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Un doe symboles suivants apparaitra sur la damiire image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symboie — »• signifie "A SUIVRE ', le symboie V signifie "FIN". Mapa. piatea, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratioa. Thoae too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand comer, left to right and top to bottom, as many framea as required. The following diagrams illustrate tha method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., pauvent atre fiimte A dee taux de rMuction diffirents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seui clichi, il est film^ i partir do I'angia supirteur gauche, de gauche h droite, et de haut en baa. en prenant le nombra d'images n^cessaire. Las diagrammes suivants iilusuent la m^thode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 W-m^m LANGUAGE AND CONQUEST: RETROSPECT AND A FORECAST, JOHN READE. FROM THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. VOLUME I.. SECTION II., 1883. MONTREAL; DAWSON BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. « 1883. / / L^m2^i^j' Section II., 1882. [ 17 ] Trans. Roy. See. Canada. Lanyuagv and Conquest. — A Rdrosj^icct and a Furccust. By John Rkade. (RofKl May 27, 1882.) [Abstract.] M, Real, permanent conquest is something more than that of mere physical force ; and, though it may be initiated by rhe rough methods of war, is confirmed and perpetuated by moral agencies. It is a conquest of mind by mind, a conquest in which the victor is a teacher and the vanf|uished a learner. It is, in fact, a conquest of civilization. * Among the evidences of this kind of conquest, by which a peojile's ideas of politics, of ethics and of religion are gradually bixt surely changed, that of language holds a prominent place. For its language is the expression of a nation's mind and character, and comprises its spiritual and intellectual history. As articulate speech, whether an inborn gift or develoi>ed as the need for it arose in the course of ages, is that faculty whi
  • re ]ihysi<|ue we would hesitate in pronouncing a det : m. It is by this criterion we know that the Bas(iue, th ^ Finn or the Magyar, however closely he may resemble his n.eighbor, in Spain. Livonia or Hungary, is nevertheless of a totally different stock. * " It is intellect affor all tl-.iit coiniiicrs, not ttio strontith of a man's arm." — Thooiloro Parkor, quoted in AVinchull's I'rtiuUimiks, ijp. 157, 158. Sec. II., 1882. 3 18 lOlIN JtKADK ON liANdUAflK AND ('ON(iUKST. I Canon Fiiriar nays that, so small has boon iho importance of tho AUophylian races, as contrilmtors to tho snm of huniim prod Aryans lived among those who spoke thorn. It may be that tho shock and attrition of rival tongues have so transformed them that tho ancestors of those who speak them to-day would no longer recognize thomplieated grammar." * I am not unaware that tliero is a school of pliiloloj;ist.s who maintain tliat in prcliistorii; times lansuacc*, instead of lioin^ fewer, were, nuiro. nunieroiis, tlian at [irowMt. Tlie trailitienal notion of one original liuniansix^ueli lias been ahno.st nnivensally j,'ivon up Iiy men of science. I'aley, in the preface to liis " Ilcsiod," ijuis MhWh tlio view of (^irly multiplied lan}.'iia<.'e8; "If one lancunjie had lieeii :_'iven to man at first, wti cannot ex|ilain tlio phenomenon of frreat families of !anj,'na;;es possessin;.' liardly any (if any ) common eleniiints. But we can easily explain this by sujiposinLr tlieni to liave lie Ml separate and wliolly indep(^iident creations of the lin.miistii; genius or faculty of man, conse(pient on a distant and linal dis|Kwsion of tlie first families." liiil even tliis view would not render lio|ieless tlio .searcli after some essential homl of imion between an Aryan or Semitic toii;j;iie and some unit or chister of tlie so-called .Mlophylian langnajies wliich in limes far remote had strayettcr .specimen of the highest flights of Chinese inspiration than that beautiful poem, Tennyson's " Dream of Fair Women." Can it bo said that such a language, whose productions are models for tho literary classes of half the world, a language which for over two millenniums has been the mother speech of states- men, poets, orators, inventors, warriors, merchants, manufa.'turers, and whose fame though it may not have reached as far west as the " Isles of the Gentiles," is a household word to .'■)00,Onn,000 of men, can have had an insignificant share in the enlightenment of tho world ? To tL se who spoke it, oven, we owe some of our most important inventions, arts and in- dustries, some of tliem tho very mainspring of modern progress. Explorers have been busy during the last .>entury among the ruins of Babylon, of the Nile lands, of Asia Minor, of Greece, of Italy, of the vanished races of our own continent. If China, too, were only known by its remains, archa!ologists would, probably, be equally interested in it. But, having survived every empire of both hemispheres, it lacks the charm we attach to what is dead. " He whowould realize by analogy," says that wonderful genius of strange experiences, W . G. Palgrave, " what Egypt was in her earlier bettor days, before Hyksos or Persian, Greek or lloman, Arab or Turk, had dwarfed her down to their own lesjor stature, let him visit Canton.* * * There he may study the results of a government based on reverence, on guarded rar.k, on respected age ; of a priesthood kept within its proper limits of ceremonial observance and rational rites, * * * of administrative wisdom wisely limiting itself to the good order, suiTiciency and happiness of man's actual life.* * * Doubtless, there is much that China might advantageously learn from Europe ; but Europe, too, unquiet, disintegrat- ing Europe, might, with, at least equal advantage, take more than one lesson from Cathay." Whatever may be said to the contrary, moreover, the power of China is by no moans on the wane, and there-conquest of Kuldja, the annexation of the Panthays, the awe with which the soverei-nis of Pekin are regarded even in Nepaul, show that neither is the past forgot- / 20 .lOIIX IlKADK ON r.ANfiUAfJK AND C()N(iUKST. f.'ii nor (uv its friwlilioiis niifiMt. Now tliat the ajjo ol" railway consi ruction has boi-uii in a rcirion where labour is so chciii), ere lony- the millions ol Chinn may h' at the gates of Europeas they 'nave already roar he.l the (iolden (!ale of America, ami, when (hey be-in to swarm in force, who shall keep them back ^ lnder new .onditions tlm story of Attila may be rep,.,itedan(l. for -iood or ill, I'hirope and Asia as well as Asia and America, may bo brought into indnstrial rivalry. lii^lbre such an inroad the tents of Shem and .Taphet'h's eidarovd bordcrH could m.t long hold out. And that this (.tfusion from ovcr-erowdcd China must eventually take phie.' is as certain as that a vessel filled beyond its capacity must over- How. In what way th(! event will modify the races and th(! civilization of the future it is not easy to say. but if we rei,'ard it as even remotely possible, it surely ought to induce the scholars and suran/simd statesmen of the Aryan West to study, more than they have hitherto done, the history, the languao-e andthe capabilities of that vast host of humanity of whoso destined invasion the i)ioneers are already at our doors. In considering the concjuests of Ih." other Allophylian tongues of Asia, we have to deal with triumphs based on forcible intrusion rather than on moral sway. Some cf them have, however, been no strangers to a literary culture of a comparatively high rank. But, except in rar.' instanws of self-abnegation, where scholars, "with nothing to tempt them but the love of truth, hav.' turned aside from the Hesperian Ciardens of Aryan Philology into the apparently barren iields of Allophylian research," as yet little has been done towards the formation of a just estimate of their importance. When Dr. Leyden, assisted by William Erskin.-, translated from the .Taghatai Turki the " Memoirs of Mohammed Baber," Lord .Tellrey wrote that the strongest impre.s.sion which th(^ [)erusal of the work left on the mind, besides that of th.- boundles.sness of authentic history, was that of the uselessness of all history that did not relate to our own fraternity of nations. That opinion still largely prevails. It has required all the learning, eloquence and enthusiasm of Max Miiller, and now and then a little pardonable exaggeration, to persuade his adoptive compatriots that the treasures of even San.scrit literature are really worth examination. The languages of Coroa. .Tai)aii. * Burmah and Siam, are cognate to the Chinese, though dilfering from it in important respects. The Bali, a sacred dialect, is interesting from Tts alhnities to Sanscrit, as well as Chinese. The Prakrit of the .Tninas aiul the^.Tavanese Kawi are also sacred daughters of the Sanscrit. A strugiile for t he mastery is now going on among the lauiiuages of the two great Indian peninsulas. Some have already retired baflled from the unequal contest, while others are und(M-going metamorphosis from their conta.t with European tongues, f The researches of Von Hammer, l':uropieus. Vambery, and other writers, have shown that the Turanian or Altayan group is not luiworthy of careful and respectful .study. The language of the Osmanli Tiu'ks is described as soft, harmonious and llexible, and its rules of grammar are simple and rational. It is, indeed, * Tho litoratiire. of .lapaii is copi.ms, .U^aliiin witli history, piM.try.iliiiiiia. tlH'dldtry.otliics.soiimce.iirl, iiiiliislry nnil otiiiiiotte. Klnimnitc, iiiu'iitarics Imve liccu roinposcd l)y tln^ iiicii (irioltor.s .,ii the iiiest iiiipnrtiiiit clasHics, and treatises ,m frnumnar and pldloloL'y are niiiiiernii.-i. Tlio ('hr:m,i,llininim, a. iiiently niafiaziiuMuililislifd at Yolccihaiiia. "Inr .lai>ai) and tlie liir Ka.st ", is edited witli nnicli alillity and snppllesKntrli.sli readers willi valnahle infdrinatinn as U> Uh: lilo, htcratnre and t-'ciieml iinvrcss cftlio Enijiire. Tlie a'.'cnt in Canada is tli(^ Kcv. \V. II. AVithrdW, ]).])., Tcmmtn. t Accnrdin.L' t.ia recent lu^nsns. lli(^ fullnwinjr lan<_'iia'.'i's are sp.,l: snporiov li> tlios,- who use il. lMiiiii(t ami Hunyariiui hiivo coiisidcrabl" litoratmoH, and aro w.'ll adaplod Tor poetry. The ItaMqnc, vhich. not merely in Kurope, but in the entire ensf,.rn li.'iuiNph.Te, i^ a speech apart from all around it, has a i)eeuliar inlereHt lor us IVom its alhuilies witii some of the native ton-jups of this .ontinont. Of tho8«>, Mr. Stronpr, in hin "North .\ni.-rieans „f Antiquity," says that tho number is estimated at thirteen hundred, and Mr. Hubert Humroft, in his " Native liaees ol the racific States," has ehissilied six luuidred distinon sets down one-third of the Maya tongu.' as pure (Ireek ! That which is now kuovvn as the Ilihua, and is in use among the Indians of Peru, is important on account of the civilization of which it was once the medium, as is also, for a like reason, the Nahua or Aztec. Of three important iwrthorn languages, Canadian clergynu'u have recently p\iblished original dictionaries or revised editions of old ones. The.se are the Otchipwe (or Qjibway) Dictionary (with grammar) of 15ishop Baraga, published in an improved form by Father Lacombe, the Dictionary (with grammar) of the Cn>e language, by the same authors, ami the Abl)e Cuoq's "J.exique de la langU(> in>qu()i.se." The value rf these works to tho philologist, and to those engaged in mission work on Canadian territc.y, can hardly be ovev-estimated. Professor Campbell, of Montreal, has prepared a comparative vocabulary of American Indian and East-Asian tongues and dialects, which is printed as an appendix to his interesting l.>(lure on the •' Aborigine's of Canada." Dr. G. M. Daw.son's vocabulary of the Ilaida Indians of the Prince Charlotte Islands is another valuable contri- bution to our store of knowledge. He suggests that the syllable // or hi, prefixed to many words, probably in most cases represents the article. It occurs to me that it might also indicate some kinship with the languages of Mexico, of which this literal combiuation is a marked f.>ature. A tradition has long prevailed (see Bartlett's " Personal Narrative, etc.", Vol. II., J). 283,) that the Aztecs or Ancient Mexicans migrated from the north to the valley of Mexico, and made three princii)al halts on their way thither. On this point, Mr. liartlett says that " no analogy has as yet b(!(>n traced between the language of the old Mexicans and any tribe at the north in the district from which they are supposed to have come; nor, in any of the relics, or ornaments or works of art, do we observe a resemblance between them." Now, as will be seen by Dr. G. M. Dawson's ..count of the Kaida Indians, and by the accompanying illustrations, they surpass all the other northern tribes in "construction, carving and other forms of handiwork," and he entertains a hope that they may be enlisted in other and more prolitable forms of industry. If, then, the feature of their language just mentioned can 1)e proved to indicate a relationship with that of the Aztecs, theiv would .ertainly l)o some; ground for the belief that they are a fragment of the original northern stock from which, according to so many writers, the conquering Mexicans were deriA^ed. Were any of the American languages adapted to the needs of a higher civilization, or, had not the Spaniards in the loth and lOth centuries interrupted the spontaneous advance of the aboriginal empires in the paths of progress, might they, unaided, have reached a 22 .'OII\ RKADi; o.V LAN'(iirAi>ri.lri,n,ljK,w(M'li,m l>n,,r! T()-c|liy ««■ livf; (n.lii,,ITo« \V.MllV,llls(. This Hlii.l,, viisl Hull.l i> 1,11' ILMipilliliro, When' nil ilml niuvfs iihimI s,. liid frmn \mv. Thillicr all Icml, n,s ij wi'h, hnmkf, niul .stivniiis l''lii\\ li, lliosi.a, IhcifuiiivcrNal pjal. What lias Imtm Ik iio iiii,r(i; wlml is toilay Ti^-iiinrvow « ill Ik. mm: Tin. -raven aio fiill ir great continent. The Semitic Family. About 2000 B.C., the first conquest of which monumental hii-tory informs us, was made by a Semitic over a Turanian tongue. The Accadians. who inhabited tho valley of tho Euphrates, had made considerable progress in <-ivili/ation, had a literature of their own, and compiiscd adroit workers in various arts and industries. To them (as already hinted) we arc, in all likelihood, indebted, indirectly, for our alphabet. But, having imparted valuable knowledge to their Semite eoiujuerors, the Accadians adopted the language of the latter and became i)ractically a Semitic p;'ople. It is a curious evidence of the vitality of language, and of the strong but often unseen links which unite "all nations that on earth do dwell," and the i)ast with the present, that a word which is familiar to every Christian child, a word which, in its Hellenistic form and moaning, may have been hallowed bv our Saviour's us(>, a word which ^lohammcd said he was taught to rt'peat by the Angel ( Jabriel, a word which, through successive ag.-s, has been associated with all that is holiest, most hopeful, most consoling, {)y .T(>ws, by Christians, and by Mohammedans, tho word "Amen," was, in its original form, (>mployed millenniums ago by those ancient Acoadian scribes, the recovery of whosi' compositions was one of th(> proudest rewards of modern exploration. Of the literature whicji sprang from the united intellectual resources of tho two distinct races thus ])rouglit into contact, the late Creorge Smith, of the British Museum, and his fellow- workers and successors in Babylonian research, have deciphered some of the most important remains. Among them are a hymn to Samas (Sh(>mesh, or tho Sun), and the Chaldean account of the D^'luge, included among what are called " the Izdhubar Legends." The Babylonians and Assyrians have a peculiar interest for Christendom from their connec- tion with the history of the Israelites and Jews in the Old Testament ; and tho Ser^Uic group of races to which thoy belong, is too well known to need any particular description. With those races the languiiges of the group do not clearly correspond, some of tho peoples using Semitic tongues being assigned by some philologists to uou-Semitic races. Ou that / / JOHN HEAJJl': ON LAN(irA(il<] AND CONQUEST. point, liowcvci', if would tiiko mo, <-oo loii^' ngtli. SnlRcn it to say thai (if we cx't'pt llio I'lidMiician an'l I'luiir in tlio days of Tyrian and Cartlian'iniau coloniziniv enterprise, the Aral)ic. duriui^' the domination of the Caliphs, and the Hebrew, in the wake of the Jew isli wanderiniis) the Somitie hinguagos liave l)ecn seldom found far away from the limits of their aneient cradle-land. Yet of no H'roup of toni^'ues have the conquests been more splendid or more enduring, if we have regard to the infhien<'e of their literatures on the nations of the world. As an Aryan was destined to bo the religious teacher of countless myriads of tlie races of iartlier Asia, so from the tents of 8hem was to spread the light that wa,s to liahien the gentiles of the west. Palestine is the Holy Land to the proud civilizations that arose on tiie ruins of ]{ome, Rome itself put u Jewish fisherman in the high place of its haughty Ctesars. Ht>l)rew, which (Jreek and lioman scholars did not think worth the troulth' of learning, became the Holy Tongue, a "sacred and origiiud lami'uaue." occupying a serene heiglif l)y itself, apart from any vulgar speech (though (Ireek, too, was allowed to sliare in its sanctiiication), and endowed with graces and privileu'es of which no other lanuuaii'c could boast. Though the Jews are strangers in all lands, and their oii.y lionie is aniong strangers, tlu'ir sacred books are the most valued literature, the most prized heritage of Christendom, X(ir does their infhuMice end there. The Old Testament was the foster-mother of Mohammedanism as well. To the followers of the Trophot, as to us, Abraham is the father of the faithful ; and there is not a community of either creed from Yokohama to San Francisco, or from Siberia to tlie Cape of <,rood Hope, whose belief and worship, and even wliose common thouuhis and speech do not bear some impress of Judaism. The Hebrew language has not penetrated and interfused other languages, like the Latin and Greek, but much of the peculiar plu'useolouy which was familiar to Moses, to David, to Isaiah ami lo Paul may l)e heard to-day in every domestic gathering, in almost every thoroughiiU(! in the civilized world. Every re('urring Seventh Day recalls th(! law of IMoses and on the most momentous occasions in our lives: at the font, at the marriage altar, at th(> death-l)ed. at the gi.'.ve-side, we hear words of comfort, of warning, of sympa- thy which were common lo the Jewish ])eople when as yet the ulory had not departed from Israel. What conquest could l)e mor.' marked, more permanent than that? And yet that is not all f Did not Jewi.^h modes of thought modify those of Phoenicia, of Eii'ypt, of G-reeee, of Persia, of Rome, — beiiiii'. p.'rhaps. modified themselves in turn ! Vor the com- munication of nation with ni'tion was undoul)U'dly less exceptional in ancient tinu's tlian it was once the fashion to b.'lieve. Josephus says that the A/'rca. Clirrsonesiis oi India was the destination of Solomon's fleet and. whether or no, ii is reasonable to believe that the Jews, espe/ially after th' exile, were no strangers to the life and movement of the civilized world from the Indus to liie i'illais of Hercules. That th(* PhoMiicians. near neighbors to the Jews, and speaking almost the same tongue, made important contributions to civilization, it is m^edless to say ; but, like those who si'ive their own l)lood to inviu'orate others, their labours and victories only went to build up the un'ater power of Kunie. The mistress ol ihe world never forgave her rival, thouu'h site relented so far as to build a second Carthagt' ; but Greece never ceased to remember the " letters Cadmus iiave " Dr. Arnold has emphasizi'd the providential close of the triple conllict. Still, even if we uive our sympathies to the victor wiu) was to hand down the gains of his triunipli loourselve,-. wee aiiiiiil but rci; ret that those who conferred on Europe the glorious Ijoou of letters should have left so few Irace^i of the language to which A TJKTiJOSPHCT AND A FOKIX-'AST. 23 tlio (li.scovcry or wise iiditplalioii wiis first iii)])li('«l. Br. Davis, in his lutorostinn' work on " Carthas'n and its Jii'iuains," o'ivcs an eni^'ravinn' of a Tunic insrriplion round at I'ula, in Sardinia, the lettors of whiih ri'soniblti those of tin^ Ik'bn'W ali)habi't, and iho words ot "which (as inlci'pi'cti'tcd) arc also Hebrew, 'i'hc first part uf the. Cm-pus Inscrijitlonum Scmiliniriim of the Frencli Acadeniie des Inscrii)1ions, tluit wlii<'li relates to rhumician and I'unic inscriptions, has recently l)c(ni ]>ul)lislied. [t contains lifty I'luenician inscriptions, of which forty were dis<'overed in ('\'prus. Some of them are l)ilingual — (Ireck and rhd'uician — and the resomblainx! of the latter to I[el)ro\v is closo throughout, nudiing it certain that, whatever Wiis their race, the Tluenicians were Semites and almost Israelites in language. * If we include in the estimate the career of both motherland and colonies, tho sway of the I'hd'nicians endured for at least lilteeii hundred years. They are . specially interesting to lis a^ to them, of all the nations of anticpiity, the world was most iiulebtod Ibr what it knew of that other world that lay i).'yond the Pillars of Hercules. Whether they over touched these shores is d<)ul)lful, though M. Paul (rall'arel has collected no slender evidence in favour of mat hypothesis. That they had dealings with the tribes on the (rold Coast, would appear from the statement of Herodotus (Herod IV'., 196.) "Whatever side W(^ take in the controvei'sy as to the clnssilication of Wv^ ancient Egyptian language,t there is no branch of study more interestinu' or variously fruitful than that whicli ('(nicerns the early dwellers on the banks of tho Nile. In any estimate of tho causes wliicb contributed to human proii'ress. they must have a leading plac(\ Whether, as some argue, to them ])i'l()ngs primarily the ci'cdit for tlie moral and intelle<'tual coii(|U(^sts of th(» Israelites, we cannot \'ei!ture to allirm. but they undoubtedly had )io small share in the training of the (J-reeks for the part they were to play, in turn, as teachers of mankind. How far their language, as an instrument for the commirnication of thought, contril)utcd to that result, cannot l)e stated with coniideuoe ; but in that respect they were *Tlu( I'imic scene, in tlie I'lrnnlni of I'lunturi ( .Vet. V., Si'. I) Ims never lieon satisfaetcirily deeipUereil biU thero is no iloiilit of the Idnslii]) of tlie liuiL'nntre witli Ilelirow. t Some jihilolou'ist.s lonU n|ion lll(^ aneient Kiryptiaii a.s i-epi-esentiiitr a .stiiL'e of transition fi-oni Turanian to Scniitie. 51. Alfreil Manry eonsiders it allie.l to tlio Merlmr wliose domain once, extended even to the Canary Isle.s. At tlie same time lie, linds in it. as in all t!ie lan!;iia;.ies of the Kastern side of .\friea, traces of Semitic inlliienee. (fitiliiiiiioim Knn.'i nj'tli, l-Mrlh. \>p. ."iii, 'u.] ('liam|iollioii-Fi>;eae says that the aneieiit lyiiyptian, resem- bled in .stature, |ihysio«.'niimy and hair the best constituted nations of Kuroiie and Western Asia, onl ditl'ering from tlieni in complexion, which was tanned by the climated In this view lie. is snpporteil liy his illustrious brother. (/■,';/;//(/. .liici. /(//., p. I'T. ) "'anon li.iw liiismi ex press, 's t he follow iii'j: opinion as to the. Iv.'yiitian laii'_'uai;o: " Allhonirh in Konie res[)eets it pl'i'seiits reseiiiblaiici-s to the class of toil:_'ues Unown as SiMiiilie, yet, in its main characteristics, it stamU separate and apart, beiii;_' simpler and ruder than any known form of Semite siK^ech, and having anali vies wliich eoiine.ct it on the one hand with Chineso and on the other with the clialects of Central Africa." (Tin (Iri'/m i;/' A'k/io/i.'!, r,;rl I!., chap. :!.) I>r. ]!irch writiw as to tlie wliiMice and bow of Nilotic settle- ment : ''Tbe. race c'f men by whom the, N'alley of the .Nile was tenantid was considered in their leu'ends to havo been created by the iiods out of clay ; a Icu'eiid iloscly resenibliu'.t th(^ Mosaic account of the creation of man. Modern researches have. liowcAcr. not as yet linally determined if idvanciu',' from Western Asia Ihey entered tho alluvial land brinuinj.' with them an already develoinKl civilization ; or if ascimilini; from lOthioiiia they followed th(^ course of the river to its mouth ; or if they wcri^ aborii.'ines, the date of whose aplK'aranci^ is b(\yiind the kuow- ledsxe of man and the scan of science. On the earliest luoiuimi'iils they appear as a red or dusky race, with features ncilhef entirely CaiU'asian nor N'i^rritie, more re.semblint; at th.e earliest ni-'o the iMiropean, at the middle. [KM'iod of the ICmpire the Niu'ritic races or the oll'spriliK ot'a mixed population, and at the most llourishin;,' piii'iod of their I'lmpire. the sallow lint iiiid reliiied ty|ie of the Semitic families of mankind." {Ij/iijil, in llie series of '' .\ncii'nt History from the Jlonumeiits. "j See. 11., 18SL'. 4. r 26 JOJIN REA!)!'] ON LANGUAGE AND CONQUEST. far l<>ss liappil)' ondowcd than Iho GviM'ks. To attonipt niiy snn'oy of the fharactor and work of Esxyptiaii civilization would rcfinirc a paptT (rather a li})riiry, indeed) to itst'll". Ainoni>' the moral eonqncsts of the Semitic lanuuaii'es, mention lias already been made of Arabic. In thi.s (\a.se, as in that of Hebrew, those who were brought beneath its .sway were, in the main, aileeted by the eniorcement of new ideas, not by the adoption of a new laniruit!i-e. There were exception.s, indeed, as wilh the Tnrks, North Ai'riciins and others, who made the lani^i'uage, as well as the laith, of the victor.s their own. l)Ut in few, if any, eases did the new langnage eiilirely, as in the eon(|uests of Jtome, di.splaee the old. Generally ci.nlented with stagnancy, the Arabs have proved that, when some grand common impulse urges them to unwonted action, they can display an energy which (Uirri(>s all before it. In the spread of their civilization, the sword went first, nrthles.sly hewing a way for the enthusiasts, ;ind. when ihere was no mor(> to subdue, the pen followed on a mission at once soothing and elevating. Duliois IJeymond thus describes the course of Arab civilization in the diiy of its greatest energy : " "While beneath the sign of the cross the night of barbarism had settled down on the western world, in the Eiist, under the green standard of the I'rophet, an original form of civilization had been developed, which not only preserved what had been won by the classical peoples in nialhematies, astronomy and medicine, but even itself made no mean acquisitions in those sciences." The stages through which they passed in attaining that result were remarkable. First, they appear as rude warriors, ignorant and despising learning, only full of a faniitic and sanguinary zeal. Not till the close of the tth century, did the leaders begin to show some regard for culture. Then the Ommiades and Abbassides gathered to their courts the most distinguished scholars of their time, and, uuth'r the glorious sceptre llaroun al Rasehid, the contemporary of Charlemagne, literary merit, u'ct with an encouragement worthy of the most fruitful day.s of ancient Greece. At that time, in both eiist and west, there •seemed to be a sure promi.se of the revival of all that was best in thcohneitrning. and of a new life for physical .science. The Arabs excelled in poetry and in ])rose that is akin to it — tales marked by gorgeousness of imagination, und narrated with rare dramatic skill. They also cultivated history Avith success and, indeed, as Sismondi says, had a passion for every species of composition (exceiit epic poetry, comedy and traii'cdy) and such a desire to leave no subject untouaiiish language, and a few words added to the vocabularies of the other western nations, wilh the names of sonu' iImm-s. hills and towns in thellievian peninsula, ihi-re is nothing left to remind the studeni of the great iniluence ome exerted A EETROSPECT AND A 1'0111-;CAST. 27 in Europn by this ooiiquoring- rnoo. In Asia and Africa, on the other hand, though, intellectually, the resultK of the Arab eonquest have b(>eii poor compared with what innate capn.'ity and diligent cultivation have aided it to produce in Europe, its influences have l)een real and lasting. * TiiK AnvAN Lanouages. The original home of the Aryans is supposed to have been somewhere near the sources of the Oxus and .Taxartes. Of those who in far-oil" times parted from the parent stock, some moved south-westward ; others, south-eastward. Of the latter, a portion proceeded onward until they reached the I'unjab, from which they spread themselves, chielly as Brahmas and liajputs, over India. The remainder of the eastward-moving band tuined back westward, and became the ancestors of the Iranians and Persians. Of the early Punjiilj settlements, the great literary memorial is the liig-Veda, the age of which is unknown. It has been ascertained, however, that the A'edie religion had its followers before the rise of Ikxddhism in the Gth century, B.C. In the early hymns the Aryans are on the north-west frontier, jiast starting on their long journey (see "The Indian Empire," by Dr. AY. W. Hunter), but before Megasthenos visited the country at the end of the 4th century, B.C., they had spread to the verge of the Crangetic Delta. The value to European students of Sanskrit literatures has been fully set forth in Prof. Max Midler's recently published and most interesting work ; " India : AVhat can it teach us ? " Some idea of the wealth which its literature enshrines may be gathered from the following extract from Mr. Edwin Arnold's, introduction to his translation into English verse of " A Book from the Iliad of India : '' " There exist two colossal, two unparallelled epic poems in the sacred language of India, which were not known to Europe even by name till Sir "William Jones announced their existence ; and which, since his time, have been made public by frag- ments, mere specimens, bearing to those vast treasures of Sanskrit literature such small proportion as cabinet samples of ore have to the riches of a mine. Y those most remark- able poems contain all the history of ancient India so far as it can be recovered, together with such inexhausti])le details of its political, social and religious life, that the antique Hindoo world stands epitomized in them. The Old Testament is not more interwoven with the Jewish race, nor the Koran with the records and destinies of Islam, than are these two Sanskrit poems with that unchanging and teeming population which Her Majesty Queen Victoria rules as Empress of Hiiulostan. The stories, songs, l)allads, histories and genealogies, the mrrsery tales and religious discourses, the art, the learning, the creeds, the philosoi)hy, the moralities, the modes of thcaglit, the very phrases, sayings, turns of expression and daily ideas of the Hindoo people are taken from those poems. * * The value ascribed in Hindostan to those two little known epics has transcended all literary st.".ndards established in the AVest." The truly historical character of the Veda is proved by I'rof Max AliiUer through the identilication of the rivers mentioned in it (such as the Kubha with the O-reel- Cophen, the modern Ca])ul). The religicm of the Indo- Aryans was. according to Prut. Monier AVillianrs, a "creed based in a vague belief iu the sovereignty of unseen natural forces," and lh(> aim of IJuddha in his mission Avas, he believes, " to remove every merely sacerdotal doctrine from the national religion, to cut away every useless excrescence, and to sweep away every corrupting incrustation." As to the literature and religion of the Iranie or Persian branch of the Eastern Aryans, i / 28 JOIIX IJKADK OX LAXdUAGl': AND COX(iUEST. I miist bo vory bviof. Zoroaster's iiamo, says Doan Stanloy, has always boon l)omid up with tilt" b('i>iuiiini^s ol' sacred philosophy. I'rof. Moiiior "Williams nscribos to his sysiom "a hiii'h spiritual charactt-r." It is, he says, "a simple relleitiou ol' the uatural workings, couuter-workiiiL!' and iuti'r-workings of th(^ humnu miiul, in it'5 earuost strivings after truth, in its imager gropings after more iight, in its strange hallucinations, ehildish vagaries, foolish conceits and unaccountable inconsistencies." Of the Zendavesta, and the religion which it represents, we are not, the same writer rightly urges, to measure its importance by the small number of persons whose bible and creed they arc, but by their connection with the history of those who were the lirst among the Aryans to achieve empire, w^ho inherit (>d the glory of th(^ Assyrians and llabylonians, and "were for a time the most conspicuous and remiirlcnble peo)il(\ on the surface of the ir mind on that of the combined Semite and western Aryan world mny, rather, indt>ed, take precedence for the importiince of its issues to the iniluence on those around it of any ot u ^- community of which we have any record. Apart from its plac(^ in the history of religion and ])hilosophy, Persian has had a long and honourable literary career. When from the Asiatii^ we turn to the ]']uropean Aryans, we iind ourselves on more familiar L;inund. I need not linger on the story of Greece and liome. The history of the former, though so changeful, has bei^n, in a sense, continuous from its heroic age to the present. In the long line of Greek speech and literature there hns been no break from Homer to George rhran'^ia, * or even, as Canon Farrar .says, to Tricoupi. ''In no other lanainage," continues the same writer, " which the world has ev"r licard ^vould it be possible to find the woi'ks of writers separated from each other by such enormous epochs, and yet equally intelligible to any one who has been traiuiHl in the classical ibrm of the langviage." Greek poets and historians and pliilosophcrs still help to make scholars and thinkers. Their productions have not only contributed to our greatest intellectual successes, but are a living acting force in the work of modern civilization. Even what we owe to Hebrew Greek aided us to win and make our own. and those benefits which Arab culture conferred on mediicvnl Europe, tlie Arabs themselves had, in a great measure, learned from the Greeks. It is in the treasures of the Greek language thnt we look for an ac<(uuit of those " iuotiiutions and conceptions wliich lie at llie base of modern civilization, and at the same time it contains the record and pi'cscnls the spectacle of precisely those virtues in \vhich modern civilization is most delicicnt." (Farrar's " f rreek Syntax.") Nor can Latin justly be called a dead langunge. Is not Komo, its central home, still the star to which millicns of ("lirislcnddui limk for guidance, and, when that guidance comes, vested in full autliority, is not the Latin language, the tongue of Cicero, of Tacitus, of Jerome, of Auu'usi ine, t he medium of the direction or i^omniand ? Is it not still the language of prayer and solemn rite to massijs of people of every clime '. Is it not also the common * Willi liiiii ami l.aiiircus Cliali'mniidylas (ii'ianl .lelni Viiss clusi'S Ills list (irHir. (ircc^l; llislciriaiis of kimwii ago. They lintli ui(.|e aCtcr tlin taUiiij.' nf Coin-liiMtliKiiild liy tlio Tiirk.s in 14.j3. ((ior. .loan. N'osnii Di Hist. GriTi-h, 1. ii, c ii|>, .".II.) A RETROSPECT AND A FORECAST. 29 tongue of the scholars of all lands ? Arc not tho choicest authors of Rome still read in schools and colleges ? Is not our law in the main, and are not most of our legal terms, Iloman or of Roman origin ? Are not most of our theological terms Latin, biit slightly altered ? Can we easily converse on any si^bject for half an hour without the aid of words whose primitives were used by Horace and CUcoro ? Are Ave not thus reminded everyday of our lives that Rome, the conqueror, has survived in spirit and that we are still subject to her inllueiicc? And the French, the Italians, tlu; Spanish, the Portuguese, the Rouma- nians, do they not all speak languages which are simply modifications of Latin? "Would it be so far wrong if we were to include the great literatures of those Neo-Latin nations among Rome's proudest conquests, a conquest compared with which those of mere ambi- tion are ephemeral and poor ? Arid when we recall how lionrau civilization, acting- through those who received its immediate impress, was transmitted from race to race, imp(;rceptibly subduing even its own fierce foes and conquerors, and fitting them for their work in the new conditions that should arise, we see that in the development of com- munities there is always the needed conservation of force, though its forms and methods may change. * The shart? of Neo-Latin Christendom in the work of European civilization has been no inconsiderable proportion. If we accept its languages and literatures as a sort of autobiography, written without self-i^onsciousness, and recording from century to century its thoughts and feelings and aims and characteristics, how full of suggestiveness and meaning they become I If it were possible to come upon such a record, as an archteo- logical " find ", revealing the existence and work of a long vanished race, what would be thought of it ? Or even any national division of it? Or the works of anyone great writer ? Or a single masterpiece ? "What questions woiild arise as to the life lived by those who spoke such a speech, and used it to such purpose ? And yet to form a correct judgment there would be mor(> needed than even the whole body of Neo-Latin literature. To judge it fiiirly, that which preccdod it and that which accoinpiinied, acted on and was acted on by it, would have to bi' taken into account. And the same is true of Teutonic literature, including all its branches. There is no language, no literature, which stands alone, and this fact is becoming more and more true as means of inter-communication multiply and the intin'course of nations with each other increases. The movements of an obscure horde, the llight of an enthusiast from his persecutors, were to change the face of three continents and to bring about the Renaissance. In what way Neo-Latin civilization affected that of the Teutons, and vice-versa, we are constantly discovering. But how each < amc to be exactly and entirely what it is would take long to tell. Tliey are both great facts, however, and among the proudest triumphs * " li'wn li moil sons," so.y.s Littri', " do plus intorcssant ot do plus I'nu'tuoux epic ilo Cduiparor lo moyoii Ago nvoc I'antiiiuitr, dont il iV'UW pour la languo, pour los institutions, pour los Boiontv.s, pour loa lottro.'i, pour los artH. Sonl(*im-nt il faut 90 fairo uuo idt'o oxa('t(yuo d(( rantitiuito, par uno reli- gion comninno dont lo cliot' uniipio. sicgoait i1 Homo, par dos institutions conimunos ilont la fcodalito otait la base, ropn'scntaiont un corixs pilitiipio i|ui avait iilus do puissanoo ot plus f it, may be a near one. Conclusion, To snm up, what do w^e gather from our siirvey of the earth's languages is to the contributions of the dilferent races to human progress ? AVe find that of th(> large hetero- geneous group to which has been given th(^ name of Allophylian, only the Chinese and tho.se akin to it have made any ajipreciablo contribution to civilization. Judged by the numbi?r.s of those who us(^ it and its kindred dialects, the conquest of the Chinese tongue is far in excess of that of the Soniitic and Aryan languages, taken together. Judged by its literary outcome, and the inlluen ;e which it has exercised on mankind, its place among the agents of human progress is an honourable one. But, when we look for the force which has penetrated and translbrmed tlie millions of China and the surrounding nations, it is to an Aryan, one of that Indo-]']uropean stock to which we pride ourselves on belonging, that we iind them indebted, ij: Still there must have ixen some previous fitness in the soil or the seed of truth, which Buddlrism in its purity certainly contains, would not have taken root, and broua-ht forth such abundant fruit. Even before its introduction, the Chinese had a native civilization, comi)arable, at least, with thai of ancient I'jgypt or Babylonia, and, as has already been sliown. there is reason to believe that some of its benefits may, at a remote period, have been imparted to the nations of the west. Its adaptability to Chinese needs has been proved by its permanence, " Had the (^hinese," * * says Dr, Earrar, never existed, "the life of man would have been the life of the savage, withoiit govern- ment, without inventions, without literature, without art, absorbed in procuring the means to satisfy his daily wants." On the interesting question whether the native American civilization would have gone on fructil'ying and sin-cadinii', until this continent had l)een placed on a par in intel- lectual and moral ad\'ancement, sci(mc(\ literature, art, commerce and industry, with some of the nations of Europe, it is useless to dwell. But we cannot help thinking with regiet * " 111 tlio fu.sion of tlio two i'a<'o-s," says Mr. Morloy, '• * •■" '■ tlic ;.:ift of fiouiii.s \va.s flio coiiti-Miutioii of tli(( Celt." Aixain lui say.s: "Tlio pure Gaul— now ropresontcil liy tin Irish and Scotch Colts— was, at his licst, an arti) was the. saii»'. artisi nature." (.1 l-'lrnt St,lcl( iij I'JujU.^h LiliniUip', lip. S-'.),) t Ivan Tour.L'Uonoir, whose death adds another to the many losses that lite:ature, science and art have recently . RlL^tained. + Of course, if the elliirt in which some persons have oi!>ra'_'ed to trace lUiddha to a Scythian orif;in proV(Ml (successful, we should have to modify our racial diiitriliution of credit for wlialover hooiiE that fifoat proachor of morality conforrod on mankind. (Soo Tkr Iiuli'in hJiajiirr, of Iluntor, chap. V'll.) HPHIP A riKTROSI'ECT AND A FORE(.'AST. 31 that, at least, much more might havi; bocu made of it, if the (liKcovercvs and tho.se who Huecoodt'd them laid l)0(>n adnated by more humane and rational aims. Of the conqtxests of the Semitic languages, Christendom and the domain of the Prophet are the standing testimonies. If we add the lYom i^oO to 3S0 millions who profess Chris- tianity to the 17") millions who obey th^ di('tat(,'s of the Koran, it must be acknowledged that the vSemites have done their share in making the world what it is. A people's langUiig'O contains the essence of its character and experience, and as the iSible is th(! highest product of Hebrew thought and speech, and the Koran of the language and ideas of the Arabs, these religions conquests may, in a certain sense, l)e set down as concjuests of language. Duliois Iveyuiond also credits the Semites with the creation of modern science: "The fearful earnestness of a religion which claimed for itself all knowledge * * * imparted to humanity, in the lapse of centuries, that character of so))riety and of profundity which certainly lit ted them Ix'tter for patient r"search than did the light- hearted joy of life favored by the heathen religions.'' "We come lastly to ask what is the total of Aryan contribution to civilization and all that it implies. It cannot be denied that the three great religions of "West Asia and Euroi)e were the gift of the Semites. Tnit the question naturally occurs wdiether the Jews, in thi> days of the Persian exile, may not have learned from Zoroastrian teachers some of the great truths which they were (h'stined to impart to mankind. If Judaism be indebted to the Zendavesta, then to the Aryans will belong the tilory of beinn' tlie sjnritual teachers of almost the whole human rat'e. This is a jiroblem. however, which is not yet solved and on which it would be vain to linu'er. "Without robbing the Semites of any of the honour which has long beeji ascribed to them, the Aryans have had a share in the work of civiliza- lion which need fear no comparison with that of all the rest of mankind, hi the East Sakyamuni, " of Idameh'ss life,'' the " linished model of all the virtues," who holds a place in the lalendar of the Roman Catholic Church as St. Josaphat, has been the spiritual teacher of niort' thiin a third of the human race. Even if we leave his work oxit of the list of Aryan conquests, there is still enough left to establish the claim of the Aryans to the first rank among the benefactors of mankind. Th*; career of Greece alone may be set (religion apart) against all the achievements of the Si'mitic or " Allophylian" races. TheuKome, in turn, laid the solid foundations of that modern civilization in which Teutons and Celts and Neo-Latins were to be fellow-workers, and in which the Slavonii' nations have begun to have a part. All that Europe and America are to-day, and whatever of progress has been madein Asiii, Africa, Au.stralia and Oceauica during the last three centuries maj' be included in the Aryan conquest. It remains to inquire very In'iefly into the share which each of the European groups of tongues has had in the work of civilization. To pronounce on the relative importance of the great liti'ratiu'es of Europe would not bi' an easy task. Each of them has characteristic merits, to which the value of the language as an instrument of thought contributes ; each of them has its grandeur, it.s_ peculiar charms, whii'h only those, perhaps, "to the manner born " can thoroughly appreciate. To every one who is normally constituted his own language and its literature must be supremely dear. Hut that fact ought not to jirevent us from weighing carefully and deciding honestly as to the special claims of which jxistice demands the acknowledgment.* * rorliaiis, no niord telling in.stancu cuu'd bu iiddiiccd ul' thu dillbronco that lies botwoon comiiK'st m tbc vulgar 32 JOHN UKADK oN LAN(iUAGH ANI> ('ON(iUK,ST. Thfiv is one point, howovcr, ^vhi.■h may !..• .•xi.niiiir.l vvitliont .-vcn the Iniiptution (o iiivi.lious pivlriviuv. 1 nu'ini li foun,l a still larjier jon'ontage of Te.utonic words in a number f th,., best Kn-lish writers. Th.-, proportion ran-ed fr.im seventy t,. ninety-six i«r ...mt. The best plan to arrive at lertainty wouM be to count tho w.jrds in Skeat's "Distribution of wonts" in tho Kngh.sh language, aci'ijrding to their source.^, which is in the Appciuti.x to his " Etymological Dictionary." i^^mmfum A RETHOSPKCT AND A FORECAST. 33 of pcopl.", and (hut its iis.', in daily spreading' in all quarters of tho globo. "I hold," says rroUvssor Max Miillcr, "that lun^^Ul■iv is ni.'ant to h.- an inslnini.-nt of 42, aiul linally English, by 1,837,286,153. This forocaat is said to be based on the populations and known rate of increase of tliose who speak tho languages specified. Tho very nature of things would, of course, make my claim to accuracy on such a point out of the cjuestion, but tlu! reckoning may l)o ac<'epted as indicating, with sonu! approach to probai>ilily, (he position of tlie languages mentioned in the race for supreumcy at the close of a couple of centuries. * Wliattsa-rmay happen in the old world, on this continent English and Spanish are ■>,.= ly destined to be the ruling tongues. In the East they have also a foothold, with, in sv^uie pla.vs, Fren.'h, Dutch and I'ortuguesi^ for rivals. But (heie the opportunities of English for as^^erting predomhiance exceed those of the- other languages of Eu'-ope as much as they do in North America. It has all Australia, it is thi; langui'go of tho Hawaiian kingdom, it has been adopted by mr.ny educat.'d Hindoos for literary purpo.ses, and is every day extending its conquests throuuh liindostan, not to speak of its advance in China, Japan, and many other countries in tho eastern hemispliere. That French will be.onie more and more the ling-m fmnva of continental Europe and the hither East may bo taken for granted, as there is no rival likely to displact! it; and that it will retain its inlluence in North America tho experience of the past gives a fair guarant(>e. Gei'mau and the ot her Teutonic tongues will )<,ot surrender their heritage in Central and North-Western Europe, but there are no signs at present of any great extension al)road. The destiny of the Slavonic grortp is an interest- ing problem, but it is hardly lik.dy to do more than hold its own in the competition with liuropeau civilization, (hough great literary triumphs may yet await it. That it may become the rival oi English in Asia is possible, but not probable. * A ioriu'nst wliicli ^ivcw to M'cstorn Europe and this rontinont (tho present '.omes of tho languages to which It relates) a population of over two liillions and a linlf suggests serious iiuestions lor th(( economist, as well as tho I>hilologist. See. II., 1882. 5. I