" *^« P««««««'on of these greatly to the advan^g?o iTo^roTB '''' '' ^""'^ ^e «rere left to theraselvea ^ ^ ^"*^'°' '^ ^^ese colonies The greater part of the surface nf T. i j • with low hi„s. The principal ^^^^^^^^^^^ ' P'^'"' ''^^^-P-ed rom .ugh Allen to Limerick, who i ttct'd""; ''' "'" ^^"^ 45 miles, or^ning into the Atlantic V ^ '"*° '^^ ««*"ary of >tH whole course ThP l.k^ nr u " ""^'^'^^^ ^^^-o^gh nearly i;rx>ugh Neagh, in U Istt'^h i:t;uUrTT "^'^ '^^^^ The chmate is nic.. temporate and lo^^! "'^.^ ^^^^^L^y^ broad. _^_D.^ '"«" laat oi most other KLROPB. parts of Europe in the same latitude, ita great defect being execs.- of humidity. Mineral products. — Coal is found in several parts of the island, but the amount, as well as the quality, is inferior, and nearly all the principal towns are supplied from England. As a su utitute for coal, lignite and turf or peat are produced in various sections and in great quantities. Iron ore is found in all the localities of coal, and was largely manufactured as long as timber for fuel was abundant. Latterly, all efforts to carry on the manufacture have been not only unprofitable, but ruinous. There are copper and lead mines in Cork, Kerry, "Wicklow, and other places. A great proportion of the copper ore is sent to Liverpool and Wales to be smelted. The total amount of this ore in 1848 was 17,471 tons, worth £106,078. Lead is more generally diffused than copper, but few of the mines are profitable. Gold and silver have also been found in considerable quantities, but all attempts to obtain these metals are now abandoned. Political Divisions. — Ireland is now divided into the four pro- vinces of Leinster, Munster, Ulster, and Connaught. These are subdivided into thirty fvo counties, three hundred and sixteen oaronies, and two th?: : fkv.ij^ four hundred and twenty-two parishes. Besides the counties ,- ; che eight small exempt jurisdictions of Dublin, Cork, Kilkin; v, Vunerick, Waterford, Carrickfergus, Drog- heda, and Galway, tho first five of which are called counties of cities, the remaining three, counties of towns. Oovernment. — The executive government is vc?'ted in the lord lieutenant, assisted by a privy council, appointed by the crown, and by a chief secretary, a member of the House of Commons. In the absence or vacancy of the lord lieutenant, his place is supplied by lord justices, who generally are the primate or the archbishop of Dublin, the lord chancellor, and the commander of the forces. Each county is in charge of a lieutenant, generally a peer, an in- definite number of deputy lieutenants and magistrates, who act gratuitously, and a salaried stipendiary magistrate, all appointed by the crown, during pleasure. The details of the execution of the laws are committed to the constabulary in the counties and the police in Dublin. The constabulary force consists of 11,000 men and officers, with 328 horses, and its maintenance in 1846 cost £492,881. The Dublin police consisted, in 1847, of 1,157 men, supported at an expense of £71,000, to which Parliament contributes li.KlAM). .re rep Jel,rvr„r"i " ^ITS"' :;';'* '"^ "'- «^ the cities and towns of Dublin r I t' ''.\"'^' ^""^ersity, 12 of and Galway and 2? «f tl." K ' .' ^'^'"'^' ^^'^'-ford, Belfast. in the cities and LougU ' ' " ''' ^"""^'^'^' '^"'^ 28,301 ■Ecclesiastical Dvisions Tlio „,,.v,u • i denomination, as" certain^d bv tho"" '" '^'- ^'""^'P"' ^^' Btruction, in 1844, TereT ^ «'>™m.8s.onera of public in- Eilibliahed Church, . RuiMM Catholic*, . Preabyteriant, Other denomiDitioDf, 652,064 6,427,712 642,356 21,808 L Established Church.—For ecp1ps...afmoi ^ Ireland is now divided int^two"^ -,^«'« -^ north of Dublin oounty, to the south fGa'j^! ' ^T" '^'^'". f^^ over by twc. archbishops and ten suffragarrWshZ; "t ^-''"^'^^ amounts to £67,630, being an average of S fl97 .^ ' v. '' '"'°^"" of ecclesiastical con;n,issiLers ir^h r^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^--^ tarn suppressed bishoprics, and other 3 fund! ZT f .T ^hemt ecclesiastical purposes, amounting! tsie t Sf«t'/ The total yearly amount of tithe-rent chargf pai, bv ft ', ^*- eccles,ast,cal persons for the maintenance !uc^l^itj"t" T $2,000 000 ; and that paid to lay impropriators to £M flfio ' ' '"' than $400,000. J f V '"'■"rs, to ±81,669, or more Roman Catholic Chttrch Tho o^tu v i- four archbishops and 2^ bisI^;''ltate^bTt ""'^'^ "^ parochial clergy, who number abiut 2 MO L ^ ^"^^ ^^' bishop. The whole of the cle, t are flit Z"'"'"?^ ^^ '^' voluntary subscriptions of the r flc^kVrd 1 T""''" ^' '^' wo^hip are built by subscriptions ^'here a ^'umT '' ^""'^ ter,es and co.nvents, the latter being sunLrd » "' "'°"'^- those who take the vows in them, anl blTes for^{ T P"' '^^ g.rlB. The frinrs and nuns also d;vote themselt t\t"T' °' education of poor children. ""emseives to the gratuitous MICROCOPY RESOIUTION TBST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) ^ ^jPPLIEDjyHGE_ BB*. '653 EosI Main r'-e«l •-as ("6) ♦SZ - 0300 - Phone ^SS (7 '6) 288-5989 -Fax o KLKuri;. Presbyterians. — The presbyterians are found cliiefly in Ulster. They number about 642,000, and comprised, in 1840, 433 congrega- tions, arranged under 35 presbyteries, governed by the general assembly. Besides these, there are other presbyterians, who dissent from the general assembly, and form synods of their own. Other Denominations. — The number belonging to the methodist church is about 20,000, and there are few baptists. Judicial Divisir s — The judicial establishment consists of the chancellor, the r .ster of the rolls, four judges in each of the courts of queen's bench, common pleas, and exchequer, an assistant bar- rister for each county, a bankrupt court with two judges, two com- missioners of the insolvents' court, the judges of the prerogative court and of the admiralty. The superior courts are held at Dub- lin; two judges hold assizes for criminal and civil pleas in each county, twice a year, for which purpose the county is divided into six circuits. Two of these judges also hold a general gaol delivery in Dublin every six weeks. The total amount of yearly salary paid to the sixteen superior judges is £63,004, of which the chancellor receives £8,000, or nearly $40,000, and the average to each judge is nearly £4,000. In addition to this, the officers of the inferior courts, 113 in number, are paid £55,232, making an aggregate sum of 118,236, or nearly $600,000. Besides all this, there are 567 petty sessions courts, the average yearly amount of fees paid into which is more than £16,000; 54 county prisons, of which 27 are furnished with tread-mills, 10 city prisons, and 106 bridewells, .he whole maintained at a yearly cost of £83,500. Military Divisions. — The staif of Ireland consists of the depart- ments of commander of the forces, adjutant general, and quarter- master general ; under which are those of the judge-advocate general and medical director general. The number of troops stationed in the country in 1849 was 19,894. Population, &c. — The original inhabitants were the Celts, who have been intermingled in the south with the Milesian tribes from Spain ; in the maritime portions of the east and south-east, with the Danes, who were followed by the Anglo-Normans ; and in the north with the Scotch, who settled there in great numbers in the reign of James I. Some French emigrants subsequently settled in Dublin and Queen's county, and some Germans in Tipperary. The number of inhabitants in 1841 was 8,175,124, being an increase of five per cent, during the ten previous years. The number occupied in v^vMi^*"^ IliKLAXi*. 9 agriculture m the same year was 5 40fi 7-tq • trades, 1.953,688; in other purJuI sfs 5 5 ' ^ i"2"" "'"'"^ "'" tion amounted to 6 620SU Jh ^'n "^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Popi^Ja- observable. ' '^^*' "^^^'^ " ^^"'"S °ff of 1.513,294 was It is estimated that about 1 ^nn nnn ten years from the midd e of sTl f tV ^^?:if ' ^'^' ^^^'^"^^ i» ^he average annually. In o fa as h. "'^^'^^l^ol, or 130,000 S0,000 less than in 1851 we mav f T^'l ^"' ^^^^ was about «ee an irnprovementTtLru i tunlt *'' '"'' '^' ^^^^ ^^ striking phenomena prle: ted t; t^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ «^^'- n-^t to Ireland to help these emiavLT. Tv. """"'^ ^^""^ ^^^^k ^460,000; 1849 ^40 000 S o.7^^^^^^ '"""''^ '^'"^^^'- ^^^^' ^^'^0,,000,.rnonSfJ^^^^^^ ^^0,000; 1852,' ica, therefore, and not Ireland nrT , ''''^ emigrant. Amer- emigration. T '^' P''^'"^^"-^^ P^^^ ^^e expenses of Irish Wltr^tu^^^^^^^^ ^-r- of emigrants ship grate to various parts of Great Brif." ^"^' ""'"^^^^ '-^^^ ^-i" 1841, these amou^ed to 57 651 " '^""^ '' employment. In th^^^;;^^^;'^^^ ---tion are. Maynooth, Belfast. 'S::^^^^' '^ftTu.^' ^'^^ endowed classical schools endnwp.1 •, -^'^"^^^h's Tuam ; -hools. national educado^ schod oT^'t "'°^^^' ^^^^^^'^^ education schools. Christian B oth. ^'^.^''TP'"'^ ''^'>^^'' church With all this apparatus oLoni? '°^'"^'' ''^"^ Sunday schools. "IJfMiaius ot schools, it appears thnt in iftii *i, ber of persons in Ireland, of five y^ars o d nL . ^^^ ""'"■ read and write, was only 1 966 156 of tt ?''''^'' "''^^ ^^'^''^ M13,377; of those who could n'^h rel "'' ''^"^^ ^^^^' °"'^ and there were in attendance on tf Tf ""'" ^"^e, 3,766,066; portion of somewhat lesT tTone t tt'/ntf tT^' 'T'~' P^^ national schools, aided by parli.m.n? Population. The was 1^92? o? ot;::i:n?8r9^.' r 't^ ''' --''' - ^«^«. petty offences was I6,69ra:,drdi:r ^3 llr'''-' ''' of convictions to the population of 1 to 946 Th' " P'"P"^"«^ mittals in 1846 shows an increase in iL ■ ^^f .""'"^er of com- from 5 to 300 per cent over h. \ '''"""' ^^"^^ "^ ^"'"e of head of ''niurd. 'Hlere hJ h^ "°^'"- ^^'''' ""^^ ^^^^ ^r, there has been an mcrease of 6-62 percent., 10 EUROPE, "attempts to murder," 63 per cent.; "burglary," 17-97 per cent. , " robbery," 55-38 per cent. ; " robbery of arms," 105-5 per cent. ; " counterfeiting gold and silver coin," SOO per cent., &c. In the com- mittals for drunkenness an increase of 5*46 per cent. Poor Law. — The total expenditure of the year ending December 81, 18*16, for the maintenance of 129 workhouses, was £435,001 ; the number of paupers relieved in them, 243,933. The pressure of poverty and distress was so great in 1846 and 1847 that the workhouses were overstocked, the seeds of contagious diseases were introduced, and spread among the inmates and officers. From January to May, 1848, out of 150 officers, including clerks, masters, medical men, and chaplains, who were attacked by diseases con- tracted in the discharge of their duties, 54 died ; of the wretched inmates, from April, 1846, to April, 1847, 40,150 perished — 15,405 in March and the two first weeks of April of this latter year. What would have been the state of the wretched poor during the famine years had not a poor law existed it is fearful to contemplate ! Taxation. — The whole amount annually paid by the Irish people in local taxes for the support of the government varies little from £2,000,000 ; while the whole revenue, extracted from the customs, excise, stamps, &c., amounts to about £4,700,000. Besides all this, the amount yearly drawn from the people in tithes and other im- positions, for the income of the established church alone, is at least £725,000. Inland communications. — The main roads of Ireland are generally under the care of the grand juries of the respective counties, and are in good condition. The main lines of canal navigation are the Grand, Eoyal, and Ulster canals. The Grand Canal r"is from Dublin to Shannon harbor ; its main trunk is 95 miles ,, the branches 66. The Koyal Canal extends from the north . ■ ,Jublin to Tarmonbarry on the Shannon, and is 92 miles long. The length of the Ulster Canal is 48 miles. The railroads in actual operation on December 1, 1847, were — The Dublin, Kingstown, and Dalkey line, 7j miles ; the Ulster line, from Belfast, by Lisburn, Moira, and Lurgan, to Portadown, 25 miles ; the Dublin and Drogheda line, 31^ miles; the Londonderry and Enniskillen, as far as Strabane, 15 miles; the Great Southern and Western Railroad, from Dublin through Kildare and Maryborough to Roscrea, 92 f miles; the Middlesex Great Western Railway, from Dublin to the hill of Down, 38 miles. The number of miles of railroad completed in IRELAND. 11 "P to June 1851 was 1 517 legislature to be constructed qualified to judge '< Th« .? ''''^ intelligent person Mcculloch, 4nd the ZlyZTTZ t''..''^ ^"'""^'" «'^^^ raised, even with the mo!t wretoLf T '' ""^ ^^^^^ ^^ere ordinary fertility." The whore n1.'"^r"*'""' ^"^^^ '*« «^tra- the census of 1/4I. a 13 46^ 00^ "^ 'I "'^^'^ ^^"^ '« «^-t^d. in 6,295,735. ' ^^'^^^'^^^ ^^''^s, and of uncultivated land at th'cttr^evtillTo^^^^^^^^^^^ «-^^-bly. .or.erlv or for ]ives%enewabler vfr ::;"^"Pr'^^ Hence some of the owners of vlrl """ ''''^''''' "'^"'^^^ ^^'■ small share of the actuaTprofi J i^f^^ ''''''' ''^^^'-^ - very present are for sixty-one thinv nl J T ''"""^^^^y granted at very frequently a lifroMivesT^^^^^^ ' *"'"'^""^ '^''''' ^'^^ per acre; some sales bring 2o oth ^'''"'°" ^''"' °^ ^^"^ ^« -£20 Landlords neither erertr tp t^'^r a"""/'r ^^' '^^ ^^«- expend money on permanent mp^ov t/^^ ?' "^'""^ ing and improving the farm hS T ' ^ "''''' °^ maintain- The system of mid^dl men who r2 .'? "^°"^ ^"^ *^« ^--t. -let it to under-tena"; prevails vrvm T ?' ^"P"^^^^' ^^ there are several middled b^Z^rhtd^ -ny instances occupying tenant, which Jatf^r n T ^"""^ landlord and the i'^ this country. Ihu^teit :«: X^^/ ^^ "^ -^ ^ own rent to his immediate landlnrr J^l , ^ payment of his every intermediate hold t under th' ^ ' '' '' '" *^^ ^^"^« °^ are of every extent, from a verv Ll, '"^'" ^"^P''^'^"''- ^^^^^^^^ acres ; and every hddrwho?.. i "^"'"'^'^ '" '^'''' ^^^^" ^f^.O^O and bearing of a'gentti:'^ H n etrclL""; ''''""'' ''' '^^'^ >s scarcely known. Grazing farms are L^ f'^'P'^''^^' Jeomen small, particularly in Ulster in which n^'' ^" '''^^' ^" S^"--' in several counties, particular v Tn f ^T'"'' "^"'^^ ^^ ^^^ 1^«^ facture of linen pr vai^ d ta " 1^7 '^' '^''""'''^ '"-- visions. The pLtice of IkiTl "\ "'^'"^ "'"'^^^ ^^di- mountain bog or other land hi hL '??'"*''" ^^^^« '^'^'^ of alent. The f> ttier .syste: by ^h Zlr^'' '' ""^ ^^^ P-- a patch of land, i„ part c^r who eta , T"^/'"^ ''"^"^ '''^^^'^^^ wnoic pajnicnt of wages, and that of 12 ElKOl'K. conacre, in wliicli a large tract is held by a number of individuals in common, are still kept up. Land for planting potatoes is also let for the season, by the acre or rood, at a very high rate. The total produce of agricultural labor in 1847 was estimated at 15,250,000 quarters of wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, &c., valued at £28,200,834. The value of live stock in 1841, was estimated at £21,105,808; in 1851, £27,739,393. The value of Irish produce imported into Liverpool in 1845 was £5,883,493. With all this wealth, the great mass of the people depend entirely on the potato for subsistence ; at least 4,677,850, according to calculation, having no other food. When 2,000,000 tons of the staple food of a people are lost in one year, it needs not much argument to show that famine, disease, and death must ensue. Manufactures^ d:c. — Manufactures consist of paper, glass, tobacco, and more particularly linen goods, the chief seat of which latter is in Ulster, where linens to the estimated value of £4,000,000, anually, are made in the dwellings of the rural population, and disposed of to the merchants of Belfast and other large towns. The woolen produce of Ireland is estimated at £300,000. In 1851 there were 91 mills, viz: 69 for flax, 11 for woolens, and 11 for cotton, employ- ing 24,725 persons — steam power equal to 2,646 horses, water power to that of 1,886 horses. Exports amount annually to £20,000,000, imports £17,000,000, mostly to and from British ports. The trade with fijreign countries is comparatively inconsiderable. In 1851, 2088 sailing vessels, with an aggregate burden of 223,354 tons, and 125 steam vessels of an aggregate burden of 28,557 tons belonged to Ireland. FRANCE. France is one of tha richest, most important and powerful of the states of Europe. It is situated between latitude 42° 20' and 51° 6' N., and longitude 4° 50' W. and 8° 20' E. On the N.W. and N. it is bounded by the English channel, the Straits of Dover, and the North Sea ; on the N.E. by Belgium, Dutch Luxemburg, and the Rhenish provinces of Prussia and Bavaria; E. by the territories of Baden, Switzerland, and the Sardinian states; S. by the Mediter- ranean and Spain, and W. by the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic. The shape of France is somewhat hexagonal. Its greatest length fr(jm N.\V. to S.E. is 664 miles, its greatest breadth is 620 miles. FliANCfi. Inclusive of Corsica tliP ui i ^^ 203,736 square mii;s T^ nonT/' ^"'"^ '^ -^-'^ted at 33.540,910, and in 1848 w J eeWdr^^ '"^""'^'^ ^" 1836 to IS taken every fifth year. "^ '* "^^'^^ 86,000,000. A census ^h^ical Geography &c ~JV\... well calculated'to^lt -n h! S'^'t P"^*^^" «^ ^-- - h«s the command of three seas her ". '" "P''" ^^'^■^^- She •^l es, of which about 360 are ;« th M Tf ""°""'"^ *° ^'^^o Atlantic, and 560 on the En^h Cht,.? f^^'"' '^^ ^"^'^^ N.W. coast there are few good harbo " >.' "^""''^ ^''- 0« ^^e shallow and the tides being violent Th ''f ' ^""^ ^^"-""^ «oast ,s lofty and rocky but i JZ V "''''^''■° P^^* "^ the W. flat and sandy as it rea'^;he Vhlt t^ T%'' '" ^°"^''' ^^^-^ II S— "y Jow, and border dbvnun'^ ^r"'"" ^^« «. coast the case, however, with that portfonT^^^^^^^^^^ This is not ot I'jons. ^"'"°° °t It which surrounds the Gulf Pyrenees, The pri„!^ febX' S '""^ "^ *= ^'P» -^ 'te from N.E. .0 S.W., „„1, h:'„°;:^j; ■' "P-'of tie Alps, run, fc The Pj,re„ees send off several 1, f""":"'"' ">' °<'™""<=», The,r highest p„i„, „.ithi„ Fre„T" "'"' '""> ">» S.E. part >"f- But .he loftiest pefrinVr? ' "• ^^''''■' «>.«« ^e -W M. 0I.„, and is 13,^5 to Wh '^'""^ '° *'= ^'"'^ " ^^ xin rj. The nrin ■ 1 • fa"' Seine Meuse. n'd file" Wit? the^ ''''''''. ^^^-' «-nne, which runs in a southerly direct th '''''^"°" °^ '^' ^'^^^e, «; W. The Loire is the larlTbP r^''^ '' *°^^^<^« the N of which 500 are navigable !';'"^ '^•^* ^^0 miles in length, running in a N.W. course as far L oT *^' "'"^^^ °^ *^^« «^o"n?ry' W. to the Atlantic. The Ehone ''".'' '°^ ^^^"^ ^^«««e "early adoubleset of mouths L'tot^^^^^^ falls bj French territory, of 630 milesof IS '"''"' f'' ' ««"^«« ^^thin l^Je- Its principal branch s the ?. r/' *^^'° ^^^ ^^« "aviga- '-vigable. The Garonne ri est the7 ' "'" ^°"^' ^^^ being of which are navigable. JmttJT'i '"" ''' ™"^«' ^^^ Seme rises in Burgundy and aftpr ' ^'^ of Biscay. The fO miles, enters^he'iritsh 1 ^'^''^^^^^^^^^^^^ '^^"rse of Marne. which is navigabirfor t rtoo m-^''^^'^^"^^ ^^ '^^ Moselle run into the Rhine the Zm , • '^''- ^^« ^^^^"^^ and and the latter about 72 n^L l^hiX^^"' "^^^^^^^« ^^^ -^es. u EUUOPK. Soil, Climate, tfcc— The soil of France is in general very superior, and the productive parts bear a larger proportion to the whole extent than in any other European country. Iron is more abund- ant than any other metal. There are one or two silver mines, and silver is frequently found in the lead mines of Finisterre, and of the Ehenish and Alpine departments. Copper, mercury, zinc, tin, antimony, manganese, arsenic, cobalt, &c., are also found, some of them abundantly. Coal is plentiful, and widely diffused. In Loraine, very extensive salt beds exist, which are suflficient to sup- ply France for ever. Among other valuable mineral products may be mentioned, asphaltum, naptha, sulphur, vitriol, alum, nitre, plas- ter of Paris, asbestos, jet, &c. There are at least 700 mineral springs, possessing medicinal properties, which are resorted to by more than 40,000 visitors yearly. The climate of France is not surpassed by that of any other part of Europe. The air is generally pure and the winters mild, though in this respect considerable variations are caused by differences of elevation, latitude, soil, &c. Vegetable products, ^. — The vegetable products are very numer- ous and excellent. The growth of the vine is one of the most important parts of French agriculture. The quantity of vineyard land was estimated in 1827 at 4,265,000 English acres, the growers of wine at 1,800,000 persons, and the quantity produced at about 813,000,000 gallons, worth about $100,000,000. The cost of wine to the French people is estimated at nearly $60,000,000, and the duties on what is consumed at home at about $15,000,000. Next to wheat, therefore, wine is the most important product. The culti- vation of the apple, pear, cherry, and olive, is also carried to a great extent, and that of the mulberry, for food for the silk-worm, is an important branch in the south. Manufactures. — The manufacture of silk is very important. The French silks are superior to those of any other country. In 1839 the number of silk looms was estimated at 85,000, employing 170,000 workmen, and producing silks worth over $40,000,000. The woolen and cotton manufactures are also of great value, the former having been estimated at more than $50,000,000, and the latter at nearly the same sum. Linen, lace, china, arms, saddlery, glass, cambric, hats and gloves, and many other articles, are manu- factured in great quantities. Cuynmerce.— The great articles of export, consist of silks, woolens, FKANCK. 15 - ISSr/at ^o^'^oJ^'Z^'"''' ^' ^-^^ -- -'"-ted well co„structed. Tl e navTal W ^ "'", ^f'"''""^ '^''■«'°'^' ""^ length of about 8,000 JerTnd "' ""' ^'" ^^"^'« ^^^^ '^ total "f completion. ' ^ '"''"^ "'^ ««"^'« «r« in progress Government. — Previnna ♦« fV.^ i ^ -nt, as regulated :r8;::,tjd:"^'''"'(l«^S) the govern tive bodies. The Chimhpr .f p '"^^'-chy, with two legisla l>Jood, and an md^ ^d r^"^^;":;:^'?^ '' ''' ^^'^^^ «^ ^^^ from among certain cksse" oftL T""' "^^'^^^^^^ ^^' J'^«. Deputies was composed " 459 me'?"'^'?- ?« ^^^^^^er of The qualifications of an elector woTH.'' '''f ^ ^°' «^^ :^«'^^«- and the payment of direct taxes^oH "°" °^ twenty-five years, Tn 1839 the whole numb of e Ll.^' '"'"?* ^^'^^^^ ^^^ « :^ear: istors were eight in number 1 1 ''"' ""i^ ^^^'^^^- '^'^^ '"'"■ "f Foreign Affairs of W nV t "''"'' ''^ '^'^•^"''^ «"d Religion of Commerce an^' Pu L \vo k:": p'.^^'T'^^' °^*^« I"'"-"^-' ^•nane. They were assLT^' Cou?c:f sC'tf"' ^"' "^ of which, as well as the ministers wor! . ' *^^ '"^"^^^'"^ the pleasure of the king. F a e Z,tTT'^ "^^ ^'^"'«^^^ '-^t which were subdivided into Sfi? r "^ '"''' ^^ departmen^ again in 2,834 cantons, and sfi/r"'"""^"'-^' ^"^ *'- ^^'te; was governed by a p eJ^ct eS . T'"''' ^''^ departn.ent and each commune b/a m 'yo nd oH "'"°"' ^^ ^ ^^^-P^^-t, had perfect command ovrthe tt !"'''='«trates. The king and the mayors were al nominn k'T''"" "^ '^'' departments^ February 1/48 France bLm "Tep ^^f, 'T ^ b/, 'J- Prefect. In - 1849 Louis Napoleon was presid n 'wUh";? "•'"^'''■^•^'^'^' army declared it an emnire an^ ^ '^ assistance of the Deoernber2,1851,therebyV;n:iirsuDnLr ^'''^''"^' ^'"P-- republic. -^ -^ supprc-ssmg every vestige of the Justice—The celebrated code of Nnnolo. criminal law of France. It is In Jl " '?*"°' '^' ^'^'J «" ^ ;« generally well and honestly a n'isteJd T."'"';^ ^''!''^' '^"'^ tribunals consisted, during the late re'n ^ r "^^'°^^>^>^''e-al commune, in which the r.°.yor presid d TT '^ '°"" '" ^^^'' car.ton, appointed by the kin., a courl .V "" "^ P''°" *" ««eh each arrondissement. composed of frol ."^^T^ Jurisdiction in irom three to twelve judges, 16 ELKul'K appointed by the king ; twenty-seven royal courts in the principal cities and towns, which are courts of appeal from the inferior courts; courts of assize, holden at certain periods in each department, with a criminal jurisdiction, and trial by jury ; the court of cassation, a superior court of appeal, composed of forty-nine members, appoint- ed for life by the king, with the most absolute authority in judicial matters. Besides these, there were tribunals of commerce, citizens' benches, courts martial, university courts, and other special courts. Religion. — The Soman Catholic religion is that professed by the great mass of the people, but all other sects are allowed the widest toleration, no one having peculiar privileges. The ntimber of Cal- vinists and Lutherans is more than 5,000,000, and that of the Jews 60 to 70,000. Public Instruction. — Education is very generally diffused among the people, and the system of public instruction is excellent. Ten years ago the number of schools in France was nearly 54,000, and the number of pupils 2,650,000. Instruction is primary, secondary, or superior. Every commune is obliged by law to support at least one primary school, in which the common branches of education are taught gratuitously. Besides these, there are infant schools for the children of the poor, schools for adults, attended by working- men, and normal schools for the education of primary teachers. Secondary instruction is supplied by over 300 communal colleges, 29 royal colleges, and numerous private academies. There are 26 academies for superior instruction, which grant degrees. All these establishments constitute the University of France, and are presid- ed over by the minister of public instruction and a council of nine men. There are also some extensive and celebrated establishments, which are not under the jurisdiction of the University, such as the College of France, Museum of Natural History, School of the Oriental Languages, French Institute, &c. The public libraiies of the departments contain about 1,250,000 volumes, and those of Paris 1,378,000. Army. — The regular standing army of France is composed of about 270,000 men, with 51,000 horses, but in consequence of an alliance being formed between France and England in conjunction with Turkey, the army has been considerably increased. In 1858 it amounted to 404,500 men, of which number the cavalry consti- tuted no less a portion than 60,000. It is recruited by an annual contingent of nearly 80,000 men, either volunteers or conscripts. Cala; L l'"i;A.N\,i;. 17 ^^^^^ certain ^..^Z^^'^Z^ f^^^ ^^'^ y^ar, seni.,, annuulyal-e volunteers. InnootheAr ''''°' ^^ ''^<- ->H«tcd - account for the great i,S n Zv 1 ''^T"^' "'^ '^'^ ^-^ I'^bl'c a/Iairs, aud for the fr auent , ^ '•'' "'^'"^''^ ^^"^''C'^^'J i" -jk«. The highest grade X/fTT^? "' ^^^'^^ ^-- the on-eutenant-general. There are Ifif v "^' ""'^ '''" ^'^cond that - the country. The prinJ^ri ,• at '7 'T '''' ''^ --'"^'-^ cng.neersa„dartiller/atMr r ^'-^.'^^^^ "'■^' ^^^^^^ of the "'« school at Paris, tL schoof'o s ^- ?n''^ ""'''^''^ ^"^ P^'yteel' -valry school at k.urnu ^^ ^ ^^^^Z ^^ ^^^^^^^ about 5,000 old soldiers. ' ^""'^''"^ of Invalids maintains fOjears of age, amounted to 3 OOoSoo 7 ''°" ^^^"^^» ^Oand the line, 40 corveui^'so'Jrt'rtr" '''' ""P"^^'^ ^« «^"P« of -hng vessels, and m ster^J' ri'pn' '^'°^^^^' ^26 other , there .s added to them a reserve of 24 ". ^^^ ''' ^'^' '' ^^^l and ! "7.^- about 28. 500 men. Ten Lr; ?' "^^'^ ^^'°^^'''- i g;!.".^' ^-Jogne. Havre, Ch rbo2 ^| "^ ^"^ ^^ ^"^ , J:^;'«"t.^^Boehelle,EocheforTv;n m''"' ^''''' ^-"tes ' ^^ejus. ' ■^^•^''''"«' Marseilles, Toulon, and ' COIONIES, AJgena, Senegal, and the isknd of r "'' '" ^^^^^ Ameriea; bourbon and St. Marie. i„ th E^l A^ " f ^ ' *''« '«'- « ««veral other plaees in Hindostan T ^'"""'.^"^ Pondieherry, and «-e of Algeria, in 1848 wrabo,; ^^u^n^T^ P'^P^'^*'-- exelu L-... ._ r 18 EUKOl'K. SPAIN. Spain is situated between latitude 30" 5' and 43" 30' N., and lon- gitude 3° 20' E. and 9" 10' W., having on the N.E. Franee, from which it ia separated by the Pyrenees; N. the Bay of Biscay; W. Portugal and the Atlantic; and S. and E. the Straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean. Its greatest length, E. to W., is about (!50 miles, greatest breadth, 550 miles. Spain is divided into twelve provinces, viz: 1, New Castile; 2, Old Castile; 8, Galieia; 4, Estre- madura; 5, Andalusia; 6, Granada; 7, Valencia; 8, Catalonia; 9, Aragon; 10, Navarre; 11, Guipuscoa; 12, The Balearic Islands. The area of the whole is estimated at 182,758 square miles, inhabit- ed by a population of 12,169,000. The prin^jpal mountain ranges are the Pyrenees, the Sierra Morena, and the Sierra Nevada. The largest rivers arc the Ebro, 400 miles long, emptying into the Mediterranean; the Minho, 150 m., the Douro, 500 m., the Tagus, the Guadiana, 420 m., and the Guadalquiver, 320 m., all flowing into the Atlantic. The soil is arid, sandy, and rocky in the central portions, but tliat of the lower regions, sloping down to the coast, is every where fertile, and presents a beautiful alternation of moun- tains and valleys. p]xcept in the North, the climate is everywhere remarkable for its dryness, which sometimes becomes excessive. The mineral products are rich and various. The most valuable mines are those of lead in Granada. The quicksilver mines of La Mancha are also extremely productive; and in addition to these are extensive mines of rock salt, and copper, tin, antimony, marble, and various kinds of building-stone, are found in several places. Only a single mine of silver is now worked. Vegetable products, etc. — The Spanish wheat is excellent, and the bread is considered the best in Europe. Wine is raised abundantly throughout the country, and grapes are exported, both fresh and dried, in large quantities. Oat.s, barley, maize, rice, oil, sugar, hemp, flax, saffron, honey, and silk are among the other productions. The southern parts produce lemons, oranges, dates, olives, almonds, and pistachio-nuts; and the northern, apples, pears, peaches, cherries, and chestnuts. There are several valuable varieties of the oak, particularly the species which produces cork. The horses of Spain retain in many points, though considerably degenerated, the excel- lencies of their sires, which were introduced by the Arabs when the latter had possession of the country. Those of Andalusia are especially celebrated for their beauty, docility, and grace. Sl'Al.V. 19 othef::!;^^;^^; :^^7--..t. vi'^ions institution, .,.1 irrigated J„nd« o Granada X"''' °', v ^■"^•'""— '• «« tl,o vatod; butwitluheseexetifn K.:^ ^«'* -"'' practice prevails. TircXlat d Tl '"'''''' '^'"^ •■n'Provid.M,t of tl.o whole surface Th' /" ." '" ^'''^ ""«-'ourth part erable nun.bers of heep w Cw u'^ '""^"^' '^"PP"^^ -"-'• consumption. ^' "' "'""^ '^^""'"^ "» ""portant article of b.t:;ifr:;::j:Jr:r»-o!; Spain have been depressed agriculture. The Los „d. r "^ ^"'^ contributed to depress and Valencia. n th se heT" ^"""^ "^ ^'^^«'""''». «'--ay. carried on to a col tl tt^nT r^^"' 1'^ ^"^' ^'^"^ -° woolen fabrics are made iLvoll H ^ "'^'' "'"' '"''''^ of silks, all the woven rodsanh kT^I ^"*' ^^'''^ *^« «^««Ption In the north, tannilgis I nK. "'^'^ '""'^^^'^ ^'"^ ^^^ dear, provinces soap iamad in con i 1 1^/'"''"' ■''"""^'' '-^'"^ '"" --•-■^ are manufactured in «e era" fw '"^ ^"^P"^^' ^™'^ monopolizes the rnanufactures of Xtf""""") "''^'' '^'■^" porcelain, tapestry, mirrors, &c. ^ ' ^""f^''^^^''. tobacco, parfrfirp^i^iZlVst^^^^^^^^ °^ SP- ^^^'t ever. Had her commercial'pS?cy Lf ib';'; ^"^ lucve compensated for the defecrin thed' -r^"'^ '" "'"'^ ^'^^-- political power, and would no donht I ^"'^.^''^"'•"" «f" P-'operty and to industry. But, uZkilv tt h T ^'''" ' P""^^^"' «^''""''- all her other institu ions Zd i n^ '^^" '" P^^''^^ ^-"ony with -t and stronghold of Ih Inqu it n^C ''''''''?' ^"^^ ^^-^te to exclude foreign manufacturl r rthe p n^sT? ""'T '" ''"'^ a monopoly of the markets to tJT P^"-^«"'a, and to preserve sequeneeof this ant'comtreia and uTw"'"f^^ ^" -"" the trade of the country TsThetandl'^r^^"^' ""'"' ^'^" ''''' smugglers. "It is believed th. r f '^' ^o^^mAaT.^,,,, or 100,000 to 150,000 intvil^l lrS,;^7 TT' '''"" mthe contraband trade- that is ,u, T ^ t ^ "''''"*'^ ^"^'^S^d Pling on the laws, obstrl^tg Lrtffi LT anTc ^"'T' ^" ^^^^• - export sinrS:\:;—~-~^imp^ 20 KLUurii. through the custom-houses can be ascortaiueil. It is supposed that the exports and imports each auiouut to almost Xl.OOOjOUO. The prin- cipal articles of export, besides silk, are wine, wool, fruits of various kinds, lead, quicksilver, brandy, barilla, olive oil, wiieat, &e. The great articles of import are colonial products, obtained chiefly from Cuba, Porto Rico, &c., cottons, and cotton wool, linens, hemp, woolens, flax, salted fish, hardware, glass, timber, rice, hides, butter, cheese, &c. Eoads, (i'c. — Spain is remarkably destitute of the means of inter- nal communication and transportation. The only good roads are the king's highways, which extend only between the most important places. Canals are rare, though several have been projected at various periods. The inefficiency of the government, and the igDorance of the people are such, that the principal work of this nature, the canal of Castile, commenced in 1753, is not yet com- pleted! The navigable rivers are not now in as good a condition ibr navigation as they were two centuries ago. Several of them, owing to neglect, have become shallow, and no pains have been taken to remove obstructions. Religion. — Spain has long been, and still is,, the favorite seat of the Romish religion, the country in which that religion has been maintained in its greatest purity, with all its accompanying super- stition and intolerance. The terrible persecutions of the Inquisition, its deadly hostility to all know'ledge, all free inquiry, leave little reason io wonder at the ignorance and bigotry of the Spaniards. In 1812, one-fourth part of the landed property of the kingdom, pro- ducing not less than $50,000,000 a-year, was in the hands of the clergy. The revenue of the archbishop of Toledo alone, is said to have been worth from $300,000 to $-400,000 a-year. In 1787, according to official returns, the number of ecclesiastics, including 61, (U7 monks, 32,500 nuns, and 2,705 inquisitors, amounted to 188,625 individuals; and even in 1833, notwithstanding the attacks made upon the ecclesiastical state during the French war and sub- sequently, it comprised 175,574 individuals. Since 1835, however, this state of thmgs was materially improved. Many religious estab- lishments have been suppressed, the church property has been con- lisouted for the use of the state, a considerable portion of it has been sold, and the nation has undertaken to support the established church. It is to be hoped that these circumstances will improve the condition of the people — if an end ever comes to their intestine commotions and financial difficulties. latrlv. POIITUGAL. PORTUGAL. 21 longitude, bounded noT.ud'e bv 1 Z , "',""'' "'"' ^• tlie Atlantic Ita l^-n,.!? e 7 ^ "' ""'' •°""' «'") "<»' by »,ja. „i,e, With a ^,Zri:Z, J'S%"'"'"' ^•'•""' aspect of the country is similar to that of <^- .in L thet ^ even more beautiful ' ^ ^^'^ ^^^"^''J 's -peratu., and ^L^:,:^,::;:: d?' '^e eSir™' olives, oranges, and lemons "^""^ "" .,...-...ir..::r.,^r4S-;',;,;';i-ii' .ii.li»riminatelv from nil sorts „f l,„d Tllirl,, . '"°<" ;•;;";».-..;. rud,,t d,.seri,„i„„ r- ,.arir:SrererS tru.n])ling the gram under the feet of horses an 5 (•■••itt!.-. Tliough, 22 EUROPB. in so dry a country, the command of water and the irrigation of the lands be indispensable, this, in many extensive districts, is entirely neglected. In consequence, the country is in parts but little occu- pied, and the traveler sometimes proceeds a distance of fifteen or twenty miles, without discovering as many houses. To show the deficiency of the means of communication, it may be suflicient to state, that in traveling from Abrantes to the Spanish frontier, a dis- tance of about one hundred miles, there are six rivers to cross, without a single bridge, though they are fordable only in dry weather," — In some portions, however, north of the Douro, water is abundant, and good corn crops are raised in the lower grounds and vineyards; olives, and other fruits, are extensively cultivated. Wine is the staple production. The red wine called port, from its being all shipped from Oporto, is produced in the upper Douro, about fifty miles above Oporto. The average amount of this wine sent from Portugal, for the three years ending with 1840, was 34,790 pipes a-year. Mineral products. — Fine marble is found in the mountains, and some gold and silver. Great quantities of salt are produced on the coast by natural evaporation, especially at St. Ubes, whence it is extensively exported. Coal, lead, antimony, and iron are also found, but are not mined to any considerable amount. Manufactures and trades. — These are on a par with agriculture. "An Englishman," says McCulloch, "can with difficulty form an idea of the backward state of manufacures in Portugal. They are in general carried on in separate cottages, on the primitive plan of every family manufacturing for its own consumption." "A very superficial knowledge," says Baillie, "even of some of the common- est arts, exists. A carpenter here is the most awkward and clumsy artisan; and the way in which the doors and wood-work belonging to the good houses are finished, would have suited the rudest ages. Their carriages of all kinds, more particularly their wagons and carts, their agricultural implements^ their cutlery, locks and keys, are ludicrously bad!" The foreign trade is principally carried on with England and Brazil. The exports consist of raw produce, wine, oil, salt, wool, fruits, cork, &c., and the imports of cotton goods (the most important), hardware, woolen, fish, Jinens, earthenware, tea, cofi'ee, &c. Government. — Under the present constitution, established in 1836, the government is an hereditary monarchy, with an Upper and lower ITALY. 23 representative chambe, ^ in nf u- t ^^ being vested in the holuern of a Lit I ''' '^'''''^' ^'^« ^^^°«hise -emblies or cortes „.eet and dSve aT'^'^'/'P"^^' ^hese he intervention of the soverefr 1?/ ^P?'''^ P"^'^^^' "■^^'-^^ ^aw tw,ce passed by both hou Is ' Eaeh "" ^^ "^ ^«*° - ^ and just.ce is administered byt he r!v.l ^'°''"'' ^'' ' ^^^^^--^ sundry inferior tribunals. Grea IbuT ''"'* ^'^ ^''^'^' ^nd bv government, and assassination Ts^^':;?;? '" f '^""^^« "^ ^^- The country, in fact, teems with r^ffl ^ . '"* ''^"'^ «^^" ^^ Italy. --bigoted kind, andTn ,ibu1:f':" V ''^'"T '''''^'^^' «^ ^he people; Jews are tolerated "°'^'"^ '« ^^^ ^o'-ality of the men, but is of very little efficiencv Th """"'"'" "^ '^°"* 28,000 Of each ^ther.'r fe^e 7;? ^t ^t"^ -^^'--^^ ^-e^ Spaniard of all his virtues "^"^^ ^ P'^overb which says, "Strin a All travelers concur "p^^^^^^^^^ ^-^ Portugu'e;e oS » -ce. Says Semple, '^hTZZtt' '^"^""^ ^^ ' ^^^ vicious -ed and thin, with black a ^;^^^^^^^^^ complex- tempers, indolent, deceitful, and ;owa;di ' '^ ''"""^^^'^^ '" '^^^r !" tbeir diet, and that ma; be clTsIed 1^ ^^ ^"^ ^" ^^"^P^^^e ^f indeed they have any more Thl ^''^ "^ '^'^' ^'^^^^^^ consequently no national character inT IV""^''' ^P''-''^ and "'an may be distinguished in foretn . f "^''^^"^an or a French- ;ers peculiar to his nation bu a'." "' ^' '" ''' ^"'^ "^an- for a Portuguese." All clC' TeLZjl ^""f "^ "^ -ay pass --taslowinthesociaiS^-:^^:---^^^ ITALY. E™;' I. «lf:„:- -';;^:2 and fe„„e .„„„,„ ,„ '«"*r Italy moat interestiag i^ H^ i^if,*/*?^ 24 EUKorE. the traveler and student. It is finely situated, comprising the whole of the central peninsula of South Europe, together with the rich and extensive country to the north of the peninsula, and included between the Alps and the Mediterranean. It extends between lat. 37° 46' and 46° 30' N., and long. 6° 80' and 13° 30' E.; having on the N. "W. France and Savoy, N. Switzerland and Tyrol, N. E. the Austrian provinces of Carinthia and Carniola, E. the Adriatic, and on all other sides the Mediterranean. The length of the Italian peninsula, from Mount St. Gothard to Cape Spartivento, is nearly 750 miles ; its breath varies from about 380 miles in North Italy, to less than 80 miles in its center. The area of the main land is about 100,000 square miles; but three large islands — Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica — and many smaller, as Elba, Ischia, the Lipari group, &c., belong to Italy. It has long been divided into a number of inde- pendent states. The following table gives the names, area, popula- tion, &c., of the present divisions : STATKS. KINGDOM OF NAPLES AND SICILY. Area in Eng. K) ni» Pop bjr latest oenaus, CAPTTAIA Naples 31,621 .... 6,612,892 . . . Naples. Sicily, 10,510 .... 2,291,580 . . . Palermo. 42,131 8,904,472 KINGDOM OF SARDINIA. Continental portion, . . . 19,620 .... 4,368,136 . . . Turin. Insular 9,547 47,948 . . . Cagliari. 29,167 4,416,084 Lombardo-Venetian kinfrdom, 18,063 .... 2,281,734 . . Venice. Illyrian povernmenl of Trieste, (betonging to AvMtria) 4,056 508,016 . . Trieste. 22,118 2,789,760 Papal States, . 17,2t0 2,732,436 Rome. Grand Duchy of Tuscany, . . 7,416 1,778,022 Florence. Duchy of Parma, . . . ■ . 2,404 502,841 Parma. Duchy of Modena 2,148 586,459 Modena. Duchy of Lucca 413 165,748 Lucca Republic of San Marino, . . 22 7,600 San Marino. TCfAi, . . . 123,028 21,883,411 Physical geography, <&c. — The Appenines are the principal mount- ains of Italy. They run through the centre of the peninsula, dividing it into two declivities. They are less rugged than the Alps, and abound with rich forests and pasture land. Some of the Italian plains are very extensive and fertile. The largest and most beautil'ul of tliese is the great plain of Lombardy, or of the Po. It ITALY, 25 tko garden of Europe AnlwT ■;""='■ ''■■'' •>«=" "«" »'>■« *o. of centra ,,^ f^t";*: l^iltr Ct:*"=,*^ -' This plain, though formerlv fprfr/ ^ ' ? ''^ *° Terracina. tively a desert. This wl^t^r ' T"'"^^' " "°^^ ««™P^^«- by the noxious air of the Zr«^^'T^'"''°^""^«^'"'^' P^«^"«ed tricts to such a degree as to ren.-^''' '' '"'''''^ '^''' ^'^ level district around NaZf The peopled. The mZiJ^FT "'^; ^'" ^^^fvatod, and densely Po and the Tibe'r andtl 1 1'""' 't'^^^^'^ "^^- «^ ^^^'j -e t e Lugano, and Avern" The vol '" "^ 1r ""'''"' '''^"^'^^^' ^o.o, Etna in Sicil,, and^o^f ^!Z^72:'JZ1T T' ""T' °^ known and most celebrated in the wor 5 tT ' '"' '^' ^''' metals, though considerable oZnthLZ '^ '' ""' '''^ '" are found in some portions One 'f T^^ ''""' 'y^''' '''"^ ^'^^ -^- ducH is the fine Ltu ; marb e f CarT^' f i' """"^' P"' of marble are met with in aU." f ^'''' '"^ ^'ff"«^«"t kinds The other mineral prduc^ a e sunr V °' *^" P^"^""-^- alabaster, &c "''P^"'"' ^'^^«^. ««!*. nitre, alum, owtTS trfi?e:cr ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ '- ^" ^ -^ ^-wk st., people. Silk, however s a Lr"""?* '"^ '^' '""^"^^^ ^^ *'- ^uce being .ti mated '^ brisTo^to T'T' ^'^ ^"^'^^ P^"" and olives are also raised in la^ QuantHfe! andf """• • "^^"^ ant articles of trade quantities, and form very import- gWe,, e«„„e, ^l^TiJ^t^rA."''"'^ '""■""' '^"*- but the r«„ product, „f .he™ 5 tmT,l'° r"""'"'"'"'-'"'' manufactured articles are ,.,„..] -^ , "'""'^ «'P°«'. and The great oi^esTy.7ceZZlZ"t T '''"'''«" "™"'"- proportion of the trade of 8,111' T * °"°' ™J°'""5 > '"'ge has but a small po ,o„ of l,e7f ' " '^"'"^'■^- ""'' I'"''. »' '"••g^. the Austrian Pa™ ™d I" ^>™"' °°'"'"''"='»' ^P-'ance. !,^ ruined by impo iMc Z2Z\^"^'"'''^' """"«'"« ha' been has been^don^ to'prlr rde^^rt'^Stur, ''"'r-"*'"" An^na, Veni.. ™/p: J^S.-^C^ ^r. laSt^^^^^^^^^^ 26 KUKUPK. cities are Milan, Brescia, Verona, Bologna, Turin, Florence, Lucca, and Borne. The principal roads in Austrian Italy, Tuscany, &c., are good, but in the Papal States and Neapolitan dominions, they are generally very bad. Some new roads have been opened, however, from Leg- horn, Genoa, and other places, and magnificent ones have been con- structed over the Alps. Religion, Education, etc.— The population is entirely Roman Cath- olic, except a few Piedmontese, who are Protestants, some com- municants of the Greek Church, in the southern part of Naples, and Jews and strangers of various creeds, residing principally in the large cities. There are 38 Roman Catholic bishops, and a great number of inferior ecclesiastics. Elementary education is pretty generally diffused in north Italy and Tuscany, but most of the higher branches are very far behind in most parts of Italy. In the Papal States, and Naples particularly, the people are grossly ignor- ant and neglected. Nothing else, indeed, could be expected in a country subject to irresponsible governments, and where the freedom of the press has been almost entirely unknown. The most celebrated universities are those of Pavia, Padua, Bologna, Pisa, Parma, Rome, and Naples, but their ancient reputation has greatly decayed. Italy is richer than any other country in monu- ments of antiquity and of the middle ages. Volumes have been written in description of these interesting relics, and it is impossible here more than simply to allude to some of them. Among the most splendid remains of ancient grandeur, are the Coliseum and the Pantheon, the triumphal arches of Vespasian, Severus, and Con- stantine, the pillars of Trajan and Antonius, at Rome; the amphi- theatres of Verona and Pola; the catacombs of Naples; the ruins of P^stum ; and, above all, the remains of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Almost every town possesses some memorial of antiquity, and there is scarcely a place or a stream that is not imperishably associated with some important circumstance in history. Tivoli (anciently Tiber), where were the villas of Horace and Catullus; the Alban mount, on which is the temple of Jupiter Latialis; Frascati (Tuscu- lum), the seat of Cicero's villa; the lake Nemi, sacred to Diana; the bay of Baiae; the field of Cannae; the lakes of Thrasimene and Avernus, and a thousand other places, have acquired a renown for all time. State of the people.— The condition of the people in most parts of ITALY. 27 misery orev-iil a^r^.rJ \ f Poverty, wretchedness, and and ^nX'Sf^ZHXTilf'T f'V" ''^"'' want of nil fl,o • . '^"^' ^« °na, says a traveler, " a total trenched upon the power o he W of f;"^\^^^«.««™«-^at or sovereigns deTJded fr„^ T ■ ° T°« '^''^'8" »»vereig„a, selves held by the irreat tZ.Z ^ ^ sovereigns were them- acting in confLty' wftl theMhT'-T'"' u" ^"^^"^^^ ^^-• subjects. The naUo^a sn ,> Z ' "' '^' '"^^^^^^ °^ *'^«'> Italians either ceatdtl h'v T ^''^"'"^ ^"^^^^^^^^ ^^'^ .;ffairs; they pl^;;^,.! t^t ^rsLt^^^^^^^^ ^''^ the .ost active, intelligent, and indnstrior people in Euro" "f into a state of sluggish indolence and apathf "Th. vrr*.-'""^ ITallam, "by turn?«; September 1848. *'^'^ ^^ *^« Neapolitan troops in orIet:rtelfo ^.7^ ^^ *^« ^^^^^ o^^' Italy west Nice, the duchy of' W fJd !h "f V'^'^'™°"*' ^--. -d respect., this potion S;it;t "^ Z^"'^'"^^- ^" ^-7 the island of Sardinia, the ^ au ho > ''.''"f '' ^^^ ^^^*- ^^ circumscribed by a supreme coutlf^ ^"^ ^'^" considerably ;ute in the -tiLtal 'profrkLrm^^.^h ' '" '^^'^ ^^^ for some time had for its obieet th. . . ' ^ ^ government has pretensions of the nobilityT ' e JtdT °V^^ ^^^-g-t nghts of the mass of its sublcr M «°l«rgement of the enacted, and many improvetnts ofrZ^TV'"'' '''' '^'^ expect, therefore, from Sardinia a JnT * "^^ "^^^''^^ *» measures of the pope. an'sucTin f^ct h^lfb '""f. "" *'^ «"''^^^-«^ no doubt, partly by drcumstan^e/tru''" *''"'''"• ^"^P^^ed, partly too. it inL L coXrbvId ^'/'"^'^ "^* ^°"*^°'^' ^^ the king of Sardinia, ct^:^'^^^'''' '^ and to assist the advance Tf I ^l' '"'""^ *^^ ^^^^ *° '^^'1 breaking out of hostiS t.ten" thTrr^'r "^^ *'^ ^^^ Austria, he raised a lar^e armv for tL • '*''"' °^ I-^mbardy and Milan, declared war agafnstlu^ria nr'?r'°'^'' "^'^^^^^^ -* hi« troops, and marcheT nto Tol^ .''''^ ^'""''^^ "* ^^« head of qualitiesofagreat gene ,1 WH^^^ • ^' '^'^P^^^^d all the feated the Auftrian/h a tiefo fb ^^ "'"'"' """^«'^' ^^ d- them from many of the most ? ^^g^gements, and drove the 30th of Ma?a decisle b3 "* f""^ "' ^^^^-^y. On Goito. which rosnlt'dt tCtotri'r f.^^* "^^'^ '^' *"-» ^^ the same dnv. H. aII- 'n^r^ L^^^^^^^^^ Austrian army. On carrison of Pesohiera capitulated to t! 29 tho j 80 KUliOPK. victorious Italians, with 180 pieces of cannon, and vast quantities of military stores. These auspicious events, together with the acces- sion of the duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena, to the league, and t! t formation of constitutional governments in these states, appeared to guarantee the result of the war of independence. But matters took a turn. In November of 1848, Count Rossi was a.s8as- sinated. On the 24th the pope fled in disguise. A republican form of government was attempted in 1849. On the 8th of February the national assembly declared the pope divested of all temporal power, but all this was overturned by the intervention of a French force. The pope returned on the 12th of April, 1850. GERMANY. At present Germany comprises all the countries of central Europe, and is bounded N. by Denmark and the Baltic; E. by Prussian Poland, Galicia, and Hungary ; S. by the Tyrol and Switzerland ; and W. by France, Belgium, Holland, and the German Ocean. Its surface is much diversified, the E. and S. E. portions being moun- tainous, while the W. and N. present spacious plains, through which the rivers run generally in a northwardly direction. The rivers are numerous and important, the principal ones being the Danube, 1800 miles long, the Rhine, the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, each of which receives several affluents. The climate of Germany is mild and healthy, and remarkable for the evenness of its temperature, there being so little difference in the northern and southern parts, that tfie mean temperature of Hamburg is but two degrees lower than that of Vienn^. This extensive country, with its complicated and peculiar government, its ever-varying landmarks, and its nume- rous component states, has long been a puzzle to geographers. It is quite impossible to enter into any account of these peculiarities. Since 1815 the German states have formed a confederation, con- sisting of thirty-five independent sovereigns, and four free cities. Their affairs are managed by the Diet, which meets at Frankfort- on-the-Maine, and in which every member is represented. Austria has the right of presiding in the Diet ; every member has the ri^ht of making propositions and of bringing forth measures for discus- sion. All the members are bound together against the attacks of any foreign power, as well as for the security of each individual OEKMANY. 81 «...c my, nor coiuilude sei)arate treat es of npnr.o 'vu^ l are further bound nof tn ^1^ ^ ' ^^^ members ijuuiiu not to neclare war ii<'aiiiat pinV, r^tu^^ j t-.nuth, ,,i„c, arsenic, cobal,, an.i,„V,T . , di . ^17'''; precious stones I porcelain clav coal turfTJll ^ ■unrble and ■ind rick mines Gem,.,nv , - ', °""''.'""; "»" '" numerous springs The vegetab producT ^ : NoT' 't'^ °'"'"'™''P""''- »nd buckwheat' South spelt ^1;"' '"'i ''^'' '"'*^' °»''' I'".*, and potatoes. "^ """"'■ 8''*° P™')""" "f «» Germany is abundantly sunolied uiih »l] .1 r , , animals. Amon.r the wild „„ 1 , "» "«f»l domestic mo. in the Ar'the „o in h™ '■„"" "\'*'"'' '='"'^°'''' ""> "•"'■ in .he Hart., ind the Ty x the J vf '" "" ^"'"'' ""' '■»™'"» In .he Alps '.he eagl! ZV'C:' *= "■"""' ""^ *» «-l, 4c. North; Roman cX,ri„*^h?&ur"TheT°*.''"™' '" *" man language is ever, wh.,! j "'' ""'' P»»'orf"l Ger- and low German-lihe a™. „ P'*""'"""' ■ ^^'"8 °»' «,ot ur I J — j'ciiLxi ireenorn o established among most of the German nations. An assembly of 82 KUitOl'i;. repf^jBc "*•*' >rii WS9t§ muiuall/ to arrange all matters relating to ^JHtef, dui,*«8, cOBtoms, Ac. »nd to make such new enactment* as •wy be requi'if«d- The territories composing the Germau Confederation are — 8TATBS 1 Austritn Empire, . , , 9 Kingrdom of Pruilit, . . , f Jfi„(^;<'>mof Hivirii, . . , 4 K.iiigit mofSaxunjr, . , , B Kingdiirn of Hsnover, . «, , 6 Kinprdom of Wirlemberg', , , 7 Urand Duchy of Baden, , . 8 Electurate of Hesae, . . , 9 Hesac Darinatadt, . . . 10 Duchy of Holitein, . . , 11 Orand Duchy of Luxemburg', < Lemberg, , • 12 Duuhy of Brunawick, . . • , 13 Orand Durhy of Mecklenbur^^-Schwerin 14 Duchy of Naaaau, . . 15 Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar, . 16 Duchy of Saxe-Cuburg-Outha, 17 Duchy of Saxc-Meinungen, 18 Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, 19 Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Streliti, 20 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg and Kniphauaen, 21 Duchy of Aniialt-Deaaau, 22 Duchy of Bernburg, . , , 23 Duchy of CoBthen, 24 Principality of Schwartzenburg*8onderbauaea 25 Principality of Rudolatadt, . * 26 Principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, 27 Principality of Lichtenatein, 28 Principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringan, 29 Principality of Waldeck, 30 Principality of Reuaa-Greitz, . 31 Principality of Keusa-Schleitz, . 32 Principality of Lippe-Schanenberg', . 3'3 Principality of Lippc-DeCmoId, 34 Landg'ravate of Heaae-Hornburg, • 35 Free city of Lubeck, . . , 36 Free city of Frankfort, . 37 Free city of Bremen, . . . J8 Free city of Hamburg, . . TOTAI, . Contlnnnt of men tti th« Ana PopuUtkio •miyofGor. la •« nlln in 18M. C«u»il'iii>u. 76,822 11,893,182 94,822 71,296 12,314,700 7'),4B6 39,638 569,452 35,600 6,766 987,832 12,000 14,776 819,250 13,0.54 7,678 734,000 13,955 i 6,861 366,940 10,000 3,868 754,590 5,679 2,243 790.130 6,195 4,710 476,950 3,600 . 996 389,319 , 890 147,540 I 2,556 1,526 270,825 2,096 4,834 542,760 3,580 1,802 429,000 3,028 1,421 62,524 2,010 816 ' 150,412 1,116 933 166,364 1,150 509 132,849 9^2 997 99,628 718 2,417 281,920 2,829 318 61,480 629 297 46,920 370 254 40,200 325 a 319 60,847 451 340 69,040 539 127 20,200 145 64 6,520 65 275 42,990 356 466 69,697 619 148 31,500 224 . 297 72,050 622 212 27,600 240 446 82,970 691 106 24,921 200 127 54,166 407 43 77,950 479 106 79,04; ■186 148 188,054 =■ on- 242,867 43,400,377 302,281 L ria'ssi.*. 88 the Aus, ian nta of oll. ' m ""'^'' ""' "" ^'>« S. and West and other Ge^ir^fat^r^'^r;:' r' "^ '^^^ provinces on the Rhino has o n t J M i tT!"^ comprises the German states; on the S FrT, T'^ ^^ """°^^'- """^ ""' '• tf.e N.tl .rlar.ds. The extfen T/' "?, Z ''' ^^^ "«'«""" «"'' -n. is aho.t 776 mi os and the f' '' '^' ^''^'^'^ '^--n- —•on of Fr derl the Qro^r r-!'' *'" ^^^'* '^''- ^" the 2,500.000 inhabita:" and I exln'- '' ''"' ""* ^™^"'" -" ^'ue to the talent m d e L ^b ^f ' ^^^ 'T"' ^"'^ ^^'" "^ made snch additions to hLtrril?/'?'''"^''' "'""'^^'=''' ^^■»'' increased nearly one alf and h d 7' \ '^'"^ ''^ ^^"^''' '^ ^'"''^ the partition of Polan^'in mT T^'^'i^'^" of 6,000.000. By 1795, Prussia acquired .tlL"'; "' '"' dismemberment, in upwards of 2,000,000 more inL " ^ TZ" :VT"^^^^'' ""'^ «l.c was humbled by the French, undl^f!" 1' , f "'^r^"^"^'^-- peace :„ 1816, she beeame more 1^' h '^' "^'"""^' recovery of nearly all her PoIi.hT ^ !"^'^"' ^han ever, by the Saxony, Pomerania, and tL Phen sh'"'"' '"' '^ '^^^"'■^•^•■""^ '" Prussian monarchy « divided h,to \r'""°''- ^' P^^^«"* ^he Posen, Bradenberg, Pomer i. Si ^-^^ S^'^""^''^' ^'"-"^ P'-oper, tl.e Rhine provin es ^nTa 1„ ""'n'^^^"^' ^^^stpUa, and 15^00.000, and an ar.oft7:Ss;a:.:,er'""" of about /;at, being composed of vast plains' wirtl,"^ ^''"''•' '"' ^'"^''^"^^ fhe lower Rhenish provinces,^ d Sire ^hr::^'" •°''^-^°"^' In many portions it consists of barren sTd 7 «?''/^>''^« greatly. I'eaths, but in other parts par icukX , ' ^T"'^"^ ^''^'' '"^^ended land. In Prussian Poland he o it ' ' ,' ''''''' ^^^^« ''^ ^^-^ and tl.. Saxon and Rhenish Z ^""^^'^"-^^ ^^^'i'e. but Silesia, The country is well w^ bC 1 " T '^' ''"'' Prodnoilye Rhine traveLs the rC 'p ^vtS -'The W '■'"''^^ ''''''■ ^'^ ^■-tern frontier; th. Oder pLs through thT/"°^ "'""° '^'« ---.-mSne.iato^heB:^:^lfi:^^^^^^^ 3-1 Kl KOl'K. watered bj tlic VAW, Puson by t!ic> Wartha ; mid bcsiiloa tlieso there aro many other hirgu rivers, as tlie Nieiiien, the Kins, the Moselle, &c. Lakes are also exceedingly numerous. The principal sea- l)ort8 are Memel, Konigsberg, Dantzie, Stettin, and Stralsund. The climate ia as various as the soil. Along the Baltic it is moist; in the southern part of Silesia, and in Ducal Prussia, the winters are severe, but in the other portions it is comparatively mild. The mineral productions are more rich than might have been expected trom so flat a country. Iron is extensively wrought in Silesia and the Rhenish provinces, coal is abundant in the latter and in Saxony, and Salt is also i)roduced in the Saxon provinces, which yield, besides, considerable copper and some silver. Silesia furnishes large quantities of zinc, lead, and tin, and amber is a valuable product of Ducal Prussia. In addition to these, amethyst, agate, sulphur, lime- stone, grinding-stone, porcelain-earth, alum, &c., are found in differ- ent provinces. Agriculture, ttt-.— The vegetable products are the same vith those of most tenijjorate countries. Rye and wheat, buckwheat, oats, bar- ley, and potatoes are the principal agricultural products. Horses, cattle, and sheep are every where raised. The growth of the latter has received much attention, and some of the most celebrated breeds come from tliis country. That of Saxony is j)articulary well kiKJwn Tn consequence of iniproverneiits in this branch of industry, the wool of Saxony, Silesia, and some other provinces, has become superior even to that of Spain, and is now the principal article of exjxjrt. Mannfactures.~T\\o\v^\\ rather an agricultural tlian a manufac- turing country, Prussia has, of late years esi)ecially, become the seat of many valuable manufactures. Among these may be enu- merated, linen, woolen, bmadclolh. hardware, cutlery, porcelain, jewelry, watches, &c. Beer atul spirits are very extensively ukkU; and consumed in all parts of the monarchy. Vast nund)ers of books annually issue from the presses of Berlin and Halle. The principal manufacturing district of Prussia, and probably of the whole continent, ia on the river Wupper, a tributary of the Rhine, having Eberfeld and Solingen for its principal towns. Some of the manufactories are on a very large scale, employing four or five hundred hands. Cu')iintrre.—'Y\\(} (>\-ports from Prussia consist principally of corn wool, timber, Westphalian hams, zinc, flax, bristles, salted provisions, i'HL'SSIA. 35 'r*.n of inter,., o.n.n.JHf^^^^;^'^^ 'r "" '^ Oovermnmt. — The Kimr />r p S'».« an ,e JL^' Ead "ZilT*' '^ ° °°"""'' ""' »se,„bly of it, „w„ ,„ ,., • TV P'""""" ''"s a slate or popular »ano.i„/,„eal :;,:: :';;'7;'™ "' ''«='="■ ""' "i "l'0» ■■llfeot. The kin,, ,,„1T" ,„ ' , «"™"""<--"' are carrif.1 into I" ■ -.cos arc',„b,IivM 1*;L1:»'°''''"''.''^ "'" ''■'■S- '"« ".." ran-.*o, each „r ^^TO'^Xl ^Z^''^^^^ ■*"" niont Las been noniinall, a dexnotisn, I,„M, " ^"'"""■ 1- the king po.„.ed L arbi rarT power rZ''"';" f '"■°''' to have been self-Kovcrned for ihom.l ,7 J ■ •'^ '" "■"' '"' *'«' powerful ,0 long t, his elln t h„S '''' '""^ '""" ■"«"' »"■ tl.e people, ,et r'eeent J:!^^^ Z^ "" ^'l' ''""' "^ ta.n hin.elf without .h„ir eonfiden l aid , , „ 'T,"" '" "■»'"■ ™u,atpni;,ie:;^;t;;l,!;;rt'':,::;;:rnr*'°"'™°'*-''--. pointed l>y the KOvernrnJntC f '^r^"'"'"''"^'^' "^ ^"^''^^^ "P" of Catholic bishop! a "dnnvT T P^°''"''^' "'^ ^'"^ ''''-"■- Proselytisn^orltr;;;, ':l:;^^^^^^^^^ ^\^'- -own. is forhiddon, nnd there is ne 1 ' J "" '" '''""^^ ^'« ^ehgion, animosity than ia Prussi., ^ ^ ' " "" '^'^"'^^ ^««« °^ ^^^igious exited in .y .J ...:,. --r^--- 36 KLiioi'i;. law. Every child, whether male or female, rich or poor, must attend a public school, from the age of five years till such time as the cler- gyman of the parish certifies that the child has acquired all the education prescribed by law for an individual in its station. The school-time generally extends from six to fourteen years. Should a child not attend, its parents or guardians must satisfy the public authorities that it is receiving an appropriate education at home oi m a private seminary. The school-fees are exceedingly moderate; and the children of such poor persons as are unable to pay them, are instructed gratuitously at the public expense. It has been a.s- serted, upon estimates based on correct statistical calculations, and there seems to be no reason to doubt the fact, that every child born within the limits of Prussia, is educated. No particular religious creed is allowed to be taught in any school, but on particular days 'religious instruction is given to the children by the clergymen of the different sects to which they belong. Prussian education is also of the best quality, and every exertion is used to render it as per- fect as possible. It is in this respect, even according to the admissions of British writers, "as much sui)erior to that of the lower and middle classes of England and Scotland as can well be imagined." Exclu- sive of the common and superior schools, Prussia has six universi- ties of great celebrity, attended by students from all parts of the world. Military Force.— Hhe obligation of military service is universal every man being obliged to enter the army of the line, or the land- loehr (provincial army), between the ages of 20 and 32, as a private and to serve in one or the other for three years. The army in 1853 was estimated at about 225,550 men; the reserve and the first ban of the landwehr, amounted to men, 174,616 and the second ban of the landwehr comprised 175,196, men. Of these the regular army and the first ban of the landwehr amounting to 400,166, are ready to act immediately against an enemy. There are numerous institutions for military education. The greatest pains are taken to have the officers well instructed, and the condition of the common soldiers is equal, in point of comfort and pay, to that of any other in the world This system has nationalized the army, which must always be actu^ ated, in a great degree, by the sentiments and feelings that prevail among the mass of the people from which it is taken, and to which It 18 constantly returned. When, therefore, it is said that Prussia is a military monnichy, it must be remembered that the army is not AUriXiaA. STildlhTtThr ''T\ '^^ ^' ''''''' --^ ^- a limited amies. ^"^ "^'^ ^^"^^ ^"^^^^3^ ^^^eed to other European AUSTRIA. tirS'SoCdtto'E", " tr^ .'"'"''° *^°'°^ ""'f- >«i- composed of many sUfP, rliff ''™- ^^'^ exteusive empire is and inhabited i:;csrff:r:f^^^^^ P°^t^°" ^"^ -^-^' the Tyrol and Stv-ri.. .r! i f, ^PP^' ^"^ ^""^^^ Austria, Hungary Snesh^Galic a Tl ?-^ '^ ?""^"^' ^«^«--' ^--- by Italians Thrsi ^ ^^^''■'' ^"^"^ardy and Venice y Italians. Ihe Slavonians are estimated at about 16 500 onn T leng'th eteds 8 000 :^ " ^^ °'| "^^ *-'■ ^heir entire the »o«he™ prolinee," a;;,.e?t^ di; "tZ Z Tf " plams, generally following ,he course of .^.1 f ? '""■K" the Danube, the Elbe, the Oder the ^s^Lf r°"' ""= '"''"''■ Po All t\.L^ • ; ' Vistula, the Dneister, and thp (y«mafc.— Ihe climate varies sresn]v U, A;»y . larsre tprrifnrTr rru greatly in different parts of this Jarge territory. The most southerly part of DalmoKn a -dial ;. b„,l„ : itri'TTr''™"""" ■» 8™=™"^ *- rro,„ drought ir.he Tvm r ^^"'^ °'^" ""f<"- ""'"■"'y a,,..icable L in llrM^Ce'^r "'"^"'""'°° °' ""-^^ '» i/.».m, «W, ^.._A„»,ria is rich in minerals, and were a proper 33 KUltOl'E. amount of capital and skill used for the purpose, the value of this kind of production might be greatly increased. Several of the rarer metals, such as titan, uran, and tellurium, are found in different parts; the most beautiful opals ever discovered are found in Hungary, and carnelian, beryl, chalcedony, topaz, garnet, and amethyst of superior quality in Bohemia and Hungary. Beds of coal have also been found in nearly every province. Mineral springs are very abundant, and many of them are celebrated as the annual resort of great numbers of visitors. Vegetable products. — Among these are all the different kinds of corn, grasses, &c., together with the vine, flax and hemp, tobacco, hops, saffron, Eeveral species of dyeing plants, and a great variety of fruits. The forests of Austria are of immense extent and value. The mountainous regions are covered with fir, pine, larch, &c., and in most provinces great care is taken to supply the annual consump- tion by planting trees in proportion to the numbers felled. Roads, &c. — The facilities for internal communication are very extensive. The roads are usually well constructed, and some of them have been completed over high mountains and through difficult passes, with great perseverance and ingenuity, and at immense expense. Eailroads have also been constructed between many of the principal towns. That from Vienna to Bochnia in Galicia is or will be, when finished, nearly 400 miles in length. There are also railroads between Budweia and Gmuden, a distance of about 100 miles, between Olmutz and Vienna, with a branch to Brunn, between Vienna and Glocknitz, &c., besides several important routes now in progress. The river system of Austria is on a grand scale. Most of the rivers are navigated by steamboats, and are thus rendered of great service to trade and commerce. The aggregate length of the navigable rivers, measured by straight lines, is stated at 4,332 miles; that of canals at 831 miles, and that of lakes at 229. The principal commercial port is Trieste, upon the Adriatic. Venice is the seat of the admiralty. Fiume is the port of Hungary and there are several good harbors on the Mediterranean. AgricuUure.—Kdiny parts of Austria are both extremely fertile and highly cultivated. Wheat, rye, and other grains are raised in immense quantities in most of the provinces, and the growing of the vine forms one of the most important branches of agriculture. The whole quantity of wine produced annually has been estimated at no loss than 380,000,000 gallons. Lombardy in particular is one of the r AUSXiaA. "0 great an e«e„. Zt S„t ? "" ""=-"°™. '""'■■■ied to 10.000,000 „f, ho \';^^t™';'^^.'" -;" <- contaia „„„ .ha„ quantities, and the pJ2eS ^ ""'°' "' *" ™i«<=d in great and several otbei- frm't. f^! ■ ' '"'°°"' '""°™ '>"J oranjre, southern provrnl ' '°™ ""^°*°' -'ides of produee in'the properly impro'ved by i^du Ll : "d" n"?^" ^' ^'^^ ^-^^3^ could surpass Austria in the Tmn^ T ^ ''^' "° '^'^^'^''-^ tures. The mining lealtht ST?.r' ."''^^ '' ''« --^^- especially, are found in Ciaind II vri " '"" "^^ "^^'^« "^^^ the ore is merely quarried from 1 ^. '" '" ^'■'"' abundance, that height, and whichVeToM bTocksor^l"""''^' ^'"'^^^"^ ^-^ - this production alone pr^ly tTken ./' r'''''^ "^" ^^«- ^-e to supply in a great m'e arrethe'X^^^^^^ 1 ' T'^ '^ "^^^« 's said to be much superior r1 ? '"'"^ '^"''' ^^^ ^^^i^h it found in sufficient quan ties to m f ,?" '"'^ ^^^^'' ^^^^ -« ^'^o graphite or black lid a 'm uTnh " ?'^ ""^°^^^"* ^^^icles, &c. The principal supply of a" ck"[' ' "°'' "'^^'•^"' ^''^«' ««balt produces the aL.al ?Jountl a ::^To;r^" '"^^'^' ^^'^^ amount of salt, which is an imn / '^*^ *°"'- ^^^ annual «80.000 tons. Besides these Zr"' ^^^'«^« ^^ -?-*, is about cotton, woolen, silk, linen ^^rrJ' '"T"'"^'^^^'* '^ ^-^"^. stuffs, leather, &c. The numb' ^ of ^'"' ?'""^'^' ^^^^« «"d dye about 12,000, giving em I'merto 2 50ol^^^ '^ ^^^'"^'^^^^ ^^ was under the despotic rule of MetteS ""7 ^'T ^"^'"^ nothing like freedom of anv kinl '• ^"'^' ""*'^ '«°«»tly, The administration of the lawTthl"'%"'''''^'^ '^ *^« P-P^^ thing, in short, which formela ZnTT ''''""^ '^' P^^««' ^'^^Y empire, had been modifieTand mofl. ^'"'T'^ economy of the power whose object was to pCet; h ol ' ''' '^^^^ ^^"^ ^^ ^ of every popular right. tVIZZTiTT'' '' ^'^ ^^P^"- ur, at lea., shaken off the yoketf^ r^ran r^^' ^" ^ --^■ ^^u.,v^^on.-Education is very generally c\T\ pie. Schools are established by fhe govLnenf " '""^ '^' P^" no m.n is allowed to enter the marrCe 'Z I" """'' "'"'''^^^ read, write ar)d ,-o-f n,- '"-irriage state who is not, able to t, ea.t up accounts, no tradesman can employ work- 40 KVnoi'E. men who are unable to read and write, and books are published and distributed to every person. Besides elementary schools, there are many great and celebrated universities, which are attended by numerous students. Those at Vienna, Prague, Pavia, Padua, Lem- berg, Olmutz, &c., are widely renowned. Under a free constitution, there is no doubt that the Austrians might become, with such advan- tages, a most enlightened and liberal people. But the great defect consists in the jealousy entertained by the government of every thing like freedom of inquiry or discussion as to political matters, and even philosophy. The board of education controls the minutest details relating to schools, prescribing the course o'' study, publish- ing the books used in instruction, and suffering not the slightest deviation from the strictest rules of its jealous plan. The censor- ship of the press, also, \ns hitherto stifled and degraded the intel- lectual energies of the people. The number of journals throughout this great empire amounted, a few years ago, to only about 80, and of these the circulation was very limited, that of the principal one being less than 3000 in number. Very few foreign papers are admitted, and those are carefully prohibited from offering any remarks upon the condition or policy of the empire. Army, ttc— The military force of the empire is composed of a standing army and an army of reserve (Landwehrs). The permanent force in time of peace is 406,000 men, and during war 738,624. The navy is composed of 93 sailing vessels, mounting 681 guns,' and 11 steam vessels, carrying 61 guns. There is, besides, an armed flo- tilla on the Danube. Austria maintains a great many fortifications. The public revenues arise from direct taxes on property, industry^ and incomes, with personal and Jews taxes, &c., &g. The greater proportion is contributed by Bohemia, Galicia, Illyriaj and the Ger- man and Italian provinces. Hungary contributes a certain sum, and supports a fixed number of troopo. The revenue is $108,277^238 expenditure $135,034,000 annually; national debt $o93i528!353' The imports of 1850 were 158,955,400 florins; exports 104i847,'500.' The Austrian monarchy is composed of states which recognize the same sovereign, but governed by different laws; it takes the first rank in the states of the German confederation. The crown is hereditary by order of primogeniture in the male, and failing it in the female line. The constitution was abolished Dec. 1851, and now forms an absolute monarcliy. Nearly -each province has distinct usages and ptculiarities of government. Hungary and Austria were era' J-n-.u;i.v. 41 united by one common soveroi-n- buf ,],„ . controlled by the Hungarian Di^ and rpt f7"' °^ '^'' ^'"^ ^'^ pJete change in relations. H^Arv dec "'^ ^^T ^'^ '^ ' «-- state in 1849, and proceeded f.'^-'^ '^'""^^ ^" independent arms. The Hangar "nrafteVvar"''' '"^ "^'^^ '^ ^" ^P^^^ '« entirely out of Hangar"' mrZi'TT' ^^^ *^« ^-'-- straggle the AustrLs anrRusstnr ' rf' '"^ ''^^^^^ Pletely subdued the peopfofrt" TirR ^'"^'"^' ^"^ ^°- one time never exceeded 135 000 T' ^^ ' ^""8^"^" ^"'•ce at any against whom were opposed In th.r; ""' ''' ^"°" «^ ^""-3^' 110,000 Austrian soldierb^ "d ! « '"'"P^ 150,000 Eussian a total of upwards of OO^OoJ 1 ' '^'""'^' ""'■' "^'^'"S BAFARIA. composed oA J^t" the .'T f '^ ''i"«''°'"' "' ''"">?'>■ I' « about seven-eighths of tho wh^i. i •' / . ^°™^''' ^nich comprises E. and S. byiu.t,° t7w ,^^°^^^^^ The Rhine LitorylieTon^lXeTt^Hhelh'^'^-' ^^ ^-- partly bounded, and is separated frl*i, '' ^^ ^'^'^^ '^ ^^ Baden and He se. The extenT T ""''' ^^ '^' '''"'^'^'7 by table on page 32 ' '"^ popalation are stated in the -aking a coLse oflwttro nil i^l 7 -f ^^"^' ^^^ ^-o^^-' smaller rivers, the principal of 1 ^ I \ '''"'^"^ thirty-eight Iser. The Maine i's th'c i W iTth '"t^'^'""' ^"^ ^'^^ numerous, and some of them LT m ^'^^ ""^*^- The lakes are fish. A grand canalL rrlyTpnU:^^^^ ''Z t'' P'-^^ «f Rhine to the Danube. It is .n iL^ completed for joining the ated to cost about £800 000 "ndir " "f "'^^"^'"^ "^^'^^ "^t™' government. The .1 nnte o' R '^ "" ^''^ '^' ^^«'«*''^''°« ^f healthy. The fores ^ extenJ"" ". ^'""'^"^ ^^"^P-^^« -"-"d. ll 2.000,000. Kearl, Ib^ItroL";:^^^^ ^^^^y dykes similar to those of HolKnd 'tIT '''"". '""'^^•°" ^^^ Eli>e, the Wese, and the Em^ ^ Iwl' CX a'"" "^ ''^ A great portion of the soil i unsuitaWe fortin '° ^'''"• vast sand tracts, which extend across the kin 7' ''"f''"=" '' nearly one-sixth of its entire surface ^^7 .^y'^^T', '"^ ""^"P^ the mouths of the Elbe and the Wes'er "'' '""'^ '' ^'^* ^^^^^ Agriculture, c&c— The = S.W. an,l N.W. I„ „e« i, 2''«. Tl,e »,.rf.,„ » „„„; :,L ' ' ™ '" '««= ™™"-l '° US8, -; in the higM.„d.: i» .nili ,■ ::'X:: "" "= "''™'=' *°"8'' very important source of Te7th f ^.^'f'^^' "^^^ forests are a the government, and is in . fln , .^^'••^"'^"'•e is encouraged by M^mvfavtures of In! ! """""^'""g condition. ^ ^ - to a%on:rd:i:r:;::T"';;f"'^-^-.«P'>'--.*c., are carried ;;7;. &c., are exported tT „ p J oTr"'" ^"""''«" --«' ,^°''"'^^«-P'P^^^ stockings, leather 1^^,. /'"''' ""^ *° A^^^^icn. owns. Ra, I-oduetsn;;:; "^nc as '.m" ""'^ ^■" *^« ^'^^^ n" - -.ne, salt, pitch and tar, eo's itl u "^'' ^""'' ^°'-"' ^'"^'-r, total amount of imports and e^' ' ts ^- '""^''' ^^P°^'«- 'PJ' about $6,000,000 a year ^ " estimated respectively .t "t.ves, is composed of certain V ''^'"^' "'' ^""«« of represent- years. The great mn oritv o tl nt ?.^ ^ *^' P^°P'^' «-«n' six cation is widelv diff„« d- a fl '„ l'^^ "" ''' ^Lutherans. Edu- -hools are established \>t:t.!:"^^ persons are found Mdioc-,nnor.e^? "^ ^'"^^«' «"^ very fe; of inteiligent traveler!, Wir;,,!"'",?^- ^""^ the testiL^; -St highly civilised c;un;roriur:;'f tT '^ ^^ ^"^ °^*^' Europe. The neople are said to 43 KUKOPK. high dcf^ree. be moral, industrious, and intelligent, in a very „.g,„ ^.^,^^. Crimes are few, and extreme poverty and destitution are almost unknown. Wirtemberg was a dukedom until shortly after the battle of Austerlitz in 1805, when the then duke was raised by Napoleon to the rank of king. SWITZERLAND. SwiTZKRLAND Hes principally between 46° and 48" N. lat., and 6" and 11° E. longitude, having Germany on the N. and E., Italy on tlio S., and France on the W. Its greatest length is 210 miles, ffrentest breadth 140 miles. It constitutes a republic, formed by the union of 22 confederated states or cantons, having a population in the whole of about 2,500,000. Physical gPogrnphy.--\t has been aptly remarked, that "some idea may be formed of the Helvetic geography, by comparing the country to a large town, of which the valleys are the streets, and the mountains groups of contiguous houses." Wv far the greater portion of Switzerland consists of mountains, comprising many of the highest summits of the Alps. The most remarkable of these summits are Mount Rosa, 15,150, Mount Cervin, 14,836, the Fins- teraarhorn, 14,085, the Monch, 13,497, and the Jungfraii, 13,717 feet in height. The chief river is the Aar, which falls into the Rhine, after a course of 175 miles. Besides this, the Rhone, the Inn, the 'i'icmo, and the Doubs have their sources in this countrv. The Swiss lakes are numerous and beautiful. They are navigable, and are remarkable for the depth and purity of their water, and their great variety of fish. The most celebrated are Lake Leman, or (leneva, and Lake Constance, each of which covers an area of more than 200 miles, with a depth of 1,000 feet. The mineral riches of the mountains are little known, a few iron mines being the only ones explored. There are numerous mineral springs, some of which furnish considerable quantities of salt. The climate is not only dependant on elevation, but on the influence exercised bv the ' "- ^' '-ed contingent whL called^; : ''^^^t,;::; ^ ^'"'7" -"'^'^^-- ■■""onnted to about 108 000 men "'''^ '^'■'''' '" ^«'"^^ '-■^^^y - political righ'j 'i ' : c:, r "^'"'^ '•''' '^^^^■■^' ^^'"" ' "fnost intolerance i8%xercised.;"' "'"""^' ^''^"^"'''^"j. <''^" ' -"ons no native can ,n.nv , f",^"*''"''« ^^^^th, and in other "■' tl.o rights of ci.ize I'f V^T T"' '"" ^"'"^ ''^i^'^-' of .^-•■ss l>ro,estant chur 'p, ,^.""'"''/''-' *'-' --ton. The J i-iiusul. AH ehddren from five eight to 50 tui.ui'b;. years old must receive some sort of education, otlierwise their parents are subjected to a fine, and in some cases even to imprison- ment. No child can exercise the rights of citizenship, without hav- ing received a certain degree of instruction. In every district there are primary schools, in which the elements of education are taught; and secondary schools for older pupils, in which they are instructed in languages, geometry, natural history, music, &c. There are uni- versities at Basle, Berne, and Zurich. About 1,500,000 of the Swiss speak a German dialect, 500,000 French, and about 125,000 a corrupt Italian. The Swiss are a brave people, attached to their homes and to freedom; but while their scanty means of .subsistence, their peculiar situation, and the neces- sity of economy, have made them sober and industrious, the same circumstances have also made them mean and mercenary. No employment is too degrading, so they can make money by it. Though attached to freedom themselves, a few shillings a day will make them flock to the banner of its most inveterate enemy. For centuries the Swiss have been hired a& mercenary soldiers by every nation in Europe, and they are still extensively employed by the pope, and the kings of Naples and Sardinia. nOlLAND. The kingdom of Holland lies between latitude 51" 12' and 53* 30' N., and longitude 30" 22' and 7" 12' E. It is bounded E. by Hanover and Rhenish Prussia; S. by Belgium, and W. and N. by the North Sea. It is divided into twelve provinces, having an aggregate area of 13,598 squiire miles, and population of 3,000,000. Its° length is about 200 miles, and its average breadth about 65 miles. Nearly the whole of Holland is a continuous flat, partly formed by the deposites of rivers, and partly conquered by human labor from the sea, which is prevented from overflowing it by immense dykes or mounds, constructed with wonderful persever- ance and industry. The climate is variable, and the atmosphere much loaded with moisture. The soil is generally alluvial clay and sand, so that very little mineral wealth exists. The aspect of this singular country is different from that of any other. Its surface presents one immense net-work of canals, which answer the pur- poses of roads in otlier countries. Some of these are navigated by HOLLAND. 51 large vessels, and othe. are appropriated to the drainage of the toes, bustard, tulps fnj o hefb^all" "V' ''^^'^^'^'- ^^^^' P"^- and oats, are he o^her il f ' I ^^T' ''''''^' "'''^^''' ^'^'''^T Hve-stoci, and tl'e tie ^f Cr .* P'''^^'^«^'°»«- The racing o"^ value tha^ tilLe Th. , ' "^''''' '"^ "''^^' ^'' ^^ greater at 850,000 cwt° The hoS' T'' '';'"" ^'«"^' ^« -'^""^^ed beant, but the sheep arrindlff"^: T ^'^ '"^'^ ^"^ '' ^^'^^^ titles of coarse wool '"'^'^'^''"*' *^°"gb they yield great qua,,- el^r^^tnr^^dtCt^ -Tr- -' *^- ^^-olen needles, white lead borax duT'' f "' '°^'^^^^' ^^^^' "^ands, refineries; at Utr^tht a d^^^i^e? " ^"^ -g- bricks are made- Am^f.r^ • ! ' f^^ quantities of tiles and mond-cutter? ' '^'"^*^'^'^^™ ^« ^""^ed for its lapidaries and dia- Commerce.— The commerce of TT^iio a ^ive in Europe but hTZ , i ^ ""^^ ""°" *^« "'^^t exten- «till in theTrS'oymenrof Tv?'? '".''"'' ^'^"^^ ''^^ I^"^«'^ -« chiefly consistXu;:;'offerZic:ftob"''" '"'^- '^'° '"'^'"^'^ indigo, wine and brandy ^n of 11^^^^ '''' ''''^''''''^' I'emp and flax, iron hides' Hnen oJ /' '™^''' P'^«''' ^"^ tar, dried fish, coai, &c The "o^r '"^ ^""^^" •^*"^^' '^'''^^-■'^••« Holland, ^arti; of he produlnreTtT^^ ""'''' P^°^^^« "^ and West Indies, and parti v of L, . v ^r''''""' ^" '^' ^^'^^ from different parts of^ErVe oJIe'r^r"^'' "^ '^^ ^^^'^ butter (very important articles;) mad de. rl h! '" ^Vf '''' rape and linseed oils, Dutch linen &c Onl^ ' T^ '"'^ ^'"^^^'^' Mocha and Java coffee • suc^nr, .V T i '"'^"^ "'^' ^''^ «P>'ee«, indigo, cotton, terSba^coTc /r"; "";*"'' ^"^^"^^^ ^^^^^i^^^^l ".onarohyis hereditary in .he&mlt™f -if ''T'^'"/" '808- The . The priaeipa, ei.ie,^are Z^iL:^ !ZTr:l?r'^ ■ ". the worfd, Bot^rda., Leyden, VZ^ ^tX? "^ KViiUVK, celebrated for their universities, and Jlague, which is the seat of government. BELGIDM. In the year 1830, the provinces of Belgium, which had since 1815 constituted a part of the kingdom of Netherlands, revolted .•uid were recognized as an independent kingdom. Belgium lies between 49° 27' and 51° 34' N. lat., and 2° 37" and 6° E. long. ; !ind is bounded N. bj Holland; E. by Prussia; S. by France, and W. by the North Sea. Its greatest length is about 193 u)iles, iind its greatest breadth about 127 miles. The kingdom consists of nine pm' inces, viz. : Antwerp in the north-east and west, Flan- ders and Hainault in the west, Brabant in the center, Liniburg and Liege in the east, Namur in the south, and Luxemburg in the iluctive of much sickness. Nearly one-fifth of the surface of the Icingdom is covered with forests and woods, the timber from which forms a very valuable article of trade. Belgium is w§ll watered by the Scheldt, the Meuse, and their branches, and by numerous canals f^d by these rivers. Mineral products, dhc. — Mining forms one of the most important branches of the national industry of Belgium. The coal mines in particular are most productive and valuable, those of Hainault alone yielding a greater quantity of coal than the whole produce of France. Mines of ron are numerous, and copper, zinc, sulphur, marble, paving slabs, slates, mill-stones, &c. are mined and quarried in various parts of the country. Agriculture, dc. — Corn, flax, hemp, and timber, constitute the inot-pinningflax, weaving, and\lea!hing more h r^OoS'^" ^' ='re engaged. Lnmense quantities of flax are '-1? ^7'°"' -e purchased by the English, .FrenclJd """ '^ '■''"'^' ''^"'^ .nanufacture of printed cotton , clco ^ it f^^"^- Z'^'*^ carried on. "Brussels Innp" / T'^'™' *«-. 's also extensively ^uperio. u> ..y o"w'i,';ie To ,/ o^ S f^^ ""^ " manufactured at different places Tl,. , """ '"°= ■""■« .-.fully pr„,eeuted, the bea rand t ^ f'"" "' '"'' '' ""'■ "tuff, being „„3urp„Lod. S I kt'! ' { "'/°""' '^'"* "f -"<■ to- more than 12,000 person, .fc" 'f f '"'"""'"'"■Ploymeut in Liege alone t'o e,m oC\2Z'l '? "'■""''■ "■"' °"""' manufactures, in which t.hrn!l , '' ""f""'"'"' arts and arms, nails, cutlery, porcelain rfr!', """' '""*"'• ««■ Since the ^tabiiaL^of E;i|trrr:~:rr!,'^ ''I"; '»"■■• *"■ very rapid progres,, has teen made n Inri t re^v";' "'''""• " manufacturing and commercial indosL; Her c^ '""''"""' °' ■ts relations to numerous parts of the^^ u T'"™" '=^"°* -pccics of indigenous and ffr^fgn prteZ ' Th" '°"'°!'« -'■•-' are Antwerp and Ostend -.nd *■, P""""'";"- The principal ports racturing ciLs arcB Let( '::■!' S,™;-."' and nf.nn. Tournay. Yprcs Mon. louvail Vr^l^^f.-Sb,.'* '^'°-"^' Roack, etc.— After England Belainn. ^viecbii. --and „„,. nmnerlshnef^l-rLrS:;:?: ir. 54 KLJlOl'Ji. regular, and are kept in tlie best conditiun. The Belgian govern- ment was the first in Europe to plan and execute a general systen. of raiiroads. This was commenced in 1834. The city of Mechlin was made the center of the system, and the object proposed was to connect all the principal commercial towns with the sea on the one side, and with the frontiers of France and Prussia on the other. Four principal branches have been completed, extending from Mechlin north to Antwerp, east to Louvain, Liege, Verviers, and the frontiers of Prussia, and continued by a private company to Cologne and Bonn ; south through Brussels and the province of Hainault to Valenciennes in France, and west by Ghent and Bruges to Ostend. From Ghenc a railroad runs to Lille, and connects with the great northern railroad from Paris. A branch from Valen- ciennes connects with the latter road, and forms a direct route between Paris and Brussels, a distance of 370 miles. These rail- roads, and the cars or carriages used upon them, are well con- structed, the fares are cheap, and the speed great. The Belgian canals are of great importance in the transport of freight between the chief towns. The whole number of canals is between twenty and thirty, having an aggregate len^^'th of about 300 miles, and the course of the rivers amounts to abouL (300 miles. Population. — The population of Belgium, by the census of 1849 amounted to 4,359,090, comprising the different races of Germans, Flemings, "Walloons, and Jews. The French language is used in public affairs, and by the educated and wealthy classes. The Flemings in general speak a dialect of the Dutch, and the Walloons, who amount to about 1,300,000, a dialect of the ancient French. Arts and Sciences, Education, dc. — Since the independence of Belgium, a great spirit of emulation and desire of improvement has arisen among all classes of the population. Original works, and compositions of high character, are constantly contributing towards the foundation of a national literature. The government sustains and encourages the progress of science, learning, and the fine arts. Pensions are given to enable young men of talent to study the arts, and a national exhibition is opened each year, at which are displayed the works of the best artists. Architecture has been carried to the highest degree of perfection. The splendid cathedrals and town-halls, built in the middle ages, are wonders of architectural skill. Learned societies, devoted to various objects, are numerous. The universities of Ghent, Liege, Louvain, and i)...- .V Ai.iC. 65 Painting, i„deed/haso„; been '^^^^^^^^^^^^^ '''"'' '' '''^ "^'^•^• been illustrated by some naost- ' "' ^'^^^""'' '"'^ ^■'^ kinds have been esXhedTrVerr^^ --^-- Schools of u 11 primary instruction is del iraTd !f''''"l^"^ ^^««^«^-" "^ fuilest liberty fs, laowevf; Iw d t^ '"' ''''' '^^•^- ^''^ op-n.ons and the choice of moZ of '^'. '^P^^^«'"" of religious "Ministers of each denominaS T^' , ^^' ^"^"'"^^ ^^ ^^« treasury. ^enominatiou are denved from the national under ?^LTy^frf,7™;^^^^^^^ a constitutional monarchy, The constitution, decrLrby Lii^T""^ ""^ ^^« "^tion! all governmental power in the Lr ''""'"^'^ '" ^^Sl, places representative system. It eo^blish. ?"'. '^f "'r^ ^^ ">^^"« of the bility of every man's housran^' ^^f ^'^^'•^^' ^^- -viola- independence of religious worshin^^^' '^' ^''^''' ^'berty an.l bling and associating'^ Tibert'oTth'""""' ^'^ '''^'' °^--"- •"g. ministerial respo sib li y ^Tdfh e T'"'.'^' ^'^^"^ ^^*«-^- power. In short, 'the vvJ^ofsyst^ ' /"dependence of the judicial principles of rational freedom a d HberahrT"*- 1 '"^'^ "^"'^ 's not yet, however, universal hJl , ^. ^^"^'^'^^f^^ff'-^ge qualifications. Puni^hmiro dtrharbe XVr ^^^^^-^ trial byjury has been established ^bohshed, and the ia 'T;:n^tr;rel:r^^^^^^^^ ^« ^^ -ry year by a established on the Campine S "'"\ ^ P^™^"«"* ^^mp is It is yearly extended aTd has b'"'" ''^ ''•^"^'■^'- °^ Holland, built military town. A burgh '^rdl^"'""^^^^^ «"^ -«"- tenance of order and presefvin/the t '" ^^'^ for the main- consists of 90, OOO.men. ^ ^ territory from invasion. U ^'* ^^'^ '^""h'es of achleswig-Hol- 56 KLM >!•: stein and Laueiiburg, uiul partly i)f tlio udjacent ialaiids of Zealand, Funen, &c. Except on the S. and S. E., continental Denmark i,-- every where boundod by the sea. The kingdom lies between 53" and 58" N. latitude, and 8° and 13" E. longitude, having an area of 21,856 square miles, and containing a population, in 1853, of about 2,500,000. There are no mountains, and few hills in Denmark, the surface being generally low and level, and the coasts rising very little above the sea. In southern portions, the soil is exceedingly fertile, being very rich marsh-land, producing the finest pasture and excellent crops. In other parts, especially in the center and N. W. part of Jutland, the soil is arid, sandy, and barren. "With the vx- ception of the Eyder, there are no rivers of any magnitude. The continental portion of the country is intersected by numerous inlets of the sea, or lagoons, called fiords by the Danes, which are gener- ally too shallow for navigation, but abound in fish. The climate is humid, and fogs are very prevalent, The winters are severe, the summers hot, and in the spring violent winds prevail. Products, AjricuUure, d'c. — The horses and cattle of the duchies and of West Jutland are among the best any where produced, and great numbers are annually exported. "Hamburg beef" is supplied by tlie marsh-land oxen, and is considered excellent. Pigs are raised in great numbers, and quantities of bacon are sent to Norway, Holland, &c. Poultry is abundant, and feathers form a valuable article of export. The peasantry of Denmark were formerly in the most depressed state imaginable, being absolute slaves. But since 1788, when they were finally emancipated from political bondage, their condition has been gradually improving. Nearly half the country now belongs to peasants, who have purchased small portions of the soil by their earnings. They are all anxious to become proprietors, and as soon as they are able, they buy a house, with a few acres of land, or they hire the house and land of some larger proprietor, and pay for it in labor. The condition of the lower classes is usually very comforta- ble, more so indeed than in almost any other cc^untry of Europe, Agriculture has most wonderfully improved within fifty years, and is at present in an advanced condition. One of the chief obstacles to agricultural improvement is the badness of the roads, a conse- quence of the difficulty of j)rocuring material for their construction. Barley, oats and wheat, are largely cultivated, but the greatest atten- tion is paid to grazing, fatting, and the dairy. Horses, cattle, salted u;. L natural and partly to politi ca" "" ^^^^^^^^^-^ owing partly coal, of water-power, and of the T/fnT i "'"''^^ '"^''''''^'^ ^^ ^atural facilities fo; the success u """""'^' ^"'"'^''^ ^^^^ "" Nearly all branches of industr too ^'T"''"'^ °^ "'anufacturos. of guilds or corporations No 2' ? "^'"'^'^ '^ ^^« ^— -"t ^'" - 1^- ^-» authori ed by it?2f", "'"^T '" ^"^ ^^'--^ rarely obtained without a consider m/"'^^'" ^"^ "^ '1^''^ i« «y«ten. is to fetter cornpeLraad tn """'"' '" ^^'^'^^ «^ ^''e 'monopoly and routine/ The princi, Tr''^"^' ^'"^ '" ^^^P^^^^ate .^l»o.e of distillation and brewinlwr ''"'^'' "^ n^anufacture are '" Copenhagen, and severaTX'n ''^ ^^^'^ '^^ ^ g^-'vt extent manufactories of cloths, ea L: t? r V'T ^" ^'^« -- are generally far from bdng pro l/ol^T': \""'^''' ^'■' ^^' '^'^Y "''J^« have been constructed Zon , m '^^ ' ^""^ "^^"^ ^oj- -.exported fron. some If't' otf"^'^^ quantities of flo'ur are .The commerce of Denmark ,-rr -nee the peace of 1815. The exuorr'""''' ^"* ^"^ ^^P-v^'J products already mentioned, w th fish sni "^'1' °^ '^' agricultural articles. The imports are Lnlott'J ) ^T'' '""^ ' ^^^ other fru.t, timber, iron, salt, coarhemn fl x f '^u^'"^™' -''-' oil, island of St. Croix, in the We t Sie; ' p'' ^^' P^^^^^'^^on of the to the commerce of Dennwic 'Ss ^l^^^ ^-^^e i-portanee '«land produces annu-illv ni \ « ''^ '^ '" '^" "'"''• 20'. but barley is produced nearly u^ o ^^ t\"P^'^ °«^^'^ ^^ ^^^ up to 62'', tobacco to 62° SO' ii] fl , ' ^''P^ ""'^ cultivated tainty of the clin.te. and the 2^ "''t '' '^''- ^he uncer- ' " ^ ^'^^ ^^-^'-cs 01 early frost, are the great. eo KUUUI'K. est obstacles in tlie wiiy of the agriculturalLst. The soil is generally tliin and poor, and requires great industry in order to make it pro- ductive. The best portions of soil are those around Lake Wener, and those between Luke Wetter and tlie Baltic. In these parts, agriculture is in a very flourishing condition, the land is well culti- vated, and yields a large produce. A great portion, no less than four'sevenths, of Sweden is covered with forests. Of the 170,715 square rnile.s of surface, arable lands are estimated to occupy 3,490; meadows and pastumge 7,385; uncultivated mountain and forest land, 137,620; lakes and marshes, 22,055. Fisheries form a considerable branch of industry. Formerly her- rings were exeeedir'gly plentiful on the coast, but their number.-) have greatly decreased, and their place is supplied by the stremming, a fish of fine flavor, and about the size of a sprat. This fish is taken in the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia in great quantities, and after being cured in the same way as the herring, it forms a favorite disli with the people. The salmon fisheries are exceedingly productive and valuable. The seas around Sweden abound with fish, such as sturgeon, cod, turbot, sole, mackarel, &c. Mines. — Sweden contains nearly 600 mines, about one half of which are situated in the central provinces. Swedish iron is of very superior quality. ,The annual quantity produced, is about 90,000 tons, of which 70,000 are exported. The copper mines produce only about 750 tons a-year, and the quality of the copper is not very good. 'Every forge and furnace pays an annual duty to the crown; the iron-works are licensed to produce certain quantities only, and a troublesome and impolitic set of restrictions are imj)<)sed upon the whole business. The government has, by this course, prevented the full development of the mining resource--> of the' country. Manufactures. — The manufactures of Sweden are not xcvy exten- sive. The Swedish peasantry generally make their own agricultural implements, household furniture, and nearly all the coarse cotton, linen, and woolen stuffs requiiid for their own use. There are, how- ever, a number of factories for the finer kinds of woven fabrics sail- cloth, handkerchiefs, glass, fire-arms, paper, soap, leather, rope, tobacco, &c., besides sugar refineries, dying establishments, machine shops, &c. The whole number of factories of all kinds, in 1839. was 2,097, of looias 2,177, and of workmen in all departments of nniuufacturing industry 14,861, producing goods to the v^lue of niiher more than $5,500,000. Ardent spirits are extensively con- SWiitiK.V. (51 sumed by tlio Swedes. Kverv lan.l . r • . , «pirit«, upon pacing a cmZVtvt^ ^^ ' ''"" ' ''°^'' '^' '''«^'I i«' 1829, there were 167 744 stil s h «"'^'''".'""''"*- ^^ i« «^Htcd that annual avonl tukin/tl , '" 25,000,000 gallc.,.s_au over, indivi,/:,j,r'D,t t z: :::rL''r'''^ ^^ ^^ «""-« - ^We.-The exports of S 11 ""^ ^^"*^ "^ ^'"'' Swedes. -St important aS^) 0,^^^!,::: ^'^'/^ '-'' ''"^ '""'^^ ("'" ''i'ies, oil, &/ The forei' f^l^t ' r^' T'^'. ^'"'' "'"'^"' ^-'1'- tl-e United State, and GrJ t BH I f/'^^"^'^'^'^' carried on with are Stoekhohn and Gotten ur!/ f "^^'^-'-^--'-rciil towns was 20,434,000 rix-doUars Wo r he . V""!^ '''^'"' "^^'-^^-'-^ "W 40 eent,. and that oftror:a ^8^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ''« ^'^^•=^' ^ -.ainates to all appoie^J p I.t^r,? ^"' '°^^'^'" -^---• grants pardons; but for othe nun T '"^'"""^'^ ^«"'-^' ^"^ coneurrence of Ihe council ThnT ' ''^""'^ ''' ^^'^^^^^ ^''^ rate chambers, consisting resnectLi! V"!.' '''""^^^' ''^ ^'^^ ^'^P^' clergy, burghers, and p^easlT n^ "^'^'"'"'^ ^'^""^ ^^« ""-'4. chambers dtlibe;ate SZ J'^TV'"''! '^^ ^'^^^^ ^if being decided, are referred to '''' ^"' '" ^"^^*'«"«. before . vanced state. E:;d,ufrK''^'Z ^"^^''^^^'"'^ ^ •" ^ v.ry ad- he can exercise ::7:ettfrit^'^^r.^^.^^^^^S-P^"- b'efot one in 1,000 of the\dult pop 2^ l' "h? "'' ''"* ^'"^^« '"^ -' two universi.e., those of Upst and T f" ""■ '"'"'^- '^^'^^^' "^^ instruction is of a most exceHen kin, T. ' "' '''^'' °^ ^»"'«^' ^'^^ i« yearly appropriated to th e rftiL: T °^''""* ^^^ ''^'^^ press is free, every man bein. el "-1^'' f"""-'"' ""'■ ^'^^ The arts and sciences have flour Zli 7 '"^^' ^^ ^"^^'^^cs. duced some most distin.u;!." "a ^ " 7"'^'"' '"'^ '^' ^^« P^o- ■oJ-.iat authors and men of science. UJ Ut'IlUi'K. Ai'iny. — The Swedish army consisted, in 1853, of 144,013 inoii. Navy. — The naval force coueisled, in 1840, of 10 ships of the line, 8 frigates, 8 brigs, 247 gunboats, together with sundry steam ves- sels, &c. The number of seamen employed by government is about 30,000. Within the past twenty years Sweden has progressed rapidly in point of population, industry, national resources and wealth. To King Charles John, formerly Marshal Bernadotte, is due the credit of having in a great measure effected this improvement. Few princes can claim a more just title to the love and veneration of their sJbjects. King Oscar I., the son of Charles John, was raised to the throne on the death of his father. NORWAY. Norway forms the western portion of the Scandinavian penin- sula. It is bounded on the N. and W. by the North Sea and the Atlantic and Arctic oceans; S. by the Skagerrack, which separates it from Denmark, and E. by Sweden and Russian Lapland. Its extreme length is about 1,150 miles; its breadth varies greatl}-, averaging about oO miles towards the north, and 250 miles in the S. Its area is estimated at 122,008 square miles; and its population in 1845 amounted to 1,138,47. Norway at present is united to the crown of Sweden. The fjelds and ^ords of Norway are its chief physical characteristics. The first are lofty mountain plateaux in the interior, and the second are deep indentations or arms of tiie sea all around the coast. Almost the entire country is covered witli mountains. The main chain, called the Kiolen (or Keel), separates Norway from Sweden, as far down as lat. 63", and then tends to the S. W. Different portions of this chain are called Dovrefjeld, Lan- gefjeld, &c. Some of the Norwegian mountains are from 6,000 to 8,000 feet high. The fjords resemble the Scotch salt-water lochs. On the W. coast some of them stretch inland for 100 miles in a di- rect line, and are of the greatest use as means of communication. Lakt;s are numerous, but not so large as those of Sweden, On the W. coast are great numbers of islands, the principal of which are the Loffoden isles. At the S. extremity of this group is the cele- brated Maelstrom. The cUinat-e of Norway varies greatly, according to the elevation ^UJiWAV. 63 fii08 cannot be dispense wfth f H "''''''''''■ ^" Cliristiania, vegetation in so rapi. tt Irn I "f " T'^' ""'^ '" «"■"« P^^^^^^ ^^ncu/,,,,, i.,!!^^, , ^';;" ^''^''^^'^ "'"^ -«P^J within six weeks. agrieultural peoplJl'^ilZZT T f" ^""^ '^ P'^^°-' -^ nation and lisheries- 23 14^^^! T '^'"'"''"'■'' 28.903 with „avi. J^'Hl i3 mostly the ^rotrt o? M r''""^ manufactures. Tho t'.e one-hundlLdth '^Zi^J^ ^"^^'^'^^« "'• ^^h' about culture, and the arable Ian I is"! n ' '' '"^'^"^"^ '^ ^' ""^'^r vests are precarious nd 1 f ^^"^ ^'°"'' ""'^ '^''"^^ ^'^e har- must be imported rilr r^"' """^^'^^'^^ supplies of corn Wk of the' fir.tr;e Td IT fT ""^ "^ *'"" "^^'^' »^- '""- -aking bread. The cu vat blf t.^^^ " '^^T'"" "''^' --' ^"r carried on, however of 1 f '"'^ '^^ ^^^" extensively •— ure a'substi^ "f ^^.^ «f ^'^ "^ded in a grea' l--ii"g i.s the most profitab br ul"^^" ,' •^'^"''' '"''• ^'^'''« •'"Hi ckuy produce are ^o,^ .u^" ^ f ^"7' '»<'"«^0'; and ,nilk ^^tock often suffers from hei i "''''''" "^ ^^'"'^- ^he live i'-tin, of which forZa tor rmr""r "'^"" ""^ ^"'-«' ^l- Tl.e inhabitants of the o t ' n ' 'i'''' ""^"^ *^^ '''« P«<>Pl«- of aquatic birds, w! i h Zl^t^ ^T ^^^^"^"'"^« -' ^^'^ W Above 05", the .eople 12 n , T' '" '"""«"«^ ""'"l>«rs. Herds of rJin-deL. 'tI^^^, r ^^Ji^:^:^^-^ ^"« Pf - of an important co.]-(i«hery the av,-,.. . P""«'Pal seat of bei..g more than $400,000 J ^f!;"'? 1 '", '''' ^-«''^ ^''-•« ing. Haddock, floTnde s. herrt Z 7'' ^''"l' ^f "^^ "''-'J' -''it- The /W^. of Norway .re vo'r'.r"^^'' ^"'' '^"''^ "««• tl.e chief articles of eZr^Tl?,^'^'^'^""'^ ^''"'^'' '« -« "f «o great as n.ight bo expected ZT^\'' '" "'"^"'' ''"^'^'^'•' '« ""' la'Kl. This in owing to tlllac of " "" n'^"'^^ ''''''' ^' «^^-t roa,is, rendering it dmicul to o Lv t "Tk"' "''"^' «"^"^«' «"^1 ^/'>^'.v«/ prodlcls are v. rl T^t ''"'^"" ^" *Ho coast. in several places. A silver min« n T \ ""^^^ '' *''^** '"'"»i for 200 years, and was o e Tu, ted u"'T'' '" '"" ^"^■^"^^ a-enic, and a little gold, Huirulu ' 1 ""''''' '" *^"'"^«- "^^'-'^d' eral products. ' ^ *""' '^'•' «'"« "'"ong the other min- 64 EUKOPE. The Manufactures of Norway are almost wholly domestic. The agricultural peasant builds his own house, makes his own furniture and, indeed, unites all trades in his own person. The farmers and country people spin their own flax and wool, and weave their own clothes. The whole number of manufacturing establishments in 1829 was stated at 337, but of these 138 were distilleries and 80 tobacco factories. Commerce is in a depressed condition. The prin- cipal exports are timber, fish, and other native produce. Government. — Though Norway belongs to the crown of Sweden, yet the connexion between the two countries is far from being inti- mate. The constitution differs from that of Sweden. The govern- ment is a hereditary monarchy, with a democratic assembly, called Stortldng. This consists of about 100 members, elected by the peo- ple at large, property and other qualifications being requisite for the privilege both of electing and being elected. The crown has no organ or representative in this assembly. The elections take place every third year, and, when elected, the Storthing divides into an upper and lower house. After a bill has passed both houses, it re- ceives the sanction of the king, in order to become a law; but in case bill pass through three successive Storthings, the royal assent may be dispensed with. This right the Norwegians exerted when they abolished their hereditary nobility in 1821. The Religion of Norway is the Lutheran ; and all sects of Chris- tians are tolerated, but Jews and Jesuits are not allowed to settle in the country, or to remain in for more than a few hours at a time. In 1837 about one-seventh of the population were receiving public instruction. Schools are numerous, and there are 13 colleges in tlie principal towns, for superior education. Christiania contains a uni- versity, with from 600 to 800 students. Sunday-schools and public libraries are maintained in almost every parish. The press of Nor- way is free, and more than twenty newspapers and several scientific journals are published. The army consisted in 1851 of 23,484 men; the navy 2 frigates, 10 smaller vessels and five steamers, having in all 50,000 men. The public revenue of 1861-54 was estimated at $3,200,000. BUSSU. RPSSU. 65 ;"g from the frontiers of ^Ll'l^d " r ^^ f ''" ^^°^«' --«^- to the Pacific Ocean and Behrinl t . "'^"^^'^'^ «" ^'^« VV., "early 6,000 miles, with an averli bre dT 7 f'^ ^- ^ ^'«'--« '^ th^s. liu.sia owns a Jurge tract n the ^W "'^'""^ ^'^0<>- besides «^^«tress of several large island in thf;; ^T '' ^'"^"«'^' «"d is Tcnal popu,at,on aocLdingoLsttfTo ""'■'"' ""''''' ^- Rus^^ia 62,088.000; Asiatic Rusro, '"""''^'^' ^^'^P^^^ Transcans,an provinces 2,648 000 V-7"'-'"^ ' '''''''''' a total of 67,784,000. The whot' ar . '"'"'" ^''^^^' "-^in^ -^ t^^esame vear, was, forthe who e of hlT'""''"^^ ^^"^^'^ -''- J'aceo/ihe country, cC-c.-R™ if T"" "'"P'''^' «.0(^<^.010. -meof the mostexttsi e iZVuTeTf/ 'T'' "'^ ^"^P-- from Asiatic linssia by the Urll ' '^'■^^- "^"'""Pe^" '« 'divided Caspian Sea to th. Ar^tL Oce 1 Z^'S ""'''' ^^^^"^^ ^''^ *'- o these mo .,.:„«. there is sca^celv . ? T '"""^^^^ ^'^ *'"« ^V. Kujsia are ^ ,e covering "J [;,;"^^« .'^"i ^^'^^ f--ts of -nning into the Arctii Oc n X^ ^t'h" n""^^' ^" ''^ ^-■-. 'nto the Baltic; the Dneister Dn n ^ ■^""'' ^"^ ^he x\iemen «ea; and the Volga in to t^^^^^^^^^ >.-^ ^-. into the Black country, and the "great length of heir ' '^ *'' '^'""^« "^ ^i- are httle interrupted by caUtract fl T' '^' ''"''' ^^ K*^««'a •■^^ford great facilities foHnte 2, ' -"^ " *'""^"" ''"'''^' «"'l the rivers, are on a lar.sTf^^T?' -^'^ ^^'^^' ^ -" - a country. The most vatable/onLTf I T' ''''^''y '" ^ -st between the Baltic, the Gulf ofFlf^Tl'''^ or that included and E., the Black Sea on the S nn a ' ""^ '^' ^°'^"' "" the N. - the W., has generally a 1ft H u"''"'' ^'"'''^'^ ^'^'a-d, &c. botton, easily wr'ought td v'y'Sle"" A,' ""'''' ^" ^ ^"^-^ «l'mate is met with. "When s„Hnl " '"°'' '"^''^ '^'"d' of '-;one division of this vast emp^rn'^h^f ' '""^"' "'^"— - of wmter. Here the parched c2oZT '^P^"«"«^« all the ri.or« , there the reu-deer cJrses oveTlTel o^^^^^ "''.' ^"^"'"^^ ^--^s: a scanty suj.ply of moss." Z n^^ r"' ""'^^^ ^^'^^ he rtnds j "' "oav,instandii.g the heat that pre- 66 KUl.Oi'K vails in summer, especinlly in the southern provinces, ';oltl, generallj speaking, predominates in Russia, and incieases in intensity as we approach N. and E. The fruits of temperate climates are seldom met with above the fifty-second degree of latitude. Minerals^ Meiala, tic. — The mines of Russia are of considerable value. Gold, p' tina, silver, copper, and iron, are found in the Ural and Altai mou'-ains. The iron mines furnish a large supply, and those in the Ural mountains alone are said to employ above 50,000 laborers. The total product of iron amounts to about 180,000 tons. Salt mines and springs are abundant, but as most of them are at a distance from the western provinces, there is a large importation of salt from England and Austria. Agriculture. — Landed property in Russia ia generally divided into estates, belonging e ther to the crown or the nobility. Some of the nobles possess immense estates, the peasants occupying which are in a state of absolute slavery. The value of a Rubsian estate, in- deed, formerly depended more on the number of peasants upon it, who may be either sold or let out by the proprietor, than on its extent or the quality of the soil. This is now, however, not so gen- erally the case, since the population has increased, and the proprietor sometimes becomes burdened with the charge of supporting laborers, on whom he is obliged to jiay a tij.x to the government, and for whose service he has little or no use. Proprietors usually content themselves with distributing their property among the peasantry, receiving a tax imposed on each male, by way of rent. The abso- lute power of the owner to retake his property, or to increase the tax, must obviously tend to extortion and injustice, and consequently to indolence and discouragen'ient on the part of the tenantry. Owing to this system, and to other concurrent circumstances, the state of agriculture is in general atu low ebb. In some provinces, hov.'ever. particularly in tliose on the Baltic, the husbandry is very superior. The products raised must ditt'er according to soil and climate. All sorts of corn are raised ; rye in tlie greatest quantity, since it is the common food of the pei-.santry. Next to rye is oats, and the value of the crops of these two, is supposed to be more than double that of all other kinds of grain. I lorses and cattle are raised in immense numbers. Tallow is, and has long been, the most important article of export. Wool is also exported in considerable quantities, and Russian hog's bristles are every where used, Manufactures. — The government has attempted the improvement Jifj.'ilA. (.7 and exiension of manufactures, but owin- t, r! of dut.es and prohibitions, the slavery o°t. "'""""" '•'^■'^^'"'' of the population, and otLr d Jb ^k:^t?'" ^'^ '"""'"'^^ advanced state. In certain 6^1 . l^ '""'^ "^^ g^'neraily in or even supenor to o ^er ounterT r^' '"'^^'^ '-'-^ for some purposes, such as book h , "' -^T^'' '' '^^^^"^"t. and duce Russian leather in fureil countHrr ' '"'^^'"^*^ *« P^"" «aiI-cloth, cordage, and canvas Mf ^ "''' '"^'^ ^^<^^'^eodcd. The articles brought^ om RussTa\^ '' "''^ T' '^'''''' ^"^ ««-« "^^^^r '^ny other country, cfo , j " ",>f"^ '^ ^^"^^ ^''"" ^'^-^ "^^ and cigars, earthe-'nwar Jr^f; ^^"^"' f -' P«P-. --ff, places, and the amount of ao'S'^t" /"^""^^'^^"^d in varioun in these branches is rap d ^i L"^^^ made an astonishing progress sin 'fi; '""^ "^ "" ""•'' ''^^« ftrikingly evinced by tLfect thatin th/"" '' ''''■ '^'^^ '« in 1820, there were only two steal " 8"^^"'""'^* "^ ^^"•^«°^. -elOO. The same gcU^etTnirhluly'; f .^' ^^^^ 83,6o4 work-people. Since Ifiqfi l . , ' ^^ factories, and "II the Russian muversi ies fofth'e ?'" ■ ^''^ ''^" ''^^^'^'^^^d in -k.en in mechanics,":;^;^:^ TT^ TfT'' "' manufactures was about 650,000 000 of mW ""^"^ ^''"''^'^ "^ ammerce.-The chief .r ir; , '"^'''' ''' "^^'^ $100,000,000. and flax, t.mbe, potatoL t^ ^ Tdtf' T? "'-^ fox, hare, and squirrel skin^ ,.on f hempseed. leather, wax, ising,.., L, ;'i ^^.'^ ;:x:;'' :r """■ """''«», w„o, and Riga on thg- rLlti,. 4 ,1 ' °"f" ^""^'"g Porta are Peterab„r''«'''<» "or exportation,, per c«,t, of which $m4 666 4^ ?""' ■"■ '''"'^ """« *»" 2 a»a 11.32,666-44 f^r ^SLr.!;™- '- «-'«• 68 EUllOPK Internal communications. — The great road from Putcrsburgh to Moscow is a most magnificent public work. It in nearly 500 miles in length, quite level, macadamized throughout, and kept in perfect repair. There is now being built a railroad between the same cities, which, when completed, will be one of the best in the world. It is M gratifying evidence of American skill and enterprise, that this great undertaking was superintended by Major Whistler of Massa- chusetts, a most accomplished engineer, and that the cars and loco- motives to be employed on it ara contracted for by a Philadelphia house. But with the exception of this and a few other national lines, there is a great lack of good roads in Eussia. The inconven- ience felt from this circumstance, is, however, less than might be expected, since the worst roads are so frozen during the greater part of the year as to be fit for sledge traveling, and since the navigable rivers are so numerous, and so many canals have been constructed. Few cor"»tries, in fact, have so extensive a command of internal navi- gation. Goods may be conveyed from Peten^urgh to Astrachan, a distance of 1,500 miles, or to any port on the Caspian, without once being landed. The iron of Siberia, and the teas of China, are re- ceived at Petersburgh in the same way. Immense quantities of goods are also conveyed on sledges over the ice, during the winter, to the different ports. The importance of this inland navigation may be estimated from the fact, that in 1839 no fewer than 46,850 boats, and 17,469 rafts, arrived at the great ports and emporiums of the empire, bringing goods worth 538,921,730 rubles. The silver ruble is worth from 75 to 100 cents, and the paper ruble, which is the basis of all commercial calculation, is equiv- alent to a franc, or about 18 cents, and is divided into 100 copper coins, called kopecks. The only gold coin, in Eussia, is worth 20 francs. The Govei'nment. — In Russia all power emanates from the sover- eign, whose authority is uncontrolled, except by the respect he may yield to established customs, to the pi ivileges of certain classes, and the prejudices of the people. The will of the monarch has no legal limits, so that he may be said to be absolute. He is the central point of the administration, his decisions are law, every thing emanates from him, every thing is referred to him. The public business is trarisacted, under the emperor, by different boards, councils, or col- leges, each having separate functions. The imperial council of the emperor consists of a president and an indefinite number of mem- ^'^^^Zr!:z£2: r - r . '^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^"- '"'cted with the internafad n Lt 'TT'"''"*^' ^^^^ "^""'^^^ ««"" -liege, or senate, i. coti ie d t ^ " "^ '^'' ""P'''^' ^^^ ^^-^ond ^t i« the high cou'rt of s "e J d ."r T'T''' ^°'^ '" ^^^ «^^'- The ..ember, are n^n^XZ ''''''''''''''' ''^''''^- about 100. Thissenateisd vided in o T""' ''■ '^^^ ""'"^^^ ^^ iive of which sit .t Petersbu Ji 'n . ^^ ' «-"^«ittees, or sections, are .nostly persons of ,1 f' ^ . T '' ''"^""- '^'^^ -"^tor "enee presides over ea IprtteTt T''' "'' ^ ^'^"^^^ '' -"" and wh.se signature i.s n W-fn ' 7 ° 'T'"'^'^"^'^ ^^« '^^^P'^or, also exannnes^nto thepuSetnu /^ '"'"'""^- ^^^ '-ate public abuses, appoint trJrer;"?^"^^:"'^'^'^^^' inquires into 1'o.ver of remons trince with hf.t '^^r."^ ^^^«^^' '-^'"^ ^^s the ^^ol. Synod; it super nt 5s all tl ; T' ^""^ ^''^^ ^"^"^^^ - ^he and is composed of the princin 1 °'""' ''^''''' ^^ '^' ^^^-^^y, decisions n^ust be approv d t ^f ''"'" '' '" ^'^"^^^- ^^^ ^^ consists of the ConZj^tZ^T^ '^'^ '""^^^ -"^^^^ They communicate direetlyCkh!"' '^''' ""'' '^'■^'"' the various affairs of the ^m ^^'1":^"?:' f^ ''"^^^ '''^'^^ ^^ instruction, post-offace, roads anTnuhli I "u ' '^'""^'' ^^'^^' P^^lic 's divided into gene^ 1 gc v-em^e^ftf '^'"^"' ^'- ^'^'« ^'"P-- and districts. |,,ese vary'I^r "r^^^'^'-' governments, tl>e first, 50 or 61 of the second ol' u ' '""'" ^" ^840, 14 of viceroy, or genera] govern r:cl::d:t^^^^^ "' ''' ^^^ ^^^ "''V.1 and military affairs, represen 31^1? "'''' '"^ ^°"*'-^^'« ^11 sible to him. A civil goX r l!' ^"^"'7' "^^ ^^^^ ^-pon- assisted by a council, is est.^ i Ld 1 , "^ "^' ^■^"^"''^' S"^-""''. There are also in each gove n^^^^^^^^ goyernn.ent or province, over by a vice-governor, a col W Ln ","' "^ ^"'"^^' P^^'^^^ the prisons, work-hous s. sc oo l f ?i '^""'f ""' "'"^^ ^ which attends to the pub ic health t: V"^''^' of medicine, •speets drugs, &c. Thl distri ts ethtri 1"^\ ^''^■^'"'^"«' ""' and each town has a commandLT „ . f " ^"'^^ functionaries, charge of all town affairs The^^^^^^^^^ f ^ ^^- -own, .ho has' and not easily understood. There 1'" T T'^'" '^ «--P''C-^ted, every circle, and a supreme court of ' f '"'"'""'^ '"''''^ '" -Inch cases decided in ZlZt'o^ ^" ^^^^^ government, to sentence . final in crimin ^^ZTt'T^' ''' ''''''''■ '^ ' "^^ tu the extent of 600 rubles 70 KUKOPE. in civil cases. Those involving a greater amount may b^ appealed to the senate. Divisions of the people. — The people of Russia are divided into four classes: 1. Nobles; 2. Clergy; 3. Burghers, Merchants, and Farmers ; and 4. Peasants, or slaves. 1. Nobles. — The arrangement of the nobility was effected by Peter the Great, For the purpose of undermining the influence of the then nobility, who were exclusively possessed of all the places of trust and emolument, he divided all the civil and military function- aries in the service of the state into fourteen classes, enacting that the eight highest classes should confer the distinction of hereditary nobility, some of the otheis that of personal nobility, or nobility for life, and that those enrolled in the others should be deemed gentle- men. The creation of a new nobility, founded on merit, or on state services, was at the time, no doubt, a material improvement. By illustrating new families, it lessened the influence of the old nobility, and opened a prospect of distinction to enterprising individuals. But at present the system seems to be troublesome and oppressive, and might be advantageously abandoned. In 1836, the order of nobility comprised 691,855 persons, of whom 538,160 enjoyed hereditary dignities. In Poland alone there were, in 1837, 283,420 nobles. Many of the latter, however, are in a very destitute condition. Proud of their rank and their immunities, indolent and corrupt, tliey have always been a burden to the people, and have proved the greatest obstacles to Polish regeneration. Many of the Russian noblemen are highly accomplished, and some of them have, of late years, distinguished themselves by their attention to their estates, and the improvements they have introduced in agriculture and in the condition of their peasantry. Various circumstances have con- tributed to liberalize the feelings of the nobility in general. The lengthened stay of the Russian armies in the more civilized coun- tries of Europe, after the defeat of Napoleon, made many of the nobles and officers familiar with a more advanced slalo of society and a better form of civil polity. This circumstance also gave an increased stimulus to the desire for traveling, already felt by the nobility, many of whom withdrew to England, France, and other countries. The influence of these circumstances has been shown on various occasions in Russia, and there is no doubt that a considera- ble number of the nobles, as well as ihe military officers, are quite willing to see some limits act to the power of the czar. To counter- KUSSU. 71 most vigaant ,neasures have been ur , t"'" "^^°'^'^' «"d the oj foreign tutor, and goven« X^^ of foreign works. ^^''''^ss^^, and to preveiit the introduction of thom1fb7u"^ Z^!:"? ^r" "'r^ ''''''' -^'-Ju'^i. are exe.npted froa, Tdirec If J f '^^^'^'"^ ^'-''^J^- The,' -d .a, acquire all sort?/ ^xTdVlen^^^^ ''"'''''' ^""^^''--. ng to this class, are distributed into '"^'^'^""^ «"d traders belong- of capital they respectiveirpo" :^^^^^^^^^^^ on their paying a certain per cfntal on h "V /"""^ ^"^^^^g- burghers, or second diviln of Z h '^ ''^"''- '^^^ «^^erior to the peasant, but they are dT/- ^"'T,"''"^ P"^'^«g«« chants by their being subject o^h. '^T-^'^''^'"'^ from the rner- m the army and nfvy. ' t1 L ciL ^^'^^^"" ^'^^' -^ -rohnent individuals. ^ ^ ""^^^ comprises about 3,000,000 4. Peasants. — Bv far fha io are slaves, belong.g "i ' ^ ,?" ^^^^'^ "^ the people of Eussia 21.000,000 being the propenrof^^^ individuals; above Matter. One nobleman Ine^own K ™''"' '"^ ^^'^^^'^'^ of the numbers of those belonging rsl:::: ''''''' ^^^^^^' ^^ ^he httle inferior. The nobles'ar^obr dt n '"'' ^''^'■°""^- -« (at the rate generally of about four niK, ^'^ ^ '^"^ ^'^ government recruits for the army accord 17*0 t, ' r' "''''^' ^"^ ^« ^^rnish estates. The time and labor 7the j' ' ^"^"'^^'"^ '^^ ^heir posal of their masters, who na^ ^ett Lt'" ''"^^'^^^ '' ^^^ ^- happen to acquire. The master tl ," ""^^ Property they may forbidden by\. (which Xev:^ ot '"1 '" ''^^^' ^^ '« f;'m wuh any great cruelty. ' CZlt tl ""'.f^ '"'■"'" ^^^^^ng ^lave system of Kus^ia and the "S r ""^^^'"bl^^^e between the United States is very striki . an7"fi'"/"'''"'""" ''' '^' -'^^-n the truth of the pafallel whi'ch h '^'^'^^ ^ ^'"g^^ar illustration of between the -eiLt ' "'°''' *'^'"^ ""'^e beer d^-..- . eutest ucspotism and the greatest republic of'th: KUKOl'K. world. The difference, if any, is certainly in favor of the Russian syHtem, since there a slave may attend school, and sometimes re- ceive a license to reside in a town, and to learn a trade or profession. Some of these licensed slaves have accumulated large fortunes. One is said to em[)loy 4,000 laborers, and another planned and built the finest church in St. Petersburgh. The peasants are hardy, robust, and generally of middle stature. They live in log huts, warmed by stoves, wear sheep-skin coats in winter, and eat rye bread, cabbage soup, bacon, eggs, and salted cucumbers. The pre- paration of the latter is an important branch of domestic economy, and, with salted cabbage, they form an imjjortant article of national commerce. Brandy, made of corn, is dunk in immense quantities by the peasants, over 80,000,000 gallons being consumed annually. Army, — The grand army of Russia in 1853 was composed of 699,000 men, with 1,468 common, aud 126,0uO irregular troops, with 224 pieces of artillery. Tiie soldiers are generally inferior in point of vigor, activity, intelligence, and entiiusiasm, but they possess the most unflincliiug courage and the most implicit obedience. Sub- jected from birth to a master whose will is their law, the habit of prompt and absolute obedience becomes a part of their nature, ilegardless of dangers or difficulties, they will attempt whatever they are ordered, and will endure, v. ithout a murmur, the greatest liardships and privations, supporting themselves in situations where otiiers would starve. Wee the officers as intelligent and skilful as the men are brave and docile, the Russian army would be much more formidable. But tiiis has been far from being the case. Latterly, however, great effi)rts have been made to improve the condition of the officers. Military academies have been opened in several places, tiie pay of the officers has been increased, and the late Emperor Nicholas endeavored to excite the martial spirit of the people, and to make the service poi)ular, by instituting grand military spectacles. Tlie army is recruited from the classes of peasants and artisans, every individual belonging to them being liable to compulsory ser- vice, if he he of the proper age or stature. The [)eriod of service is 20 years in the imperial guard, and 22 in the other corps. Every individual, with his family, becomes free the moment he is enrolled in the ranks of the army. After two years' service, a soldier may oeeome a sub-ollici r, and liie sub-officer, after twelve years' service, obtains of right the rank of ensign or sub-lieutenant. Navy. — The Russian fleet comprises about 60 ships of the line, KL'tiSIA. 7a i" tl,e ar,„^ Ld "avy " '" "^^ '"•" """'« «="icc., both Education. — This is in „ i existed in all theTrelt T^ . ""^ ''"*'• S«>>°^^'« ^ave lor-. country schools. Education i^ I ' ''"^ "^"'^' benefit froru wi.hin'the present en ; b' n""'!' "-^'"^^ P-gre., and has There are several anc!en undT.^ "'\''"P'°"*^^ ""^ ''^^tended. t'- lugher cla.: Z2^/'^T'^' ^ -^-«. i" which und St. Petersburgh contain.^ "f \'''' ^^^'^^P"'- ^^^^-o^v, and supported by te^^rnen Th'^^"''^ T""'^'^ «^' ^'"'^-'^ ibuuded for particular otlr T ""' "^''^•' """«"« «"booLs, -.e under L conU^oTtt'c W^^ ''^t 'f "■'^'r'^' ^^^ aniong the most ancieut and imponant of all « °"' '"'^""''^ ^''^ tbe Polish insurrection th^ ' "^^ ""^ **"• ^^n^e the epoch of ..eat Jealousy in "^^^ ^ eTu^"^ ^1 ^'' ''\ ''^-^^^ been forbidden to study at forpi,.. ""^^ ^"^J'^^'-'^ ^^ave i^s exercised over ^rki.l ft 'T''^''^'^' a strict surveillance opened without perl^ on , T ' "' ^"'"^^ ^^'^"^'^ «^" bo 'nusters or mistrises of si T ■''''''' '''''''''''^' -"^ the Lectures on politi^^^ ^ LZ'^X Xe" '' ""^^^ ^---• ^•^gacuyto perceive that elen,ln7 • S^^e^'nment has the ciples of thJ useful a L wtu 'd IT -^^I'^ding the prin- of thing, while u woui/d" 1: ::' " t'^ *';« -'«^-. -'J- peasantry fron. their «tate J", i: "'^, '"f ^^^^ ^" ^^-^'^e the dcvelope the resource of the eourvT' ^f'^^-"'^"^. and to schools have been opened aTdf\ ^reat ..un.bers of elementary applicationof science tTaA ate " -,«fe-i-l'-e, and the ties A taste for instrm o i 7^ l" "''"^^'^^"'^ ^" '^'^ ^"^---■ diifused among the towHon f V ^'^^'"'""^^ ^« ^e widely appear, foreig.t works ae'^^id a!d Y "" ^'^^'^ ^'''^^^ -ientUic journals issue from t p l^^f ^r:" /'""^ ""'^ Odessa, &c. Ail works and jour IT . r''''"'^''' ^'>' milted, under heavy penalties Ll " ^^''"'"'^ '""^^ ^^ «"b- This jealousy of wlLev" n 1 t ')\''''^''''^- '^^ ^he censors. people, and to make the .."'/"' •*? ?^'"' '''' ^''^^^ ^^ ^^« ...quuuucu wuh their rights and duties, is 74 KUIlOfK. the grand obstacle to the civilization of the higher claaaea and th( burghers. Races. — The Russian empire embraces a great variety of different races, but the Russians, properly so called, with the Poles, the Bul- garians, and Servians, belong to the great Slavonic family. In addition to these, who amount to throe-fourths of the entire jiopula- tion, there are the Ouralians, or Finns, inhabiting Finland, Esthouia, Lajtl: (1, &c., numbering about 3,000,000. There iire also Lithua- nians, Turtur."!, Georgians, Armenians, Germans, Jews, Samoydes, Mongolians, Kamschatkadales, ^c. All these various races speak ehowi forty distinct languages, with an immense number of dialects. RdiijioH. — The religious tenets of the people are as various as their races. The court, however, and the great body of the nation, profess the Greek Christian faith. The points in which it dilU'rs principally from the_ Roman Catholic faith, are, its denying the spiritual supremacy of the pope, prohibiting the celibacy of the clergy, and authorizing all individuals to read and study the ^ rip- tures in their vernacular tongue. No country in Europe possesses 80 many fine churches as Russia. The lower orders of the clergy are, however, ignorant, poor, and depraved, some of them being even unable to read the gospel in their own language. With the exception of certain restraints laid on the Jews, almost all religions may be freely professed any where in the empire. Catholics are very numerous in the Polish provinces, and there are also great numbers of Lutherans, Mohammedans, Jews, worshippers of the Grand Lama, &c. TURKEY. European Turkey, including the provinces of Wallachia, Ser- via, and Moldavia, extends from 30 to 48^ deg. N. lat., and from 15^ to 39^ deg. E. long. It is bounded N. by the Austrian empire, from which it is separated by the Save, the Danube, and the E. Carpathian mountains ; N. E. by the Russian province of Bessarabia, separated from it by the river Pruth ; E. by the Black Sea, the Bos- phorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Hellespont; S. by Greece, and W. by the Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the Austrian province of Dalmatia. Neither the area nor the population of this extensive country has been ascertained with any thing like precision. The 'i'Li;KliV. fs most probaMo estimate Heema to U poj.ula,.oM, 35,350,000 "'''"' ^"^'^^O .quare miles; /'«ce o/ the countrv .f-/. Ti, ^hich extend over cons l!w *'"'' '''"""' ""*""'«'*" <"l'«!ns, T'.e loftiest peak is M, „e Zu!T' ""TT "'« ""^' '''■«^-'' -t'; this exc^tio... an^ret rX^, LTrt "'^"'^ '"' raelyreaeh an elevation of 8 000 fbet T ' '^'"^'"^ '""""tains vallejs, and some very extensivr l ' "''^ '"''^"^^ "'^'■^'>^^' co.npriHes Wallachia, MohLia an^J''^', ^""''"^"'^ ^''^' ^^'^^^^ l>anube. Almost every par \fi ''^''^''^^ by the ^"-ng the large rivers LtlLnK T"''^ '"^ ^^•" ^"^ered. ;;;;•'■ «. which L .a^ :::::re^r :;;r^^^, -^ ^"^ 7-. -nurge n^^e, butsmail one« are n, ^ .ron m 1 r"'' "" ^"'^'''^'' The coasts are generally bold an. iX *^' '""'^^'^" P^'^^i"«««- <^/^»'afe, ^c.-In so extensive n ^/jion M r necessity be subject to the erentP,/ '! ' !'^ ''^""^'^ '""«' '>^ ' colder in European Turkef htn i ' ,'" ^"•^^^^'' '"' '^ '"»«'' Spain, and the temperature is v J l" """"I ^"'^"^^'^ '" ^'^'^ '^"'^ ofthc Danube, .nol^JJ^IlfT^'^''''- '" ^^'« P^-''-- -metimcsdes;endstol50bew! : if' T^ *'^ thermometer are oppressive. On the other LnT a^ ° '^' '•''"'"^'- ^'^^'ts ^Jucts are the same as t Lse on 2 ' '" ^'f' ^^^ ^''^S^'^ble pro- f-saly oil, wine, cotL toW tT' ci;''" ^' ^^^'^ ' -' - &«• are produced in perfection ^ ' °"' "'""Ses, lemons, ^^::^.:l2:::^^r'^ ^ --. ^eparate nation, vinees of Wallleh a^Mo ll'ia 'fTi, "^ "u'*-' °' ""''■ ^^e pro-' "ecte,l with the Porte, an Z'nrtrib 7"' ^''^"^^ ""'"""^"^^ ''"■ independent, having for ome "^ u '" "' "'" '" '"^^''^^^ nearlv Russia. According to thoTsirr ^"l ""^^'' *^^ P^"^««'i"" o'^ bable, the inhabitant owlr*! '^^ '' '°"^'^^^^'' --t pro- those of Moldavia otsOOoSth" T""* *° ^^""* ^'^OO.OOO, garians to 2,000 000 the ,lh '' °^^'''^'' '" ^^^'^OO, the Bui- ^'00,000; and th;sr\tthe^:iTh"th" T'-'"'^ ''' ^-'^ ^'> Croats, Montenegrin , Arm L.^ T. p "•'""' ^^^^g^vinians, "P ^^ total popuhSion ^f 1^ o ;; '^^^ ^'''7' '^"'/^^"'^«' '-^^ or Osmanlies, ul.o have fo abon/f """l^erof the true Turks, race, is only about 1,000 "otIt-'i^"''""" ''^" ''' ^""'""^ sensual; th,.- p„s..o.s little talen f ' -P''""''' ^"^'"'•^"*' '"^"^ 1 iittic talent for governing, and have never 78 .i'K. oualescud or ussociutud wilLi the urigiual iuhubituuts of the countriee under their sway. AgricuUare. — In moat parts of Turkey, agriculture is in a very backward condition. In Bulgaria, cultivation is better understood than any where else, and in Thessaly the fertility of the soil is so great, that in spite of the wretched and primitive mode of culture, largo crops are produced. Maize, wheat, rye, barley, oats, and buckwheat, are pretty generally cultivated. Wine is produced in most of the provinces. Sheep and goats are pastured in great numbers, and their flesh constitutes the chief animal food of the people. Jtfanufadiues and trade. In some branches of maimfactures, the Turks are unsurpassed. Their satins and silks, velvets, serges, crapes, gauzes, and carpets, are among the best in the world. They also e.\cel in the manuflicture of arms, especially sword blades. A considerable quantity of cotton goods is manufactured, and the annual value of this article has been estimated as high as £5,000,000. The articles exported from Turkey are numerous, and comprise the products, both raw and manufactured, of nearly all parts of the east. Among these tire- sheep's- wool, goat's-hair, cattle, horses, hides, wheat, raw cotton and silk, raisins, figs, almonds, tobacco, gums and drugs of various kinds, opium, carpets, leather, &c., together with all sorts of Arabian, Persian, Indian and Chinese goods. The imports consist of linen, woolen, cotton, and silk goods, hardware, earthenware, paper, furs, &c. GovernmenL — The power of the grand seignior is founded on the Koran ; he is considered the vicegerent of the prophet, and so far as he acts in conformity with the laws of Mahomet, his power is nearly unlimited. He is assisted in the government of the empire by a cabinet council, or divan, composed of several ministers of l)ublic affairs, and the tmijli, or head of the law. The provinces arc governed by pachas, whose power is, in many respects, un- iimiiod. They are appointed by the sultan, and are deposed or put to death at his pleasure. The whole system of internal admini.stra- tion is Utile else than a tissue of misrranageinent and abuses, and to t is owing the weak and degraded state of the empire. ^,.,»y.— The Turkish army, in '853, in active service, amounted to 376,101 men ; army of reserve, 12fi,889 men. Total 502,9;»2 tnon. They are raised by con.s(5ription. The navy consisted of 7-i vessels, about 4,000 wvnnf)n, and 20,000 mtin. GliiuLCK. 77 -a France* 4ai„.. TuU I ™1:\"'"""" """ ^"S'-'' forces, a,.d c„„fe„di„g i„ A, Crimel "" °°"""''°'' "' "■« -fS:^i!'; r:rde"*r ''"™""«»' *^ «"'"-<...« Fofc. the religion of fhc GritlL^h'nil,:''" ""'""'" "'"^•' Mussulmeo, tboueh of Sln«n„l„ ' , """""os. "re mostly 250,000. * ^'''™°"' "'■'K"' i '!>= Jews luinbcr about ORBECB. e»i";t",f„ftr:tH::r'"-'-^p°«i»"'>f*egre„. '-•Se.her with the isia Zf E, ^,17' °J ""'""' ^»'' '^ ^'■■ TI.C oontinctal part l,a, „„ the N theT I I ""'^ "" '''""■"''™ "nd Th.,s„,y, Z i, eve™, tr^- ,f "** r^f"' "^ Albania ™-an. The area of the 'whole sl„rir24; "^ "'» M°''''»'- the population about 1 002 102 "'°'"''' ""'''■ ""^ ''^^^^'^X^z±::^^f i-%. .^".^ ..e '"•<' «--« became «;'- branches of industry. Wheat 1^ ' " ''^v '^^ "^" «^ '» t'- vine, figs, oranges. &c., are cul .Vald ^ IT ^''^^^'.^^'^"-^^ product. The greater pa t of the Inrfn: t "^ '' ^" ""^^°'''''^"* -.1 uneven, pasturage i^ mo^ tended t'^ha^^^^ ?^'"^ ^"^^-' "."nbers of sheep an.l g„ats are raised '^^"^"Jture. Great Mannfactures are almoMf #>»♦;„„] j* n«-ly every article r«^ t, Ct t"""""- "'""' ''"'"''^ '"»'""« c«...-i.ier„blv advanoedlitto":,:; ;:,"'"P'™'- ^— ''^ of cx|,ort are raw ,,ilk, <.„rrant, ^Slr ," '"'""'P"' »*■<='« wax. The in,p„„» ,,„ corn „!! ' °,''™.„""' ""'«■ T --.nd -gnr, and e„,l,. The' ,:,:■:: ' S"; -" -'en llLic, vtshus aie gonwilly small iu 78 ASIA. size; in 1838 they numbered over 4,500, manned by about 16,000 sailors. Oovemment. — The independence of Greece, which for many years had been m possession of the Turks, was acknowledged by the Porte in 1829, and the crown was conferred by the allied powers of Europe upon Prince Otho, a younger son of the King of Bavaria. His government consists of seven ministers, a council of state, and a synod of the clergy. The government was at first nearly an absolute monarchy ; the revolution of 1843 introduced a constitu- tion ; in March, 1844, a government of limitation was proclaimed. The king exercises the power of the executive, and commands the army and navy. In 1853 the army consisted of 9,848 men, of whom 325 were cavalry. The navy consisted of one 26gun cor. vette, 1 steamer 4 guns (120 horse power), and 16 small vessels, with an aggregate of 56 guns, total 86 guns. ARABIA. Arabia, an extensive peninsula, comprising the S. "W. portion of the Asiatic continent, situated between the rest of Asia and Africa and between 12" 22' and 33° 45' K lat., and 32° 50' and 58° 42' e'. long. It is bounded on the S. and on the N. E. by the gulfs of Oman and Persia ; and on the W. the Arabic gulf, or Red Sea, forms its boundary from the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb to the isthmus of Suez. The N. limit is less clearly defined ; the desert in which Arabia terminates in this direction being conterminous with that of Syria, and no well-defined line of demarcation existing between them. The most natural boundary on this side appears to be a line drawn from the head of the Persian gulf to the most westerly point of that of Suez, coinciding very nearly with the 8Cth parallel of N. lat. ; a considerable portion of Irak Arabi, the desert plains S. and E. of Syria and Palestine is generally included in this country and the N. boundary follows very nearly the course of the Euphrates. The countries contigubus to Arabia are on the N. the Asiatic provinces of the Turki.sh empire ; W. Egypt and Abyssinia ; S. Adel, the moat easterly portion of Africa ; N. E., Persia. On the East, except along the Persian gulf, the nearest land is Hindostan. Its greatest length, from Suez toCapeRas-al-IIhad, is 1,690 miles, and its great- est width from iIk' strait.? of Bab-el-Mandeb to the town of Kehan AUAJJZA. 79 ^^Xss:^^,^r^ Y^-' ^'^^^•^^^«^- sn- owing to the nomadic habiL of tl . ''" '^ '" '^'^^^^'^OO, but -d so little being known wif*l^rf"P"' "^ ^^'^ '"'"^^»*«"ts, the numerous petly s'aTes it i, T '^' ''^"^^^ ^"^^tion in li-itsorpopulftion ' '' '''"°^' ^'"P'^-'ble to assign their ^^^^^^t^^l^:^^ «^^°'^ -^ «i've, ge., the countries of Europe wl t^ ? « ''"'''^°' ^'^ ^'^ ---'^^J-ccI ^^^-. or flapp,. nLtTh^reerrn/E^' '' '""'-^'''^'^ -'-- paradise, but finding the soUwl ?'"' ^''''^'^ *^'« ^^'"^'i-1 oountr,, a burning s^andor'; unf :rr:/roI"^^-"' *^ ^"^'^^ '''« separated from the less favored portion I' ^"^^P""''"^ ^' '° ^« sterile .one or belt ; the inhosp^tabr ". "'''^' ^^ ^" absolutely -ived the appellation of bIZTCT "S ^'^ ""i^r.' ^ " ^'■ division, including the countrv bpt«.. 1 J^'^^'^y' »dded a third •-'tvveenPalestineLdtheSratelTH H^^ '"^^ ''^^^^-^^' -'^ V'emen, the southern part o^ thin! ' ^f ^' '"'""''^ ^'-^i'" /'"Va-a. division of Arabia, po^ out h? Ztt' f ''t'*"''^"*' ''^^' ^■ Arabia Felix of Strabo and P olemv Th ^ ' '"'"'^' '''''' themselvesasthechiefof allthl A V '"''^^.tants regarding try Bellaa.el.Ulm u b1^ ^^.^7'] ^^"'"^ ^^^ --- and of religion." The ^mlf ;k If Gr'lt' "" '' '" "'■^-- have extended much farther north n S«<>Srnphj see.ns to and Oman, together wilh g e L p^.' J' f "'"'^ '^^ ^^^^'j^ able portion of Ned.ied AmhTn ^ f °'^,"^'^««' ^"d a consider- Nedsjed, (the central^ptt of t .f ^"1 T'^'^f '''' ^- P^^ ^'^ upon the Persian gulf n kolemvrr 1^^^'^^^^^' "^''''' ^i- from the former by an imlinarTr / '^'' '^'"'''''' '« ^^P^'^ted the Persian gulf Janothlir^ Z^r^'''.'''' ^""-"^ '-- form the boundary between 4";^:. iStHf'rp'^^P^"'^ '^ ^^^"'f-The tropic ofCancerdivdrilb ! '"" unequal parts, lyin^ partlv in th. . T 7 '" ""° *^o "ot very the N. te'mpe;afe l^-l^^^fC '"'^' '"'^ ''^ ^- ^^ '>' and rainy seasons. On the mounS f v "^ '^ ''"'^^^'■"" «'" d'v gularly from the middleof JunTt " :'J7,?" ''^ f ^^^ ^^dl rj- the rainy season begins in Novele ' „. ^^ ^'P^^'^^^''- ^" O"'"" of February. In th°e plain couTryl h/"'"" *'" *'" "^''^^"^ qnently passes without one dropZ "l ^ '" "^"^^ ^^^^ ^'- resemblance between Africa anViraZ' ^'/^ 'f ^-"^ the striking Araoia. in the latter aa ;„ ,},- 80 ASIA. former, the pa- \ed plains are clenied the refreshment of falling showers, and owe what share of fertility they possess to the inunda- tions consequent upon the saturation of the mountains. During the rainy sea.son, the sky is sometimes covered by clouds for 24 hours together. During the dry season, a cloud it. rarely seen. The tem- perature of Arabia, like that of other countries, differs widely, ac- cording to the elevation of the surface, tl 3 nature of the soil, and the neighborhood of the ocean. The mountains of the S. Yemen and Iladramaut are the most habitable, and the coolest parts of the penin- sula. The heat of the Tehama is excessive, and great extremes of temperature are experienced within very short distances. At Mocha, on the Red Sea, the thermometer rises in summer to 98°Fahr., while at Saana, in the mountains it never exceeds 85'^, and in this district freezing winter nights are not unfrequent. The noxious blast of the Simoon particularly visits the vast plains called the Desert of Aklaf owing to the generation of heat from the vast quantity of sand in their neighborhood. The wind blowing over them, about the sum- mer sc'stice becomes so dry that paper and pai^hmor'- exposed to its influence will scorch and crack as though in the ■nouth of an oven, and life, both animal and vegetab)'^, perishes. Natural prodvrtions, &c. — The differences of soil and climate oc- casion much variety in the specie^ and amounts of the natural pro- ducts of Arabia. Among the natural productions is Manna (men- tioned in Exodus) produced froii a little thorny bush, the mesan- bryanthemum, aloe, euphorbium, stapela, and salsola, plants so acceptable to the thirsty darnel during the painful journey of the caravan. The tamarind, cotton-tree, sugar-cane banana, nutmeg, betel, aiil every variety of melons and pumrkl. s are indigenous. Arabia is regarded as the native home of the date-tree, the cocoa, the fan-leaved palm, fig, orange, plaintain, almond, apricot, acacia vera ; the sensitive plant, the castor-oil plant, and senna, &c. Wherever water is found, or can be procured, the labor of the Arabian agri- '"•ilturist is well repaid. Maize, wheat, dhourrah, barley, and millet cover the mountain sides of Yemen, and other fertile parts. Tndicro, tobacco, Uars, a plant yielding a yellow dye, Faiir, a herb which produces a red color, &c. Arabia possesses no forests, but on the mountain sides are groves and thickets. As the land of frankincense and myrrh Arabia is famed of old, but it is supposed these products were supplied from Africa and other eastern countries. The camel or as it has been termed " the Ship of the Desert," without which AKAlJIA. 81 the Arabiau could not cross the seas of .on.' ; ra sequence for speed and oarryi^ZaLT&o ?(. e f ^"'^*^^^^- steed, 18 said to be descended fmmtir' . ^ ''''''^' «'' ^'''^ seldom stand over 4 hanrt I ^ ^'""'^ '^^^- These horses gant form. C B douin w H ' ' 1 " ^''"'^^^ '"^^ ^^^^^-^^ «'«- except under «uch reservation of ^^^^ ^""^ ' ^''^'''^"^ "^-•«' other kind termed S^"";!?'^ " J" future offspring. The purposes of labor &c Tfa I ; ; • ."°^""''" '*'^^^' ^"^^ "-'d for other domesfc .;mlls are oxtf" °;/'' ^''^'^' P^^^^^" ^1- sl^eep. (one variety v'tTexIme 'tr^l^'^^K^' ' ^^""''^^ ^•"^. a-es (from soa.e of t e leTtVr f "^'^ ^'"'^ *"'^^' ^oats and i^'-ocured.) Amon.. the wi^ , °^ "^"'^ ^'^'^'^^le mules is the jerbol wol fox boaT na' l^ ' T ''' J^«^^'' ''^-'-. -«-> filled with parrr d '^; the woC •?, '"'^ '"''^'^^^- ^^^^« I''-- are sidewithphLants! T rZedsf '""'u^^''''^"'^^'^-^^^^ every year, commits gr at d 1!^"°"' "'f ' '"^'^^ ''"^"^ P^'^ Tl>e ostrich, or carnel ti d wtnd sTn th f '^' ''°''" °' '^-'«^- the land and sea turtles Tre nurtr ''"^^ ^''''''' ^^ ^^P^i^es All the coasts abound in fish Mi"' 7''^'"^' ^"^"^^'' ^--^' &- found in Yen.., and an i tior m:" d "r^'T ^'- ^ ""^'^ '"^ -aer ; patria::::^-;:^-e th^^ ^r-:L:t:;^;:ni;:^t:tfi-^^^^^^ of rea^^and ^../^ i ^a'l ways LTi "" ^r'^'^'^' °^ ^'^ -ts are of two kinds; the O^rj^X ^X^^^^^ /he Arab judges tne 67a..W.;.,.,«,, (judge of {v-r ten tvf) % e"a t"7 '"^^ "'"' lurkish towns, or towns governed b. T. i , ' ''""- '" ^^e whether he be monarch or she k of /vT^ T ^'"^ ''""''''^^^ f the tribunal of justiee-he cannot deHd'"" '"'' " ""'^ l^^^''^-^ he submitted to the proper tribu" I .^ ' ««««-every one must power of reversing its decL on n n't tr " '""'^''«" P«-^'«-^«« »o only apparent, for°the 1"^^ ht n 'n '"'"'"" '" '''' ^"^^ i« ^'^^n, exists in Arabia. It consists of heating an iron spoon red-hot, ad calling the accused to lick it ; if he escape withouf, injurV; he is a ;- counted innocent; if otherwise, guilty. Though polygamy is allowed by the Moharmnedan law, in practice it is by uo means general. Few Arabs having more than one wife. If a sheik v sovereign die, his successor is usually taken from amoiiy his soii';. The law of in- heritance is very simple as regards property. The effect? of a (!e- ceasid father are shared among his children, the portion of a uialc being -.loiible that oPa female. Education, reliino.t, dr. — Public provision is made for the educa- tion of youth ; ant; . ■ teadier for the children and young slaves is no uncommon part of the dousestic establishment of distinguished fama- lies, so that in the cii'.e^ :hc gnr uer portion of the population can read and write. To a!a>o.3t every mosque there is (or was) atti.hed a school where the poorer children may be taught gratuitoush' ; be- sides there are in every great town, private schools where the nhild- ren of the middle classes are receiv ed. The education is very limi;:'d, comprising .-(ading, writinrj the simple rules of arithmetic, and the doctrines of the Mohamme<*in religion. School-houses like the shojjs are open to the street, so thailhe whole process of education is conduct- ed in public, and in order toVttract at. tion, the readers and repeaters 8i)!.'ak in the highest possibleVey, and accompany their delivery with violent gesticulations. Besidaa^tJjflie, there are in the greater towns schools of a higher character, for the study of mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and medicine. In the Inmanet of Yemen there are two of these colleges; among the studies in them is the ancient Arabic, now a dead language. In many of the towns the public schools are falling to decay, and those qualified to conduct them prefer wandering over the country like the bards and troubadours of the middle ages, as poets and orators. There is no public provision for female education. A great obstacle to the advancement of education in Arabia is the prejudice of the natives against printing. There was not (a few years ago) a single printing press in the country. PKiiSlA. PERSIA. 83 Persia, a celebrated and very extpn=; between the 39th and 26thlelZlTr '"""^''^ "^ ««"tral Asia, degrees E. long. Its anclnt ^ ^^ ^"*-' ^""^ ^he 44fh and rS^ tones e.brace'a I rl ; ^ on"?/ "".^^'^- ^'^^ Turk.:, 'eS^ -d the countr, of Tal^h to\/e 1"ofV 1'^ ^' "^ ^'^^ ^'^ ^. Pers,ans-with these dedu^ions ii, ' '^'"^' ^^"'°"ff« to the "'^ 't^ government, and the wantlf !, *" '^"'"''t^' the badnesa not exceed 8 or 10,000,OOo! °' '"'"^*^^' ^^^ P^PuJation doe" *^', Climate, dc — T imo v, j ;" the glens and valleys wUhth?!! '^.^^^^^«^«. «nd being mingled forms a loamy soil of iLh s y^^^^^^^^^^ ^' ^f^^ed vegetfblesf found to nungle with the caIcareo„f 1 ^^ ^''^''''''"^ ^'^^7 '"« often essential to the raising of c ops an^^^" ^'"^'^'^'^^ i^ation is Pers,an agriculturalist: andTweil"V' '^' ^'''' bu.sines! of "he t e remotest antiquity The lumm ?''°'' ^^'"^ P^««ticed from al-ost insupportVwhil ^ ""Lr " ''' '^ ^""'"^^^ ^^ nvals that of Canada or Kuss a I„ ,>, t'""'''' '" *^°^^^ °f the N P>an, the heat, though frreat t J ^ ^^^ provinces on the C^.' S. partly from the fvSorthaTT'J' ""* " ^^^-^ - n^trj b'-eezes from the sea- but S ° t ^^'' P'«°«' «« well fromi! -^ ;n the end of\ut:mt%tt7d^t7 V"^^"^^^^ ""^"t y prevalent. P^tnd and intermittent fevers ar^ (commerce dc TJi/» • • i %, itu.,, B -Hat: i%srr/ ,tr '- r ^^^^^ ^- ' Wong to Persian „„,^ '"'°° "'""'«• Sca^ly a„^ v«^* certainly exceed 35,000 mSl,^ *" "^Wging army d,vi „ . c« tbe ^o.ehold'l^j;": -'//-n-ption W^l^I 10,000, quartered in fte canital j ■ *'°'' "f ""ilia of aL,. ^' a. a n,„„e„.w:S' "' '" ™°"^. ""^ «.ble to be «»«"»™t-Theg„vernmenf;fPe^-.,. . • . ^laawinpnnoipa! an absolute 84 ASIA despotism. Tlie shah, being regarded as the vicegerent of the pro- phet, is absolute master of the lives and properties of hia subjects, and the first man in the empire may, at his command, be instantly stripped of all his dignities, bastinadoed, or strangled ; the only con- trol on his actions being the risk of provoking rebellion or assassin, ation. The two principal ministers are the grand vizier, or Vizier Azem, and the lord high treasurer, or Ameen a DouhJi. The former superintends every thing connected with foreign relations, and in the absence of the sovereign commands the armies; while the latter, ■who is subordinate to the other, superintends the internal arrange- ments, the collection of the revenue, &c. The whole executive gov- ernment is in the hands of these two functionaries, whose authority so long as they continue in power, is as absolute as that of their master; but their greatness being built on the favor of a tyrant, is of the most unstable kind, and they are very often precipitated from their slippery elevation. The system of civil government is simple. Each province or important district of a province, including some large city, has a Beylcrherg or governor, usually a prince of the blood or nobleman of rank, who appoints his lieutenants, or Hakims^ over the divisions and subdivisions, and each village has its Ketkhodu, or magistrate, generally one of the more respectable inhabitants who is the organ of communication with the government. There are also governors of cities and towns, lieutenants of police, chief magistrates of cities, &c., who are in general practically chosen by the people, and who look to the Kelounlee as their head. The revenue of the shah has been variously estimated, but does not probably amount to more than £1,500,000 or £2,000,000, which is principally derived from taxes or, lands and farms, capitation taxes, duties on imports and exports, tributes paid by the nomadic tribes, &c. National Character, &c. — In general it may be said of the Persians, that they are handsome, active, robust; of lively imagination, quick apprehension, agreeable, and prepossessing manners. As a nation they may be termed brave. Unhappily their vices are far more prominent than their virtues. Though the despotism to which they are subject is similar to that which weighs down all the eastern nations, they have a peculiar and distinctive character. They are skilful in flattery and profuse with compliments; their language is extiavagantly hyperbolical, in fact a stranger, ignorant of their char- acter, would suppose they were ready to devote their life and fortune to his service. Their conduct is a tissue of falsehood and fraud, and 8«Tdom think of r»;,. i r 65 bill, fl,„ 1 eraians are restriclfrf .„ t ■'■',* "" eunosny r.' """^ ■"».'■ have as many e„„c„b „ ° '?"' legitimate wives HiNDOSTAN or Tnrl" '"angular c„„„„^ ex. ndW ftlTT^i *' "''* "f thaf va'. about the 86th dee. of N if, , ., " >»*" of Little Thibet i„ *«■ It i» bounded „„ the N bw, T? ?'""''""' '" >!»■> 'he 8 h 'he world-.he BUnsUy^lJul^^''}"' ""^^ "^ n,o„„.aL ' njapulra and Indus, on the 7 7 ! T «^'' "^"^ the Bmb ^ofEurope^fSie^tr^r::,'^-'^ ™-^^^^^ facfi nr tt;„^... .""'"'^^'^ gJ^e a total of i^on 9;.^ li'^^lZ.^^'^Oa total of £20,350 000' Th a very mirl-oA i. )""",vuu. ih, V marked character. On the N. le 8ur. con- 86 ASIA. Btituting the b;use of the triangle, we have three great ranges of mountains, with elevated valleys between. These chains rise, the one higher than the other lu they proceed northward, tla last con- Btituting the higlicat mouutai:i6 \-.r,u.ii-. .^'scjovered. For 1,000 mih's, from China to Cashmere. ^ .'vn !:■''' 'k- extended resting on peaks 21,000 feet high, while mme aro cv*ju o.OOO feet above this elevation. The valleys themselves ure from 2,000 to 4,000 ft. above the level of the sea. Primitive rocks alone compose the higher ranges. The riversof India have tluir sources either in the Himalaya mountains, or within the great central table-land. The Gan^°.ing the prin- cipal river, its whole course is about 1,85' iiuica. i here are no fewer than twenty-five native languages spoken in Hindostan, inde- pendent of the dialects of trib- s in a very rude state of society. 88 parts ou1 of 100 of the whole of India belong to England. The govern. nent of India is kept up ct an enormous expense, and to maintain thi dominion, not through the affections and good will of the peopiu out partly through their docility, and partly by the aword, a vast army of 200,000 men becomes necessary ; the officers amount- ing to about 5,000. Among the foreign settlers are found the Jews, Syrian Cliristians, Arabs, Armenians, Persees, Persians, Afghans, Tartars, Turks, Abyssinians, Portuguese, Enirlish, Dutch, French, Danes, and Chinese. The forms of re^'gion which prevail are the Brahminical, Buddhist, Jain, Seik, Mohammedan, Jewish, and Chris- tian. The great bodv of the people of Hindostan have neither the courage uor spirit to defend themselves or their property, or to re- sist oppression in a straightforward manner, and consequently they become easy victims to every possessor of power, by whatever means obtained. The Arab, the Persian, the CLinese, and the Malay knows how to defend himself from insult and lobbery by .some means or other however rude; but the Hindoo puts u with oppression with- out directly resenting it, ai d like Jie weaV animals that are the natural prey of the stronger and more ferocious, trusts to artifice and ounning for his defense. CHINA. China, (Empire of) a vast country of S. E. i and 60' N., and long. 70'' and 144' E., ''orm bounded on the E. and S, E. by thos m- known as the Gulf of Tartary, the sea • Japu*. ■>ia, between lat. 20" r early square, being f the Pacific ocean the Yellow sea, the CHINA. Pa« of the counir^, i, .C/~', t"™: "hieh oecupie, .be N. E '<> "ear 500 i„ width, wit), „„ Z. '" '""«"'■ ""-.vi-g from UO ™lTrr"' ?""• """«> h nS:: i?"'""™' •>•'■« ">« .>:? i 'otect China from T.nf • •'^'^"^ before the Thriaf; •i™ f».n the orofno™::";^;?"^ "'■■"« ' ""St;;:! 1. ^^' ^' -^^ ni'Iea in length It ;„ fC 'l ''""fc'' '"eluding its : ' ""'"" "f "- Tana? With l: Chin rr "" ''~^"'«' «i^V ^ to..,M ,,,d cr„woe.l with pagod„, l^K '""' ~™"«' »i>h noble •in "^Cl.?^;- '•^in.portan. aJe h^th^^'^' -^ he great lalce. The princ^a tl^ iJ"^" ^ "^' ^'^'^ "^^e. , "'"'•■•^ '" cTcumference. This laU '''""^ *^« Tuntin<..ho. •'"'I finely.wooded hills. The Cht ' '"''"^^"^^^ ^y pictnr^e f -nery of i.. adnu J ^^^^^^^ /^^^ -"- and write „X :^"-eo distance between the extn^e I ^''^^ ^''*"^^. fe^ving ^ " including its h^..i. ;. .• . , ^^^^<-"^e hm.ts. is nhonf «io *L.. ^ . "^ i 't--^ bencis it is above 650 mile 88 AHIA. Climate. — The teinperuturo of China being situated between the 20th and 42d degrees of N. lut. and the most E. long of u.uy part of the Old World, is vi-ry low for its geogruphieul position. It** climate is one of extrcnita, at Tckin 1" farther S. than Naples. Tiie mean temperature is that of Brittany. The seorching heats of aum- mer are greater tlian at Cairo, and tiie wintera as rigorous aa at b'psal. In HO vast a tenitory there must, necessarily, be many vari- ations. The W. districts are i .oh influenced by the colds dilfused by the mountains, while the climate of the maritime provincts ih modified by the sea. At Canton, which is under the tropic, the heat in July, August, and ISeptember, is excessive. Then occur tliose frightful tornadoelj, called typhoons, spreading destruction in their course. Those do not often extend I'arther than Canton. The trans- itions from heat iu cold and Ibggy niglits are more violent than any part of the world, alter the breaking up of these hurricanes. The N. winds sets in about November, and bring with them cold as in- tense as the preceding heats. Tiie mean temperature of Canton TU*^. The W. frontier districts of Yun-nan and Lyc-chuen are said to be unhealthy, and are selected as places of banishment lor Chinese convicts. The fall of rain varies in China considerably in ditl'creut years. Many violent earthquakes have been felt in China. Natural jjrududions, d'c. — The universal cultivation and the thick- ness of population have long expelled most of the wild animals which abound in the surrounding regions, Brasls of burden are in a great measure superseded by the means of transit so copiously allbrded by canals and water-courses, and by tiiat fine race ol' men the Coolios or porters. Animal fo(jd is considerably less in use among tin Chinese than vegetable diet. There are no meadows for feedint^ cattle, and even if there were, the natives haVe u singular aversion to butler and milk. Wild cats are caught, confined, and (ied in cages, and considered a dainty for the table. Monkeys are found in the S. districts. The Chinese horse and ass is small and spiritU-ss and BO ia the buffalo, which is sometimes used in plougiiing. Drorne- daiiesare much used between Pekin and Tartary. Pigs, small siitep and goats with straight horns, are reared. Large troops of rats emi- grate from one place to another, and devour the crops and hai v.st. They are very large and among the common people are used as an article of lb(jd. The ornitholoijy presents the eagle, the haetsin, magpie, crow, spar- row, fishing cunimurant, curlew, quail, lark, pigeon, and tlu? gold <^IHNA. rock c„d called /,.„.^.^,, '^^^ ' S '''^' ^^■"^"^''' "'"' « «-t of "- much adrnired. Cmb-fi! a'.rn It? ^'"f'^' ""' «-^-"' The insect tribe furnish its 1 ^ ^ ^"'' "" '"'^^^i^o oysters 7'nce.s; ^t is not unconunon Se^t "^"" ''" ^- «'-' ^V^- t on as to reduce thousands to tarvatl IT' '" "'"^'' ^^-'"'- )k-wor.n furnishes em|.loy.„, .nl ? " ''' '^'"^'"-"^ '"«««^ ^ho ''« l>OF.lation. fc:,orpi;„3^ a ce„tin '' "" ""'"'^"•''^ P"" °^ devouring small birds after !? *'^"''P^<^«« "''e plentiful-s .i,],,, ;-«i-fgiganticsi.^.:f;, n:'J'''^ ^"- i" ^"eir .ebs' b .0 w,„,e..ax insect. In tl e ;;irt*"r"' ^'^^ ^^^^^''^^ ^•■'"'•el, cassm, and caper trees the J ^'^'^°'" ""'^ t''« palrn --. itchi, peach, aVicoT vi r ZT '"^^ ^^""^«' p'l-"' allow tree, &c. The Tea nlvnT w' Pr^°™"^'«. chcsnut, and the »-ght, and bears a strong it ^ Ta" 7" "'''"^ ^^^ ^o «ve f^et ;;-t unlike s.all whitf hcd^e ^ '^^^^ '"^^'''^' ^"t the flower "ig-s of the leaves, the first in , '''"'^' »''« three inL'itlu.,- --cent, and the thfr Ta "thffnS!' ^'^ '''''' ^' ^^^^^ he grass tribe, the ban.boo, an nport.nl "''• '^^'' fe''""' of he aw8, building houses, and fash orn n '''""^'"^ ^"^ ^''^^rcin. '^ns lazul?.Z\ \^ ^'^ ^°«> "^'nes in -'h -It, &c. China furn^. h "! " K " ''" ^^- P-^inces wth' r' '"'""""^^^ -^ little vS'^'^;f-^'--^^y«t, sapphire !^ 't . " '''"'^' °'^« "»t a ^«ound M?i;" '''"'"^^^"S basalt " anil Americans. Th.- m- . loo great 90 ASIA. articles of export are tea and silk, with the former of which China supplies the whole world. The average annual quanties of tea'ex- ported to various parts may be estimated as fi^llows: Great Britain, 36,000,000 lbs.; America, 10,000,000 lbs.; France, 350,000 lbs.; Holland, 2,800,000 lbs.; Kussia, bj way of Kiachta, 6,500,000 lbs.; Cape of Good Hope, 200,000 lbs. ; British colonies in N. America, 1,200,000 lbs.; New South Wales, 500,000 lbs.; Indian provinces, 2,000,000 lbs. Among the other articles are sugar, stuffs, nankeen, lacquered ware, articles of ivory, mother-of pearl, and tortoise shell, the precious metals, &c. The gross amount of trade between Eng- land alone and China, from the Istof July 1837 to the 30th of June 1838, is stated by the Canton Chamber of Commerce to have em- ployed £11,700,000 sterling of British capital. Imports, betel nuts, edible birds' nests, lignum vitue, ivory, pepper, steel, lin, and wax, manufactured cloths, calicoes, and chintzes. Opium has become by far the most important and valuable of all the foreign articles im- ported into China. Its importation is contraband. Military, &c. — The military service of China is nominally com- posed of 1,000,000 soldiers, besides the militia, and numerous stand- ards of Mongul cavalry, but from this v'iSt number many names may be deducted, which are merely entered in the books, and perhaps the whole force does not exceed 700,000. The whole army is divided into standards, distinguished by borders and colors. The officers are raised from the ranks. Their grades are the Le-tuh, or com- mander-in-chief, down to the Wae-wei, or sergeant. The principal weapons are bows and arrows, with clumsy metal locks and iron guns without carriages. The navy is extensive but inefficient; it includes 1,000 sail; but the men-of-war are mere junks, mounting a few guns, commanded by three high admirals and their inferior officers. Few sailors are regularly bred to the service, but are chiefly wretches who have been obliged to flee from their homes. The Chinese use a compass invented by themselves, divided into twenty- four parts, beginning at the S., the needle moving freely in a box placed upon a bed of sand. Religion^ Educction, &c — There is no religion in China actually supported by the state, and Yu, the doctrine of Confucius, is the only one counterniaiuled by it. But there are two other sects, /b, or Buddhism, iviid Taou^ or that of the "Rationalists." The first ac- knowlodgcs u Supreme Being, and believes the emperor his sole vicogvrciit i>;i I'iirth. ileuven, earth, the cleiiients, Confucius, gods of various attributes siint« ii ^^ They ch.efly consist of one lari hi „ ""f '" ^'^^ ^'^y «l>^endid. '^ol placed upon an altar, the wall a^r''"''^ ^^' ^^*«^'^' ^'th the ce> .ng g,lded with griffin and d 1^ T'''^ "'^'^ P'«^"^-' t'- pretend to magic, alchemy, and toTnn ^^T^'''-'' ^^ ^-""« J'fe; practice ghtring impoSl^ ?, ""^ ^^ ''^^ ^''^''^ oHon. -pcrstitions. The/encoCgraVheV'^^'^ *'^' "°^^^ ?"-'« 'nake u«e of spells and talisml , f '" ^'^^'^ '^"^ evil spirits p'stem of trickLalled Vi^' ^"^^^J^.^^d ""^^eky bird, a a ucky situations for buiSn^titd '^'h '^^^"'^"^ ^'^ ^^- '^"aces, by which these impostorrconf ' ':.'"^ ^ »^''«r %'on, of whatever kind ZTl!, T'"^' '° ^" ^^^'•' P^^ses. Re- -portance in China, iy end! J^ h"'V "^"^'' °' --^ar^ Chnstianity into China. It w's Z . 7 ^''" "^^^« ^° ^"^roduce he 17th century, followed bTheJe^ltr' ^^ *^« ^-torians in than any other sect. The lafe Dr M^ ^° ''"'■' '"°'-« ^-^ccessful --onary who landed in C La Th?Mr" ''^ '''' ^^'-^-t '"any other religions are now to h. f .^"^^'"'"^dan. Jewish, and t-e China is convulsed and a Lat Co 'r ""'"" ^' ''^ P^-t -pre; and education is so'^g erTa'". "' " ^^"^ P«" "^ ^he read.ng and writing may be ZoZjatZ ""'' " ^^^^^^^^^^^ ^hat >he h.ghest state offices, an e.^TnZn b ^ """u""''"- ^^ P-«"^« or //«n.?m, is necessary; but ho v.l 'f ^''^ "^''°"^J college -'iatb3.beingexanLdr heZ^^^^ ^^ ^^-e is only f .' honor confers the title of mandarin 1^5?^''^^- ^^^''^ ^i^e^ary by a difference of the dress. whS is IT ''^"^ '^ distinguished d-d. Memory is the chief ibjC t of lI'^'T '"'*'"°"' ^^-^^^ ^P^^"" he greatest number of the wi s ' nt TT'-^^^''^'-^' *« ^-at Ohma there are more books m! 'T^ ''^ '^' ""'^'«"t «ages. In -y other country in the woVd Zl '7'T '''' '»--' ^'- " ;ncn, at least ,.wo nullions are litertr Ih ''' "'"""^ «^ C'-- ft be.ng generally bc-lieved that ZhL T "^ """'""'^^ writers. '-""- ■ ---'^^^^:::;:::::::Z7:^ m. '"^ 92 ASIA. new, if that sliould happen to vary in the smallest particular from the orthodox writers, he will be severely punished. Thus is knowl- edge and civilization in China at a stand still. Government. — According to the theory of the constitution, if we may so speak, the emperor is absolute ; his will is law, and he is not responsible to any earthly tribunal for any of his actions. In China as In ancient Kome, fathers have full power over their families, and on the same principle, the emperor is held to have entire control over the Chinese people. The Chinese is emphatically a govern- ment of precedent, and his celestial majesty, is, in reality, the crea- ture of custom and etiquette. The penal laws of the empire are printed in a cheap form, and widely diffused. The emperor is called "the son of heaven," (Teen-tsye) and the mandarins and other natives not only prostrate themselves when in his presence, but also before a tablet with the inscription "the lord of a myriad years (Wan-suy- yay). Every device is employed to create the impression of awe. Dressed in a yellow robe, the color worn, say the Chinese, by the sun, the emperor is surrounded by all the pageantry of the highest dignity in the world. All must bow the head to a yellow screen of silk. In the great man's presence, no one dares speak but in u whisper, though his person is too sacred to be often exhibited in public, and an imperial dispatch is received by the burning of incenso and prostration. But with all this he is not allowed to lean back in public, to smoke, to change his dress, or in fact to indulge in the least relaxation from the fatiguing support of his dignity. Next to the emperor, the court is composed of four principal ministers, two Tartars, and two Chinese, who form the great council of state, as- sisted by certain assessors from the Han-lin, or Great College, who have studied the sacred books of Confucius, which form the basis of Chinese law. These may be considered as the cabinet. The police is said to be vigilant and efficient. Corporal punishment is very frequent — the bamboo is in i^iiversal requisition from the em- peror down to the meanest of his subjects. Sedition is punishable with a lingering death; and there is in use a sort of pillory called the canrjue, and torture is employed to extort confession. It is be- lieved that the entire revenue is £12,000,000 - 'ng, £10,000,000 in money, 2,000,000 in produce, which is raisec; s taxation but as rent, the emperor uniting the character of lai ^d with that of king and father. 93 f d opposite to the sea of JaX 1^ u ^''^^^^^ «°"tinental Asia ;^^7 which it is .eparLd^rC Jol'"^;^^ Tartar, and cte:,' «nd a great number of small island.t u ^' "''"P'-'"««« ^^^ ]arc.e Pjallels of N. lat.. and be wl^theS^^^^ *'^ '^^^ ^^ ^^fh o g.| bou„,,ed N. by the sea of ottsf 1,?.' ''}'' ^^^'"^^^ ^^ E. -dagreatnum^erTfZllXr^^^^^^ ^^ compri/esrer ' Pjallels of N. lat.. and be .l^^^he^S^^^^ ''' '''"^ ^^ ^^fh o g.| bou„,,ed N. by the sea of ottsf 1,?.' ''}'' ^^^'"^^^ ^^ E. the island or peninsula of Tarak,i or ^ t *^« ^"dependent part of --n ; S by the eastern sea of « ch^r^° ' ^.' '^ *'^ ^^ ^«-"fi' Japan, which communicates wUh the onl '' '"^ ^^ ^^ ^^« ^^a of Perouse, Sangar, &c., runni^ b^t °P'\^°^«" ^y the straits of La chores ofJapanaredtherso root '^' different islands. Tht «o enveloped in heavy and dal^ "'^ '^^'^"^^'^ ««*. and often Proach near enough t7make an ^''°"' '°^'' '^'' ^«««els cannot ao Pop^at^iisestim^tedar^^^^^^^^^^^ "TO ot 63 provinces. The dlv «f V j T ''^ "I"* empire con. *e, ,,.hereside„ce„f ft^'pL^TS"^'" *°'''-™ "hose palace i, surrounded bv 11, ""■ ^ heaven beneath " '"h full of water, andthral' 'a^V."'!; ""■ " *V "ana oul "io..t remarkable mo„„,ai^ Z *'°'"^ ''"'" °" "-ound Thl capped with snow JeTilZSon,""''''' ■"■«" -"''■elp y-i-Jclo, ,,, likewise rererencedT°,i ^?° '"''« Pakonee, S. W „/ much increased by .he p"vA„e{ 'JV'''^ ^he wi„4r Jd° t-w» or aiuLfd;^, in":'hV;!x:r ■■"* -- - 1- 'nTr My. Hurricanes and .torms fluentl '''"'''">' '" ■'<""' and lent earthquakes,- one i„ irol Zrin' "°T' "'"^ '°"'"™''« v,o Wl.ng more than 100,000 of iuTaS^T''^ '"'"' "^ ^'ddo, and S.m,Kia,o„e of the largest citii was I . '"'' °" "'«^ 28, 1864 '".« °' 'he sea 220 souls'perih ? b^^dt d "°"'' """ ""^ *= -"-fla.: Diana. The metallic riches of r "'«'"«*« Russian fnV„L President Filmore addre^edafeft^r." T '"'^ "^ •>= '-/gSf open commercial intercou,^ i„ !f " *' '"»f"or, with a dcsfr^t^ between China a-l Calilra ^t^^rr,"' "'" '"'^'^'^^Zt " *""• "<"" 'I'o »...rn,s and Id/L l"""' " P'^"« -al and ""■''''''''»' ""--"."-onnter."* ::*«-*»'. .-iniertcan -'•■iJai..an being within u Ai'lUCA. tweuty days sail of each other, it became necessary to^endeavor to obtain a friendly communication with that empire. Commodore Perry was received with great courtesy, and there is hope that America and Japan will benefit by the results. AFRICA. Africa, a vast peninsula, one of the great divisions of the globe, situated to the S. of Europe, and to the W. and S. W. of Asia. It is separated from the former by the Mediterranean sea and the strait of Gibraltar ; the two continents approaching at the latter within about 10 miles of each other. It is separated from Asia by the Red Sea, at whose southern extremity, the strait of Bab-el-mandeb, the shores of the two continents are only 16 miles apart. But at the most north- erly extremity of the Red Sea, Asia, and Africa are united by the Isthmus of Suez; the Mediterranean being thereabout 72 miles from the Red Sea. The most southerly point of Africa, Cape das Agulhas (Cape Needles) is in lat. 34° 52' S. ; North, Cape Blanco, opposite Sicily, in lat. 37° 21' N. ; East, Cape Gardafui, is in long 51° 30 E.; and West is in long. 17° 33' W. and 14° 43' N. lat. Probable area 12,000,000 sq. miles. Population according to Balbi, 60,000,000; Malte-Brun, 70,000,000; and the Weimar Almanac, 100,000,000. Africa forms a compact and undivided mass of land, being distm- guished for its continuous unbroken lines, with few indentations of the sea, and no extensive peninsulas. The surface of the interior does not present that endless succession of changes met with in Europe, southern Asia, and both Americas, but on a greater scale and at greater distances; resembling rather the northern parts of Asia, exhibiting elevated table-lands and low plains, both of im- mense extent and of remarkable uniformity. South of the equator and north of it up to 10" lat. appears to constitute an extensive table- land, fringed in most parts by a comparatively narrow strip of low land along the sea. North of this table-land between 10° and 30° N. lat. extends an immense but low plain, the Great Desert or Desert of Saluira occupying a greater part. A comparatively narrow tract of mountainous country including Atlas and its dependencies separates the desert fioni tlie' Mediterranean. On the E. the desert does not reach the lied Sea, being separated from it by the mountains of Abyssinia and the rocky countries extending thence northward aloii"- the Red Sea to Uie shoies of the Mediterranean, K(i VJ'T. «" "e one of ,he ^indp^rX'^TI" ' °' ''- "■'■"'e. -gion» ,ee„„ ^•■a and America. The hilT . , "' "^ '"'«»'■ "lan those „f .^eSaha™,„d.heco„ri'^S 1 :T;^ hea. « exoerienS I in about IQo N" lo* „ , ""S '"e Great Deserf Tn a i '™.-a.nre leU^'e^^t^Ir'h "'""'= ^™"*« ^W Xe K-. nve. is .he^mtS r r^f^ '° '"^'"^^'"^ Point. \h .,5»0 ,„,|es, „,e q„„„, ^^ """Uj has a „o„« „f „„, |,^ ,,, Pmbable oonn« of 2,000 miles ih! 4 ^f °^ ""^ ""i™^ ha, a HotN^nto., Kaffer Ar:^"''7°»-=*'"aMevarie.ie,,. .i, „,„ .« .dolatrj. i, „„, Mol atl ^ """ "^ ^'"'^' ""■' wh™ t^e «„ep,„„ Of 4 and A^i^taTr "' """"=• ^.t -"file, have schools in Cairn M ^™"*' '" the regions of ,!,„ ™«o, Fez, Algie., rnni;! -^Il '"" "»*"i - BaT; jt^ *ngoes, Foulahs, J„lo6, and othe^V ^ '°^r'' """"g 't/w Negnha or Soudan. ' ""^ "»l>arnmeda„ nations of oeutol (Government dc Doo *• government of Africa^Xvrvtd'aT' ''°™ ''^ '^e Prevailing d"*y ,s at the lowest ebb Exc 1 r ^ ■^'«"' "-lumphant. ",* 0' have been instructed bv E„ro„r "' ""=•>' "« "'^""iated «• I -ade little pr„j,,, ;„ the art S"r' '^'"'^ "■» Africans ,:.;' are devolved on females,- and i„tn '""° '"''""ons oecupatiol! P«ty prince, are made t; « , ,h 7/""= ""= "''^s of kil„ro ar,a„ fords. Since .he fal "f c. u' *"• "■= ™PPort of the r' ,ar « e jalles. claim to be called „aSmf T„^'~^'; ^""'^ 'as llad '''"---W.en^^e^j^^ angt7;:e7f"ri2e'r'"o:'"'? f " "-W'^g «■» N. B "■^ence and iiiera.„re, and f„,"' ,^1 1 °, *' ""■''"« «ats of art jh.oh ,. has been the theatre In '™V"-- ""' 'i^'"™! events o^ «al character. The whole caUill'lT *"°A'"°— '»■ «''d phv .. " '■""'>■ ""'wiing Its lateral 96 AFRICA. -:X valleys has been estimated at about 16,000 square miles, or about half the area of Ireland. The probable population is 2,027,000. The climate is extremely hot, owing to the lowness of its elevation and being surrounded on all sides except the N., by vast tracts of burn- ing sand, and of the scantiness of the rait) • two seasons only being distinguishable — spring and summer, or rather the cool and the hot season. The latter continues from February or March to October ; average height, 90° Fahr. Eemainder of the year 60° Fahr. During May or June Egypt is visited by the pestilential hot winds of the desert, called -ff/iamsm, or /Simoon of the Arabs, and the /SamieZ of the Turks. During the Simoon the streets are deserted, and are as silent during ;iay as night. The rising of the Nile terminates these accesses of heat and drought, and again diffuses life and gladness over the hi j id. Govnnment, Jkc. — Egypt is under Turkish sway, and the government consints of the pacha, whose power is unlimited and despotic. 2, His dep.ity called Kikhr/a. 3, Seven councils of state, who have each a distinct department of the governmen t to preside over. 4, Governors {Nazlr) appointed to each province. The police, numerous and effective, consists of the military and the magistrates, or zabit police. The pacha has entire control over manufacture, agriculture, and trade in the country. Private property and freedom are but little known in Egypt. Every man is subject to conscription, and may at any time be torn from his home, and compelled to join the army or the fleet. The annual revenue is about £5,000,000 sterling. The num- ber of troops in 1838, including veterans and invalids amounted to 127,286 besides from 10,000 to 12,000 irregular Turkish troops, and the Bedouin Arabs, who could furnish 30,000 men. The navy at the same time numbered 11 ships, carrying 852 32pounders; 11 frigates with 352 32-pounder8 ; 4 corvettes, 102 32-pounders, short ; 7 brigs, 134 32-pounder8, carronades ; and 3 steamers. The ships are beautifully modeled by native builders. The inhabitants of Egypt are subject to a variety of diseases; viz. opthalmia, small-pox and leprosy, elephantiasis, syphilis, and malignant fevers. The plague occasionally breaks out with great violence in Egypt; in 1825 it des- troyed 80,000 persons in Cairo only I No part of Egypt can be justly characteri7ied as insalubrious. The diseases are mostly to be as- criV)ed to their filth, miserable accommodations, and the bad quality and deficiency of their food, &o. W W I I, ,,, ^-