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Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont filmte en commenpant par la premiere page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'iUustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un des symboles suivants apparattra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ► signif ie "A SUIVRE", le symbols V signifie "FIN". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre filmAs d des taux de rAducticn diffArents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clichA, 11 est film« A partir de I'angle supArieur gauche, de gauche A droite. et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'imagss ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. 32X 1 2 3 4 6 6 THE STOUY OF OtrR c OLONIES. s 1 if o 1 r* i I. r ( ( O ^ €-0 O \j3 r- 0: — O -i-. o -:i. O . J -i-- -^ i?!l^ ■ a « ^- iB >! S .s ■•r. ^- - IM - , It ■; 2 I I , ?5 C j^ '«' J. o to '• .■tf THE STORY OF OUPt COLOi\IES. nv H. R. FOX JJOURXE, . AlTlKd! OH' A MKM..irt OF SlU IMriLIl- SI|,NKv ' ' IHP . ,, ,- , WITH SIX iMAPS. TnrT^T . LONDON: JOHN HOOG, u, PATERNOSTEK ROW M/^ Jiiijhts lienerved.} ' McMASTEK UIMIVEKblTY LIBRARY PREFACE. Tu. first edition cf this book appeared in 18C9 with the o..n,prerator, note:. Perhaps the titie.^^^^^^^^^ Plams >ta purport. Of the history of the British pole -cl;rt^r::^t^"^'r-" „-,,,. ^ ^^^ *^o vices, the designs and the accdents. whieh ,ed to the formation and deve, ^ ment of our Colonial Empire, what are its present v^e and prospeet.e importance, and how these n,ay he „ ased by proper eultivation of the e^igration-fieL that During the past twenty years both the area and the population of our colonies have been nearly doubled and then, trade has been far more than doubL. W b Iw ox.p.nth have made immense pro,.ess in the open^ up of matenal resources and in the growth of social and political iiistitutioiip. Much, tliorcfoic, had to be re-writtcn, and much to bo nTidcd, in order to Iriii^' the record down to date. I liav(! adhered, however, to tlu; ori^^inal plan of tiic work, 6a}in;^ in it only what seemed to mc most useful, and not attempting to crowd it with more details than there was room for. London, lO^A July, 1888. J 1 on, to Llio ,11(1 CONTENTS. I CHAPTEI? I, OVn K.VKLIKST COLONIES. Intr(,,lnction-Tho Catluiyan Fables D! • ^^ir Walter l^aleigh-m 'L 7 i V.T'''''*"^ <''""•••' '•^"•l Colonies. [1490-1783] ^^^'-^t^^ - l-nglaucl'. other CHAPTEli II. OUR FIRST NVtST IM.IA.V COLONY The First English Settlements in the West Indies Tho F , . of ^ir John Hawkins and his .Successors T,7^. '^ ' and Early History of I5arba.los-Lord Wi 7 . ^"i""'^^''"» -The Civn War in iWhado-L:;^ ' ^^^^^^^ George Ayscue-The IWre.s of tbo T , °/ ^^ ^"'' ^'^ -Seventeenth Century-Its Trie and I^' t"^^ ^'"'"'"^ *^« and their Sufferings [1562 1700.] '"^'"'"*'""-''^''''' '^^^ves CHAPTElt III. JAMAICA ANI. THE UrcCANKKl's of Sir Hciry m„^:;^;ToTw r„rr"''^ '^ liucoanoers-ns Early IWrcs, T r m '"""' ""'"' "'" a..a .„bso,,„ont DisaX;, "ST,-';^./"'":'''--''','-- "' "'»-• I'AdG 17 2S 40 Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. JAMAICA AND SLAVERY. PAnn The Progress of Jamaica — Its Value to England — Slavery — The Slave Insurrections — The Rising of 17G0 — The Condition of the Slaves — The Insurrection of 1832— The Abolition of Slavery in 1834. [1712-1834.] 51 CHAPTER V. OUR WEST INDIAN POSSESSIONS. The Bermudas— The Bahamas— Other West Indian Islands— British Guiana — Trinidad — Jamaica — The Present Condition of our West Indian Colonies — The Causes of their Deterioration and the Moans of their Improvement. [1593-1888.] . . .50 CHAPTER VI. NEWFOUNDLAND. The Beginning of the Newfoundland Fisheries — The Growth of Newfoundland as a Colony — English Neglect of it — The Fishers and the Colonists — Its Troubles during War with Frauce— Its Subsequent Development — Seal-Hunting and Cod- Fishing. [1497-1888.] . - 71 CHAPTER VII. FRENCH NORTH AMERICA. The French in North America — The Colony of New France — Samuel Champlain — The Progress of the Colony — Wars with the Indians and the English — The Contests between the English and French Colonists — The English Conquests of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and Canada. [1524-1760.] . . 83 CHAPTER VIII. KOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNS^yICK. The French Settlers in Nova Scotia — Their Banishment in 1755 — Progress of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, and New Brunswick under the English — A Fire in New Brunswick — Prince Edward Island. [1713-18(51.] 96 ■ 1 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. CANADA. IX PACE The History of Canada under British Rule— The First American War — Internal Troubles — The French and English Canadians — The Second American War — Fresh Domestic Ditficulties — The Rebellions of 1837 and 1838— Lord Durham's Services to the Colony — Its Later History— The Canadian Confederation. [1760-1867.] 103 )9 CHAPTER X. THE Hudson's bay territory. The Hudson's Bay Company and its Territory — Rivalry in the Eighteenth Century — The Character and Working of the Company — ^Its Servants and Subjects — The Red River Settle- ment — Vancouver Island and British Columbia— Dissolutioii of the Hudson's Bay Company. [1670-1871.] .... 121 CHAPTER XI. BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. The Dominion of Canada — Its Constitution — A General View of the British North American Colonies — Prince Edward Island — Cape Breton — Nova Scotia — New Brunswick — Quebec — Ontario— Manitoba — The North- Western Territories — British Columbia and Vancouver Island. [1807-1888.] 131 CHAPTER XII. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CHANGES. Old and New Colonizing Policies — Effects of European Wars on Colonial History — The Supremacy of England — Our Mediter- ranean Possessions — Gibraltar — Malta — Cyprus — Heligoland. [1704-1888.] 146 CHAPTER XIII. WEST AFRICA. The West African Settlements — Sierra Leone — Gambia — Cape Coast Castle— Lagos. LHJ00-1S8S.] 155 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. CAPK rOLOXY. The Dutch Settlement on the Cape of Good Hope — Early Quarrels with the Hottentots and Cruel Treatment of them — Transfer cf the Colony to England — Its Progress under British Rule — The Kaffir Wars and other Troubles— The Boers and the Orange Free State — Other Offshoots of the Colony. [1G48- 1888.] PACK 158 CHAPTER XV. NATAL. The Kaffirs— First English Visits to the Eastern Coast of South Africa — The Settlement of Port Natal — Its Early Troubles and Later Progress — The Transvaal — Quarrels with the Boers and the Zulus -Other Complications in South Africa. [16S3-18SS.] 177 CHAPTER XVI. BRITISH INDIA. The Progress of British Trade and Conquest in India — Its Piesent Condition — Burmah and Assain. [1600-18SS.] 187 CHAPTER XVII. OUR ASIATIC COLONIES. Ceylon — Its Early Civilization — Its Subjection to the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the English — Its Present Condition — The Sti lits Settlements : Malacca, Penang, and Singapore — Hong Kong — Sarawak and Labuan — The Achievements of Sir James Brooke— British North Pjrneo— Mauritius. [1795-1888.] . 191 CHAPTER XVIII. EARLY AUSTRALASIAN DISCOVERIES. Portuguese and Dutch Visits to Australia — Tasman — English Voyagers — Dampier in Australia — Captain Cook in New Zealand and Australia — French Expeditions. [1 GOG- 1788.] . 202 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XIX. THE FIUST ArsTKALIAK COLONY. 58 PAGE The Convict Sottlcment in New South Wales— Its First Troubles —The ]'^-il Habits of the Colonists— The Beginning of Better Ways — Governor Macquarie — Australian Discoverers: Flinders and Bass — Inland Expeditious— The Progress of New South Wales. [1787-1821.] 210 CHAPTER XX. OLD NKW SOUTH WALES. Progress of New South Wales as a Free Colony — Services of Reformed Convicts — John Macarthur and the Wool-Trade — Sydney in 1829— Cruel Treatment of the Convicts— Growth of Free Institutions — Sir Richard Bourke — bevelopnicnt of the Colony — Explorations in the Interior — The Aborigines of Australia. [1821-1839,] 220 87 CHAPTER XXI. TASMANIA. The Offshoots of New South Wales — The Early History of Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land — Its Establishment as an Independent Colony — Its Convicts and Bush-Rangers— Extermination of the Aborigines — Its Best Governors : Sir George Arthur and Sir John Franklin — Its Greatest Prosperity — Its Deterioration and Present State. [1803-1888.] 231 91 CHAPTER XXII. Ni:\V SOUTH WALES AND THE PORT I'lITLLIP DLSTRICT. The Discovery of Port Phillip— Colonel Collins's Attempted Settlement on its Coast — Later Enterprises — Henty, Batman, Fawkner, and Mitchell — Buckley's Adventures among the Aborigines — Establishment of the Port Phillip Settlement — The Progress of New S?"" ^Valcs — The Squatters and their Work — Melbourne between 1 838 and 1850 — Sydney in 1848. [1802-18ol.] 240 xu CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXIll. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. PAGF, The Discovery and Colonization of South Australia— The Wake- Held Scheme and its Failure— Early Troubles of the Colony— Their Speedy Removal — The Copper Mines — The Effect of the Gold Discoveries in Victoria — Later Progress of the Colony ; Copper, Wool, Wheat, and Wine— The Northern Territory. [1822-18S8.] 256 CHAPTER XXIV. VICTORIA. The Establishment of Port Phillip as an Independent Colony, under the Name of Victoria — The Australian Gold Discoveries — Tno Ballarat Gold-Fields — The Consequences of the Discovery — The Progress of Victoria — Melbourne in 1856 — The Ballarat Outbreak — Political Changes in Victoria — Its Later History. [1851-1888.] 270 CHAPTER XXV. MODERN NEW SOUTH WALES. The Later Progress of New South Wales — Its Gold-Fields and their Fruit — Squatter-Extensions — Political Growth — Modern Sydney — The Present Condition of New South Wales — Its Sheep-Runs and Coal- Fields. [1851-lSSS.] . . . .284 CHAPTER XXVI. QUEENSLAND. Origin of the Moreton Bay Settlement — Early Misrule in it — Establishment of Queensland as a Separate Colony — Its Resources and Progress. [1824-1888.] 293 CHAPTER XXVII. WEST AUSTRALIA AND WASTE AUSTRALIA. Origin of the Swan River Settlement, or Western Australia- Early Misfortunes of the Colony— Its Present Condition- Explorations in the Interior of the Australian Continent- CONTENTS. PACE 256 270 284 293 Xlll rAtiR f^turt again ; Stuart ; Burke and Wills-Thc Character o the Interior. [1827-1888 1 v^u-vraccer ot ■■' 300 CHAPTER XX mi, PAKEIIA NEW ZEALAND. The New Zedand Islands and their Inhabitants-First Inter course with Englishmen-The Massaere of the cIv an 1 >vork-ihe Pakeha Traders-Articles of Trade-Traffic in Human Heads Other Debasing Eniployinento the P^^^^^^^^^ -Progress of English Influences-Spread of Civilization Th« Character of the Maoris. [1809-1839 1 ^'^'^'^^*^«n-The "• ^- 320 CHAPTER XXIX. NEW ZEALAND COLONIZATION. ^''%T, ,^f '''" I'^P^l^tion-The New ZealJnd Comnanv Growhh nf fi,. n 1 """i-nce ot the Missionaries— Later i^rowfch of the Colony. [1839-1867.1 332 CHAPTER XXX. NEW ZEALAND WARFARE. The Rival Races in New Zealand Th^ tv/t • ,t. the Following Year. Thpt";: ^^°"^ ^^^^s of 1843 and -Thp.V n 7 • ™'~J^^^ Subsequent Condition of the Maoris —Iheir Civilization— Their Numbers Th«T? ""*' ^^^aons A ue issue of the Struggle. [1^43-1869.] . . CHAPTER XXXI. MODERN NEW ZEALAND. ""''l^ptf ?r°Tr' "" ^«^-y-Its Recent Development- Its Present Conditiou and Capabilities. [1868-1888.] 310 353 XIV CONTENTS. CHArTER XXXII. FIJI AND NEW GUINEA. I'AfiK Missionary Work among the Fijians— King Tiiakombau — Annexa- tion of Fiji by England — Its bubscquent Condition — Other Annexations in the Pacific— British New Guinea. [1835-1888.] ^.IS CHAPTER XXXIII. ENGLISH AUSTRALASIA. The Relative Advantages of our A-Ustralasian Colonies — Their Progress and their Prospects 367 CHAPTER XXXIV. THE END OF THE STORY. The Value of our Colonies — The Political and Commercial Advantages Derived and Deri viable from them — Their Im- portance as Fields of Emigration 373 Index 383 LIST OF MAPS. THE WORLD, SHOWING BRITISH POSSESSIONS WEST INDIES AND CENTRAL AMERICA . DOMINION OF CANADA . SOUTH AFRICA .... AUSTRALIA . . ... NEW ZEALAND .... PAGE . Frontii^piece Facing page 28 96 158 202 320 » THE STORY OF OUR COLONIES, CHAPTER I. our. EARLIEST COLONIES. PAGE piece 28 96 158 1 IN'TnODUCTIOV— THE CATIIAYAN FAHLKS— DISCOVERY OF AMKIIK'A BV JOUS CAliOT— ms •NK\V-F0LN1)-LAM)S ' — THK KlUST El'KOKTS OF i\li: KNCLI.SII 1\ COLON'IZIXCi AMERICA — SIU HUMl'HllEY (III.HKUT AM) SIU WALTEIl UALKKJH — THE IIISE OF ENGMSH COLONIZATION — THE KSTAHMSIIMENT OF THE U.MTKO STATK.S— KNULANu's OTHER COLONIES. [111)0 — 17b J.J OR the last seven years the people of Bristol have sent out every year two, three, or four light ships in search of the island of Brazil and the Seven Cities.' So wrote the Spanish ambassador in London to his sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1498 ; and in his brief, bald sentence there is echo of a whole volume of romance. The island of Brazil — the island of the Seven Cities ; these were themes of eager talk and bold speculation throughout Europe four hundred years ago, when Europe comprised nearly all the known world of civilization. A few daring travellers, most of them friars, among whom Marco Polo was chiefly famous, had in previous centuries gone into the far East, there to hear marvellous tales of places and people supposed to exist yet farther east. Cathay, the modern China, and the Japanese and other islands beyond it — then known by a score of different names, like the Seven Cities and Brazil, or the * place of red dye' — were the subjects of 2 i3 OUR EARLIEST COLO XT ES. coiuitlefis fcables. Vast palaces of solid gold ; pearls and precioufi stones, spices and dyes, such as no gold in Europe could buy ; horses with six legs apiece, and two-headed ostriches ; giants twenty feet high, and drawfs not two spans long; fountains of perpetual youth, and trees bearing fruit of heavenly wisdom : these and a thousand other priceless treasures were said to exist in those remote regions ; and as the t^-avcllers* tales were repeated with ever fresh exaggerations, the adventurous youth of Chrif u uidom yearned more and more to make them their own. But barren deserts peopled by savage races, and vast tracts of lands wliich, in the old-fashioned ways of travelling, it took years to cross, were between the world of civilization and this fancied world of something better than civilization ; and therefore few attempted, and none thoroughly achieved, the enterprise, until shrewd men remembered the specula- tion of the ancients, that the earth is a round globe instead of a ilat surface, and considered that Cathay and Brazil could be reached much more easily by ships sailing out into the west than by eastward travelling on land. The first who actually proved the truth of that speculation, as all the world knows, was Christopher Columbus. But while he was urging his bold project upon Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and before the good queen had pawned her jewels in order that he might set out upon his famous voyage to the West Indies in 1492, other brave men were turning their thoughts, and ventuving on the sea, in the same direction. Without taking from Columbus any of the great honour that is his due, we must render honour as great to certain merchants of Bristol, whose wonderful exploits have hardly been recorded, and whose names even have almost passed out of memory. Four hundred years ago Bristol was, with the exception of London, the busiest and most prosperous trading town in I*]ngland. In pursuit of their calling, its merchants guided their little vessels to every known haunt of commerce, and to some which tliey alone frequented. They traded with i THE MERCllAXrS OF BRISTOL, 19 and irope laded two aring otliei* nnoto 1 ever ndom But .cts of t took n and ation ; lieved, lecula- n stead Brazil pg out ilation, But id and Dawned amous n were in the of tlio our as iderful s even jcption town in I guided jc, and Id with m Iceland, and the most northern parts of J'iUropc ; their trailic also took thcni down to the rich cities of the ^ledi- terranean, and the pirate-troubled shores of the Levant. It is very likely that in Iceland they heard of the early expeditions of Scandinavian voyagers to the coasts of Labrador, wliich are supposed to havo influenced Columbus in his adventurous schemes. It is certain that in Venice, Genoa, and other Italian towns, they heard of the Cathayan fables, and the supposed marvels of the island of Brazil and the Seven Cities. And, as is shown by the sentence with wliic'h our story opens, they were the first who sailed out to the west in search of those marvels. But of their doings unfortunately very little is recorded. The only extant account of what seems to have been their lirst enterprise is contained in two sentences of a contem- porary narrative. In 1190,* it is there said, * a ship of John Jay, the younj^'or, of 800 tons, and another, began their voyage from the King's Eoad, Bristol, to the island of Brazil, ploughing their way through the sea to the west of Ireland ; and Thlyde, the most scientific mariner in all England, was the pilot of the ships. News came to Bristol that the said ships sailed about the sea during nine months, and did not find the island, but, driven by tempests, they returned to a port on the coast of Ireland, for the repose of themselves and their mariners.' The Bristol merchants were not discouraged by that failure ; but of their further exploits in the ensuing years, until 1-197, we have no details at all. All we know is that, in spite of failure, they tried again and again, and thus prepared the way for the success of others. The success was first achieved by Englishmen, under the leadership of John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, who had settled as a merchant in Bristol, and who, if he was not himself partly the cause of it, was an eager follower of the project in which John Jay, the younger, first adventured. Therein he was mainly encouraged by the recent discoveries * The date given in tlio manuscript is 14 SO, but this is evidently an error. The year li'JO coincides witli tlie .Spanish ambassador's i?tatement. 2—2 so OUR EARLIEST COLOXiES. of Christopher Columbus, * whereof,' as Cabot's son Sebas- tian afterwards said, * was {,'reat talk in all the Court of Kin^ Henry the Seventh, insoinuch that all men, with great admiration, afVn-med it to be a thing more divine than human to sail by the west into the east, by a way that was never known before.' From King Henry, in 1496, Cabot obtained permission to go out on a more systematic voyage of discovery than Englishmen had yet attempted, and this he did, with very memorable results, in 1197. With this expedition begins the h.istory of English colonization. ' In two stout ships, manned by three hundred of the ablest mariners that he could find,' it has been said, * John Cabot sailed out of Bii:^toi waters, near the beginning of May. lie went first to Iceland, and sailing thence almost due west, reached the district now known as Labrador, but called by him and his successors New-found-land, on the 21th of June, 1497. It was at five o'clock in the morning that, from the prow of his ship, the Matthew, Cabot first saw the mainland of America, just a year before Columbus, passing the West Indian islands among which his two earlier voyages had been spent, first set eyes on the continent. No counterpart to the tropical beauty, and wealth of gold and pearls and precious stones, which rewarded Columbus and his comrades for their daring enterprise, was seen by Cabot and his hardy followers. Instead, they found a bleak and rocky country, on which very few trees appeared to them to grow, and of which bears and white antelopes seemed to be the chief inhabitants. Some groups of men and women they saw% all clothed alike in the skins of beasts, and with little other furniture than the bows and arrows, pikes, darts, wooden clubs, and slings which helped them in their frequent quarrels with one another. Black hawks, black partridges, and black eagles, as they reported, were all the birds that they could find ; and the place would have seemed to them altogether inhos- pitable but for its wonderful supply of cod and other fish."* * Fox Bourne, ' English Seamen under the Tudors,* vol. i., p. 32. I CABO rs DISCO I 'EKIES. 31 5obas- Court , with B than it was Cabot kToyago Lcl tlii3 three it has •s, near d, and ct now sccssora i at five is ship, ca, just islands nt, first tropical stones, ir daring lUowers. [1 which h bears ,bitants. ed alike re than d shnga ith one eagles, lid find; inhos- fish."* 32. 1 Cabot discovered not only the part of the American continent ^Yhich ho called New-found-land, but also the island now known by that name. Then he sailed northward, hoping thus to reach the fabled region of Cathay, for which these barren districts offered him but a poor substitute. He was driven back, however, by snow and fogs and icebergs, which so frightened his sailors that they refused to proceed farther ; and he was in Bristol again early in August. Cathay was never reached by John Cabot, nor by any of his brave comrades and successors ; but out of this first voyage to America issued its colonization by Englishmen, who have turned the desolate regions into a source of wealth almost rivalling that described in the Cathay an fables. During several years after 1497 visits 'vere paid by the Bristol merchants and their messengers to Labrador and its neighbourhood. A few of them settled there, and established a rude traffic with the natives, sending home such rarities as they could find. In 1505 Henry the Seventh paid 13s. 4d. for " wild cats and popinjays of the New-found- islands," conveyed to his palace at Kichmond. Other importations were of kindred sort. Even at this early period Englishmen saw the value of those abundant supplies of cod and other fish which Cabot regarded as the only welcome product of the Newfoundland district, and which have been a constant source of wealth to later adventurers. Fishing expeditions began at a very early date, and became more and more numerous and profitable in each succeeding generation. In 1578, eighty years after Cabot's first voyage, the English fishing fleet so employed comprised fifty sail, and contributed greatly to the prosperity of Bristol and the other towns engaged in the trade. Neither then nor for lon^ after, however, was Newfound- land or any adjoining district colonized by the English. One memorable attempt in that direction was made by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583. Four ships, laden with followers intended to establish a settlement on the island, were guided by him to St. John's Harbour ; but his colonists '»5 OUR EARIJEST COLONIES. proved mutinous, anrl lie was unal)lo to bring thcni into subjection, lie had liardly spent a fortni^dit in liis new homo when ho found it necessary to turn back towards I'jngland, and on his way thither lio perished by shipwreck. IIi3 project died with liim. Tailuro also attended tlio coloni/ing efforts of Gilbert's famous half-brother, Sir Walter Kaleigh. llaleigh sought to build up another ]higland in a more genial part of the American continent, and, though his own work was unsuc- cessful, he must ever be honoured as one of the pioneers of the great Anglo-Saxon commonwealth on the other side of the Atlantic. Having in 15H1 obtained from Queen Elizabeth a charter as successor to Sir Humphrey Clilbert, he organized several expeditions to the coast of what is now tho state of North Carolina, called by him Virginia, and there a colony was established under the governorship of Ralph Lane. A hundred Englishmen went out in loS.j, to spend a year in rude attempts to make for themselves a homo, and in cruel treatment of the Indian natives, whom they reduced to slavery, and to bo themselves so harshly used by these Indians that they were glad on the first opportunity to return to England. In 1087, a second party of colonists, a hundred and fifty in number, with Captain John White for their leader, went to take their place. But they were even more unfortunate than their predecessors. Abandoned by their friends at home, all were killed by the natives, except a few who wandered inland and gave up their English habits to share the life of the red men who afforded them shelter. The disastrous issue of Gilbert's and Raleigh's projects, however, offered no serious obstacles to the progress of English colonization. These were only the first pulsations in a movement which was to result in a wonderful extension of English power and influence, and to effect a social revolu- tion to which modern history presents no parallel. England was behindhand in the planting of colonies. Spain had begun a century before to take possession of the "3! THEIR ORIGIX. 23 I Ionics, of the most attractive portions of tlic vast American continent. Portugal, (lormany, and rranco liad followed tlic cxaniplo before anything of importance \vas done by Jlngiand. But at length she entered on the work v.ith unrivalled energy, an energy that ha3 had no abatement down to the present day. The early delay and the subsequent cngorness resulted from the same cause. During tlio sixteenth century I'iUgland was too busy with her domestic affairs and with liUropean politics to enter upon any sustained work in distant quarters, rrotestantism, taking deeper root and having healthier growth in our little island than in almost any other State, had a hard battle to fight Ijoth at homo and abroad. Its first great work was in overthrowing the old system of feudalism whicli, strengthened in past centuries by Catholicism, was now its main source of strength, and in building up the foundations of religious freedom that were the bases of the political, and, in a measure, of tho social freedom by which England has become a great and powerful nation. That work induced an apparently over- whelming force of opposition from the far greater powers of Franco and Spain, which, not content with open warfare, sought to gain their end by fostering internal dissension and stirring up hatred and rebellion among the classes who, on religious or other grounds, were most in sympathy with the great Catholic nations. Warfare, open and secret, was the grand business of Englishmen during the long reign of Queen Elizabeth. The men who, in other circumstances, would have become leaders of colonization, with Sir Francis Drake for their most illustrious representative, expended all their wit and strength in resistance of the enemies of their country. But that resistance, wholly patriotic, thougli it ♦vas not in all respects praiseworthy, was in tho end very helpful to the progress of colonization. Drake and his fellows, in their defiance of Spain, swept the seas, both near and distant, that were traversed by vessels laden with the fruits of the Spanish colonies. They became the 24 OUR EARLIEST COLONIES. toiTor of the European coasts. Their piratc-sliips also scoured the West Indian waters, and even made their way to the more distant haunts of Spanish conmierco on the Pacific shores of America and in the Indian archipelago. Thus Ihiglish seamen learnt to ply their craft with un- matched daring, and, when the proper time arrived, to plant their colonies in the most favoured quarters of the world, and in other quarters, less favoured by nature, which were made fertile by the wisdom and the perseverance of the colonists tliemselves. Concerning the first great outcomes of the enterprise thus shown, this volume has not to treat in detail. The wonderful history of the East India Company, started near tlic end of Queen Elizabeth's reign, by which our vast Indian empire has been established, is rather a history of trade and conquest than of colonization, and to it brief incidental reference in a future page will suHice. And the no less wondeiful history of the great colonial work in which ]^nglishmen were engaged in America during the seven- teenth century — a theme so wide and eventful that more than a volume would be needed for its separate handling — is precluded from our plan, because the colonies thus founded, no longer British possessions, have become them- selves a powerful nation as the United States of America. A few^ paragraphs, therefore, will serve for summing up all that here needs to be told concerning them. The work, begun with Kaleigh's luckless experiments, was more successfully carried on by two companies of ' knights, gentlemen, and merchants' — the one party belonging to London, the other to the West of England — to whom jointly a charter for the colonization of America, under Ealeigh's name of Virginia, was granted by James the First in IGOG. Three small ships full of emigrants were sent out on that errand near the end of the year, and the difficult task of planting the little colony was achieved by Captain John Smith, whose tact in making friends with the Indians, by help of the native king Powhatan and his daughter THE SETTLEMEXTS IX AMERICA. -3 was ^bts, to itly igh's 606. Itliat Ik of [ohn ms, liter I Pocahontas, liaj been often described in history and romance. The settlement was steadily recruited by fresh arrivals from England, and it was directed with tolerable success by later governors who followed to some extent in the course marked out by Smith. Its lirst important trade was in tobacco, which, sold in Europe, enabled the colonists to supply themselves with all needful commodities from the mother country. A great resort of cavaliers and their dependants during the times of civil war and Commonwealth rule in England, it became the most aristocratic of the American ' plantations,' the centre of agriculture and slavery. On the northern part of the district originally assigned to Virginia was founded the colony of Maryland, so named in honour of Queen Henrietta Maria, in 1G32, with Lord Baltimore for its originaior. Designed by him as a settle- ment especially for fugitive Catholics, it soon fell into the hands of persecuting Protestants, yet under them attained great prosperity. Still more prosperous were the colonies founded and developed during the same period by the Puritans. ' The land is weary of her inhabitants,' said ciie Pilgrim Fathers who quitted England in the Mayjloicer in 1G20, ' so that man, which is the most precious of all creatures, is here more vile and base than the earth we tread upon ; so as children, neighbours, and friends, especially the poor, are accounted the greatest burthens, which, if things were right, would be the highest earthly blessings. Ilence it comes to pass that all arts and trades are carried on in that deceitful nnxnner and unrighteous course as it is almost impossible for a good, upright man to maintain his charge in any of them.' Driven thus from old England, they set up their new England on the western shores of the Atlantic, and, as tide after tide of emigrants crossed the ocean, one city after another was founded, until in 10-13 there were four goodly groups of settlements, known as Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Newhavcn, which organized themselves as 26 OUR EARLIEST COLONIES. the United Colonies of New England, the first germ of the United States. The Puritan plantations grew mightily. But IMilton has said that ' new Presbyter is buL old Priest writ large,' and so it proved with the champions of religious freedom in the New Wor'd. The liberty which they claimed for themselves was denied to all who differed from them, and persecution was as rife in America as in England. One great benefit, however, sprang therefrom. Not only did fresh streams of emigration flow from England, but hardly- used members of the established colonies branched off to establish younger colonies for themselves ; and thus the entire coast-line was rapidly peopled with enterprising settlers, who, seeking their own wealth and comfort, turned the whole region, from Maine down to Georgia, into a scene of unrivalled wealth and progress. When in 1776 the thirteen colonial states in America resolved to throw off their allegiance to Great Britain — a secession rendered necessary by English misrule, and sullenly agreed to in 1783 — their population comprised about two million white men, and nearly half a million si; -OS. In the ensuing century the United States, increased to thirty-eight, with eight associated territories, became more than twenty-four times as populous. This mighty group of English settlements and their offshoots has grown into a nation which already comprises nearly twice as many inhabitants as the mother country, and whicli is nearly twenty-five times as large if measured by the extent of land which it occupies. Yet the colonial possessions now held by Great Britain, and mainly acquired since the loss of the American colonies, the most striking features in whose history have now to bo set forth, comprise an area thrice as great, and a population nearly six times as numerous, as those of the United States. The extent of territory is not likely to be very much augmented. But, except in over-crowded India and some of our smallest colonies, the number of inhabitants may be in- creased almost without limit. The poet's anticipations, m of the mightily. d Priest reh'gioiis '■ claimGcl lem, and id. One only did b hardly- ed off to thus the Drprising fc, turned , into a America :itain — a Lilo, and )mprised million Licrcased became mighty s grown as many 3 nearly t of land Britain, colonics, D\v to bo pnlation United ry much some of ly be in- ipations, T//£//^ OUTCOME. 27 warranted by tlie progress that had been made before he wrote, have as yet been only very partially realized : 'As the clement of air affords An easy passa-e to th. industrious bce^ |rau.:l>t with their burthens ; and a wny as sn.ooth nr those ordained t<, take their soundin^. fl.^ht 1 von, the thronged hive, and settle ^vhere tliey list In fresh abodes, their labours to renew • So the wide waters, open to tlie power, ' J he will, the instincts, and appointed needs yn i.ntain, do invite her to cast off Her swarms, .and in succession send thein forth ound to establish new communities ' n every shore wliose asj.ect favours hope Ur bold adventure ; promising to skill And perseverance tlieir deserved reward This")?,,;;'!" iT^^^'^'P' *"'• •''•■'^"t^y performed, Ihis land shall witness ; and, as days roll on. Jv-vrth s universal frame shall feel tiie effect ' J;^veu till the smallest habitable rock, Beaten by lonely billows, hear the son-s ()f Iiumanized society, and bloom A ' f^}\ '"'^' *''*''<^ ^''■^" hv^^th^ forth their frarr,.nPP A grateful tribute to all-ruling Heaven.- ''"fiance, * Wordsworth, 'The Excarsion,' Lock ix. i .:.. . ^. ^-v^^ >v^ CHAPTER II. OUR FIRST WEST INDIAN COLONY. Tin: Fin.ST KNT.MSII SETTLKMF.NTS IN THE WEST IXPTES— THE ETPI.OITS Ol" KIR JOHN' Hawkins and his successous — the colonization and EAUI.Y HISTOUY OK HAHISAOOS — LOUD WILLOUOIl 15V OV TARHAM — THE CIVIL WAR IN 1?AHBA1)0S — LOKI) WILLOrcHHV AND SIR OEOROE AYSCl'E — THE PKOr.UESS OK THE ISLAND DUKINi} THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY — ITS TRADE AND TOl'ULATION — THE SLAVES AND THEIR SUFFERINGS. [15G'2-1700.] F the colonies now in the possession of Great Britain, Newfoundland claims to be the oldest ; but the first regular plantations were in the West Indies. These were indeed, the scene of frequent fighting between English and Spaniards, which led to their colonization, long before there was any permanent settlement of our countrymen upon the American continent. It was an island of the Bahamas group that Christopher Columbus, believing he had thus attained his project of dis- covering a western passage to Cathay, first visited on the 12tli of October, 1402; and at San Domingo, in Hispaniola, or Ilayti, he soon afterwards organized the centre of Spanish government, whence proceeded countless expeditions for conquering and colonizing the adjacent islands and main- land, all of which were then known as the West Indies. For some time the Spaniards were left in undisputed possession of these regions. To the King of Spain they were assigned by a Papal bull, which none dared to dispute until Protestantism was powerful enough to set at defiance the authority of Rome ; and by the Spaniards they were cruelly inaiii- ndies. Iputccl I \Yere I until the luelly II A \VKIi\S 'S SI A I TT- TRADING. despoiled without hindrance until the native Indians, re- duced to bitter slavery by their conquerors, were almost exterminated. England, in fact, was first brought into important relations with the West Indies by a memorable plan — the successful working out of which cannot be looked back upon without shame — to supply the need occasioned by the rapid dying out of these Indian victims. The originator both of the negrc slave-trade and of our West Indian colonization was Sir John Hawkins, one of the most eminent of the great seamen under Queen Elizabeth. In his youth, says his old biographer, * he made divers voyages to the isles of the Canaries, and there, by his good and upright dealing, being grown in honour of the people, informed himself of the state of the West Indies; and being amongst other things informed that negroes were very good merchandize in Ilispaniola, and that store of negroes might easily be had upon the coast of Guinea, he resolved within himself to make trial thereof.'* This change from * good and upright dealing ' was begun in 1562. With three little vessels Hawkins then proceeded from England to Guinea, where he captured three hundred negroes, and, crossing the Atlantic, he sold his cargo at great profit to the Spaniards in San Domingo. His only purpose in so doing was the adoption of a lucrative and, in his eyes, a harmless trade. King Philip the Second of Spain, however, regarded any English interference with his colonial possessions as an offence to himself, and a source of danger to those possessions. He confiscated a portion of Hawkins's return cargo which found its way to Cadiz, and sent out strict injunctions to the West Indies, that if Hawkins appeared there again no business was to be transacted with him. Hawkins did not choose to be so thwarted. In IST-i he fitted out a larger fleet of trading-ships, five in number, and, having collected a larger cargo of negroes on the western coast of Africt\, went to sell them to the Spanish colonists. King Philip's orders prevented his returning to ♦ Prince, ' Worthies of Devon,' p. 3S9. .o ou/^ j'iRST irr.sT ixnrAX coloxv. San Domingo, but ho disposed of his slaves on th.c Spanish Main, and \vas able to take liomo a goodly store of 'gold, silver, pearls, and other jewels,' which yielded a proiit of sixty per cent., after all the expenses of the voyage had been paid. Queen Elizabeth rewarded him with a baronetcy, and the addition of a negro, ' in his proper colour, bound and captive,' to his coat-of-arms ; and King Philip complained loudly of his insolent conduct in again interfering with tho colonial trade of Spain. Those complaints, however, only induced Sir John Hawkins to make a third expedition, greater and more eventful than eitlier of its predecessors. Upon this ho started, with young Francis Drake for one of his captains, at the head of six vessels and fifteen hundred men, in 15G7. The voyage was to him and his followers wholly unfortunate, lie could only obtain a scanty supply of negroes on the African coast, and of these ho ha 1 dilliculty In disposing on tho Spanish Main. On his way home he was forced to seek shelter from bad weather, and the water of which his ships were in sore need, by entering the Spanish port of San Juan de Ulloa, in Mexico. There, after a terrible light with the Spania)"ds, he was utterly defeated. Great numbers of his conu'ades were slain. A few escaped with him to England. A hundred were taken prisoners and made slaves of by their enemies. * All our business,' wrote llawidns after his return to Plymouth, 'hath had infelicity, misfortune, and an un- happy end. If I w^ero to write of all our calamities, I am sure a volume as great as the Bible will scarcely suflice.' Yet his calamities furnished even a stronger motive than his earlier successes for continuance of the work that he had begun. Bitter hatred of Spain was growing up among all Englishmen, and the hatred was increased in the hearts of many by these West Indian disasters. A desire to punish the Spaniards for the injuries they had inflicted on the English, and forcibly to wrest from them a share of the trade which they were forbidden to obtain in peaceable ways, actuated many, and none so keenly or with such famous KNGI.A ND A GAINS T Sl\ 1 AV. "^i Spanish : 'gold, iroiit of acl been ;6y, and nd and plained ith tho [awkins ul tlian li young I of six age was uld only ast, and ti Main, om bad I'c need, Uoa, in a)'ds, he es were undred nemies. burn to Ian un- !, I am ice.' [e than Ihe had long all rts of unisli n tho lof the ways, lamous consequences as Sir Francis Drake, who had himself suffered and lost nuich by the failure of Hawkins's third expedition. Drake started on a warfare of his own against Spain. Over and over again he made what would now be called piratical voyages to tho West Indies and the Spanish Main, and in the course of these he captured nuich and destroyed nmch more. Others joined with him or followed in his track after he had entered upon nobler pursuits in tho legitimate service of his country, still with the same great end in view, tho injuring of Spain and the seizure of the wealth she was acquiring in the West Indies and on the neighbouring main- land. Actual conquest of tho Spanish possessions was not tlien thought of. The one thing aimed at was the spoliation of the enemy.* But when that spoliation had been to a great extent effected, conquest and colonization naturally and easily ensued. Thus it was that tho West Indies began to pass from the hands of Spain into those of England. The islands first seized by England, however, only nomi- nally belonged to Spain, which, while laying claim to tho whole group by virtue of Columbus's discovery, colonized none but those most conveniently situated in relation to llispaniola, and serviceable as places of resort for the fleets and armies engaged in the conquest and government of tho territories on the continent that were owned by Spain, from Mexico down to Chili. Many islands were never actually appropriated by her, although on that account she looked none the less jealously upon attempts at their appropriation made by other nations. So it was with Barbados and all the Caribbean group. To Barbados — thus named by some Portuguese, who, first visiting it, were struck by its profuse store of luxuriant lig- trees or banyans, from whose branches hung down masses of foliage resembling * barbudos,' or beards — the Spaniards only went in order to capture the fierce Indians who there resided, and who proved such sturdy slaves that within a * The story of this work has been told at some length in the second voliunc uf my ' Enyli.sh Seamen under the Tudurs.' 32 OUR FIRST l\l:S:'' JXn/AN CO/MM'. slioit, tiiiu^ tlioy worn nil l\i(lii!i]>p(Ml ami tlio island waa utt(Mly (loKcrtod. It was imiiihaltitcd wIumi, in l(i()5, tlio crew of tho (Uiiw ///o.s.so/// a vessel littcd (uit by Sii* Olivn Leij^'Ii, • a worsliipful kiii^^Mit of Kent' — eliaiiced to land on its shores. Tliey look possession of the island, ])Iantin;^' in a ])ronnn(Mit loeality a (M'oss, with the insrri[)tion, * -lames, Kini^of I'iii^fland and this island,' hnt quitted it a^ soon as they had i'(>plenished tJKMr ship with a snpply of the pi^'s, pigeons, and lisli with which it abounded. Its colonization was not atteni].tetl till twenty years later, when another vessel, belon^'iii}^ to Sir William (fourteen, the fiimous London merchant, havinj,' sou'^'ht in its harbour shelter from bad weather, attcJition was a^'ain called to its beauty and f(Mtility. In l()25 Lord Ijey, afterwards I'iai'l of Marlborough, obtained from Kin^' James tho J'^irst a ;^rant of tho island for himself and his heirs, and by him (lourteen was com- missioned to establish thereon tho first I'^n/^dish colony in tho West Jndies. This was done l)y a party of about forty, who in the same year wont out and be^Mu to build .James- town around tho cross that had been set up in l()0o; but pro^n-ess was delayed by quarrels at homo, l! sjjito of tho Ih'st patent, tho island was in i()27 granted by Charles tho First to tho Earl of Carlisle, who ])roposcd to orj^anizo ' a large and copious colony of I'higlish, to bo named tho Carlisle province,* embracing all tho Caribbean Islands, from St. Christopher down to Trinidad. Lord Carlisle had most inlluenco at Court, and, after a temporary withdrawal of his patent, obtained its renewal. In 1G28 ho sent out sixty-four colonists, who, under tho governorship of Sir \Villiam Tufton, formed a rival power to tiiat established by the earlier settlers. An angry feud, often leading to blood- shed, prevailed between tho two factions, known as tho windward-men and the leew^ard-nien, until a further arrival of two hundred persons made Lord Carlisle's party strong enough to compel the submission of tho others ; and after that Barbados very quickly rose to importance, both as itself a prosperous plantation, with nearly two thousand '/•///: J'J.A\ r/.\\j 01' IIAKIIADOS. 1 ) 111(1 wan I ".or), tlio •^ir Olivn liind on ,iitiii}^' ill ' .IllllUiR, soon as ho pi^'3, )iii/atiou another famous Itor from aiity and horoui^h, 10 ishinrl vas coiii- !olony in -^wi forty, (1 Jamcs- )05 ; l)ut o of tlio rlos tlio anizo ' a ncd tho Ishinds, islo had hdrawal cnt out of Sir shed by blood- as tho arrival strong id after oth as iiousand inhahitanls, reinforced oaeli year l)y fresh arrivals, mid as a centre for the eaptuiv; and coloiii/atioii of tho neij^hbouring islands. Tlie details of this ca])tnr(! and eoloni/atioii iiecid not hr-rcj he ^'iven. Some of the islands \V(M'e merely seized and aban- doned, not to h(! perniiiiKiiitiy 0(!('n|)i('d by l'hi;^dishnien until many yiNirs latei'. OtlnM'S, of wliieli St. ('hristo])ii(!r was the ])rin(!i])al, becainf? ])ros])er()us s(!ttl(!nients for a time, but, tiirouf^di various caustis, ])assed out of Mn^dish hands, only to 1)0 recovered long afterwards. J5arI)ados alonc! among the eastern group of West Indian Islands gnsitiy llourisiied during the sevcntcentii century, and in v.ww its ]u*ogr(!SS there were disturbing, though hardly nistraining, inlhuiiices. The main cause of turmoil within it was also jui important cause of its advancement. The strife of parties at homo under Chares tho First and tlie (Commonwealth leaders, in- ducing many hhiglishmen to seek peace in the second I'higland that was growing up on the American continent, drove many also to the fertile little island. ' These adven- turers,' says the I'^jarl of Clarendoii, ' planted without any- body's leave, and without being opposed or contradicted )jy anybody.' In IG-jO, twenty-five years after the first party of settlers had arrived, the population comprised twenty thou- sand white men, with a large number of negro slaves, audit was endowed with representative institutions, having a General Assembly modelled after tho English House of Commons. It had already grown too largo to be managed by tho Earls of Carlisle or tho agents whom they sent out as governors on their behalf. Accordingly, in 1G47, the second Earl elTected an arrangement with Lord Willoughby of jParham, to whom he assigned half tho property of tho Kvhole Caribbean group for a term of twenty-one years, on {condition of his going out as lieutenant-general, 'for the [better setthng and recovering of tlie islands.' That treaty shad memorable consequences. Lord Willoughby, till then ^a Parliamentarian, was at this time beginning to s}m- 3 % 34 OUR FIRST Wtyr IXDIAX CO LOW. patlii/o ^vith tlio Cavalier party. Sliortly before tlic execution of ('liarles the First lie was iinpoaclicd for lii^'h treason, and his estates were confiscated, lie escaped to "Holland, whore lie openly took up the Uoyalist cause, and thence, in J 050, he proceeded to Jiarbados, intendinf^ to make of the West Indies a stron;,diold for Charles the Second. Civil war was already wa^niij^' in the island, and Ijord Willou^diby organized troops, set up foi-ts, and equipped vessels for the overthrow of the colonial Koundhcads. lie was so successful that Lord Protector Cromwell despatched a fleet, with two thousand soldiers on board, under Sir George Ayscue, to oppose him. Ayscue arrived on the loth of October, 1G51, and on the following morning made an easy capture of fifteen vessels lying in the harbour. lie lost no time in informing Willoughby that the Parlia- ment of England desired that the people of Barbados should be sharers iii the liberty ' which had been purchased at the expense of s. much blood and treasure,' and that he was connnissioned to demand the surrender of the island. Wil- loughby's answer was, that he acknowledged no authority but that of King Charles, and that he should expect repara- tion for the injuries inllicted on the loyal forces of the sovereign. Ayscue then attempted to effect a landing, but the resistance offered to him was too formidable. On tho 2Gth of October he sent on shore a manifesto to the in- liabilants, calling on them to accept the free trade and protection offered by the Commonwealth, urging them to avert the destruction of their * long-laboured-for estates,' which must result from their continued obstinacy, and pro- mising forgiveness for their past misdeeds if they would now submit. The General Assembly replied, on the 5th of November, that the good people of the island were proof against the arguments of * tliose loose and scandalous papers industriously scattered up and down to poison their alle- giance,' and that neither fear of injury nor hope of reward would weaken their loyalty, * to which their souls were as firmly united as to their bodies.' Willcughby also wrote to I CIVIL WAR IN nARnADOS. 35 icutlon ^vllero I 1050, 3 \Vcst ,-av ^v1■s jrtlu'OW L-omwcll I board, arrived morning harbour, i Tarlia- )s should d at the i ho was id. Wil- [luthority rcpara- s o£ the ding, but On the the in- radc and them to estates,' and in-o- ould now lc 5th of Here proof lus papers leir alle- )i reward were as ^vroto to \yscuo, acknowledging tlie ' civility ' of his conduct, and averring tliat lie did not ' serve the King so nuich in expec- tation of his Majesty's prosperous condition as in considera- tion of his duty/ and that ' ho would never bo a means of increasing the King's allliction by delivering up the island.' ' If there be such a person as the King,' answered Ayscuo, ' the keeping of JJarbados signifies nothing to the King's advantage. God will own us in our attempts against you as Woi has hitherto done.' Tiicro was a little further parleying, which led to nothing, and in the middle of Djcember Ayscuo effected a landing, with a loss of ninety of his men, against fifty of th.o enemy slain and a hundred captured. The fort taken by him, how- ever, could not be held, and he had to return to his ships, where he tended the wounded prisoners with a * courtesy ' for which Willoughby wrote to thank him. Willoughby continued to hold the island for a month longer, but one of his regiments, a thousand strong, at length declared for tlio rarliament, and this increase to Ayscue's strength turned the scale, although three thousand soldiers were still faith- ful to the Crown. Willoughby then proposed a dignified surrender, not because he himself was willing thereto, but, as he said, ' seeing that the lire is now dispersed in tho bowels of the island, and that what may be done in a few weeks would turn the face of a country so flourishing, and so great an honour to our nation, into desolation and sadness.' Tavourablc terms were granted to him by Ayscue, who de- clared himself ' proportionately desirous to save Barbados from further ruin ;' and, by a treaty signed on the 12th of January, 1G52, he and his followers were allowed to proceed to England without confiscation of their property, and the island and its dependencies quietly submitted to the dominion of the Commonwealth.* The peace thus honourably effected was followed by a new period of prosperity, although the rapid growth of the popu- lation was not altogether duo to peaceable and willing * Itucurd Olhco MSS., Culonial Series, vol. xi. 3-2 It 36 OUR FIRST IVJiST INDIAN COLONY. colonization. In 1G57, between seven and eight thousand Scots, taken prisoners at the battle of Worcester, were ' sold as slaves to the plantations of the American isles,* many of them being consigned to Barbados ; and, among others of like sort, seventy persons detected in the Salisbury plot of 1G66, including divines, officers, and gentlemen, vv-erc sold to Barbados for 1,500 pounds of sugar a piece. These unfor- tunate captives, it was said, were 'bought and sold from one planter to anotlier, or attached like horses or beasts for the debts of their masters, being whipped at the whipping-post as rogues, and sleeping in styes worse than hogs in Englovud.'''^ The white slaves naturally resented such treatment, and more than one insurrection was organized between them and their black fellow-sufferers in the hope of securing a more humane policy. These were easily put down, but the laws of humanity were gradually recognised so far as the English bondsmen were coiicerned. They were admitted to share the freedom of their neighbours, and then the whole brunt of persecution fell upon the negroes, towards whom the civilization of those days accorded no more generosity than was needed to keep them alive and make them profitable chattels. A vigorous traae existed between Barbados and the mother country during the time of the Commonw^ealth and after- wards. In the middle of the seventeenth century about a hundred vessels came to the island every year, laden with emigrants, slaves, cattle, tools, clothing, and European pro- duce of all sorts ; and their homeward cargoes consisted of indigo, cotton, wool, tobacco, sugar, and other commodities raised by the industry of the inhabitants. These inhabi- tants, reduced to submission by Sir George Ayscue, proved willing subjects of the Commonwealth. They even in 1652 sought permission to send two representatives to sit in the English Parliament, and, though this was not granted, * ' r.nrbaclofi ^Merchandize, .a rotition to rarliament, piiiittd in tlic eleventh year of England's liberty, lUi>'J.' THE PROGRESS OF RARRADOS. 37 usan(T. 1 ' sold my of Lcrs of plot of sold to iinfor- 3m ono for the ng-post lOgs in id such 'ganized hope of sily put cognised They )urs, and negroes, Drded no live and jc mother |nd after- about a Iden with jiean pro- Lsistcd of fiodities ic inhabi- |e, proved ii in 1G52 sit in the granted, Lud in tl>^ their interests were well looked after by the authorities at home. Soon after the Restoration, Lord Willougliby was sent by Charles the Second to resume his governorship of an island that had thriven mightily during his absence. ^Yith ^Villoughby's return began a new period in the ^ history of Barbados. From 16G3 it and the other Caribbean Islands were taken out of the hands of the old proprietors, and placed under the direct authority of the Crown. The original patentees were grudgingly compensated, and the planters were established as independent proprietors, subject to their paying a tax of 4 J, per cent, upon the value of all their exports. As this tax yielded more than £6,000 a year, the prosperity of the island is apparent. Lord Willoughby's second government of Barbados, wise and generous, was brief. In 1GG6 he conducted a lleet of seventeen vessels to punish the French and Dutch, who had made numerous aggressions upon the Caribbean Islands claimed by Great Britain ; but a terrible hurricane overtook him off Guadeloupe. He and the crews of fifteen of the ships v\'ere lost. These hurricanes and the attendant rains were the chief V hindrances to full development of the resources of Bar- bados. In lG7o, a storm of unexampled magnitude devas- tated nearly half the island. A century later, in 1780, another brought death to more than 4,000 persons, and destroyed more than a million pounds' worth of property. J luge guns were dislodged and destroyed by the force of winds and waves. It is recorded that one twelve-pounder thus travelled 140 yards. The fertility of the soil, however, and the industry of the inhabitants, augmented by a steady importation of slaves, caused the periodical injuries of this nature to be easily retrieved. In 1G7G the island contained 20,000 nhites and 32,000 negroes. The Ihiglish population has never greatly surpassed that limit, but the black and .coloured population has been nearly always on the increase, .and this in spite of the excessive loss of life which is a necessary result of slavery. Through more than a century !B m 38 OUR F/nST ir/CST LVD/AN COLONY. about 4,000 slaves were imported every year. Of these, some 8,000 supplied the place of predecessors killed beforo their time. The actual increase of the black population was less than 1,000 a year. Those figures alone, if such evidence was needed, would sullico to show the evil work of slavery. This, the great blot in the history of our West Indian possessions, and per- haps the chief cause of their deterioration in modern times, will receive fuller illustration in later pages. In Barbados it seems, during the seventeenth century, to have assumed its worst and most degrading forms. The early colonists, whether going out of their own accord, or as exiles by decree of the Parliamentary authorities, were mainly of the Eoyalist party. Imbued with aristo ^nliic and domineering tendencies at home and in their relations with other Eng- lishmen of meaner birth, they were unable to make generous asc of the power which they possessed over their negro bondsmen. Down to 1805, the utmost punishment assigned by law for the murder of a black man w^as a fine of £1 1 sterling, and so niany diiliculties were in the way of convic- tion, even if the murder were sudden and patent to all, that the law was hardly ever enforced. No penalty at all was allotted to slower and more cruel killing by overwork, and castigation for failure in completing it. The slave's only defence against the ill-treatment of his nuistcr was in his value as a b^ast of labour, and so long as dpw victims could be easily and cheaply procured from the coast of Africa, it was often most economical to work the old ones to prema- ture death. It was poor consolation to the negroes to reflect, if they were not too ignorant for even this reflection, that the cruelties heaped upon them reacted upon their masters and produced their own degradation. Those masters, however, reaped great profits ; and during the seventeenth century Barbados, hardly larger than the Isle of Wight, w^as, next to the settlements on the continent of America, the most important colonial possession of Great Britain. The wise rule inaugurated by Lord Willoughby, Of those, ed bcforo ation was ed, would tlio great , and per- 2vn times, Barbados assumed colonists, exiles by nly of the mineering bher Eng- 3 generous leir negro it assigned ne of £11 of convic- bo all, that at all was L'work, and lave's only was in his !tims could f Africa, it to prema- negroes to 5 rellection, upon their 77//; r/WGR/:SS OF BARBADOS. 35 and carried on for the most pait by other governors, under Avhoso adnnmstration there occurred no special incidents that need to be recorded, aided it in the path of wealth and rendered it alike famous a., a i-csort of adventurers and as a source of gam to the mother countiy. i I IH m and during jr than the le continent ion of Great ^Villoughby, CHAPTER III. JA:\rAICA AND THE BUCCANEERS. COr.UMBUS TN' .TA:\rAI('A — ITS OOVKRXArKNT l',V TIIK SPANTAnOS— CROlNFWELr.'.S C'()N(il'i:sT — TIIK :MAU00N.S — TllK JUX'CANICKUS — TIIK iOCri.OITS OF SIU IlKMtY MOUlJAN— THE C'ON'XKCTION Ol' JAMAICA WITrl TIIK UUCANKERS — ITS KAULY riJOOllKSS— THE EAUTHQUAKE OF 1092, AND HUBSEgUENT DISASTKHS. [151)15-1712.] HE early history of Jamaica — * the island of streams,' as its native title, ' Chamaika,' imjiliccl — differs widely from that of Barbados. This island, being about a twentieth of the size of Great Britain, is nearly forty times as large as its eastern rival. It was discovered by Columbus in 149'1, and in it, being driven thitlier by a storm in 1503, he took refuge for more than a year from the ingratitude of King Ferdinand of Spain and the treachery of his agents, barely supported by the charity of the gentle Indians upon whom his great exploit was to bring misery and extermination. ' Let the earth, and every soul in it that loves justice and mercy, weep for me,' he wrote from his place of exile ; * and you, O glorified saints of God, that know my innocence and see my sufferings here, have mercy ! For, though this present age is envious or obdurate, surely those that are to come will pity me, when they are told that Christopher Columbus rendered greater services than ever mortal man did to prince or kingdom, yet was left to perish, without being charged with the least crime, in poverty and misery, all but his chains being taken from him, so that he who gave to Spain another world, had not safety in it, nor yet a cottage for himself. And surely,' he added, with prophetic truth, ' such SPA NISH J 1 'ON A' /.y J A MA ICA . 41 ^OM WELLS S OF Hill 'ANKKRS — sland of ' implied )S. This e size of rge as its 494, and k refugo erdinand |upported lis great Let the [cy, weep you, O see my jent age )me will )lumbus prince charged but his Spain Itage for . ' such cruelty and ingratitude will bring down the wrath of Heaven, so that the wealth I have discovered shall be the means of stirring up mankind to revenge and rapine, and the Spanish nation hereafter suffer for what envious, malicious, and un- grateful people do now.' Jamaica, not having the gold which tlio Spanish adven- turers chiefly sought, was not troubled by them for a few years after Columbus's return to Spain ; and when in 1509 his son Diego began to colonize it, the governor whom ho appointed, Juan de Esquimel, proved more merciful than most of his countrymen. * The affairs of Jamaica went on prosperously,' says the historian llerrera, ' because, Juan de Esquinn^l having brought the natives to submission without any ell'asion of blood, tliey lu soured in planting cotton and raising other connnodities which yielded great profit.' His successors, however, were of a different disposition. They practised in Jamaica cruelties as harsh as those by which the neighbouring islands were depopulated, and with like result. When Columbus visited the island its inhabitants, supposed to be more than sixty thousand in number, were * a tractable, docile people ; equal to any employment ; modest in their manners ; of a quick and ready genius in matters of trafiic, in which they greatly excelled the neighbouring islanders ; more devoted also to the mechanic arts ; more industrious ; and surpassing them all in acuteness of under- standing.'* 13y 1558 they were nearly all killed out, and what might have been a thriving possession of Spain had for its only tenants a scattered population of degraded negroes and of enervated Europeans, idle in everything but the exercise of their evil passions. Sir Anthony Shirley, with a small force, pillaged the island in 1596, and about forty years afterwards it was treated in the same manner by Colonel Jackson. In 1G55 it contained only some twelve or fourteen hundred Spaniards, and o.bout an equal number of negro slaves. In that year it was captured by a force of seven thousand '•• Loni^^ 'History of Jamaicii,' vol. iil., p. l*."!. ■ (.1 r :li i! 42 JAMAICA AND THE BUCCANEERS. Englishmen sent out by Cromwell. Many Puritans resorted to it, both from England and from Virginia and the other settlements in America, during the Commonwealth and after the restoration of Charles the Second ; but its progress was not at first very rapid. Placed by Cromwell under military rule, the soldiers refused to become colonists. The other residents quarrelled with them, with one ai-> other, and with the ,' authorities at home ; and all were harassed by the guerilla warfare kept up by the negro slaves of the Spaniards, who, taking refuge in the mountains, and there organizing themselves into a fierce body of lawless warriors, came to be known as maroons. ' Their sudden and unlooked-for eman- cipation,' it has been said of these maroons, ' bestowed by no generous impulse or deliberate act of high principle, but simply resulting from circumstances over which neither slaves nor slave-holders had any control, produced its natural results. The inestimable prize of freedom they resolved to hold at all hazards, and though a portion of them accepted the offers of pardon made by the English, the majority viewed all friendly overtures in the light of treacherous en- deavours to entrap them again into bondage. They and their descendants maintained for nearly a century and a half their position among the mountain fastnesses, whence, with occasional intervals of peace, they harassed the settlers by their predatory expeditions, often attended with blood- shed, undeterred by the cruel punishment which attended them if captured in open hostilities, or tracked to their caves by bloodhounds. These latter auxiliaries were frequently employed in chasing the original maroons, as well as run- aways from the negroes imported by the new colonists, by whom their numbers were subsequently augmented.'* Another race of lawless warriors was connected at this time with Jamaica, and, while hindering its peaceable development, helped to make it an important possession of Great Britain. These were the Buccaneers, successors to the piratical adventurers in the West Indies, of whom Sir * Montgomery Martin, ' The West Indies,' p. 22. t s tl iv MAROONS AND BUCCANEERS. 43 jortecl other I after 5S was ilitary other a with )y the niards, mizing 10 to be • eman- wed by pie, but neither natural )lved to iccepted majority rous en- hoy and y and a whence, ) settlers h blood- attended leir caves •equently as run- niists, by d at this peaceable session of lessors to ,vhom Sii' Francis Drake was the first great leader. Drake's piracy was prompted by patriotic zeal for the overthrow of Spain and Spanish tyranny, even more than by mere desire of gain. Gain, not patriotism, chiefly actuated those who followed his example. Early in the seventeenth century the buccaneers* started a new trade for themselves, or gave a new form to the old trade of smuggling and piracy, by making organized depre- dations upon the Spanish islands of Cuba and Hispaniola, and the yet richer territories of Spain on the mainland of America. Principally English, they received numerous recruits from France and Holland. Nationalities were abandoned in the commonwealth which they formed under the name of Brethren of the Coast, in which the customs necessary to their calling induced the formation of something like a special code of laws. * Property,' we are told, * so far as regarded the means of sustenance, whether obtained in the chase or by pillage, was in common among this hardy brotherhood ; and, as they had no domestic ties — neither wife nor child, brother nor sister, being known among the buccaneers — the want of family relations was supjplied by strict comradeship, one partner occasionally attending to liousehold duties while the other was engaged in the chase. Their chief virtue was courage, which, urged by desperation, \\.is often carried to an extreme unparalleled among other warlike ass' ciations. The fear of the gallows, which has frequently converted a thief into a murderer, made the buccaneer a hero and a savage. Hardihood, the habit and power of extreme endurance, might also, if exerted in a better cause, be reckoned among the virtues of the bucca- neers, had not their long seasons of entire privation been * The term 'buccaneer' v/as adopted from the Carib Indians, who called the flesh wlilcli they prepared honcaii, and gave to the hut in which it was slowly dried and smoked on wooden hurdles the same appellation. To the title by which the desperadoes of England were known, the French pre- ferred ' flibustier,' said to bu a corruptitm of the V^n^^Vmhwovd freebooter. — ' Lives and Voyages of Drake, Cavendish, and Dampier, including tlie History of the Buccaneers ' (lSo"2), p. 230. 1* I \\ 44 JAMAICA AND THE BUCCANEERS. always followed by scenes of the most brutal excess. Their grand principle, the one thing needful to their existence, was fidelity. As their associations were voluntary, their engage- ments never extended beyond the cruise or enterprise on liand, though they were frequently renewed. The ablest, the most hrave, active, fortunate, and intriguing of tlieir number was elected their commander ; but all the fighting men appear to have assisted at councils. The same power which chose their leader could displace him, and this was frequently done, cither from caprice or expediency. They sometimes settled personal quarrels by duel ; but offences against the fraternity were visited by different punishments, as, in extreme cases, death, abandonment on a desert island, or simply banishment from the society. A party having agreed upon a cruise, the day and place for embarkation were fixed, and every man repaired on board the ship with a specific quantity of powder and shot. The next concern was to procure provisions, which consisted mostly of pork. INIany of the Spaniards raised large herds of swine for the supply of the planters, and from their yards abundance was procured with no trouble save that in which the ferocious buccaneers delighted, robbery often accompanied by murder. Turtle slightly salted was another article of the food whicli they stored, and for beeves and wild hogs they trusted to their iire-arms. Bread they seldom tasted, and at sea ne\er thought about. Of this food every man ate generally twice a day, or at his own pleasure, and without limitation, there being in this respect no distinction between the commander and the meanest seaman. The vessel fairly victualled, a final council was held, which determined the destination of the cruise and the place of operations ; and articles wero generally drawn up and subscribed, which regulated the division of the spoils. The carpenter, the sail-maker, the surgeon, and the commander, were in the first place paid out of the common stock. Wounds were next considered, the value of the right arm, the most useful member of the buccaneer's body, being reckoned equal to six slaves : the THE ir.l VS OF THE nUCCAXEERS. 45 Their e, was Qgage- ■iso on ablest, [ their ighting power is was They iffences Linents, island, having rkation ip \vith concern Df pork, for the ice was rocious nurcler. which steel to la ne\er y twice , there iiander id, a tition of s wero ,ed the er, the aid out ed, the of the : the eye and linger had the same value, which was one slave. The remainder was equally shared, save that tlic captain had five shares, and his mate two. The first maxim in the eode of the buccaneer, dictated by necessity, was, " No prey, no pay." In their cruises, the freebooters often put into remote harbours to careen or refit their ships, to obtain fruits and fish, to lie in wait for the Spanish traders, and to plunder either natives or Spaniards. The former they some- times carried away, selling the men as slaves, while the women wero compelled to labour among those of the bucca- neers who followed the chase. Their dress consisted of a shirt dipped in the blood of the cattle hunted and killed ; trousers prepared in tJie same rude manner ; buskins with- out stockings ; a cap with a small front ; and a leathern girdle, into which were stuck knives, sabres, and pistols. The bloody garments, though attributed to design, wero probably among the hunters the effect of chance and sloven- hncss.'* Of that sort were the strange adventurers who converted Jamaica into a profitable place of resort for Englishmen. At first they pursued their lawless calling in little bands, indepen- dent of one another, and made their homes, in which to pass tlicir time of leisure and prepare their houcan, or preserved meat, in such nooks and corners of the Spanish Main or West Indian Islands as were least likely to be visited by the Spanish warships tliat vainly sought to put them down. As tliey grew in numbers and found it important to make more organized resistance to the enemy that came to attack them in organized ways, they entered into closer associations with one another, and established one or more centres of action. The little island of Tortuga, between Cuba and Florida, was first chosen by them. There for many years they built their huts and spent their gains in every kind of wild excess, and tlicre a sort of colony was formed by the irregular traders and attendants who crowded to supply their wants. But at * 'Lives and Vuyages uf Drake,' etc., pp. 2l1C-2-jO. m m §'i < ! Il«: 1 46 JAMAICA AND THE nUCCAXKERS. Icn^tli, while the bravest of tlic buccaneers wore at sea, a formidable attack was made by Spain upon the settlement, and all its rude civilization was wasted amid terrible blood- shed ; and soon after that the island was seized by Trance, which refused to countenance any but French freebooters. The English rovers had to seek another haunt, and, while they were seeking, Ciom well's force, under General Ven- ables, took possession of Jamaica. Thither a great many of the buccaneers at once went, and it was mainly by their assistance that two powerful attempts to recover the island for Spain, made in 1G57 and 1658, were rendered utterly futile. It was partly in gratitude for their aid, partly because their further protection might be valuable, and partly because ho secretly sympathized with their pursuits, that Colonel D'Oyley, the first English governor, allowed them, from that time, to make Jamaica a regular place of resort. Their crowd of satellites came with them, and the island was at once depraved and enriched by their booty. We are told by Exquemelin, the historian of the buccaneers, himself one of their number, how one especially used to delight in placing a pipe of wine in the streets of Port Koyal, and then, with a pistol in his hand, compel every passer-by to drink with him. ' At other times he would do the same with barrels of ale and beer; and very often with both his hands he would throw these liquors about the streets, and wet the clothes of such as passed by, heedless whether he spoilt their apparel or not, were thev men or women.' The greatest of the English buccaneers was Captain Henry Morgan. The son of a Welsh yeoman, he had gone out in his youth to settle in Barbados. There he was forced into slavery for some years, until, on his escape, he joined the buccaneers. By his wit and daring he soon became a favourite among them, and in the end he was recognised leader of a large section of the fraternity. By Colonel D'Oyley he was encouraged in his marauding expeditions, and as most of the treasure acquired in those expeditions was spent in Jamaica, the island derived as much profit as .S7A' liEX/n' M ORG AX. 47 5Ga, a mcnt, bloocl- rancc, )otors. while L Ven- any of f their island utterly partly partly s, that them, resort. nd was ire told 5elf one placing with a thhim. of ale would thes of apparel Henry out in ed into led the ame a Dgnised Dolonel ilitions, ditions ofit as could result from tlic extravagance and debauchery of the adventurers. I^Iorgan's most famous exploits were in 1G70 and 1671. Witli nine vessels, and less than live hundred men, ho pro- ceeded, in tlie first summer, to surprise the rich and strongly fortilicd Spanish city of Porto ]5cllo, near tlie Isthmus of Panama. In this he was successful, and after a fortnight's brutal riot in the captured town, he took back a great store of money, and vast quantities of silks, cloths, and other articles for sale in Jamaica. With so nmch of the proceeds as were not needed for the further revels there enjoyed, he equipped a fleet four times as strong for a bolder raid on the Spanish possessions. He sacked several smaller towns, and then, with half his men, advanced by land to Panama, the centre of Spanish colonial wealth, defended by a garrison nearly four thousand strong. He took no food with him, and little was to be found upon the way. ' Happy was he,' we read, ' who had reserved since morn any small piece of leather wlicreof to make his supper, drinking after it a good draught of water for his greatest comfort.' But the buccaneers knew how to fast as well as how to feast. After ter. days of hungry marching they reached Panama. A short night's rest was secured before they were detected by the enemy, and before the next night came the Spaniards were routed, and half the assailing force — the other half having been killed in the battle — had gained possession of the city. Most of the inhabitants fled from it, and, by design or acci- dent, its cedar houses were set on lire, so that a part of the treasure was lost ; but enough remained to satisfy the rapacity of the leader and those who were not tricked out of their share. It was conveyed to Jamaica, and there squan- dered like the previous booty. After that Morgan played the buccaneer no more. Peace between England and Spain had been made during his absence, and it was strictly enforced by a new governor, Lord Jonn Yaughan, who had been sent out. Morgan settled down as a planter, until, having won the favour of Charles t! !=; •< I {S-i {.:. .}8 J.IMA/CA AM) Till-: llUCCAM'.r.RS. till) S(!coii(l, lu) was kiii^'litod and inado dcputy-f^ovonior of .Juinaica. A youn^'ur planter, then in tlio island, dcstinod to become ill turn a l)ncf;anecr, \vas tlie famous William ])ampicr. But his exploits have very little to do with our present subject. J)urin|^ the tliirty years following the appointment of Colonel D'Oyley as governor of Jamaica, and the confer- ment of its constitution by Charles the Second, in KJGl, the island made rapid progress. In 10G2 it contained 3,Go;J I'higlish inhabitants, and 552 negro slaves. In 1G73 the white population had risen to 7,7G8, the black to 0,501. And it continued to increase almost as quickly, although tho tide of I]nglish immigration was by no means equal to that occasioned by tho working of the slave-trade. Planters settled in nearly every district of tho beautiful and fertile colony, and towns arose as marts fo- "'sproducc,and still more as haunts for the traders who pr^ ^ most by tho achieve- ments of the buccaneers. Spanish Town — as the old capital of the Spaniards, known by them as St. Jago de la Vega, was called — continued to be tho centre of government ; but the busiest seat of commerce was Port Royal, built on the edge of a coral reef which, with the neighbouring mainland, formed the splendid bay that is now termed Kingston Har- bour. ' Jamaica,' says one of its historians, ' had at this time made marvellous progress in respect to population and agricultural resources ; but, in a moral point of view, its condition was truly deplorable. The strife, vice, and misery attendant on slavery became early manifest. The attempts of the wretched captives to regain their freedom, and the predatory incursions of the maroons, even then scourged the colonists. Port Eoyal itself united to more than regal opu- lence the worst vices and the lowest depravity that ever disgraced a seaport ; nor could anything else be expected in a city whose most honoured denizens w ■'°, buccaneers, whose most welcome visitors were slave-trader,. '* A terrible earthquake, which brought retribution upon Port * Montsroinerv Martin, p. 20. i PK OGRESS AM) DISASTKR. 49 nor (if ;stiiio(l ,'illiiuii ith our lent of confor- Gl, tho I a, 05;} )73 the 1. And igli tho to that banters I fertile ill more ichievG- l capital a Vega, nt ; but on the ainland, ni Har- at this ion and iew, its misery bttempts land the rgcd the gal opu- liat ever expected Icaneers, hon Port Royal and tlio whole island, furnishcg a tragic close to tho story of ils connection with the buccaneers. * On tiie incn- ing of the 7th of June, iO'J2,' says tiio historian just cited, ' the governor and council were met in session, the wharves were laden with bales of tho richest merchandise, the mar- kets and stores displayed tho glittering spoils of Mexico and Peru, and the streets were thronged with people, when tho clear and serene sky became overshadowed by partial dark- ness, broken by faint gleams of red and purple, and a tre- mendous roar, like that of distant thunder, broke from tho base of tho mountains, and reverberated through the valleys to the beach, while the sea, impelled by the same mighty convulsion, rose in a few minutes live fatlioms high over the houses of tho devoted town. Tlio scene was appalling beyond description. Shrieks and lamentations rent ihe air. Mangled corpses floated on the waters, or were Hung up- wards by the violence of the shocks. Although there was no wind, billows rose and fell with such violence that the vessels in the harbour broke from their moovings. One of tliem, the Sivaii frigate, was forced over the tops of the sunken houses, and afforded a means of escape to many persons. Several individuals were wonderfully preserved, being swallowed up during the awful concussion, and thrown back again through an aperture quite distinct from that which had yawned to receive them, without sustaining any- material injury. Of the whole three thousand houses, about two hundred, with the fort, remained uninjured. The whole island felt the shock, and shared the disastrous el'fects of a visitation which happily stands alone in tho annals of Jamaica ; no other, before or since, having been known to compare with it. Chains of hills were riven asunder ; new ..channels formed for the rivers ; mountains dissolved with a mighty crash, burying alive the people of the adjacent valleys. Whole settlements sank into the bowels of tho earth. Plantations were removed cji viassc, and all tho sugar-works destroyed. In fact, the whole outline was ^rawn afresh, and the elevation of the surface considerably (I t (: 50 JAMAICA AND THE BUCCANEERS. diminished. The sentence of desolation, however, was yet but partially fulfilled. A noxious miasm, generated by the shoals of putrefying bodies that floated about the harbour, or lay in heaps in the suburbs, slew three thousand of the survivors. That so fearful a warning miglit not be forgotten by posterity, the sunken houses of Port Eoyal are, in calm weather, still visible beneath the surface of the ocean ; while, in striking contrast, relieving the deep melancholy of the scene, is a monument erected at Green Bay, on the opposite side of the harbour, which commemorates the preservation of Louis Caldy, a native of Montpelier, in France, who left his country on account of the Ee vocation o"" the Edict of Nantes, and, after having been swallowed up daring the earthquake, was, by the great providence of God, flung into the sea by a second shock, where he continued swimming until rescued by a boat, and lived forty years afterwards.'* The tale of misery does not end there. A new Port Eoyal was being built up by the survivors, when, in 1693, a hurricane swept over the town and destroyed a great part of the w^ork ; and before these fresh injuries were re- paired, in June, 1691, a powerful fleet, with fifteen hundred soldiers on board, commanded by General Du Casse, the governor of Hayti, came to spread further desolation over the southern and eastern parts of the island. They plun- dered and destroyed a vast number of plantations, and, though ultimately driven off with a loss of more than seven hundred of their number, the residue escaped with consider- able spoil, and about thirteen hundred slaves. There was another Prencli invasion from Hayti in 1702, when the famous Admiral Benbow, though he drove off the intruders, received his death-wound in the encounter ; and in 171- another tremendous hurricane desolated the eastern side oi the island. * Montgomery Martin, r. 24. four yet ■ tho )onv, L the otten calm vliilc, ){ the posite vation 10 leit. diet oi ag the ■\cr into o Lmming irds.'* >w Port 1693, a sat part ere rc- hunclrecl fSse, the on over ey plan- us, ancl. ,n seven ionsider- ere Nvas :hen the Litruders. •n side oi CHAPTER IV. JAMAICA AND SLAVERY. THE rRO(iRI«S OK JAMAICA — ITS VAIXK TO ENdLAND— SLAVKUY — TlIK SLAVi; INSIKUECTIONS— THE lUSINCi OK 1700 — THE CONniTION OK THE SLAVES— THE INSUKKECTiON OK 1832 — THE AhOLlTlON" OK SLAVEUY IN 18134. [1712-1834.] ^AMAICA made famous progress in spite of its disasters, and was soon found to be of great advantage to the mother country. ' The trade of that island,' it was written in 172S, * employs three hundred sail of ships, and about six thou- sand seamen, and tlie very duties on the imports from thence amount to near £100,000 per annum. There are eight fine harbours in it, besides many coves and bays, where ships may safely ride. There are also eighty- four rivers v/hich discharge into the sea, and seven times as many lesser rivers and springs which run into them. Its principal productions, besides sugar, are cotton, ginger, pimento, mahogany-wood, logwood, and indigo. Very little of tho four last-named commodities are imported from the rest of the British plantations, so that, but for Jamaica, wo should be obliged to purchase them of the French, Dutcli, and other nations. The cotton is necessary to work up with wool in many of our manufactures. The ginger is chiolly exported, though great quantities are likewise used at home. Their pimento lessens the consumption of spices, which are only to be had of the Dutcli at their own rates. Indigo, logwood, and fustick, are used by dyers, and are absolutely nccessavy in many of our manufactures ; and before we had 4—2 )! ; M ' V ll { i •! h '» '■ V ■'• 1 i 1/) 1', ir 1 n , ! L Wi 4 M LLm III Co OUR II 'KS T INDL I N POSSESS/OXS. " What sliuiild wi" do hut Hinj,' His piiiiso Tliiit It'll iH tlir()>i|,'h tilt; wiitfry iiiazr, Wlicic III- tliti liii;;o sta-iiKinstfrs wracks 'I hat lift tliu (Ift^p upoii tliiir hacks, I'litoaii isle HI) loni,' unknown, And yc;t far kiiuUr than our own V lie lauds us (111 a ifrassy stai^'o, Safe frriiii the storms and pivlate's raL,'('. Ho <,'avt' us the eternal s]irin;^ That hen; I'liaiiicls I'Virythiuj^, .And sends the fowls to us in caru < hi daily visits throu^di the air. He hanys in shades tho oranj^'e hriffht, Like i,'olden lainiis in a given ni,i;ht. Anil does in the j)oiiU',L,'i'anates close Jewels molt! rich than Orniuz shows. Jle makes the hgs our mouths to meet, And throws the melons at our fi'ct. With cedars chose'U hy His hand .l''r(>m Iicl)anon Ife stores the land, And makes the hollow seas that roar I'roclainx the amhergris on shore." ' Tlicii' convenient position in tho Atlantic Ocean, lying about six hundred miles to the east of Virginia, and some- M'hat farther nortli of the West Indies, made the Bermudas a valuable halting-place botli for traders and for war-ships proceeding to tlic other colonics, as well as a pleasant home for the settled population, which during the last century and a half has risen to 15,000 or more, about half wliite and half black. The genial soil and climate especially favour the production of arrowroot, onions, and potatoes ; but the chief value of the little colony has been in its military advantages. Formerly a dependency of Virginia, its an- nexation to the United States was desired by Washington, who saw that it could be made * a nest of hornets to annoy the British trade.' To save it from that use, it was furnished v.'ith almost impregnable fortifications and a great naval dockyard. South-west of the Bermudas and very near to Florida is the larger island-group of the Bahamas. New Providence, one of the number, was settled by the English in 1G29. Bat it and the neighbouring islands were throughout the seven- teenth century a frequent battle-ground between English, i THE BERMUDAS AND AXTIuUA. (>\ Spaniards, and rrcncli, and a yet inoro frequent field for the depredations of the buccaneers; and not mucli peaceable use was made of them till after tlio American War of Inde- pendence, when they became the undisputed possession of Tjlroat ih'itain. Less hospitable than most of the West Indies, tliey aro still but thiidy peopled. About 45,000 inliabitants, three-quarters black, are spread over an area of some 3,500 square miles. The most important of the early acquisitions of England in the West Indies, after Jamaica and liarbados, was Antigua. Sir Thomas Warner colonized it in IG32. In IGGG it was devastated by the French from Martinique ; but the colony was re-established in the following year by Loi-d Willoughby, who sent thither some of his liarbadian subjects, and its excellent facilities for sugar-cultivation soon made it a favourite place of resort. The atrocities of slavery had begun to bo mitigated as early as 1723. ' Several cruel persons,' it was stated in the preamble of an Act then passed by the local legislature, ' to gratify tlieir cruel humours, against the laws of God and humanity, frequently kill, destroy, or dismember their own and other persons' slaves, and have hitherto gone unpunished, because it is incon- sistent with the constitution and government of this island, and would bo too great a countenance and encouragement to slaves to resic-t white persons, to set slaves so far upon an equality with the free inhabitants, as to try those that kill them for their lives ; nor is it known or practised in any of the Caribboe Islands that any free person killing a slave is triable for his life.'* So great an ' inconsistence with the constitution of the island ' was not now attempted ; but a penalty of not less than £100 w^as placed upon the nmrder of a black, and £20 was charged for his mutilation ; and thereby more tenderness towards the negroes was induced. In 1732 iSIoravian missionaries came to tho island, and great good resulted from their teaching, and still more from their actual example. In 1831, when slavery was * youthey, ' llistury uf the Wcrit Indies,' vol. ii., p. t'-jo. % 4 ; ..,.- OUR WEST IXDIAN POSSESSIONS. abolished, Aiiti^'ua, alonu of all tlio West Indian Islands, chose at once to ^'ivo full liberty to the blacks, instead of passing' them throii^'h the sta;^'o of appronticeship allowed by law. ' Here, as in other islands,' said the governor of Antigua ill irtlO, ' the material condition of the emancipated race is most satisfactory. They are abundantly supplied with all the necessaries and most of the comforts of life. They arc well fed, well housed, and well clothed. Through the aid of friendly societies, which are in active and benclicial operation, the poorest can command good medical attend- ance, and other privileges seldom enjoyed by persons in a similar rank of life in other countries. The number of labourers withdrawing from estates, and settling in detached villages, continues to increase. There appear to be seventy such settlements formed, containing about 3,300 houses, c\nd a population of about 9,300. These village communities are not peculiar to Antigua ; but, owing to the transition which took place here direct from slavery to freedom, without the intervention of apprenticeship, they have made greater progress in this island, and from them may spring the germ of a middle class which must exercise considerable influence over the fi^/ure destinies of the colony.'* The number of inhabitants, black, white, and coloured, now in the island, has since been more than trebled. Other islands of the West Indies were annexed by Great Britain during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but in none of them was much progress made until recent times. During the long and costly wars that England carried on with the European nations and her former colonies on the continent of America, now the United States, she fought desperately for the possession of those West Indian colonies which had not previously been greatly thought of, and of others which had not hitherto been hers. In 1814, when peace was restored, she found herself mistress of nearly every important island, with the exception of Cuba, Ilayti, and Porto Eico, from the Bahamas down to Trinidad ; and * Blue Book, 1310. 1 oiigh n Great s,but imes. d on the ouglit lonies nd of when jarly ayti, and ANTIGUA AXD nRlTISII GUIANA. 63 lloii(Uiiab and liritish G uiana, ou tlic mainland, also belonged to her. Guiana had long been coveted by adventurous Enf^lisli- mon. Sir Walter Raleif:;h liad gone tliither in 1505, be- lieving that thus lie could gain possession of the imagined El Dorado. ' He, like every other J'higlishman, had been attracted by the fables of the Golden Gity of Manoa and the Golden Lake of Parina. Golumbus had started the fables, or at any rate had favoured the traditions out of wliich they grew. Vasco Numcz do Balboa had fu'st been led by them ill quest of the glittering phantom, and Pizarro had, in fol- lowing it, won the empire of Peru. Two generations of daring and bloodthirsty adventurers had hunted the phan- tom from place to place, until all tlie northern parts of South America had been brought under the dominion of Spain. Kaleigh hoped that where others had failed he might suc- ceed; and he knew that, whether there was failure or success, he could offer no greater insult and work no heavier injury to Spain than by planting the English standard in this most sacred scene of Spanish bigotry and tyranny, whence most of the gold emj)loyed by Philip the Second in persecuting Netherlanders and annoying Englishmen, and troubling the whole of Christendom, was being extracted with the help of cruelties that thrilled every honest looker-on with horror. '"^^ Ealeigh failed, and suffered terribly for his project at the hands of James the First ; and, though other Englishmen made small expeditions and even brief settlements, most of Guiana became the property of the Dutch, and under them it was a vigorous colony, and a scene of some of the vilest atrocities of slavery, during nearly two centuries. Three of its provinces — Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice — were seized by Britain in 1796, and, though restored in 1802, were recaptured in 1803, and confirmed as British posses- sions at the peace of 1814. They comprise an area of 76,000 square miles, over the greater part of which a few Indian tribes roam undisturbed. A population of about 250,000, * Fox Bourne, • English Seamen under the Tudors,' vol. ii., p. 298. 64 OUR WEST INDIAN POSSESSIONS. including Portuguese as well as English West Indians, and inmiigrants from India and China as well as negroes, cultivates most of the coast land, which extends for some 200 miles, and the sugar and rum produced by it yield a nourishing trade to George Tovrii, the capital. The vast resources of the interior, rich in timber, dyes, and other natural productions, have only lately begun to be utiHzed. Trinidad, the n 'Barest West Indian island, with an area of 1,754: square miles, was worthless Spanish property till 1797, when it was captured for England by SirBalph Aber- cromby. Its population, then 17,000, increased nearly ten- fold in the course of the following ninety years, and in sugar, rum, cacao, arrowroot, and other articles it has a nourishing trade, although that trade seems to be yet only in its first stage of progress. Its most remarkable feature is a great pitch lake, to which attention was first called by the late I'^arl of Dundonald, who visited it as admiral of the West India Squadron in 1850. * We arrived at La Brea,' he wrote, 'and before daybreak on the following morning were on the road to the lake, or rather stream, of bitumen, now indurated, which in former ages overflowed the lake. In- deed, the bitumen beneath this road seems still to be on the move, as is shown by curvilineal roado on its surface, like waves receding from a stone thrown into water. The appearance of the lake is most extraordinary. One vast sheet of bitumen extends until lost amidst luxuriant vegeta- tion. Its circumference is full three miles, exclusive of the creeks, which double the extent. The bituminous surface is of a dark brown, waxy consistence, except in one or two places where vlie fhdd still exudes. Obviously this spring is in full vigour beneath, for the whole surface of the lake is formed into protuberances, like the segments of a globe pressed together, having hoUcws filled with rain-water, which, except in the immediate vicinity of the bituminous springs, is inodorous and without taste — an extraordinary fact, showing that this bitumen is of a nature quite different If tlio CO is two ipring lake [globe rater, liiious lirary lei'cut TRINIDAD AND JAMAICA. 63 from that of pyrotechnic mineral and vegetable tar.'^' The bitmnen obtained from this remarkable natural reservoir has come, since Lord Dundonald called attention to it, to be an important article of commerce ; but other sources of wealth in Trinidad are still almost neglected. Trinidad has fared better, however, than some of our West Indian possessions. Those possessions, including British Guiana and British Honduras, comprise, in the aggregate, an area of nearly 100,000 square miles, being larger tliT Great Britain and Ireland. Their population hardly ex- ceeds a million and a half, and of these more than half are Avithin the narrow limits of Jamaica and Barbados. Barba- dos, indeed, is the dy one of them which has prospered in any adequate degree. To each of its ICG square miles there are about 1,000 inhabitants, who carry on a trade nearly equal to that of Jamaica, which is twenty times as large and thrice as populous. Yet, in natural endowments, Jamaica is the richest of the whole West Indian group. Every stranger who has visited it since Christopher Columbus has spoken in admiration of its splendid harbours, its beautiful mountains, its luxuriant valleys, and its fertilizing streams. Ceylon and Cuba alone, perhaps, among the islands of the world, can rival it in external attractions. ' On the northern side,' says one, ' the country at a small distance from the shore rises into hills, which are more remarkable for beauty than boldness, being all of gentle acclivity, and commonly separated from each other by spacious vales and romantic inequalities ; but they are seldom craggy, nor is the transition from the hills to the valleys oftentimes abrupt. In general the hand of nature has rounded every hill towards tlie top with singular felicity. The most striking circumstances attending those beautiful swells are the happy disposition of the groves of pimento, with which most of them are spontaneously clothed, and the consummate verdure of the turf underneath, which is discoverable in a thousand openings, presenting a *• ' Life of the Tenth Alarl of Dundonivld,' vol. ii., p. ^19. 5 I i' . :3: . wm .(■ 66 OUR U'KST fXDIAN POSSESSIONS. cliariiiing contrast to tlio tlecpor tints of tho pimento. As tliis troo, Nvliich is no less rcniarkablo for fra^'ranco than for bcanty, surfers no rival i)lant to llourish witliin its sliadc, these ^n'oves are not only clear of untlerwood, but even the f^rass beneath is seldom luxuriant, the soil in j^'eneral bein^ a chalky marl, which produces a close and clean turf, as smooth and even as the finest Knj^lish lawn, and in colour inlinitely bri^diter. Over this beautiful surface the pimento spreads itself in vai'ious compartments. In one place wo beheld extensive groves, in another a number of beautiful groups, some of which crown the hills, while others are scattered down the declivities. To enliven the scene, and add perfection to beauty, the bounty of nature has copiously watered the whole district. No part of the West Indies that I have seen abounds with so many delicious streams. Every valley has its rivulet, and every hill its cascade. In one point of view, where the rocks overhang the ocean, no less than eight transparent waterfalls are beheld in the same moment. As the land rises towards the centre of the island, the eye, passing over the beauties that I have recounted, is attracted by a boundless amphitheatre of wood, " cedar and branching palm," an immensity of forest, the outline of which melts in the distant blue hills, and these again are lost in the clouds. On the southern side of the island the scenery is of a different nature. In the former landscape the prevailing characteristics are variety and beauty ; in that which remains the predominant features arc grandeur and sublimity. When I first approached this side of the island by sea, and beheld from afar such of the stupendous and soaring ridges of the blue mountains as the clouds here and there disclosed, the imagination, forming an indistinct but awful idea of what was concealed by what was thus par- tially displayed, was filled with admiration and wonder. Yet the sensatio'n which I felt was allied to terror rather than delight. Thomgli the prospect before me was in the highest degroe magniticent, it seemed a scene of magnificent cU'iiolatioii. The abrupt precipice and inaccessible cliff h;ul I lU'l isly /cry ono less iamo and, (1, is ■ aiul I le oi i I aro ' tho cape that aiii^ slam^ aiitl b but pal'- iider. athcr n the ficcnt .T Uael lllE CHARMS OF JAMAICA. 67 iiioro tlio aspect of a cliaos tlian a creation ; or rather, setuiied to exhibit tlio olTocts of some dreadful convulsion which liad hiid nature in ruins. Appearances, however, improved as wo approached ; for, amidst tlio thousand bold features, too hard to bo softened by culture, many a spot was soon discovered where the hand of industry had awakened life and fertility. With these pleasing' inter- mixtures the llowin<^ lino of the lower ran^'c of mountains, which, crowned with woods of majestic ^M'owtli, now be^'an ♦0 be visible, combined to soften and relieve the rude olenmity of the loftier eminences, till at length the savannahs at the bottom met tho sight. These aro vast l)hiins, clothed cliielly with extensive cane-fields, displaying in all tile pride of cultivation the verdure of spring blended with the exuberance of autumn ; and bounded only by tho ocean, ^n whose bosom a new and ever-moving picture strikes tlie eye ; for innumerable vessels are discovered in various directions, some crowding into, and others bearing away from, the bays and harbours with which the coast is everywhere indented.' ■'• Those sentences were written in 1793, when Jamaica was at the lieight of its prosperity as a slave colony, and when none but the very wisest understood that the grand and beautiful island was being wasted by the unholy means that were beiu ; used for its development. Men admired its luxuriant cane-fields, and rejoiced at tho wealth they yielded, not heeding that the wealth was obtained for the profit of a few through the degradation of the many. Slavery being the rule in all the British colonies, Jamaica progressed as rapidly as any of the others. Since freedom has been estab- lished, its actual progress has continued, though, relatively with other and better-governed dependencies, that progress is really deteriorauon. All tte institutions of the island were offshoots of slavery, and plajnned in accordance with it : they have proved worse than usdess under the freer atmosphere that now prevails. * Edwards, vul. i., pp. 180-183. 5-2 .in' 1 r* ! w \ \ 68 OUR WEST INDIAN POSSESSIONS. Tlio traveller entering the noblo harbour of Kingston, which was founded in IGO;} after the destruction of Port Royal, and is now tho capital of the island, expects to see man's work in some accordance with nature's. He finds a mean and squalid haunt of poverty and vice. * The distant beauty of tho varied buildings vanishes before tho sight of streets without a plan, houses without the semblance of architecture, lanes and alleys without cleanliness and convenience.'* ' J)uring tho heavy rains in ]\[ay and October, the water finds its way by broken and irregular channels into tho gullies on tlie cast and west sides of the town, but much of it pours down the steep streets, forcing along a broad and nmddy stream a foot or more in depth. As none even of the leading thoroughfares are paved, nor provided with any artificial channels for the water, and the soil is generally loose and sandy, their surface has become ploughed up with deep ruts and broken hollows, while, from the quantity of gravel, stones, and bricks strewed about, they present more the appearance of river-courses than of streets in an in- habited city. The cross streets are in some respects still worse, being often fianked by dilapidated buildings, and iiitered over with rubbish. Nor is it only by inanimate objects that the senses of sight and smell are offended. Lean, mangy dogs are at all times to be seen rolling about in the noisome puddles, while others are wandering hero and there, grubbing up the rubbish for food. Besides tho swme and goats constantly moving about, Kingston has always been noted for its number of half-starved dogs. It is no unconnnon thing to see the carcass of one of these unfortunate brutes lying in the middle of a street, with a troop of the vulture crows which are ever wheeling about the city tearing it to pieces, while the air all around is tainted with the most baneful effiuvia.' I And the diii; and disorder of Kingston too truly indicate the neglect and mis- management that pervade the whole island. The same in- to * Madden, ' Twelve Months in tho West Indies,' vol. i., p. 98. f Martin, ' West Iudie.s,' p. 77. I and mate (led. jout here s the has It these ith a ibout nd is u and mis- Q iu- THE EFFECTS OF SLAVERY. 69 dolcncc and incompotcnco that prevail in parochial matters arc displayed in all the administration of the colony, wlietlier by central authorities or by local managers. The abolition of slavery, moreover, has not abolished the old antipathy between the negroes and their former masters. That antipathy only shows itself in new ways. The planters expect that the blacks will freely render as much service as was formerly forced from them by terror of the lash. The blacks, rejoicing in their liberty, and willing, now that it is in their power, to punish a race which has treated tliem so badly, arc idle, or at any rate prefer to toil on their own little farms, where all the profits come to themselves. Thus a jealousy has arisen, and even been intensified during the past half-century, which finds vent in numberless disputes, and out of which arose the so-called insurrection of 18G5, and its vindictive suppression. The prevalent absenteeism increases this evil. The real . owners of West Indian estates seldom live on their pro- perty, which is entrusted to subordinates schooled in all the vicious influences of slavery, wlio make no honest effort to bring about a better state of things by educating the negroes, and caring for them in matters concerning which they are too ignorant to care for themselves. All tlio negro's traditions, and most of his present associations, in- chne him to be thoughtless, stubborn, and superstitious, and these characteristics are alike injurious to himself and his employer. So long as he can secure for himself a home, in which cleanliness and European comfort are not necessaries, enough cheap food to live upon, and enough gaudy clothes to wear, he has no inducement to improve his state, or to consult the interests of his masters. Perhaps the amelioration of this gloomy condition of affairs is not difficult. Philanthropy, though often mis- guided, has done much to put worthier thoughts into the negro mind. Black settlements have been formed, in which gradually a higher self-relinnce and a worthier spirit of inde- pendence have found expression in the happiness and corn- s'?, ■A > f i ) n. :»• u 33 \\ 70 OUR WEST INDIAN POSSESSIONS. fort of the settlors. These must be encouraged, if only to get rid of the indolence and discontent of a great part of the negro population, which help to stagnate the whole con- dition of tlie island. Nobler motives, also, which are only the best phases of self-interest, must actuate the white residents in their relations with one another and their de- pendents. A generous master docs not often find his trust betrayed. If he consults the interests of those under him, he generally finds that his own interests are not neglected. Moreover, in Jamaica, and nearly all the West Indian colonics, there is room, and even need, for new settlers. Men and women to whom the more stirring life of most of our younger dependencies is not attractive, who care to make their homes in a temperate climate which renders agricultural life easy and delightful, if not convenient for the rapid accumulation of wealth, can find it here. t M CHAPTER VI. NEWFOUNDLAND. :1 Till". HKOINNINl! OK TlIK NKWKOUNnLAM) KTSIfKRIKS — TlIK GUOWTU OP NKWFOrN'DLANl) AS A COLONY — ENCiLISlF NKCI.KCT OK IT— TlIK KISHKHS AND THK COLONISTS — ITS TKOl'IiLKS DUKING WAR WITH FKANCK— ITS SUHSEtiUENT DEVELOl'MENT — SEAL-UUNTINU ANlJ COD-KISIIING. [1 1'J7- 1888.] HE vast district now known as British North America, to which John Cabot led the way in his famous voyage of 1497, and which then, so far as the bare discovery could make it, became the property of England, was not at first duly valued by its claimants. Cabot's visit to Newfoundland and Labrador was followed by many voyages conducted by his son Sebastian and other Englishmen ; but their object was rather to find a northern passage to India than to make good use of the source of wealth already reached. Gradually these districts came to be frequented by fisliing-vessels in search of cod, but even in that work foreigners took a greater part than Englishmen. The older fisliing-trade with Iceland, carried on by merchants of Bristol, Hull, and otlier ports, was preferred to what was thought tlic more hazardous commerce with Newfoundland. Those who courted danger generally went elsewhere. Yet the North American fisheries were not altogether neglected. In 1544 there were many English fishing-ships in Newfoundland waters, and ' in 1578 Anthony Parkhurst, an intelligent merchant of Bristol, 72 NE WFO UNDLA ND. reported that Le had been annually to Newfoundland in the four years past, that during that time the English fishing- fleet had increased from thirty to fifty sail, and that, although the French sent about a hundred and fifty boats, the Spaniards about a hundred, and the Portuguese some fifty, the English, by reason of the greater strength of their vessels, were masters of the trade.'* Soon after that, in 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert made the attempt, which has been already referred to, to turn New- foundlancl from a mere fishing-station into an organized English colony, but it failed ; and failure also befell a kindred effort of his brother. Sir John Gilbert, more than twenty years later. Other Englishmen went farther south, especially after Henry Hudson had gone to the district of New York ; and Newfoundland continued to grow only as an irregular home of fishermen and their famihes. The share taken by the French in this work is apparent by the number of foreign names yet existing in the island. Point Enrage, He aux Morts, Bonne Bay, and Petit Fort Harbour, contrast oddly with such blunt EngHsh titles as Old Harry, Piper's Hole, Hell Hill, Seldom-come-by, and Come-by-Chance. Not much thought was given to Newfoundland by states- men or rich adventurers until the Stuart troubles made it necessary for the more violent members of every party to take refuge in the New World. There, however, while the Pil- grim Fathers were establishing themselves on the main- land. Sir George Calvert, afterwards Lord Baltimore, took the lead of the Catholic emigrants. In 1623 he obtained a charter, assigning to him and his heirs a large part of the island, and a promising colony was founded, which fared none the worse because its leader, eleven years later, pro- cured a new grant and organized the Catholic settlement of Maryland, on the continent. Before long another little colony, consisting of Irishmen, was despatched by Lord Falkland, the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland ; and in 1654 Sir David Kirke conducted a second body of Irishmen to the * Fox Bourne, 'English Seamen under the Tudors,' vol. i., p. 187. I OLD FISHERS AND OLD COLONISTS. 73 ites- le it Pil- lain- book id a the ired [pro- it of ittle jorci Sir the island. The winter, or resident, population of Newfound- land then numbered three hundred and fifty families, in fiffcoon distinct settlements. Besides this, there was in the summer-time a floating population of some thousands, con- sisting of the fishermen who came for the cod-season. As these fishermen were of all nations, and as they thought it iheir interest to zealously oppose the permanent occupation of the island by English subjects, great con- fusion necessarily arose. For a long time the country was hardly governed at all. The traders sought in various law- less ways to drive out the settlers ; but the settlements grew every year, though also in lawless ways. ' As they were made of scarcely any account by the Government, they grew up without authoritative regulations, each man being a law to himself, and doing what seemed good in his own eyes.'* Tn 1667 they petitioned King Charles the Second for a governor and proper legislative arrangements for their well-being, but no answer was given to them. In 1674 they petitioned again ; when they were told by the Lords of the Committee for Trade and Plantations, which under the Stuarts was in the place of a Colonial Secretary, that all plantations in Newfoundland were objectionable, and that, if they were not satisfied v'ith their position, they had better come home. An agent, Sir John Berry, was even sent out ' with orders for the deportation of the settlers, the destruction of their houses, and in fact the entire uprooting of the thriving colony which had been reared at the heavy cost of the energies, treasure, and life- blood of several of England's bravest sons.'t Sir John Berry was too humane to obey his instructions, but all he could do was to leave the colonists as they had been when they sought the protection of the English Crown. In 1676 the threat of extermination was withdrawn, but strict in- junctions were issued by Charles the Second against the conveyance of any fresh emigrants to Newfoundland. * Pedley, • History of Xewfoundland.' f Montgomery Martin, ' Tlie British Colonies,' vol. i., p. 293. \\\ 'll ' mm: ;l'2 1:1! f? i ^ ■ 74 KE IVFO UNDLAND. In that unpropitious way the colony grow into importance. Even the wise statute of WiUiani the Third's reign, piib- lislied at the close of the seventeenth century, and regarded as the charter of Newfoundland liberties, contained the sin- gular provision that the master of any fishing-vessel from England, Wales, or Berwick-upon-Tweed, who, in each year, first entered any harbour or creek in the island, should during the fishing-season bo admiral the harbour or creek, and should have full power to decide all dilTerences between the fishermen and the inhabitants. The visitors were to have their own way in everything during the suunner, and there was to be no magistrate of any sort in the winter. ' When it is considered,' saj's the historian, * that, according to the testimony of a credible witness, the island had become at this time " a sanctuary and refuge for them that br^ 3 in England," it may readily bo imagined that during these wintry, unoccupied intervals, disorder and wrong must have prevailed to a frightful degree.'* At length a better state of things was brought about, tliough only by help of a war which nearly deprived Eng- land altogether of her neglected colony. The French had persevered in their North American fisheries, for which their great possessions in Canada and the adjacent parts had given them special facilities, and the settlement of Placcntia, which they had establi--licd in Newfoundland, had, under careful management, grown to bo a source of serious danger to the English. William the Third, at the outbreak of war with France, made it a special subject of complaint, * that of late the encroachments of the French upon Newfound- land and his iNIajesty's subjects' trade and fisheries there, had been more like the invasions of an enemy than be- coming to friends wdio enjoyed the advantages of that trade only by permission.' Louis the Fourteenth answered that his right to Newfoundland was as good as that of the King of England, and that from Placcntia he intended to govc the whole island. Thereupon William resolved that ho * I'odley. had Lnger ^var I that iierc, be- Liii' de that Kmg ivc It he IVA/^ IN fHE ISLAND. 75 should have no share at all in its government. The resolu- tion was stoutly contested. Placcntia \vas attacked in 1G92, but only slightly injured, and in IG'JG the Trench seized and desolated all the British stations except those in Conception Bay. The peace of Eyswick in 1G98 merely restored matters to their former condition, and enabled the French to increase their force on the island in anticipation of the i;reater struggle that began in 1702. Eleven years of varying fortune and constant trouble then befell the Newfoundlanders. ' On the d( laration of tlie famous War of the Succession,* wo read, 'Sir John Leake was immediately despatched by Queen Anne with a small squadron to take possession of the whole island, which he failed in ». .ng, although he succeeded in destroy- ing several French settlements and capturing a number of vessels, with which he returned to England at the close of the year. In August, 1703, Admiral Graydon was sent with a fresh fleet off the coast of Newfoundland, but, owing to a fog which continued with great density for thirty days, his ships were dispersed, and coukl not be brought together till the 3rd of September. He then called a council of war as to the practicability of attacking the stronghold of the French at Placentia, and it was decided that it would not be prudent to do so with the force at his disposal ; on which he returned to England, where his conduct was severely censured. In 1705 the garrison ot Placentia, reinforced by five hundred men from Canada, attacked the British colonists, and attempted to become sole masters of tlic island by assailing the harbour oi St. John's, where tliey were repulsed ; but they succeeded in gaining posses- sion of several settlements, destroyed Fort Forillon, and spread their ravages as far as Bonavista. In 170G, the British again expeiicd them from tl.eir recent conquests, and Capta'n Underdown, with only toii ships, destroyed several of the enemy's craft in the harbours along the coast, not- withstanding that the Frenc h had as many as ten armed vessels on that station. Although Parliament earnestly l« ! 11 ii ;• A '^ F- i' ' i 76 NEWFOUNDLAND. entreated the Queen " to use her royal cnrlcavours to recover and preserve the ancient possessions, trade, and fisheries of Newfoundland," little attention was paid to their address, the whole disposable force being assigned to the Duke of Marlborough, at that time in the midst of his victorious career. Tiio Trench, however, notwithstanding their repeated disasters in Europe, still found leisure to persevere in their endeavours for the expulsion of tho English from Newfoundland; and accordingly St. Ovidc, the French commander at Placentia, having effected a land- ing, without being discovered, within five leagues of St. John's, attacked and completely destroyed it on the 1st of January, 1708. The French then seized on every English station except Carbonier, which was bravely defended by the lishermcn. The news of this misfortune produced great excitement in England, as the possession of the fisheries had ever been considered a point of immense importance. An expedition \vas ordered to attempt to dispossess the French; but little was done beyond the destruction of a few fishing-stations. The British Government, being fully occupied with the events then occurring on the Continent, was unable to take any immediate measures for the recovery of Newfoundland; but, at the close of the war, England demanded its restitution, which Louis the Fourteenth was no longer in a condition to refuse, and by the Treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, Louis conceded the exclusive sovereignty of New- foundland and the adjacent islands to Great Britain.'* After that, its possession by England w^as only disputed on one occasion, during the turmoil in which France lost all her American colonies ; and better care began to be taken of a colony whose value was at last discovered. In 1728, Captain Henry Osborn, R.N., was sent out as its first governor and commander-in-chief, with authority to appoint justices of the peace, and to build a court-houso and a prison. For these there was much need. There w\as hard work to be done in rooting up the lawless institutions * Montgumciy Martin, vol. i., pp. 294, 295. THE PROGRESS OF THE COLONY, 77 all ten 58, Irst to ISC ms that had been allowed to gain ground for generations. Mutinies and insurrections, incendiarisms and private feuds, had to be overcome before there was rest for cither governors or governed. In the end this was secured, and during the past century the career of Newfoundland has been one of almost steady progress, though the progress has perhaps been less rapid than it ought to have been. The resident population, which at the beginning of the eighteenth century was only 3,50G, had in 17C3 risen to 13,112, but was in 1785 only 10,224. It was 20,505 in 180G ; 52,157 in 1822; «jG,50G in 1845 ; 122,038 in 1802 ; and 193,124 in 1884. These numbers include the summer visitors to Labrador, which has a fishing-ground 1,000 miles in length, and is subject to the government of Newfoundland. The chief wealth of this colony has always been in its fish. ' Other colonies,' quaintly said the Abbe Raynal, ' have yielded productions only by receiving an equal value in exchange. Newfoundland alone hath drawn from the depths of the waters riches formed wholly by nature, and which furnish subsistence to several countries of both hemispheres. How much time hath elapsed before this comparison hath been made ! Of what importance did fish appear when compared with the gold which men went in search of in the New World ? It was long before it was understood that the representation of a thing is not greater than the thing itself, and that a ship filled with cod, and a galleon, are vessels equally laden with gold. There is even this remarkable difference, tnat mines can be exhausted, but never fisheries. Gold is not reproductive ; the fish are so incessantly.' The value of the fisheries was thoroughly appreciated in early times, and especially during the first half of the seventeenth century. It was this, indeed, that, under a mistaken view, led statesmen and merchants at homo to use all the means in their power to discourage permanent settle- ment in the island. They desired that all the waters round about should be used only for fishing, and that the whole ilf: ■:| 1 !"■ \.rX[ i 78 NEIVFO UNDLA XD. coast should be nothing but a curing-grountl. In IGIO, five thousand seamen, in 15,000 tons of shipping, collected 15,000 tons of fish. In 1614, the trade employed twice as many men, and was twice as profitable. In 1G77 it was less than it had been in 1615, and in 1681 it had sunk very much low^er. The decline was attributed to the evil influences of steady colonization. It was really due to the greater care of the trade taken by the French Government, and the facilities provided by it for the disposal of the pro- duce. Tliis continued, and further hindrani3e to the exclusive use of the fisheries by England came through the later com- petition of the United States. Fishers from England and the inhabitants of New^foundland carried on the trade with advantage ; but their French and American rivals pursued it with yet greater zest under the encouragement of bounties, which its free trade policy prevented the English Govern- ment from giving. The same causes hindered the development of the other resources of Newfoundland. Until near the beginning of the present century, the internal wealth of the island was almost entirely neglected, and its agricultural and manufac- turing pursuits are capable of very much further extension, in spite of all that has hitherto been done. Its abundant stores of copper were hardly made use of before 1863, and the lead and silver mines, in which also it is rich, only began to be worked at more recent dates. Although Newfound- land has an area of 40,200 square miles, ;ts coast-line is the chief part that has as yet been found profitable. That coast-line, indented by numberless bays, harbours, coves, and creeks, has not much beauty to recommend it, and St. John's, on a south-eastern peninsula, is the only important town to be seen along the whole of its rugged course. The other towns are little more than haunts for tlie collection, preparation, and reshipment of the cod, seal, and herring that furnish a livelihood to most of the inhabi- tants. Cod, and its oil, form more than half their exports; and most of the other half consists of seal-oil and seal-skins. fegan burs, it, |only ^getl the seal, labi- )rts ; SEAL-HUNTING. Seal-himti ill tlu L'doii? )f tb most liazar( people, though it has been made easier by the substitution of steamships for the small sailing vessels formerly engaged in it. * The vessels,' it was said in an account of the busi- ness as it was conducted in 1848, ' are from GO to 150 tons, with crews of from sixteen to thirty men each, provided with firearms to kill the seal, and poles to defend the vessels from the pressure of the ice. \\\ the beginning of INIarch tlie crews of the vessels collect on the ice with hatchets and saws, and cut two lines in the frozen surface, wide enough apart to allow their schooners to pass. After the thick Hakes have been sawn or cut through, they have to be pushed beneath the firm ice with long poles. The vessels then get out to sea, if possible, through the openings, and work their perilous way to windward of the vast fields of ice, until they arrive at one covered with the animals of which they are in quest, and which is termed a seal-meadow. Tiie seals are attacked by the fishers, or, more properly speak- ing, hunters, with firearms, or generally with short, heavy batons, a blow of which on the nose is instantly fatal. The hooded seals somethnes draw their hoods, which are shot- proof, over tbeir heads. The large ones frequently turn on the men, especially when they have young ones beside them, and the piteous cries and moans of the latter are truly dis- tressing to those v.'ho are not accustomed to the immense slaughter which is attended with so great a profit. Tlie skins, with the fat surrounding the bodies, are stripped off together, and the carcasses left on the ice. The pelts or scalps are carried to the vessels, whose situation, during a tempest, is attended witli fearful danger. Many have been known to be crushed to pieces by the ice closing on them. Storms during the dark night, among vast icebergs, can only be imagined by a person wlo lias been on a lee shore in a gale of wind ; but the hard) seal-hunters seem to court such hazardous adventures.'* By the employment of large and swift steamships, Lho risks of goal-hunting arc lessened, but * iSlniitifntiii ry ^riutiri, vol. i., \^. V)-\. ! ! t ^ 1 ^^'^^-'-'^^ 8o NE ] VFO UNDLA ND. the new arrangement yields less profit than tlic old to any but the capitalists who own the vessels ; and even in their case the profits are very variable, being dependent on the uncertain movements of wind and ice. In 1811 as many as 685,000 seals were caught by the old sailing vessels ; the totals were only 150,000 in 1882, and about 400,000 in 1883. Less treacherous is the calling of the cod-fisher. This is of two sorts. The deep-sea fishery is conducted chiefiy by vessels from Europe which come for the season. The shore- lishery is in the hands of the resident population, and is pursued with but little change in method, though with vary- ing results, from year to year. ' An immense number of boats of different descriptions are engaged in the shore- lishery ; punts, skiffs, jacks, or jackasses, western boats and shallops, employing from one to seven men each, according to their size and the distance they may have to sail before they reach their respective fishing-grounds. The punts txA snuxU boats are generally manned by two persons, and em- ployed in fishing within a very short distance of the harbours or circles to which Oiey belong. The skiffs, carrying three or four hands, procu'I to more distant stations, sometimes twenty or thirty miles. The western boats are larger than skiffs, and usually fish off the entrance of St. Mary's Bay. The shallops are still larger craft. The punts and skiffs, constituting what is termed a " mosquito fleet," start at the darliest dawn of day, and proceed to the fishing-grounds, where the cod are expected in great abundance, for at cer- tain seasons they congregate and swim in shoals. These boats generally land their cargoes at the " stage" at least once a day. The western boats and shallops split and salt their fish aboard, and return to their respective harbours when they have expended all their salt or loaded their craft. The " stage " is erected on posts, and juts out into the sea far enough to allow the boats to come to its extremity, for the ready discharge of their cargoes. On the same platform is the salt-house, which is provided with one or more tables, around which are placed wooden seats , nd leathern aprons ids, ler- leso tast salt kirs laft. Isea )rm lies, COD-FISIJIXG. Si for the ciit-throats, licadcrs, and spHttcrs. Tlic fish having been thrown from the boats, a man is generally employed to pitch them -with a pike from the stage on to the table before the cut-throat, who rips open the bowels, and, having also nearly severed the head from the body, passes it along the table to his right-hand neighbour, the header, whose busi- ness is to pull off the head and tear out the entrails. From them he selects the liver, and in some instances the sound. The head and entrails being precipitated through a trunk into a flat-bottomed boat placed under the stage, and taken to the shore for manure, the liver is thrown into a cask exposed to the sun, where it distils itself into oil, and the remaining blubber is boiled to procure an oil of inferior quality. After having undergone tlr'g operation, the cod is next passed across the table to tho splitter, who, in the twinkling of an eye, cuts out ihe backbone as low as the navel, l^'or the next process the cod are carried in hand- barrows to the Salter, by whom they arc spread in layers upon tlie top of each other, with a proper quantity of salt between each layer. In this state the lish continue for a few days, when they are again taken in barrow^s to a square wooden trough, full of holes, which is suspended from the stage head in the sea. The washer stands up to his k:.ees in this trough, and rubs the salt and slime off the cod with a soft mop. It is then taken to a convenient spot and piled up to drain. On the following day or two it is removed to the fish-flakes, and there spread in the sun to dry, being piled up in small faggots at night. When sufficiently dried, the cod arc stored up in warehouses, ready for exportation.'* Herring-fishing, generally carried on as an adjunct to tho cod-fishery, and by the same men, has lately become an im- portant branch of trade in Newfoundland, where also un- limited supplies of salmon and lobsters are availal;lc .aid are being taken advantage of. Sci)arated by the Gulf of St. Lawrence from the North American mainland, and more isolated tlian there was need * Montgomery Martin, vol. i., pp. 3ol, -jo.'j. G W- f'i'i .'I ■A i 82 NE WFO UNDLA ND. for from the larger British colonies there, Newfouncllancl has not avoided participation in the hindrances to the general progress wliicli were due to race-jealousies and other causes ; but at the same time it lias suffered from the pardonable pride of the colonists in maintaining the integrity of their venerable island government, while its neighbours have seen the wisdom of federating as parts of the Canadian Dominion. Until the spring of 1888 all efforts of the more far-seeing of the Newfoundlanders to effect a union were overruled. Then, however, negotiations were opened for securing the long-desired change ; and much benefit may be expected to ensue from the adoption of the policy thus tardily approved. As a province of the Dominion, Newfoundland should have far more prosperity than could be hoped for so long as it remained a detached and not too well-managed little colony. fJ" , 1 ! II i I CHAPTER YII. FKKNCII NOKTH AMKllICA. TlIK KKKNCIl iN NOUTII AMKlilCA — TIIK COLONY Ol' NKW lliANCK— SA.Ml Kf, C'llAMI'I.AlN- -TIIIC T'UOCUFSS Ol' TIIK COI.ONV- WAKS NVITIl TIIK INOIANS AN'I) THK KNCI.ISII — TIIK CONTKSTS JiKTWKKN' TIIK KN(iJ.I«H AM) KKKNTU COLONlhTS — TUK K.\(iI,I.SH CONQUESTS OV NOVA HCUTIA, C'AI'K 15UKT0N, AND CANADA. [1 r)2 1 -1 700.] N 1524 Giovanni Vcrazzano, a llorentinc in the service of I'rancc, ^vent on a voyage in search of the north-west passage to Cathay. Know- ing, what Cabot had to lind out for himself, that America stood in the way, Verazzano sailed across the Atlantic to the west of Carolina, intending thence to follow the northward course of the shore. This he did, making curious acquaintance with the natives whom ho passed, until he reached the island now known as Nova Scotia. There, rightly judging that he had already made discoveries of suflicient importance, he abandoned his first intention, and, passing the southern side of Newfoundland, he returned to France. His proposal that all this great territory should at once be appropriated by King Francis the First was not adopted ; but ten years afterwards, in 1534, Francis sent out another exploring expedition under Jacques Cartier. Cartier first visited Newfoundland, and nearly cir- cumnavigated it ; and then passed through the Culf of St. Lawrence into Chaleur Jiay, so named by him because of the summer heat which lie found there. On its sliore he G— li It: n :i3 8; FRENCH NORTn 1MERICA. erected * a fair liiffh cross,' from which was suspended a shield marked with a ileur-de-hs, and the words ' Vive lo Eoi de la Trance,' in token that the country was henceforth the property of his master. Going home in the autumn, ho returned next year to prosecute his discoveries. He entered the St. Lawrence Eiver, and, passing the site of Quebec, proceeded to a hill from which he had so fair a prospect of the surrounding country that he called it Mont Koyal, now Montreal. Hearing the natives talk of their ' Canada,' or huts, he supposed that to be the name of the country. On his return to France he urged its immediate colonization. To that, however, Francis the First did not assent, and after two feeble efforts made in 1540 and lo42 by a French nobleman, the Sicur de Hoberval, Canada was undisturbed by Europeans for more than fifty years. But it was not forgotten. In 1598 Henry the Fourth sent a party of convicts, under the Marquis de la Eoclie, to explore and colonize New France, as Canada was then styled. Tliey seem not to have gone so far, but, halting at Sable Island, near Nova Scotia, to have there lived miserably, until five years afterwards, when, in pity for their state, the survivors, twelve in number, were allowed to go back to France. Before that, in 1600, King Henry had granted a patent for the more orderly colonization of the North American continent, and in 1(303 an expedition was sent out under the guidance of the famous Samuel Champlain. That expedition was planned only for exploring the country. Champlain proceeded to the St. Lawrence Kiver, and after tracking its course as far as Montreal, whither Cartier had gone long before, he returned to France in the same year with a report of his observations. In 1601 he went out again with a small colonizing party, of which the Sieur de Monts was appointed governor ; * all New France,' says the chronicler, ' being contained in two ships.' They proceeded, net to the mouth of the St. La\\Tence, but to the islands and mainland a little south of it, and there they wandered about for Komc time, exploring all tliu i.i i.* THE BEGINNINGS OE NEW ERANCE. 85 country, and making a place which they called Port Royal, now Annapolis, in Nova Scotia, the centre of their investiga- tions. A simple little colony grew np under the wise management of Champlain, who, while De Monts was in France, arranging for extension of the colony, was its chief director. The task of providing food for the company was each day assigned in turn to one of the number. ' We had ordinarily,' they said, * as good cheer as we could have at La Rue aux Ours of Paris, and at far less charges, for there was none but two days before his time came was careful to go a-hunting and fishing, and brought some dainty tiling besides that which was our ordinary allowance. When March came, the best disposed among us did strive who should best till the ground, and make gardens to sow in them. It was a marvellous pleasure to see them daily grow up, and yet greater contentment to use thereof so abundantly as we did.'"''' After four years thus spent in exploration and delibera- tion, the site of Quebec — the Indian name of a strait— was fixed upon as the chief station. Champlain went home for two more sliip-laads of people and stores, and returned, as lieutenant-governor of the colony, in July, 1008. His first care was to divide the land, to see that it was suitably cleared and built upon, and to make sure of provisions for the winter ; his second, to be friends with the neighbouring Indians. This policy led him to assist the Algonquiiis in war with the Iroquois, when he won a battle with a single gun-shot. The shot killed two chiefs and wounded another; whereupon, terrified by the new sight and sound, and by the instant falling of the leaders, the enemy fled. Slowly and steadily the colony advanced under the wise oversight of Ciiamplain. Missionaries and more settlers came. Some of the idle colonists showed an inclination to mutiny, and made violent efforts to bring Champlain into disgrace witli tlie Prench king. Tliough these were unsuccessful, they led to embarrassment by causing the appearance of a rival ''■ Churchill, * Collection of Voyages,' 1 'A .* J) . W \ Baa 86 FRENCH NORTH AMERICA. party of settlers. But Champlain quickly overcamo all dilCiculties. He succeeded in amalgamating the two parties. He sent back to Franco those men who refused to work. He formed alliances with the friendly native tribes. Hostile tribes lie checked by his firm dealing, at the cost of very little blood. On one occasion he was offered, by way of hostage, three young girls to bring up as he chose. He accepted the gift, and they became almost the first Indian converts to Christianity. One of them soon died ; but the other two he carefully educated, and learned to love as daughters. In that prudent way tne colony of New Fraiicfe, or Acatlie, the first European settlement in the northern parts of the American continent, was begun. But troubles soon arose to hinder its progress, although by them fresh attention was attracted to the work, and thus it was ultimately )|('lpn<] on. Many of the first colonists were Huguenots, \\\ iG27 ^ho whole management was intrusted to a new and CatliolJo association, styled the Company of Ope Hundred Partners, which, under the direction of Cardinal liichelieu, IjouIs t|>e Thirteenth's great minister, made its fhst grmit object tho conversion of the North American Indians to Christianity ; its second, the extension of comu\ovoo, atiil ospecially of tlio fur trade. Jesuits were sent out as spiritual guides of the enterprise, and 'Protestants and other huretics and Jews' were rigidly excluded, Champlain had only commenced to reorganize his colony in accordance with these arrangements when a much greater embarrassment arose. The proceedliigM of l-lin Fj'ench in North America were jealously legajded by the BngUHJi, vvlio, though they had hitherto been content with proBpcilling tjio Newfoundland fisheries, regarded LliM wlinlo region as i\\b\\ t: own by right of John Cabot's discovyr.Vi (ft 10 1 I llin governor of Virginia sent a force to Nova F^cotla. and there captured and destroyed the little settlement at Pol't lluytll, which Champlain had first establibhed. As nothing morn was done at tlii-^ time, ar/1 as the French colonists were Tj Lei' I in I", no ■ir Ik- L 11! SAMUEL CIIAMPLALVS COLOXY S7 then prospering in their new homo at Quebec, they were not mucli disturbed by that action. But in 1G21, Sir William Alexander obtained from James the Tirst a grant of the whole peninsula in which Port lloyal had been con- structed, ami whicli, as it was to bo colonized by Scotchmen, was now for the first time styled Nova Scotia, and, to aid his project, a distinct body of gentry, the baronets of Nova Scotia, was organized in l()2o by Charles the First, each baronet receiving 10,000 acres of land, and being bound to send out six men to the colon;, . Alexander at first con- tented himself with driving out all tlie French still resident in the peninsula ; but in 1028 he sent David Kirke, a French Protestant refugee of Scottish origin, to invade (Quebec. Kii'ke entered the St. Lawrence with a small fleet, and summoned Champlain to surrender. Champlain replied tJiat ' ho was sure Kirke would respect him much more for defending himself, than for abandoning his charge without first making trial of the English guns and batteries,' and tjiat be would wait his attack. But the failure of supplies, both in food and powder, reduced the garrison of Quebec to such extremities, that, when Kirke retui-ned in the following year, Champlain was forced to abandon the settlemont without a struggle. He returned to France, and during throo years Quebec was in the hands of the I'higlish. \\\ l088, however, by the treaty of St. Germains, between Charles the First and Louis the Thirteenth, Quebec and all the disputed territory, extending from Cape Breton into the unknown west, was ceded to France, and Champlain went back to the settlement for which he had done so much. lie died in lO.'irj, having fairly earned the title, given him liy comrades and successors, of Father of the Colony. Acadie, or iTew France, as the whole territory was again called, then revived, although destined to be the scene of frequent strife between the rival nations of France and Fnglanil for a hundred and fifty years more. Troubles also came from the Indians, whose riglits wore liy liu aiuauH bO woll rospected as they had been by Cham- P I J,: It ■13 ''\\ 88 FRENCH NORTH AMERICA, plain, though oven he had at last found it impossiblo to abstain from mixing in their quarrels, and so, while re- ceiving the friendsliipof some, meeting witli vinclicLlve oppo- sition from others. The fur h'ado, from which the rrench settlers derived most of their profit, brought them into intimate relations with the natives, and, besides the legiti- mate baiter, they soon acquired the habit of exacting from those tribes whom they protected, as well as from those they conquered, a heavy tribute in skins. Thus they made for tl)cmselves sullen friends and cpcn enemies, ready to use the endless opportunities that occurred for revenging upon individuals the injuries that they received from the whole community. Gradually encroaching upon the native territories, and, in spite of tbe frequent loss of life and property which they incurred at the hands of the Indians, growing steadily in numbers and influence, the French sought to extend their dominion in a southerly as well as in a westerly direction. \Vith the English settlements on the coast they dared not interfere ; but from IMontreal, which was founded as a European town in 1641, as well as from Quebec and the intervening forts, they made numerous raids towards the south in the ir.terior, aiming to carry the limits of New France down to the ]\Iississippi. There they over and over again came into collision with the English, who, also seek- ing to obtain f ars from the natives, went westward too, and considered that the St. Lawrence and the great lakes con- nected with it formed the narrowest boundary proper to New England. Thus the barrier-line became an endless subject of dispute and a cause of colonial warfare, to which the peace existing between the two nations in Europe yielded no restraint. A curious instance of the aggressive spirit encouraged among the French colonists by Louis the Fourteenth and his bold ministers, liichelieu and Colbert, is in the charter granted in 1GG2 to a new West India Company, as it was styled, which was to try and win possession of all the best W WAR 117771 THE ENGLISH. 89 . eel id IS parts of both North and feoutli America, as well as the neij,'hijounng islands, from thu Amazon up to Hudson's liay, and, in fact, of every region and country, ' so far as the said company may be able to penetrate, wliL'ther the countries may now appertain to France, as being or having been occupied by Frenchmen, or in so far s the said cc^mpany shall establish itself by exterminating or coii(]uering tiio natives or colonists of such i^uropean nations as are not our allies.' The French West India Company did not long exercise authority over the colonists of Canada ; but the colonists readily adopted the policy of 'exterminating or conquering* oil which it was founded. In 1G78, one named La Ballo organized a scheme for penetrating south. After two years of preparation, ho proceeded westward as far as the ^Mississippi, and then gradually passed down its course till he reached its mouth, in the liay of Mexico. Of the adjoining country he took possession in the name of his sovereign, in whoso honour he called it Louisiana. He also set up a fort in Florida. Soon after that his men mutinied, and put him to death ; but others carried or his ambitious project. AUiances were formed with the Illinois and other Indian tribes near the Mississippi, and a fierce war was waged between these allies and the Iroquois and other tribes, whom the English colonists on the coast befriended. With the Illinois on their side, the French found they had raised up an opposition too formidable to be properly withstood ; and when, in 1G89, the Illinois made peace with the Iroquois, and all the Indians became partisans of the English interest, they were in innuinent danger of themselves falling victims to the ' extermination and conquest ' which they designed for others. In desperation, Frontignac, then governor of Quebec, planned an expedition for the capture of New York and the neighbouring settlements of the English. As a counter- move the people of New York and New England sent an army, under General W'nthrop, for the conquest of Nova Scotia. Both expeditions failed, but others were entered i: J^.W^. v<;^ -^ „o. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // ^ 4 r-cj 1.0 I.I 1.25 ISilM |2.S ■ 50 ■^" ■■■ 1^ 1^ |2.2 11 1.4 I!: Ufi ^ > -> '/ S Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. USC3 (716) 873-4503 #(\ tv <^ cS"^ '"■""^■B 90 FREXCII XORTH AMERICA. upon, until, both French and EngHsh being wearied out by their previous strife, there was for a time a cessation of hostilities. The grcatci- strength of the English in America, however, keeping pace with tlio successes of the mother country in Europe, caused a serious crippling of the projects of their colonial enemies. By the Treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, besides the abandonment of the French claims to Newfoundland, which has been referred to, Nova Scotia, or Acadie, was given up to the English, and all schemes for the extension of French sovereignty along the Mississippi were declared to bo unlawful. New France was thus restricted to the regions then and still known as Canada. The restriction was not permanent, and the lack of any clear definition of the boundaries left room for future quarrel ; but for a time there was peace. New France had suffered greatly from the ambition of its colonists and their governors. During tlie time of peace it made rapid progress. * In 1720,' we are told, ' Quebec had a population of about 7,000, and TJontreal of 3,000. Nine- teen vessels cleared from Quebec, laden with peltries, lumber, tar, tobacco, flour, and pork, and four men-of-war were built in the colony. Part of the upper and lower towns of Quebec had been built, but the adjacent shores and islands were still covered with forests. The society generally was de- scribed as gay and sociable, consisting chiefly of military men and the lower order of noblesse, all poor and likely to continue so, being much better adaptetl for practising the most agreeable ways of spending money than the more laborious methods of making it. They saw their English neighbours steadily employed in accumulating wealth, but consoled themselves with the reflection that they did not know how to enjoy it. Their favourite employment was the fur trade, the only one indeed at all adapted to their excitable natures and desultory habits ; but the little fortunes they occasionally made thereby were compared by the traveller who visited them to the hillocks of sand in the deserts of I 'i )f CANADA IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 91 Africa, which rise and disappear ahnost at the same moment. Below Quebec the banks of the St. Lawrence were laid out in tolerably cultivated seigniories. Trois Rivieres then con- tained only SOO inhabitants. The city of Mor.treal was rapidly extending, and was in a great degree protected from the incursions of hostile Indians by villages inhabited by friendly tribes. Above Montreal there were only detached stations for defence and barter with the natives. Fort Cataraqui, or Frontenac, on Lake Ontario, appears to have stood in the midst of an uncultivated country, without any settlements in its vicinity. At Niagara a cottage was digni- fied with the name of a fort, and guarded by a few French oflicers and soldiers.'* That moderate prosperity, and all the care taken by the colonists for their solid advancement in ways of agriculture and commerce, wore chiefly due to the wise govermnent of the Marquis do Vaudreuil, v,'ho died in 1725, after ruling in Canada for twenty-two yeai's. His successor, the Marquis do Beauharnais, was of more ambitious temperament, and under him new quarrels with the English were provoked. Tliey were of no great importance, however, until they were aggravated by the outbreak of fresh war between England and France in ITli. In 1745 Cape Breton, a valuable island which had remained in the hands of the French after the surrender of the neighbouring mainland of Nova Scotia, was taken by a naval force from Britain, aided by New England troops ; and in 171G and 1717 the French sought to recover both it and Nova Scotia. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1718, Cape Breton was restored, and Nova Scotia was left in English hands ; but the spirit of opposition thus renewed between the rivalcolonists could not be wholly stayed by Euro- pean treaties. The old antagonism as to the possession of the basin of the Mississippi and the adjoining districts again became formidable. It was augmented by a new governor of Canada, the ]Marquis du Quesne, who arrived in 1752 ; and the violence of his successor, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, * MontcfoiiKTv Martin, vnl. i., p. 10. ffi tti! ?^H U t ;,;=;y 92 FRENCH NORTH AMERfCA. sent out in 1705, led to the final overthrow of his govern- ment and of the authority of France in North America. The Pennsylvanians had carried on such a lively trade in furs witli tlie Iroquois who resided between Lakes Michigan and Erie, that the importance of the trade led to the planning of the separate settlement of Ohio. That movement pro- voked the jealousy of the Canadians, who asserted their right to the territory, and proceeded to maintain their title by force of arms. Thus strife began again. Du Quesne built a fort, which bore his own name ; and the English erected a Fort Necessity, very near to it, which George Washington, then learning his work as a soldier and a patt'iot, was sent to defend. This he did until, in an attack on Fort du Quesne, he was unsuccessful, and then he had to capitulate. Good came out of this disaster, as it helpc 1 to arouse English interest in the dispute. A strong force v/as organizied and sent out in January, 1755, under General Braddock, who, detaching a part of his army for work in other quarters, led the rest into Ohio, with V/ashington as his second in command. There Braddock was mortally wounded and his army defeated. Other defeats followed. The English sol- diers, ill adapted for the new ways of fighting in which they had to engage, and often at variance with the colonial militias, proved at first unable to cope with the Canadians, who had been reinforced by a large body of troops from France. Not till 1758, when Pitt had sent out another strong force for the assistance of the colonists, were they able to withstand the encroachments of the enemy. Then, however, the tide turned. Sir Ealpli Abercromby, as com- mander-in-chief, found himself at the head of an army of 50,000 men, and able to make three separate and formidable attacks upon the French in Canada and in the outlying dis- tricts which they had begun to regard as their own. The first party, under General Amherst, with James Wolfe as his chief assistant, was sent to capture Cape Breton, and this was soon done through the skill and boldness of Wolfe. The second, led by Abercromby himself against the enemy's a 31' le ITS COXQUEST BY ENGLAND. 93 forts in the basin of the Mississippi, was less successful, but it served to hinder the French from making any fresli encroachments in that direction. The third, in which Washington was employed, with General Forbes for chief, was directed against Fort du Quesne, which was easily cap- tured, and the whole Ohio district was restored to the English. In these ways the summer of 1758 was well employed. In 1759 yet bolder work was done. Three separate armies were again organized, and each achieved the task assigned to it. By one the Mississippi region was secured. By another Fort Niagara was captured, and the French were thus driven north of the St. Lawrence. But the exploits of the third army were more memorable. It was commanded by General Wolfe, who, though then only thirty-three years old, had been intrusted with the most difficult work of all. He was to make himself master of Quebec, and thus expel the French from their central stronghold. ' Before the city, more strongly fortified by nature than by art, could be attacked,' St»,ys his biographer, ' a vast theatre, exceeding thirty miles in extent, and em- bracing both sides of a prodigious river, had to be occupied by an army numbering not quite 7,000 men. Within view of a much superior force, in a hostile country, and sur- rounded by prowling savages, it was necessary that distinct operations should be carried on by several detachments ; but distant though these detachments were, Wolfe, by his constant presence as well as by his master-mind, so directed them that they acted with all the unity of a single battalion. Between the invaders and the only weak side of the city lay a defensive army, surrounded by impregnable entrench- ments, and commanded by a cautious and hitherto suc- cessful general ; but Wol'e, by his unwearied vigilance and his untiring perseverance, at length beguiled his unwilling adversary to meet him in the open field.'* ' In this contest, with so many difficulties, one may say with nature itself,' * Wright, 'Life of Majoi-licmtal James Wolfe' •:X ill I -.( <\ j': t i II it hi o in le le CHAPTEB VIII. NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW liltUXSWlCK. THR FRKNCH SKTTrKRS IN NOVA srOTTA — THFIU HANtSHMKNT IN irTi'i — PHOfiHKSH oy NOVA SCOTIA, CAI'K lUlKTON, AM) NKW nUlNHWICK INDKU THK KNCJMSH — A KIUK IN NKW IJIILNSWICK — I'UINl'K EDWAUli's ISLAND. 11713-lSG] J OVA SCOTIA, or Acadie, as we have seen, having hcen colonized by the French in 1G04, was in 1G14 conquered by tlie EngHsh, and in 1G21 assigned by James the First to Sir William Alexander and his baronets of Nova Scotia. In 1G67 it was given back to France, and in 1713 it was again and finally transferred to Great Britain, although, during nearly half a century more, there were frequent quarrels about it between the two nations. By General Nicholson, the first British governor, the French residents, then numbering nearly 10,000, were allowed to remain in peaceable occupation of their homes and property, and this notwithstanding the refusal of most of them to give up their allegiance to the Crown of France. Forty years afterwards they had increased to about 17,000 or 18,000, the British settlers being only some 5,000. The presence of so great a majority of aliens, in close sympathy with the Canadians, who were then attempting to regain the colony, was a not unreasonable cause of alarm to the subjects of George the Third ; and as, in 1755, they erected forts, and in various ways sought to viid their countrymen in a n , i ff^^^WB I THE FRENCH L\ NOVA SCOTIA. 97 1 project for reconquering' the province, they were in that year forcibly removed by the J'hij^'hsh authorities, and distriiiuted over the colonies of New J^n^dand, New York, and Viri^inia. Only after tlio transfer of all the Trench North American territories to Great J hitain in 17(10 were theso unfortunato people permitted to return to their homes, and then solely on condition of their avowing themselves British subjects. About a i;ixth of tlie munber availed themselves of the per- mission. Their sufferings, for which, it must be admitted, they or their leaders were alone responsible, have been told in Longfellow's pathetic poem of ' Evangeline,' which, if it uses pardonable license in concealing the offences of many of tho French settlers, in no way exaggerates the virtues of somo and tho troubles of all. Picturesque, and doubtless true, is its portrayal of tho homely life of tho more quiet among them : ' In tlie Aciuliiin land, on the sliorcjs of the P>ivs!n of Mina?', Distant, Htrludrd, still, tin- littlu villii;;e of ( Jnind-rn'! Lay in the fruitful valley. Vast meadinvs stiL'tclicd to tho eastward. Giving the vdlaj^e its name, and jjasture to Hocks without nunilier. Dikes, that the liands of the fanners had raised with labour incessant, Shut out the turhident tides ; but at stated seascjns the llood),'atts ()|»ened, and welcomed the sea to wander at will o'er the nit.adows. West and south there were fields of flax, and orchards and cornfields, Spreading afar and unfenced o'er the j-lain ; and away to the northvviird IJloniidon rose, and the forests ohl, and aloft on the mountains Sea-fogH pitched their tents, and mists from the mighty Atlantic Looked on the happy valley, but ne'er from their station descended. There, in the midst of its farms, reposed the Acadian village. Strongly built were the houses, with frames of oak and client luit, Such as the peasants of Normandy built in the reign of the Hem its. Thatched were the roofs with dormer windows ; and gables projecting Over the basement behiW protected and shaded the doorway. Ihere, in the tranquil evenings of summer, when briyhtly the sunset Lighted the village street, and gilded the vanes on the chimneys. Matrons and maidens sat in snow-white cap? and in kirtles. Scarlet and blue and green, with distaffs spir.ning the golden Flax for the gossiping looms, whose noisy shuttles within doors Mingled their sound with the whirr of the wheels, and the songs of the maidens. Solemnly down the street came the parish priest ; and the children Paused in their play to kiss the hand he extended t(j bless them. Reverend walked lie among them ; and up rose matrons and maidens, Hailing his slow approach with words of affectionate welcome. Then came the labourers home from the fields, and serenely the sun sank rr i ;Ui! irr n ' 98 A'Ol'A SCO 77 A AXP XKIV lilWXSlVICK'. Ditwii tu Ills rot, iind twilight pn.vaili tl. Amni fnun tho lulfry Softly tlu; Aii'Ji/iiH Miiiinifd, an I ovt.T tlif ronfs of the vill:i;^i' Culiiiriii.s of piilc liliH' Niii'ikr, like clouds of iii(( lis.' ji^ci iiiliii',', HoHf frojii ;i limiilrtMl ln'urtlm, the lioiiics \ ||H i 1 ,' "J ||l ;= Jj:H i II .,\ ' ^ 1 02 Ac' I 'A SCO TIA A i\D XE I V ilR Ui\S 1 1 '/CA'. board a hundred and fifty largo vessels, then lying in the Miramichi and exposed to imminent danger, was terrible ; some burnt to the water's edge, otlicrs burning, and the remainder occasionally on fire. Dispersed groups of half- naked, half-famished, and homeless creatures, all more or less injured in their persons — many lamenting the loss of property, children or relations — were wandering through the country. Upwards of five hundred human beings perished. Domestic animals of all kinds lay dead and dying in different parts of the country. Thousands of wild beasts, too, had been destroyed in the woods. Property to the ex- tent of nearly a quarter of a million was w^asted.'* Not far from the scene of that terrible conflagration, in liie Gulf of St. Lawrence and between New Brunswick and Cape Breton, is Prince Edward's Island, which, for a brief ]ieriod, was also part of the colony of Nova Scotia. It had been little used by the French until the conquest of Acadie by Great Britain, when many settlers crossed the narrow strait. In 1758, however, it also fell into the hands of the English, and its inhabitants, like their brethren on the mainland, were expelled. In 1763 it was incorporated with Nova Scotia ; but in 1770 it was made a separate province in fulfilment of a curious plan of colonization. It was parcelled out in sixty-seven townships, and these were dis- tributed by lottery among the creditors of the English Government, each of whom was bound to lodge a settler in every lot of two hundred acres that fell to him. The experiment was not at first very successful, but gradually the shares in the island passed from the original speculators to men who knew how to use- the rich soil and unusually healthy climate of the island. In 1802 it contained 20, Col inhabitants, of whom about half were Scotch, and a quarter French. In 1821 the population was 24,600; in 1841 it was 47,034 ; and in 1861 in was 80,857. * Martin, \o]. I, pp. 222, 223. m CHAPTER IX. CANADA. TrfK HISTOnV OK CANADA UN'DER imiTISIf lUI.K— Till': I'lUST AMF.UK'AN' WAU— INTKUNAL THOlllLKS — TIIK FUKNCH ANI> KNCLISH CANADIANS — T1!K SKCOND AMKUICAN WAll— t'UKSIl DOMKSTU; Dll'l'ICULTlKS — TIIK RKIJKM.IOXS OK 18.'37 AND 1838— I.OHD Dl'IiHAM's SKKVICKS TO THK COLONY — ITS LATKK HISTOUY — THK CANADIAN CONI'KDIMIATION. [17G0- 1867.] |'5i5?l^^HE siuTcncler of Canada to Great Britain, in 17G0, 'cl^ iMJ did not bring peace to tlic colony. Its French inhabitants, about 60,000 in number, \vith some 8,000 converted Indians among them, ^vcre allowed to remain ; but they were suddenly called upon to submit themselves to English law, as inter- preted and perverted by a few regimental oilicers, and a few traders from England and the older settlements. The latter did not then number more than 500, and their efforts to lay violent hands on all the richest portions of the colony, and their harsh treatment of the earlier residents, strengthened the natural ill-feeling of the conquered races. Tiie first step towards the removal of this was made in the Quebec Act passed by tlie British Parliament in 1774, which con- firmed the possessions of the French occupants, and pre- served to them their civil rights and customs, on condition of their taking an oath of allegiance to the British Crown ; but it offender. tL^ English settlers without pacifying those whom it undertook to befriend. The Earl of Chatham f :|1 ill '^■ ;-i. ff'il-i m !l ■I?: 104 CANADA. flcnounccd it as 'a most cruel, oppressive and odious measure, tearing up justice and every good principle by the roots.' Other troubles soon arose, both for the Froncli Canadians and for the English settlers among them. Discontent at the policy adopted by the Home Government had long pre- vailed in the minds of the English colonists south of the St. La^vrence, and the threatened rupture between them and the mother country, deferred in order that their common force might be exerted against the encroachments of the French, received fresh strength from the new jealousies that sprang up in the course of the Canadian war. No sooner was that war over than the indignant colonists began to claim better treatment from the British Government, and the unwise answers given to their reasonable claims led to bolder assertions on the part of the colonists, which were met by more foolish replies from home. Thus the great American War of Independence was brought about, blood being first shed at the Battle of Lexington, in 1775, and the result being England's loss of her richest colonies, and their establishment as the United States of America. The Canadians were asked by the first Congress of the States to join in the revolution, or, at any rate, to be neutral during the war. But the sometime French on the north of the St. Lawrence had no sympathy with the sometime English on the south. They welcomed the crowd of loyalists, as they were called, who, crossing the river, came to continue their allegiance to the British Crown in Quebec and Montreal ; and prompt measures were taken to renew the defences of the border, and to support the mother country in her efforts to suppress the revolution. Old Canadians, who had done battle with British troops, now prepared to fight by their side, and colonial loyalists, who had lately taken part with their brethren in the conquest of Canada, now made ready to turn their anns against their former comrades. Seeing that thus a formidable enemy was growing up, and ! !i ^n ' THE FIRST AMERICAN WAR. 105 believing that, if they could get possession of the northern districts, many of its people would be friendly to them, and all might be soon subdued, the champions of independence quickly resolved upon the invasion of Canada. A force of 4,000 men, in two divisions, set out upon this enterprise in the autumn of 1775. The main division, under General Montgomery, was at first successful. Chambly, St. John's, and Montreal, in turn attacked by Montgomery, soon yielded to him. But Benedict Arnold, at the head of the other division, fared ill in his attempt upon Quebec. Scant provisions and bad weather caused trouble on the march, and the garrison of Quebec held out till it was reinforced by fugitives from Montreal and the other captured forts. The conquerors of these forts passed down the St. Lawrence to aid their comrades, and in December the whole besieging force was united, under Montgomery, to attack Quebec, in which nearly all the defenders of the colony were congregated. They were not thought very formidable. Only 900 British troops were there, and it was expected that the civilians under arms would easily bo turned from their allegiance. But they were firm and brave. On the 8th of December, Montgomery summoned the town to surrender. His flag was fired on, and his messengers were ignominiously expelled. After some other futile efforts, Montgomery attempted, on the 31st, to sur- prise the town by a device similar to that in which, as a subordinate, he had shared with Wolfe sixteen years before. Like Wolfe, he paid for his valour with his life on the heights of Abraham. But there the likeness ended. The assailants, panic-struck at their loss, hastily retreated ; and, in spite of the energy shown by Arnold, they refused to repeat the attack. They loitered in Canada and its neigh- bourhood for several months, and reinforcements came from New England. But reinforcements also came from Old England. The intruders were expelled, step by step, from Montreal and all the other forts which they had taken, and iu September, 1776, the wreck of the invading army went !!!l 1 ' ! . i . ; If '1 ; 1 1 ' 1 ffh" ■A ■j ■ 1 ' -^ 1 06 CANADA. i* H •* home to report that the attempt to conquer Canada was hopeless. Canada suffered much by this war, but its gains were greater than its losoos through the increased strength which it received from Britain, and the steady tide of loyaHst immigration from the south. Its defences were augmented and maintained until the close of the A.ncrican war in 1783, when tliere was thought to be no further danger of inva- sion. In that year the population was more than twice as numerous as it had been at tlie beginning of Enghsh rule in 1760. The 60,000 or 70,000 French residents were asso- ciated with 60,000 or 70,000 Enghsh colonists and refugees from the United States. Between these different races, however, no great friendship arose, and the differences were hardly removed by time. They prevailed almost without abatement through seventy- five years of English rule, and in 1838 they were forcibly described by the Earl of Durham, who had been specially commissioned to inquire into the condition of the colony. * Among the people,' he said, * the progress of emigration has introduced an English population, exhibiting the characteristics with which we are familiar as those of the most enterprising of every class of our countrymen. The circumstances of the early colonial administration excluded the native Canadian from power, and vested all offices of trust and emolument in the hands of strangers of English origin. The highest posts in the law are confided to the same class of persons. The functionaries of the civil govern- ment, together with the officers of tlie army, composed a kind of privileged class, occupying the first place in the community, and excluding the higher class of the natives from society, as well as from the government of their own country. It was not till within a very fev/ years that this society of civil and military functionaries ceased to exhibit towards the highest order of Canadians an exclusiveness of demeanour which was more revolting to a sensitive and polite people than the monopoly of power and profit ; nor !'■ l\ ITS RIVAL RACES. 107 us )it lof lid lor was this national favouritisin discontinued until after repeated complaints and an angry contest, which had excited passions that commissions could not allay. Tlic races had become enemies ere a tardy justice was extorted ; and even then the Government discovered a mode of distribu- ting its patronage among the Canadians which was quite as offensive to that people as their previous exclusion.' The same jealousies that separated the wealthier and more high-born residents of Canada divided the humbler members of society. ' I do not believe/ continued Lord Durham, * that the animosity which exists between the working classes of the two origins is the necessary result of a collision of interests, or of a jealousy of the superior success of English labour. But national prejudices naturally exercise the greatest iniluence over the most uneducated ; the difference of language is less easily overcome ; the differences of manners and customs are less easily appre- ciated. The labourers whom emigration introduced con- tained a number of very ignorant, turbulent, and demoralized persons, whose conduct and manners alike revolted the well- ordered and courteous natives of the same class. The working men naturally ranged themselves on the side of the educated and wealthy of their own countrymen. W^hen once engaged in the conflict, their passions were less restrained by education and prudence ; and the national hostility now rages most fiercely between those whose interests in reality bring them least into collision. The two races thus distinct have been brought into the same community, under circumstances which rendered their contact inevitably productive of collision. The difference of language from the first kept them asunder. It is not anywhere a virtue of the English race to look with com- placency on any manners, customs, or laws w^liich appear strange to them. Accustomed to form a high estimate of their own superiority, they take no pains to conceal from others their contempt and intolerance of their usages. They found the French Canadians filled with an equal amount of ■H' ! i ■■. I.rii !i ■'> iri 108 CANADA. national prido, a sensitive but inactive pride, which disposes that people not to resent insult, but rather to hold aloof from those who would keep them under. The French could not but feel the superiority of English enterprise. They could not shut their eyes to their success in every undertaking in whicli they came in contact, n*jr to the constant advantage which they were acquiring. They looked upon their rivals with alarm, with jealousy, and finally with hatred. The English repaid them -"'ith a scorn which soon also assumed the form of hatred. The French complained of the arrogance and injustice of the English. The English accused the French of the vices of a weak and conquered people, and charged them with mean- ness and perfidy. The entire mistrust which the two races have thus learned to conceive of each other's intentions induces them to put the worst construction on the most innocent conduct, to judge every word, every act, every intention unfairly, to attribute the most odious designs, and to requite every overture of kindness or fairness as covering secret treachery and malignity. No common education has served to remote and soften the differences of origin and language. The associations of youth, the sports of child- hood, and the studies by which the character of manhood is modified, are totally distinct. In Montreal and Quebec there are English schools and French schools. The children in these are accustomed to fight nation against nation, and the quarrels that arise among boys in the streets usually exhibit a division into English on one side and French on the other. As they are taught apart, so are their studies different. The literature with which each is the most conversant is that of the peculiar language of each ; and all the ideas which men derive from books come to each of them from perfectly different sources. The articles in the newspapers of each race are written in a style as widely different as those of France and England at present, and the arguments which convince the one are calculated to appear utterly unintelligible to the other. It is difficult to conceive ITS RIVAL RACES. 109 the perversity \vitli which misrepreseutations are habitually made, and the gross delusions which find currency among the people. They thus live in a world of misconceptions, in which each party is set against the other, not only by diversity of feelings and opinions, but by actual belief in an entirely different set of facts. Nothing, though it* will sound paradoxical, really proves their entire separation so niuch as the rarity, nay, almost total absence, of personal encounters between the two races. Disputes of this kind are almoi: confined to the ruder order of people, and seldom proceed to acts of violence. As respects the other classes, social intercourse between the two races is so limited that the more prominent or excitable antagonists never meet in the same room. The ordinary occasions of collision never occur, and men must quarrel so publicly or so deliberately that prudence restrains them from commencing individually what would probably end in a general and bloody conflict of numbers. The two parties combine for no public object. They cannot harmonize even in associations of charity. The only public occasion on which they ever meet is in the jury-box ; and they meet there only to the utter obstruction of justice.** Efforts were made at a very early date by the English Government, though not with much result, to lessen tliese differences of race and disposition, or, at any rate, to prevent them from breeding dissensions that might be ruinous to the colony. But the work was not easy. The English, chiefly reriident in the western parts, near Montreal, had been accustomed to a certain amount of political power at home, and the loyalists from the United States who associated with them had enjoyed fuller freedom ; and to satisfy their demands, as well as to meet the urgent need of better government in the colony, it was in 1791 decided to form a representative assembly, for which each forty-shilling free- holder had the franchise, which should be associated with the governor and a council appointed by the Crown in caring * Canadian Blue-book, 1839. '1 R i t ■ 4 ^ t '1 i - ■* ■ 'I , ■ :' i Ifi ' >, t.ii'j.- f-ii i: ) $ ! Ii i I 10 CANADA. for the lo^MsliitivG and adiniiiistmtivc affairs of Canada. But tlic IVcncli settlors in and around Quebee, accustomed to the despotic rule of tlio House of Bourbon aud its deputies, tliought this no boon. ' It is our I'eh/^'ion, our huvs reUiting to property, and our personal security, in which we are most interested,' they said in 1778, when tiie question was first mooted ; ' and these we enjoy in the most ample maimer by the Quebec Jiill. We are the more averse to a House of Assembly from the fatal consequences which will result from it. Can we, as Catholics, hope to preserve for any len^^th of time the same prerogatives as Vrotestant subjects, in a House of Representatives ? and will there not come a time when the influence of the latter will over-balance that of our posterity ? In this case, should wo and our posterity enjoy the same advantages which our present constitution secures to us ? Shall we not fear that we may one day sec the seeds of dissension created by the Assembly of Representatives, and nourished by those intestine hatreds which the opposite interests of the old and the new subjects will naturally give birth to ?'* It was partly in deference to those prejudices that, while representative institutions were forced on t,ho French Canadians, they were allowed to use them chiefly among themselves, by the separation of the colony into two provinces, each with its own popular chamber. In 1791, the western district, extending from the borders of Montreal to the River Detroit, and including the whole promontory formed by Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, was defined as Upper Canada; while Lower Canada, mainly peopled by the Ereucli natives, stretched eastward, on both sides of the St. Lawrence, to Quebec, aud thence on to the mouth of the river and the borders of New Brunswick. Lower Canada, containing both the chief cities, was then and till lately the most populous province. Within an area of 205,800 square miles, nearly four times as large as England, it had about 113,000 inhabitants in 1784 ; 423,630 in 1825 ; 511,922 in 1831 : 690,782 in 1844 : 890,261 in 1852 ; and Mart in, V ol. p. 10. rilE UPPER AND LOWER PR017XCES. 1 1 1 1, 111,500 ill 1801. Upper Canada, not quite tlu-ico tlio sizo of En^'land, and comprising 141,000 squai'u miles, was almost uninl'dbited before the close of the eigliteenth century. It contained 77,000 inhabitants in 1811 ; 151,097 in 1824 ; 320,093 in 1831 ; 480,050 in 1842 ; 952,004 in 1852 ; and 1,390,091 in 1801. Its population was more than doubled in each period of twelve years, while Lower Canada required nearly twenty-four years for a like ^'rowth. This has been mainly duo to the circumstance that the western districts were already distributed among the French families, whoso vested interests, however much to be respected, were a great obstacle to the free settlement of English innnigrants, and that the latter therefore went to build their owu towns and cities in quarters previously unoccupied. Differences of race were not the only obstacles to the full development of Lower Canada, but they were sufliciently serious. In spite of the large proportioji of French liahUaits, as they w^ere called, in the province, they were outnumbered by English settlers, and, which was worse, they were kept under by the military and civil oflicers who had most weight with the authorities. Over and over again they had to com- plain that the representative privileges accorded to them were worse than useless, as the whole government of the colony wao in the hands of the Legislative Council, to which none but Englishmen were admitted. In 1807 there was an open rupture between the House of Assembly and the Legislative Council. The Assembly was dissolved ; a French newspaper was suppressed ; and six persons were imprisoned without trial. The ' reign of terror,' as it was styled in Canadian circles, lasted till 1811, when a new governor arrived, whose conciliatory action prevented any serious disturbance. But the habitans continued dis- satisfied with their position in the colony. Of this dissatisfaction the Americans sought to make evil use. In 1812 war arose between the United States and England, and the conquest of Canada was again attempted by the former. 'We can take the Canadas without soldiers,' * ! ■1 lU J ■t ,i-i IPHP 1 12 CAXADA. ': I ^ Ktiid tli(3 Secretary at War in Congress. ' Wo liavo only to send ollicers into the provinces, and tlio people, disaffected towards their own Govennneiit, will rally round our standard.' 'It is absurd,' said another, ' to suppose that wo shall not succeed in our enterprise. We have the Canadians as much at our connnand as Great Biitain has the ocean. Wo must take the continent from her. I wish never to sec peace till we do so.'* The Americans misjudged tho disposition of tho French Canadians. The latter desired justice from Englai d ; but they had no wish to swerve from their allegiance, and they had no liking for the republicanism, in their judgment violent and offensive, of tho United States. Within six weeks they organized and equipped four fine battalions of nulitia, tho Canadian Voltigeurs, and in other ways gave proof of their devotion to tho cause of England. An American expedition was promptly fitted out for the invasion of Canada, but its inhabitants of both races wero no less prom^Jt in preparing to resist it. Ou the 12th of July, an American force, 2,500 strong, entered Upper Canada from Detroit, and took possession of Sandwich ; but General Brock, then governor of the pro- vince, quickly gathering together a little army, consisting of 330 regulars, 400 militiamen, and GOO Indians, soon drove the enemy back to Detroit, and, crossing the river, invested that fort and compelled its surrender. Two months after- wards a stronger invading army, numbering 6,000 men, again crossed the frontier, this time at Niagara, and overpowered the small garrison that had charge of QueenstoAvn. Again Brock went to meet the enemy. He was killed, and his small force was not successful ; but soon some British troops arrived, and by them the Americans were forced to retreat. A third invasion was attempted at Fort Erie ; but there 4,500 of the enemy were repnlsed by Canadian volunteers and a few British troops, 600 in all. Those were the exploits of the first year of the new Cana- * Martin, vol. i., p. 17. THE SECOND AMERICAN WAR. 11.1 dian war. Jii 1813 tliu AmuricaiiH, -,till iR'licviiif; tliat, if tlioy could only },'aiii a footing in tlic west, the I'Vuuch in ti»o cast would willingly join their Bide, renewed their attacks on Upper Canada. Herein they were more successful than they had been in the previous year. In April, crossin*:; Lake Ontario, they surprised Y^rk, now Toronto, the capital of the province, and destroyed its public buildings. Fort George also fell into their hands, after desperate resistance. For some months they were masters of the most populous parts of Upjer Canada ; and, in October, 14,000 men, in two detachments, taking different routes, were sent against Montreal. The first, however, 6,000 strong, was met and defeated by 800 volunteers, chiefly French and Indians, under Colonel do Salaberry ; and the other had to yield to the main body of the regular troops in Lower Canada, who were sent out to resist it. The earlier successes of the invaders were thus neutralized. In the following year Upper Canada was again assailed with some success. Fort Eric was captured, and much injury was done to the neighbouring settlements before the Canadians, nearly exhausted by a contest which they had had to maintain with very scant help from England, could hold their own against the enemy, and then nothing but rare bravery sustained them. On the 25th of July the battle of Lundy's Lane, near tlie falls of Niagara, was fought. From afternoon till midnight 4,000 Americans were withstood by 2,800 Canadians and Englishmen. Of their number 878 were killed and wounded before the enemy, with a loss of 854, were driven back to Fort Erie. That fort was then besieged by General Drunnnond ; but in a single attack he lost 905 of his men against 84 of the foe, and after that could do no more than maintain a feeble blockade. The Canadians must have succumbed had not the cessation of England's long European war in 1814 released her troops and ships from yet more urgent work, and enabled her to despatch an adequate force across the Atlantic. This was promptly done, and with a speedy issue. 8 V r'i »l ' -f > 1 \ ,) 1 iiiiJ ""WMHiiil 114 CANADA. Kciuforcemcnts were sent to Canada, but the great scene of the war was transferred to the enemy's own country. Washington was attacked and captured, and the British then retaliated for the destruction of property that had occurred in Upper Canada. The Americans found now that their case was liopeless, and readily agreed to the treaty of peace that was signed on Christmas Eve in 1814. Canada was henceforth free from invasion, and from serious fear of it, at the hands of the United States. Before the mischief done by the fighting had been thoroughly repaired, however, domestic troubles were renewed. The French Canadians in the eastern province were ill repaid for tlie loyalty they had shown during the war. Imme- diately after the restoration of peace, the old insults were revived, and their efforts to assert their claims in the House of Assembly were treated with ignominy by the English party, v/liich had supremacy in the governing councils. ' For a long time,' said the Earl of Durham, in the docu- ment which has already been cited, * this body of men, receiving at times accessions to its numbers, possessed almost all the highest public oJSices, by means of which it wielded all the powers of government. It maintained in- fluence in the legislature by means of its predominance in the Legislative Council, and it disposed of the large number of petty posts which are in the patronage of the Government ail over the province, Successive Governors, as they came in their turn, are said to have either submitted quietly to its influence, or, after a short and unavailing struggle, to have yielded to it the real conduct of affairs. The. bench, the magistracy, the high oflices of the Episcopal Church, and a great part of the legal profession, are filled by the adherents of this party. By grant or purchase they have acquired nearly the whole of the waste lands of the province. They are all- powerful in the chartered banks, and lill lately shared amongst themselves, almost exclusively, all offices of trust and profit. A monopoly of power so extensive and so last- ing could not fail, in process of time, to excite envy, create MISGOVERNMENT AND ITS FRUITS. 115 re a 1st ]t- dissatisfaction, aud ultimately provoke attack ; aud an oppo- sition consequently grew up in the Assembly, which assailed the ruling party by appealing to popular principles of govern- ment, by denouncing the alleged jobbing and profusion of the ofiicial body, and by instituting inquiries into abuses for the purpose of promoting reform, and especially ecctnomy. The official party, not being removed when it failed to com- mand a majority in the Assembly, still continued to wieid all the powers of the executive government, to strengthen itself by its patronage, aud to influence the policy of the colonial governor, and of the colonial department at home. By its secure majority in the Legislative Council it could effectually control the legislative powers of the Assembly. It could choose its moments for dissolving hostile Assemblies, and could always ensure for those who were favourable to itself the tenure of their seats for the full term of the four years allowed by law.' Of that sort was the political feud that existed and seri- ously hindered the progress of Lower Canada in all ways during more than twenty years following the termination of the war with the United States. In 1831 the British Par- liament decided that the House of Assembly should have control over the colonial revenues, thus conceding one point which had long been a source of reasonable complaint ; but the ofhcial party, forced to yield in this respect, became more tyrannical in others, and the result was that greater discontent than ever prevailed. In 1835 a Eoyal Commis- sion was sent out to investigate this unfortunate state of affairs and suggest a remedy ; but no material benefit re- sulted from its proceedings. In the meanwhile a similar and even more violent an- tagonism had been established iu Upper Canada, now a province almost as populous as the other. Here an otlicial party also had supremacy in the Legislative Council, and set at naught the opinions and decisions of the House of Assembly ; but the members of the House of Assembly and those who elected them were not French habitaiis, but rough 8—2 fi .„ I : "fp t '4 'I ii6 CANADA. 4; |. ^ f Englishmen, more outspoken in their demands, and more determined that those demands should be complied witli. Whereas in the eastern provinces none did more than com- plain, and offer such resistance as was strictly legal, the extreme section of the popular party in the west soon resolved to take tiie law into its own hands. In Decem- ber some five or six hundred of this section, headed by a man named Mackenzie, assembled a few miles from Toronto, intending to surprise the city and instigate an insurrection for transferring the whole province to the United States. Sir Francis Head, the Governor, however, was warned of the project in time. By him a strong force of volunteers and militia was quickly mustered for the defence of Toronto, and he called on the rebels to sur- render their arms. On their refusing, the volunteers and militia, under Lieutenant-Colonel M'Nab, the Speaker of the House of Assembly, went cut to compel them, and this was quickly done, with loss of but a few of the insurgents. The ' rebellion ' of 1837, as it was called, only lasted three days, and in it were implicated only a few of the most ignorant and least influential colonists. But it gave reasonable alarm, both in the colony and at home ; and its occurrence, together with the long-continued feuds between the Legislative Coun- cil and the House of Assembly in each of the two provinces, made it necessary that something should be done to remedy the existing evils. Accordingly, in 1838, the Earl of Durham, a statesman of rare wisdom and ability, was sent out as Governor-General of all the colonies in British North America, especially with a view to * the adjustment of certain im- portant questions depending in the provinces of East and West Canada respecting the form and future government of the said provinces.' Lord Durham's mission to Canada marks a turning-point in its history. He visited all the principal stations in the colony, and in each made careful inquiry as to the state of the people, and the requirements for their good government. In the end he recommended that the two provinces should LORD DURHAM'S MISSION. 117 be reunited, with a single legislative and administrative system, in which the Governor should be aided by a Legisla- tive Council in sympathy with the people and with their representatives in the House of Assembly; and that that body should have powers of legislation and control over the administration equal to those possessed by the .British House of Commons. He also recommended such a union of all the British North American colonies as was inaugu- rated in 1867. * Our first duty,' he nohly urged, * is to secure the well-being of our colonial countrymen ; and if, in the hidden decrees of that wisdom by which the world is ruled, it is written that these countries are not for ever to remain portions of the empire, we owe it to our honour to take good care that, when they separate from us, they should not be the only countries on the American continent in which the Anglo-Saxon race shall be found unfit to govern itself.' Lord Dui'ham's suggestions had not reached England when fresh evidence of the need of their adoption, or at any rate of some sound remedial measures regarding Canada, was afforded by a second rebellion, small, but larger than the first, which broke out in November, 1838. Its fore- runner had revived in the United States the hope of annex- ing the prosperous district north of the St. Lawrence ; and by some lawless subjects, who received no countenance from the Government, and whose action somewhat resembled that of the supporters of the Fenian agitation in our own day, the second rising was encouraged. It consisted in an attempt, by about four thousand persons, to effect a rising in the neighbourhood of Montreal. But within less than a week they were subdued by two hundred volunteers, who, in a contest lasting two hours and a half, had fifteen of their number killed and wounded, the loss of the insurgents being about a hundred. The most important suggestions of the Earl of Durham were adopted in 1841, when Upper and Lower Canada were provided with a single legislature, consisting of a Legislative M '1 W s\ '\ ■^ \ I I 'A ^T \ 1(1 " m mm <) «r ii8 CANADA. Assembly, to which forty-two representatives were sent by each province, and of a Legislative Council, whose forty members were appointed by the Crown ; the ex^utive, under the Governor, being ministers who could hold office only so long as they were supported by a majority of the Assembly. The task of starting this new machinery of government was entrusted to Charles Poulett Thompson, who, for the zeal, tact, and good feeling towards all classes with which he did his work, was made Baron Sydenham, but who died in the same year. To him Sir Charles Metcalf proved a wise successor; and of the ensuhig fivc-and-twenty years it is enough to say that, in spite of the many obstacles that had grown up during the three-quarters of a century before, rapid progress was made in the establishment of peace and order, and in meeting the requirements not only of the large population then in the colony, but of the rapid in-come of fresh settlers. The history of Canada, as a separate colony, ends with the adoption of Lord Durban's other suggestion, the uniqai of all the British North American colonies under one government. The federation of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick with Upper and Lower Canada, henceforth to be known as the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, began to be seriously discussed as early as 1857, and it was sanctioned by the British Parliament in 1867. In that year began a new and important stage in the pro- gress of British North America. Notwithstanding its troubles, Canada had, during the previous half-century, increased more rapidly in population than any portion of the world, except Australia — more rapidly even than the United States ; and the tide of wealth was not very much behind that of population. The com- parison between the growth of population in Canada and that in the United States is noteworthy. ' Boston,' we are told, ' between 1840 and 1850, increased forty-five per cent. Toronto, within the same period, increased ninety-five per cent. New York, the great emporium of the United States, and regarded as the most prosperous city in the New World, ii,- X ITS PROGRESS BEFORE 1867. 119 'I I increased, in the same time, sixty -six per cent., about thirty less than Toronto. The cities of St. Louis and Cincinnati, which have also experienced extraordinary prosperity, do not compare with Canada any better. In the thirty years preceding 1850, the population of St. Louis increased fifteen times. In the thirty-three years preceding the san;e year, Toronto increased eighteen times. And Cincinnati in- creased, in the same period given to St. Louis, but twelve timos. Hamilton, a beautiful Canadian city at the head of Lake Ontario, and founded much more recently than Toronto, has also had almost unexampled prosperity. In 1836 its population was but 2,846 ; in 1854 it was upwards of 20,000. London, still farther west in Upper Canada, and a yet more recently-founded city than Hamilton, being surveyed as a wilderness little more than twenty-five years ago, has now upwards of 10,000 inhabitants. The city of Ottawa, recently called after the magnificent river of that name, and upon which it is situated, has now above 10,000 inhabitants, although in 1830 it had but one hundred and forty houses, including mere sheds and shanties ; and the property upon which it is built was purchased, not many years before, for £80. The town of Bradford, situated between Hamilton and London, and whose site was an absolute wilderness twenty-five years ago, has now a popu- lation of 6,000, and has increased, in ten years, upwards of three hundred per cent. ; and this without any other stimulant or cause save the business arising from the settle- ment of a fine country adjacent to it. The towns of Belle- ville, Cobourg, Woodstock, Goderich, St. Catherine's, Paris, Stratford, Port Hope, and Dundas, in Upper Canada, show similar prosperity, some of them having increased in a ratio even greater than that of Toronto, and all of them but so many evidences of the improvement of the country, and the growth of business and population around them. That some of the smaller towns in the United States have enjoyed equal prosperity can be readily believed, from the circumstance of a large population suddenly filling up the \ I - II 'I: i I. fl: iji w til i,, f'l ■ ■ ■ !: I -I ! I i( I i I 20 CANADA. country contiguous to them. Buffalo and Chicago, too, as cities, are magnificent and unparalleled examples of the business, the energy, and the progress of the United States. But that Toronto should have quietly and unostentatiously increased in population in a greater ratio than New York, St. Louis, and Cincinnati, and that the other cities and towns of Upper Canada should have kept pace with the capital, is a fact creditable alike to the steady industry and the noiseless enterprise of the Canadian people. Although Lower Canada, from the circumstance of the tide of emigra- tion flowing westward, has not advanced so rapidly as her sister province, yet some of her counties and cities have recently made great progress. In the seven years preceding 1851, the county of Megantic, on the south side of the St. Lawrence, and through which the Quebec and Richmond railroad passes, increased a hundred and sixteen per cent. ; the county of Ottawa, eighty-five; the county of Drummond, seventy-eight ; and the county of Sherbrook, fifty. The city of Montreal, probably the most substantially-built city in America, and certainly one of the most beautiful, has trebled her population in thirty-four years. The ancient city of Quebec has more than doubled her population in the same time ; and Sorel, at the mouth of the Eichelieu, has in- creased upwards of four times, showing that Lower Canada, with all the disadvantages of a feudal tenure, and of being generally looked upon as less desirable for settlement than the west, has quietly but justly put in her claim to a portion of the honour awarded to America for her progress.'* * W. H. Russell, ' Canada : its Defences, Condition, and ResouK.is.' CHAPTER X. THE Hudson's bay territory. THE Hudson's bat company anp its territory — rivalry in the KIOHTEENTH CENTURY — THE CHARACTER AND WOUKING OF THE COMPANY — ITS SERVANTS AND SUBJECTS — THE RED RIVER SETTLEMENT — VAN- COUVER ISLAND AND BRITISH COLUMBIA — DISSOLUTION OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY. [16/0-1871.1 HE Dominiou of Canada comprised, when it was established in 1867, only the four older and more advanced settlements of Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, all in the south-eastern corner of British North America, and with an area of about 388,000 square miles. The territory added to it in the course of the next four years was — though thin, and still very sparsely peopled, and only beginning to be civilized — eight times as exten- sive. Our acquisition of these vast regions must be briefly chronicled before mention is made of the recent progress of events in this portion of our empire. In 1610 Henry Hudson, who had already made other memorable voyages of discovery both in the far north and aloug the shores of the American continent, set forth on an expedition in search of a north-west passage to India. lie perished in the quest ; but not before he Jiad explored several coasts and outlets, and especially the great sea called Hudson's Bay in honour of him, and Hudson's Straits, which lei\d to it. Others followed in his track, ,,< i 1^ t;' : ,,j' \ i J i; i rh ■ !^ A A ^\ ' : M-J -"omm I 'Mi I 1 ! ' ': I i ! f . ! O^ 12: T//E HUDSON'S BA Y TERRITORY. and in 1668 Prince Rupert fitted out an expedition designed to start a settlement in the bay, and put to use the vast territories that had hitherto been only nominally subject to the English Crown. The enterprise succeeded ; and in 1670 the Hudson's Bay Company, with Prince Eupert at its head, was formed for the appropriation of the region, and the development of commerce in it. Tliis rcf^ion, known as Prince Rupert's Land, or the Hudson's Bay Territory, comprised, according to the word- ing of the company's cliarter, * all lands and territories upon the countries, coasts, and confines of the seas, bays, lakes, rivers, creeks, and sounds, in whatsoever latitude they shall be, that lie within the entrance of the straits, commonly called Hudson's Straits, that are not already actually possessed by, or granted to, any of our subjects, or possessed by the subjects of any other Christian prince or state.' To the company was also conceded ' the whole and entire trade and traffic to and upon all havens, bays, creeks, rivers, lakes, and seas, into w^hich they shall find entrance or passage, by water or land, out of the territories, limits, or places aforesaid, and to and with all the natives and people inhabiting, or which shall inhabit, within the terri- tories, limits and places aforesaid, and to and with all other nations inhabiting any of the coasts adjacent to the said territories, limits, and places which are not already pos- sessed as aforesaid, or whereof the sole liberty and trafiic is not granted to any other of our subjects.'* That was the origin of the Hudson's Bay Company, which, by virtue of its charter, had, for nearly two centuries, the ownership of nearly three million square miles of land, an area about half as largo as that of Russia, thrice as large as that of India. The company lost no time in making use of its privileges, though the extent of its operations was strangely dispropor- tionate to the vastness of its territory. A settlement was promptly formed at Rupert River, near the southern corner * Anderson, 'History of Commerce,' vol, iii., p. 514. THE HUDSON'S BA V COMPANV. 123 of of Hudson'a Bay, and stations and factories were founded in its neighbourhood for carrying on a trade in furs with the Indian tribes there resident. The trade was very suc- cessful, yielding sometimes as much as fifty per cent, priifit in a year ; and tliis in spite of the violent opposition offered to it by the French in Canada, who claimed the exclusive possession of these districts. In 1G82 and 1G8G, and again in 1G92, 1G91, 1G9G, and 1G97, the company's forts were attacked, and some of them destroyed, by expeditions from Quebec ; and in the latter year, by tlio Treaty of Ryswick, part of the territory was ceded to the French. It was restored to the Hudson's Bay Company, however, by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, and after that no serious resist- ance was offered to its progress. In 1730 the company brought homo more than fifteen thousand beaver-skins, and nearly as many skins of martins, otters, foxes, wolves, and bears. * The Hudson's Bay trade,' it was said in 1731, * em- ploys generally three ships from London, carrying thither coarse duffle cloth or blanketing, powder and shot, spirits, etc. ; and, in return, brings home vast quantities of peltry of many kinds, bed-feathers, whale-fins, etc. And as that small company makes a large dividend of eight, or formerly ten, per cent, on their capital of £100,000, besides the em- ployment it gives to our people in fitting out and loading those ships, it may truly be said to be an advantageous commerce.'* Yet, more than a hundred years ago, it was urged in Parliament that this commerce ought to be more advanta- geous. ' The Company's four factories,' it was said in 1749 by one of the agents, ' contain only one hundred and thirty servants, and two small houses with only eight men in each. There are iucontestiblo evidences of rich copper and lead mines ; yet the company give no encouragement for work- ing them, nor for their servants going into the inland countries. If the least evidence had been suffered to transpire that the climate is very habitable, the soil rich and * Anderson, vol. iii., pp. 167, 233. t ■ '• •i ■' . ,1 f ^ 124 THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY. fruitful, fit both for corn and for cattle, rich in mines, and the fisheries capable of great improvements, the legislature would have taken the right into its own hands, and would have settled the country, and laid the trade open for the benefit of Britain. The company, therefore, have con- tented theinselves with dividing a large profit upon a small capital amongst only about one hundred persons, and have not only endeavoured to keep the true state of the trade and country an impenetrable secret, but have also industriously propagated the worst impressions of them.'"'' Parliament, however, decided that the rights of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany were indisputable, and tliat it must be allowed to carry on its trade as it judged best for its own interests. But its exclusive privileges were again, and this time successfully, disputed about fifty years afterwards. A North- West Company was* founded with powers to carry on its trade in the unused portions of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany's Territory. The Quebec Fur Company, moreover, established even before the Hudson's Bay Company, and which had long confined its operations to commerce with the Indians bordering upon Canada, now became more active. The rivalship of the three companies led to a great extension of our acquaintance with tho distant parts of North America, and intercourse with its natives. The trade in furs, that had hitherto been chiefly limited to the regions about Hudson's Bay, was pursued in the far west. Ex- ploring parties were formed, and by them fertilizing rivers and fruitful plains were discovered in quarters never before visited ; and in some of these districts valuable factories and strong forts were built. Although the feuds of the rival companies, sometimes issuing even in bloodshed, greatly lessened their profits, they caused a vast increase of their operations. The feuds died out, but not the enter- prise, with the fusion of the North- West Company in the Hudson's Bay Company in 1821 ; and by that time the Anderson, vol. iii., p. 271. A ' THE COMPANV'S FACTORIES. 125 general cliaractcr of the immense territory was tolerably well lUKlerstood and, to some extent, rightly valued. In 1817 the Hudson's Bay Company, ^vitll a capital of £400,000 in the hands of two hundred and thirty-nine pro- prietors, had a hundred and thirty-six separate establish- ments, extending east and west from Labrador and tho Atlantic Ocean to British Columbia and the racilic Ocean ; and north and south from the boundaries of Canada and the United States up to Ballin's Bay and the Arctic Ocean. Its factors, clerks, and servants, stationed at these settle- ments, then numbered about fourteen hundred, and their business was to trade with the Indian population, scattered over the vast area, which was supposed to amount to about ninety thousand. ' The trade in America,' said an impartial and well-informed citizen of the United States, in 1844, * is especially directed by a resident governor, who occasionally visits and inspects all the principal forts. Under hini, c-s officers, are chief factors, chief traders, and clerks, for the most part natives of North Britain, and an army of regular servants, employed as hunters, traders, and voyageurs, nearly all of them Canadians or half-breeds. The number of all these persons is small when compared with the duties they have to perform ; but the manner in which they are admitted into the service, and the training to which they are subjected, are such as to render their efficiency and their devotion to the general interests as great as possible. The strictest discipline, regularity, and economy are en- forced in every part of the company's territories ; and the magistrates appointed under the Act of Parliament for the preservation of tranquillity are seldom called on to exercise their functions, except in ^^^e settlement of trifling disputes. In the treatment of the aborigines of the countries under its control the Hudson's Bay Company appears to have admirably reconciled policy with humanity. The prohibition to supply these people with ardent spirits appears to be rigidly enforced. Schools for the instruction of the native children are established at all the principal trading forts, , I 4' 'M\ !■ I ■t ■• I I 'f 126 THE HUDSON'S r,AV TERRITORY. each of wliicli also contains a liospital foi* sick Indians, and offui'S employment for those who are disposed to work whilst hunting cannot be carried on. Missionar js of various sects are encouraged to endeavour to convert them to Ciu'istianity, and to induce them to adopt the usages of civilized life, so far as may bo consistent with the nature of the labours required for their support ; and attempts are made, at great expense, to collect the Indians in villages, on tracts where the climate and soil are most favourable for agriculture. It is, however, to be observed that, of tlie whole territory, only a few small portions are capable of being rendered productive by agriculture. From the re- mainder nothing of value can be obtained excepting furs, and those articles can be procured in greater quantities and at less cost than by any other means.'* But the ' few- small portions ' of tlie great Hudson's Bay Territory com- prise districts almost as large as England, while others have been proved to be rich iu other sorts of wealth, till lately never dreamt of. The stations of the company, most plentiful about Hudson's Bay, but also distributed over the country stretch- ing westward for more than two thousand miles, served as small centres of civilization in the midst of wide areas of forest desolation. * They are built usually,' said a traveller famihar with them, ' in the form of a square, or nearly so, of about a hundred yards. This space is picketed iu with logs of timber, driven into the ground, and rising fifteen or twenty feet above it. In two of the corners is usually reared a wooden bastion, sufficiently high to enable the garrison to see a considerable distance over the country. In the gallery of the bastion five or six small guns, 6 or 12 pounders, are mounted, covered in and used with regular ports, like those of a ship, while the ground-floor serves for the magazine. Inside the pickets are six or eight houses ; one containing the mess-room for the officers of the fort. :l % y .' * Greenhow, • History of Oregon and California.' IG 77//: CO.UPAA'V'S FACTO Rli:S. 1:7 and their dwollin^-liouso when the number of them is small ; two or three others — the number of course depend- ing on the strength of the fort, whicli seldom exceeds a dozen men — being devoted to the trappers, voyageurs, etc. Another serves for tlio Indian trading store, and one for the furs, which remain in store at the inland forts during tho greater part of the year.'* Near each station one or two Indian villages were generally to bo found. Other villages were far f^/.vay from English settlements. Of the aborigines, when they had not been maddened by the strong drink which white men taught them to love, most visitors spoke well. ' Tho Indian,' wo are told by two who, in 18G2 and 18G3, travelled all across the Hudson's Bay Territory, * is constantly engaged in hunting to supply his family with food ; and when that is scarce he will set out without any provision for iiiinself, and often travel from morning to night for days before he finds the game he seeks. Then, loaded with meat, ho toils home again, and, whilst the plenty lasts, considers himself entitled to complete rest after his exertions. This self- denial of the men, and their wonderful endurance of hunger, is illustrated by the case of one hunter who, several years ago, narrowly escaped death by starvation. That winter buffalo did not come up to tho woods, and moose and lish were very scarce. After killing his horses, one after another, when driven to the last extremity, the family found them- selves at length without resource. The hunter, leaving with his wife and son a scanty remnant of dried horseflesh, hunted for two days without success, and at last, faint and still fasting, with difficulty dragged himself home. All now made up their minds to die ; for tho hunter became unable to move, and his wife and boy too helpless to procure food. After being eight days longer without tasting food, and exposed to the fierce cold of winter, they were fortu- nately discovered by some of the company's voyageurs, by * Mayne, 'Four Years in British Columbia and Vancouver Island,' p. 117. ' ^^1, ■ \' i ,! \ i I2S THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY. whose careful attention they were with difficulty brought round.'* DilTorent from the other stations of the Hudson's Bay ('oinpany was the Eed Eiver Settlement, begun in 1813, with Fort Garry for its capital. Here, within easy reach of Canada and the United States, its first experiment of colonization was made, and with considerable success. An agricultural population of five thousand, composed chiefly of civilized Indians or half-breeds, with a mixture of Cana- dians, Englishmen, and colonists from the continent of Europe, occupied the district in 1843 ; and from that time it made rapid progress, notwithstanding the frequent quarrels that arose between the law^less natives outside, and their more or less Anglicized kinsmen and their white masters inside the grovving settlement. It was the starting- point for the westward and northwestward movements, by which Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and other districts have been taken possession of by English emigrants. Two other and more important settlements, the colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island, have grown up on tJie most western limits of the Hudson's Bay Territory. Some part of the country now know^n as British Columbia had been visited by Sir Francis Drake in the course of his famous voyage round the w^orld ; and many later adventurers had visited its Pacific coast-line and the neighbouring islands during the two following centuries. But the formidable barrier of the Eocky Mountains deterred the Hudson's Bay Company from making use of this portion of its territory until recent times. In 1804 it established a fur-trading station at Fort George, on Fraser Eiver, in New Caledonia, and soon other factories were opened in the neighbouxhood. These proving successful, it extended its operations and erected a trading fort near the site of Victoria, in Vancouver Island, in 1843, and the great natural resources of the island Boon suggested more extensive colonizing work. In 1847 it * ViBcount Milton and Dr. Cheadle, 'The North-West Passage by Land.' If lay )ry (r Ilia, )a. [nd Ind it by ITS SETTLEMENTS AND OFFSHOOTS. 129 asked permission of the British Government to pursue this work in an orderly way. The permission was given, and in 1848 Vancouver Island was assigned to the Hudson's Bay Company for ten years. The discovery of the Californian gold-fields brought many settlers to this quarter of the world, and some of them, preferring the quiet of agricultural life to the turmoil of the district of gold-mines, went north- ward to Vancouver Island and British Columbia. Thus their colonization was begun, soon to be rapidly augmented. In 1857 British Columbia was also found to be rich in gold, and immediately a fresh tide of immigration set in. Victoria, hitherto a quiet village, became suddenly a busy port, through v/hich, in the course of four months, twenty thousand adventurers passed on their way to the new El Dorado. In 1859 both the island and the mainland were taken out of the hands of the Hudson's Bay Company, which was in no way adapted for the control of settlements promising to become so populous, and the separate colonies of British Columbia and Vancouver Island were formed. In 18G6 they were united under one administration, designed to meet the requirements of the new England growing up on the northern shores of the Pacific. The surrender of these young colonies by the Hudson's Bay Company was only the prelude to its entire dissolution. Started when monopolies were common, if not necessary for the development of British commerce and civilization — the greatest and most fruitful monopoly of all being the East India Company — it outlived all other institutions of its kind. It did its work as worthily and honestly as could be expected of it. But the same causes which led to the blending of the various British North American colonies in the Canadian Confederation rendered inexpedient the longer existence of the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1868 an Act was passed by the British Parliament authorizing the transfer of all the vast territories, vaguely described in Charles the Second's days as Prince Rupert's Land, to the Dominion of Canada ; and this was effected in 1869, when the successors of the 9 N if i ' i J I-U^^ 130 THE HUDSON'S BA Y COMPANY. \ u. -\ ^ ill old proprietors received ample compensation for the lapsing of their 'vested rights.' The southern portion of the great North- West Territory was mapped out, and divided into the four huge subordinate provinces of Saskatchewan, Assiniboia, Alberta, and Athabasca, and provided in 1882 with suitable machinery of government. Before that time, in 1870, Manitoba had been organized as a separate province of the Dominion, and in 1871 British Columbia, including Van- couver Islands, had joined the Confederation. I li I :i ;i H i. < n i I; 1 CHAPTER XI. BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. THE DOMINION OP CANADA — ITS CONSTITUTION — A GENKRAL VIEW OF THE BRITISH NORTH AMKRICAN COLONIES — PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND — CAPE BRETON — NOVA SCOTIA — NEW BRUNSWICK — QUEBEC — ONTARIO — MANITOBA — THE NORTH-WESTERN TERRITORIES — BRITISH COLUMBIA AND VANCOUVER ISLANP. [1867-1888.J HE constitution provided in 1867 for the four colonies which were then united as the Dominion of Canada, and so prepared as to leave room for the inclusion in it of all our other settlements in Nvorth America, was a wise and most serviceable piece of statesmanship — a somewhat tardy enforcement of nearly all that was best in the scheme put forward by the Earl of Durham in 1838 ; but perhaps all the wiser and more serviceable for the delay which had enabled that scheme to be improved upon by the teachings of experience, and to be fitted to the growing needs of the colonists. Great improvements had been already and more promptly made, in accordance with Lord Durham's suggestions, on the arrangements that he found and condemned in the small and turbulent Canada of his day ; and those improvements had been working beneficially during a quarter of a century, concurrently with the progress made in the neighbouring colonies, before the great change was effected in 1867. The main purpose of this memorable reform was to secure for our North American colonies, under the supremacy of 9—2 ii: ) Ml 132 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. i I r the Crown, a system of government ' similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom.' The result was a system of government more truly representative than at that time, or afterwards, existed in the United Kingdom — one that was almost Kepublican in everything but the name. Had the same policy been pursued ninety or a hundred years earlier towards the older English colonies which had been planted south of the St. Lawrence, it is fair to assume that there would have been no American War of Independence and no United States of America, completely independent of British rule, and in some respects antagonistic to it. Had a less generous or prudent policy been pursued, it may also bo assumed that some, if not all, of our North American colonies would ere now have severed their connection with the mother country, and would have established themselves as rivals or allies of the great Southern Eepublic. The timely concessions made to the North American colonies, more- over, as we shall see, furnished a precedent that has been followed, wfth variations, in the treatment of our younger groups of colonies in Australasia and South Africa. By the Dominion constitution of 1867 a legislature was framed, with Ottawa as its convenient seat, consisting of a Senate, the members of which are appointed by the Crown for life, and which thus corresponds in a modified form to the British House of Lords, and of a House of Commons elected by the people, to which the ministers, though form- ally holding office under the Governor-General as repre- sentative of the sovereign, are responsible. The members of the Senate, limited in number to seventy-eight, with pro- vision for four more in the event of Newfoundland, now the only outside colony, being added to the Confederation, are selected from residents in the several provinces in some- thing like proportion to their population. To the House of Commons representatives are elected under a manhood suffrage by one-membered constituencies ; the total of 215 being made up by 92 from Ontario, 65 from Quebec, 21 from Nova Scotia, 16 from New Brunswick, 6 from Prince Edward I ' ; i, ,i (iji /as to nis I'ln- )re- ^ers )ro- Ithe are liie- oi lood I215 L'om ?ard THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 133 Island, 5 from Manitoba, 4 from the North-West Territories, and 6 from British Colmnbia. By this Dominion Parliament, and the Government approved by it, all matters of general legislation are dealt with. For the management of local aifairs, each province has a legislature and executive of its own, their decisions being subject to the veto of the Dominion Parliament in Ottawa, just as those of the latter are subject to the veto of the Imperial Parliament in London ; and subordinate to these provincial assemblies are municipal councils for the management of strictly local affairs. The administration of justice u,nd all matters pertinent to the military and naval defence of the Dominion are, as in England, under the control of the Crown, though subject to the financial Dower of the House of Commons. Under the Constitution of 1867 the Dominion of Canada is thus virtually endowed with independence, the Governors - General placed over it by the Crown being suitable centres or pivots of the administratwe machinery, but being ex- pected to conform to the ideal of constitutional monarchy by reigning without governing. The arrangement, how- ever, has worked well. During twenty years there has been very little friction either between the mother country and her great dependency or between the portions of that dependency. On the contrary, old feuds have in large measure subsided. If English trade has suffered through the many restrictions put upon it by the Canadian Protec- tionists, it has suffered not more, and perhaps less, than it would have suffered had the Dominion been entirely sepa- rated from England ; and this has been one of the chief grounds of quarrel which have arisen. English trade and English credit, moreover, have profited much by the vast increase of Canadian prosperity that has taken place since 1867. The most striking evidence of this prosperity, at once an effect and a cause, is in the construction of the great Canadian Pacific Eailway. By 1875, about 4,800 miles of railway, running in various directions, had been constructed <• V 1 ' j , i \ Ml' i »34 /BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. U ii throughout the Dominion ; and the mileage had been exactly doubled by 1884, before the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed. Thfe wonderful exploit of engineering stretclies for more than 3,000 miles, through huge mountains and over broad rivers, from Quebec to Vancouver in British Columbia, and thus opens up a new route for commerce between Europe and Asia by spanning the land between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, besides facilitating the conveyance from place to place of the produce of the inter- mediate provinces. By its means, and by the other road- ways in connection with it, is bridged over the immense tract of land separating the older of our North American colonies which are grouped on the eastern side of the conti- nent, from their younger sisters in the distant West, and a closer bond than politicians can fashion has been established between the aggregation of English possessions — some of them yet in their infancy, and some as yet almost quite un- used — which occupy an area of three and a half million square miles, and afford room for a population more than ten times as numerous as the five millions who now inhajbit it. Of the several portions of this vast territory, united by community of interests, and, amid many and important differences, by physical resemblances, a comprehensive view may here be taken . British North America begins with the mainland and islands that lie on either side of the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence. On the northern side are Newfoundland, which, as a great fishing-station and not much else, stands apart ; and Labrador, still almost unexplored, but of too barren an appearance to promise much benefit from its use, save as a haunt for fishermen on the coast, and a resort of fur-traders in the interior. On the southern side is the fair Acadian land of the old French settlers, including Cape Breton and Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Prince Edward Island, which had in 1881 a population of about 109,000 spread over an area of 2,133 square miles. I ( 'i ■ •II ITS MARITIME PROVINCES. 135 id ds loo of lir [pe [on les, about the size of tlio English county of Norfolk, lies pleasantly in the bay that skirts New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. A narrow and irregular strip of land, it contains numberless small bays, abounding in lish, and otfonng con- venient harbourage for far more shipping than frequents its shores. The dense forests with which it once abounded have been partly destroyed by fires, and other parts have been cleared to make room for the pastoral and agricultural pursuits which the island especially invites. The forests that remain furnish material for the ship-building that has long been a favourite and lucrative pursuit of the inhabi- tants. ' In few places,' it was said in 1849, * have there been greater changes of fortune. A person who came from England in the capacity of a cook was employed in a ship- yard, and recently his former master was among the number of his servants. He now owns extensive tracts of land and farms, mills of different kinds, and a great variety of other property. During the past year he has built no less than ten ships, and loaded them with timber for Great Britain. He is a man of influence, and has several times been elected a member of the House of Assembly. There are not thirty words in his vocabulary, yet all his sayings and doings are characterized by sound sense and correct judgment. '■''■ By such rough and honest enterprise on the part of its principal inhabitants, Prince Edward Island has continued to prosper. Cape Breton, an island about half as large as Yorkshire, separated from Nova Scotia by a narrow channel which is in one part only a mile wide, and nearly divided into two islands by an inlet, which at its end leaves only a few miles of land, lies to the east of Prince Edward Island. Its northern and larger half is wild and mountainous. The southern part is an undulating plain, crowded with bays and streams, and terminating in high cliffs which form a rocky barrier to the Atlantic Ocean on the south-eastern shore. In it are most of the 34,000 dwellers in the island. * Martin, vol. i., p. 240. I I. 1\ IfM 136 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. i* i; I ( I 1 !; ■ I i i f Sydney, the capital, is beautifully situated at the head of a bay that forms a safe harbour for the ships which frequent it, and which will be much more numerous when proper use is made of the resources of the island. Noble forests offer an unlimited supply of timber, which, with agricultural productions, long formed the staple exports of Cape Breton. In later times profit has also been derived from the coal- mines that have been opened at a convenient distance from the capital, both being connected with the vast bed that passes under the sea to the north-eastward and reappears in Newfoundland. Immense deposits of gypsum, and numerous salt-springs, also occur among the red sandstone rock of which a great part of the island is composed. Eed sandstone and coal also abound, as well as granite, in the adjoining mainland of Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick. Nova Scotia, more than twice as large as Wales, having an area of 15,617 square miles, is an oblong, about 200 miles long and some 50 broad, connected with New Brunswick by a narrow isthmus. Its undulating surface, marked by no high hills, is varied by bays and creeks along the shore, and inland by numerous lakes and several rivers. The chosen home of the French Acadians, its population has to this day maintained much of the character of those first settlers and their offspring. Agricultural and pastoral employments inland, and fishing on the coast, render life too easy for the other resources of the country to be quicklj developed, and still about a third of its inhabitants, numbering 440,000 in 1881, are so employed. Other ways of wealth, however, have lately been opened up. The ash, beech, birch, maple, oak, pine, and spruce, that throng its forests, have not only helped to stock the timber market of Europe, but have been extensively employed in ship-building in the colony itself, and especially in the fine harbour of Halifax, chosen by Great Britain as its chief navaV "station in North America. The discovery of coal and iron has also led both to a quickened foreign trade, and to the establish- ment of many local manufactories, and a further stimulus f A'OVA SCOT/A AND NEW BRUNSWICK 137 Its lof g )f l)n 30 has appeared in the finding of gold in the colony. This new attraction, if over-estimated in itself, is beneficial in its encouragement of colonization and enterprise of other sorts. ' Prior to 1824,' said one of its Governors, Sir John Harvey, in 1847, * the foreign trade of Nova Scgtia was very limited, but the changes in the commercial policy of the empire opened a wider field for enterprise, of which the North Americans were not slow to avail themselves. Nova Scotia vessels, besides their traffic with the neighbouring States and the West Indies, now trade to the Baltic, the Mediterranean, China, the Mauritius, the East Indies, the Brazils, and Havannah, and our merchants and mariners are fast acquiring an accurate acquaintance with distant seas, and in every part of the world.'* But the trade of Nova Scotia was nearly trebled in the ensuing forty years. New Brunswick, an almost square block of land between Nova Scotia and Canada, containing 27,322 square miles, and nearly as large as Scotland, has not improved so rapidly. Its population, which was 156,000 in 1840, was only 252,000 in 1861, and 321,000 in 1881. Its magnificent stores of coal, iron, copper, and other minerals are still but little used, and its chief trade is in the timber that abounds in its vast and rarely traversed forests. Its least used and most beautiful districts are in the north-west, watered by the Restigouche and its tributaries. ' Wherever the e '■0 wanders, nothing is to be seen but an almost incal- culable numbor of lofty hills, interspersed with lakes, rivers, and waterfalls, glens and valleys. Some of the mountains are clothed with the tall and beautiful pine. Others sustain a fine growth of hard wood. Many have swampy summits, and several terminate in rich meadows and plains. Some- times the precipitous banks of the Restigouche are three hundred feet above its bed ; and at every bend, which is about once in six miles, the voyager is deceived with the appearance of entering a well-sheltered lake. But, at about * Nova Scotia Blue-Book, 1847. '-^ 1: %w. S' i.i M .1 7: FjS BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. Nil I ' 1 I P I: I ii : Ii • % f 'i ^ 1 i y i seventy miles from tlic sea, the country becomes compara- tively level, and all the way to the head of the river is a fine, bold, open territory, consisting of a rich upland, skirted with large tracts of intervale, and covered with a dense growth of mixed wood, in which large groves of pine are very conspicuous.'* Of the same wild character is the strip of Canadian land that lies between New Brunswick and the southern bank of the St. Lawrence ; wliile so much of the northern shore as is included in Canada shares to some extent the bleak and rugged aspect of Labrador. Neither of these sections of Lower Canada, or the province of Quebec, as it is now called, has yet been put to much use, though some of the forts set up long ago by the Hudson's Bay Company have grown into towns or villages along the banks of the river, here a noble estuary, from thirty to forty miles wide. Busy Canada begins about a hundred miles east of Quebec. Thence along the banks of the mighty river, on either side, there appears an almost continuous line of villages and towns extending to Lake Ontario, the southern bank, soon after Montreal is passed, being part of the United States. * The country below and above Quebec, for some distance,* it was said in 1849, before some other portions of the Canadian dominion had been explored, * presents scenery whose beauty is unequalled in America, and probably in the world. From the eminence over which the post-road passes, or in sailing up the St. Lawrence, there are frequent prospects of immense extent and variety, consisting of lofty mountains, wide valleys, bold headlands, luxuriant forests, cultivated fields, pretty villages and settlements, some of them stretch- ing up along the mountains, fertile islands, rocky islets, and tributary rivers ; wliile on the bosom of the St. Lawrence, with a breadth varying from ten to twenty miles, ships, brigs, and schooners, with innumerable pilot-boats and river-craft in active motion, charm the eye of the traveller. The scenery on approaching Quebec is truly magnificent : on * Martin, vol. i., p. 230. y )S0 in of ted nd Ice, nd ler. on nUEHEC AND OXTAKIO PI^OVIXCES. 139 tlie left, Point Levi, with iti^ romantic chiircli and cottaj^'cs ; on the right, the western part of Orleans Isle, whi(;h closely resembles our own Devonsliiro coast. Beyond, the lofty mainland opens to view, and tlio spectator's attention is riveted by the magnificent Falls of Montmorency— a river as large as the Thames at Richmond — which precipitates its vast volume of constantly flowing waters over a perpen- dicular precipice two hundred and forty feet in height. The eye then runs along miles of richly cultivated country, terminating in a ridge of mountains, with the city and battlements of Quebec, rising in the form of an amphitheatre, cresting, as it were, the ridge of Capo Diamond, and majestically towering above the surrounding country, as if destined to be the capital of an empire.'* From Quebec the panorama continues, with less grandeur, for about two hundred miles, when Montreal is reached, a city larger and handsomer than Quebec, though with fewer natural or artificial defences. It stands on an island in the middle of the St. Lawrence. Here the river ceases to be navigable by large vessels ; but it passes through scenery as attractive as that on the eastern side of Quebec, till it reaches Kingston, where the waters widen into Lake Ontario, to contract again at the famous Falls of Niagara, opposite to ""vhich is the noble city of Toronto ; and beyond it, fed by the same river, under different names, arc Lakes Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Superior. There, with the province of Ontario, old Canada ends, and the waters cease to be a boundary between British America and the United States. Northward of this splendid barrier are lofty mountains and fertile plains, dense forests, and varied lakes and rivers, as far as the shores of Hudson's Bay. Ontario, less mountainous than the eastern province, is for the most part a vast plain, diversified by hills, and covered with luxuriant vegetation. Wheat and other grain are cultivated where the noble forests have been removed ; but forest-lands, con- taining maple, beech, oak, bayw^od, elm, hickory, walnut, * Martin, vol. i., p. 56. f ' if :!!il m I -t ■11 I40 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. h\m \ '\ \ ■H' f ' i I \i , ! : h ' ! \ : I I I ! I f 1 ! J. ! I'l u 1 chestnut, cherry, birch, cedar, and pine, all of largest growth, abound. ' The autumnal tints of tlicso forests, even on cloudy days, are so brilliant that the yellow leaves give tho impression of sunshine, each leaf presenting a point of sparkling gold. The hues change from day to day, and pink, lilac, vermilion, purple, deep blue and brown, combine to form a gorgeous mass of colouring that surpasses imagina- tion. Even the decay of the aged and fallen trees is con- cealed by a mantel of geraniums, honeysuckles, foxgloves, and flowers.'* Timber, thus furnished in such profusion, is still the staple article of Canadian commerce, being chiefly collected in the far west, and floated eastward along the course of the Ottawa. The old lumber trade, however, hp<5 not of late years increased in as large proportic =• tb'^ le in grains, roots, fruits, live-stock, and other and pastoral pro- duce. In Quebec and Ontr "*o, as n. . wilder parts to the west and north, the fore or many of them, are being gradually cleared or replaced by farms, and prosperous towns have arisen where straggling forts and villages were sparsely dotted about. The province of Quebec, though older and larger, has been outstripped by Ontario in wealth and population. Of the 1,359,000 inhabitants of this province in 1881, three- fourths were of French origin, retaining many of the primi- tive ways of their forefathers. Quebec, the capital, and practically a seaport, had then 65,000 inhabitants, while there were 173,000 in Montreal, the commercial metropolis and headquarters of the grain trade. In Ontario there was a population of nearly 2,000,000, with 125,000 in Toronto, which is the capital of the province, though Ottawa, with 31,000 in 1881, is the centre of government for the whole Dominion. The English element, which now predominates over the French in Ontario, is in Manitob«i. mixed with other European races, as well as with a col 'derable half-caste * Somerville, 'Physical Geography,' p. 344. ONTARIO AND MANITOBA. 141 Indian population, whilo uncivilized Indiana are plentiful outside the towns. This latter province, reshaped out of the old Red Iliver settlement, is about half as lar^'o as Ontario or Quebec, but contained in 188G ouly about 1()H,000 inhabitants, of whom nearly an ei^dith were in Winnipef,', its chief town, built on the site of Tort Garry, the Hudson's Bay Company's station. Its promotion to the dif^nity of a province in 1870, with a settled j^overnment in accordance with the rules laid down for the Dominion, was the sequel to the Red River rebellion of 18G9, when Colonel — afterwards Lord — Wolseley had some dilliculty in crusliing the re- sistance offered by Riel and his hardy comrades to En<,'lish interference with them. This rebellion constitutes the most memorable episode in the recent political history of Canada, and, though Riel was defeated in 1870, and for some time had a seat in the Manitoba Legislature, the spirit of defiance arou.-,L!d by him was not easily overcome, and never survived his execution, after another abortive rising, in 188G. The conflict of races here, as elsewhere, has had incidents by no means creditable to the high-handed policy of English aggressors ; but there has been much less to complain of in Manitoba than in some other of our colonies, and the pro- gress of this province since 1870 has been in many ways gratifying. In 1871 its white population was les? ihan 19,000, and there were only 241 residents in Winnipeg, which sixteen years later claimed to have at least 25,000. ' It was hero,' to quote the glowing words used by Lord Dufferin when he was Governor-General, * that Canada, emerging from her woods and forests, first gazed upon her rolling prairies and unexplored North-West, and learnt, as by an unexpected revelation, that her historical territories of the Canadas, her eastern seaboards of New Brunswick, Labrador, and Nova Scotia, her Lawrentian lakes and valleys, cornlands and pastures, though themselves more extensive than half a dozen European kingdoms, were but the vestibules and antechambers to that, till then, undreamt- of dominion, whose illimitable dimensions ahke confound i t \:--X ■""■ 142 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. f ! !! ' I the arithmetic of the surveyor aud the verification of the explorer. It was here that, counting her past achievements as but the preface and prelude to her future exertions and expanding destinies, she took a fresh departure, received the alHatus of a more imperial inspiration, and felt herself no longer a mere settler along tlie banks of a single river, but the owner of half a continent, and, in the magnitude of her possessions, in the wealtli of her resources, in the sinews of her material might, tlie peer of any power on the earth.' To the north and north-west of Manitoba and Canada proper is a vast extent of wilderness, the hunting-ground of the Hudson's Bay Company and its successors, gradually becoming more bai-ren and inaccessible as it approaches the Arctic Eegion. To the west is a huge sweep of prairie-land, comprising some 400,000 square miles, and including the districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, well watered, and blessed with a temperate climate, of which use has only been made since, by the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, they have been brought into com- nmnication with the older provinces on the east, and with British Columbia on the otliei- side of the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia, stretching from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, and from the United States boundary-line to Alaska, the territory lately ceded to the United States by Russia, forms something like an oblong block about 600 miles long and nearly 400 broad. With Vancouver Island, which in size and shape somewhat resembles Nova Scotia, and in climate and fertility is considered to be on a par with England, it comprises about 390,000 square miles. Both the mainland and the island have rapidly acquired im- portance in recent years through the discovery of gold in the one, and the convenience of the port of Victoria in the other as a halting-place for travellers in search of the glittering treasure. But both, and especially Vancouver Island, are rich in timber, coal, copper, iron, and other natural commodities, and are j,dmirably adapted for agri- cultural pursuits. Is \ BRITISH COLUMBIA AND VANCOUVER ISLAND. 143 Vancouver Island is more interesting and promising than most other parts of British Columbia. About 290 miles long and froin 50 to 70 broad, it is nearly covered with pine forests, except where the conflagrations frequent there have laid bare surfaces some miles in extent. The plants and animals found in it are very similar to those with which Englishmen are familiar ; but their immense number and predominance over the whole district greatly alter tlio impression made by them. Outside Victoria and the few other settlements the European colonists have as yet hardly set their mark ; and the wild Indians, wandering from place to place, or lodging in flimsy huts, in no degree occupy the rank proper to man as master of nature. These Indian tribes have the same liigli cheek-bones, broad flat faces, long black hair and copper complexion, as their kinsmen on the continent ; but the men of some tribes are taller and stronger. They are described by travellers as being nearly all equally barbarous, greater strength of body only coming in aid of the same ferocity of mind. Individuals have deadly strifes with one another ; tribes maintain hereditary feuds. ' Treachery and artifice,' we are told, ' constitute the base of their tactics in war. They appear insensible to anything like chivalry or generous feeling, killing and slaying with remc" oless cruelty, undeterred by any sentiment of compunction.' They build huts with posts and beams, often large and commodious, but always so fitteci as to bo easily transferred from one place to another. Their dress consists of a blanket tied round the body with strips of bark, and their tattooing is sometimes really ornamental. They are skilful huntsmen and excel- lent fishermen, and in the art of cooking salmon, of which good specimens are to be met with all along the coast, they claim to be connoisseurs. * The true Indian method of cooking a salmon consists in putting it into a wooden bowl with water, which is made to boil by dropping in rcd-luit stones.' The canoes, in the manufacture of which the natives show considerable skill, not only are so much used f 1 < • i< ,1 ■ ■^pa 144 BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. ,ii I ^1 \ 1 I !i if 't i i if \ i I ii ■i i J 1 ■! ! til in lifetime that no Indian when out 01 them can move his limbs in a graceful way, but also generally serve as tombs for the dead. Often each tribe finds a little rocky island at a short distance from the coast, and thither the canoe, freighted with its owner's corpse and his principal weapons and other articles, is taken, to be dragged on shore, and left. Among some tribes it is the practice to place their dead in boxes upon the branches of trees ; and with a few others cremation is said to be the rule.* Victoria, the capital of Vancouver Island, is favourably placed on the south-eastern corner of the island. Its popu- lation increased from about 500 in 1858 to more than 14,000 in 1887, when it began to grow much more rapidly under the impetus of the railway and steamship communications meeting in it. Many stories are told of the easy money- making of its inhabitants. * There is a person,' it was said in 1865, 'luxuriating in England at the present moment, who went to the island as a poor ship's carpenter. When the rush of immigration came in 1858, he and his wife were living behind the bar of a small public-house, the resort of sailors. He bought about £40 or £60 worth of property after he arrived, which now brings him the hand- some income of £4,000 per annum. Another inhabitant brought to the country £60 in 1857, and the land he pur- chased with that amount now realizes to him £80 a month. 't Later records are yet more astonishing. The neighbouring town of Vancouver, however^ at the south-western extremity of the mainland, seems destined to surpass Victoria and to become a superior rival to San Francisco, as a great mart for trade along the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and, across it, to China and the East Indies. Only started, as the terminus of the Canadian and Pacific Railway, in 1885, it had two years afterwards a population of more than 5,000. The resources of these most western, as well as of the * 'Travels in British Columbia and round Vancouver Island,' by Captain C. E. Barret-Lennard. I Macfie, ' Vancouver Island and British Columbia,' p. 89. I BRITISH COLUMBIA AND VANCOUVER ISLAND. 145 lis of id- mt to lart )SS the it bhe by central, portions of the Canadian Dominion are still wholly undeveloped. The rush of gold-seekers, while leading the way to healthier colonization, at the same time presented obstacles thereto. Reckless adventurers introduced^ lawless ways which hindered the progress of quiet settlers. The experiences of travellers and emigrants show that both British Columbia and Vancouver Island offer wonderful advantages for settlers; but neither they nor any other portions of the world can afford comfortable resting-places for those who desire more than may be fairly earned by their own brains and hands. Those who seek for gold have the chance of rapid fortune, but also the chance of starva- tion and of moral ruin. But the patient and persevering miner will find ample stores of copper, iron, and coal, always surer sources of wealth than the more precious mineral ; and to another class of emigrant, the man with manufacturing talent, there is a wide field of prosperity. The plentiful timbers of the province, joined to its other re- sources, offer strong inducements to the shipbuilder; and the vessels constructed by him can rarely lack cargoes of raw material, for which Asia and Europe will gladly pay in cheaper and better commodities than the native market can produce. That is a state of things not to be brought about in a day, nor in a few years ; but if patient industry is employed, it must needs arrive in due time. • I I \\ !" '1 :i''^ 10 i ^1 11 it :! i I ! ! ,1 'hi: * '' ■ r 1:1 i ' ' ' \ CIIArTEIl XIJ. KIGIITEENTH CENTURY CHANGES. 01,n AND NKW rOI.OM/.INO rOMCIKH— KKFKCTM OF KrUOrRAN WAllS ON l'OI,l ,1AL IIISTOUY — THK HITUKMACV OK KNtil.AND— OUR MKDITKKHANKAN I'OisaKSSlONS— (IIUKALTAK-MALTA CTl'lUS — IIKMCOI.AND. ( 170 1-lSS.H. j URTNG the century following ]*iii«j;land's loss of lier old plantations on the American mainland, another group of huge colonies, as we have seen, has been acquired and developed further north, and the Dominion of Canada, if not so populous or prospcH'ous, comprises an area greater even than that of the Unit(Hl States. Our smaller colonics on the western side of tlie Atlantic, in the West Indies and tropical America, have made less progress ; but the growth of British North America has been rivalled, and in some particulars sur- passed, by the growth of our Australasian colonies, while there has also been remarkable, if less healthy, growth of British colonization in South Africa Before we review these later acquisitions, and some others in the distant south and east, however, mention must bo made of the important change, in so far as our colonial history has been affected by it, wliich, in the eighteenth century, took place in the relations between Great Britain and the other figlit- ing and colonizing nations of Europe. Incidents of that change, and of the political rearrangements involved in it, were our winning of Canada and the increase of our West Indian possessions. It also led directly to the great exten- i OLD COLONIAL POLICY. 147 that n it, IVest Lten- eion of our oinpini in Fndia and oilmr partH of Aflia, as well aH in Africa, and indirectly to all our coloni/ing onterpriH(3 in Mi(! Pav^ific Ocean. Spain led tiio way, followed by Portugal, Holland, and Franco, aa well aw })y England, in tlio famous business of coloinal conquest which was begun early in tho sixteenth century, and vigorously continued through tho sevonteonth and afterwards. It was for a long time a business of con- quest, much more than of colonization, as wo now under- stand the term. Spaniards, Portuguese, Dutchmen, I'Vcinch and Englishmen, obtained permission from their sovereigns, or went out without permission, to discover and take ])0S- R(>ssion of any lands they could seize in the Now World or in the Old, wheiher sparsisly peopled by savages or crowded by the inlieritoi's of ancient civilizations; but their avowed pur])oso was trade, as they called it, with so much military occupation as was necessary to procuring the wealth they sought. Even when they conquered vast territories like Mexico and Peru, and when the settlements of Europeans were numerous enough to give fresh colour or taint to tho native populations, tho usurpers were comparatively few, and no more were encouraged or allowed than there was need for in order to establish the mastery that was indispen- sable to the objects they had in view. This arrangement has lasted with but little variation till recent times in tho Old World, especially in India, and in less degree in South Africa. It soon began to bo modified in tho New World, and notably by the English. Tho Indians in tho West Indies and on the American continent wore reduced, as far as could be, to slavery, or, if they preferred death to slavery, or sank under their bondage, they were in large measure exterminated, and when there was dearth of Indian slaves, negroes from Africa were im- ported to take their place. Europeans of all races soon began to really settle, and make their homes in the new countries, and in increasing numbers with each generation ; but even when they were most plentiful they were for a 10—2 liJ: i> i I ,! I I !l 148 EIGIITEFNTII CENTURY CHANGES. long time only small minorities among the black and red men over wliom they tyrannized. Gradually, however, an approach was made towards the modern idea of colonization, and especially in the settlements or plantations that owed their origin or vigour to the exiles or fugitives, expatriated on religious and political grounds, from England. From France and the Netherlands, Huguenots and others went to Canada and elsewhere in search of peace and liberty ; but there were larger migrations of English Puritans to New England and the adjacent districts, and just as these lied from Stuart oppression, there were also cavaliers and Cat) 10- lics who were driven across the Atlantic by the Puritanism dominaKo for a time in the mother country. Tlie New World profited by the misgovernmcnt in the Old World, which helped to people it with wliite men. Yet this wortliior sort of colonization was at best but slow and partial, and for such progress as the young colonies made they owed nothing to the kindness or wisdom of statesmen at home. ' We plant tobacco and Puritanism only, like fools,' it was complained in an English State paper of 1638 ; and more than half a century later it is recorded, 'An Attorney-General in the reign of William and Mary, being applied to in favour of a college which it was proposed to found in Virginia, and being invited to reflect that the people of Virginia had souls to be saved as well as the people of England, answered, " Souls ! Damn your souls ! Make tobacco !" ' It was by a long course of meddling and bullying, neglect of all the true interests of the colonies, and persistent and exclu.ilvc use or abuse of them as sources of revenue for the British Government and merchants and politicians at home, that the American War of Independence was brought about. Through nearly two centuries, however, the colonies of the various European nations were constant sources of quarrel among the rival governments, and frequent causes of actual warfare between them. In the struggle for ' the balance of power,' waged fitfully, but with scant pause, by sea and on land, from the German Ocean down to the 'Mi ise. the by Ito the IVAA! AND COLONIZATION. 149 Mcclitcrmiican, between ]']ii^disli, Freiicli, Spaniards, Dutch- men, and others, their several possessions in America, Asia, and Africa were involved, and tliosc possessions, bein^' tempt- ing prey and easy spoil, were repeatedly attacked and often conquered and reconquered, the only benefit, such as it was, derived from the cruel striie being that it greatly con- duced to the development of seamanship, and was particu- larly helpful to the steady p"ogross of England towards naval supremacy over all her rivals. At length a crisis was reached in 1763, when the Definitive Treaty, as it was called, between England, France, and Spain, assigned Canada and many smaller French colonies to England, and thus almost crushed the colonial enterprise of France, without in any way strengthening the colonial enterpris ; of Spain, which, in spite of the vast areas over which it extended, and mainly because of their vastness, was already rapidly decaying. The Definitive Treaty was soon followed by other fighting, culminating in the great Napoleonic wars of the ensuing half century ; and it was not till after the Treaty of Paris, conse- quent on the "^^ienna Congress, had been signed in 1817 that the irksome and lamentable series of disturbances in colonial history, due to the jealousies of the European nations, was brought to a close. The outcome of these disturbances, especially between the two treaties of 1763 and 1817, must be noted, if we arc to understand the conditions under which English colonization has advanced in modern times. Having, in 1763, wrested from the French all their posses- sions in North America, as well as their West Indian islands, and being still nominal masters of the United Provinces south of the St. Lawrence, the English were not eager to extend their dominions on the other side of the Atlantic ; but they had for a long time been greedy sharers of the wealth procured from the East Indies, though there the Dutch traders were far more successful, and both the French and the Portuguese claimed to compete with them. The Portuguese pretensions, at one time stupendous, were now little more than shadows ; and the En lish East India n ! !i i 1 ■,:l i ! ISO EIGHTEENTH CENTURY CHANGES. ! • f i i !i \ i SI ' i I i C!oin])any had boeii steadily ^'aiiiiiig ground during a century and a lialf as the chief opponent of the Dutch. When tiio French lost their footing in America, tlicy not oidy retaliated on their English conquerors there by fomenting the discon- tent of the New England colonists, and aiding them when they wore ready to claim their independence, but they also quickened their enterprise in the East, and on the way thither. Hence, before war was openly revived, arose fresh contests between the French and English trading companies ; and when Europe was deluged with blood in consequence of our crusade against the French revolutionists, and, a few years later, against Napoleon Bonaparte, there was desperate struggling also in all the remote comitries and colonies in which the rivals could come into collision. England gained immensely thereby, and in some parts very easily. The conquest of Holland by the French in 1795 resulted in the hoisting of the French flag in all the Dutch possessions — in Cape Colony, Malacca, Cochm, Ceylon, and elsewhere, as well as in the Dutch settlements in India ; and, as most of the Dutch settlers and colonists preferred English to French rule, their transference to the dominion of England was effected quickly ar d with but little trouble. In 1810, indeed, we were masters of all the French posses- sions abroad — in South America as well as in the East Indies — and also of all the Dutch possessions, except those which, throwing off the yoke of France, had succeeded in eluding that of England. By the Peace of 1814, confirmed in 1817, many of these acquisitions were restored to their former owners ; but England retained nearly as many as she cared for. She was henceforth supreme, and had all but a complete monopoly, in India. She was mistress of Ceylon, Mauritius, and the Cape. She reserved to herself the portion of Guiana which was nearest to her West Indian colonies ; and she maintained her hold on Malta, the central island in the Mediterranean, which had been taken from the French in 1802; as well as of Gibraltar, which had been wrested from the Spaniards as far back a§ 1704. I • 31011. very 1795 lutcli , and idia ; erred inion uble. sses- East those ed in rraed their ssho but a ylon, [ the ndian entral mthe been ENGLAND'S COLONIAL SUPREMACY. '5' Gibraltar and Malta are scarcely colonics, and, except as re^'ards their stratej^Mc advanta^'es, are of slight importance ; but reference must be made to tliem, and to some other minor British possessions, before we resume our survey of the larger sections and ramifications of our Empire. The seizure of Gibraltar by England marked a memorable stage in the decadence of Spain as a great JCuropcan, and yet more as a groat colonial, power. Its retention was a menace, so long as any threat was needed, to the nation whicli, before 1704 and down to 1808, when Napoleon's occupation of Spain led to the secession of its dominions in America, claimed to have more extensive possessions abroad, and larger territorial rights, than any other European State. Unable to expel the English from the fortified rock, which gave its occupants absolute control over the Mediterranean, the Spaniards were equally unable to maintain any real authority over their vast dependencies, and that authority dwindled away long before its gaudy symbols were pulled down. The value of Gibraltar to Enj 'and as the key to the Mediterranean also has lessened ; for, though its fortifica- tions are elaborately kept up, they might not be able t^o with- stand such attacks as could now be made upon them from the sea, were occasion or opportunity to arise for use of all the appliances of modern naval warfare. It is still, however, a formidable fortress, garrisoned by about 5,000 British troops, and with a civilian population of nearly 20,000, which adds smuggling to the legitimate trade incident to its situation as a convenient coaling-station for ships, and a ready mart for travellers. Malta is a somewhat larger, and, in some respects, a more usetul British possession. The history of this little island, and of the smaller island of Gozo adjacent to it, is full of interest, abounding in relics and accretions of perhaps a longer and more diversified series of colonizations than any other part of the world. Its earliest inhabitants, or the earliest of whom anything is known, were Phoenicians, who, in the thirteenth or fourteenth century before Christ, found t '. 1 fii i « ■ ' ■!< 'ure, but in cold blood they destroy the bonds which nature has knit between husband and wife, and between parents and children. I have known some colonists not only, for a trifling neglect, deliberately flay both the backs and limbs of their slaves by a peculiar, slow, lingering process, but even, outdoing the very tigers in cruelty, throw pepper and salt over the wounds. Many ii m, ny THE DUTCH AXD THE HOTTENTOTS. i6i a time have I seen unhappy skives, v^^ho, with the most dismal cries and lamentations, were suffering such punish- ments, during which they are used to cry, not so much for mercy as for a draught of water ; but, so long as their blood is inllamed with the torture, it is said that great care must be taken to avoid allowing them drink of any kind, as experience has shown that in that case they would die in a few hours, and sometimes the very instant after they drank it. I am far from accusing all the colonists of having a hand in these and other cruelties. There are many who hold them in abomination, and fear lest the vengeance of Heaven should, for all these crimes, fall upon their land and their posterity. Government has no other part in the cruelties exercised by its subjects than that of taking no cognizance of them.'* Perhaps, however, that was part enough. It was thought well to suffer the Hottentots to be exterminated, in order that the colony might be free from their wicked cattle- stealing ; and if, while that was being done, some of them could be put to use as slaves, their masters must be respon- sible to a higher power than man's for any harshness that occurred in the work. So the Dutch farmers led on their lazy life, in which the only excitement was in hunting and torturing the Hottentots, and their numbers were slowly increased and their territories rapidly extended, until 1795, when. Napoleon Bonaparte having invaded and annexed Holland, its settlement at the Cape w^as assigned to England by the Prince of Orange, then a refugee in London. In 1797, when the Earl of Macartney went out as Governor, he found a district of about 120,000 square miles, more than twice the size of England, peopled by about 20,000 white men, with their slaves, and an abject race of savages in the interior. Little but confusion prevailed, however, the Dutch residents rebelling against their new masters and wreaking vengeance upon their black subjects, until 1803, * Spurrman, 'Voyage to the Cape of Goo:' Hope,' vol. i., pp. 53, 202 ; vol. ii., pp. 143, 342. 11 ii'l; f l62 CAPK COLONY. Ml lii i - ' ;; 1 ■ I 1 !, :' 1 1 ! when, by the Treaty of Amiens, the colony was restored to Holland. Soon after that, the European war having been revived, the British Government seized the district by force of arms. Cape Town, after a gallant fight, surrendered to Sir David Baird in 1806, and military rule was in force, being chiefly directed against the sterner Kaffirs who had advanced from the interior to take the place of the almost exterminated Hottentots, until 1815, when the colony was formally and finally ceded to Great Britain. There was mismanagement on the part of the new owners of the colony, although their chief troubles sprang from a worthy action. In 1808 the making of fresh slaves was forbidden, and laws began to be enforced for improving the condition of those already on the farms. The white inhabi- tants would have cared little whether they were nominally subject to England or to Holland, but this novel interference with their privileges as slaveholders was indignantly re- sented by them. Thus a keen spirit of opposition to their new rulers was aroused, and much mischief sprang from it. The boons at first conferred upon the subject Hottentots were too small to win from them any gratitude; and no attempts at all were made to pacify the few Hottentots who yet remained in freedom, and the hordes of Kaffirs in their rear. These Kaffirs, residing in the eastern part of South Africa, had come into contact with the European settlers, partly through their own encroachments upon the districts held by the now almost exterminated Hottentots, partly through the advances made by the Europeans within their own border- lands. It seems as though the new Government of the English might easily have made peace with them. Better able to fight than the Hottentots, they were less disposed to do so, having fewer grudges against the white man. ' Some,' we are told, 'harassed the border colonists by frequent predatory incursions; but a considerable number lived quietly, engaged in cultivating the ground and herding their cattle, and these, together with another class who had UNDER ENGLISH RULE. 163 the kter Id to ne, lent tved (heir Ihad entered the service of the colonists at their request, would gladly have pledged their allegiance to the British Crown, had the privileges of British subjects been offered and duly explained to them in return. The chiefs were daily becom- ing more sensible of the advantages to be gained by civiliza- tion, and entreated that missionaries should be sent for the instruction of their 'young people. Under these circum- stances there is little doubt a large body of Kaffirs might, by legalising their tenure of certain lands, and otherwise by judicious treatment, have been incorporated with and rendered useful members of the community. Others might have been bought out with far less expense than they could be driven out ; and the really irreclaimable, when proved so, expelled with the consent of the chief and council of the sub-tribes to which they belonged.'* Unfortunately this wise and honourable line of conduct was not thought of. The English, finding that the Kaffirs were the enemies of the Dutch, made them their own enemies — * irreclaimable, barbarous, and perpetual enemies,' as they were described in a proclamation issued at this time. In 1809 Colonel Collins, who had been employed as a commis- sioner for the settlement of the frontier, recommended the expulsion of all Kaffirs from the border, and even the dis- missal of all who had become servants in the colony. In 1811 this was begun. * A great commando, comprising a large force of military and burgher militia, w^as assembled under Colonel Graham ; and, though the Kaffirs earnestly pleaded the cruelty of including the innocent and the guilty in the same condemnation, all were expelled with unrelenting severity. No warning was given ; but they were forced to abandon their crops of maize and millet, then nearly ripe, and so extensive that the troops were employed for many weeks in destroying their cultivations by trampling them down with large herds of cattle, and burning to the ground their huts and hamlets ; and much longer time elapsed before they succeeded in driving the whole of the people, to ;: ! Si * Martin, vol. iv., p. 50. 11—2 1 64 CAPE COLONY. i 1 ?J , M! I ' I ■ t • ' 1 ' ' [|1 l! jj 1 "1 tho immbor of 20,000 souls, over the Great Fish River.'* No heed was paid to the pathetic appeals of these poor out- casts. ' We have been with you fifteen or twenty years,' said some of them, as we are told by one who was present, ' We are your friends. We have watched your cattle when they were taken away by our countrymen. We have followed them and brought them back to you. Our wives have cultivated your gardens. Our children and yours speak the same language.' I Not satisfied with expelling the Kafiirs from the colony, of which the Great Fish River was at that time considered the boundary, the colonial troops crossed the river, pursuing the fugitives on the other siae, and attacked the friendly tribes among whom they took refuge. The land-drost, or magistrate and overseer of the district, Mr. Stockenstrom, wlio had often befriended the natives, now sought to pre- Vv.nt bloodshed. ' He was proceeding across the mountains, accompanied by about forty men, when, on approaching one of the kloofs, or passes, of the White River, he beheld numerous bands of Kaffirs assembling on both sides of the narrow ridge connecting two arms of the great mountain- chain along which lay their path. Relying on his great personal influence, and hoping to induce the Kaffirs to leave the country without further hostile operations, he rode straight up to them and dismounted in the midst, followed by a few who, having vainly striven to dissuade their leader from his daring enterprise, determined to share whatever hazard he might incur. The conference began, and con- tinued for some time in the most amicable manner. The chiefs and their counsellers gathered round the venerable magistrate and listened with deference to his arguments, until a messenger arrived with the intelligence that the right and centre divisions of the British troops had attacked the Kaffirs, some of whose principal men had already fallen. The hope of striking a decisive blow by the destruction of a * Martin, vol. iv., p. 51. t Parliamentary jPapers relative to the Cape, 1835, part i., p. 176. tight the lieu. of a THE FIRST KAFFIR WAR, 165 leader so powerful as the land-drost, combined peihapawitli tlie desire for retaliation, was in-CKistible. A Boer, standing close by Mr. Stockenstroni, remarked to liim the agitated discussion whicli had suddenly arisen among a party of Kafllrs who stood aloof in tlio tl ticket, but he replied, with a smile, that there was no danger. While yet speaking, his words received a fearful contradiction. The Kalhr war- whoop rent the air, and was re-echoed by barbarian voices from hill and dale for many miles around. In a brief space the land-drost and fourteen of his companions lay dead, pierced by innumc^rable woun. s. The survivors, of whom several were wounded, availed themselves of thefleetness of their horses to escape along the mountain ridge to the camp.'* The only effect of that conduct towards one of the few European friends of the Kaffirs was increased severity in the unholy exploits of the English. ' The Kafhrs,' said one who served in the affair, * were shot indiscriminately, women as well as men, and even though they offered no re- sistance ;' but he adds, by way of apology, that * the women were killed unintentionally, because the Boers could not dis- tinguish them from men among the bushes. 'f The murderous work continued till the Kaffirs were forced to retire ; but four years elapsed before the district seized from them could be safe without the presence of armed militia. Then the fort ereqjbed thereon was named Graham's Tovv-n, in honour — if it was any honour — of Colonel Graham, the officer who had commanded in the work. In such ways the English brought upon themselves the deadly hatred of the Kaffirs. No less mischief sprang from their ways of making friends among the black races. A leader of one of their tribes, naimed Gaika, being at feud with other chiefs, was in 1817 made an ally by the governor, Lord Charles Somerset ; and it was agreed between them that Gaika and his people should have exclusive right of trade with the English, and should be aided in war against * ISIartin, vol. iv., p. 52. t PringK , 'Narrative of a Kesiidt-ncL- in South Africa,' p. 291. '"! >! I66 CAPE COLONY, i: ' ,' 1.!' I I ' 1 I i I I n i ! i ' .! i ! I i , I ii " L.'i i, '11; ,: » his rivals, on condition of their helping to punish those rivals for their misdeeds. One curious provision in tliis treaty was that, whenever cattle were stolen from the colony, the colonists should sei/c an equivalent number from the nearest and most convenient kraal, or villa<^e, of the Kaflirs, and that Gaika should make ^ood the loss, if it foil upon his own tribe, by seizure from some of his neighbours. Certainly the Cape colonists were more apt in learning tlic crafts of barbarism from the natives than in teaching tlu)m the arts of civilization. Hardly could a more effective plan have been devised for encouraging ill-will and perpetuating the trade of cattle-stealing, which was now tho favourite excuse for raids upon tlic Kaffirs, as it had been before iu the case of tho Hottentots. In accordance with this treaty, Gaika, who had been defeated in a battle with his enemies, was in 1818 aided with a force of 3,352 soldiers and armed colonists, who went against a league of several Kaffir tribes. These Kaffirs expostulated against the intrusion, alleging that they had done no harm to the European towns, and wished to be at peace with them, and claiming that they should be allowed to settle their own quarrels amongst themselves. The answer of the English was a march through the territories of the associated tribes, whose members, not daring to engage in open fight, were slaughtered in their villages, or forced to take refuge iu the woods while the villages were destroyed. The gains of this inglorious exploit were 30,000 stolen cattle, of which 9,000 were given to Gaika, the rest being distributed among the colonists. The associated tribes, goaded by famine, sought to revenge themselves by raids on the English borders, wliereby much injury was done. Of their number 9,000 attacked Graham's Town, but its garrison of 350, and a corps of Hottentots, used their muskets with such deadly effect that the Kaffirs were soon put to flight, 1,400 of them being killed in the fight, and many others dying on the way back to their kraals. Thither they were pursued, to be further cruelly punished for their THE SECOND KAEEIR WAR. 167 honest resistanco of English tyranny. About 10,000 natives wore driven from their liomes, and a now province was added to Cape Colony. To this eastern province, with Port EHzabeth for its chief town, a large number of English colonists were imported in 1820, and thus a community dis- tinct from the old Dutch settlement was established. It is well that wo should understand the disgraceful way in which the English quarrel with the Kaffirs was begun and continued ; but it is not necessary hero to set forth all the painful incidents of the strife, perhaps the most disgrace- ful in the annals of English colonial policy, too often dis- honourable in itself and unfortunate in its issues. The slender excuse for the treatment to which the Kaffirs were subjected is that England had to govern a colony, chiefly composed of foreigners, whoso disaffection to the new rule set over them was only to be checked by humouring the evil passions to which they had long given free vent. To make willing vassals of the Dutch farmers was a hard task. In 1815 an insurrection broke out among them, which was with difficulty quelled, and then many of the old settlers only submitted to English government with a sullen discon- tent that was very injurious to the well-being of the colony. Quiet was not easily maintained, and a healthy honourable temper could in no way be produced. Every effort to do good was a fresh cause of opposition. So it was especially in 1828, when a wise law for protecting the Hottentots and virtually abolishing slavery was passed. In 1834 and 1835 another cruel war was waged against the KaiTrs, among whom Gaika, the former favourite of the colonists, was now included. Some 30,000 of them ' rebelled ' against British rule, and were, at first, so success- ful that they found their way up to the suburbs of Cape Town. They were soon driven back. ' Their loss during our operations against them,' wrote the governor. Sir Benja- min d'Urban, to Lord Glenelg, then Colonial Secretary, ' has amounted to 4,000 of their warriors, and, among them, many captains. Ours, fortunately, has not in t.ie whole ,10 m < ■•mmm mmt ■I 1 68 CAPE COLONY. ■ V . 6 i ' i. 1 • ) it ' I 'ii amounted to 100, and of them only two officers. There have been taken from them, also, besides the conquest and aliena- tion of their country, about 60,000 head of cattle, and almost all their goats ; their habitations everywhere destroyed, and their gardens and cornfields laid waste. They have been therefore chastised, not extremely, but perhaps sufficiently.'* ' The enemy,' wrote Colonel — afterwards Sir Harry — Smith, concerning one part of the ' not extreme ' chastisement, ' although his traces were numerous, fled so rapidly that few were killed, and only three shots fired at the troops. The whole of the country has becm most thoroughly traversed. Upwards of 1,200 huts, new and old, have been burnt ; immense stores of corn, in every direction, destroyed. Cattle of all sorts, horses and goats, have fallen into our hands. It is most gratifying to know that the savages, being the un- provoked aggressors, have brought down all the misery witli which they are now visited upon the heads of themselves and their families, and that the great day of retribution, and the punishment of the unprovoked atrocities committed by these murderous savages on our colonists, had arrived. 't The language in which Lord Glenelg condemned these proceedings and the satisfaction with which they were regarded by their authors, was creditable to him. * I must own,' he wrote, 'that I am affected by these statements in a manner the most remote from that which the writer con- templated. In the civilized warfare of Europe this desola- tion of an enemy's country, not in aid of any military opera- tions, nor for the security of ihe invading force, but simply and confessedly as an act of vengeance, lias rarely occurred, and the occurrence of it has been invariably followed by universal reprobation. I doubt, indeed, whether the history of modern Europe affords an example even of a single case in which, without some better pretext than that of nere retribution, any invaded people were ever subjected to the calamities which Colonel Smith here describes — the loss of their food, the spoiling of their cattle, the burning of their * Parliamentary Papers, May, 1836, p. 89. f JInd., p. 69. ih' THE THIRD KAFFIR WAR. 169 17 111' dwellings, the expulsion of their wives and families from their homes, the confiscation of their property, and the forfeiture of their native country. I am, of course, aware that the laws of civili/cd nations cannot he rigidly applied in our contests with barbarous men ; for those Jaws pre- suppose a reciprocity which cannot subsist between parties of whom the one is ignorant of the usages, maxims, and religion of the other. But the great prii;ciples of morality are of immutable and universal obligation, and from them are deduced the laws of war. Of these laws the first and cardinal is, that the belligerent nuist inflict no injury on his enemy which is not indispensably re(iuisite to ensure the rights of him by wdiom it is inflicted, or to promote the attainment of the legitimate ends of the warfare. Whether we contend with a civilized or a barbarous enemy, the gratuitous aggravation of the horrors of war, on the plea of vengeance or retribution, or on any similar grounds, is alike indefensible. Now I must confess my inability to discover what danger could be averted, or what useful object could be attained, by the desolation of the Kaffir country.'* By Lord Gleuelg's instructions, the laud seized and the property stolen from the Kaffirs were restored in 1836, and thus a slight recompense was made for the wanton injuries inflicted upon tliem. Lord Glenelg also introduced a new system of dealing with the Kaffirs, which, if they had not been already so deeply injured by English rule, might have been altogether beneficial, and which, as it was, led to very good results. Treaties were entered into with most of their chiefs, by which trade was encouraged, and their territories wei-e reserved to them without interference, on the condition of their i-espectiug the riglits which the Europeans had hitlierto acquired by conquest. Thereby peace was kept, and the colony improved rapidly during ten years. In spite of misrule, its progress had been considerable ever sinco tlie establishment of British dominion. In 1773 there were less than 2'i,000 white, black, and coloured * I'arliiunentary I'apcrs, May, 1830, p. 70. ' i- li 1, I70 CAPE COLONY. 1 1 M '^ S M ' > ii I 1 ; ) residents in the Cape Colony. In 1807 they amounted to 56,051 ; in 1817 to 74,099 ; in 1823 to 85,656 ; in 1833 to 129,713 ; and in 1836 to 150,110. In 1846 they numbered 285,279, having nearly doubled in ten years. In the ensuing twenty years the population was again doubled. In 1865 there were 566,158 inhabitants in the colony, of whom 204,859 were Europeans. This rapid growth of population was not due solely to the establishment of better relations with the Kaffir tribes, to the improved trade that resulted therefrom, and to the extension of territory. It was also partly caused by the abolition of slavery. In 1834 freedom was given to 29,120 slaves, who, as free men, became better servants and made the farms more profitable. The kinder treatment to which they were subjected, moreover, not only enabled the resident black population to multiply rapidly, but caused a further increase of its numbers by the settlement in the colony of Kaffirs and Hottentots, who, now that the tyranny of slavery was at an end, gladly sought employment and civilization under f'e English planters and traders. In ^ 46, however, there was another dismal Kaffir war. It began through the arbitrary behaviour of the Cape Town authorities towards the natives in abolishing some of the treaties made with them. Cattle-stealing was increased, and disputes about boundaries were revived. Kaffir * insolence,' as it was called, showed itself in various ways ; and this, being resented by the colonial authorities and by the war-party among the colonists, which had lately been kept under, led to a renewal of hostihties. In April, 1846, the Kaffir territory was invaded by a small force, and this movement being to a great extent unsuccessful, the blacks were led to retaliate. The old vindictive strife, disgraceful to England, began again, and it was continued with intermissions till 1853. Its details need not here be given. One little incident will suffice to illustrate the temper in which it was carried on by English officers and gentlemen. Sir Harry Smith, who had promised the Duke of Wellington I i THE FOURTH KAFFHi WAR. 171 that, with 4,000 troops, he would utterly subdue the Kaffirs in two or three weeks, was sent out as governor in 1847. On landing at Port Elizabeth, he was welcomed by all classes, the war-party hoping that he would further its objects, the mor>) peaceable section, including a vast number of native settlers, trusting that he would further the ends of justice in honourable ways. Among the crowd who came to greet him was Macomo, formerly a great independent chieftain^ now a willing subject of the English Crown. ' Sir Harry recognised him, half drew his sword from his scabbard, shook it at him, and stamped his foot on the ground. Shortly after he sent for the chief, who, upon being introduced, extended his hand ; in return for which his excellency gave him his foot, collared him, laid him prostrate, put his -oot upon his neck, and then brandished his sword over his head. Macomo, on rising, looked the governor qu:etly in the face, and said, * I always thought you a great man till this day.' "* By policy of that sort the British possessions in South Africa were increased, but injury was done to the progress of civilization, which no territorial gains or multiplying of subject races could compensate. The spread of dominion, and the attendant complications, it should be noted, were largely promoted by the fact that the English, taking possession of the colony after it had been under the Dutch for a century and a half, had to deal not only with the subject Hottentots and Bushmen and with the defiant Kaffirs, but also with the turbulent descendants of the original settlers. Almost from the first, many of these, generally known as Boers, objecting to the rule imposed on them in and around Cape Town, wandered with their servants and their cattle into the interior, where they set up little communities which were practically free "'om English interference, and carried on their own quarrels with the natives, until it was deemed or found necessary for the Cape Town * Martin, vol. iv., p. 100. i |>u W 33 \ ■•I 172 CAPE COLONY. A governors to assert their authority over both Boers and Kaffirs, sometimes taking the side of one against the other, and sometimes attacking or being attacke.. by both together. ' Trekking,' as it was called, had been the chief cause of the growth of Cape Colony before the English occupation, and it was afterwards continued on a larger scale. Most of the Dutch or Boers being farmers, they had constant inducements to ' trek,' apart from any reasonable or unreasonable objections they might have to Government control. Each farmer required a space of from five to ten thousand acres over which to pasture his flocks and herds, and as sons grew up and wanted farms of their own, they went out, generally in parties, in search of them. Thus there was an endless series of encroachments on the ground previously occupied by the Kaffirs, whom it was easy, or not unpleasantly difficult, to enslave or exterminate. The arrangement, at best, could hardly be" defended on moral grounds. It often worked in ways wholly indefen- sible. After commenting on the mischief done by regular traders in selling ^;unpowder to the natives. Colonel Wade said, in 1825 : ' Besides these, there are also the farmers, who, in defiance of the law and the severity of its penalties, migrate beyond the boundaries, and at the same time that they supply the natives with the means of desolating the colony, unfortunately furnish them also with something of a reasonable pretext for doing so, by dispossessing the weak and unarmed, and occupying all the fertile spots and springs ; and, it is asserted upon good authority, not unfrequently disgracing themselves by atrocities hardly less barbarous than those which the banditti inflict within the settlement.' * In the country between the frontier line and the Upper Orange Biver, and between the latter and the Calcdon River, there are, at this moment, upwards of a hundred heads of families, with their slaves, thus situated, having seized upon tbt- di':i;,-ict best suited to them, without any regard to the i/nt oi p'''0|;.;rty of the natives ; and it THE BOERS AND ORANGE FREE STATE. 173 cMunot tlierefoi'o be a matter of surprise that the latter slioiild seuk to retaUate.'-'' The Slave Emancipation Act of 1834 — when there were about 35,000 slaves in the colony, with a compensation value of aboat £1,200,000, of which barely more than a tithe reached the owners — led to the largest ' trekking ' of the Boers. Angry with the Government which broke up their old institutions, and defrauded by the agents who received on their behalf what they regarded as a very inadequate return for the property taken from them, more than 10,000 migrated to the northern districts, near the source of the Orange River, over which some of their kinsmen liad already scattered themselves, and there they established a Republic, which claimed to be quite independent of Great Britain. The claim was for a long time disputed, and in 1848 English sovereignty over it was formally asserted by Sir Harry Smith. All English control was abandoned, how- ever, in 1854, since which date it has existed, and in some ways flourished, as the Orange Free State, with an area of 41,484 square miles, and a population, in 1885, of 133,518, of whom more than half were whites, and of whom 3,270 were in Bloemfontein, its centre of government. In the Orange Free State the Boers have lost many characteristics that formerly made them obnoxious. ' It is not a wealthy, neither is it an enterprising community,' it was written i . 1884. ' The feature of society is a patri- archal Conservatism, in accordance with which the prin- ciples of Church and State are stoutly maintained. To bo a laud-drost or a church elder, such are the objects of tlie Boer's earthly ambition. His religion is a comfortable one, because it is not disturbed by speculation, nor by the bu]-n- ing fever of obstinate questionings ; on the contrary, he resigns himself peacefully to the traditions, behefs, and dogmas of his forefathers ; nor does ho wander far from the fold of the Dutch Reformed Church. Placed in a black man's country, he feels somehow that the dislmction bo- * Parliamentary Papers, June, 1836, part ii., p. 75. ;t i ' ■ i III .1 1 i 174 CAPE COLONY. ! ;■ '■', I i) . !;■ t 1 ; 1 ' ■ tvveen himself tu..l the aborigines is a real one, and the Constitution of his state is drawn up vHh distinct reference to this demarcation ; in the eye ol neither Church nor State can the black man be held equal, and he refers to the Old Testament as an authority for this distinction. The presence of the natives makes the Boers look upon them- selves as a superior caste, an oligarchy of white men placed in the midst of African natives to possess their land and govern them. Having only one broad distinction — between black and white — they cannot comprehend the gradations and differences between white men themselves in a crowded and civihzed country.'^' To the north of the Orange Free State is the Transvaal, more than twice as large, but with a smaller white popula- tion, composed chieny of those Boers, and their children, who were not satisfied with the easy-going life of their kins- men near Bloemfontein ; but of this district it will be more convenient to speak in the next chapter, in connection with the history of Natal. Another offshoot of Cape Colony is British Kaffraria, extending to the north-east as far as Natal, which was formally annexed in 1865, having on one side of it Basutoland, bounded by the Orange Free State, and on the other Pondoland, touching the Indian Ocean. In these districts, peopled almost entirely by blacks, the chief effort is to afford tliem British protection, and that is done more successfully than in the northern and western territories. In the west, all the country as far as Namaqua- land and south of the Orange Eiver, where ostrich-farming is a principal pursuit, has gradually been annexed to Cape Colony. In the north, and to the west of the Orange State, West Griqualand, including Kimberley, with diamond and gold fields, discovered in 1867, leads up to Bechuanalaud, a part of which was placed under British protection in 1884:, and in which the great trade route to the heart of Africa passing through it is a constant source of jealousy and quarreUing between the rival races and communities in * Greswell, * Our South African Empire,' vol, i,, pp. 163-Jfl5, it IS Lcru i[iia- ling fape late, laud I, a ^84, Irica laud in ITS GROWTH AND ITS OFFSHOOTS. '75 those parts. The whole of Capo Colony, apart from tlio protected territories, comprises about 212,000 square miles, and its population was estimated at 237,000 whites and 484,000 blacks in 1875, aud 340,000 whites and 900,000 blacks in 1885. Of the white population, by far the larger part is col- lected in Cape Town, which has nearly 50,000 inhabitants, and the other ports and markets on the coast. Elsewhere it is but sparsely sprinkled among the blacks, who [.ssist it, not unwillingly, in turning to account the resources of the country, in which agricultural and pastoral pursuits, and especially the supply of wool and skins for exportation, are the staple industries ; though ostrich-feathers, ivory brought from the interior of Africa, and, more recently, the pro- ducts of the diamond and gold jfields in the northern dis- tricts, are important articles of trade. It is to bo feared that these more attractive products, while enriching tlio colony, have had much to do in giving an unhealthy tone to its political life. There is not now a largo residue of tliu old Dutch settlement in it ; but tlie laler English colonists have retained the land-grabbing inclinations of their precursors. Under a military dictatorship till 1825, and after that with no more real power of self-government than was accorded to other Crown colonies, the Cape was endowed witli a liberal constitution in 1853, which was further enlarged in 1872. Both its Legislative Council and its House of Assembly are elected under a franchise that accorls a vote to everyone in receipt of an income of £50 a year or having house property worth £25 ; and the power thus given to the ignorant and pliable majority lowers the character of the Legislature here, as in some parts of the United States. The British Govern- ment has not always been wise or consistent in the policy it has adopted or prescribed towards Boers and natives in South Africa; but when it has sought to do well, it has often been crippled by the legislators in the colony and the local executive amenable to them. The mischief thus occa- sioned has been painfully shown in the vacillating treat- I') \\\ !76 CAPE COLONY. r ■•' iiient of the difricultios that have lately arisen between Cape Colony and both Boers and natives, and in the * little wars ' that have been wantonly provoked in the Transvaal and other parts. These ' little wars * are likely to be frequent until the whole of South Africa is brought under British dominion, with or without maintenance under it of the Boer republics now existing ; but it should be the task of statesmen and philanthropists, if they cannot prevent evil being done, to see that as nutch as possible is prevented. Already the Hottentots and Bushmen in the neighbourhood of the old Capo settlement have been nearly exterminated ; but there are allied races in Bechuan aland and el sow' jre who should be saved from a similar fate; and if that fate is to be shared by the sturdier Kaliirs, experience hap taught us that the cruel issue cannot be reached without grievous loss as well as heavy disgrace to the usurpers. '^W/ 6^ ^^e 1 fe^ %^ 1 1 CHAPTER XV. NATAL. THE KAFFIRS— FIRST ENGLISH VISITS TO THE EASTERN COAST OF SOUTH AFRICA — THE SETTLEMENT OF PORT NATAL — ITS EARLY TROUBLES AND LATER PROGRESS— THE TRANSVAAL — QUARRELS WITH THE BOERS AND THE ZDLUS— OUR COMPLICATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA. [1683-1888.] (iHE various tribes of South African Kaffirs are supposed to be of the same stock as the Kaflirs of Persia, and to have migrated four or five thousand years ago from the neighbourhood of the Tigris or Euphrates, passing southwards through Egypt, and carrying with them the language, habits, and rehgious practices of their forefathers. In all these respects their affinity with the Asiatic race is still traceable. They differ essentially from the Hottentots and other inferior inhabitants of Africa. 'The physical confor- mation of the body is fine. The men ordinarily stand about five feet ten inches to six feet high, slenderly built, but cor pact and wiry. Not unfrequently the head is well developed, displaying considerable mental power ; and amongst the men the numerous ways in which they are called to engage in intellectual gladiatorship impart an intelligence and ex- pressiveness to the whole contour which are far removed from the low savage or the sordid barbarian.'* Many of their customs and institutions are savage and barbarous * Holden, 'The Past and Future of the Kaffir Races,' p. 174. 12 ly :5] i:: if I ■n |!:l Hi? m ' ? ! 178 AA TAL. 1 • ! ' \^'^ ^ \ t I '^i! 'I' enough ; but even their vices often show traces of rough virtues not possessed by their neighbours. These are the people with wliose southern tribes the Dutch and English residents in Capo Colony liavo been in contact and conflict during upwards of a century, and with whoso northern tribes, especially the Zulus, we have lately been brought into relationship by our colonization of Natal. Port Natal — so called because he entered its harbour on Christmas Day — was discovered by Vasco do Gama in 1498. But for more than three centuries the eastern shores of South Africa were rarely visited by Europeans, unless they were shipwrecked on the coast or forced to pay it a brief visit in search of provisions for their onward voyages to the East Indies. The first English intercourse was in 1683, when a trading vessel was lost near Delagoa Bay, about a hundred leagues north of Natal. ' The natives,' says the old chronicler, * showed the shipwrecked men more civility and humanity than some nations that I know who pretend much religion and politeness ; for they accommodated their guests with whatever they wanted of the product of their country at very easy rates, and assisted what they could to save part of the damaged cargo, receiving very moderate reward for their labour and pains. For a few glass beads, knives, scissors, needles, thread, and small looking-glasses, they hired themselves to carry many things to a neighbouring country, and provided others, who also served as guides towards the Cape of Good Hope, and provided eatables for their masters all the while they were under their conduct. And having carried them about two hundred miles on their way by land, they provided new guides and porters for them, as the others had done, for seven or eight hundred miles farther, which they travelled in forty days, and so deli^'ered their charge to others, till they arrived at the Cape. And, some of the English falling sick on the way, they carried them in hammocks till thev either recovered or died : and ut of eighty men there were only three or four that died ; n iring lides Is for luct. their lem, liles lered md, tried land lied; THE FIRST EUROPEAN VISITORS. 179 but how long they journeyed before they got to the Cape I have forgotten. This account I have from one of the travel- lers, lie told ni" that the natural fertility of those countries he travelled through niadu the inhabitants lazy, indolent, indocile, and simple. Their rivers are abundantly stored with good lish and water-fowl, besides sea-cows and croco- diles ; their woods with large trees, wild cattle and deer, elephants, rhinocerosoH, lions, tigers, wolves, and foxes ; also many sorts of fowl and birds, with ostriches.'* It was piubahly in consequence of the report of the ship- wrecked Englishmen, who certainly had no reason to charge their kind friends with being ' lazy and indocile,' that a few years afterwards, in 1689, the Dutch colonists at the Cape sent a vessel to explore the eastern coast. ' One may travel two or throe hundred miles through the country,' said one of the party, ' without any cause of fear from men, provided you go naked, and without any iron or copper ; for these things give inducement to murder those who have them. Neither need one be in any apprehension about meat and drink, as they have in every village a kraal, or house of entertainment for travellers, where they are not only lodged, but fed also.'f So well pleased were the '^utch with this district and its people, that, in 1690, they sent an agent to purchase the Bay of Natal and its neighbourhood for 'some merchandise,' consisting chiefly of copper, cutlery and beads, valued at 29,000 guilders. But, fortunately for the Zulu Katiirs, the Dutch, fully occupied at the Cape, made no use of their purchase. During another hundred years the natives had undisturbed possession of their homes, and then they were troubled, not by Europeans, but by another race of Kaflirs, who, coming down from the inland mountain region, spread desolation over the district north and south of Natal Harbour. No European colony in this district was seriously thought of till 1823, when it was visited by Lieutenant Fairwell, of the Boyal Marines, who, being welcomed by Utshaka, or Chaka, * Chase, 'Natal Papers,' vol. i., p. 2. t Holden, p. 128. 12—2 o 1 . Ill I,: I ■1 uA IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 4 A ^c 11!! 1.0 1^ 1.25 ISitU |2.5 |50 "^^ MUSK " 1^ ll2-0 LA. IIIIII.6 V] /^ / ^J> Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WI^ST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 \ ^^ \\ ^f^ <1^' V ^ ^ I^\5 I 1 80 NA TAL. {■ i \: i i the victorious Kaffir chieftain, sought and obtained permis- sion of Lord Charles Somerset, governor of Cape Colony, to plan J in it a settlement cl: Englrohmen. This he promptly did. Accompanied by Mr. Fynn, Captain King, a few other Europeans, and some Hottentots, he proceeded to Delagoa Bay, where Utshaka gave him a grant of about 3,000 square miles of land and several herds of cattle. ' We had an opportunity of further gaining his friendship,* wrote Fairwell to the governor, ' by curing him of a dangerous wound he received since we have been here ; aud I trust I shall, by frequent communications and a studious endeavour to avoid giving offence, increase his aud his subjects* confi- dence in us.'* Fairwell began his work nobly ; but it was jealously re- garded by the Cape colonists. Having built a little vessel at his settlement, he sent it with a cargo of ivory down to Algoa Bay, where it was refused admittance, aud forced to rot on the beach, on the plea that it was not provided with any official register as a British trading-ship. t Thus thwarted, the brave pioneer of Natal colonization managed to open a route by land, and thus conveyed his wares for sale in Graham's Town. He \vas not allowed, however, to pursue his enterprise for long. In 1828 Utshaka, a fierce despot who had discernment enough to desire the benefits likely to result from intercourse with Europeans, was* assassinated by his younger brother Udingaan ; and this new tyrant, apparently enraged at the conduct of some Dutch settlers on the border-land between his territory and Cape Colony, soon caused or sanctioned the destruction of the little colony. Perhaps also he was alarmed at its rapid progress, and at the friendship shown by the English to the older inhabitants of the district, who, having fled into the woods when it was invaded by Utshaka, now came back in considerable numbers to share in its prosperity. Fairwell and some of his followers were murdered while crossing the * Chase, vol. i., p. 97. t Parliamentary Papers, 1835, part 'i., p. 97. for er, to fierce enefits was id this some ry and ion of s rapid to the to the Dack in airwell ing the I ITS COLONIZA TION. iSi mountains in 1829. An attack was then made upon the Delagoa Bay settlement, and, many of its residents being put to death, ihe rest were compelled to abandon it. The enterprise was revived in 1835. In the previous year the authorities at Cape Colony, at length alive to the value of the project, had obtained the permission of the British Government to enter upon it with spirit. Captain Allen Gardiner, whose miserable death at Terra del Fuego is well known, proceeded on a mission to the tyrant; and, after some difficulty, partly removed by the promise of a red cloak, obtained from him not only a grant of land similar to that mado to Fair well, but about 4,000 more square miles. Tlie town of D'Urban, in Natal Harbour, now called Durban, was laid out, and to it proceeded some Englishmen and a larger number of Dutch, who, having left Cape Colony in disgust at the liberation of their slaves in 1834, came in search of fresh means of aggrandizement in the new settle- ment. Their coming had a memorable issue. Quarrels soon broke out, as before, between them and the Kaffirs ; and in 1838 a battle was fought in which the Europeans were defeated with great slaughter. It seemed as if Natal was to be once more abandoned. A small military force, however, was sent up from Graham's Town to protect it. This protection, otherwise inactive, enabled the settlers to make arrangements for fighting their own battles. They boldly attacked Udingaan in 1840, and overcame him, thereby so weakening his repute among his own people that he was soon afterwards assassinated. The Dutch residents, who were far more numerous than the English, now having supremacy in Natal, announced their intention of making it independent of British authority, and ihe centre of a republican settlement, in alliance with the neighbouring Orange Free State. An EugUsh force was sent to quell this rebellion ; and its result was the formal annexation of the settlement to Cape Colony in 1843. In 1845 a Lieutenant-Governor and Executive Council were appointed. In 1848 Natal was allowed to have its own +t»^r i ■ ' 1 t i| \ si;! \' Mi 1 82 NATAL. I !; v-\ W- ■ I s\ Legislative Council ; and in 1856 it was converted into a separate and distinct colony, with a House of Assembly, to which twelve members were elected by the inhabitants, four others being appointed by the Crown. Since then it has grown rapidly. Its white population, which in 1846 numbered about 6,000, increased sixfold during the next forty years. The white, coloured, and black inhabitants, comprised within an area of 16,880 square miles, were in 1866 estimated at 193,103. In 1884 it con- tained, within 19,000 square miles, about 36,000 Europeans, 362,000 Zulus, and 27,000 Indian coolies— 425,000 in all ; and, with exports valued at £958,000, its imports exceeded £1,675,000. But this progress was not easily or in all respects honourably achieved. The history of the Transvaal is concurrent with the history of Natal. Though the English planted the colony on the Indian Ocean, the Boer emigrants from the Cape were most numerous and energetic in it during the first few years, and it was by them that Pietermaritzburg, the capital, was established. When their efforts to set up there an independent government were crushed in 1842, they * trekked ' northward, leaving the Orange Free State and the Vaal Eiver as its boundary on their left, and at Potchef- stroom prepared the foundations of the Transvaal Eepublic, under a leader named Potgieter. 'Their policy,' we are told, ♦ was the same then as it has always been ; and, acting on their well-known principles, they sowed dissensions among the Matabele clans. The native tyrant, called Moselekatse, had ruled the country round Potchefstroom with an iron hand, and some of his subjects who were victims of his cruelty welcomed the Boers as deliverers. The latter, strengthened by these natives, as well as by bodies of their own countrymen, asserted their dominion, establishing a rough sort of government under command- ants, land-drosts, and field-counts. Of course, they treated the natives as a subject race, bound to render Gibeonite services ; they confined them within certain areas, inaugu- acting THE TRANSVAAL AND ZULULAND. 183 rated vagrancy measures, and prohibited the sale of fire- arms and ammunition among them. For themselves they claimed the most absolute independence.'* Their conduct was resented and forbidden by the authorities in Cape Town ; but the only result was that the Boers extended their operations east, west, and north, till they laid claim to a territory with an area of 112,000 square miles, in which in 1885 there were 50,000 or 60,000 wnites, and about 750,000 Kaffirs and Hottentots of various races, with Pretoria as its capital. The independence of the Transvaal, then a much smaller territory, was recognised by the British Government in 1852, and it prospered in its way during the next quarter of a century. That way, however, involved it in fierce quarrels with the neighbouring tribes of Kaffirs, and especially with the followers of Secocoeni, and the more formidable Zulu chieftain Cetewayo, both in the region lying between the Transvaal and the Indian Ocean and to the north of Natal. It was on the plea that it was necessary to put a stop to these quarrels that Sir Theophilus Shepstone, at the bidding of the British Government, annexed the Transvaal in 1877. At that time a project was on foot for establishing a South African Federation of all the governments and settlements in this part of the continent, on the model of the Dominion of Canada, and Sir Bartle Frere was appointed Governor of Cape Colony and High Commissioner, with a view to its being enforced. Many troubles were incident to this abortive project and its concomitants. The first series of troubles arose from Sir Bartle Frere's attack on Cetewayo. This remarkable man was the son of Panda, a bold chieftain who, since 1840, had been recognised as their king by all the Zulus to the xiorth of Natal, but who, before his death in 1872, had allowed dissensions to arise among them. In a civil war that had broken out, the faction led by Cetewayo routed the king's party, all his six other sons were slain, and, though Panda was not deposed, * Greswell, vol. i., p. 181. ! I li; ■ t ill '^\ 1:: ' * I \ ' .m 'if i; ri m II- I iiFi'- iiui 1 84 NATAL. « t iH Cetewayo became the real master of the country. When his father died and he was actual king, he increased his fighting strength, and, without apparent reason, was re- garded with so much alarm by the colonists of Natal, that in 1878 Sir Bartle Frere resolved to demolish it. In this the English invaders succeeded ; but not until they had sus- tained an appalling defeat at Isandlwana, in January, 1879, and had been otherwise punished for their wanton aggres- sion ; and the territorial rearrangements that followed the overthrow of Cetewayo in no way compensated for the disaster and disgrace through which they were procured. Other troubles ensued in the Transvaal, where the Boers, chafing under the British rule imposed on them, though it helped them to much material benefit and promised them much more, were encouraged by our difficulties in Zululand to hope that they might regain their liberties by an appeal to arms ; and in this they succeeded. Bringing fresh disaster and disgrace to England, after their revolt in 1880, at Lang's Nek, Ingogo, and Majuba Hill, their later defeats secured so little peace to the conquerors that a restoration of inde- pendence to the Transvaal had to be conceded, substantially in 1881, and completely in 1884. These concessions, how- ever, gave no assurance that England should be free hence- forth from complications and responsibilities arising out of Boer encroachments, either upon Bechuanaland to the west, or upon Zululand to the east. Nor was there any real promise of peace with the Zulus in the temporary pacifica- tion effected by Cetewayo's reinstatement over a part of his former dominions, soon to be followed by his death at the hands of Usibepu, and the succession of his son Denizulu to the Zulu kingship in 1884. The burden of our fighting for the extension of territory and of political and trading influence on behalf of Natal, as well as of Cape Colony, has fallen on England rather than on the colonists, and, to many of them, even their own mis- fortunes have brought pecuniary profit. Hence the risks of further fighting, which would be great in any case, are much ENCROACHMENTS IN SOUTH AFRICA. iS: of uch greater tliau they would otherwise be. In South Ah-ica there are ahnost boundless regions which offer sufficient temptations to adventurers in trade, conquest, and the least commendable forms of colonization ; and in the constant jealousies and frequent struggles of the different native races, as yet only partially or not at all under our control, there is some excuse, if no justification, for English inter- ference. The excuses and pretexts of English adventurers, moreover, are strengtliened by Boer example, and the mis- chiefs caused by it. The Boers preceded, and still generally surpass, the English in fomenting and seeking to gain by the turmoils inevitable to the savage virtues as well as to the savage vices of the natives; and the wisdom and philan- thropy that might lead Englishmen by themselves to abstain from meddling with these natives, or to exert none but such honest missionary influence over them as Livingstone aimed at, are overruled by arguments in favour of rougher and more selfish influences. It is urged, with some force, that if the English do not continue to encroach on the natives, to drive them off, or master them, they will merely leave the field open for the harder tyranny of the Boers, and that matters have been brought to such a pass that, unless English or Boers advance against the natives, they will one or both be expelled by them. All our wars with Hottentots and Kaffirs have but necessitated further wars, and each fresh encroachment but increases the area of the complications we have to deal with, and lengthens and multiplies the lines along which we are being tempted or compelled to encroach yet more. As it is, the British dominions and their connections in South Africa are too large to be manageable. ' Excepting India and Ceylon,' it was said in 1885, ' there are more natives in this country than anywhere else. It is calculated that in Natal itself there are nearly half a million, and in the Cape Colony and the border territories under imperial and colonial control more than a million. According to a late calculation of the Cape population, the proportion of |! H'f'i t i i A ■ vi hi 186 NA TAL. natives to Europeans is nearly three to one. In Natal tho natives outnumber the settlers by more than twelve to one. In the Orange Free State the number of settlers and natives is more evenly distributed ; but in Transvaal there is a large and growing preponderance of Bechuanas, Swazies,and other branches of the teeming Bantu race. The Dutch republics practically assert that complete assimilation is impossible. The English system, as carried out in the Cape, Natal, and their borders, admits of the possibility of assimilation by graduating forms of government. Wherever there is a reserve territory, or a partially independent country governed by head-men, chiefs and white magistrates com- bined, there are to be witnessed the workings of a transition stage. Complete assimilation in the end seems to be the goal. Meantime a provisional state of government, with the incidental and civilizing influences of traders and missionaries, is in vogue.'* If the influence of the traders is not wholly injurious, the influence of the missionaries is not wholly beneficial, and the divided authority of English agents and native chieftains can hardly be expected to work well. * Greswell, vol. i., pp. 101, 102. I CHAPTEE XVI. BRITISH INDIA. THE PROGRESS OF BRTTISH TRADE AND CONQUEST IN INDIA — ITS PRESENT CONDITION — BUIIMAH AND ASSAM. [1600-1888.] EITISH INDIA is not, according to the usual sense of the word, a colony ; and the memorable story of its gradual acquisition forms a separate and eventful portion of the annals of our empire. Only some of the most salient features in that story, therefore, need be briefly touched upon in this volume. The great peninsula was unvisited by Englishmen, with the exception of a few daring travellers by land and sea, until a century after Vasco de Gama's discovery in 1498 of a passage to it by way of the Cape of Good Hope. In 1599 the English East India Company was formed ; and in 1601 its first trading fleet went out to sow the seeds of commerce and conquest, not on the mainland, but in some of the rich islands south-west of it. The first British factory on the peninsula was established in 1612, by Captain Best, at Surat ; and after that commerce throve mightily, and conquest slowly advanced, during a hundred and fifty years. The Dutch, the Portuguese, and the French were rivals of the English in the prosperous trade, and most of our early fighting was with them. In furtherance of their strife, how- ever, the Europeans sought allies among the natives of the :)3 ill '' i:: ■ I i* < j *1 3| '{ ' 'iifii 1 * % ' J . «« ; '*!' '' I 1 I 0'' Ml' [: I ill 1 li a i88 BRITISH INDIA. 11 li' \ ' country. Thus each acquired a sort of jurisdiction far beyond the narrow limits of their forts and factories ; and at length the English, having driven out their rivals, found themselves associated with numerous local potentates who acknowledged their supremacy, and at variance with others who had aided the cause of the now defeated European rivals. In that way the conquest of India was brought about in the middle of the eighteenth century. The daring and dishonourable exploits of Clive and Warren Hastings are well known. The territorial rule of the East India Company began with Clive 's war in the Carnatic, and his great victory at Plassey in 1757. It was partly won by aid of some native soldiers, now for the first time employed under English officers, and destined, during just a century, to be the main instruments of English power in overcoming one native prince after another, and in acquiring great dis- tricts in quick succession, until the whole peninsula was brought into subjection, and kept in order by means of the famous Sepoy army. At the end of the century, the Sepoys, overpetted in some respects and needlessly offended in others, turned against their employers. The great Indian Mutiny of 1857 was the result ; and, overcome by bravery and martial wisdom rarely equalled in the whole world's history, it led to the transference of the vast Indian empire from the rule of the East India Company to the direct dominion of the British Crown. The territories thus transferred, and including several native states, protected but not governed by England, com- prised at that time an area of more than 1,000,000 square miles. Their dimensions now exceed 1,580,000 square miles — a space more than twelve times as large as that of Great Britain and Ireland, and they contain a population more than seven times as numerous. The inhabitants, esti- mated at 263,000,000 in 1887, more than suffice for the cultivation of the land and the development of its resources ; and the only openings in it for European residents are as agents of Government, teachers, missionaries, and traders. C0.:QUEST AND TRADE. 189 Bveral com- uare uare at of ation esti- the rces ; re as ders. Much has yet to be done lu education of the people as to better ways of agriculture, and more useful methods of iutercliaiif^ing their commodities, but great progress has been made in tliese respects during recent years. The revenue, which was £27,000,000 in 1851, and £30,000,000 in 1859, exceeded £48,000,000 in 18G8, and £74,000,000 in 1880. The imports of merchandize, worth £4,000,000 in 1834, rose in value to £11,500,000 in 1850, to £30,000,000 in 1808, and to £44,000,000 in 1880. The exports of the same years were £8,000,000, £18,000,000, £53,000,000, and £00,000,000. The incoming trade had been multiplied nearly eleven times, and the outgoing trade more than eight times, in the course of half a century. The raw cotton alone sent from India to the United Kingdom in 1880 was worth £10,000,000 ; and the cotton goods sent back exceeded in value £18,000,000. Besides cotton, this great territory, possessing nearly every variety of soil and temperature, furnishes rice, wheat, sugar, coffee, tea, silk, wool, flax, indigo and other dyes, with spices, oils, and a hundred other commodities. Bombay, the great trading capital of India, contains, with its suburbs, three-quarters of a million inhabitants ; and the population of Calcutta, the centre of government, and scarcely inferior as a resort of trade, is as large. The English residents in the whole dependency, however, numbered in 1881 only 70,188 males and 13,010 females, besides the military estab- Ushment. Important changes have during recent years taken place in the administration of India, with a view to the encourage- ment of the natives in self-government, and other necessities of healthy national life ; and the spread of education and general enlightenment has been very remarkable. Much, however, remains to be done before the reproach we have long incurred, of ruling the country for our own advantage, and with no more regard to the interests of its people than selfish prudence prescribed, will be removed. Of the revenue collected — two-sevenths by a laud-tax, one-eighth from the opium monopoly, and about a tenth by a tax on salt — about 1 1 ih > \m.\ i I it 'M 190 URITISH INDIA. I i I ■ a fourth is spent in maintaining an army which is intended and used rather for the upholding and extendi vig of British power in its foreign relations, than for any service that the people regard as beneficial to themselves; and the same may be said of a large part of the other general administrative machinery, which, with the payment of interest on debt, ex- hausts another fourth of the income. Few of the natives have been willing to admit that the heavy expenses incurred of late years, in the Afghan War of 1878 and 1879, in the employment of Indian troops before and after that time in the Abyssinian and Egyptian Wars, and in the more recent acquisition of Upper Burmah, were of advantage to their own country. Burn.. ■• h is more of a colony than any other portion of our Indian E)npire. The districts nearest to the Bay of Bengal, a long strip of narrow territory, with Rangoon at the mouth of tlio Irrawaddy, as their capital, were annexed after the first and second Burmese Wars in 1826 and 1852. In 1885, a pretext was found for the third Burmese War, by which the large and fertile expanse of country in the interior, stretching up to Assam on the north, and to the frontiers of Tonkin on the east, were wrested from King Theebaw. It is rich, not only in forest-land and agricultural resources, but in mines yielding precious metals and precious stones, and, if its 3,500,000 or more inhabitants, spread over an area of about 140,000 square miles, can be brought into subjection, may become an important field for English settlement as well as for English trade. Assam, with a population of nearly 15,000,000, ceded to the East India Company in 1854, and formally established as an outlying province of the Bengal dominion in 1874, has long been famous and profitable as a tea-producing country. 'Nv CHAPTER XVII. OUR ASIATIC COLONIES. CETLON— ITS EARLY CIVILIZATION — ITS SUBJECTION TO THE PORTl'OUESE, THE DUTCH, AND THE ENGLIHH — ITS PKESENT CONDITION — THE STRAITS 8ETTLE- MENTS : MALACCA, PENANO, / ND SINGAPORE— HONfi KONO— SARAWAK AND LAUUAN— THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF SIR JAMES UUOOKE — BRITISH NORTH BORNEO— MAURITIUS. [1795-1888.] HE East India Company, formed * for the advance- ment of trade and merchandise to the East Indies and the islands and countries thereabout,' found so much profit in its intercourse with the mainland of Hindostan, that, during two cen- turies in which other European nations were establishing in them forts, factories, and colonies, it gave little thought to the outlying portions of the East Indies. Not till near the close of the eighteenth century was their value understood or effort made to appropriate some of them as dependencies of England. And even then this was done rather in jealousy of the rival nations than in the interests of trade. So e^^pecially it was with Ceylon. This beautiful island, with an area of nearly 25,000 square miles, and therefore not much smaller than Ireland, was famous for its wealth and civilization in the days of Alexander the Great, and in yet more remote times. Conquered twenty-four centuries ago by an Indian prince, it was long ruled by a Sinhalese dynasty, the last representative of which was only deposed in 1815 A.D. Auuradhapura, its ancient capital, said to have ii! i ■i ■Ml . '1 ' ll ft fl 1 I l1 I ''! •5 1 1 ^ > 1; .1 l\ : '! ■p fill! •!!!M]i ig: OUR ASIATIC COLONIES. been founded in 437 B.C., covered sixteen square miles, and was adorned with splendid architectural works, the remains of which yet exist. Huge tanks and sluices, so stoutly built of granite and other hard stone that some of them are still, after the lapse of more than two thousand years, but little injured, served to irrigate the laud, and helped it to maintain the five or six million inhabitants whom it is supposed to have contained in its former days of splendour. It was still popu- lous and thriving, though much decayed, when the Portu- guese began, in 1518, to build a fort and plant a settlement at Colombo. Much misery resulted to the inhabitants from that settlement, however, and war between the natives and aggressors lasted nearly all through the century and a half of Portuguese occupation. The Dutch, who expelled and succeeded their rivals in 1656, brought no better fortune to the Sinhalese during their tenure of Colombo, which also lasted for nearly a century and a half. In 1795, as an inci- dent of the great war between England and France, which was then master of Holland and its dependencies, they were ousted by the English, and Ceylon became a British posses- sion. At first in the hands of the East India Company, it was made a Crown colony in 1802. The early incidents of British rule were inauspicious. Au unwise invasion of Kandy, then the centre of native au- thority, in 1803, issued in the ignominious defeat and slaughter of nearly all the invnders. Other troubles followed, which ended in the conquest of the whole island in 1815. Measures, for the most part prudent and generous, were then taken foi the improvement of the colony ; and latterly its progress, unmarked by any memorable incidents, has been very rapid. In 1814, Ceylon contained about 852,910 inhabitants. In 1832 the number was estimated at 1,009,008; in 1852, at 1,707,194; in 1866, at 2,008,027, and in 1885 at 2,825,090. The revenue of the island, only about £200,000 in 1827, was £1,182,000 in 1885. The imports were valued at £329,933 in 1828; at £1,181,149 in 1853; at £3,517,184 in 1866, and at £4,087,932 in 1885. The exports •'V-, CEYLON, PAST AND PRESENT. '93 amounted to £215,372 in 1828 ; to £979,87 1 in 1853 ; to £3,070,248 in 1866, and to £3,384,412 in 1885. The prin- cipal commodities exported are coffee, tea, cinnanion, tobacco, and cocoa-nut oil, with, in some years, a consider- able supply of pearls and precious stones. This great increase of trade is chiefly due to British enter- prise ; but hardly more than 20,000 of the inhabitants are Europeans, or of European descent. The rapid growth of population is native, or derived from Oriental colonization. The natives are of four races, varying much in civilization and powers of development. The Veddas, or aborigines, frequent the forests stretching from the south to the north- west, and all the more inaccessible parts of the island, where, hardly superior to monkeys, they form nearly the lowest and most degraded of all the members of the human family. The Sinhalese, found chiefly around Kandy and in the region south of it, handsome in body, show traces of an effet;> civili- zation, and regard the white men with a hatred for which some excuse may be found in the hard treatment they have received from Europeans. ' Jealousy, slander, litigation, and revenge,' says Sir James Emerson Tennant, * prevail among them to an unlooked-for excess. Licentiousness is so universal that it has ceased to be opprobrious, and hatred so ungovernable that murders are by no means rare. False- hood, the unerring index of innate debasement, is of ubiquitous prevalence. Theft is equally prevalent ; and deceit in every conceivable shape, in forgery and fraud, in corruption and defamation, is so notorious amongst the uneducated mass, that the feeling of confidence is almost un- known ; and in the most intimate arrangements of domestic life, the bond of brotherhood or friendship, of parent and of child, inspires no effectual reliance in the mutual good faith and honour of the interested parties.' Superior to these are the Malabars or Hindoos, who appear to have long ago settled in Ceylon, and who most abound in the northern and eastern parts of the island ; and the Moors, a mixed race, containing African blood, and perhaps partly formed out of LB lli^lU 'X\ ii r ■ Vi' m • I ', ■' i loj ('/•A' ASIA in- (•('/('A7/;\. the sl.'iV(MV (^sliihlislu'tl Ity the riMlii};ii(>s(^ niid l^uU'li, who mc luuil-worUmg trmhM'H jiiul jirtisiuiH in till pints of ('oylon. 'Thoso last two racoM pro o tlio host stMvaiits ol" tlio Miif^hsh luoivhaiits aiitl phiiUtMs. ( 'oylon is parlioularly rioh in nil V(^}^«>tahlo prodnclions, {\o\\\ oolTiM», lt>a., oinnM,n>on. uiul y\(\\ to (he lnl^l^ toaU and pahn, with i^hony aiul other oahinet woods. A^riindtnn^ yii'Ms tMnpU\\ in(Mit to n»os|, ol" the iidiahitants. ^'ot, as Sir I'-ntiMson TtMniant has said. ' in Ceylon a.^iMi'nlture, in all its hranehes, nnist lu^ regarded as an art ahnost nnknown. Notwithstaniling all the a.dvantai;('s in varii'ty of soil, gradu- ations o{ temperature and a»lai)ta.hility of climate, the eul- tixation of riee may he said to he the only sueeessful tilla|;(i of the natives. With tin* favourahle eireinnstanees alluded to. and the expanse i>f surfaei> io h(* applied, it is impossihie ti^ lori'sec^ the extiMit to whieh tlu> proviuetions of nearly t'very other country mit;ht ho dinui^stieated and extontled throui;lunit this island. In the hi^'hlauils and mountain regions, and particularly in the wooded valleys and ojieu l^lains. which are found at an elevation of from 3,000 to 7,000 feel, there is an encoura^inj;" iield for the introduction of most of the grains and ve>;etable productions of Ijuropo.* Much has been done since those words were written ; but vast tracts of country still wait to bo roclaimo*! from the agi^ressions of tis;ers an*! elephants upon the scones of by- 5;one civili.:ation in Covlon. .Mmost the same mav bo said of the districts oast of Ceylon, on the other side of the Hay of J>enm;l, now known as the Straits Settlements, incUuliui; Singapore, Ponaiif:;, Malacca, and some other dependencies. The Malayan peninsula, a long striit of land co:u;..ining about 1,000 scjuaro miles, belonged to the Portuguese from loll till IGll. It was then held by the Dutch for a century and a half. It was afterwards twice captured by the English and twice restoroi". to its former owners before tiually becoming British proper' y in IS'ia. In it tin abounds ; and rice, sugar, coffee, cotton, indigo, chocolate, and various spices arc 'N~, THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. •05 ])i(>lirir. On il.H WdHtcM'ii wido, tlui litUn iHliiiid of Pciiiuif^, iilioiit lis liii^^ti an tlio IkIo of Wi^liL, in a fertile ganlcn of s|)ic(iH ; ami Siii^a|)()r(\ an island about twice an larj^Mi, luljoiniiif^' tlu^ Houtlieni extroinity of the mainland, is ricli in tinilxu' of evei-y HorL 'riie Hinaller inland wan a('.(iuired by IIm^ I'liist India C-onjiKiny in l7'H;j ; the other waH taken hy Sir Stamford UallhjH in IHIl) from a horde (/f alK)ut a lumdred ami fifty Malayan pirateH. All the three (hipen- denci(!H were united under one j^ovornment, an the Straits ScttliMnents, and tluiir euHtody was trannferred from the Must India Company to theOrown in IHOT. 'J'heir a}^'^regat(3 population exceeds '1U(),()00, amongHt whom Chinewe ini- niij^M-ants are as nunuM-ous as the native Malays and moro active; and tluiy derive ^'reat profit from trade between all the Mast Indian Islands and Europe, for which the situation of Singapore — 'the little shop/ as the name implies— in especially adapted. The goods ])assing in and out in IHHG wore valued at more than .C15,000,0()0, and gave employ- ment to ships with a total carrying power of more than 3, 100,000 tons, altliough the resources of the colonies them- Holves, save in the j)roduction of opium and spirits, arc yet but scantily made use of. Much of tlio trade by which Singapore is enriched is derived from China, and ])asses through the little island of Hong Kong, one of the snuillest of all the colonies of Creat Britain. ' The is'and consists of a broken ridge of moun- tainous hills at an average height of about 1,000 feet; l)ut from this ridge and its spurs various conical mountains rise to the height of 1,500 or 2,000 feet above the sea, and are very precipitous. The greatei- part of the coast shelves abruptly from the ocean, particularly on the north face. Tliere are a few narrow valleys and deep ravines through which the soa occasionally bursts, or which serve as conduits for the mountain torrents ; but on the north side of tho island, especially where tho town of Victoria is built, tho rocky ridge approaches close to tii^ harbour ; and it was ouly by hewing through this ridge that a street or road 13—2 0! ,...!■ ; ! ' i ' \\\^ n 1 ^^ 196 OUR ASIATIC COLONIES. t 'i'j , 1 '■ ■ II 1 ! ? ll ;.ii could be made to connect the straggling lines of buildings which extend along the water's edge for nearly four miles. Here and there, on the tops of some isolated hills, or along the precipitous slopes of the mountPins, scattered houses have been constructed ; but rugged, broken, and abrupt precipices, with deep rocky ravines, must effectually prevent any contracted population from being able to provide efficiently for its own protection, cleanliness, and comfort. Hong Kong cannot be said to possess any vegetation ; a few goats with difficulty find pasturage.'* A rugged beauty characterizes the island-rock, and its harbour is one of the finest in the world ; but its geological formation, and the pernicious climate to which it is exposed, render it very unhealthy. This inhospitable little island, with an area of about thirty square miles, for centuries the haunt of pirates and smugglers, was ceded to Great Britain by China in 1842 as a free port for trade, and a naval station for the protection of British interests in Chinese waters. To it was added the small peninsula of Kowloon in 1861. Its population, about 12,000 in 1842, was 29,500 in 1849, 117,500 in 1867, and 180,000 in 1886 ; but of these only about 8,000 were Europeans, and 45,000 British-born Chinese, most of the others being visitors or settlers from the mainland. The revenue of the colony rose from £31,078 in 1847 to £265,619 in 1886. Much has been attempted, and something has been done in recent years, to raise the standard of morality, in trade and other ways, among the residents; and its unique position gives it splendid advantages as a haunt of commerce. Its early importance, however, was partly due to the jealousy of the Chinese in excluding foreign trade from other ports ; and now that a better policy has been established, some of its commerce is passing from the unhealthy rock in the south to more attractive and more commodious places on the northern coast. South of H^ng Kong, and east of Singapore, is Borneo, * Martin, vol. vi., p. 63. -Sw more i HONG KONG AND BORNEO. 197 the largest island in the world, with the exception of Australia, famous as a resort for pirates through many centuries, and for the philanthropic efforts towards its redemption made in recent times by Kajah Brooke. The English and other nations had more than once sought to effect a settlement and open trade on its shores ; and considerable efforts in this direction were made ^'n the sixteenth century by the Portuguese, and subsequently by the Dutch, in connection with their work in Java and other East Indian islands. But on each occasion the Europeans were forced to retire by their own impolicy as well as by the murderous conduct of native marauders. At length, in 1839, James Brooke, then thirty -six years of age, resolved to attempt the estabhshment of a better state of things. *I go,' he said, ' to awaken the slumbering spirit of philanljLropy with regard to these islands. Fortune and life I freely give ; and, if I fail in the attempt, I shall not have lived wholly in vain.* Proceeding to Sardwak, on the western coast of Borneo, he conciliated the inhabitants, and was soon chosen by them as rajah. This office he accepted in 1841, on condition that slavery and piracy should be abolished in the region assigned to him, and that he should use any means he found necessary for their entire suppression ; that Englishmen should have right of trade in any part of the great island, and that the smaller island of Labuan should be ceded to Great Britain. To these proposals the nominal Sultan of Borneo agreed ; and for his services Brooke was rewarded by the English Crown with knighthood, and endowed with the functions of Governor of Labuan and Consul-General in' Borneo. He also sought to have his dominions in Sardwak recognised by the British Government, and to receive national aid in the work, on which he had already expended £12,000 of his own. This, however, was denied, and he was forced to carry on the work in his own way. The people over whom he had to rule, and ruled success- fully for more than twenty years, occupy an intermediate r i ■ !"!■ •.\\ ' M M\ .l,1i' '^: : 'I ;r 198 OUR ASIATIC COLONIES. ; : ■ « ■I position between the Malayans, who have in modern times acquired a footing and a nominal dominion over the whole island, and the aboriginal and only half-human Malanaus, or Paketans, who occupy the interior. They are of two classes : the Hill Dyaks, who are spread over the greater portion of Sarawak, as well as other parts of Borneo, and are poor, industrious, and peaceable ; and the Sea Dyaks, living on the coast and on the banks of large rivers, who are of much fiercer disposition. It was these whom Rajah Brooke sought especially to reclaim. * They have never been more than nominally subject to the Malays,' we are told ; ' and Sir James Brooke is the first master whom they have really obeyed. Every year a cloud of murderous pirates issued from their rivers and swept the adjacent coasts. No man was safe by reason of his property or in- significance, for human heads were the booty sought by these rovers, and not wealth alone. Villages were attacked in the dead of night, and every adult cut off. The women and grown girls were frequently slaughtered with the men, and children alone were preserved, to be the slaves of the conqueror. Never was warfare so terrible as this. Head- hunting became a mania which spread like a horrible disease over the whole land. Murder lurked in the jungle and on the river. The aged warrior could not rest in his grave till his relations had taken a head in his name : the maiden disdained the weak-hearted suitor whose hand was not yet stained with some cowardly murder.'* This spirit prevailed among the Sea Dyaks when Sir James Brooke went to rule over and to reform them. From his nephew, Mr. Charles Brooke, who succeeded him as Rajah in 1868, he received important help in the good work he was able to do. * He first gained over a portion of these Dyaks to the cause of order,' says the nephew, * and then used them, as instruments in the same cause, to restrain their countrymen. The result has been that the coast of Sarflwak is as safe to the traders as the coast of England, and that * Boyle, ' Adventures among the Dyaka of Borneo.' RAJAH BROOK IN SARAWAK. 199 n times e whole ilanaiis, of two greater eo, and Dyaks, rs, who 1 Rajah 2 never we are )m they rderous .djacent y or in- ight by Stacked women 16 men, I of the Head- disease and on rave till maiden not yet James rom his Eajah he was Dyaks n used n their ar^wak id that I an unarmed man can travel the country without let or hindrance.' That end \,as not gained without uilhculty. The chief trouble came from the custom of head-hunting. Every now and then a raid would be made upon Sarawak from some inland place, and half a dozen or more of the natives would be decapitated. As often, parties of four or five of Rajah Brooke's subjects would make an excursion in- land, in hopes of returning with a few stolen heads as trophies of their prowess. ' As soon as ever one of these parties started, or even listened to birds of omen preparatory to moving,' says Mr. Brooke, * a party was immediately de- spatched by Government to cut them off, and to fine them heavily on their return ; or, in the event of their bringing heads, to demand the delivery of them up, and the payment of a fine into the bargain. This was the steady and unflincli- iug work of years ; but, before many months were over, my stock of heads became numerous and the fines considerable.' All who offered resistance were declared enemies of the Government, and burnt out of their houses, alien tribes being employed to do the work. Occasionally larger ex- peditions were organized, under the leadership of the Rajah himself or his nephew, who went inland or on water, with two or three hundred followers, to punish the more remote or more troublesome tribes, when English guns easily suc- ceeded against native swords and spears. Thus some sort of order and civilized behaviour has been established. * It is a singularly easy government to carry on,' we are assured ; * tribes, one with another, being so well balanced that in the event of danger arising from one party, the other may be trusted to counteract evil influences.'* By this bold enterprise of Sir James Brooke and his nephew a territory comprising about 30,000 miles, and larger than Ceylon, has been acquired by an English family, with- out being part of the English dominion; and the present Rajah Brooke reigns with a benevolent despotism over so many of his nominal subjects, reckoned at nearly a quarter * Charles Brooke, 'Ten Years in Sarawak.' r i i^l \A h^h!;g m 200 Or/^ ASIATIC COLONIES. \\ 1.M ''1 of a million, as can bo brought under his control. A great civilizing influence has undoubtedly been set up in Sarilwak, which has a considerable trade in sago, gutta-percha, india- rubber, and other commodities. In 1884 its revenue was about CnO.OOO, and the value of its imports and exports more tlian .€050,000. The little island of Labuan, to the north-cast of Sarawak, which became an English colony through Sir James Brooke's action, has also made modest and useful progress since 1848, when it came into our possession. Its population of some 6,000, entirely native with the exception of a few officials, finds employment in connection with the trade that has grown up with the mainland. Its revenue, only £59 in 1848, amounted to £4,491 in 1885. A larger outcome of the same movement has been the establishment of British North Borneo, under conditions that are in some respects a curious revival of the pioneer methods of English colonization. The success of Sardwak encouraged an association of English capitalists, in 1877, to obtain from the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu, the portions of Borneo north of the Brookes' dominion, and of the region claimed by the Dutch Government, a grant of all the nortliernmost corner of the island, and in 1881 this associa- tion expanded into the North Borneo Company, and, armed with a charter from the British Crown, proceeded to make use of its territoiy. The territory, including several small islands fronting its coast-line of more than 500 miles, is as extensive as Sardwak, and, capable of yielding almost un- limited supplies of rice, sago, sugar, tobacco, opium, and other produce, besides minerals and precious stones, may hereafter be an important and profitable possession. It had progressed so far that in 1886 its imports were valued at £170,000, and its exports at £105,000, four seaports — Elopura and Silam on the east coast, Gaya on the west, and Kudat on the north — having been started, and many plots of land, both on the coast and in the interior, having been put under cultivation. .SI .!.-■ . — NORTH BORNEO AND MAURITIUS. aoi Though it is an African rather than an Asiatic island, Mauritius may bo conveniently mentioned in this cliapter. Alternately a Dutch and a French possession between 1598 and 1810, when it was captured by General Abercrornbie for the EngUsh East India Company, this island was of more strategic value in the days when the Easi could only bo reached by vessels passing the Capo of Good- Hope and thence traversing the Indian Ocean than it is now. It has scarcely prospered or been profitable as a British possession, though its population grew froia about 19,000 in 1767 to 370,000 in 1884. Of its innabitants more than two-thirds are coolies, imported from India to work the sugar estates, on which the staple industry of the colony is pursued. The majority of the other residents are sugar-planters, chiefly of French extraction, though in Port Louis, the seat of govern- ment and only important town, a considerable general trade is carried on. Producing scarcely anything but sugar and rum, Mauritius is liable to violent storms and inclement weather, which render the crops very variable from year to year. For their food and clothing, the inhabitants are almost wholly dependent on foreign markets, but they obtain some grain and cattle from the dependent islands, more than seventy in number, known as the Seychelles group, lying nearly a thousand miles to the north of Mauritius. 't\ tM I '/' land llots »een ;M 1? 'i. ■A' : CHAPTER XVIII. EARLY AUSTRALASIAN DISCOVERIES. 11 h 1 r PORTUnUESR AND DUTCH VISITS TO AUSTRALIA — TASMAN — RNOLISH VOYAGERS — DAMPIEB IN AUSTRALIA — CAPTAIX COOK IN NEW :-:- DAMPIER IN A US TRALIA. 203 issue in colonization ; and after the close of the eighteenth century the Dutch resigned the quest, as the Portuguese had done before them. Tlio English, wlio had not before been altogether idle, then succeeded to the enterprise. William Dampier, who began his seaman's life as a buccaneer in the West Indies, was the first of our nation to engage in it. In 1088 he visited the north-western part of Australia, of which ho gave an unfavourable report. ' It was only low and sandy ground, the points only excepted, which are rocky, as some isles in the bay. This part had no fresh water, except what was dug, but divers sorts of trees, and among the rest the dragon-tree, which produces the gum called dragon's-blood. We saw neither fruit-trees, nor so much as the track of any living being of the bigness of a large mastiff dog ; some few land-birds, but none larger than a blackbird, and scarcely any water-fowl. The inhabitants are the most miserable wretches in the universe, having no houses, nor garments, except a piece of the bark of a tree, tied like a girdle round the waist ; no sheep, poultry, or fruits. They feed upon a few fish, cockles, mussels, and periwinkles. They are without religion or government. They are tall, straight-bodied, and thin, with small, long limbs. They have gre:it round foreheads and great brows. Their eyelids are always half closed to keep the flies out of their eyes, they being so troublesome here that no fanning will keep them from coming to one's face. So that, from their infancy being thus annoyed with these insects, they do never open their eyes as other people do ; and, therefore, they cannot see far, unless they hold up their heads. They are long-visaged, and of an unpleasing aspect, having no graceful feature in their faces. The colour of their skin, both of their faces and the rest of their body, is coal black, like that of the negroes of Guinea. They live in com- panies, twenty or thirty men, women, and children together. Their only food is a sort of small fish, which they get by making weirs of stones across little coves or branches of the M ' :!• »»> i i! '•I n '> i; '* I- \M ai i' ' :i ;i kx xm 1 1.1 I- 'I 'I < 204 EARLY AUSTRALASIAN DISCOVERIES. < t 1:1 A 1 1 ( \ i\ i sea, every tide bringing in the small fish, and there leaving them for a prey to these people, who constantly attend to search for them at low water.'* Dampier went to Australian waters again, and made some further explorations, in 1699, though his chief visit was paid to the same western districts to which he had gone before. Except for the pleasure of discovering the barrenest spot on the face of the globe, he said, his achieve- ments in New Holland would not have charmed him much, f He then sailed north, explored New Guinea, and discovered New Britain. His dismal account of these regions helped to deter other voyagers from following in his track. Nothing memorable was done till 1769, when Captain Cook, proceeding from Otaheite in his famous voyage round the world, reached the south-eastern side of New Zealand, and established some intimacy with its bold natives. His friendly advances being at first rejected, he killed four of them and captured two others, thus beginning a strife long fruitful in misfortune both to Englishmen and to Maories. Through his captives, however, whom he treated kindly, he and some of his party afterwards were able to land, and had the first English experience of New Zealand life. ' They entered some of their huts and saw them at their meals. Their huts were very slight, and generally placed ten or fifteen together. They found them generally dining on fish, and eating to it the bruised and roasted roots of fern. This was in October. In the more advanced season they understood that they had plenty of excellent vegetables ; but they saw no animals except dogs. They found both men and women painted w:th red ochre and oil, but the women much the most so ; and, like the South Sea Islanders, they saluted by touching noses. They wore petticoats of native cloth, made from the New Zealand flax, and a sort of cloak or mantle of a * Howitt, ' History of Discovery in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zea- land,' vol. i., pp. 66, 67. f Ibid., vol. i., p. 72. h i i. leaving pttend to d made lief visit he had ring the achieve- much, f icovered er other morable ig from hed the d some Bs being red two ifortune iiptives, !s party nghsh ome of were gether. to it ctober. ey had nimals ainted )st so ; iching from of a iw Zea- CAPTAIN COOK IN NEW ZEALAND. 205 much coarser kind. They found them more modest in manner and more cleanly in their homes than the Otahei- tians. They bartered their cloth and war-weapons for European cloth ; but nails they set no value on, having as yet evidently no knowledge of iron and its uses. What astonished the English greatly was to find boys whipping tops exactly like those of Europe. They found sbme houses larger and more strongly built than those on the shore. They measured one canoe, made out of the lobes of three trees, which was 68| feet long, 5 wide, and 3 high. These, as well as their houses, were much adorned with carvings, in which they seemed to prefer spiral lines and distorted faces.'* With other New Zealanders, as he sailed along the south- east coast. Captain Cook attempted to have friendly dealings ; but his attempts generally ended in quarrel and bloodshed, both then and in the whole of b's voyage right round the New Zealand group. Meaning no ill, perhaps, he and his party acted with rashness and severity which have had de- plorable results in later times, whereas more forbearance might have been attended with the best consequences. * Without measuring the past by the present standard,' says one who had access to native traditions, ' the savage New Zealanders on several occasions acted as civilized men, and the Christians like savages. Lieutenant Gore fired from the ship's deck at a New Zealander in a canoe, who had defrauded him of a piece of calico. In the excitement of paddling to escape, the injury done by the musket was not noticed by the natives in the canoe, although detected by Lieutenant Gore from the ship's deck, as Maru-tu-ahua, the man shot, scarcely altered his position. When the canoe reached the shore, the natives found their comrade sitting dead on the stolen calico, which was stained with his life's blood, the ball having entered his back. Several chiefs in- vestigated into the affair, and declared that Maru-tu-ahua deserved his fate ; that he stole and was killed for so doing, * Howitt, vol. i., pp. 81, 82. 2o6 EARLY AUSTRALASIAN DISCOVERIES. n i and that his hfo blood should not be revenged on the strangers. Seeing, however, Maru-tu-ahua had paid for the calico with his life, it was not taken away from him, but was wrapped round his body as a winding-sheet. Singular to relate, Captain Cook landed soon after the murder, and traded as if nothing had occurred, Would Cook's ship's crew have acted thus if one of them had been slain ?'■■' From New Zealand Captain Cook sailed northwards to the Australian coast, first touching at the south-eastern extremity, which is now known as Cape Howe, but not finding a convenient landing-place till they were in Botany Bay. * While the master was sounding the entrance,' says the historian, ' the ship lay off, and observed some natives who were upon the shore watching them. As the vessel neared, they retired to the top of a little eminence. Soon after, the pinnace, which was employed in sounding, came close to them, and the natives did all they could to induce the master to land. But they were all armed with " long pikes and wooden scimitars," as the master said, and there- fore ho returned to the ship. The natives, who had not followed the boat, seeing the ship approach, used many threatening gr hires, and brandished their weapons. They were all painted for battle, as the custom is amongst them. The paint generally consists of white pipeclay, smeared all over the face and along the arms, across the ribs, and, in fact, in every sort of pattern, making them look exactly Hke skeletons. The weapon like a scimitar, which was evidently a boomerang, they brandished most of all ; and they seemed, says Cook, to talk to each other wich great earnestness. Notwithstanding all this. Cook continued to sail up the bay, and early in the afternoon anchored under the south shore, about two miles within the entrance. As he came in he saw on either side of the bay a few huts, of the usual wretched character of the Australian dwelling, and several natives sitting near them. Under the south head he saw four small canoes, with one man in each. They were * Thomson, • The Story of New Zealand,' vol. i., p. 231. says induce " long there- ad not many They them, ed all ind, in y like dently emed, stness. le bay, shore, in he usual everal le saw were CAPTAIN COOK IN AUSTRALIA. 2oy striknig fish with a long spear. They ventured very near the surf in their fragile barks ; and were so engaged in their employment that they did not see the ship go by them, though it passed within a quarter of a mile. Opposite to where the ship anchored there were seven or eight huts. While they were hauling out the boat, an old woman and three children were seen to come out of the forest with fire- wood. Several children in the huts came out to meet her at the same time. She looked very attentively at the ship, but did not seem very anxious about it. She then kindled a fire ; whereupon the four fishermen rowed on to the land, hauled up their boats, and commenced to dress the fish for their meal. The ship did not excite their astonishment in the least. This apathy is one of the most distinctive features in the character of the Australian savage. Preparations having been completed, the crew prepared to land. They proposed doing so where the huts were ; and hoped that, as they cared so little about the ship, the natives would remain and communicate with them. In this they were disappointed. As soon as the boat approached the rocks, two of the men came down to dispute the landing, and th(^. rest ran away. Each of the two champions was armed with a lance about ten feet long, and a woomra, or throwing-stick. They brandished their weapons in a very daring way, though they were only two to forty, and called continually, in a strange harsh language, what was evidently a warning to the explorers not to land. Cook, admiring their courage, ordered his men to lie upon the oars, while he tried to pacify them. He threw them beads and ornaments, which they seized eagerly, and seemed well pleased with them. But all inducements to allow the boat's crew to land were thrown away. Cook tried to intimate to them that nothing but water was wanted. But it was no use ; they seemed resolved to defend their country from invasion. One was a mere lad, the other about middle age ; and yet there they stood before their huts, confronting forty men, rather than yield their ground. A musket was fired between them. At 1 J ■ ■J hi : 1 1 lii I* ! ii 1 ! 208 EARL V A USTRALASIAN DISCO VERIES. the report, one dropped his bundle of spears ; but he recol- lected himself in a moment, and stood again on the defen- sive. A charge of small shot was now fired at the legs of the elder. Upon this he retreated to the huts, and Cook and his men immediately landed. But the battle was not over. Scarcely had they set their feet upon the sand when the savage returned. He was armed with a shield this time, hoping thus to protect his bleeding legs. Both savages threw spears where the men stood thickest, but they easily avoided them. Another charge of small shot was given; and this completed the victory. Native legs could stand it no longer, so they were immediately put to another use. After the retreat of the blacks, Cook went to the huts, and found there three or four children huddled together, and evidently in the greatest state of fear. This was the cause of the heroic resistance of the two natives.'* Captain Cook made some further explorations in Botany Bay ; but here, as elsewhere in the course of his northward voyage, he was regarded with sullen aversion by the natives. They rejected his presents ; and when they did not obsti- nately oppose him, they avoided all intercourse with him. He sailed all along the eastern shore of Australia, for the first time clearly defining its appearance and configuration ; and, having passed Cape York, landed at the curious rock known as Booby Island, from one of whose lofty summits he took his last look at Australia. In 1773 he returned to New Zealand, and also visited Tasmania, and to both of these islands he went again in 1777 ; but he added little, on either of these occasions, to the information he had acquired in his first and most famous voyage. That voyage excited much interest in Europe, and led to many other expeditions to the Australasian regions. De Surville, a French navigator, had gone to New Zealand in the same year, 1769, and treated its natives with gross treachery and cruelty ; and Marion du Fresne, another * Woods, ' History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' vol. i., pp. 39-41. le recol- 3 defen- legs of id Cook was not id when lis time, savages jy easily 3 given; stand it her use. uts, and tier, and he cause L Botany )rthward natives. ot obsti- ith him. for the |u ration ; us rock lUmmits rned to both of ittle, on cquired Id led to 18. De iland in |h gross mother ia,' vol. i., CAPTAIN COOK'S RIVALS. 209 Frenchman, though perhaps with lesa intention of doing evil, engaged in yet more disastrous strife with the aborigines both of New Zealand and of Tasmania, whom he visited in 1772. In 1785 La Perouse was sent by the French Govern- ment on an intended voyage round the world, which was to surpass all previous exploits 01 that sort in the value of its contributions to geographical science and natniral history. He proceeded as far as Botany Bay, where he anchored in January, 1788 ; but there ha disappeared, and the voyages undertaken in search of him or his remains almost vie in interest with those by which, in our own time, and in very different scenes, it was sought to discover the fate of Sir John Franklin. But the work of Australasian discovery was chiefly to be carried on by Captain Cook's own country- men. W 'i\ I 1:i *" til ■; » li ;i 'I 11;; ■ «i : El ■•i 'if ki t;l 14 f i CIIArTEU XIX. THK FIKST AUSTIIALIAN COLONY. ii TUF, CONVICT SKTTI.EMKNT IN NKW SOmi WALKS — ITS FUIST TUOmi-KS — TllK KVM, UAUITS OK THK COLONISTS -TUK HKiJINNINc; OF HKTTKK WAYS — COVKUNOK MACkJUAUlK— Al'STUALIAN DISCOVKUKUS : I'LINOKUS AND BASS— INLAND KXTKOITIONS— THK rUOCiUKSS OK NEW SOUTH WALKS. [17{^7-1{>21.] N 1723, not very long after Danipior's visit to tlio distant country then known as Now Holland, it ^vas proposed that an English colony should bo there planted ; and tho proposal was revived almost as soon as tho result of Captain Cook's researches \vas announced. But hiiiglajid, then busy with the defence of Canada, and with her efforts to bring back tho inhabitants of the United States to subjection, was not ready to take in hand tho beginning of a settlement in so remote a region. The American War, however, in tho ciul, gave encouragement to tho new enterprise. One use to which the now independent colonies had been put was tho sending thither a number of criminals, nearly two thousand in every year, for whom no room was to be found in tho crowded gaols at home ; and when the old ways of trans- portation were cut off, new ways had to be discovered. Then it was that it w^as resolved to make use of Cook's discoveries. In 1784 an Act oi Parliament was passed, empowering the Ministers of George the Third to appoint some place beyond the seas to which offenders might bo riiE fvuxDhxc ()/'• svi)\/:\ 21 I convoyud ; jiikI in I7f^l> it wjim (iccidcd Unit, l,li(>y hIioiiM Ik! H(MiLto tho oiiHicni coiiHt of New llollaiid and (lio !M>i''ld)()iii'- iiig 1 ilaiidf luiH tilio CDloiii/aiioii of AiiHiralia vvmh Im-'/uii, VVitli ()ai>tain Aitliur I'liillip, li.N., an coiiiiiiandcr of Mhi ox]MMlil,ioii, jiikI f^'ovcM'iior of tliu pmjcK'.l.od KclilciiHUii, a small l1(Hit; left I'lii^Maiid on tlio l.'ltli of May, I7M7. On board w(5r« 505 malo and \\V1 U\\\\\\\i\ ))riHoiu>rH, with iiOH ollicors an I Hold lOI'H, and ( )5 womcMi and cliildrcn. Aftor an cij^lit montliH* voyaj^o, in tlin c.ourHc? of wliicli thirty- two of tho convictH diod, tlu? convoy cnttirod IJotany I Jay in .lanuary, 17Hers perished ill the woods from hung(U', or ])y the hands of the, natives. Others, without ruiming away, were too idle to In; of use, and severe measures had to bo resorted to, l)y which tlu; whole progress of the settlement was hindered. Tho town of Sydney was slowly built ; but the crops planted on the rugged soil were not properly tended, and the cattle l)i'ought out from ]'jngland were recklessly killed or lost. A ship, intended to proceed to China for suppli(;s, was wrecked, a/id another, coming with ample store of provisions from J'^ngland, was lost on tho way out. By these misfortunes the colony was brought almost to starvation. Many died. Fresh cargoes of convicts arrived at intervals ; but the food that caujo with them did not suHico for the wants of tho older colonists as well as those for whom it was intenufjd. The first live years passed painfully, and tho settlement of New South Wales id— 2 >i I lO 5 • *i 1 !J 1 V [ :i] : ■i • f 1 *• • '.\ • ■ ^nl ■ 3N 'ii 4 MM i*<|!' 1 !■: f'v'' Vl<^| |i |H t||l || 8«* / 1 1 i 1 !■ i: IH W 1' 1 .1 1 nr '11 j'i K u II 212 THE FIRST AUSTRALIAN COLONY. was only saved from destruction by the exemplary zeal and forbearance of the governor. By him the flagging spirits of the colonists were quickened ; disaffection was stayed in a community especially fitted to become mutinous, and his constant self-sacrifice endeared him to all alike, and pro- moted union among all. He even sought to civihze the stubborn natives ; and, when this was found impracticable, succeeded in preventing his people from acting towards them with the cruelty and injustice too often shown by colonists in their dealings with inferior races. Captain Phillip returned to England in 1792. By that time the early troubles of the colony had been in great measure overcome. The fields were in cultivation; herds had been naturalized, and supplies of provisions came from Europe with tolerable regularity. These supplies from Europe, however — not merely articles of general commerce to be exchanged for Australian produce, but stores of food and clothing for which no return was made — were necessary to the colony, both then and for long after. It was a convict settlement, not expected to be self-supporting, although it was hoped that the prisoners would be gradually induced to contribute more and more to their own maintenance. And it continued to be little more than a convict settlement, to a great extent unproductive, until 1821. Its history up to that time, during a period of thirty-three years in all, was marked by many painful details. Its governors, after Captain Phillip, were military and naval men, employed chiefly in seeing that the unwiUing colonists performed their task-work, and in attempting to maintain something like prison discipline in a prison thirty times as large as the island of Great Britain. All that prison was not then habitable by white men. A vast proportion of it was wholly unexplored. The settlement of New South Wales comprised only a very small part of the colony now bearing that name, and was comprised within the immediate neighbourhood of Sydney and Botany Bay. But the great districts north, west, and south afforded easy eal and pirits of ed in a and his ,nd pro- lize the cticable, towards lown by By that in great a; herds ime from ies from ommerce s of food lecessary a convict ihough it iduced to ce. And lent, to a irty-threc ails. Its ,nd naval colonists maintain times as rison was tion of it iw South colony thin the ay. But ded easy ITS CONVICT POPULATION. 213 means for the escape of convicts from the garrison in charge of them ; and while many thus escaped, generally to die, or be for ever lost sight of, the task of restraining tliem was a constant source of trouble, and added greatly to the ditli- culties in the way of good government among the convicts who remained. It gave them a certain power over their masters, since, to keep them from running away, they were allowed much licence which ought to have been avoided. Their governors must not be blamed too severely for their failures in doing work that it was hardly possible to do well. But their failures were often egregious. Arrogant and despotic in some of their actions, they were culpably lenient in others. The murderers, forgers, and convicts guilty of a hundred different offences, who formed the bulk of the colonists, and who, if they began to settle down into peace- able ways, were every year contaminated by fresh tides of criminals, formed a lawless and disreputable community. Vice was nearly everywhere rampant. Men exiled from England for their crimes were often entrusted with functions for which virtue was pre-eminently needed. Convicts became judges and clergymen. The leaders of society were often men whose violation of social laws had been so gross that they could not be tolerated in the mother country ; and, as a consequence, nearly every sort of dishonesty was the rule, and none but the honest were punished. Licentiousness and drunkenness, parents of every sort of evil, were almost universal. * Not only,' we are told, ' was undisguised con- cubinage thought no shame, but the sale of wives was not an unfrequent practice. A present owner of broad acres and large herds i,n New South Wales is the offspring of a union strangely brought about by the purchase of a wife from her husband for four gallons of rum. Rum supplied the place of coin. Lands, houses, and property of every description, real and personal, were bought and paid for in rum. It is recorded of one of the officers of the 102nd Eegiment that, a hundred acres of land having been dis- tributed in half-acre allotments as free grants amongst some !, m J. m 214 THE FIRST AUSTRALIAN COLONY. soldiers of the regiment, he planted a hogshead of rum upon the ground, and bought the wliole hundred acres with the contents of the hogshead. A moiety of this land, a few years ago, realized £20,000 at a sale in Sydney.'* That these evils should have prevailed during the first period of New South Wales colonization is not to be won- dered at so much as that they should so soon have begun to be corrected. Tlio era of reformation commenced in 1808, when Captain Bligli, the most incompetent of the early governors, was expelled by the best of the colonists, the special cause of this rough act of justice being his harsh treatment of the vorthiest colonist of all, John Macarthur, to whom is due the merit of first discerning the value of Australia as a wool-producing country. By him sheep were first imported in 1797 ; and in 1803 he improved the breed by purchases from the flocks of King George the Third at Kew. His zeal and that of his wife for the improvement of New South Wales in other ways besides sheep-rearing brought on him much persecution ; but he and his friends were supported by the authorities in England, and a better governor, General Macquarie, was sent in 1810 to rule the colony for eleven years. Governor Macquarie established some sort of order among his convicts. He rewarded all who were worth rewarding, and employed them, in the several crafts in which they had been trained in England, thus raising up an army of artisans, engineers, and other useful labourers. Under his directions Sydney was nearly rebuilt ; hospitals, churches, and other public buildings were erected, roads and bridges were con- structed, and the whole colony was extended and enriched. ' He found a garrison and a gaol,' it was said, ' and left the broad and deep foundations of an empire.'! Other men joined in that work. In 1821 the population of New South Wales was 29,783, of whom the great propor- * Therry, ' Reminiscences of Thirty Years* Residence in New South Wales and Victoria' (1863), pp. 71, 72. + Ihid.y p. 79. )f rum )S with and, a 10 first 3 won- )gim to 1 1808, 3 early its, the I harsh arthur, alue of 3p were 3 breed hird at Tient of •rearing I friends better ule the among arding, ley had rtisans, ections i other re con- riched. eft the ulation )ropor- kv South ITS EARLY GROWTH. 215 tion wero convicts, either still undergoing punishment, or ' emancipists,' as they wero called, being now in tho main free men. But some of these wore persons of high character and great ability ; and in the colony there were also many free settlers, John Macarthur being tho chief, of remarkable worth. By them the resources of tho colony, were being rapidly unfolded, and farm settlements wero already planted at a considerable distance from Sydney. From Sydney, too, had gone forth, during these throe-and- thirty years, numerous expeditions for the investigation of more distant portions of Australia and tho neighbouring islands, all destined soon to become fruitful colonies. Cap- tain Phillip, the first governor, had sent out naval exploring parties both by land and by watei- ; and if his successors in the government were less energetic, there were not wanting private adventurers to carry on the work. The foremost of these adventurers, tie great heroes of Australasian discovery, were Flinders and Ba3S. Flinders was a young midshipman, Bass was a navy surgeon, when in 1795 they resolved to use all the leisure they could get from their duties on board the Bcliance in examining the vast coasts and waters that had only hitherto been vaguely described by Dampier, Cook, and other voyagers. They bought a little boat, eight feet long, which they named the Tom Thumbs and which, with the help of a boy, they were able to manage for themselves. They managed her so well, in 1795 and 1796, in surveying the coast and country near to Sydney, that the fame of their achievements led to their being entrusted with larger boats and permitted to engage in more extensive voyages. Some- times together and sometimes apart, they persevered in their bold exploits, as often as 1' :^ir professional duties and other circumstances allowed. In 1797 Bass, in charge of a whale-boat, sailed south- wards from Port Jackson to Cape Howe, and then, passing westwards, discovered "Wilson's Promontory and Western Port, with many creeks and islands lying between the % II II m ■ t i : itlU 2l6 THE FIRST AUSTRALIAN COLONY. \\\\\ 11" Australian coast and Van Dicmen's Land, which, instead of being a pait of the continent, as had hitherto been sup- posed, was tlnis proved to bo an island divided from it by the waters called Bass Straits, in honour of the exnlorer. Forced by want of provisions to turn back in February, 1798, he found that Flinders had, during the same time, been also exploring in nearly the same quarter, and dis- covering several islands north of Van Diemen's Land. In September, 1798, the two friends were allowed to continue their researches in a larger vessel. They sailed right through the straits and all round Tasmania, and examined its principal bays. Then the friends were parted. Soon after his return to Sydney, Bass started for England, on a visit to his wife and mother, but the vessel in which ho sailed appears to have been wrecked on the way home. He was never heard of afterwards. Flinders lived to achieve greater successes. He made many voyages along coasts already roughly marked out, but W'hich ho was the first to define with precision. Other voyagv^.s were attended by more memorable discoveries. In 1801 and 1802, as commander of the Investigator, he sailed along the southern coast of Australia, past Kangaroo Island, to the Great Australian Bight. Then turning back he sur- veyed more carefully the bays and coasts of what are now the provinces of South Australia and Victoria, loitering long in the splendid harbour on which Melbourne was soon to be built. He nex' after refitting at Sydney, proceeded in a different direction. Sailing northwards, he investigated the coast with the same care which he had shown in his previous work, until he entered the Gulf of Carpentaria. A hundred and five days were spent by him in examining this great bay and discovering its islands ; and at the end of that time he was forced, by the sickness of many of his crew, to make his way back to Sydney. In July, 1803, he started upon another expedition ; but the loss of one of the two vessels entrusted to him forced him to return. In September he sailed out again, intend- EXPLORATIONS AND EXPANSIONS, 317 infj to visit England, report his discovories, and seek assist- ance for yet more extensive enterprises. lie was not, hovv- tli Callini; at Muuriti h tak ever, to engaj;o in tneni. uaiinig at Mauritius, ne was taKen prisoner by its French governor, and there detained for six years and a half. Ilis charts were seized, and many of his most important discoveries falsely claimed for .the French explorer. Captain Baudin. Enabled at length to reach England, he found that the credit of his greatest exploits had been taken from him, and that ho himself was forgotten. That justice might be done to liim, he lost no time in sotting his journals in order for publication. lie died on the very day on which this work was completed, in 1814. In the interval use had been made of his researches by the planting of several small settlements in various parts of New South Wales ; but there were no further explorations of much importance for several years, and then the explora- tion was on laud instead of by sea. In 1813 a party of adventurers, led by William Charles Went worth, William Lawson, and Gregory Blaxland, crossed the Blue Mountains, thus taking the first step towards an understanding of the interior of the continent ; and as a sequel to their pioneer- ing, the town of Bathurst was founded in 1814, by Governor Macquarie, who employed his convicts in constructing a road between the new settlement and Sydney. Thence other expeditions set out, and by them were discovered the Macquarie, the Lachlan, and other rivers. John Oxley was the first great traveller by land ; and his painstaking excur- sions from Bathurst to the country round about, and far inland, helped to make clear the nature of the inner districts of the New South Wales province. Thus before the close of the year 1821, when the colony entered on a new period of growth, much progress had been made in the mapping out of the great eastern half of Australia, though the western coasts and districts had been hardly visited, and of the central parts nothing at all was known. Sydney, on the southern shore of Port Jackson, and Paramatta, fourteen miles inland, were the only settle- 8l8 THE FIRST AUSTRALIAN COLONY. ments then worthy to be called towns ; and hardly more than fifty square miles of land were under cultivation, though an area about ten times as large was used for pasturage. That, however, was four times as much as it had been in 1810. In 1788 there were in the colony only 7 horses, 7 horned cattle, and 29 sheep, the first imports from Europe. In 1810 the numbers respectively had risen to 1,114, to 11,276, and to 34,550; in 1820 they were 4,014, G8,149, and 119,777. In 1807 only 245 pounds of wool had been exported from New South Wales;, in 1816 the quantity was 73,171 pounds; and in 1821, 175,433 pounds. The little colony in the far-off island continent was already in the highway of progress, and deserved the praises of its first local poet, the young explorer Wentworth — destined to be one of its greatest statesmen — who exclaimed : nm I n * Lo ! thickly planted o'er the glassy bay, Where Sydney loves her beauties to survey^ And every morn delighted see the beam Of some fresh pennant dancing in her stream, A masty forest, stranger vessels moor, Charged with the fruits of every foreign shore ; While, landward, the thronged quay, the creaking crane, The noisy workman, and the loaded wain, The lengthened street, wi(' j square, and columned front Of stately mansions, and the gushing font. The solemn church, and busy market throng, And idle loungers saunioiing slow among, The lofty windmills that with outspread sail Thick line the hills, and court the rising gale, Show that the mournful genius of the plain. Driven from his primal solitary reign, Has backward fled, and fixed his drowsy throne In untrod wilds to muse and brood alone. » # * * » Here lowing kine, there bounding coursers graze ; Here waves the corn, and there the woody maize ; Here the tall peach puts forth its pinky bloom, And there the orange scatters its perfume ; While, as the merry boatmen row along, The woods are quickened with their lusty song. « * * ♦ ♦ The crowded farmhouse lines the winding stream On either side, and many a plodding team With shining ploughshare turns the neighbouring soil, Which crowns with double crop the labourer's toil.' ly more ;ivatioii, ised for ch as it ny only imports ad risen •e 4,014, irool had ^[uantity 1 already es of its itined to Une, >nt ADVANCING CIVILIZATION. 219 In the same poem Wentworth alluded, with pardonable pride, to his own scaling of the Blue Mountains, and explora- uons beyond, in 1813. * Hail, mighty ridge ! that from thy azure brow Survey'st these fertile plains that stretch below, And look'st with careless, unobservant eye, As round thy waist the forked lightnings ply, . And the loud thunders spring with hoarse rebound From peak to peak, and fill Vn^. welkin round With deafening voice, till, with their boisterous play Fatigued, in muttering peals they stalk away. Vast Austral giant of these rugged steeps, Within those secret cells rich glittering heaps, Thick piled, are doomed to sleep till some one spy The hidden key that opes thy treasury. Now mute, how desolate thy stunted woods ! How dread thy chasms, where many an eagle broods ! How dark thy caves ! how lone thy torrents' roar — As down thy cliffs precipitous they pour — Broke on our hearts, when first with venliurous tread We dared to rouse thee from thy mountain bed, Till, gained with toilsome steps thy rocky heath, We spied the cheering smoke ascend beneath. And, as a meteor shoots athwart the night. The boundless champaign burst vipon our sight, Till, nearer seen, the beauteous landscape grew, Opening like Canaan on rapt Israel's view.'* Wentworth's reference to the ' rich glittering heaps,' awaiting the finding of ' the hidden key that opes the treasury,' was a remarkable prophecy concerning the mineral wealth, gold, silver, and copper, discovered long afterwards on the other side of the Blue Mountains. * Wentworth, born at Norfolk Island in 1791, was only twenty two when he crossed the Blue Mountains. He came to England, and studied at Cambridge University, where ' Australasia,' quoted from above, was written in 1816, as a prize poem. He was beaten in the competition, how- ever, by William Mackworth Praed. He returned to Sydney in 1824, and was a zealous promoter of Australian interests till 1862, when he came to spend the last ten years of his life in England. *'i f il 3! ; ! w nil! 't 11 m • f , ill! 1 1 ,^ , j 1 f '\ 1 . i ) t 1 : I ) ! CHAPTEE XX. OLD NEW SOUTH WALES. i i- i : t iMI! '■ ( ' il : 1 1i 1 ^1 1 PROGRESS OF NEW SOUTH WALES AS A FREE COLONY— SERVICES OF REFORMED CONVICTS — JOHN MACA^THUR AND THE WOOL-TRADE — SYDNEY IN 1829 — CRUEL TREATMENT OF THE CONVICTS — GROWTH 01 ' lilsiE INSTI- TUTIONS — SIR RICHARD BOURKE — DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLONY— EX- PLORATIONS IN THE INTERIOR — THE ABORIGINES OF AUSTRALIA. [1821-1839.] EW SOUTH WALES was little more than a con- vict settlement till 1821, and, up to that time, its limits did not extend very far beyond the outskirts of Sydney. Farms dotted the country round ; a settlement had been begun inland, at Bathurst ; and other settlements had been begun along the coast, from Port Macquarie, in the north, to Port Phillip, now Melbourne, in the south. But its population of aboat 20,000 convicts, 9,000 soldiers and afew free men andwoiijo.;, most of whom gained their living by attending to the neces- sities of the convicts, was chiefly to be found in the neigh- bourhood of Port Jackson. Governor Macquarie, who had ruled the settlement wisely, as an overseer of a very exten- sive prison, had done his best to turn his lawless subjects into good colonists, but had discouraged the coming of voluntary emigrants among them. By his successor. Sir Thomas Brisbane, and the home authoriticE who guided him, a different policy was adopted ; and from his time the population of Australia began to be rapidly augmented by «A»mMf abc.it womcii, 3 neces- neigh- ho had ' exten- ubjects ning of or, Sh' guided me the Lted by CONVICTS AND FREE SETTLERS. 221 settlers of all classes, who souglit, with wonderful success, to share the advantages afforded by this new and almost boundless field for enterprise. In 1821 the convicts formed more than two-thirds of the whole population of 29,783. In 18'^8 they were hardly more than half of the whole number, which had risen to 36,589. In 1833 they were only about a third ©f the 71,070 persons then in the colony. In 1839, when there were 114,386 inhabitants, they were less than a fourth ; and, after that, further transportation being nearly abolished in 1839, they gradually disappeared altogether, save that, as ' eman- cipists,' or liberated convicts, they continued to leaven the entire mass. During those eighteen years New South Wales was thus in a state of transition. Its rapid growth of population, and the energy of the new-comers, naturally superior to the earlier and involuntary importations, caused a very great increase of its limits, and a corresponding increase of its wealth. The vices planted in the beginning were not easily eradicated, but virtues flourished beside them, and the old haunt of infamy was gradually turned into a fruitful garden of honest enterprise. The evil propensities of the criminals with whom the colony was stocked by the mother country, no longer allowed supremacy in the towns and outlying settlements, led their possessors to seek a precarious living, and sometimes large fortunes, as bush-rangers, until the progress of civilized habits, and the strengthening of the agencies of justice, put an end to even this dangerous class, and law prevailed everywhere, or at least with as wide and vigorous a sway as in any other resort of Englishmen. The rapidity with which this reformation was effected, indeed, was a marvel to all, and reflects high honour upon the colonists who brought it about ; and especial honour is due to many of the former convicts, who, while some of their comrades found exercise for their old habits as bush- rangers, won back the good names they had forfeited, and attained eminence as honest men and wise philanthro- i i m ;( - I '5 'I : r IF li 1 .) I ■ 222 OLD NEW SOUTH WALES. !■ I s; 1 * li ■ R i t i 1 1 • II! pists. * They form,' it was said in 1844, by a local historian, * no uninteresting part of the population. Feeling that they had a bad character to lose and a good one to gain, they have in many instances set themselves about the work of reformation. Some of them are reckoned among our most honourable tradesmen and merchants ; among the most liberal supporters, too, of the benevolent institutions which adorn our land. Some of these institutions have been all but entirely founded, and are now mainly supported, by their means. In many cases they have, by their industry and perseverance, acquired considerable wealth ; and in most instances the wealth thus obtained has been generously and honourably devoted to the public benefit, the real and substantial advancement of this land of their expatriation. Nor do we know a more pleasing trait in human character than that which is thus displayed. Once degraded, they have paid to a violated law the satisfaction it imperatively demanded. But when the debt was paid, another obligation was felt to remain behind. Society had lost that beneficial influence which each member is called upon to exercise, and to atone for this was now their honourable desire. In the fair and honest pursuit of commerce, by untiring industry, they acquired those means which enabled them to gratify their wish ; and no sooner was wealth poured into their lap than they gave it back, spreading it through numerous channels, through each of which, as it flowed, it left bless- ings that even succeeding ages may enjoy.'* If ' there is more joy in heaven over one sinner that re- penteth thpn over ninety and nine just persons that need no repentance,' hearty praise is due on earth to those reformed criminals who aided in the good work by which Australia, at one time thought to be only a vast playground for evil passions, has been turned into one of the most luxuriant fields of honest and honourable enterprise. ' Why we are to erect penitentiaries and prisons at the distance of half the diameter of the globe, and to incur the enormous expense of * Braim, 'History of New South Wales,' vol. ii., pp. 315, 316. <^«^^ar «MO j»»a n - »M >^ IN THE IVA V OF PROGRESS. listorian, hat they lin, they work of )ur most he most IS which been all rted, by industry and in nerously real and triation. baracter 3d, they 5ratively )ligation 3neficial iise, and In the idustry, gratify their merous i bless- lat re- eed no brmed tralia, Dr evil uriant ve are ilf the nse of 223 feeding and transporting its inhabitants,' it was said in 1803, * it is extremely difficult to discover. It is foolishly believed that the colony of Botany Bay unites our moral and com- mercial interests, and that we shall receive hereafter an ample equivalent in the bales of goods for all the vices we export.'* The 'foolish belief has been verified beyond the most sanguine anticipations of its holders. This, however, could hardly have been but for the tide of free emigration, which, slowly ebbing before, set in with a continued and ever-increasing vehemence in 1821. Shrewd colonists like John Macarthur, the first sheer *armer and wool-merchant of Australia, who has been already mentioned, set a fashion which thousands every year have followed to their own and others' great advantage. In 1803 this ' father of the colony,' as he was justly callea, returned to England with the first small sample of Australian wool, and earned the mockery of many who heard his prophecy, that * the quantity and quality would so increase and improve, as at no distant time to render England altogether independent, not only of Spain, but of all the nations cf the Continent, for its supply.' He persevered in his * wool-gathering theories,' as they were termed, brought sheep from India and the Cape, and after- wards from Spain and England — being enabled to do the latter, in violation of a law against the import of these animals, by a special Treasury warrant, and found that the soil and climate of Australia made bad fleeces good, and good ones better. He obtained a grant of 5,000 acres of land on which to try his experiment ; and when in 1821 that was well stocked, 5,000 other acres were assigned to him. In 1807 Austraha exported 245 pounds of wool. In 1834, when he died, the exports amounted to 2,246,933 pounds, of which no small portion came from his own well- ordered sheep-runs ; and in 1839 they had risen to 7,213,584 pounds, valued at £442,504. That rapid development of the wool-trade in New South Wales caused the chief energies of the colony to be applied * Edinburgh Review. If i'l n ) ; 224 OLD NEW SOUTH WALES. w\ in sheep-farming and the associated caUings. There was some exportation of cedar and other woods, and a consider- able trade in whale-oil and seal-skins obtained in the neigh- bouring fisheries. But all these employments w^ere chiefly carried on within a short distance from Sydney ; and at this time it and its outskirts comprised nearly half of the entire white population of Australia. Of the bright and painful aspects of the capital in 1829, when it contained about 15,000 inhabitants, we havo a vivid description. ' In the evening of the day of our arrival,' says a traveller, * I was very favourably impressed. The streets were wide, well laid out, and clean. Two regiments, their headquarters stationed in Sydney, were then on duty in the colony, and this considerable force, with a large commissariat establishment, imparted quite a military appearance to the place. The houses were for the most part built in the English style, the shops well stocked, and the people one met with In the streets presented the comfortable appear- ance of a prosperous community. The cages with parrots and cockatoos that hung from every shop-door formed the first feature that reminded me that I was no longer in England. George Street, the principal street in the town, was brilliant with jewellers' shops ; and I soon ascertained that Sydney had been remarkable, even at an earlier period, for the same phenomenon, the receivers of stolen plate and articles of bijouterie in England having chosen Sydney as a safe depot for the disposal of such articles. Ground was not so valuable as it soon afterwards became, and com- modious verandaed cottages, around which English roses clustered, with large gardens, were scattered through the town. Nothing met the stranger's eye to convey the notion that he was in the capital of a penal colony. The first im- pression of Sydney, on a summer evening's visit,was pleasant, and full of agreeable promise. When, however, day dawned, the delusion of the evening was dispelled. Early in the morning the gates of the convict prison were thrown open, and several hundred convicts were marched out in regi* ■.fWPtfUWT'^rt'WI'^ff^T^ff' [lere ^vas consider- he neigh- •e chiefly id at this he entire in 1829, ro a vivid val,' says le streets nts, their ity in the missariat ice to the It in the 3ople one B appear- h parrots rmed the longer in he town, certained 3r period, late and ney as a und was nd com- sh roses ugh the e notion first im- leasant, dawned, in the n open, in regi- SYDNEY IN 1829. 225 mental file, and distributed amongst the several public works in and about the town. As they passed along, the chains clanking at their heels, the patchwork dress of coarso gray and yellow cloth, marked with the Government brand, in which they were paraded, the downcast countenances and the whole appearance of the men exhibited a truly painful picture. Nor was it much improved throughout the day, as one met bands of them, in detachments of twenty, yoked to waggons laden with gravel and stone, which they wheeled through the streets. In this and in other respects they performed all the functions of labour usually discharged by beasts of burden at home. These were painful spectacles, but to the pain was soon added a thrill of horror by a scene I witnessed a day or two subsequently. The Sydney hospital, well situated, was in a line with the prisoners' barracks, and at a short distance from them. In an enclosed yard of these barracks, shut out from the public road, flogging was ad- ministered. A band of from ten to twenty were daily at one period marched into this yard to be flogged. As I passed along the road, about eleven o'clock in the morning, there issued out of the prisoners' barracks a party consisting of four men, who bore on their shoulders (two supporting the head and two at the feet) a miserable convict, writhing in an agony of pain, his voice piercing the air with terrific screams. Astonished at the sight, I inquired what this meant, and was told ' it was only a prisoner who had been flogged, and who was on his way to the hospital !' It often took a sufferer a week or ten days, after one of these lacerations, before he was sufficiently recovered to resume his labour ; and I soon learned that what I had seen was at that period an ordinary occurrence.'* That excessive severity, by which the worst convicts were made far worse — * When I landed here,' said one of them, * I had the heart of a man in me, but you have plucked it out and planted the heart of a brute instead ' — was often reflected in the treatment adopted by the early governors * Therry, pp. 39-43. 15 \\ 226 OLD NEW SOUTH WALES. \ w ■' • r ■ f; I ■ ^1 1- \ bl: :i \ 1- .1 towards the free settlers in the colony. General Macquarie had sought to make the whole district a home for convicts. The two governors who succeeded him, Sir Thomas Brisbane, from 1822 to 1825, and Sir Kalph Darling, from 1826 to 1831, introducing many beneficial measures, and desiring to increase the number of colonists, could not abstain from practising upon them some of the tyranny which they learnt as prison-overseers. The colonists, however, growing more influential every year, were strong enough to resist such conduct ; and, if unfortunate party-feeling sprang therefrom, it also issued in much good to New South Wales. In 1823 the functions of the governor, who had hitherto ruled the colony by a sort of martial law, were curtailed by the insti- tution of a supreme court of justice for hearing all civil, criminal, and other pleas. In the same year a Legislative Council of seven members was appointed to aid the governor in making laws for the colony ; and this Council was re- organized on an improved basis in 1829. Before that, the inhabitants had claimed a more independent power, both in legislation and in oversight of administrative arrangements, but representative privileges were not accorded to them till 1841. The chief cause of the delay was the wise use made of his powers by a new governor, who was sent to New South Wales in 1831, and remained in office until 1838. The new governor, the most statesman-like and liberal- minded ever sent to the colony, was Sir Eichard Bourke. Eeadily discerning the great resources of the vast district assigned to him, he promptly set himself to aid their de- velopment, so as to benefit both the colonists and the mother country. Previous governors had striven to keep the settlers as much as possible in the neighbourhood of Sydney. Bourke had not been many months in New South Wales before he inaugurated a directly opposite policy. * The proprietors soon find,' he wrote in a despatch to England, * from the increase of their flocks and herds, that it becomes necessary to send their stock beyond the boundary of location, and to form what are termed "new stations;" j^im. icquarie onvicts. risbane, 1826 to siring to lin from sy learnt Lig more ist such erefrom, In 1823 uled the he insti- all civil, igislative governor was re- bhat, the , both in ^ements, ihem till .se made to New 1838. liberal- Bourke. district Iheir de- ,nd the to keep •hood of iw South policy, atch to ■ds, that [oundary »,tions;" ITS GOVERNORS: SIR RICHARD BOURKE. 227 otherwise the only alternative left to them would be either to restrain the increase of their stock, or to find artificial food for it. The first of these courses would lead to a severe falling off in the supply of wool ; and as to artificial food, from the uncertainty of the seasons, and the light character of the soil, it would be quite impracticable. Besides, either course would seem to be a rejection of the bounties of Provi- dence that spreads, with a prodigal hand, its magnificent carpet of bright green sward over boundless plains, and clothes the depths of the valleys with abundant grass. Moreover, the restraint on dispersion would entail an ex- pense in the management which could not profitably repay the Government.' Therefore, he resolved, instead of hinder- ing them, to give free encouragement to * squatters,' as they now began to be called. He had the country, far and wide, surveyed and parcelled into lots ; and these lots he sold as often as there was demand for them, at whatever prices they could command at public auction. Instead of keeping the convicts at useless drudgery, he facilitated their employment in all sorts of ways beneficial to the colonists, and made them better workmen by treating them less cruelly. Thus he had fewer runaways to become bushrangers ; and the bushrangers already prowling about the country he zealously, though with no undue severity, hunted down and punished. He reformed the magistracy, and improved the machinery of justice. He gave freedom to the press. He established religious equality, and "ncouraged unsectarian education. No wise project for the advancement of the colony was offered to him in vain ; and his own wise projects, admirably conceived, were no less admirably worked out. During his eight years of ofiQce, Australia advanced greatly in material ways, and its moral advancement was yet greater. The material progress, however, can alone be told in figures. The revenue of New South Wales, which in 1824 had been £49,471, and was £121,065 in 1831, had risen in 1839 to £425,269 ; the public income from land having in- creased in the eight years from £3,617 to £172,273. The 15—2 t; m I a ^ J i I ^ ■ I t ; ;i: :l ' i " • !', :!i^ 5 ■ *'.''■ as ■ |\ m m ill' «t « 1; ■ i. ifll r 81 228 OLD NEW SOUTH WALES. u I 111 m fill' l\ \ i 1, II r-' i exj'orts in 1831 wore valued at £324,108, and the imports at £490,152 ; in 1839 the former were wortli £948,776, the latter £2,230,371. The shipping which in 1831 entered the ports of the colony — Sydney being almost the only port — had an aggregate tonnage of about 34,000 ; in 1839 it had reached 135,474 tons. The population had nearly doubled in the eight years ; and this population, instead of being kept almost exclusively within a few days' reach of Sydney, had spread over a large extent of the immense colony. In 1839 the new race of squatters had attained the number of 77,287, having among them 7,088 horses, 371,699 horned cattle, and 1,334,593 sheep ; and these squatters and their herds were in occupation of 17,730 square miles of picked land, lying along the coast, at intervals, from Port Macquarie to Port Phillip, and far inland. Farther inland, as well as to many parts of the coast yet ill-defined, some memorable exploring visits were made during these years. The greatest of the early land adven- turers, the rival of Flinders on the sea, was Captain Sturt. The Blue Mountains having been crossed in 1813, and Oxley having gone thence into the neighbouring districts of the interior in 1817 and 1818, Sturt was sent in 1827 to see v/hether there was in the remote interior, as was currently believed, a great inland sea, which could be favourable to further colonization. He found no sea, and gave good reasons against the existence of any large extent of water beyond the point which he reached ; but during successive expeditions, lasting to 1831, he discovered the Darling, and tracked its course into the Murray, the greatest of the Australian rivers, about which very little had hitherto been known. Major, afterwards Sir Thomas, Mitchell followed in his track, and explored new districts in 1832, 1835, and 1838 ; his most memorable discoveries being in the district called by him, for its beauty and fertility, Australia FeUx, now part of Victoria. These expeditions of Sturt, Mitchell, and others, marked by patient endurance rarely equalled, but not attended by ■"^"•^**" I li ports at 76, tho red tho /• port — ) it had doubled ing kept ley, had In 1830 : 77,287. ttle, and fds were id, lying to Port joast yet ce made i adven- n Sturt. il3, and tricts of 27 to see urrently irable to ve good Df water Lceessive ing, and of the rto been bllowed J35, and district ia Felix, marked nded by EXPLORERS AND ARORIG/XES. 229 many very striking episodes, were chiefly memorable as opening up new fields of enterprise to planters and squatters. They also helped to make clear the character of the abori- gines, and to prove that all the natives of Australia, differing considerably amongst themselves, were alike in their physical and mental degradation. * On the sea coast,' we are told, in an epitome of the researches of residents and travellers, ' they live principally upon fish, turtle, and shell-fish. In the interior, they hunt the kangaroo, wallaby, and emu, with their boomerangs, spears, and waddies, besides which they procure an uncertain supply of opossums, flying squirrels, sloths, storks, cranes, ducks, parrots, cockatoos, eels, lizards, snakes, grubs, and ants. They have no fixed habitations, the climate generally allowing of their sleeping in the open air, in the crevices of rocks, or under the shelter of the bushes. Their temporary hovels consist of the bark of a tree, or a few bushes interwoven in a semicircular form. They seem to have no idea of the benefits arising from social life. Their largest clans extend not beyond the family circle. They are totally without rehgion, paying neither respect nor adoration to any object, real or imaginary. They have nothing to prompt them to a good action, nothing to deter them from a bad one. They are savage even in love ; the very first "^ct of courtship, on tho part of the husband, being that of knocking down his intended bride with a club, and dragging her away from her friends, bleed- ing and senseless, to the woods. No evidences of tilling the ground, planting, sowing seed, and reaping the harvest have been seen by travellers amongst them, which dis- tinguishes them essentially from the Maori race in New Zealand, the races inhabiting the Polynesian Islands, and the Malays. They do not trade or barter with each other or with strangers. Though each family or tribe has a generally recognised boundary within which they hunt, and beyond which they seldom stray, they neither exchange, buy, nor sell land among each other. Slavery, as understood in the negro sense of the term, does not exist. The married J 9 ■ ' » 'A •■3 = : i m v^ I I li , 230 OLD NEW SOUTH WALES. u ' I I I i ' ] fomalcs, however, are, to all intents and purposes, the slaves of their husbands. Polygamy is recognised and adopted. Cannibalism exists among them. They shovsr very little affection for tlieir offspring ; and their treatment of the aged is even worse than their neglect of the young. That they are capable of being civilized in a measure is shown by the organized troops of black mounted police throughout the south-eastern colonies, and the general employment of them by the colonists as shepherds and mountain herdsmen. In a few instances they have been taught to read and write. But at best they are uncertain retainers, and cannot be kept to constant labour, while they have a very faint conception of the relations between master and servant. Like most other savages, they exhibit the extremes of indolence when their appetite is satiated, and of activity when hunger prompts them to hunt for food. Treachery and cunning among them are considered virtues. In their relations with the Europeans no faith can be placer* i what they say. They have, on the other hand, 1 redeeming qualities. They will cheerfully share their meals with an unsuccessful neighbour, and will seldom refuse the white man a portion, from whom, however, they expect an equivalent. Like children, they are easily pleased ; and, when their appetites are satisfied, they become a jocular and merry race, full of mimicry and laughter.'* * Westgarth, ' Australia : its Rise, Progress, and Present Condition,' pp. 113-116. ihe slaves adopted, ery littlo : the aged rbat they vn by the ;hout the t of thein men. In ,nd write. Dt be kept onception jike most nee when n hunger I cunning relations vhat they redeeming J with an ihe white xpect an ed ; and, a jocular Condition,' CHAPTEE XXI. TASMANIA. THE OFFSHOOTS OF NEW SOUTH WALES— THE EARLY HISTORY OP TASMANIA, OR VAN DIEMEN's LAND— ITS EHTABLI.SHMENT AS AN INDEPENDENT COLONY — ITS CONVICTS AND HUSH-RANGERS — EXTERMINATION OP THE ARORKSINKS — ITS BEST GOVERNORS : SIR OEORCJR ARTHUR AND SIR JOHN FRANKLIN— ITS GREATEST PROSPERITY — ITS DETERIORATION AND PRESENT STATE. [1803-1888.] HEN, in 1786, it was resolved to establish an English colony in Australia, the limits of the new settlement were declared to extend ' from the northern cape or extremity of the coast called Cape York, in tlie latitude of 10" 37' S., to the South Cape, the southern extremity of the coast, in the latitude of 43° 39' S. ; and inland to the westward, as far as 135° E. longitude, including all the islands in the Pacific Ocean within the latitudes aforesaid.' By that arrangement New South Wales was made to include about two-thirds of Aus- tralia, with Norfolk Island and other tributaries, and Van Diemen's Land, not then known to be a separate island. As the vast dimensions and capabilities of the territory came to be better understood, and as the settlers in its various parts became more numerous, this huge colony, half as large as Europe, was broken up into sections, each under separate governors, and with independent centres of juris- diction. Van Diemen's La'-l was so parted off in 1824, South Australia in 1834, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland I ; ': ii I: I i \W I }■ > t 1 132 TASMANIA. in 1859. New South Wales is thus the mother of four youuger colonies, which now vie with her in wealth and im- portance, and we must make several digressions from our history of the parent settlement in order to sketch the progress of its offshoots. Van Diemen's Land, now generally called Tasmania, in honour of its discoverer, the oldest rival of the mother colony, is the least successful. More favoured by nature than any other of the Australasian group of settlements, un- less we except New Zealand, it has had a less profitable career than any of them. Soon after Bass and Flinders showed, in 1797 and 1798,;that it was a separate island, and one excellently adapted by its genial climate, its splendid harbours, and its well-watered coasts, for a residence of white men, it began to be used both by the Government of New South Wales and by the home authorities as a re- ceptacle for convicts. It was taken formal possession of in 1803, and both Hobart Town, on the Derwent, in the south- west, and George Town, on the Tamar, in the north, were founded in 1F04 ; but in both the convicts and the soldiers in charge of them came almost immediately into collision with the aborigines, and a fierce war of extermination was started, to be carried on at intervals during the sixty years required for killing out all the barbarous but comparatively harmless natives. Much suffering, also, was endured by the early settlers, ill-fitted for cultivation of the soil and for making good use of the resources of the island. Better times began about the year 1810. In 1813 merchant ships were allowed to visit the ports, and to trade with their in- habitants. In 1816 the first export of grain was made ; and in 1819 free immigrants, who had already come in small numbers, notwithstanding the obstacles thrown in their way, and who had done nearly all the good that had been effected, were openly allowed to settle in the island. In 1824 its Enghsh population comprised 5,938 convicts, 266 soldiers, and 6,029 free residents. In that year "Van Diemen's Land was made an independent of four and im- 'om our itch the :a.nia, in mother J nature snts, un- rofitable Flinders md, and splendid lencc of iment of as a re- ion of in .8 south- th, were soldiers collision ]ion was by years -ratively by the and for Better it ships leir in- de; and small iir way, jffected, .824 its oldiers, )endent ITS PLANTA TION WITH CONVICTS. 233 colony, with a Legislative Council of its own, and a Supreme Court of Judicature. Sir George Arthur, the first governor, who held his ofRce till 1836, wisely used the powers entrusted to him. He reformed the magistiacy of the island, divided it into well-ordered police districts, and, in various important ways, sought, to a great extent effectually, tg bring about the well-being of its inhabitants. The reforms were sorely needed. The troubles that pre- vailed in the chief settlements were surpassed by those caused in the less frequented districts, where a few enter- prising farmers tried to make profit out of the fertile soil, and which they, and the traders connected with them, occasionally traversed in pursuit of their callings. These districts were infested by bush-rangers, who, as in New South Wales, were generally runaway convicts of the worst sort. Of their lawless conduct one illustration may be given. ' In 1824,' says the historian, ' fourteen desperate convicts, of whom the leaders were Crawford, Brady, Dunne, and Cody, made their escape from the penal settlement at Port Macquarie in a whale-boat. They coasted the south- west shores of the island, and ultimately reached the shores of the Derwent River, where they landed, and were soon joined by numerous associates, provided with arms and other necessaries. Crawford, a clever Scotchman, said to have been formerly a lieutenant or mate in the Boyal Navy, organized and disciplined this gang of freebooters, who soon filled the respectab^"- colonists with alarm. One of their earliest attacks was directed against the mansion of Mr. Taylor, of Valley-field, on the Macquarie River. The banditti mustered thirteen : the family consisted of the venerable old gentleman, in his seventy-fourth year, three sons, two daughters, a carpenter, and another free servant. While the robbers were advancing they made prisoner Mr. Taylor's youngest son, whom they placed in front, threatening his immediate destruction if they were opposed. The gallant veteran, despite the disparity of numbers and the fearful position of his son, sallied forth, accompanied by . '\ •:'■!' W if \l\ 234 TASMANIA. 1 I, i I I ; i i ■IJI" two other sons and a servant, to give battle. The fearful contest was kept up for a considerable period, the ladies charging the fire-arms of their father and brothers, and the whole party fighting for life, and more than life, since the treatment these defenceless females were likely to receive at the hands of these wretches was more to be dreaded than death itself. At length the bush-rangers were compelled to retreat, leaving Crawford and two of his gang on the field dangerously wounded. They were handed over to justice, and perished on the scaffold. The command of the gang then devolved on Brady, whose name operated hke a spell in giving confidence to the bush-rangers, and whose rapid and daring movements struck terror into every part of the island. For nearly two years this Tasmanian brigand, who made it his boast that he " never wantonly sacrificed human life, and never outraged female delicacy," set every effort for his capture at defiance ; and his traits of generosity and reckless daring threw a prestige around even his worst actions, which, among the less depraved convicts, rendered his example more injurious because more alluring. The superior knowledge of the bush possessed by the brigands, together with the information acquired by their scouts scattered all over the country, and obtained from among the convict servants assigned in private houses, enabled them to out-general every military or police movement. The military at this period consisted of only two or three small detach- ments, and there was then no effective police. Large rewards were in vain offered for the capture, or for the heads, of the robbers. The contributions levied upon the settlers enabled the leaders to purchase connivance ; and the resi- dents at out-stations feared to become marked men by aiding in the attempts at capturing the ringleaders. Some of the small settlers not only supplied the gangs with provisions and ammunition, but kept them acquainted with every plan projected for their apprehension. '"**■ Brady's gang was only one, and one of the most gentle- * Martin, vol, iii., pp. 7, 8. 5 fearful e ladies and the ince the 3ceive at .ed than pelled to bhe field justice, ihe gang e a spell ise rapid rt of the md, who i human effort for )sity and is worst rendered ig. The brigands, t: scouts (long the hem to militarv detach- Large le heads, settlers the resi- )y aiding e of the ©visions ery plan ; gentle - THE BUSH-RANGERS AND THEIR WORK. 235 manly, of the robber hordes that infested Van Diemen's Land, some of the most degraded being even suspected of adding cannibalism to their other crimes. For their sup- pression all the energies of Governor Arthur were taxed, and often with only a slight result. He had difficulties almost as great also in overcoming another class of enemies raised up by the misconduct of the early rulers of the 'island. The aborigines, akin to the natives of Australia, but more bar- barous and vindictive, were turned into deadly foes ; and during his term of government, as well as before and after, an ugly and unequal war was waged between them and the colonists, quite as painful and disastrous as that which has characterized the dealings of Europeans with the Kaffirs of the Cape, and with the Maoris of New Zealand. Hideous tales are told of the atrocities of the blacks, and the less excusable ferocities of the whites, who saw no way of ridding themselves of their foes than by gradually exterminating them. The effect upon the colonists was not good. Yet Sir George Arthur's care, and the zeal of his suboruinates, enabled the settlement to make rapid progress both in agri- culture and in commerce. Hobart Town, in the south-east, became a flourishing capital ; and Launcestou, in the north, which soon acquired more importance than the neighbouring George Town, was a hardly less influential centre of enter- prise. Open enemies, whether bush-rangers or aborigines, were by degrees suppressed ; the bad passions of many of the settlers were kept under ; better or more prudent men found easy ways of money-making. In 1836, when Gover- nor Arthur resigned his office, the island had a convict population of 17,611, and its free residents numbered 25,914, four times as many as in 1824 ; and in 1840, the convicts being about as numerous, there were 28,294 free inhabitants. The revenue of the colony, which was £32,126 in 1824, rose to £101,016 in 1834, and to £183,171 in 1840. The imports of those three years were valued respectively at £62,000, £476,617, and £988,357 ; the exports at £14,500, £203,522, !i! [^}W!rp}/ fi V M!|Hi ■ 1 1 v,\n' ■M V 236 TASMANIA. and £867,007 — the former having increased more than fifteen times, the latter nearly sixty times, in sixteen years. The year 1840 was the most prosperous in the whole history of Van Diemen's Land. That prosperity was partly due to the wise conduct of the next governor. Sir John Franklin, most famous by reason of his subsequent ill-fated expedition in search of a north-west passage to India. His greatest service in Van Diemen's Land was in ameliorating the condition of the convicts, whereby a good influence was exerted upon the whole cori- munity. Bad influences, however, came from the excessive tide of convict emigration which set in in 1840, when, transportation to New South Wales being abolished, the other penal settlements in Australasia were over- weighted with criminals. * The w) ole colony,' said Earl Grey, when Colonial Secretary, * was thrown into confusion and dis- order, owing to the large number of convicts who had no employment. This led to a state of things which was abso- lutely frightful. The demoralization which took place among the probation gangs was shocking to contemplate.' In the five years subsequent to 1840 there were 19,878 con- victs transported to Van Diemen's Land. * In 1840,' said Captain Stokes, sent specially to inquire into and report upon the condition of this and other penal colonies, * every- thing wore a smiling prospect. The fields were heavy with harvests, the roads crowded with traffic ; gay equipages filled the streets. The settler's cottage or villa was well supplied with comforts, and even with luxuries. Crime, in a population of which the majority were convicts, or their descendants, was less in proportion than in England. Trade was brisk, agriculture increasing. New settlers were arriving. Everything betokened progress. No one dreamt of retro- gression or decay. In four years all this was reversed, and, though many other causes may have co-operated in pro- ducing this change, it seems acknowledged by most persons that the result is chiefly traceable to the disproportionate increase in the amount of transportation, which first m fifteen ,rs. The listory of act of the reason of 3rth-west Diemen's convicts, lole cor*i- excessive 0, when, shed, the weighted •ey, when and dis- o had no was abso- ok place emplate.' 1,878 con- MO,' said id report !, ' every- ;avy with squipages was well Crime, in or their , Trade arriving, of retro- sed, and, in pro- persons ortionate ich first ITS PROGRESS AS A FREE COLONY. 237 checked free immigration ; and, secondly, by glutting the labour-market, the free population was necessarily dis- placed, and those who had actually established themselves on the island as their second home were driven away from it.' Sir John Franklin was succeeded ^in 1843 by Sir Eardly Wilmot, who was followed after an interval by Sir William Thomas Denison in 1847. In 1850 Van Diemen's Land received a new constitution. The frequent petitions of its inhabitants for full representative privileges were not at once granted ; but, in lieu of the old machinery of govern- ment, a new Legislative Council was appointed, of whose twenty-four members one-third was to be chosen by the Crown, the other two-thirds by election of the free colonists. In 1855 somewhat fuller liberties were accorded. The Legis- lative Council, nominated by the Crown, was reduced to fifteen members ; but thirty delegates of the inhabitants were formed into a House of Assembly. In 1853 the yet more frequent and more urgent petitions of the people were listened to, and further transportation of convicts was aban- doned, so that now the whole population is free,, Since then the population has almost constantly, though not very rapidly, increased. In 1848 it numbered 74,741, two-thirds free and one-third bond. In 1867 it amounted to 98,455, and in 1886 to 137,211. In the latter year the imports were valued at £1,756,567, the exports at £1,133,540, each nearly twice as much as in 1840. Wool constitutes about half of the exports, much of the rest being wheat, fruit, and other agricultural products sent to the neighbour- ing colonies. Of the whole area of the island, comprising 26,215 square miles, not much less than that of Ireland, hardly a fortieth part is under cultivation. About a fifth is occupied in sheep-farming. The rest, for the most part fertile and healthy, with rich stores of timber on the surface, and an abundant supply of coal, iron, copper, and other minerals underground, is as yet hardly used, though some of its tin mines are worked, and some gold is found. ■! I I I ! ;( 238 TASMANIA. ilN r; h '■ \ ■ i : r *-' r J H'l i ■ 'i 1 ? i J •r rRi ': "ii « itii : .III - a [ ^' Ml "■•,«!! !■ ro huivUcmI out. iind markot-pl.'U'j^s woro apjwiutiMl. ' Tlio HiroolH,' it nuH said in 1810, ' aro ]ilanMod at v'\^\\l an^Hos, tlio lar^or onr^H luMtif; a hundrod foot broad, tho HinalKM- about tbirty. Tho principal Htnvt is, strangely (Munigb, named (loUinn, after tbo l)ravn otVu'or wbo, wluMi diroctod in ISO.'l to form a HcttlonuMit at Port riiillip, dodarotl it to bo "all barren," and abandoiUMJ it as a bopelesH undertaking. Mli/abetb Street is nituated in a lioUow between two considerable acdivititm to tbo (vist- ward and westward, called tbe Mastern and Western Jlills. Tlie strei^ts and byways of Melbourne, previous to IHl'J, were frecpiently rendered impassable from tbo operation of tbe weatber and tbe ceaseless tralVic of ponderous bullock- drays. Tbick gum-tree stumps and deej) ruts, fornn'ng vast reservoirs of mud, were varied by tbo intersecting gullies of temporary watercourses; anti many an anxious wife and motlier scanned tbe deep abyss of tbo urban excavations in searcb of a druidven busband or wayward cbild. A visitor, writing in ISl'J, declares bimself to bavo been startled, soon after bis arrival in tbe colony, by a paragrapb in tbe news- paper, beaded " Anotber cbild drowned in tbe streets of Melbourne." In tbo following year, bowevor, tbe stumps were removed by order of tbe town council, and tbo occa- sion of frccpient accidents was tbus removed. On tbo south bank of tbe Yarra Yarra, witbin a distance of tbreo miles from Melbourne, tbero aro many pretty cottages, surrounded by fertile and productive gardens, extending over a gontly undulating declivity to tbo water's edge. Tho beauty of tho scenery is enbanccd by bills and bold woodlands in tho background. The country between Melbourne and Western Port is a vast forest, broken at regular intervals by a suc- cession of hills and valleys, which present many picturesque views. 't A terrible disaster, the worst of many such, befell that * Martin, vol. ii., p. b9S. f Ibid., vol. ii., pp. 599, 600. VOUNC, VICTOTUA. 253 bnautiful rof^'ioti in IHOI, atul occaHionod much rrn'Hory at fclio limo, Uiou^'li it proparod tlio way for biiHi(!r and rnoro prrmporoiiH occupation of tlio land. ' A raco with a huHh-firfi in Victoria in tlio Hinnrncr iw no unco»nrnon tliin^/ wo aro told ; 'fitit Hucli a l)UHli-(iro an that wliicli occurred on tho (il.h of Fohruary, lH5i, in without a paralh;! in tlio hintory of tho country. On tho morning' of that (hiy, a hot wind not in, and l)y ohwon o'clock in tho forenoon Iwid incr(!aH(!d alrnoHt to a Inirricatio in Mcilhourno, juid HW(!|)t over tho faco of tho wholo country, huHh-OrcH followinj^' with tho rapidity of li^'litnin^', and ■■ » 2 IP) • a "J W ""I : , I' ever will be known. Everywhere the devastating influence of the storm of wind and flame was felt. Ashes were carried from Mount Macedon to Melbourne by it, a distance of forty-five miles ; fertile districts utterly wasted ; flocks and herds abandoned by their owners ; the settlers, who had escaped with their lives, destitute ; and the greatest suffering everywhere exhibited. Well might the 6th of February, 1851, in Victoria, be called Black Thursday!'* In spite of that calamity, and of other disturbing incidents, Victoria was on the highway to prosperity as yet undreamt of. The older settlement on the east of Australia was also prospering, and with the Melbourne of 1849 may be com- pared the Sydney of the same date. The capital of New South Wales was sixty years old, and contained about 40,000 inhabitants, with nearly 10,000 more in its suburbs, in 1849. * Its haven,' it was then said, ' which is about fifteen miles long, and in some places three miles broad, is completely land-locked. Along the water-side, except that portion occupied by the demesne contiguous to Government House, there are wharves, stores, ship-yards, mills, manu- factories, distilleries, breweries, etc. Behind these, in irre- gular succession, rise numerous private and public buildings. The streets are laid out generally at right angles. Thirty- four of them have each a carriage-way of not less than thirty-six feeF, several from forty to sixty feet, and a foot- way of not less than twelve feet. Their length varies from one to three miles. They are well paved or macadamized, regularly cleaned, watered, and lit with gas. George Street and Pitt Street have continuous ranges of handsome stone or brick edifices, with shops that would do no discredit to Eegent Street or Oxford Street in London. 't Sydney and its outlying districts had shaken off the con- tamination of their early state as a convict settlement, and the vast colony of New South Wales was now a thriving haunt of enterprising freemen, in which the resources already * Allen, • History of Victoria,' p. 87. t Martin, vol. ii., p. 454. .LIP. influence 5hes were a distance ed ; flocks 3, who had it suflering February, ; incidents, undreamt \ was also y be Goni- al of New ned about s suburbs, li is about 3 broad, is xcept that overnmeut lis, mauu- se, in irre- buildings. . Thirty- less than d a foot- .ries from idamized, Irge Street J)me stone Iscredit to the con- lent, and thriving iS already AFTER SIXTY YEARS. 255 brought into use promised for it almost boundless expansion although a new and yet more brilliant means of its advance- ment was yet to be discovered. In the meanwhile, more- over, another Australian colony had been established, and commenced to thrive ; and this must next be looked at. mmm f:! ^;i I ) ii t IH ! ^* Si* " Ml 1 < ' e: ii ■ ai "I ' jiw! - 4 ■ '•■«,| Hi? ' 1 1 ■ • M ; r ■^ .V-flWu-. V CHAPTER XXIII. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. THE DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION OF MOUTH AUSTRALIA— THE W^KEPIKLD SCHEME AND ITS FAILURE — EARLY TUOUHLES OF THE COLONY — THEIU SPEEDY REMOVAL — THE COPrKU MINES — THE EFFECT OF THE GOLD DIS- COVERIES IN VICTORIA — LATER PROGRESS OF THE COLONY ; COPPER, WOOL, WHEAT, AND WINE— THE NORTHERN TERRITORY. [1822-1888.] HE south coast of Australia is barren, and in every respect useless and unfavourable for coloniza- tion.' So said Captain King, one of the most enterprising followers of Captain Flinders in the work of exploration along the southern shores of the great island-continent, in 1822. Soon after that, how- ever, in 1827 and the following years. Captain Sturt made his famous inland expeditions and discoveries, in the course of which he tracked the INIurray through a large part of its winding, and visited the country between Lake Victoria and St. Vincent's Gulf, now the splendid harbour of Adelaide. His report was very different from Captain King's. ' Cursory as my glance was,' he wrote in 1829, ' I could not but think I was leaving behind me the fullest reward of our toil in a country that would ultimately render our dis- coveries valuable. My eye never fell on a region of more promising aspect or of more favourable position than that which occupies the country between the lake and the ranges of St. Vincent's Gulf, and, continuing northerly, stretches away without any visible boundary.' course t of its /"ictoria I)our of King's, uld not of our iir dis- f more an that ranges retches SO UTH A U^ TKALIAA COMMENCEMENTS. 257 That favourable description induced the Governor of New South Wales, in ib3l, to send Captain Barker on a visit to the country around Lake Victoria, with a view of deciding as to its fitness for an Englisli settlement. Captain Barker was attacked and killed by the natives; but his subordinate, Mr. Kent, w nt back, to speak of the country in^ terms yet more favourable than those used by Captain Sturf;. Rich soil, line pasturage, and ample supplies of fresh water, ai'vays a great attraction in Australia, united, he said, in making the district one * in whose valleys the exile might hope to build for himself and for his family a peaceful and prosperous retreat.' Prompt measures were taken for enabling, not exiles, but willing adventurers, to find peace and prosperity in the newly-explored district. The movement, however, did not begin in New South Wales, which had already founded the convict colony of Van Diemen's Land, and was now founding the free settlement of Port Phillip. The project for establish- ing South Australia was started in England by a group of philanthropists and speculators, anxious to try a new experi- ment in colonization, which was known as the Wakefield scheme, its chief advocate being Edward Gibbon Wakefield. In the older Australian colonies, and in nearly all the other dependencies of Great Britain, immigration had been encouraged by offers of land at very low prices, and as the enterprise of the first settlers made property more valuable, the land was still disposed of for whatever price it could fetch at public auction. Wakefield urged a different policy. * He held that, by placing a high value on the unreclaimed lands of a new country, and forwarding a labouring popula- tion out of the sale of those lands, the emigrants would of necessity wurk at low wages, as the purchase of the dear lands would be above their means, thereby securing the capitalist investing in the land a large interest for his money, and forming at once a community of labourers and artisans who would minister to the benefits of the land- holders. Besides these large landholders, a class of small 17 I H I 1!' il'l ii 11' f? !58 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 1 ! IIM! 'II '1' i \ < ! I i ; a 2 M lit' farmers was to bo induced to emigrate, by disposing of the land in small sections to bo cleared and cultivated by their families.'* This foolisli plan found so much favour that a committee for its adoption was formed in 1831, and the committee grew into a South Australian Colonization Association, founded in 1834, which in the same year obtained a charter for the enforcement of its views in the region visited by Captain Sturt. In that way was originated the colony of South Australia, comprising an almost square block of about 300,000 square miles, cut out of the south-western part of the original New South Wales. A large capital was subscribed ; and in 1836 Captain (afterwards Sir John) Hiudmarsh went out with the first party of intending landowners, or their agents, and an organized body of * surveyors, architects, engineers, clerks, teachers, lawyers, and clergymen.' These first in- gredients for a ready-made colony landed at the mouth of the Glenelg, in St. Vincent's Gulf, in December, and pro- ceeded seven miles up the river to lay the foundations of Adelaide, appointed as the capital of the settlement. Other instalments quickly followed, and the population amounted to 6,000 in 1838, and to 10,000 in 1839. The experiment failed dismally. Captain Hindmarsh did not satisfy his employers, and he was succeeded by Colonel Gawler in 1838. ' When Colonel Gawler arrived in the colony,' says a panegyrist of the project, ' he found the government machinery in a great state of derangement. The country surveys were not well advanced. Persons who had gone out with land-orders and means for rendering their agricultural operations profitable had fallen into land specu- lations after the sale of town allotments, or had engaged iu building operations at a high cost in the capital, and brought themselves to a stand-still Labourers, who ought to have been dispersed over the country, were congregated in the town, demanding and receiving, as long as the money lasted, high wages for works that could not be remunerative to those * Westgarth, * Australia,' p. 21 5v THE WAKEinELD EXPERIMENT, 259 ig of tho by their iir that a and tho ionization amo year iWS in tho AustraUa, )00 square ginal New cid in 1836 , out with 3ir agents, engineers, se first iu- B mouth of r, and pro- ndations of nt. Other . amounted Imarsh did by Colonel zed in the found the -angement. arsons who .ering their land specu- jengaged iu id brought it to have Ited in the tey lasted, e to those who constructed them. Tho true objects of colonization had been lost sight of in tho wliirlof speculative excitement; and when the funds, brouglit into tho colony for legitimate employment, had been nearly all sent away for tiio purchaso of provisions, and hundreds of tons of Hour had been im- ported at from £80 to £100 pur ton, which should Jiavc been produced on tho spot for £15 or £20, tho prospect of a general collapse appeared to be inevitable.'* It was not averted by tho measures resorted to by tlio new governor. Finding his colony bankrupt and its inhabitants on the verge of ruin, if not of starvation, while fresh immi- grants, tempted by the nominally high wages and tho fabulous price of land produced by stock- jobbing manoeuvres, were arriving, he was led by a mistaken feeling of generosity to embark in a reckless expenditure, and to attempt remedies which only increased tho disease. Great public works wero constructed by him in order that tlie impoverisliod residents might get wages ; but his exchequer was empty, and ho had to pay his labourers and contractors by drafts upon tho imperial treasury. The drafts, being wholly unauthorized, were dishonoured ; and the colony was only saved from utter destruction by a loan from the English Government. Colonel Gawler, who, with a revenue of £20,000 a year, had incurred expenses to seven times that amount, was recalled ; and his successor. Captain — afterwards Sir George — Grey, who arrived in May, 1841, was instructed, at what- ever cost of temporary trouble, to pursue a different policy, and one likely to bring about a better state of affairs. This he did with praiseworthy prudence and energy. The pro- jectors of the colony, too, had already, to a great extent, learnt the folly of their original schemes, and where they still proposed to act unwisely they were prevented by the Government. The colony ceased to be a private speculation, and became a Crown dependency. Many of the mischief- makers who had come to it in the first two or three years now quitted it in disgust, or, ruinea by their own misdeeds, * Forster, • South Australia : its Progress and Prosperity,' p. 51. 17—2 % n ( I I i H' !i CI ill ti'K 3, «•., ' ■Jigll 260 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. sank into iiisigiiiiicance, and their places were taken by fresh adventurers, with whom came crowds of new immigrants, aware of the evil circumstances with which they had to contend, and of the real resources of the country by vv^hich it was easy for wise men to prosper. South AustraHa did very soon begin to prosper. The population rose from 14,610 in 1840 to 22,390 in 1845, the acres of land in cultivation from 2,503 to 26,218, and the value of colonial exports from £15,650 to £131,800. But in the same period the public expenditure had sunk from £169,966 to £36,182, the number of public-houses from 107 to 85, and the number of criminals from 47 to 22. In 1845 Captain Grey left South Australia to be Governor of New Zealand. During his four years' rule he had rescued the colony from bankruptcy, and placed it in the high road of prosperity, although much of that road was still to be rugged. Under his encouragement, and by the enterprise of the newer colonists, portions of the fertile and beautiful land around Adelaide had been brought under cultivation, and far larger tracts had been appropriated by sheep-farmers. In 1845 large quantities of wheat and other grain were exported, though more than half the exports were in wool, amounting to 1,331,888 pounds, which were valued at £72,236. In the foll'jwing years the wool trade continued to increase rapidly, as well as the commerce in corn and various other articles of food. But another commodity was destined to become the main source of Soul-h Australian wealth. In 1842 co^^per was found at Kapunda, fifty miles north-east of Adelaide, and iu the followring year the first ton of ore raised there yielded £23. Even before that lead had been discovered, and the mines continued to be worked successfully ; though soon the costlier metal became a far more important article of trade. The second year's yield of the Kapunda mine produced £4,009, and the third £10,351. That was only the small beginning of copper-mining in the colony. In 1845 ore was found by a shepherd at Burra '?'■ il' i 7 HE GROWTH OF THE COLONY. 261 1 by fresh migrants, ly had to ] which it )er. The 1845, the 3, and the ). But in iunk from s from 107 3 Governor le he had i it in the t road was and by the ! fertile and aght under opriated by t and other xports were were valued e continued Q corn and ne the main coj>per was aide, and iu here yielded ed, and the gh soon the cle of trade, le produced 3r-mining in rd at Burra Burra, about forty miles north of Kapunda. The report of his discovery caused the immediate purchase of 20,000 acres of land in that locality by two rival parties of adven- turers. 'These two parties,' we are told, 'wore called respectively the " nobs " and the " snobs," the former repre- senting the aristocracy of the colony, the latter the mer- chants and tradespeople. The nobs were unwilling to com- bine with the snobs in a joint-stock company for carrying on the mine, and therefore, although they united to purchase the ground — as neither party could, unaided, raise the hard cash — as soon as the eut'vey was completed the land was divided by drawing a line through the centre from east to west. Lots were then drawn, and the snobs became the fortunate proprietors of this northern portion of the survey.'* This proved an all but boundless source of wealth. The ore was so near the surface that it could almost be taken up by hand, and when that more accessible treasure was all appropriated, the working of the lower veins was found to be singularly easy. One lucky proprietor who had risked £500 at starting was three years afterwards in the receipt of £11,000 a year. During the first six years 80,000 tons of ore were raised at Burra Burra, and the profits, divided between the few shareholders, amounted to £438,552, while a larger sum went to enrich the labourers, merchants, and others, who had come to aid in the work, and by whom during the period a busy town had been raised on the old sheep-walk. Other mines, about thirty in number, were also found and worked within the distance of a hundred miles from Adelaide ; and in 1849, only seven years after its first discovery, the copper raised from all exceeded IG.OOO tons, and was worth £310,172. In 1850 the total exports from South Australia were valued at £545,839, and the population of the colony was 63,700, being treble that of 1845. In 1851, however, a wonderful change arose, and South Australia had to pas'^ through a second time of trouble. Its * AuHtiii, ' Till! MlncH of South Australia.' 5,- ■ ( \r 1! Si ■ 'I I ' 1 !!( '1! II! .1 I ) ' 1 ft 1 ^' I i I 1 •• ::ii ^ tlH 'A '■<,, "' ' "•11 . 3, ■•■■ I 262 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. i h copper, its wool, and its wheat had promised to make it before long the richest of all the Australian colonies, richer even than its nearest rival, Port Phillip, whicli then had only wool and wheat for its staple articles of commerce. J5ut the promise was niarred by the discovery of gold in that rival, the circumstances and issue of whicli will have pn^ sontly to be detailed. The immediate issue to x*ort Phillip was very disastrous. ' For a time,' it was reported to its Chamber of Commerce in 1852, ' it seemed that the props of our material prosperity wei"c about to fall. The streets of Adelaide were deserted, houses were abandoned by their tenants, rents fell, and property became unmarketable. The shops of our retailers presented their tempting wares in vain. There was a general arrest put on all business ; and this at a time when the stock of merchandise in the market was unprecedentedly heavy, and when the bill en- gagements of the mercantile community were larger probably than they had ever been before.''*' A great many of the busiest labourers in South Australia being miners, they im- mediately hurried off to use their special skill in seeking for a mineral so much more vah.n.ble than copper. "Within twelve months about 16,000 p*^ . ons, chiefly men, and the most industrious inhabitants, nearly a fourth of the whole population, passed over to the neighbouring colony ; and those who remained suffered heavily by their absence. That depression, however, was only temporary ; and though the gold discoveries destroyed the hope which had been entertained that South Australia would attain supre- macy among the trans-Indian colonies, it really profited immensely by them. Scanty supplies of gold were also found within its limits, and many of the old settlers now came back, recruited by many fresh arrivals, to seek for the glittering treasure. Therein they were not very successful, but their enterprise restored and gave fresh life to the flagging trade of the colony. Great benefit resulted also from a clever expedient resorted to by the colonists and Forster, p. 62. lii EFFECTS OF THE GOLD DISCOVERIES. 263 il^ make it 3S, richer had only ce. Jiut 1 in tliat have pro- rt PhilUp 'ted to its the props be streets \ by their irketable. mg wares business ; ise in the tie bill en- r probably ny of the ,, they im- n seekinjf Within 1, and tliG the whole ony ; and nee. •ary ; and which had Lxin supre- y profited were also ttlers now ek for tlio successful, ife to the ulted also Duists and their new governor, Sir Henry Young. Judging that the next best thing to finding gold in their own territory wag the bringing into it of the gold found elsewhere, they resolved to accept uncoined gold as currency. Offering for it a price higher than the diggers and their agents could be sure to obtain if they sent it all the way to Europe, though less by about a shilling in the pound than it was worth a'ccoi-ding to the English standard, they induced the importation of vast quantities of it. Between February, 1852, when the plan was adopted, and the following December, the gold thus brought into Adelaide and converted into stamped ingots was worth £1,395,208, and the supply was not diminished in the ensuing months. Much of this gold was hoarded and eventually taken to other markets, there to bo sold at its full value, and thus to realize a considerable profit to the dealers ; but much of it, as much as there was room for, circulated freely in the colony, and gave a great stimulus to trade. For the wheat and other produce of South Australia, also, there was a greatly increased demand in consequence of the rapid increase of population in the gold districts. Thus the colony reaped a large share of the wealth of the Australian El Dorado. ' The population returned to resume their ordinary employments,' says the historian ; ' the large amount of money put into circulation restored property to its former value ; and the colony commenced a new era of prosperity. It was pleasant to contemplate the marked improvement which had taken place in the circumstances of the community. The wives and families of returned diggers, many of whom had been left behind with very slendei' means when their husbands and parents set oti' for Victoria, were now enabled to exhibit themselves in personal decorations which gave conclusive evidence of their in- creased resources. An extensive patronage was bestowed upon the drapers and jewellers of Adelaide, but not suc!i as to interfere materially with the reproductive employment of the newly-acquired wealth. Farms which had been .; !. H i 'I' i ! : )- i ■ i € Uli Jill „ri K •I Hi. '64 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. taken with right of purchase were speedily secured in fee- simple ; houses and stores were erected in town and country ; industrir,! operations were entered upon with renewed life and vigour, and that which was at first looked upon as a dire calamity turned out to be an extensive and unmitigated blessing.'* Since then the career of South Australia has generally been one of rapid development. Sir Henry Young, who, after a short interval, succeeded Sir George Grey, and was governor from 1848 to 1854, did much useful service to the colony, and after him it had a really able ruler, between 1853 and 1862, in Sir Kichard Macdonell. * During his term of office responsible government was inaugurated, and the political changes were introduced which materially altered the position of Her Majesty's representative. Sir Eichard readily adapted himself to the new state of affairs, and settled down as a constitutional governor, directed by the wishes of his ministerial advisers. He was full of physical and mental energy, in the prime of life, almost a giant in stature, and with a well-cultivated mind. He visited all parts of the colony, and made himself personally acquainted with the wants and capabilities of nearly every district ; and being capable of enduring great fatigue, ho made lengthened journeys into the distant bush, so as to earn for himself almost the character of an explorer, 'f Both by him and by his predecessor great care was taken in opening up roads to districts previously neglected, and in improving the communications between stations already occupied, whereby they were made more serviceable to one another, and to the colony at large. Eailways and tele- graphic lines began to be estabhshed between the principal towns. Those towns were aided by many new institutions. The navigation of the two groat rivers, the Murray and the Darling, was improved, and the coast was provided with lighthouses. In 1856 the colony received a new constitution , * Forstcr, pp. (S "% V ^ '^ ^ '9. I 6^ k 272 VICTORIA. S 1 • I i * i! \\ • a i- •M "It . « » fit tc ■ i 3 not take the trouble to carry out his speculation ; and in 1844, though Sir Roderick Murchison urged, on purely scientiGc grounds, \X\: probable existence of gold-fields among the mountains south of Sydney, no use was made of liis hypothesis. At length, in February, 1851, Mr. E. H. Hargreaves, a practical miner, who had lately come from California, and who was struck by the resemblance of some Australian districts to the great American gold-country, began to make experiments. In May he announced their successful issue, and immediately there was a rush of adventurers to Suni- merhill, in Bathurst, the site pointed out by hnn. Unlike Count Strzelecki, to whom the honour of the first discovery is due, he was rewarded, not only by his share in the first proceeds of the gold-field, but by a grant of £10,000 from the Sydney Government. In that way the El Dorado of New South Wales was opened up, soon to be surpassed by the El Dorado of Victoria. In that colony, too, there had been C2casional findings of golden lumps in previous years ; but no heed was taken of them until the discovery of the Bathurst gold-fields. Then some Melbourne citizens offered a reward of £200 to anyone who would find an available gold-field within the limits of Victoria, and ' prospecting ' became an active pur- suit. It succeeded ; and all previous discoveries v.ere eclipsed by those made at Ballarat, a hundred miles to the north-west of Melbourne, on the 8th of September in the same year, 1851, and soon afterwards in other parts of the colony. Thereupon ensued a turmoil, unparalleled even in the history of California. ' Ere the first month expired,' says the historian, ' nearly 10,000 diggers, of all classes of society, who had rushed promiscuously to the attractive scene, were upon and around the famous Golden Point, the original nucleus of Ballarat mining. But hardly was this miscel- laneous crowd settled at work ere it commenced shelving off to Mount Alexander, which rumour proclaimed to be a \' ! I ."I A NEW EL DORADO. -/ j and in purely la-fielcls made o£ eaves, a ■nia, and astralian to make •ul issue, to Smn- XJnlikc discovery the first ) from the Vales was ;)orado of occasional heed was rold-fields. of £200 to ,vithin the ictive pur- 2ries were liles to the ber in the arts of the rcn in the Dired,' says i of society, icene, were he original his miscel- shelving off id to be a still richer gold-field. In October and November, Mount Alexander lived in a blaze of predominant fame ; but it was in turn dimmed by the superior lustre of Bendigo, which made good its pre-eminence during several subsequent years. Bendigo was, indeed, a wonder of its day, and the extent and activity of the industrial field it presented at this early time have hardly since been exceeded in the c61ony. In the middle of 1852, the winter-time of the antipodes, there were reported, no doubt with some exaggeration, to be 50,000 diggers along the Bendigo Creek. The great and sudden demand for food and other necessaries was met with difficulty, under the double drawback of the state of the roads and the state of the labour market. Prices rose in due proportion, until the price at length secured the supply. Two thousand carts and drays, and other vehicles, were said to be simultaneously toiling along the roads to the different gold-fields. Bendigo was one hundred miles distant from Melbourne, and £1 per ton per mile and upwards wore the rates of carriage of the day. The local dealer must have his profit as well as the carrior ; so that a ton of flour, which cost £25 at Melbourne, had risen to £200 before it reached the hungry consumer at Bendigo.'* The profits made by the gcld-diggers themselves, indeed, were generally far surpassed by the profits of those who catered for their wants. * When I visited England in 1848,' we are told, ' a steerage passenger and his wife were in the ship, the whole of whose property, when we landed at the London Docks, I believe could have been purchased for £10 This man was a lollipop maker. A few years after the gold discovery I met him in Sydney, when he told me he was going back to England in the next ship. Struck at seeing such an improved edition of my former shipmate, I remarked to him, " You seem to have been doing well since we last met?" "Oh yes, sir," he rephed, "remarkably well. I have been for the last three years near Melbourne." "Then," I said, " you seem to have had good luck at the diggings." * Westgarth, ' VJctoria,' pp. 126, 127. 18 'I' 'I 274 VICTORIA. \ ' lit! • S * '3 His answer was, " I did not go near them." " What, then, did you do ?" was my next natural question. " Well, sir, I kept a public-house for the last three ynars. I took a good stand on the high road to the Ballarat diggings, and had little trouble in turning in £G,000 a year ; and I am now going home with £20,000, besides leaving behind me a free- hold property of £1,500 a year in Melbourne." '* There was plenty of money-making of that sort ; and if some adventurers put to good use their easily acquired wealth, more squandered it in riotous ways, which helped to increase the confusion and disorganization of society that the gold-discoveries provoked. Men of all tempers and all grades of character rushed to the gold-fields, first from the older districts of Victoria and the neighbouring colonies — not a few being escaped convicts and tickei-of-leave men from Tasmania — and afterwards from Europe, Asia, Africa, and America ; and, many of them being reckless and lawless in their dispositions, the influence which they exerted upon the colony was often altogether baneful. An intoxication of success prevailed everywhere, save when, in the case of multitudes who failed in winning the wealth they sought, and in the case of others who became suddenly rich only to squander their money and become as suddenly poor, it quickly changed into an intoxication of despair. Ugly scenes were enacted in Melbourne, and all the adjoining districts up to Ballarat and Bendigo, which made quiet, steady-going colonists wish that this new source of wealth and encouragement to dispipation had never been discovered. Yet, with all its drawbacks, the benefit that resulted to Victoria was truly wonderful. It is not to be measured by the store of glittering metal that was found at Ballarat, and afterwards in other parts as well ; but the statistics of this are sufficiently remarkable. In 1851 the gold obtained in Victoria ^vas worth about £600,000, whereas the yield in Cahfornia was equal to £8,500,000. In 1852 Cahfornia produced £9,300,000 ; Victoria £10,900,000. The following * Therry, p. 3/1. ^hat,then, Veil, sir, I Dok a good }, and had I am now m^ a frec- )rt ; and if y acquired h helped to society that Ders and all st from the ; colonies — f-leave men Vsia, Africa, and lawless xerted upon ioxicatiou of the case of ,hey sought, rich only to nly poor, it pair. Ugly adjoining made quiet, of wealth 1 discovered, resulted to neasured by 3allarat, and istics of this obtained in the yield in i2 CaUfornia 'he foUowiug EFFECTS OF THE GOLD DISCOVERIES. 275 year was the richest of all. The yield of California was £11,500,000, that of Victoria was £12,600,000. After that the Californian fields slightly decreased in value, though for some time they generally yielded between £8,000,000 and £9,000,000 a year. Victoria had an average of about £11,000,000 a year till 1857 ; but since then its supply has decreased more rapidly. By 1860 it had sunk to the' level of California, being about £8,500,000. In 1864 it was £6,200,000, and in 1857 £5,700,000. In 1868, however, it rose to nearly £8,000,000 ; and the total produce of this colony during the eighteen years between 1851 and 1868 was about £150,000,000, enough to pay off a fifth of the whole national debt of Great Britain. In the next eighteen years, from 1869 to 1886, it was only about £70,000,000. If this gi'eat supply of gold has enriched many thousands of diggers, it has enriched the colony at large still more. Victoria was enjoying a prosperity unrivalled among the dependencies of England in 1851 ; but its subsequent prosperity has been vastly greater. In 1851 its population was 77,345; in 1854 it had amounted to 236,776, being more than trebled in the three years. In 1857 it was 410,766 ; in 1861 it was 540,322 ; in 1865 it was more than 600,000 ; in 1871 it exceeded 731,000 ; in 1881 it was nearly 850,000 ; and in 1886 it was considerably over 1,000,000. Yet the resources of the country gave ample employment to nearly all the new-comers who were capable of making good use of them. Manufactures of all sorts prospered in the towns, and agricultural pursuits offered easy facilities for advancement in che country districts, though in them Victoria was in most respects surpassed by South Australia ; while in the more remote parts squatters carried on their profitable calling, and furnished what was, after gold, the staple export of the colony. Victoria exported 18,091,207 pounds of wool in 1850, 25,579,886 pounds in 1863, and 42,391,234 pounds in 1866, the value of the latter being 18-2 i! ;i !J f' i\ 76 VICTORIA. \\ ! • > ; » : 1 • s .''3 I' ' .C3, 190,491 ; and that rate of iucrcase has since been about maintained. The exports of wool in 1884 amounted in quantity to 119,502,240 pounds, and in value to £0,342,877 ; all the other exports in the same year being estimated at upwards of £10,000,000 more. Some account of Melbourne, in illustration of the early progress of the colony, has been already given. ' A more striking contrast,' says one writer, ' could not well be furnished than the appearance Melbourne presented when I was there in the year 1845, and afterwards when I visited it in 1850. In 1845 Bourke Street contained but a few- scattered cottages, and sheep w^ere grazed on the thick grass then growing in the street. It was only known to be a street in that year by a sign indicating, " This is Bourke Street." In 1850 it was as crowded with fine buildings, and as thronged and alive with the hurrying to and fro of busy people, as Cheapside at the present day. In 1845, from my residence on the Eastern Hill, it was a pleasant walk through green paddocks to the Court House. Ten years afterwards the whole way from that house to the Court House was filled up with streets. Two branches of Sydney banks supplied the district in ]845 with banking accommodation that only occupied them with business a few hours each day. In 1850 eight banks could scarcely meet the pecuniary exigencies of the community. In the principal street, Collins Street, there was in 1845 but one jewellei' who displayed a scanty supply of second-hand watches and pinchbeck brooches in a shop similar to those in which pawnbrokers display their articles of used-up jewellery in the by-streets off the Strand. In 1850 might be seen in the same street jewellers' shops as numerous and brilliant as those that glitter in Kegent Street. The harbour of Hobson's Bay, on the morning on which I left it for Sydney, in 1840, contained two large ships, three brigs, and a few small colonial craft. In 1850 the same harboui- was filled with about two hundred large London and Liver- pool ships, and countless other vessels from America, New THE PROGRESS OF THE COLONY. 277 )ccn about ouiited ill 0,342,877 ; bimatcd at ; the early ' A more )t well b(j Jilted when 3n I visited but a few the thick r known to ;, " This is I with fine hurrying to iresent day. [ill, it was a curt House. lOUse to the branches of ith banking business a aid scarcely ty. In the 345 but one iccond-hand ilar to those of used-up 56 might be _merous and Che harbour I left it for three brigs, ,me harbour and Liver- nerica, New Zealand, and other parts. In 1845 there was little more than one clergyman of each religious denomination. \\\ 185(3 a numerous clergy of t!ic various denoiiiMiations olliciat*.>d; the two principal, Church of Englaml and Roman Catholic, presided over by bishops of their respective creeds. In short, in size, in wealth, in numbers, in varied social enjoyments, the humble town I had quitted in 1845 Tiad been transformed in 1856 into a splendid city, and presented such a transition from poverty to splendour as no city in the ancient or modern world had heretofore exhibited in a corresponding period.'* In 1856, however, Melbourne had not 90,000 inhabitants ; in 1887 there were about 400,000, considerably more than the entire colony of South Australia then contained. Other thriving towns also exist in Victoria, which in rapidity of growth keep pace with Melbourne. Geelong, its earliest rival, has fallen behind-hand ; but others, like Ballarat and Sandhurst, which owe their im- portance to the gold-discovery, are now markets for nmch besides gold. Of the general history of the colony only a few incidents need to be recorded. By the constitution which it received with its independence, the management of affairs, under the governor, was vested in a Legislative Council of thirty members, ten being Crown nominees, and the other twenty elected by all inhabitants who paid a £10 annual rental. Mr. Latrobe, who had been made superintendent of the province in 1839, continued in ofTice as governor of the separate colony till May, 1854 ; but his quiet rule hardly gave satisfaction to the restless colonists. Still less were they satisfied with his successor. Sir Charles Hotham, who shared the blame thrown upon his predecessor for the dis- turbance that broke out at Ballarat in the following November. ' The gold-fields by this time,' sayc the historian, ' com- prised by far the most important interest in the colony, more than half of the population being connected with * Therry, pp. 355-357. ! .'! 278 VICTORIA. ||i;l IHI jjjii ■ » l» : ^^ ; a I* ■ 2 ^ •5 J I - .3i 1 '-'3 it them. A growl of complaint from this miscellaneous mass of people had from the first scarcely ever ceased to be emitted ; and this ominous noise had been gradually in- creasing in loudness and sharpness under an accmnulating variety of evils. Some of these evils, so far at least as the authorities were concerned, were irremediable, such as the discomfort of digging life, and the prccariousness of its re- sults ; both of these adverse features having been aggravated by the circumstance of a scanty rainfall in tlie year 1854, when the yield of gold was in consequence unusually small. Other evils seemed to admit of remedy, and the Colonial Government received plentiful blame at the hands of the diggings community in regard to them. There was, indeed, much substantial ground for these complaints. A vast irregular society had been suddenly called up throughout the colony, and the Government, somewhat perplexed how to deal v/ith it, had been fain to let the difliculty solve itself by doing nothing; that is to say, although they had ap- pointed paid officers and paid magistrates, who went through a round of duties — and with especial strictness that of collecting the gold-mining license fee of thirty shillings monthly, as well as the other Government dues— they had never taken any steps to make the gold-fields population, socially and politically, a part of the colony. There was no arrangement for a mining franchise and a gold-fields representation, and no social status, even by the simple and usual expedient of graduating the people to the Government by enrolling the more respectable of the great mining community as local justices of the peace. This state of things had lasted three years, and it was greatly aggravated by the vain efforts of ihe colonists to induce the hesitating Government to sell adequate quantities of the public lands. Many a digger longed for a few adjacent acres, on which he might rear a home and plant a garden or potato-field of his own ; and for such a rare luxury he would willingly have exchanged the tin pannikin or pickle- bottle full of gold that lay concealed iu a corner of his tent, rma THE BALLARAT OUTBREAK. 79 eouB mass ,sed to Le dually in- .lunulatini^ 3ast as tlio uch as the s of its re- aggravated year 1851, lally small, [le Colonial mds of the vas, indeed, s. A vast throughout plexed how ^ solve itself ley had ap- who went il strictness e of thirty nent dues— 3 gold-fields the colony, chise and a us, even by ,he people to ;table of the the peace, and it was colonists to ite quantities few adjacent ant a garden ■e luxury he vin or pickle- x of his tent, and represented the last six months of his mining toils. Discontent centred itself in the question of the monthly license fee, as this was a subject on which a demonstration could be most effectually made. The Government had tried some palliatives in the license difliculty; and, by allowing a discount on prepayments for longer terms than a month, had hoped to supersede many of the collectors' visits, and BO diminish the occasions for hostile manifestations. These efforts had not been successful. The Ballarat riot took its more immediate rise from one of the ' raids ' upon the diggers for the obnoxious license money. Upon the first serious threatenings of disturbance, however, a party of military were sent up from Melbourne, who, on arrival, were confronted by a stockade erected by the rioters on the famous Bakery Hill. At early dawn of the 3rd of December, this place was stormed and taken, not without loss of life on both sides; and thus this very exceptional and unhappy colonial occurrence came to an end.'* The cause of offence also soon came to an end. In 1855 the political condition of the gold-diggers was entirely re- constituted. The monthly license fee was abolished, and, iu lieu, a small export duty on gold was appointed, while the diggers were enabled, on payment of £1 a year, to secure for themselves both mining privileges and the fran- chise. The gold-fields were divided into districts, each under the charge of a warder, who saw that the local courts did their duty, and was aided by a staff of unpaid justices. These arrangements gave satisfaction to the mining com- munity, and helped to convert a discontented and lawless race of men into good citizens and friends of order. The reforms were part of a change which was effected in the management of the whole colony. The people, both of Victoria and of the neighbouring settlements, were not satisfied with the pohtical arrangements that had been made for them in 1851. They asked for fuller representative rights and greater power of self-government , in fact, for a * Westgarth, pp. 148-150. J^ I'A^m '^m^ 28o VICTORIA. completo lomocratlc system. ' Tho Ballot, No Property Qualification, Equal Electoral Districts, and Maiiliood Suffrage,' were the four ' points of tho charter* claimed by tho Australian Radicals, and they were advocated most vehemently in Victoria. The Jiritisli Government wisely allowed the colonists to have their own way. A now con- stitution, transferring complete functions of self-govermnent to two legislative chambers, both of them elected wliolly by tho colonists themselves, under a governor who became for all practical purposes littlo moro than their chairman, was proclaimed on the 23rd of November, 1855 ; and since then tho details of political power, roughly fought over by tho colonists themselves, have been gradually tending in the direc- tion of uncurbed democracy. The result has in the main been satisfactory to all who consider that government is merely a machine for forwarding the best interests of all classes of the governed, and that any machine which thus works most efficiently is tho one most to bo commended. The colony of Victoria affords the interesting spectacle of a democracy, more complete even than that of the United States, yet notably loyal to the sovereign whose name it bears. The change was not completely brought about without much quarrelling. The constitution of 1855, though it con- ceded to the colonists the right of electing all the members of both Houses of Parhament, was held by many to be based on too restricted a franchise ; and there was angry con- troversy both before and after the first Parliament in ac- cordance wdth it met in November, 1856, Sir Charles Hotham having died, and Sir Henry Barkly succeeding him as governor in the following December. The controversy continued until manhood suffrage for the Legislative Assembly, and a £50 franchise for the Legislative Council, vote by ballot, equal electoral districts, triennial elections, and payment of members for the Assembly, had been obtained ; and some of these concessions were not procured till 1881. In the meanwhile other matters of dispute arose. The POLITICAL CIIAXGES. 281 liberal, and at first perhaps necessary and semcoablc.ways in wliich lar^'o tracts of land had been assi^Micd to early settlers and squatters, caused reasonable alarm and K^'ave incon- venience as soon as the resources of the colony had bo^nin to be ri<,'htly valued. A Land Sales Act in IHIH) put a stop to the old mode of distribution, and a Land Act in bSdiJ, ))assed with much dillicnlty, reappropriated so much of tho land as was deemed suitable for a<,'riculture, leaving' tho sfpiatters in possession only of their pasture lands. Tho new operations consequent on this law increased the Govern- ment's revenue, and created a fresh race of landowners ; but they established fresh monopolies which were not after- wards looked upon with favour. Another question, much discussed during the governor- ship of Sir Charles Darling, who succeeded Sir Henry Barkly in 18G3, was that of free trade ; the Assembly, in opposition to the Legislative Council and the Crown, insist- ing on the setting up of protective tariffs against the im- portation of such commodities as it was considered that the colony itself should be encouraged in producing ; and these tariffs have since been largely increased in number and scale. Tho amount of duty levied in 1884 on imports valued at £19,201,633 was £1,936,527, a.n average of more than ten per cent. By this policy, however, it can hardly bo doubted that the development of the manufacturing in- dustries in Victoria has been aided. In many ways popular government in Victoria has con- duced to the progress of the colony. As early as 1852, ^Ir. H. C. E. Childers, t'len Auditor-General, proposed the establishment of the university of Melbourne, and his p^'o- ject took shape in 1854. Great attention has also been ptid to secondary and elementary education, the primary system having been made free, secular, and compulsory in 1873. All the railways, of which there were 1624 miles open in 1884, yielding an average profit of 4 per cent., have been constructed and worked from their commencement by the Government. I rpr"^ 282 VICTORIA. %A ^3 l.|i i The most successful governors have been those most ready to yield to the current of public opiuiou. S'. Charles Darling.', after three years of squabbling and frequent dead- locks in the administration, was replaced in 18GG by Sir T. II. Manners-Sutton, afterwards Lord Canterbury, of whom it is recorded that ' he was a man of action, not of words, never intermeddhng wlien his services were not required, nor neglecting anything within the proper sphere of his duty.' He was followed by an unpopular governor, Sir George Bowen, in 1873, and afterwards by Lord Normauby in 1879, and by Sir Henry Brougham Loch in 1884. Melbourne kept its jubilee in 1886, and one of its poets, J. F. Dariel, then sang of it : • For ages wild and restless waves had cast Their burden on a low, untrodden shore, Which never stately, white-winged ship had passed. Or rugged seaman touched with friendly oar ; Where never loving comrades flocked to pour Their boisterous welcomes, or sweet inaidins came To look the language lips were shy to frame. ' Here, 'neath the scorching heat of summer days, The shimmering waves stole up to kiss the sands, And the fair moon, with peerless silver rays, Lent beauty luminous to southern lands, Whose lonely, wild, yet not unlovely strands Had never echoed to the steps of men, Who dreamed of unknown worlds beyond their ken. ' The waters of this noble bay were fed By a pure stream which no pollution knew ; Man's commerce had not stirred its rocky bed, But on its banks sweet-scented wattles grew. Amidst whose frequent boughs soft love-birds flew. And magpies poured, from glossy-plumaged throats. Their morning song of rich melodious notes. ' From out the scrub that fringed the river's bank What dusky, strange and uncouth formi^ emerge, With matted locks that cling like sedges rank Round gaunt old tree-trunks on the water's verge, Sons of the forest wild, whose plaintive dirge — The mournful wail of hapless destiny — The sad winds carry to the moaning sea ! ost ready Charles ent dead- by Sir T. of wlioin of words, required, re of his jrnor, 8ir lormaiiby 1. its poets, THE JUBILEE OF MELBOURNE. 'There dawned, at lant, a day when all was changed ; The reNtlfHH overflow of iiorthi-rn lundM, From Old World tliouK'hts nnd syinpathit'H cHtranyed, Win^rd south their way in liold ndvj-ntiiroi-s bandit, Ik'iiriny conragooiis htartH and vigorous handx, To carve thiir way to wealth with manly ttjil, And plant dominion in pruduutivc- huH. ' Here, fifty wintcrfl HJnce, hy Yarra'n Ktrt-am, A Kcatturt'd hamli-t foinid itn modtst place ; What mind would venture then, in wildewt dream Its wondrouH j^'rowth and eminence to truce / What Heer predict a Mtripling in the race Would, Hwift aH Atulanta, win the prize Of progress, 'neath the world's astunished eyea ? • It is no dream. Upon those grass-grown streets Has risen up a city vast and fair. In whose thronged thoroughfares the stranger meets With signs of all the world can send most rare And costly to her ma-ts, and everywhere Apcenda the hum of nervous, bustling strife — The splendid evidence of healthy life. • Where stalwart bushmen lounged through sultry hours, And large-boned oxen bowed beneath the yoke. Are parks and gardens rich with plants and flowers, Mansions embowered in ash, and elm, and oak ; Churches, where worshippers Heaven's aid invoke. And towers and steeples, monuments and domes, Kise amidst crowded haunts and peaceful hoQiea.' 283 n. ew, ts. e, ?i CHAPTER XXV. - \ , I i; I d I i i 1 : » ^ « » MODKllN NKW SOUTH WALES. TlIK r-ATKU rUOOUF.SS Ol' NKW SOUTH WALKH — ITS (iOLn-FIEM>S ANO THKIU I'lU'lT— SQUATTKK KXTKNSIONS — rOLITICAI. CKOWTIl— MODKUN SYDNICY - ThK PUKSKNT CON'O'TION OF NKW SOUTH WALES—ITS SHKKl'-UUNS AND I'OAL-FIKLDS. [ISfd-lSSS. J >..3J^rinE limits of tlio colony of Now Soutli Wales, J^^ originally comprising about 1,500,000 square -'-^ miles, and thus nearly half as large as Europe, were successively curtailed, as vvc have seen, by the partition of the three colonies of Van Die- men's Land, South Australia, and Victoria, which, though all three constituted less than a third of the entire area — Van Diemen's Land being about a sixtieth. South Australia about a quarter, and Victoria about a sixteenth — were in value very much more than a third. Of the 1,000,000 or more square miles left to New South Wales in 1851, only a very small section was undor cultivation or parcelled out in townships ; and if the squatters tended their sheep in far-off regions, and over vast extents of ground, the chief portion of the territory was put to no use at all. Of the population of 189,957, more than a fourth was in Sydney and its suburbs, about a sixth in other towns, and loss than half spread over the neighbouring country districts. The mother-colony, however, was not too old to compete, and that successfully, with her offspring. She had by this time, indeed, fairly shaken off the pernicious influences of riWGh'KSS /N AKW SOUTH IVALES. 285 convict lifo tliat liad marred lior early career, and was now able to vie even with Victoria as a nation of vigorous and independent men, worthy to enjoy the powcsrs of complete Helf-govermnent wisely conferred upon them by Great Britain. The self -governing powers ol New South Wales almost kept pace with those of Victoria. The old constitution was here, as in the south, abolished in 1H55, and the colonists were left to choose their own legislative machinery, and alter it to their taste. Except that the Upp*^-" House of Parliament, instead of being elected by the people as in Victoria, continues to be composed of Crown nominees, the machinery is now almost as democratic as in the younger colony. The members of the Lower House are elected by ballot under a manhood suilrage. The later growth of the colony is mainly due to the dis- covery of gold in the district of liathurst, which has already been referred to, although, as the liathurst mines were by no means so rich as those in the neighbourhood of Ballarat, New South Wales, while it had quite as much temporary derangement as Victoria, has profited far less. The entire yield of the mines near the Australian A1])S between 18oi and 18G8 was only worth about £30,000,000, against the £150,000,000 drawn in the same period from the region of the Australian Pyrenees. ' The immediate effect of the discovery in Sydney and throughout the colony,' says a resident, ' was a state of society in which there was the minimum of comfort com- bined wi^.h the maximum of expense.'* * There was,' says another, * a heterogeneous scramble for the coveted ore throughout the length and breadth of the land. Artisans of every description threw up their employments, leaving their masters and their wives and families to take care of them- selves. Nor did the mania confine itself to the labouring classes, for these were soon followed by responsible trades- men, farmers, captains of vessels, and not a few of the superior classes ; some unable to withstand the mania and * Thurry, p. 3G8. i I; i' 11 ^ •' 'g)i_ J_ 1 1 Ik IL Lm ^mm ^tmt 286 MODERN NEW SOUTH WALES. •\ 11 f ::;!! \ "1 \ 1 I 1 1 I • » : > : •) • i .3 « » % the force of the stream, or because they were really disposed to venture time and money on the chance, and others because they were, as employers of labour, left in the lurch, and had no alternative.'* Some went to Bathurst ; more to Ballarat, or Blount Alexander, or Bendigo. * Sydney looked like a deserted village. Then the judicious purchaser stepped in, and bought whole streets of unoccupied houses for hundreds, which, in twelve months afterwards, he sold for more than as many thousands. In 1854 prices rose to quite a fever-height, and in that year fabulous riches were realized. Shopkeepers, no longer selling their goods at a fair value, found the best customers in those to whom they charged the most exorbitant prices. When the drapers were dealing with the diggers, who knew nothing of the real value of the silks, satins, and laces with which they supplied the fair companions whom they treated, the custom was, on an article being shown to them, not to beat down the price, but to ask, " Have you nothing dearer than that ?" On such a hint, of course, the seller acted, and, on exhibit- ing a showy article of inferior value, but on which was put a higher price, the article sold immediately.' t One benefit accruing from this disorganized state of society was that the wealth acquired by the great majority of the diggers, men unfit to put it to good uses, quickly passed — though often through demoralizing channels, the chief of all being gin-palaces — into better hands. Much of it soon left the colony ; but more remained, to be employed in older and more productive ways. All trades in New South Wales wore greatly stimulated by the gold-discoveries, and, in the end, none more than the oldest and best — that of wool-producing. Squatters became more numerous, and their operations more extensive. After driving their sheep far south and far west, up to the boundaries of Victoria and South Australia, they advanced in northerly directions, and * Westgarth, 'Australia,' pp. 109, 170. t Therry, pp. 370, 371. THE GOLD FEVER AND POLITICS. 287 thus helped in the formation of another, and at present the youngest of the Australian colonies. By the establishment, in 1859, of Queensland as an inde- pendent colony, of which something will be said presently, New South Wales, already deprived of a third of its original territory, was mulcted of two-thirds of the remainder. Its area was now reduced to 310,938 square miles. It was still, however, nearly four times as large as Victoria, and included some of the most fertile and salubrious portions of the great island continent, witn a convenient coast-line of more than 800 miles. Notwithstanding the loss of Queensland, its population nearly doubled between 1851 and 1861, and the numbers rose from 358,278 in the latter year to 503,981 in 1871, to 751,468 in 1881, and to about 1,022,000 in 1887. More than a generation older than either of its offshoots, New South Wales had, even in 1855, when it received its new constitution, some veteran patriots to guide it. One of these was the poet who had sung its praise^ thirty years before. William Charles Went worth took the lead in the demand for political reform, and it was mainly owing to him that, while the new House of Assembly was nearly as democratic as that of Victoria, the Legislative Council was much more aristocratic in its composition. To his energy, moreover, Sydney owes its university, opened in 1851, and enriched by the benefactions of several «.olonists, one of whom, John Henry Chalh.-j, bequeathed to it £180,000 in 1880. There have been few striking incidents in the later history of the colony. Its ablest governors had belonged to the times when they had responsible work to do as controllers and promoters of public enterprise ; and among those men General Macquarie and Sir Kichard Bourke had had a zealous if unpopular successor in Sir George Gipps, who ruled from 1838 till 1846. It was under Sir Charles Fitzroy that the new constitution was promulgated, though it was first put in force under Sir William Denison, a capable administrator between 1855 and 1861. He was followed in i \\y %■ 4 &■ |, - '')\ i : 1; ■ : , , ''^ |i \l\ |- ' •'' i 288 MODERN NEW SOUTH WALES. ' 1 1 1 Niwi 1 i i i ■■k ITS; ■5' is* turn by Sir John Young, by the Earl of Belmorc, by Sir Hercules Robinson — who won the esteem of the colonists between 1872 and 1879, by Lord Augustus Loftus, and by Lord Carriiigton — who took ofiice in 1885. Little more than ceremonial duties have devolved on those governors, however, and they have been satisfactory in proportion to their tact in humouring the people without interfering in serious con- cerns. The temper of these people, in contrast with that of their neighbours in the south-west, has been described by a recent writer. ' Victoria,' he says, * is democratic, progressive, and eager for colonial federation. New South Wales has the same form of government — is progressive, too, in its more deliberate manner ; but it is conservative, old-fashioned, in favour of imperial federation, and opposed to colonial federation, which it fears as likely to lead — little as the Victorians mean it — to eventual separation and in- dependence. There are differences of tariff, too, and a certain rivalry between the two colonies. Now South Wales is the elder brother, and expects a deference which it does not always meet with.'* The people of New South Wales are proud of their capital — less prosperous, but more attractive, than Melbourne. ' Sydney is antique for Australia,' said the same writer in 1885. * The convict traces have lorg disappeared, but you can see, in the narrow and winding streets in the business quarter, that it is not a modern town which has been built mechanically and laid out upon a plan, but that it has grown in the old English fashion. There are handsome streets, with grand fronts and arcades ; and there are lanes and alleys as in London, with dull unsightly premises, where, nevertheless, active business is going on. Trees are planted wherever there is room for them ; and there is ample breath* ing-ground in the parks. After various fortunes, trade is now develcping with extreme rapidity, and the ambition of the inhabitants is growing along with it. The tonnage of the vessels which now annually enter and leave the port of * Froude, ' Oceana,' p. 140. )rc, by Sir e colonists us, and by 1 more than s, however, ) their tact erioiis con- ; with that 1 described democratic, New South progressive, Dnservative, ;nd opposed lead — little iou and iu- too, and a )Outh \Valcs tiich it does Lheir capital Melbourne, le writer in red, but you ihe business s been built it has grown ome streets, e lanes and lises, where, are planted nple breath- ics, trade is J ambition of e tonnage of e the port of SYDNEY. 289 Sydney exceeds the tonnage of the Thames in the first year of our present Queen. As in London, the city proper on the edge of the harbour is given up to warehouses, com- mercial chambers and offices, banks and public buildings. In the daytime it is thronged ; in the evening the hive empties itself, and merchants, clerks, and workmen stream away by railway or ferry to their suburban houses.'* More imposing than the town, however, is the approach to it by the sea. * Sydney proper, the old Sydney of the first settlement, stands on a long neck of land at the moutli of the Paramatta Kiver, between two deep creeks which form its harbour — that is, its inner harbour, where its docks and wharves are. Port Jackson, the harbour proper, from which these are mere inlets, is the largest and the grandest in the world. A passage about a mile wide has been cut by the ocean between the wal' of sandstone cliffs which stretch along the south-west Australian shores. The two headlands stand out as gigantic piers, and the tide from without, and the fresh- water flood from within, have formed an inlet shaped like a star-fish, with a great central basin, and long arms and estuaries which pierce the land in all directions, and wind like veins into lofty sandstone banks. The rock is gray or red. Worn by the rains and tides of a thousand generations, it projects in overhanging shelves, or breaks off into the water, and lies there in fallen masses. The valleys thus formed, and widening and broadening with age, are clothed universally with the primeval forest of eucalyptus and dark Australian pine — the eucalyptus in its most protean forms, and staining its foliage in the most varied colours ; the red cliffs standing out between the branches, or split and rent where the roots have driven a way into their crevices. In some of these land-locked reaches, except for the sunshine and the pure blue of the water, I could have fancied myself among the yews and arbutuses of Kil- larney. The harbour is, on an average, I believe, about nine fathoms deep. The few shoals are marked, and vessels of the * Froude, p. 163. 19 ' ^\ y 1 'flflj : i |i i 290 MODERN NEW SOUTH WALES. 'k ii ll'l IS I : 111 largest size lie in any part of it in perfect security. Sydney itself is about seven miles from the open sea. The entire circuit, I was told, if you follow the shore around all the winding inlets from bluff to bluff, is two hundred miles. There is little tide, and therefore no unsightly mud-banks are uncovered at low-water. It has the aspect and character of a perfect inland lake, save for the sea monsters — the unnumbered sharks which glide to and fro beneath the treacherous surface.'* New South Wales, as a separate colony, suffered at first from the loss of so many of its best squatting districts when Queensland was cut off from it in 1859, and more ruinous damage has come to it from the reck'essness with which in the early days immense tracts of its best land were allowed to fall into the hands of a comparatively small number of proprietors. It has made considerable, if not very steady or rapid, progress, however, both in pastoral and in agricultural ways. It was reckoned that there were seven million sheep in it in 1863, eighteen millions in 1873, and thirty-four millions in 1883, nearly 230,000 square miles being, in the last year, occupied as sheep-runs. The value of the wool exported, which was £1,650,000 in 1856, was £9,383,000 in 1884, the exports of all other produce being together worth about as much. The agricultural produce, including fruit as well as grains, is large and steadily in- creasing, but scarcely more than the colony itself consumes. New wealth, however, has been found in its timber, and, if the supply of gold has fallen off, that of other minerals, especially of iron, copper, tin, coal, has increased. The iron mines have only lately begun to be worked, the yield in 1884 being valued at no more than £24,571, while the export of copper in the same year was worth £416,179, and that of tin £521,587 ; but coal has proved a great source of profit. In 1823 only about 600 tons of coal were raised, and in 1863 only 328. Then the mines began to be made extensive use of, in the desperate but well-founded hope * Froude, p. 141. ka^ : ilVj /TS SHEEP-RUNS AND COAT- FIELDS. 201 that by their help New South Wrlc3 would be able to regain the ground it had lost in competition with the younger and more enterprising settlement in the north. In 18GG there wore raised 774,238 tons, valued at £324,0-49, of wlii^h about half was sold to the neighbouring colonies. ' Such,' it NVtiS said in that year, ' is the present rapidity of the growth and rise to power of Queensland, such the apparent poverty of New South Wales, that were the question merely one between the Sydney wheat-growers and the cotton- planters of Brisbane and Kockhampton, the rich tropical settlers would be as certain of the foremost position in any future confederation as they were in America when tlie struggle lay only between the Carolinas and New England. As it is, just as America was first saved by the coal of Pennsylvania and Oh'.o, Austraha will be saved by the coal of New South Wales. Queensland possesses some small stores of coal, but the vast preponderance of acreage of the great power of the future lies in New South Wales. On my return from a short voyage to the north, I visited the coal-field of New South Wales, at Newcastle, on the Hunter. The beds are of vast extent. They lie upon the banks of a navigable river, and so near to the surface that the best qualities are raised, in a country of dear labour, at 83. or 9s. a ton, and delivered on board ship for 12s. For manufacturing purposes the coi*,! is perfect ; for steam use it is, though somewhat "dirty," a serviceable fuel; and copper and iron are found in close proximity to the beds The Newcastle and Port Jackson fields open a brilliant future to Sydney in these times, when coal is king in a far higher degree than was ever cotton. To her black beds the colony will owe not only manufactures, bringing wealth and population, but that leisure which is begotten of riches —leisure that brings culture, and love of harmony and truth.** That prophecy has only been in part fulfilled, and Queens- land now prospers by its own coal-mines ; but in New South * Dilke, ' Greater Britain,' pp. 300, 301, 19—2 ■1 t ; f 292 MODERN NEW SOUTH WALES. Wales, during 1884, the coal dug up amounted to 2,749,108 tons, and, giving employment to 6,227 pitmen and others, was valued at £1,303,076, more than four times as much as in 1866. This, however, was chiefly from the Newcastle district ; and it is estimated that the coal-beds in the vrhole of New South Wales extend over areas measuring in all nearly 24,000 square miles. ! ft :.| ! , i I I ; '! ;y CHAPTER XXVI. QUEENSLAND. ORIGIN OP THE MORKTON BAT SKTTLEMENT— EARLY MISRULE IN IT— THE ESTABLISHMENT OF QUEENSLAND AS A SEPARATE COLONY— ITS RESOURCES AND PROGRESS. [1824-1888.] OME portions of the great north-western corner of AustraHa, which was established as a separate colony in 1859, had been vaguely known and gradually made use of during the previous genera- tion and more. Moreton Bay, on which Brisbane, the present capital, is built, had been discovered and named, indeed, in 1770, by Captain Cook, who spoke of it as ' a wide open bay, in the bottom of which the land is so low that I could but just see it from the topmast-head.' Its next visi- tor was Lieutenant Flinders, who explored part of the coast in 1799, and in 1802 sailed round into the Gulf of Carpen- taria, thus proving that Australia was divided from New Guinea by Torres Strait. After him Lieutenant Phihp King made further investigations in 1817, and in 1823 Lieutenant Oxley was sent out by the New South Wales Government to choose a site for a new penal settlement. He chose Moreton Bay, and the town of Brisbane was started with the landing on its site of , batch of convicts in 1824. Moreton Bay Settlement, as it was called, was put to that use until 1839, it and the neighbouring interior being occa- 5 ;- ■; ^ »■■ ^lil II] li-j i ■ 1 i 1 i' I 1 1! ! 1 ' i j ; ) i , , ! i f 1 1 ' i I « ■ » > a . 1 k ': * "I ■'Si ■V si' u. % 1 294 QUEENSLAND. sioiially explored in tlii; interval, tliou;,'h with s jmo dan^'cr, as the aborigiiios who had wolconiod Flinders with danciii;^ and Binging were Hoon turned into fierce enemies by the cruel treatment they received from the convicts and their custodians, and from the squatters who joined the party. One example of the conflicts that arose will sutlice. ' N(jt intimidated either by the presence of the convicts or by that of the Government troopers,' we are told, ' the natives "rushed " the squatters' runs, stole their sheep, killed their cattle, and helped themselves to whatever else they hked. But the Government police organized a band of natives to act with them as troopers, determining to have their revenge, and the acts of atrocity perpetrated by this mixed band, whether with the knowledge and consent of the squatters or not, were perfectly horrifying. On one occasion, for in- stance, it was reported that a white man had been murdered by two blacks. The band of black and white troopers took the law into their own hands. They surrounded the tribe to which the murderers belonged, whilst holding a corroboree one fine moonlight night, and fired a volley of shot at a given signal into their midst. There was no inquiry into the matter : the troopers had had their revenge : that was enough.'* In such ways as those the Moreton Bay district was partly cleared of the aborigines, and prepared ,for English settlement, but the settlement only began to have healthy life after it had ceased to be stocked with convicts. Civili- zation commenced in it in 1812, when it was thrown open to colonization, and free men were encouraged to reside in the little town of Brisbane and its neighbourhood. In 1816, however, it had no more than 2,250 inhabitants, nearly all in the south, on what were now the borders of New South Wales, and of these 829 were in Brisbane, and 103 were in Ipswich, then the only other town. During the next few years the resources of the district came to be understood, and the first shipful of immigrants from England, which arrived * Allen, ' History of Australia.' THE MORETON BA Y SETTLEMENT. 295 in December, 1848, led the way for many others. ' The whole country bounded by Moreton Bay,' it was said in 1849, * is well adapted for grazing and agricultural fanning. Tlie indigenous timber is of great value. The mulbcrry-trco grows very luxuriantly. The climate and soil appear well suited to tlio cultivation of the sugar-cane, cotton, arrowroot, tobacco, indigo, and other tropical products. They are also admirably adapted for the production of every species of European grain, as well as those peculiar to warmer climates ; for, as vegetation goes on without interruption all the year round, the farmer has only to select, for the growth of any description of grain, the peculiar season that will en- sure the exact temperature required to bring it to maturity. The barley harvest, that being the hardiest grain, comes immediately after the colonial winter, the wheat harvest at the commencement of summer, and the maiae harvest so late as to give that intertropical grain the full benefit of the heat of summer. The Eughsh potato, and the Indian or sweet potato, ^.re both cultivated successfully. Coal is found in the neighbourhood of the Brisbane, and the fisheries of the extensive bay and coast may be made very profitable.'* If this coast region, and others adjoining it both north and south, were found to be excellently adapted for agricultural pursuits, the vast sweep of country stretching inland, embracing high mountains, fertile valleys, and rich table-lands, was no less fitted to the needs of the squatter, and, after he had helped to make the best portions too valuable for his own more desultory use, for farming cultiva- tion. Much of the great Queensland district forms an Australia Felix only second to the Australia Felix in the south. The great explorer of this region was the unfortunate Dr. Leich- hardt. Sir Thomas Mitchell also visited it in 1845 and 1846, passing northwards from Sydney, and then in a north- western direction towards the Gulf of Carpentaria, visiting the Darling Downs and other parts already known, though * Martin, vol. ii., pp. 483, 484. L I . ': m : i • » • « : i I - ^ € » ea Its jr/ (2UEESSLAND. still uiiusotl, and onding l)y discovcriti^ a beautiful i)Iain, watorwl by many streams, besides tlio larj^er one to wliieh lie gave the name of Victoria. ' The soil,' lie said, ' coiisibts of rich clay, and the hollows gave birth to water-courses, in most of which water was abundant. I found, at length, that I might travel in any direction, and find water at hand, v'/ithout having to seek the river, except when I wished to ascertain its general course and observe its character. The grass consists of several new sorts, one of which springs green from the old stem. The plains were verdant. Indeed, the luxuriant pasturage surpassed in quality, as it did in extent, anything of the kind I had ever seen. New birds and new plants marked this out as an essentially different region from any I had previously explored. That the river is the most important of Australia, increasing as it does by successive tributaries, and not a mere product of distant ranges, admits of no dispute ; and the downs and plains of Central Australia, through which it flows, seem sufficient to supply the whole world with animal food.'* Reports like that induced adventurous squatters gradually to encroach upon the hitherto neglected solitudes in the far north, and as other adventurers began to settle in consider- able numbers in the neighbourhood of Moreton Bay, the vast territory was in time fitted to become a colony distinct from New South Wales. The change was made in December, 1859, when Queens- land, with an area of 678,600 square miles, comprising all the country north of 28" 30' south latitude, and east of 141* east longitude, was parted off from New South Wales. In 1851 it had 8,575 inhabitants, chiefly resident in Brisbane and its neighbourhood. In 1856 the population numbered 17,082, and in 1859, when the separation took place, it amounted to 25,146 — Brisbane, the capital, having 7,000 inhabitants, and Ipswich, a little island on a tributary of the Brisbane Eiver, about 4,500. Since then the colony, which has a political constitution * Martin, vol. ii., p. 394, ITS RAPID GRniVT/f. 297 constitution very similar to that of New South Wales, has grown rapidly. Ill I8()l it liacl a population of 34, 307, and an export trado of £709, 'OOO, composed almost entirely of tlie wool, tallow, and skins obtained from about 4,000,000 sheep and 560,000 cattle. By 1863 the population had risen to 61,640, the stock of sheep and cattle had been increased by half, and the trade had been proportionately augmented. In that year there were two memorable additions to the list of colonial produce. Queensland began to export gold and cotton. Its gold-mines were less important than those of the south, though the yield, which in 1863 was only worth £144,802, had risen to £593,516 in 1868. When it was discovered that the soil and chmate were adapted to the growth of cotton, and afterwards of the sugar-cane — both of them commodities peculiar, within the island, to this part of Australia — Queensland was, however, found to be pos- sessed of surer and larger sources of wealth than gold-mines could yield. ' Since the establishment of Queensland in December, 1859,' said its first governor, Sir George Bo wen, at the close of 1865, * our European population has increased from 25,000 to nearly 90,000 ; that is, it has been augmented nearly four- fold ; while our revenue and our trade, including imports and exports, have been more than trebled. The other chief elements of material prosperity have advanced in almost equal proportions. Cotton, sugar, and tobacco have been added to our lists of staple products. A line of new ports has been opened along our eastern seaboard from Keppel Bay to Cape York, a distance of a thousand miles ; while pastoral occupation has spread over an additional area at least four times larger than the area of the United Kingdom. In 1859 our settlers had hardly advanced beyond the Darhng Downs to the west, or beyond Rockhampton to the north. Now, in 1865, there are stations seven hundred miles to the west of Brisbane, and eight hundred miles to the north of Eockhampton.'* * * Reports of Colonial Governors (1865),* part ii., p. 23. .J' 1 }t t ^1 ^' 1 i P 1 'I I i (! I ■ Ml' ■: ! i 298 OUEENSLAND. • » .•) • 3 ; J I - .. t » :;! 3i During the next twenty years Queensland continued to advance by rapid strides, though with occasional reverses. In 1877 it had a population of 203,084, but in that and the followiiig year a severe drought caused serious damage to the pastoral and other industries. In 1879 it revived, and it made further progress, though another disastrous drought occurred in 1884 and 1885. Its population, exclusive of aborigines, increased from 213,525 in 1881 to 322,853 iu 1885. Of these latter 10,500 were Chinese and 11,327 were Polynesians. The immigrants who had arrived in the course of the year from Europe, nearly all of them with free or assisted passages, numbered 10,774. The Queensland Government prudently continued the policy of encouraging suitable Europeans to settle in its sparsely occupied districts long after the plan had been abandoned by the more populous colonies in the south. Its other human importations were in keeping with the condi- tions of life and industry in a region which lias more resemblance to the southern parts of the United States than occurs in any other portions of Australia. Sugar, rum, cotton, tobacco, arrowroot, and other tropical com- modities are produced in it, though not yet in very large quantities or with regular profit, and for this purpose a modiiied form of slavery was adopted in the employment of Polynesians enticed from the South Sea Islands, as well as of coolies from India, the Chinese being willing and often unwelcome settlers in this as in the other Australian colonies. The abuse, which threatened at one time to be serious, was soon checked by the progress of public opinion ; but the sugar-planters and cotton-growers were not at once able to adapt themselves to worthier methods of utilizing the great resources at their command. Queensland is rich in copper, tin, iron, coal, and other minerals, besides the gold which has till lately been chietly sought after, and its vast interior is available for the pro- duction of all sorts of grain as well as of wool, which has thus far been its principal export. For this, however, more ITS PRESENT CONDITION. 299 railways and otiier moans of communication than now exist are needed. Even in 188G considerably more than half the whole population was in Brisbane, which then had about 73,000 inhabitants, and its neighbourhood in the south, the rest being chiefly on and near the coast as far as Townville, which is less than half-way between Brisbane and the northern limit of the colony. The interior is siili mainly, though thinly, peopled by aborigines, numbering about 20,000. The blacks are in some respects superior to the natives in the south and west, and less injured by the white man's encroachments upon them, except in the more cultivated districts, where rum has been one of the agents for their utter degradation. Sir George Bo wen, the first and most successful governor of Queensland, was transferred to New Zealand in 18G8. After him its affairs were administered by Lord Normanby from 1871 to 1874, when he also was sent to New Zealand, and by Sir Arthur Kennedy between 1877 and 1883, in which year Sir Anthony Musgrave took charge of the colony. The duties of the representatives of the Crown are more responsible in Queensland than in the southern and more finnly established colonies, where it has been found ex- pedient or inevitable to allow almost unrestrained self government. In Queensland the electorate for the House of Assembly is limited by a £10 franchise, and the members of the Legislative Council are, as in New South Wales, nominated by the Crown for life. ^' ■ . f? am t '■ 1 i ! *■ V j , , II 5i;- iU |i if! 4 - " ift '' - •a *" .< » ■Si : i ^1 CHAPTER XXVII. WEST AUSTKALIA AND WASTE AUSTRALIA. ORIGIN OF THE SWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT, OR WESTERN AUSTRALIA — EARLY MISFORTUNES OF THE COLONY — ITS PRESENT CONDITION — EXPLORATIONS IN THE INTERIOR OF THE AUSTRALIAN CONTINENT — THE FIRST DIS- COVERERS ; 8TURT, MURRAY', EYRE, LEICHHARDT ; STURT AGAIN ; STUART ; BURKE AND WILLS— THE CHARACTER OF THE INTERIOR. [1827-1888.] IjDER as an independent colony than South Austraha, Victoria, or Queensland, but less prosperous than any of them, is the settlemeni of Western Australia, originally intended to consist of uil the great island-continent which was not comprised in New South Wales. Swan River, near which still clusters most of the colony's feeble life, was first visited in 1697 by Vlaming, a Dutch navigator, who gave it its name in consequence of the number of black swans that he there found , but little was thought of the district till 1827, when Captain Stirling, of the Success, called attention to it, and urged the importance of its immediate occupation so as to preven^j its being con- verted, as was thought likely, into a French settlement. Early in 1829 Captain Freemantle was sent in the Challenger to take formal possession of the country on behalf of the English Crown ; and before the close of the year twenty- five ships had arrived at Swan River from England bearing 850 emigrants, 57 horses, 106 pigs, 204 cows, and 1,096 sheep. In 1830 there arrived 1125 other settlers, and more THE SWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT. 301 horses, pigs, cows, and sheep, and there were further, though not very considerable, importations of men and animals in the following years. But the first colonists found themselves lodged on a barren coast, unfit for the agricultural and prstoral enter- prise for which, had other things been favourable, they had no great aptitude, and they wore seriously harassed by the multitudes of hostile natives, who resented this intrusion on their barbaric privileges. Great misery was the result, and it was not lessened by the civil, naval, and military ofiQcers in charge of the experiment, who divided among themselves about 300,000 acres of the best land that was to be obtained, shifting their dominions as often as one district after another was found or thought to be preferable. The emigrants had come out under promise of also receiving grants of land ; but only the most useless parts were left for them. The result was deplorable. ' The entire material of a settlement,' they said, in an indignant protest forvarded to the British Government in 1831, ' the ofiBcial staff, settlers, property, and live stock, were hurried out to an unknown wilderness before one acre was surveyed, before one building had been erected, before even a guess had been formed as to the proper scene of their labours, and before the slightest knowledge had been obtained of the soil, climate, products, or in- habitants. Nay, further, it was absolutely made a condition of the grants of land that the emigrant should bring his family, dependents, and property into the colony while in this state. The ghastly spectacle of the town-site of Clarence — its sole edifices crowded, buried, and neglected tombs — its only inhabitants corpses, the victims of disease, starvation, and daspair — the sea-beach strewed with wrecks — the hills and borders of the rivers studded with deserted and half-finished buildings — bears witness to these con- sequences, and speaks of brave men, delicate females, and helpless children perishing by hundreds on a desert coast from want of food, of shelter, and even of water, and surrounded by armed hordes of angry savages. It were ' .'i ' ii 1'^ ar ;5r- M M] i \ i • i; I ! ; lit i ■' t ! '■1 i i 1:1 ■ " I* ■;^ I" -. •■ -^^ \\ N i ;' i ■!■ I' urn w 304 WEST AU.STR ALIA AND WASTE AUSTRALIA. 1 ' hi m ; i i 1 1 rj :)* ■'3 •■ntor pait of his company at Cooper's Creek, and to peitunii the rest of the journey with Wills and two ••' Ilardman. ! < I 11" \H w ■A h, Di 31 I f 'i 1 ,_ i;; i 1 i ,; ■1', ■J h i : 'i i 1 k t 3i5 WEST AUSTRALIA AND WASTE AUSTRALIA. men, named Gray and King, for his only companions. The travelling was dangerous, and numerous difficulties had to be overcome ; but the brave men did overcomr them, and on the 10th of February, 1861, they reached the Gulf of Carpentaria. Thus far they were fortunate, but no farther. The return journey was utterly wearisome. Gray died on the road, and his comrades were almost too weak to bury him. Tired ahnost to death, they slowly worked their way back to Cooper's Creek. They reached it on the 21st of April, and, to their dismay, found the station deserted. The men left in it had stayed there four months. On the very morning of the 21st, only a few hours before Burke, Wills, and King came up, they had gone homewards, believing that the others must have been lost. Had the three hastened on the road to the south they might have overtaken them. But they did not know that the chance of safety was so near. So they rested for a day at Cooper's Creek, and then crawled in an easterly direction. For eight weeks they wandered about, making friends of the few natives whom they met, and with their help picking up a scanty supply of food. But such dreary hopeless life could not last long. They grew weaker and sadder every day. ' I feel weaker than ever,' wrote Wills, in his note-book, on the 21st of June, when they had got back to Cooper's Creek, ' and can scarcely crawl out of the mia-mia. Unless relief comes in some form or other I cannot possibly last more than a fortnight. Had we come to grief elsewhere, we could only have blamed ourselves ; but here we are returned to Cooper's Creek, where we had every right to look for provisions and clothing, and yet we have to die of starvation.' Provisions and clothing had not been left for them, as they should have been ; but, strange to say, the relieving party they had expected seven months before had come up in their absence, had looked about for them in a careless way, and finding no trace of their whereabouts, or even of their existence, had gone home again. Thus, a second time, cruel misfortune ii "1'.: BURKE AND WILLS. 317 stood in the way of their preservation. Beheving themselves altogether deserted, they resolved on one last search for some stray blacks who might help them. Wills was too ill to move, however, and at his earnest request, and in the assurance that herein was their only hope, Burke and King left him on the 27th of June, with a little heap of the best food the woods could yield. ' I think to live about four or five days,' he wrote in the note-book that he thought might possibly some day reach his father. He died on the 29th. Burke seems to have lived only a day longer. He was not strong enough to walk on as he had intended. After tv o days of painful travelling, he too had to lie down and die. ' I hope,' he said to King, ' you will remain with me here till I am quite dead. It's a comfort to know that some one is by. But leave me unburied as I lie.' King liad not long to wait. His companion died next morning. He, however, was strong enough to fight through the terrible battle with hunger and fatigue. He went back to the Creek, buried Wilis's body in the sand, loitered in the neighbourhood for some days, was taken prisoner by a tribe of natives, who fed him and used him kindly, and at last he was found by a relief party sent from Melbourne in search of the missing heroes. More than one relief party was so sent ; and the latest explorations in the interior of Australia grew out of the efforts — successful when it was too late to do more than take back their bones for sumptuous burial in Melbourne — to discover the fate of these brave men and grievous sufferers. In connection with this later work the names of Alfred William Howitt, of John M'Kinlay, of William Landsborough, and of Frederick Walker, must be held in honourable re- membrance. But it is not necessary here to detail their exploits, or those of John and Alexander Forrest, and many more heroic travellers, during the next quarter of a century. Much of this work has been of commercial as well as of scientific value, notably that incidental to the laying down of the telegraph from Adelaide to Fort Darwin between 1870 % m , I:' M ii,; i: Jl 318 WEST AUSTRALIA AND WASTE AUSTRALIA. aud 1872, and to Alexander Forrest's opening up of the luxuriant Kimberley district in the northernmost part of West Australia, which was further explored by Mr. Stockdale in 1884. After all, however, we still have very incomplete in- formation concerning the great x\ustralian interior. ' What we know of this vast continent,' it may even now be said, as it was said by the historian in 1868, ' does not go much beyond an acquaintance with the coast. One has only to look at the map to be convinced that we have as yet only obtained a very small glance into the interior. A little to the west of Central Mount Stuart an immense blank occurs ; and for twelve and a half degrees of latitude and longitude there is scarcely a mark to tell us what is contained therein. There are two small tracts on the edges, but, with these ex- ceptions, nothing whatever is known of a tract of country nearly half a million square miles in area. Mr. A. Gregory described the north side of it as a desert. His brother characterized the north-west side in the same manner. Stuart, on the west side, was encountered by large tracts of spinifex grass and stately gum-trees, apparently liable to occasional floods. Eyre, on the south side, and the ex- plorers on the west, have been baffled by the same desert. It is, in fact, a sandy table-land, elevated on the west side, about three thousand feet above the level of the sea, and sloping down towards Lake Torrens, which is very little, if at all, raised above the surface of the ocean. From Lake Torrens and Lake Eyre it appears to rise again, first in a range, and then in a series of terraces. This elevation ter- minates at last in the high, rugged Cordillera of the eastern coast. We may, therefore, regard the continent as tilted up on each side, and depressed in the centre to a kind of trough. The Gulf of Carpentaria would represent the northern portion, and the deep indented part of Spencer's Gulf the Bouthern. Since, however, the northern coast is also tilted up, the trough or depression does not extend through the continent. It is a series of salt lakes, sand drifts, and stony deserts. A great portion of it is redeemed by the fact that T'. THE GREAT INTERIOR. 319 it receives so much drainage from the Ccast by the various channels of the Barcoo, and from the west by waters which burst out in the form of immense thermal springs. The ex- tent and number of the latter is almost incredible, and the depth from which they come is manifested by the great heat of their waters. Nothing coald more clearly show the character of the central depression, and the slow rate at which the table-land sinks down towards it, than the exis- tence of these springs. Of the Sandy Desert, the greater portion is thickly covered with spinifex grass ; but there are drifts of sand, with no vegetation whatever upon them, ex- tending for several miles. This is probably drifted up into masses after the decomposition of the ferruginous sandstone. The siliceous fragments left behind form those shingle plains known as the Stony Desert ; they exist over a far greater tract than that marked in the old maps of Australia as ex- tending like an arm northwards from Lake Torrens. It would seem as if the decomposition of the rock here was owing in some measure to pressure, when the table-land on either side was uplifted. Thus we see that, after all the explora- tions have been made, we have adopted, with modification, the theory of the earlier colonists. It was thought in Oxley's time that the interior rivers must flow towards a central depression, and there form a kind of inland sea. Long after the abandonment of this theory we find it to be true, to a certain extent, and it is realized in Lake Eyre, the extent of which is as yet undetermined. The inland lake theory was abandoned, after Stuart's discoveries, in favour of a central desert. This, it appears, is also true in a modified sense.* * Woods, vol. ii., pp. 509-513. Besides Mr. Woods's very valuable 'History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia,' there is a hardly less interesting ' History of Discovery in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand,' by Mr. William Howitt. Among the many personal records of travel and adventure, Mr. William Wills's account of his sou's noble and melancholy history, entitled 'A Successful Exploration through the Interior of Australia,' ia especially noteworthy. 1, i\ 'r.\ ■^*.w.':Mi;. 1, i I'M H l!i: r, I : I'' m ■ T i i! i :, '■'ti i i i J !■, , I ■ 1 1 , 1 ; CHAPTER XXVIII. PAKEHA NEW ZEALAND. THR NEW ZEALAND ISLANDS AND THEIR INHABITANTS — FIRST INTERCOURSK WITH ENGLISHMEN — THE MASSACRE OF THE CREW AND PASSENGERS OP THE 'BOVD' in 1809 — THE MISSIONARIES AND THEIR WORK — THE PAKEHA TRADERS— ARTICLES OF TRADE — TRAFFIC IN HUMAN HEADS — OTHER DE- BASING EMPLOYMENTS OF THE PAKEHAS — PROGRESS OF ENGLISH INFLUENCES —SPREAD OF CIVILIZATION — THE CHARACTER OF THE MAORIS. [1809- 1839.] I«.=^jii«^l HE three islands known as the North, the South, ^^ ^M, ^^^^ Stewart's Islands, and formerly as New ri^ IflJl Ulster, New Munster, and New Lemster, which, with a number of smaller islands, make up the colony of New Zealand, have an area of 106,200 square miles, being rather less than the dimensions of Great Britain and Ireland. The middle, called the South Island, occupies rather more than half of the whole ; the northern island is somewhat smaller ; the southernmost island, much less in size, is little more than a barren rock, about half aa large as Yorkshire. The group dift'ers widely — in clnnate, in scenery, and in the character of its inhabitants — from Australia and Tasmania. The aborigines of all three sections of Australasia were probably of the same stock ; but in New Zealand, in or near the fifteenth century, they were exterminated or absorbed by what appears to have been a bolder Malayan race, which crossed over in canoes from the Polynesian region, and formed the Maori nation. ST INTERCOUUSK PASSKNGKUS OF IK — THE PAKEHA iUS — OTHER DE- LISH INFLUENCES MAORIS. [1809- -Vorfh 1'4tif 1 7^ liTWURT ISLtNC ,i.-7~ '\ytvrtAua guj - 170 Long E. 172 of Grepu. 174 1 ■ ■ 1 , 11 .1 ' 1 1 ;: f i 1 tl^llij ,:. 1 ni m la ii JOHN HOOO, 13 PATERNOSTER ROW, H)NI)ON. iMl|p •ir n, Di i ■i >\ I' i fill i. .1 EARLY DEALINGS WITH THE MAORIS. 321 Tho adventures of Captain Cook and other early voyagers among tho Maoris have already been referred to. Subse- quent navigators carried on tho irregular intercourse, and in some instances tolerably friendly relations w(!ro es- tablished between the natives and their visitors. Whaling and other ships from New South Wales halted frequently in the New Zealand ports ; and now and then some of the natives went back in these ships to see for themselves the strange novelties of civilized life in Sydney. Among others, wo are told, ' a powerful chief named Tippaheo, accompanied by his five sons, came to Port Jackson, and, on seeing tho different arts and manufactures carried on by the settlers, was so affected by the conviction thus forced upon him of tho barbarous state of ignorance in which his own country was shrouded that he burst into tears and exclaimed, in the bitterness of his heart, "New Zealand no good!"'* When Tippahee returned to his island home, which was in the extreme north of Nevv Ulster, styled the Bay of Islands, at which the English vessels generally touched, he took with him a young Englishi.ian named George Bruce. Bruce, the first European resident in New Zealand, married a native wife, and lived happily among her kindred for many years, doing much, it would seem, to prepare for the closer relations that were soon to spring up between the two races. These relations were from the first marked by some ugly incidents. In December, 1809, a trading-ship, the Boyd, with seventy persons on board, left Sydney for England, and, as she intended to go round by New Zealand, and there call for some spars to be sold at the Cape of Good Hope, the captain consented to take with him four or five natives of Whangaroa who were anxious to return home. On the passage some extra work had to be done, and the captain ordered the New Zealanders to share it with the sailors. One of them, known as George, refused on the plea that he was ill, and that, he being a chief's son, the labour was degrading to his rank. ' The captain,' it is * Martin, vol. iii., p. 118. 21 i * •4.1 322 PAKEHA NEW ZEALAND. ; i In Mil recorded, ' treated both representations with ridicule, and had him twice tied up to the gangway and severely flogrjcd, at the same time lessening his allowance of food. In reply to the taunting assertion that he was no chief, George merely remarked that they would find him to be such on their arrival in his country ; and so well did he disguise the revengeful passions excited by the treatment he had received as to persuade the captain to put in at Whangaroa, where his tribe resided, as the best place for procuring the spars, although it was not known that the harbour had ever before been visited by any European vessel. On arriving, the crafty savage landed alone, and, after a brief interview with some of his tribe, returned to the ship and invited the captain to come on shore and point out the trees that would best suit his purpose. Three boats were accordingly manned, and the captain landed and proceeded with his party towards a wood. They had no sooner e "ed it than they were attacked by the savages, and evCi.^ _.ie of them was put to instant death. George and his associates disguised themselves in the clothes of the victims — it being now dark — and went off in the boats to the Boyd. They got on board by a stratagem, and then slaughtered in- discriminately every man, woman, and child, excepting five seamen, who had escaped to the shrouds, a woman and two children, and a cabin-boy whom George preserved in gratitude for kindness he had received from him during the voyage. When morning dawned upon the ill-fated vessel, the sailors who had taken refuge in the rigging still main- tained their dreary watch, until Tippahee, the chief who had visited New South Wales, came alongside in his canoe, and, informing them that he had just arrived from the Bay of Islands to trade for dried fish, offered them his protection. The men descended, entered his canoe, and were safely landed by him, although closely pursued by the Whangaroa tribe. But on shore the savages soon overtook them, and, forcibly detaining the old chief, murdered the others before his face. The ship was thoroughly ransacked, the muskets I I 'nl ridicule, and jroly flof,'^?Gd, )d. In reply jhief, Georgo ■y bo such on E5 disguise the 3 had received igaroa, where ing the spars, 3ur had ever On arriving, )rief interview ,nd invited the ees that would e accordingly seded with his ner e 'ed it d evBi.^ -.16 of I his associates jtims— it being Q Boyd. They laughtered in- lild, excepting , a woman and e preserved iu him during the ill-fated vessel, ^iug still main- the chief who e in his canoe, from the Bay his protection. .d were safely ihe Whangaroa look them, and, .e others before id, the muskets CIVILIZED AND UNCIVILIZED BARDARI TIES. 323 and ammunition being deemed invaluable. The fatlier of (icorge, eager to try a gun of which ho had taken posscKsion, burst in tho head of a cask of gunpowder, tilled tlio pan, snapped tlio lock over tho cask, and was himself, with thirteen of liis companions, blown to atoms.'* Thus a partial retribution fell upon tho Whangaroa natives for their barbarous action. It must be remembered, however, that not they alone were guilty. Tho captain of tho Boijd was as foolish, and with less excuse, in stirring up tlio evil passions of tho New Zealanders by his treatment of the chief's son, as was the cliief in setting lire to tlie powder cask. Englishmen, accustomed to think that all inferior races may be treated with any harshness and in- justice, sometimes forget that a single spark of cruelty may kindle the overpowering wrath of a whole race of savages, and that they lower themselves to the rank of those savages when they vie with them in the ferocity of the punishment they accord to wrong-doing which they have themselves provoked. That is the painful and humiliating moral of the story of our relations with New Zealand. Many mischiefs sprang from this disaster of the Boyd. Tippahee, who had done all he could in aid of the English, was soon afterwards attacked in his island-home by some whalers who supposed that he was the author of tho massacre. Many of his subjects, of both sexes and all ages, were murdered, and their gardens were destroyed. He himself was wounded ; and soon afterwards he was killed in battle with the Whangaroa people, who resented the small part ho had been able to take on the side of the English. His subjects, formerly friends of tho English, but now their enemies with good reason, next murdered some white sailors who came in their way. And so the dismal worlc went on. In this same year, however, efforts began to bo made for bringing about a bettor state of things. Sanmel Marsden, a t. ^gyman in New South Wales, induced tho Church Mis- * Martin, vol. iii., pp. 118, 119. 21—2 t 324 PAKEHA NEW ZEALAND. sionary Society of London to organize a machinery for the conversion of the New Zealanders, urging that the mis- sionaries sont out should be teachers of agriculture, me- chanical arts, and other branches of civilization, as well as of Christian doctrine. The suggestion was adopted, and iu 1814 the first missionaries arrived in New Zealand, soon to be followed by others, and they were able to send home flattering reports of the success of their work. They made many converts, at any rate, in the northern districts, to which for some time their operations, as well as the visits of the whalers and traders, were confined. Some tribes re- sented their interference, and regarded their appropriation of lands for churches, schools, and houses as the beginning of an aggressive movement that would end in the extinction of all native rights ; and the stoutest of all their opponents, the same George who had caused the massacre of the crew and passengers of the Boijd, proposed to exterminate them, alleging that ' he feared that the introduction of Europeans would eventually lead to the destracfcion of his countrymen, or that they would be reduced to the miserable condition of the Australian aborigines, whom he had seen lying intoxi- cated in the streets of Sydney, and begging their food from door to door, suppliants for the necessaries of life from those who had possessed themselves of their country and its resources.'* But most of the Maoris were not so far-seeing. Equally impulsive in their appreciation of kindness and in their resentment of injuries^ they listened readily to the good- hearted men who came to instruct them, not merely in religion, but also in everyday civilization. The missionaries were better teachers, at any rate, thau many of the traders who, having gradually got into the way of calling at friendly ports for timber and other native pro- duce, now also began to settle down in the country. At first, and in most districts, they were welcomed more heartily than the missionaries. * Wh'^n the first stragghng ships came here,' says one of them, 'the smallest bit of iron was a ^>rize * Martin, vol. iii., p. 124, ii* ! !■ •!■■ MISSIONARIES AND TRADERS. 325 so inestimable that I might be thought to exaggerate were I to tell the bare truth on the subject. The excitement and speculation caused by a ship being seen off ♦•ihe coast were immense. Where would she anchor ? What iron could be got from her? Would it be possible to seize her? The oracle was consulted ; preparations were made to follow her along the coast, even through an enemy's country, at all risks ; and when she disappeared she was not forgotten, but would continue long to be the subject of anxious expectation and speculation. After this regular trading began. The great madness then was for muskets and gunpowder. A furious compocition was kept up. Should any tribe fail to procure a stock of these articles as soon as its neighbours, extermination was its probable doom. After the demand for arms was supplied, came a perfect furor for iron tools, instru- ments of husbandry, clothing, and all kinds of Pakeha manu- factures.'"* The Pakehas, as the foreigners who brought these articles were called, were gladly received by the New Zealanders, who, having very rough notions as to the rights of property, generally tried first to steal the coveted com- modities, and if they failed therein, made the best bargain they could with the traders. It is more than likely that the merchants were not very honest in their dealings with these natives, and that they did them far more harm than good by their intercourse. Their ways of trade were often lawless, fraud being met by fraud, and theft by violence ; and the things in which they traded were some of them altogether obnoxious. The rum and muskets and gunpowder that they brought into the country tended greatly to demoralize the people, and to encourage and give deadly issue to the feuds that were always frequent between different tribes. The flax, gum, and other com- modities that they took in exchange for these stores were the fruits of wholesome labour, whereby the natives were greatly benefited ; but, in these old times, there was one article of commerce which, though not produced in great quantities, * * Old New Zealand,' by a Pakeha Maori, pp. 94, 95. , I . lit !r) I ■ I i: J .: k. V i> i l»l ill I 326 PAKEHA NEW ZEALAND. was a source of terrible degradation. Some adventurous trader having taken away a few of the heads which it was customary for the iS ew Zealanders to sever from the bodies of their slain enemies, to be dried and kept as treasures, these barbarous trophies became attractive to the vulgar curiosity-hunters in Australia and in Europe ; and in the end traffic in heads became a regular branch of Pakeha trade. The trade itself was bad and disgusting enough ; but when the price paid for the heads ran high enough to become a premium upon murder, it became indeed debasing. It was, however, a source of great profit. * The skippers of many of the colonial trading schooners,' it is said by an eye-witness of the traffic, ' were always ready to deal with a man who had " a real good head," and used to com- mission low Pakehas to " pick up heads " for them. It is a positive fact that the head of a live man was sold and paid for beforehand, and afterwards honestly delivered " as per agreement." '* All respectable Pakehas of course abstained from this most loathsome branch of New Zealand trade, which lasted till about the year 1830 ; but there was much evil in even their best intercourse with the natives. When they could make * ' Old New Zealand,' p. .59. The author tells (pp. 54-56), how, soon after his arrival, he came by accident upon a collection of heads, ready cured for the market and exposed for sale, imder the charge of one of the disreputable whites who engaged in the traffic. ' One had undoubtedly been a warrior ; there was something bold and defiant about the look of the head. Another was the head of a very old man, grey, shrivelled, and wrinkled. I was going on with my observations when I was saluted by a voics from behind with, "Looking at the 'eds, sir?" It was one of the Pakehas formerly mentioned. " Yes," said I, turning round just the least possible thing quicker than ordinary. " 'Eds has been a-getting scarce," says he. " I should think so," says I. " We a'nt 'ad a 'ed this long time," says he. " The devil !" says I. *' One of them 'eds has been hurt bad," says he. " I should think all were rather so," says I. " Oh, no ! only one on 'em," says he ; " the skull is split, and it won't fetch nothing," says he. *' Oh, murder ! I see now," says I. " 'Eds was werry scarce," says he, shaking his own 'ed. " Ah !" said I. " They had to tattoo a slave a bit ago," says he, "and the villain ran away, tattooin' and all!" says he. " What ?" said I. " Bolted afore he was fit to kill," says he. " Stole off with his own head ?" says I. •' That's just it," says he. " Capital felony," says I. " You may say that, sir," says he. •' Good morning," said I, and walked away pretty smartly. ' I ! I Ij VICIOUS TRADING. 327 adventurous hlch it was n the bodies 513 treasures, ) the vulgar ad in the end akeha trade. L ; but when to become a ebasing. It Clie skippers 5 said by an to deal with ised to com- or them. It vas sold and .elivered " as rom this most ch lasted till in even their could make -56), how, soon of heads, ready ge of one of the lad undoubtedly bout the look of , shrivelled, and was saluted by a was one of the md just the least L-gelting scarce," i this long time," been hurt bad," Oh, no ! only one othing," says he. scarce," says he, ttoo a slave a bit all !" says he, s he. " Stole off Capital felony," ling," said I, and profit out of the bad passions of the people, they too often used their opportunities. Sometimes we find them in league with the natives for carrying out their most revolting practices. Of this one instance will sutfice. ' In December, 1830,' we are told, ' a Captain Stewart, commanding the brig Elizabeth, on promise of ten tons of flax, took a hundred New^ Zealanders from Kapiti, or Entry Island, in Cook's Straits, to Takou, in Bank's Peninsula, concealed in his vessel. He then enticed on board the chief of Takou, his brother, his two daughters, and some others who came un- suspicious of any ambush. On entering the captain's cabin the door was locked upon the unhappy chief, his hands were tied, a hook with a cord attached was stuck through the skin of his throat, under the side of his jaw, and the line fastened to some part of the cabin, in which state of torture he was kept for two days, until the vessel arrived at Kapiti, when he was put to death. All the men and women who accompanied the chief were massacred. As a crowning enormity, the " ship's coppers " are even stated to have been employed in cooking the remains of the victims for the cannibals, whose brutal ferocity was not yet satiated.'* These circumstances, with many others of almost equal enormity, showing that some of the Pakehas abstained from no wrong-doing which could increase their influence with friendly tribes and promote their trading enterprise, were reported to Viscount Goderich, then Colonial Secretary, in 1831. *It is impossible,' he said, in a despatch to Sir Richard Bourke, the Governor of New South Wales, who had declared his inability to prevent the vicious practices, ' to read, without shame and indignation, the details which these documents disclose. The unfortunate natives of New Zealand, unless some decisive measures of prevention be adopted, will, I fear, be shortly added to the number of those barbarous tribes who, in different parts of the globe, have fallen a sacrifice to their intercourse with civilized men who bear and disgrace the name of Christians. When, for * Martin, vol, iii., pp. 125, 126. \'.M M I ' 1 ■||. i: ,1 I N ''■ < ■'I 1 i ' 1 ■ :l 1 : y ■i 1 1 ; ■ ■ > I a 1 ■ I \»\'\ I I 328 PAKEHA NEW ZEALAND. mercenary purposes, the natives of Europe minister to the passions by which these savages are inflamed against each other, and introduce them to the knowledge of depraved acts and Hcentious gratifications of the most debased inhabitants of our great cities, the inevitable consequence is a rapid de- cline of population, preceded by every variety of suffering. Considering what is the character of a large part of the population of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Laud, and what opportunities of settling themselves in New Zealand are afforded them by the extensive intercourse which has recently been established, adverting also to the conduct which has been pursued in these islands by the masters and crews of British vessels, I cannot contemplate the too probable results without the deepest anxiety.' That that anxiety was well-ijunded the later history of New Zealand abundantly proves. The efforts of the British Government and the authorities of New South Wales, to which New Zealand gradually became a sort of appendage, were only successful in checking the worst exhibitions of misconduct on the part of the Pakeha traders among the Maoris. These Pakehas grew more numerous and more in- fluential. All along the shores of the northern island they made their settlements and extended their operations. Land they rarely sought to buy, and thus they were not regarded as aggressors by the natives, and escaped much jealousy that attended the progress of the missionaries among all who did not yield to their religious influences. Two parties, indeed, grew up in New Zealand, and gained strength during the thirty years or so previous to the estab- lishment of a regular colony in it. Both parties abandoned some of their primitive barbarism under English teaching ; the one taking their lessons from traders, whose instruc- tion, advantageous in some respects, was pernicious in most ; the others being guided by missionaries, who, seeking to do only good, and succeeding to a great extent, also did serious harm by favouring their converts, and encouraging them In professions of authority over their heathen neighbours, and MAORI CONVERTS. 329 in schemes of aggression which, thought by the missionaries to be helpful to the spread of Christianity, have produced very different fruit. The appearances were greater than the reality, yet during this period the New Zealanders were, in many respects, much improved by their contact with tne Englishmen. ' At Waimati,' said Charles Darwin, the eminent naturalist, who visited New Zealand in 1835, * there are three large houses where missionaries reside, and near them are the huts of the native labourers. On an adjoining slope, fine crops of barley and wheat were standing in full ear, and in another part fields of potatoes and clover. There were large gardens with every fruit and vegetable which England produces, and many belonging to warmer climates. Around the farm-yard there were stables, a thrashing-barn, with its winnowing machine, a blacksmith's forge, and, on the ground, plough- shares and other tools. In the middle was that happy mixture of pigs and poultry, lying comfortably together, as in every English farm-yard. At the distance of a few hundred yards, where the water of a little rill had been dammed up into a pool, there was a large and substantial water-mill. This is very surprising when it is considered that five years ago nothing but the fern flourished here.'* If this measure of civilization existed only in small dis- tricts, its effects were widespread. Native warfare became much less frequent than it had been in former times, and many chieftains were encouraged to cultivate the arts of peace, although it was impossible to utterly eradicate nabits that had come to be a second nature to them. A characteristic anecdote was related by Darwin. ' A mission- ary,' he said, ' found a chief and his tribe in preparation for war ; their muskets clean and bright, and their ammunition ready. He reasoned long on the inutility of the war, and the httle provocation which had been given for it. The chief was much shaken in his resolution, and seemed in * Darwin, * Researches into the Natural History of Various Countries,' p. 425. 7'- ■ii' I; J! I 11: !i i ! I I i i !^t t'l III \m 330 PAKEHA NEW ZEALAND. '\ \y ( I I s doubt. But at length it occurred to him that a barrel of gunpowder was in a bad state, and that it would not keep much longer. This settled the matter.'* Exaggerated views of the Maori chai^acter, both in its good and in its bad aspects, having in later times been pro- mulgated, it will be well to adduce the trustworthy opinion arrived at by one who had long opportunities of observing it during the time of Pakeha influence. ' They are,' he says, * neither so good nor so bad as their friends and enemies liave painted them, and, I suspect, are pretty much like wliat almost any other people would have become if sub- jected to the same external circumstances. For ages they have struggled against necessity in all its shapes. This has given to them a remarkable greediness for gain in every visible and immediately tangible form. Without the aid of iron, the most trifling tool or utensil could only be procured by an enormously disproportionate outlay of labour in its construction, and, in consequence, it became precious to a degree scarcely conceivable by people of civilized and wealthy countries. This great value, attached to personal property of all kinds, increased proportionately the tempta- tion to plunder ; and where no law existed, or could exist, of sufficient force to repress the inclination, every man, as a natural consequence, became a soldier, if it were only for the defence of his own property, and that of those who were banded with him, his tribe or family. From this state of things regular warfare arose as a matter of course. The military art was studied as a science, and brought to great perfection, as applied to the arms used, and a marked military character was given to the people. The necessity of labour, the necessity of warfare, and a temperate climate, gave them strength of body, accompanied by a perseverance and energy of mind perfectly astonishing. With rude and blunt stones they felled the giant kauri, toughest of pines ; and from it, in process of time, at an expense of labour, perseverance, and ingenuity astounding to those who kno^Y * Darwin, p. 419. : , ;;! ( 1* THE CHARACTER OF THE MAORIS, 331 what it really was, they produced, carved, painted, and inlaid, a masterpiece of art and an object of beauty — the war-canoe, capable of carrying a hundred men on a distant expedition, through the boisterous seas surrounding their island. As a consequence of their warlike habits and character, they are self-possessed and confident in them- selves and their own powers, and have much diplomatic finesse and casuistry at command. Their intelligence causes them theoretically to acknowledge the benefits of law, which they see established among us ; but their hatred of restraint causes them practically to abhor and resist its full enforce- ment amongst themselves. Doubting our professions of friendship, fearing our ultimate designs, led astray by false friends, possessed of that " little learning " which is, in their case, most emphatically " a dangerous thing " — such are the people with whom we are now in contact ; such the people to whom, for our own safety and their preservation, we must give new laws and institutions, new habits of life, new ideas, sentiments, and information ; whom we must either civilize, or, by our mere contact, exterminate.'* * ' Old New Zealand,' pp. 91-93. ^■. ^' • i M 1' ^ I ; If! 1' 'I li fJMnl \Wd ill . ih !!^l M.tjii I .1 ri Ml nn I HI 1: n I j •i T: ;;1 n\ ' n :i- ^ V [I'll 1 i- / 5U ,1 i!J /. CHAPTER XXIX. NEW ZEALAND COLONIZATION. THE OLD PAKEHA POPULATION — THE NEW ZEALAND OOMPANT — ESTABLISH- MENT OF BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY IN NEW ZEALAND, AND ITS CONSTRUC- TION AS A REGULAR COLONY — ITS PROGRESS — LAND-QUARRELS WITH THE NATIVES — THEIR ATTEMPTED PROTECTION BY THE GOVERNMENT — THK INFLUENCE OF THE MISSIONARIES — LATER GROWTH OF THE COLONY. [1839-1867.] N the early part of 1839 there were about two thousand Pakchas, or EngUsh residents, in New Zealand, some of them as missionaries and their dependents, but most of them as traders of one sort or another. They were scattered along the shore, and in various inland parts, though chiefly in the northern island, or New Ulster, and especially in its most northern districts. Kororarika, in the Bay of Islands, was the locality most frequented by them ; and there, in 1838, a sort of republic had been formed, with laws of its own making, for mutual assistance and protection in dealings with the natives. The report of this organization seems to have encouraged some English adventurers in the adoption of schemes, previously advanced, for establishing in New Zealand a regular colony. The schemes had taken shape in the founding, in 1837, of a New Zealand Association, designed to carry out plans very similar to those that already had been tried and had failed in South Australia. In both cases the guiding genius was 1^ TJunnullLl iTnTrcwiirnT.ni=i««1 y ) .^ ^^"^^ 1 m ^^^ i %i\ <*fel»X [l f t^i'^ '^^^^\ r^ \ ^m liriLT!' -r-:-:'r-7Jini4 OMPANT — BSTABLISH • AND ITS CONSTItUC- -QUARRELS WITH THE ! GOVEHNMBNT— THE H OF THE COLONY. were about two esidents, in New onaries and their IS traders of one ittered along the ;h chiefly in the ially in its most of Islands, was there, in 1838, laws of its own ition in dealings ization seems to in the adoption )lishing in New ding, in 1837, of y out plans very and had failed iing genius was TB£ NEW ZEALAND COMPANY. 333 Edward Gibbon "Wakefield ; and here the proposal was at once to buy up from the natives large tracts of land to be sold to private adventurers, to whom special inducements were to be offered for extending English civilization over the whole country — all which, it was expected, would in a short time pass from its native owners and become English property. The association, being refused a charter, was dissolved ; but in 1838 it was revived as the New Zealand Company, which, its proposals being again rejected by the Government, proceeded to put them in force without authority. It had many supporters, and Colonel Wake- field, the son of the projector, went out with a party of pioneers. He reached Cook Strait in August, 1839, and in the course of two months went through the form of buying land, on both sides of the channel, which formed in all a territory as large as Ireland, for about £1,500 worth of muskets, gunpowder, tomahawks, pocket-handkerchiefs, tobacco, Jews' harps, and other articles ; being at the rate of about sixpenny worth of goods for every thousand acres. The chieftains of whom it was bought had, of course, no right to sell it ; but, if this was known to the leaders of the enterprise, it was not understood by most of the colonists who were induced to join in the work, and who, soon after landing, found themselves involved in serious ditSculties with the natives on account of their aggressions. They had difficulties also with the English Government. In June, 1839, instructions were sent out by Lord Normanby, then Colonial Secretary, to the Governor of New South Wales, authorizing him to regard all British residents in New Zealand as his subjects, and, bo+h on their behalf and in the interests of the natives, to treat with the latter for the purchase of land. These instructions, designed espe- cially as a curb upon the ill-planned projects of the New Zealand Company, were wise and generous. ' The Queen,' it was there said, 'disclaims, for herself and for her subjects, every pretension to seize on the islands of New Zealand, or to govern them as a part of the dominion of Great Britain, II i.:i;l wm f!:l| m% Y ii'ii i t 334 NEIV ZEALAND COLONIZATION. unless the free and intelligent consent of the natives, ex- pressed according to their established usages, shall be first obtained.' Careful directions were given with a view to securing this end, and to the observance of sincerity, justice, and good-faitli in all dealings with the natives. ' Nor is this all,' it was added. ' They must not be permitted to enter into any contracts in which they might be ignorant and unintentional authors of injuries to themselves. You will not, for example, purchase from them any territory, the retention of which by them would be essential or highly conducive to their own comfort, safety, or subsistence. The acquisition of land by the Crown for the future settlement of British subjects must be confined to such districts as the natives can alienate without distress or serious incon- venience to themselves. To secure the observance of this will be one of the first duties of their official protector.'" The English Government cannot be blamed for the troubles that began in that early day, and afterwards became very grievous, through the greed of private speculators, and the jealous, violent patriotism of the New Zealanders. In accordance with the instructions issued by Lord Normanby, Captain Hobson was sent to New Zealand as lieutenant- governor. He reached Kororarika, in the Bay of Islands, on the 29th of January, 1840, and there established the rule of English law in lieu of the self-governing regulations of its British residents. In February he had a conference with forty-six chiefs of the islands and neighbouring mainland, and submitted to them a treaty by which they recognised the sovereignty of Queen Victoria, on condition of having all their local rights and privileges respected. ' Send the man away !' said one chief, with whom many sympathized. ' Do not sign the paper. If you do, you will be reduced to the condition of slaves, and be obliged to break stones to make roads. Your land will be taken from you, and your dignity as chiefs will be destroyed.' But other chiefs thought differently, and urged so eloquently the value of alliance * 'Parliamentary Papers,' 1840, pp. 157-42. ii! ITS FORMAL COMMENCEMENT. 335 with Great Britain that all were convinced, and the treaty was signed. ' You must be our father !' said the leader of this friendly party to Captain Hobson. * You must not allow us to become slaves ! you must preserve our customs, and never permit our lands to be wrested from us !' Captain Hobson afterwards visited the principal parts of New Ulster, and sent a deputy on a like tour through New Muuster. Everywhere he received the submission of the principal chiefs. Thus British sovereignty was commenced in New Zealand. On the 16th of Noveinber, 1840, the colony of Now Zea- land was established by charter, and Captain Hobson was appointed its first governor. He was empowered to grant ' \v^aste and uncleared lands ' to European settlers, * provided that nothing shall affect or be construed to affect the rights of any aboriginal natives of the colony, to the actual occu- pation or enjoyment in their own persons, or in the persons of their descendants, of any lands now occupied or enjoyed by such natives.' Captain Hobson was also enjoined ' to promote education among the native inhabitants ; to protect them in their persons, and in the free enjoyment of their possessions ; by all means to prevent and restrain all violence and injustice which may In any manner be practised or attempted against them ; and to take such measures as may appear necessary for their conversion to the Christian faith, and for their advancement in civilisation.' No colony ever began better in theory ; but in practice the generous principles propounded were found utterly un- tenable. The n?.tive chiefs, in yielding submission to the Enghsh Crown, thought they were only conferring on it magisterial powers, and intended to keep their territorial rights intact. In the treaty nothing had been said about ' waste lands,' and the natives considered that there were no * waste lands ' at all in the country. Every acre, whether cultivated or left desolate, had some individual claimant, or was regarded as the common property of the members of some tribe ; and, though at first they offered little or no [ ii| W| Nl m. lit 'I • "I 336 NEW ZEAL/iND COLONIZATION, i^\ ]\\ !■ objection to small appropriations of land on tho coast, especially when they knew that the monster pretensions of the New Zealand Company were repudiated by the Oovuni- ment, their jealousy was aroused when much larger allot- ments began to bo madp. This was soon the case. The New Zealand Company had caused a tide of immigration, which was strengthened as soon as the country was known to be formally annexed to the Crown; and however zealously Captain Hobson sought to act upon his instructions and respect all native rights, he could not bring himself to send back the English settlors, or prevent them from acquiring property which, even if it seemed to be fairly bought, was declared by the natives to have been wrongfully taken possession of. In other respects, too, his instructions were found to be inconsistent. He was to respect all native rights ; he was also to extend civilization. Among the rights most dear to the natives were some, like cannibalism or the practice of human sacrifices, which no scheme of civilization couM tolerate ; and in the efforts made to sup- press them great offence was given to many of the people who, it had been expected, would be the most faithful supporters of English rule. On these and kindred points it is not here necessary to c ier into details; but they must be borne in mind as explaining the ill-will which, if sup- pressed at first, was destined to break out in the deplorable occurrences of later days. There was not, however, much show of ill-will in the beginning of the colony's history. It progressed rapidly. In the four years ending with May, 1843, the New Zealand Company sent out 8,796 colonists, and others came by other channels. The white population, numbering about 2,000 in 1839, had increased to 11,948 in 1844, and to 20,396 in 1849. It continued to increase very quick. In 1858 it amounted to 59,254, in 1864 to 173,618, and in 1867 to 218,668. Nine little settlements, now the centres of as many provinces, were planted in New Zealand. Auckland, to THE NIXE PROVINCES, 337 which tho seat of government was transferred from the Bay of Islands, is the most northern of these, and from its official associations as well as from tho excellent position of its harbour, and its consequent facilities for trade, was for a long time tho richest and most populous. Below it, on the western side, of New Ulster, the settlement of New Plymouth, or Taranaki, * the garden of Now Zealand,' was founded in 1841 by some adventurers from the west of England, under the auspices of the New Zealand Company. Wellington, occupying the southern part of the island, begun a year earlier, was the chief Boene of the operations of the New Zealand Company, and prospered in spite of the serious difficulties that attended its early history, owing to disputes with the natives concerning land-claims, which the Government could only settle by giving offence both to settlers and to natives. Napier, the northern port of this section, after- wards became the capital of the province of Hawke's Bay, stretching up to Auckland on the eastern side, which was establishecl in 1858. Nelson, forming the northern portion of New Munster, or South Island, was another settlement of the New Zealand Company, dating from 1841, and for some time it was the only centre of colonization in this island. Its eastern half w^as in 1860 converted into the separate province of Marlborough. The southern district was colonized in 1848, under the name of Otago, by a Scotch Company ; and Canterbury, occupying the centre of New Munster — from which the province known as Westland was detached in 1867 — was inaugurated in 1850 by a party of Church of England colonists. Otago and Canterbury, after long struggling against misfortunes, and vainly attempting to be model religious colonies, the one Presbyterian, the other Episcopalian, ultimately became the most prosperous of all, owing to the discovery in them of profitable gold-fields. The separate history of these nine settlements, diverse have a king to themselves, to be a judge over them.' The; result was the setting up of a young man named Patotau, as King of the Maoris, in 1857. His authority was tolerated by the Government, and accepted by most of the native chiefs, and the consequence was a great lessening of the internal strife and rapid development of Maori strength, to be applied either in good ways or in bad. Unfortunately bad ways soon opened up. In 1860 a quarrel began at Waitara, in the province of Taranaki, owing to the sale of some land by a native contrary to the wishes of his chief, Wirimu Tamihana. The settler's title was investigated and reported to be good, and the land was bought ; but when surveyors were sent to define its boun- daries, they were stopped and driven back by the chief and Hi' \. m •It 1. 1 I't ti u Ml I: ' I 5 S , ■ 346 NEW ZEALAND WARFARE. his followers. They returned with a party of soldiers to protect them, and found the natives in armed possession of the land. A scuffle ensued ; and soon it grew into a war. Taranaki was ravaged by the Maoris, and the English troops were not strong enough to follow them into the mountain fastnesses to which they retired. Before a sufficient force could be brought from Auckland, the whole machinery of the Maori kingdom was applied to the fomenting of a general rebellion, and it spread over the whole northern island. 'In 1862,' we are told, ' the movement presented the following features — an elected king, a very young man of no force of character, surrounded by a few ambitious chiefs, who formed a little mock court, and by a body-guard who kept him from all vulgar contact, and even from the inspection of Euro- peans, except on humiliating terms ; entirely powerless to enforce among his subjects the decisions of his magistrates ; but with an army, if it might be called so, of 5,000 to 10,000 followers, scattered over the country, but organized so that large numbers could be concentrated on any one point on short notice ; large accumulated supplies of food, of arms, and ammunition ; a position in the centre of the island from which a descent could be made in a few hours on any of the European settlements; the Queen's law set at utter defiance; her magistrates treated with supercilious contempt ; her writs torn to pieces and trampled underfoot ; Europeans who had married native women driven out of the king's dis- tricts, while their wives and children were taken from them, unless they would recognise and pay an annual tribute to tlio king.'* Perhaps there was fault on the part of the Colonial G overn- meut in insisting on the obnoxious land-purchase in Waitara in 1860. Perhaps the king-movement had all along been a mere device for preparing a formidable rebellion, and ought not to have been tolerated at starting. But on both these points it is not easy to attach reasonable blame to the local authorities. All that is clear is that the colonists, who had ^ Fox, 'The War in New Zealand,' pp. 30, 31. !■ ■ I ill FIGHTING BETWEEN 1862 AND 1864. 347 long thought their position secure, found themselves sur- prised by a powerful organization which they had no means of at once putting down. They were forced to make an ignominious truce with the insurgents in 18G2, which was followed by a full and insolent outburst of war in 1863. The colonists had feebly prepared to meet future dangers. The Maoris needed no preparation. In April, 1863, they renewed their ravages in Taranaki. In May they threatened to invade Auckland. Their march was interrupted by General Cameron, at the head of a small body of troops, who repulsed them in the open field and hunted them through the Waikato district, but was powerless in his attempts to follow them to their hiding-places and bring them into subjection. Thus nearly a year was spent. The general character of the strife is shown in the closing episode of the campaign in Waikato. ' On the 30th of March, 1864,' we are told, ' Brigadier-General Carey was informed that the natives were entrenching themselves at Orakau, about three miles from his quarters. After reconnoitring their position, he returned, and, collecting a force of about a thousand men, with three guns, he made a night march, appearing before the pah at early daylight, and having so arranged the arrival of his detachments from different posts that from the first they surrounded the enemy's position, and rendered escape impossible. The pah proved to be a place of great strength, with the usual ditches and parapets of mere than usual depth and height, surrounded by a strong post .md rail fence, and outlying connected rifle-pits. At first General Carey attempted to storm the works and take them by a rush; but, after three assaults, he wisely desisted, and determined to approach the defences by sap. The number of natives inside is supposed to have been about three hundred, commanded by Rewi, the greatest fighting general of the King-party. Dui ing the afternoon a reinforcement of a hundred and fifty or two hundred rebels appeared in sight, evidently intending to relieve the place. They advanced to the edge of a bush, about nine hundred yards in the rear of our outposts, but there 1 1 !t ' li' r;: I 1/ 11 ill Ss-' <% \il ll u ' , mi . ■il ill ii f. 1 348 NE IV ZEALAND WARFARE. they stopped and commenced firing harmless volleys, at the same time endeavouring to encourage their friends by dancing,' tlie war-dance and yelling. In the meantime reinforcements kept arriving on our side, which brought up our number *o over two thousand men, who were so disposed that the escape of the beleaguered Maoris seemed to be absolutely impossible. All that day and the following night heavy firing was kept up on both sides. Not less than 40,000 rounds of cartridgen were served out to our troops. By the morning of the 'ind of April the sap was pushed close up to the works, and hand-grenades were thrown into the entrenchments. The Armstrong guns were brought into play, silencing the fire ot the enemy to a great extent. Genci'al Cameron now arrived on the ground, but did not interfere with the direction ol operations. As it was well known, however, that there were many women and children inside, he sent an interpreter to tell them that if they would \ .render their lives would 1)6 spared. Their reply was, " This is the word of the Maori : we will fight for ever, and ever, and ever." They were then urged to send out the women and children. They answered, " The women will fight as well as we." Then the firing re- commenced. Our troops were now getting desperate. Three attempts at a hand-to-hand encounter were made, but with- out success. It was now four o'clock of the third day, during which the Maoris had had no food but a few raw potatoes, and not a drop of water ; while the shower of grape, hand-grenades, and rifle-balls poured with more and more effect into their entrenchments. Suddenly, on that side of the works which was supposed to be closely invested by a double line of the 40th Kegimeut, the whole Maori force was seen to be escaping. Before they knew that the Maoris were out, it is said, they jumped over their heads, and broke away for a neighbouring swamp and scrub. Here they might all have escaped in a body but for a small corps of cavalry and artillery, which got ahead and met them just as they emerged from the swamp and scrub, and did great execu- tion. The natives afterwards acknowledged a loss of two EH ' MAORI SOLDIERSHIP. 349 hundred. Our casualties amounted to sixtueu killed and fifty- two wounded.'* Of that sort was nearly all the fighting ; a vast expendi- ture of energy being required to bring about a very small result, which left the enemy almost as strong as ever. There were more battles — one of chem, at To Ranga, being more than ordinarily successful — in 18G3 ; and in 18o4 there was a lu-1 in the contest. In 1865 it was revived ; but so formidable was the action of the English troops, aided by friendly natives, that, before the year closed, peace was supposed to be restored. The peace, however, was followed by a course of guerilla warfare, maintained during four years or more. In the second half of 1868 and the first half of 1869 it was reckoned that about two hundred and sixty insurgents, out of something over a thousand in arms, were put to death. The losses were supplied, in part at any rate, by fresh recruits from the neutral or secretly disaffected tribes ; but as their supply of strong men was limited, and by reason of the gradual dying out of the natives through causes with which the war had nothing to do, the strife gradually subsided, though the increasing atrocity of dis- position shown by those who carried on the fight caused its final years to be attended by horrors wholly dispropor- tioned to the extent of the war and the relative strength of the combatants. A dying outburst of savage fury and fanaticism appeared in the latest development of the king-movement, known as the Pai-Marire or Hau-Hau superstition. It began in March, 1864, when Captain Lloyd, of the 57th Eegiment, with a detachment of a hundred men, was defeated on the Taranaki Hills, he and eight others being killed. ' The rebels drank the blood of those who fell,' we are told, ' and cut off their heads, burying for the time the heads and bodies in separate places. A few days afterwards, according to thn native account, the angel Gabriel appeared to those who had partaken of the blood, and, by the medium oi * Fox, pp. 97-102. "f, \ \ ^■\ ill. 'V;M:i 'I !) niil !! kl 350 NEIV ZEALAND WARFARE. Captain Lloyd's spirit, ordered tliat his head siiould l)o exhumed, cured in their own way, and taken throughout the length and breadth of New Zealand, and that from henceforth this head should be the medium of man's com- munication with Jehovah. These injunctions wore carefully obeyed, and immediately the head was taken up it com- municated in the most solemn way the tenets of this new religion, namely : The followers shall be called " Pal Marire." The angel Gabriel, with his legions, will protect them from their enemies. The Virgin Mary will constantly be present with them. The religion of England, as taught by the Scriptures, is false. The Scriptures must all be burnt. All days are alike sacred, and no notice must be taken of the Christian Sabbath. Men and women must live together promiscuously, so that their children may be as the sand of the sea-shore for multitude. The priests have super- human power, and can obtain for their followers complete victory by uttering vigorously the word " Hau." The people who adopt this religion will shortly drive the whole European population out of New Zealand. This is only prevented now by the head not having completed its circuit of the whole land. Legions of angels await the bidding of the priests to aid the Maoris in exterminating the Europeans. Immediately the Europeans are destroyed and driven away, men will be sent from heaven to teach the Maoris all the arts and sciences now known by Europeans.' * These vrere the fivst developments of the Pai Marire or Hau-Hau fanaticism. Its emissaries were sent into every part of the islands, and their creed, which was framed on the con- venient principle of embodying something from most other creeds, spread like wild-fire ; its votaries apparently adding new articles to it to meet the growing furor of their disciples. A large infusion of Judaism, some leading features of Mormonism, a little mesmerism, a touch of spiritualism, occasional ventriloquism, and a large amount of cannibalism, are the characteristic features which it exhibits. Its rites are bloody, sensual, foul, and devilish ; the least reprehen- THE END OF THE STRUGGLE. 35» lese were siblo aiul most orderly consisting in running round a polo stuck in the ground, howling and uttering gibberish, till catalepsy prostrates the worshippers, who sometimes lie senseless on the ground for hours. Their bitterest hatred and most refined cruelties are reserved for the missionaries, who are accused of robbing them of their lands by tribes which never sold, gave away, or were deprived of an acre.'* The absurdity of this new religion prevented it from being adopted by any but the most degraded of the Maoris. Of these, however, there were then, and continued to be, a largo proportion among the scanty numbers remaining. Since 1869 but little open resistance has been offered by the Maoris to English rule in New Zealand, and there has been some improvement in their condition. In 1881 it was estimated that there were still about 44,000 of them, nearly all of whom were living in the interior of the North Island, and especially in the rocky peninsula to its extreme north, where they could be almost free from intercourse with the English community. ' The Maoris,' says a missionary of long experience, * are a people of great capacity, and open to civilizing influences. They can learn anything to which they choose to apply themselves. They are very indepen- dent, and live apart from the settlers in their own villages. For the purposes of trade, politics or pleasure, they come into the town, but few of them live there. They are still the owners of millions of acres of land, and are very jealous of their rights. Colonization, as might have been expected, has affected them with new vices, and especially that of drunkenness. Many are on the electoral roll, and six of them have seats in the Colonial Legislature — four in the Lower and two in the Upper House. They acquit themselves creditably. Notwithstanding the hindrances springing out of political complications and repeated hostilities, with the revival of superstition in some places, they have, upon the whole, made great advance in the pathway of civilization. 't * Fox, pp. 127-129, 139, 140. f Buller, ' New Zealand, Past and Present,' pp. 38-40. I ! I ! i! ii,' :'i : 'M \\\. .:^!.: i M in 111 \ ill . ii f t 'm • I 11 ' ! . '1 III' 111' 35- NEW y.EALAND WARFARE. Other observers, however, take a gloomier view of the situation. * The Maori warrior, before the Enghsh landed in New Zealand,' says one, ' was brave, honourable and chivalrous ; fire-water had not taught him the delights of getting drunk ; and the fragments which survive of his poetry touch all the notes of imaginative humanity — the lover's passion, the grief for the dead, the fierce delight of battle, the calm enjoyment of a sunlit landscape, or the sense of a spiritual preserver in storm or earthquake, or the star-spangled midnight sky. The germ of every feeling is to be found there which has been developed in Europe into the finest literature and art ; and the Maori man and Maori woman do not seem to have derived much benefit from the introduction of " the blessings of civilization." Their interest now is in animal sloth and animal indulgence, and they have no other ; the man as if he had nothing else left to work for or care for ; the woman counting it an honour to bear a half-caste child. It is with the wild races of human beings as with wild animals, and birds, and trees, and plants. Those only will survive who can domesticate themselves into servants of the modern forms of social development. The lion and the leopard, the eagle and the hawk, every creature of earth or air, which is wildly free, dies off or disappears ; the sheep, the ox, the horse, the ass, accepts his bondage, and thrives and multi- plies. So it is with man. The negro submits to the conditions, becomes useful, and rises to a higher level. The Ked Indian and the Maori pine away as in a cage, sink first into apathy and moral degradation, and then vanish.'* * Froude, 'Oceana,' pp. 257, 258. r t^' !i! :i I view of thd dish landed Durable and delights of rvive of his iianity — the je delight of jape, or the uake, or the ry feeling is Europe into ri man and nuch benefit civilization." ,1 indulgence, nothing else lunting it an ith the wild 3, and birds, ive who can lodern forms d, the eagle lir, which is the ox, the s and multi- )mits to the higher level. IS iu a cage, n, and then CHAPTER XXXI. MODERN NEW ZEALAND. POLITICAL HISTORY OF THF COLONV — ITS RECENT DEVELOPMENT — ITS PRESENT CONDITION AND CAPABILITIES. [1868-1888.] EW ZEALAND, in which till 1839 traders and missionaries had been free to do all the good or ill they could or cared for, without inter- ference from English rulers, was a sort of pro- vince or dependency of New South Wales between 1840 and 1853, its affairs being administered suc- cessively by Captain Hobson, Captain Fitzroy, and Sir George Grey. In 1853 it was established as a separate colony, with representative institutions of its own, which have since been considerably altered ; but its early years of freedom were full of disturbance. The colonists in the different provinces quarrelled with one another, as well as with the Maoris, and the gold-discoveries brought all their customary encouragements to disoi der ; and the colony fared ill — though its trade and population increased — under Colonel Gore-Browne, its first independent govei-nor, who held the office from 1855 to 1861. Sir Gc^orge Grey, as the fittest man to improve matters, was then reinstated, and, in spite of many troubles, groat advances were made between 1861 and 1868, wlicn he was succeeded by Sir George Bowen. With tlint event the niodciu history of New Zealand commences, 23 ii. I r I'll „:l. Il'i '■ yAi fjil! fill: ,1' :i: Pi:5: ' M 354 MODERN NEW ZEALAND. Under its new constitution the governor of the colony was aided, as in New South Wales, by a Legislative Council, the members of which were appointed by the Crown for life, and also by a House of Eepresentatives, elected for three years under a franchise equivalent to household suffrage. The old provincial system of local gc-ernment, after much unhappy experience, was abolished in 1875, when the three islands were divided into sixty-threo counties, each controlled for local purposes by its own council, with municipal corporations for the townships, and all being subject to the central authority, the seat of which was transferred in 1865 from Auckland, near the north of the more populous part of the North Island, to Wellington, on its north-western extremity. Sir George Grey, who did much to win the confidence of the Maoris, while dealing sternly with them on occasion, had, during his second term of office, nearly settled, so far as it could be settled, the long-standing quarrel between the colonists and the natives as to the possession of the land. In his time the bulk of the country was appropriated by the Crown, or assigned to the white c] ;mants; but many parts were recovered for the Maoris and guaranteed to them. The way was thus prepared for the great encouragement of public works to which Sir George Bowen zealously applied himself during his governorship, from 1868 to 1873, about £19,000,000 being thus spen' ir" those years ; and the same policy was as lavishly continued under some of his suc- cessors, of whom the most eminent were Sir Hercules Eobinson and Sir Arthur Gordon, before the appointment of Sir Wilham Drummond Jervois in 1883. The chief pro- moter of this policy, as adviser of the governors, was Sir Julius Vogel, whose popularity with the more enterprising colonists dates from 1870. The public debt of New Zealand, incurred for the construction of roads, railways, harbours, and other works — which, it was reckoned, would yield ample profits hereafter— amounted to £37,587,776 in 1886; and whether all this expenditure was wise or not, it was in many ITS RECENT DEVELOPMENT. 555 bhe colony VQ Couucil, Crown for elected for household D'ernment, d in 1875, sixty-threo )y its own townships, the seat of 1, near the , Island, to )nfidence of )n occasion, ttled, so far between the ^e land. In ,ted by the many parts d to them, agement of usly applied 873, about id the same of his suc- Herciiles lointment of chief pro- )rs, was Sir enterprising ew Zealand, s, harbours, yield ample 1886; and ras in many ir ways helpful. ' I knew the country when it was in a state of nature, without a road, or a bridge, or a vehicle,' said an old resident in 1880. ' In those days our journeys were necessarily made on foot, excepting where boat or canoe answered our purpose. Old war-paths through the other- wise trackless forests were our public highways. We could travel only* in single file, stumbling every now and then over the matted roots of trees or fallen trunks. In the open we enjoyed the daylight which faintly found its way through the umbrageous woods, where also we followed the same narrow trackways, leaving every here and there to ford a swamp or dash across a river. The only accommodation was that of a Maori hut or a small calico tent which the traveller carried with him. Fish and potatoes made up the bill of fare which awaited him on arriving at a Maori villag.. . All this is altered now. For long distances w^e have roads as good as any in England, and the rivers are spanned with substantial bridges wherever there is much traffic. There are railways open over 1,200 miles ; long lines are in course of being laid down, and ere very long the entire colony will be traversed by the iron-horse. Coaches are running, where as yet there are no railways, in all the peopled districts, and there is no place whatever where horses cannot be used. The natives themselves travel on horseback, and it is no uncommon thing to meet a cavalcade of from ten to fifty of them, with their trappings, all mounted. In the early days of our colonial history, our towns were little more than misshaped collections of tents, huts, and shanties. The streets, so- called, were quagmires in wet weather. Delicate ladies did not despise a bullock -cart as a means of locomotion. But what do we ^ee now? Beautiful cities, containing from 20,000 to 35,000 people in each ; well-paved streets, lighted with gas, crowded with vehicles of all kinds, which compare favourably with those in the best English towns. There are many smaller towns with a population ranging from 2,000 to 7,000. There are fifteen towns with from 1,000 to 2,000 inhabitants in each ; and besides these there are forty 23—2 I 1 rl .il" 'IV 35^ MODERN NEW ZEALAND. ;!! i':ll ! I ':.i •I ') ^' ii I \ ! f - ■ !'l more with from 100 to 500. In some of the larger towns steam-trams are used. Museums, libraries, mechanics' institutes, etc., are found in all of them. Public parks, gardens, and show-grounds are also provided.'* The first English visitors to New Zealand found there plenty of birds and fishes, but no other animals except dogs, rats, bats, and lizards. It is to European colonization that it owes its sheep, cattle, and horses, its domestic poultry and forest game. Some few importations have been un- fortunate, especially that of the rabbit, which here, as in Australia, has grown into a pest. But from others, and especially from the sheep introduced, great advantage has been derived. Of the latter there were more than 14,000,000 in the colony in 1881, yielding wool for export which was valued at £3,267,312, as well as mutton, then chiefly wasted; though since the arrangements for sending it in a frozen condition to European markets have been to some extent developed it has become somewhat of a lucrative industry. Except as regards its gold, the mineral resources of New Zealand, including copper as well as iron anc^. coal, have as yet been little used, and the same may be sail of its wealth in timber. Sufficient progress had been made, however, to enable the white population to rise, partly by assisted emigration, from 218,668 in 1867 to 489,938 in 1881, and to nearly 600,000 in 1887. The majority of these were in the South or Middle Island, where the provinces of Canterbury and Otago, with about 45,000 inhabitants in each of their chief towns, Christchurch and Dunedin, are the most prosperous of all, though Auckland, with a population of nearly 60,000, maintains its traditions as the capital of the thriving North Island. The extent of the three islands from north to south being about 1,100 miles, \\ith an average breadth of only 140, their splendid seaboard enjoys wide differences of tempera- l^urc. * The climate,' it was said in 1885, * ranges from that of Naples in the Bay of Islands, to that of Scotland at * J3uller, ' New Zealand, Past and Present,' pp. SO, 8'2. %'i. ' i" ■ ! 'ger towns mechanics' olio parks, )und there Kcept dogs, zatiou that tic poultry 3 been un- here, as in Dthers, and autage has 14,000,000 which was jfly w^asted ; in a frozen ome extent TB industry, pes of New al, have as : its wealth however, to by assisted 881, and to were in the Canterbury Lch of their the most pulation of ital of the 50uth being only 110, )f tempera- Is from that "COtiUl? i-2. 83. d at ITS PRESENT CONDITION. 357 Fovenux Strait. There is abundant raiufi^l' • there arc great rivers, mountains, volcanoes, a soil luxuriantly rich, a splenuxd clothing of magnificent forest. So far as the natural features of a country tend to produce a fine race of men, New Zealand has the advantage of Australia. Australia, too, has hills and rivers, woods and fertile lands, but unless in the heated plains of the interior, which are sublime in their desolation, it has nothing to touch the imagination, nothing to develop varieties of character. In New Zealand there are mountain ranges grander than the giant bergs of Norway ; there are glaciers and waterfalls for the hardy hillmen; there aro sheep-walks for the future Melibceus or shepherd of Salisbury Plain ; there are rich farm-knds for the peasant yeomen ; and the coasts, with their inlets and infinite varieties, are a nursery for seamen, who will carry forward the traditions of the old laud. No Arden ever saw such forests, and no lover ever carved his mistress's name on such trees as are scattered over the Northern Island ; while the dullest intellect quickens into awe and reverence amidst volcanoes and boiling spiings, and the mighty forces of nature, which seem as if any day they might break their chains. Even the Maoris, a small colony of Polynesian savages, grew to a stature of mind and body in New Zealand which no branch of that race has ap- proached elsewhere. If it is written in the book of destiny that the English nation has still within it great men who will take a place among the demi-gods, I can well believe that it will be in the unexhausted soil and spiritual capabili- ties of New Zealand that the great English poets, artists, philosophers, statesmen, soldiers of the future will be born and nurtured. '■**■ Froude, 'Oceana,' p. 205, : I I ; 1 ii I I w u CHAPTEE XXXII. FIJI AND NEW GUINEA. MISSIONAnY WOllK AMONG THE FIJIAN'S — KING THAKOMBAU — ANNEXATION OF FIJI BY KNG LAND— ITS SUBSEQUENT CONDITION — OTHER ^iNNEXATIGNS IN THE PACIFIC — BBITISH NEW GUINEA. [1835-1888.] BOUT 1,200 miles to the north of New Zealand and some 2,000 to the east of Queensland are the two islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levii, and upwards of two hundred smaller islands, many of them merely rocks and reefs, known as the Fijian group, with a total area of less than 8,000 square miles. Parts of this archipelago were visited by Tasman, during his explorations in the Pacific, in 1643, and after- wards by Captain Cook and others ; but no use appears to have been made of it by Europeans till 1804, when twenty- seven convicts, escaping from New South Wales, found their way thither in boats, the last of them, an Irishman named Patrick Connor, being alive in 1835 when two Wesleyan missionaries, William Cross and David Cargill, went to settle among the natives. Others followed, both mission- aries and traders, and during more than a generation the history of European influence in Fiji was in some respects, but only in some, very similar to that of European in- fluence in New Zealand in earlier days. The Fijians were a strange race of savages, handsome and vigorous of body, and, as results have proved, capable A FIELD FOR MISSIONARIES. 359 of remarkable improvement in mind, but coarse and brutal in many ways, especially fond of relieving the monotony of life, in fertile regions that yielded all the ordinary food they required with but little labour, by intertribal wars, of which tlie crowning pleasure consisted in eating the enemies they had slaughtered and in fattening up their prisoners for leisurely consumption. White visitors of the worst types could hardly degrade them, though they introduced to them some new vices ; but good men found them apt disciples. The Wesleyan missionaries achieved wonders, and Eoman Catholics joined in the beneficent work. These apostles endeared themselves to the people by teaching them several useful arts, by curing their sick, and in many other ways, and in the course of a quarter of a century had converted half of the population to forms of Christianity which, if not in all respects satisfactory when judged by orthodox standards, effected a wonderful revolution in the habits of the Fijians. The career of Thakombau, the famous chief who died in 1883, when he was nearly eighty, illustrates the work wrought by the missionaries. ' At the tender age of six,* we are told, ' the young Seru. as he was then called, clubbed his first victim, a boy somewhat liis senior. The first fifty years of his life were passed in wars and fightings, and dis- graced by unspeakable barbarities, including the strangling of his father's five wives, after the death of that old mis- creant. But while still a determined heathen, he w^as not altogether unfriendly to the missionaries, whose remon- strances he would often endure while rejecting their counsels. Their teaching was strongly supported by his wife, Audi Lytia, and his daughter, Andi Arietta Kuilla (Lady Harriet Flag). The latter is a woman of rnascuhne intellect, who rules her own district splendidly, and is the king's best adviser. Like many another, however, Thakom- bau turned a deaf ear to all their arguments so long as his way was prosperous. It was not till 1854, when one tribe after another had thrown off his yoke, and his fame as a ■ \ i !:,' I m^ 360 /'Y// AND NEW GUINEA. 1^ I ,! lii i'i warrior was dimmed, that ho began to lose faith in his own gods, and to listen with a more favourable ear to tha counsels of the Christian King George of Tonga, who sent him a letter urging him to become a worshipper of the Saviour. On the 30th of April he gave orders that tlie great drums (which ten days previously had been beaten to call the people to the temples for a great cannibal feast) should now sound to summon them to assemble in the great strangers' houso to worship the true Cind. About three hundred met there, and the Vuni Valu, with all liis wives, children, and other relations, knelt together in solemn adoration of the Christians' God. This was a day ever to be remembered as one of the most important in the aimals of Fiji. But the outward state of matters was very un- satisfactory. Thakombau's implacable foe, the chief of Eewa, had acquired great power, and announced his inten- tion of utterly destroying Bau, and its king and people, whom he would soon eat, and proclaimed that he denefj their new God to save them. But at the darkest hour came deliverance. The king of Eewa died of dysentery. His chiefs received Thakombau's overtures of peace favour- ably. King George of Tonga came to Fiji, and somoliow, unintentionally, drifted into the general war and helped l(j bring it to a speedy end. Seventy towns returned to their allegiance to Bau, and great was the wonder excited by the king's clemency ; his whole aim being to ensure a lasting peace, and to induce all concerned to attend to the cultiva- tion of the land and the interests of trade. All this time he had been carefully studying the doctrines of the faith he professed ; but in his case, as in many others, it was deemed desirable to defer his baptism for a considerable period, tuil his instructors were convinced of his being thoroughly in earnest. It was not till January, 1857, that, having dis- missed all his wives except one, Thakombau was pubhcly manied to Audi Lytia, and they were baptized together. From that moment lie has taken no retrograde step. Always resolute in whatever line of conduct he adopted, he Hi. in his own Bar to tlio , who sent iper of tlie s that the een beaten nibal feast) ble in the nd. About ^'itli all his !!• in soleiini lay ever to tliu annals 18 very un- lie chief of his inten- uifl people, t he deiied ,rke8t hour dysentery. ice favour- somohnw, helped lo d to tbtm- ud by tlio a laHtin^ cultivi tie this time le faith he LS deemed period, till .-oughly m Lving dis- publicly I together. l,de step. )pted, he f A-fNG THAKOMBAU. 361 • ti has shown himself most truly so in the promotion of Christianity, and of every measure that promised to be for the good of his people. Determined and energetic in his relations to other chiefs, he has of late thrown all his influence on behalf of peace and order, and now professes himself well content with the subordinate position he has accepted, believing that he has thereby consulted the best interests of all his countrymen.'* J3au, one of the smaller islands in the Fijian archipelago, but convenient for access to most of them, was a sort of centre of government under Thakombau, in his variable dominion over the minoi- chiefs, and a favourite resort of the other foreigners, besides missionaries, who often visited tlio.'- e parts, some coming for sandal-wood and other native liioducts, others discerning their fitness for cotton-growing and the like ; and in 1859 Thakombau was induced to make II n offer of the sovereignty of the whole group to Queen V|ctofla. T|ie offer, after prolonged inquiry, was dechned in )8r)3 ; Jnit in the same year the dearth of cotton, conse- quent on the American Oivil War, caused fresh attention to bu directed to Fiji, and it began to be frequented by many Americans, as well as Australians and Englishmen, over whom it became necessary that some sort of orderly govern- minit should be established. A clumsy attempt in this direction was made in 1871, when Thakombau was per- suaded by the English settlors to claim the title of king, and lu sunnnuii a mock parliament. This only increased the confusion, and something like a civil war broke out, Maafu, aiiotlier powerful chief, setting himself in opposition to Tliakombau, who thereupon again invoked the assistance of llii' I'iliglbll Crown. Sir Hercules iiubinson, then governor of New South Wales, was consequently deputed to visit Fiji lu 1871, and by arrangement with Thakombau, who used Ills Influence with the minor chiefs to procure their submlsslolJ, it was formally taken possession of in October as an Ihigllsh colony. * Oi Y, nnrdon Oiunininy, ' Al llniiiit in Fiji,' pp. 114, 115. f 362 FIJI AND NEW GUINEA. \ 1 1 1 \ 1 ii'i-f ! 1 w -: ! .■ 1 ' ■ 1 '' '!: ' ' 1 ■ il j : 1 ! i;, ! 1 ■ < ^^ . t . ■^ 1 ■^ ., ' Any Fijian chief who refuses to cede cannot have much wisdom,* said tlie shrewd old warrior at an assembly of the heads of the people convoked to sanction the transfer. ' Jf matters remain a,s they are, Fiji will become like a piece of drift-wood on the sea, and be picked up by the first passer- by. The whites who have come to Fiji are a bad lot ; they are mere stalkers on the beach. Of one thing I am assured, if we do not cede Fiji, the white stalkers on the beach, the cormorants, will open their maws and swallow us. The white residents are going about influencing the minds of tlio chiefs, so as to prevent annexation, fearing that in case order is established a period may be put to their lawless proceedings. By annexation the two races, white and black, will be bound together, and it will be impossible to sever them. The interlacing has come. Fijians, as a nation, are of an unstable character ; and a white man who wishes to get anything out of a Fijian, if he does not succeed in his object to-day, will try again to-morrow, until the Fijian is either wearied out or overpowered, and gives in. But law will bind us together, and the stronger nation will lend stability to the weaker.'* The addition thus made to the British dominions, perhaps inevitable, soon proved to be beneficial to all parties ; but the change was attended by a great disaster. Before Sir Arthur Gordon arrived, as the first governor, in January, 1875, a terrible plague of measles — hitherto unknown in these islands — had attacked the natives, and by it, it was reckoned, nearly a third of the population of about 150,000 was destroyed. The disease was introduced by Thakombau himself, who had gone to Sydney with his family on a visit to Sir Hercules Eobinson, and who had a mild attack of it on his voyage home. * Vassals and kindred,' we are told, * came from all parts of the group to receive him, and, according to custom, fervently sniffed his hand or his face, thereby breathing the unsuspected poison.' A few days afterwards there was a great gathering of the mountain * C. F. Gordon Gumming, ' At Home in Fiji,' p. 2. FIJI AS AN ENGLISH COLONY. ^(^l have mucli iiiibly of the ausfer. ' Jf ko a piece of first paBser- tid lot ; they am assured, e beach, the »w us. The minds of tho that in case iheir lawless , white and mpossible to 'ijians, as a ite man who he does not Qorrow, until pd, and gives onger nation !ons, perhaps parties; but Before Sir in January, unknown in by it, it was out 150,000 Thakombau [family on a mild attack red,' we are e him, and, or his face, A few days e mountain 2. tribes, and as this was attended by some who had cauf^ht tho malady but were not ycL stricken down by it, tho in- fection was spread far and wide. ' Of course, it was only natural that the people should attrilnite this to poison or witchcraft, and that the tribes who had only recently accepted Christianity, or were on the eve of doing so, siiould conclude that it was a heaven-sent punisliincnt for forsaliiug the gods of their fathers, and giving up thei]- lands to the white men. So they retreated to their mountain strong- holds, banished their teachers, returned to heathenism, and openly repudiated the recently accepted British rule.'* There is evidence of the simple-mindedness of theFijians in the readiness with which, when the panic caused by the plague of measles had subsided, they submitted to British rule. Sir Arthur Gordon, choosing Levuka, on another small island, nea)- to Ban, as the seat of government, soon established English authority over the whole archipelago ; and this has been steadily increased since 1880, when Suva, on the north-eas*^ of Viti Levu, the largest i^lnid, was made the capital, in lieu of Levuka, on Sir George Des Voeux'a succession to the governorship. The white population, whicli was 1,683 when the EngHsh supremacy began in 1876, was about 2,000 in 1879, und had risen to 3,500 by the end of 1884. The Fijians, esthnated at 200,000 in 1859, had dwindled down to about 150,000 in 1874, before the fatal epidemic reduced them to something like 100,000, and in 1884 there were not more than 115,000. The total was increased, however, by about 8,000 Polyne- sians and coolies, brought over on a three years' agreement to assist in the cultivation of the land. The philanthropy of this importation of foreign labour — in the nature of modified slavery, and apt to be injurious to the men employed — is questionable ; but it was found useful in developing the resources of Fiji. For the production of sugar and coffee, as well as cocoa-nut oil, cotton, maize, various fruits and nuts, fibres and much else, the islands * C. F. Gordon Cummmg, ' At Home in Fiji,' p. 32. Ml ! :\ t' 'i 'I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) k A {./ ^ .^. '/. „v ^ T I 4s^ V. ^ 1.0 I.! IM U, 1^ 1^ ■ 2.2 ^ 1^ 12.0 L25 mil 1.4 II I ^ '/ Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. )4580 (716) 872-4S03 ^< iV fi \u II ' ;» ') 5! It 364 F/// AXD NEW GUINEA. are well adapted, and its exports rose from £94,206 in ISTj to .(;;m5,mm ill iHsi. Tile policy of annexation in tlie Pacific, much favouieil by tlie Australians on political even more than on com- mercip] ^'rounds, and more excusable in the case of the Fiji islands than in some others, has been systematically extended since 1874. The small island of Eotumah, about 800 miles to the north of Fiji, was taken possession of, ' at the request of the native chiefs,' and included in Sir Arthur Gordon's government, in 1879; and before that, in 1877, the Governor of Fiji, for the time being, had been constituted ' Higli Commissioner in, over, and for the Western Pacific Islands, for the purpose of better carrying out the provisions of the Pacific Islanders' Protection Acts, 1872 and 1875, and to provide a civil court for the settlement of disputes between British subjects living in these islands.' This functionary's jurisdiction, possibly useful, but liable to abuse in promoting opportunities for aggression, extends ovci.- 'all islands in the Western Pacific not being within the limits of the colonies of Fiji, Queensland or New South Wales, and not being within the jurisdiction of any civilized power,' and includes ' that part of New Guinea which is eastward of the ll:5rd meridian of longitude, New Britain, New Ireland, the Louisade Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, the Tongau or Friendly Islands, the Samoan or Navigators' Islands, and the various small groups of Melanesia.' By far the most important item in that comprehensive list, the eastern half of New Guinea, was taken out of the High Commissioner's jurisdiction, and assigned as a new colony to the custody of a special commission in November, 1884. New Guinea, about a fourth of the size of Australia, and separated from its northern extremity by Torres Strait, was formerly claimed by the Dutch, who planted a few settle- ments on its western shores in connection with their East Indian possessions. It was also claimed by the English East Indian Company in 1793, when a show of uv,3upatioii ENCROACHMENTS IN NEW GUINEA. 365 2G6 in 18T.J ;h favoured Ln oil com- of the Fiji ily extended it 800 niilo-; the request ir Gordon's 10 Governor ited 'High ific Islands, sions of the 875, and to bcs between luctionary's 1 promoting lands in the [the colonies \ not being ,nd includes E the liard reland, tiie he Tongau Irs' Islands, iprehensivc out of the as a new I November, stralia, and (Strait, was Ifew settle- their East (le English lo^cupation was made by a detachment of troops. Though it was occasionally visited by explorers, there was, however, no interference with its natives — roughly estimated at from two to five millions in number, that is, from eight to twenty for each square mile — till 1871, when some missionaries settled near Port Moresby, on the south-eastern coast. ' The indomitable courage that was required and shown by the missionaries,' says one, ' in getting a footing on the great and densely-populated continent, is deserving of all praise, and the benefits to the natives that have already arisen from contact with them during the short space of some seven or eight years are immense ; intertribal fights, formerly so common, being entirely at an end, and trading and communication, one tribe with another, now being carried on without fear.'''= That statement is at variance with the fact that, however cruel may have been the inter- tribal wars before the English visitors arrived, they were afterwards so much more violent, the Christian converts being special objects of attack, and some of the missionaries themselves being massacred, that the scenes of operation had more than once to be shifted. Traders, as well as missionaries, especially prospectors for gold, frequently visited the south-eastern coast and the adjoining interior between 1873 and 1881, and so many of them were killed, that in the latter year and afterwards it was thought proper to send two or three men-of-war to wreak vengeance on the natives by firing upon any who came within range of the guna. In 1883, a schooner having been wrecked near the mouth of the Fly Eivor, in Torres Strait, and it being suspected that the crew had been killed by the natives, several villages were burnt and all the canoes that could be found were destroyed by a retributive expe- dition. In such ways, following the example of earlier promoters of civihzation by gunpowder, preparation was made for bolder enterprises. As early as 1874 the annexation of New Guinea was proposed ♦ ' Tho Australian Handbook for 18SG,' p. 697. H li ! i I i 366 F/// AND NEW GUINEA. u l!i' :>» '5! f ■ i ■ by the New South Wales Government ; but it was not sanc- tioned by Lord Carnarvon, then Secretary of State for the Colonies. In April, 1883, the Queensland Government, acting on its own responsibility, sent a magistrate to the coast witli orders to take nominal possession of the whole eastern half of the island in the Queen's name, pending the settlement of the old claim of Holland to its western half, and permis- sion was asked from the Crown for its more real seizure under orders from Brisbane. These proceedings were objected to, however, by the English Government, which, in 1884, not only recognised the claim of Holland to the eastern half, but also acknowledged the right of Germany to occupy, if it chose, the northern half of the remainder. Thus British New Guinea was limited to about a fourth of the is! ncl, comprising an area of 88,457 square miles. The control of this territory, moreover, was assigned, not to the Queens- land authorities, but to a Special Commissioner selected by the Crown. The Special Commissioner first appointed was Sir Peter Scratchley, who proceeded to Australia early in 1885, and visited New Guinea in the autumn, but whodiedin December, before he had been able to do more than enter on the pre- liminaries of his work. His successor, the Hon. John Douglas, was prudently instructed to prevent any impetuous attempts at colonization which might bring disaster on those embarking in it, and lead to discreditable and dangerous complications with the natives. Since then little has been done beyond occasional explorations and cautious visits with a view to the opening up of trade. New Guinea may hereafter grow into a prosperous colony, but for some time to come there seems to be suffi- cient occupation in better known and safer parts of Australia and its dependencies for all the honest energy and ambition of Enghsh adventurers or settlers in the New World of the Pacific. ''• \ i not sane- ito for the icnt, acting coast with istern half settlement nd pennis- eal seizure jre objected n 1884, not Lstern half, iccupy, if it lus British the is! ,nd, e control of he Queens- selected by 3 Sir Peter I 1885, and Decembei', )n the pre- Bon. John impetuous er on those dangerous 3 has been visits with prosperous o be suffi- f Austraha d ambition Drld of the CHAPTER XXXIII. ENGLISH AUSTRALASIA. THB RBLATIVE ADVANATOKS OK OUK AUSTRALASIAN COLONIEa— THEIR PROGRESS AND THEIR PROSPECTS. HARDLY more than a century has passed since, in May, 1787, the first cargo of convicts, with their keepers and attendants, was sent out from England to begin the colonization of New South Wales. The only object of that enterprise, highly applauded by a few philanthropists and other enthusiasts, but ridiculed and blamed by nearly everybody else, was to get rid of some obnoxious members of society, and to see whether they could be made better use of in the far-off wastes of the antipodes than in crowded and pestilential prisons at home. Yet out of it has grown an empire five-and-twenty times as large as Great Britain and Ireland, and wh'.oh, though still in the first stage of its growth — the whole vast area having a smaller population than London — already has a commercial value to the mother-country hardly less than that of India, and almost as great as i^hat of all the other English dependencies put together. When the difficulties in the way of the first attempts at orderly settlement are con- sidered — and in the presence of its convict population those difficulties were great indeed — its present prosperity is truly marvellous. What prosperity may be attained hereafter 1 1 I , !'! il 1'^ ' 'lii, «pp^ 368 ENGLISH A USTRALASIA. 1 • 1 - \ ' ( perhaps it is hardly possible for the most san^'uinc onlooker to anticipate. In only one of the five colonies already formed in the groat island itself, and tliat one the nearest to England in actual distance, though the most remote from it in general ciiarac- toristics, is the prospect uninviting. The innnoiise territory of Western Australia has few attractions for J^ritish enter- prise. Least favoured by nature, its comparatively scanty resources have never been duly made use of by the arts ot man. The scene, at starting, of grievous blunders in colo- nization, it profited little by the subsequent efforts to improve it through help of convict-labour ; and it can scarcely be ex- pected to attain much importance till the v.hole Australian continent has become so well peopled, and is so well pro- vided with means of transit and inter-communication, that it'j deficiencies can easily bo supplied from richer districts, and the wealth of those districts can give a new value to its more barren regions. Its northern provinces and coast districts, however, deserve more attention than they have yet received ; and perhaps the day is not far distant when they will be parted off from it and associated in a new and flourishing colony with the contiguous districts, now ap- pended to South Australia, to which the independent name of North Australia has already been given. The harbours on this northern coast offer special facilities for trade witli the neighbouring Indian Archipelago, and the rich pasture- ia,nds in the interior wait only to be turned to profit by prudent adventurers. When the resources of North Aus- tralia have been utilised, it may be easier than it now is to wisely extend English influence 01: the opposite coast of New Guinea. Thriving Australia, however, still means little more than the southern and eastern coast-line of the island, and much of this has as yet been but sUghtly used. We have only begun to discover the value of Queensland as a great field for cotton and sugar cultivation, whence even greater profit may be derived than from the inland pasture-grounds which ITS VAST h'ESOU/^CES. 3^J9 are already vying with the iiighlands of New South Wales and Victoria in production of wool, the other great staple material for clothing. To supply the requirements of this younger trade, new ports are growing up along the nortli- eastern shore, and the enterprise developed in them will become the parent of fresii energy in the almost boundless plantation grounds and squatters' runs that adjoin them. If cotton and sugar are to rival v/ool as sources of wealth to Queensland, coal is already beginning to rival wool in making the fortune of New South Wales. Gold for some time usurped too much of the energy that can find suitable employment in producing wool in Victoria; but here the gold trade has helped the wool trade, and both must contri- bute mightily to further growth of the southern colony, which has already grown with a rapidity and vigour unsur- passed in the history of the world. Copper is joined with wool in promoting the prosperity of South Australia, which also has another great source of profit in its luxuriant farm- lands, making it the principal granary of the whole Austra- lian island. Thus, if wool is a connaon source of wealth to all the Australian colonies, each has a second staple of its own, enabling it to assert its independence in the race of advancement in which all are alike engaged. All, too, are well adapted for the production of grain, fruit, vegetables, and other commodities, and for the supply of timber of various sorts, with which the wants of their own inhabitants, however numerous, can be met, leaving vast stores to be sent to other parts. The early Australasian voyagers were not far wrong in supposing that Van Diemen's Land was a part of Australia. The narrow channel known as Bass's Strait separates islands almost identical in character, or differing from one another only so far as an outlying peninsula must necessarily differ from the neighbouring mainland. From tropical Queens- land there is an even gradation of climate down to temperate Tasmania ; and here, as in the northern districts, wool is the main source of wealth. If the southern colony has 24 I ! 1 370 ENGLISH AVSTKAr.ASIA. !f! M W i I I 11 El made less progress tlian the other olTslioots of New South Wales, it is flue alone to the excess of tlio convict element in its social constitution — a source of weakness that tiino au'l the in-coniing of fresh colonists wiU speedily remove. IVoni the other portions of Australasia New Zealand and Fiji stand quite apart. The Fijian group, small and remote, can never be of much importance, but New Zealand, though also .relatively small, has great possibihties, of which hitherto there has been only too much haste to make use. In its iron, its coal, and its agricultural capacities, it has gieater, thougii less showy, sources of wealth tha)i its gold; but the gold has done good service by bringing into tiio islands settlers ready to develop its other opportunities. ' The Britain of the South ' must justify its right to the title by manufacturing industry of the sort that has niado England great. During the first century of its history as an English ]>ossession, Australia has acquired a population of more than two and a half millions, spread over portions of the five great colonies into which the island has already been divided, and there are nearly three-quarters of a million more of English origin iu the adjacent colonies of New- Zealand and Tasmania. Obstacles have thus far been offered to proposals for uniting all these colonies, with the exception, perhaps, of New Zealand, which has most separate vitality of its own, in a grand Australian federa- tion, more or less on the model of the Dominion of Canada. Fiscal and other differences and jealousies have stood iu the way of union ; but these will probably be before long removed or adjusted, and there can bo no doubt that the welfare of the whole group, and of its several parts, would he promoted by their subordination to one central Governmeut, under th« nominal rule of the British Crown, but in an essentials completely independent. When that change conies, there may be further advantage iu substituting for the present divisions, which were eliocted piecemeal aud somewhat arbitrarily with a view to temporary couvenieuce /TS PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS. 371 Jew South •.t c'leinent that time rcmovu. oaliuid and lid remote, / Zealand, ;s, of which make use. ties, it has ai I its i^old ; ig into the )portunities. | •if^ht to the I ,t has niadi; I an Enghsli | ion of nioro L-tions of the already heeu of a miUion .lies of Kew us far been ies, with the has most ilian federa- of Canada, stood in the before long ubt tliat the rts, would be overumeut, but in an liat change stituting for iccmeal and conveuieuce n or necessity, a new arrangement of provinces, nioro numerous and smaller in area, but more liomogeneous than tlie ncnv established colonies. Australasia, with its three million square miles of territory, embracing wide variations of climato and other physieal conditions, affords room, and is well adapted, not for six or seven, but for twice or thrice as many distinct units of local self-government, bound together by common interests, and associated for general advancement ill a single scheme of supreme administration. Already this aggregate of later offshoots from the mother country has surpassed the earlier colonial acquisitions of Ihigland in British North America in industrial progress, though not in growth of population, and is surpassed in the history of modern nation-making by the United States alone, the outcome of the yet earlier colonizing enterprise of Englishmen. Its record, too, in spite of blunders and crimes in the treatment of native races, has been marred by fewer offences and errors, wars of extermination or of rivalry, than appear in the chronicles of colonial progress iu the great American continent, and yet more in South Africa. There is truth as well as grace in the jubilant verse of one of its poets, Mrs. Aheane, better known as Agnes Neale : ' Every great majestic river, flowing on to meet the sea, \ Bearing on its stately bosom many a gallant argosy, Owes its proud, resistless volume to ten tliouund tiny rilla, Takes its rise in some low wood-spring hidden in the y rit^ht of lifritaj^'c, Uich with HtorcH of niinurul wealth, and MocUh and htidH by land and Hea, L(» ! her whitt'win^ceil nicHHengerH are HWeejjinjj over every sta, Lo ! a younj,' world lo ! a Htrong world— riwes in tluH distant cliiiif, DeHtined to increaKe and Htrenj,'then to the very end of time. Here, throu},'h veinx with young life HWelling, rollH the bluud that rules the world ; Here an hers, and dear as honour, Kngland'H banner HoatH unfurKd. () Australia ! fair and lov«'ly, empress of the southern sia, Wliat a gloriouH fame awaits the*- in the futurt;'s history ! Land uf wealth and land of beauty, tro])ic suns and arctic snowH, Where the splendid noontide bla/.es, where the raging storui-wimi blowB, 1'e tliou proud and bo thou daring, ever true to (!od and man ; In all evil be to rearward, in all good take thou the van ; Only let thy hands be stainless, let thy life be pure and true, And a destiny awaits thee such as natitms never knew.'-^' \ •Australian liallads and Khymes,' p. IfiO. I CHAPTER XXXIV. Tin: i:nd of tiik ktoky. rilR VAM'K OV OUR OnLONIKS— THK t'OMTIf'AI. ANIi COMMKIUIAti AIiVANTAfiKS UKUIVKM AND DKKIVAULK KKOM TIIKM— TIIKIIl I.MI'OUTANCK AH KIKLDS Oh' K.MIUKATION. N effect of peace in fruitful kiii^'dotns, where tlio stock of people, receiving no cojisumption nor diminution by war, doth continually multiply and increase, must, in the end,* wrote Lord Bacon, in IGOG, in a document addressed to James the First, setting forth the advantages of English emigration to Ireland, ' be a surcharge or overflow of people more than the territories can well maintain; which many times, insinuating a general necessity and want of means into all estates, doth turn external peace into internal troubles and seditions. Now, what an excellent diversion of this inconvenience is ministered to your Majesty in this plantation of Ireland, wherein so many families may receive sustentation and fortune, and the discharge of them out of England and Scotland may prevent many seeds jf future perturbation ; so that it is as if a man were troubled for the avoidance of water from the places where he hath built his house, and afterwards should advise with himself to cast those floods, pools, or streams, for pleasure, provision, or use. So shall your Majesty in this work have a double commodity, in the avoidance of people here, and in making use of them there.' if 4 w 374 T/fF, END OF THE STORY. If t! i i 1 1 Tln-ou^'h more tlian two conturir^ and a lialf tho wisdom of tliat quaintly expressed opinion has b(>oii fully proved, if not in the colonization of Ireland, yet in other work of tlio sort recommended by Lord l^acon. During that period, as wo havo seen, Enj^dand has gradually ac(|uired a vast colonial empire, which, if capable of almost boundless growth in the future, has already proved of great advanta^'o to her, both ' in the avoidance of people here, and in making use of them there.' The good issues of tho ' double com- modity,' indeed, havo been far more numerous and far moro various than Bacon could have conceived. Our ' plantations,' as colonies were formerly styled, have yielded and contiiuie to yield a perennial harvest of benefits, political, com- mercial, and social, to the mother country. The political benefits were most apparent in the fust stage of our colonial history. The successive migrations by which, during the seventeenth century, the United States of America and the West Indian Islands were stocked with enterprising settlers, though fortunately they did not relieve E)igland of all her ' unquiet spirits,' did ' prevent many seeds of future perturbation.' Swarms of violent Cavaliers, as well as of violent Roundheads, crossed the Atlantic, and thus, without weakening the strife between the champions and opponents of Stuart rule and misrule, relieved it of many confusing elements, and left a freer battle-ground for the great fight on behalf of constitutional and r^'ligicnis liberty which has mainly conduced to the later greatness of our country. Had all the forces been retained witliiu tlio narrow limits of the kingdom, the contest would necessarily have been attended with far more misery to those who had to struggle through it, and the final issue might have been very different. And her colonies have continued, though in less degree, to be of the same use to England. In each generation wise or unwise enthusiasts, bold thinkers and actors of all sorts, have, to use Bacon's simile, been drained, like baneful floods, from ground in which they were or might have become only obnoxious and pestilential elements, and ; ' t ^ ^ THE rOLlTICAI. VALUE OF OUR COl.OMES. 375 liiivc hocu (liroc'tcMl into cliaiincls by whlcli barren wa«;tos iinvo been tuniod into furtilo •^'ardcnM. This lias been notably the caso with our Australian colonics. Our somotimo con- vict settlements received injury as well as beneiit from their extensive peopling' witii troublesome and dan^'crous crimi- nals ; but many of thoso crimi?ials were in their new homes converted into honest and enterprisini,' men, who, in helping' themselves, famously helped on the pro;^'ress of their new homes ; and the conversion would have been much moro thorough and universal had it been moro wisely conducted. This is a themo of encouraging reflection to philanthropists ; and, in these days in which it is rightly considered better to prevent people from becoming criminals than to allow them to fall into vice anc' then to punish them for being vicious, it should suggest a far wider Qeld for reformatory enterprise than now generally finds favour. Another, and perhaps a yet more evident, political benefit derived and still more dei'ivahle from our colonies is in their value as vast military and naval schools. War is altogether hateful ; but until all the world consents to turn swords into ploughshares, and spears into pruning-hooks, wc must bo prepared to fight in case of need, and our colonics have always furnished the best of all training-f^rounds for warfare. Happily they can be made full use of witliout actual fight- ing. In India, in Canada, in the Cape, and in Australia, as well as in the two small colonies of Malta and Gibraltar, which are almost exclusively military settlements, capacity for enduring hardship, variety of resource, and fitness for all tlio stern necessities of war, are excellently learnt by soldiers whose present use is important enough as guardians of the strongholds of English power and infiuence. In this much has been done ; yet moro remains. "We have as yet but feebly copied the machinery by which ancient Rome so long gave strength to her vast possessions. W^e have taken good soldiers from some of our subject races ; but we have only hero and there, as in the employment of Indian troops in Abyssinia and the Soudan, shifted them from their own ■il f 3-!(^ THE EM) OF THE STORY. ! I \ \ noii;hl)oiirlioc(la to otliors in wliicli they can do special work. Sikhs in Ciiina, Kafllrs in tlio West Inilics, perliaps even Maoris in (.-anada, would materially conduce to the defence of our various possessions, and the bindinj^ of them all into one preat British dominion. Our colonies, however, and the trades becjottcn by thcni, are yet more valuable as nurseries for seamen than as schools fo»* soldieis. In this respect the advantages are too transparent to need any arguments. The hundreds of thousands of hardy mariners who man our trading ships form a race from which our vessels of war can bo supplied, in time of need, with ready-made crews. ' Whatever gives colonies to France,' said Talleyrand, and that wliich he wished for Franco has been attained by Great ]5ritaip, * su})plies her with ships and sailors, manufacturers and husbandmen. Victories by land can only give her nuitinous subjects, who, instead of augmenting the national force by their riches or numbers, contribute only to disperse and enfeel'io that force ; but the growth of colonies supplies her witii zealous citizens, and the increase of real wealth and effective numbers is the certain consequence.' And that value is far greater from a commercial than from a political point of view. It is impossible to over- estimate the benefits which, in this way, England has received from her colonies. English commerce was great before English colonization began. Famous merchants, like Sir Thomas Greshani a^d others, before and after his day, sent their ships and went themselves to every port and mart of size in Europe, and there made interchange of commodities, whereby both they and their country were enriched. Of the wealth of the world a large portion flowed into and through that country in the sixteenth century, as it does in the nineteenth ; ' but,' as a shrewd merchant quaintly said in 1638, ' England being naturally seated in a northern corner of the world, and herein bending under the weight of too ponderous a burthen, cannot possibly and for ever find a vent for all those commodities that are to be €i THE COMMERCIAL VALUE OE OUR COLONIES. 377 soon daily oxportod and brouf^'ht witliin the compass of so narrow a circuit, unloss tlioro can ho, hy tlu; policy and government of the State, a mean found to malve tliis island the common emporium and stajjlo of all Europe.'* The emporium of a good deal more than all l-^uropo tin's islnd has become through our colonics and the enterprise which has led to their formation, but which, without them, would have been sorely cripjjled. New commodities of every sort, from tobacco to cotton, have been brought into use ; old commodities as various, from sugar to wool, hnve been vastly increased in quantity through the energy of English- men in our colonial plantations, and thereby those who have remained at homo have been enriched no less than those who havo gono abroad. Our little Idngdom, which, four centuries ago, was scarcely more than a collection of farms, growing food enough to nourish its two or three millions of inhabitants, and not always able to do that without great privation to many, and with only a sullicicnt number of small and clumsy factories to supply those in- habitants with coarse clothing, and the bare necessaries of life, has now become the great workshop and market of the world, bringing a thousand precious w^ares from its colonial possessions, rendering them far more precious by its manufacturing art, exchanging a portion of them for the valuable produce of other nations, and distributing the rest among its own inhabitants and the people of its colonies ; and, with the profits of its merchandise, able to buy food enough to supplement its own agricultural resources in nourishing a population of nearly forty millions. A wonderful growth in British commerce has arisen through the growth of British colonization. Three hundred years ago England was rising out of the insignificance which seemed reasonably to belong to it by reason of its small territorial extent, and beginning to deserve the title, taunt- ingly given to it, but really high praise, of ' a nation of shopkeepers.' Two hundred years ago it was receiving the * Lewis Roberts, 'The Merchants' Map of Commerce.' A\ Ji'l t ': !! I! 378 THE END OF THE STOR Y. Il I I i I first-fruits of its colonial enterprise in America and tlio West Indies, and of trade which was nearly akin to colonial enterprise in India. One hundred years a^^o those sources of profit, though yet far from maturity, had attained gif,'antic proportions, and the advantages derived from them were of correspojidiiig magnitude. The progress since made has eclipsed in grandeur all that preceded it. In 17G1 the entire exports from Great Britain to all parts of the world amounted to £10,038,913 ; the corresponding imports to .€10,292,541. The value of exports to North America and tlic West Indies was .€3,330,371, or more than a fifth of the whole ; the value of the imports thence was £3,720,261, or more than a third of the whole. The exports to the East Indies were worth £845,797; the imports thence were worth £840,987 ; the former being about a twentieth, the latter about a twelfth. In 1885 the total exports amounted to £271,403,094; the total imports to £370,907,955. Tlic United States of America, no longer British colonics, but none the less direct outcomes of British colonization, re- ceived from us goods worth £31,094,589, and sent us goods worth £80,478,813. The exports to the colonies still owned by us were valued at £85,424,218, including £30,878,065 to India, £20,104,258 to Austraha, £8,374,032 to British North America, and £4,182,196 to the Cape colonies ; the imports were valued at £84,401,733, including £31,882,665 from India,. £23,325,287 from Australia, £10,347,290 fioni British North America, and £4,450,450 from the Cape coloLi'es. Our export trade with our colonies and with the United States had increased nearly tenfold, our import trade nearly seventeen- ioid, in the course of a century and a quarter. But even those figures do not fairly indicate the com- mercial value of our colonies. From them, still reckoning the United States as the foremost of England's offspring, we receive large supplies of fiour, the main necessary of life, and nearly all our stores of sugar, coffee, and other articles, which, by reason of their abundant supply, have ceased to OUR EMIGRATION FIELDS. 2,79 110 West colonial sources gigantic were of aclc lias 7G1 the Lie world ports to irica and L liftli of ,72G,261, the East jre worth ;hc latter )untcd to )5. The Dnics, but fition, re- us goods ill owned 0,878,605 British nies ; the 1,882.605 290 from lie Cape with the hnport itury and Ithe com- :eckoning kpring, we |-y of life, articles, I ceased to be luxuries. Fi'Oiii thoni, too, wo receive nearly all the cotton and wool whicli are the mainstays of our manu- facturing energy, without which our coal and iron would bo comparatively useless, and England would fall back into the insignilicance that it emerged from when our colonics began to be formed. And yet those colonics seem only to be in the first stages of their development. In nearly all of them vast tracts of land arc still unused, or to a great extent neglected, and in most of their busiest portions there is room for much fresh enterprise. They have an aggregate area of little less than 9,000,000 square miles, being more than seventy times as large as Great Britain and Ireland ; but their entire popula- tion amounted in 1881 to only about 300,000,000, less than nine times that of the United Kingdom ; and of this popu- lation about seven-eighths, or 203,000,000 persons, were in India, wliose 1,500,000 or so fiuarc miles constitute but a sixth of the whole area. India, having a lumdred and seventy persons to the square mile, is about half as crowded as Great Britain ; and a few smaller dependencies, especially Ceylon and Barbados, in each of whicli there are a thousand to the square mile, are more crowded— the crowding being by inhabitants who are not Englishmen. But all those colonies in whicli subject races are few or altogether wanting are peopled ver} sparsely indeed. Even the West Indies, with their negro population, excluding British Guiana, have, in the aggregate, but eighty to the square mile, and British Guiana has hardly nioi'o than two. In the Canadian Do- minion, excluding the almost uninhabited North- West Terri- tory, there are less than tliree to the square mile ; and to each square mile there are in South Africa about ten persons — these being chiefly Kaffirs; in Victoria there are oidy eleven ; in New Zealand less than six ; in Tasmania only five ; and in New South W ..des less than three ; w!\ile in Queensland there arc two square miles, in South Australia tliiee, and in Western Australia thirty, for each person. In all our colonies there are not more than ten million Eii'^lish ! ij 3^o THE END OF THE STORY. W^ 1 'A } .1) i 1 |K s 1 r \ residents. It has been estimated that they could easily maintain a hundred million, when they would still be much less populous than Groat Britain now is. Any other than a very gradual approximation to that vast increase of population, of course, were it at all possible, would be altogether inexpedient. Waste lands cannot be at once rendered fit for use by any but a very scanty population. They have to be cultivated and improved step by step. Western Australia does not furnish the only painful illustra- tion on record of the ill effects of too hasty effort in the way of colonization ; but in nearly all our colonies there is ample room, if not pressing need, for a far greater number of settlers than they have ; and this being so, it is surely strange tnat there should not be a far larger migration to them than now occurs from the overcrowded population of the mother country. Nearly every calling in Great Britain, from the lowest to the highest, is overmanned. About £9,000,000 are annually spent by the nation, besides all the outlay of private charity, in the relief of a million or more poor persons who, unable to maintain themselves, or hin- dered from doing so by their own misdeeds, are thus a heavy burthen on the other millions, who, for che most part, find it very difficult to provide themselves with the necessaries of life ; and the rapid growth of population makes the burthen and the difficulty greater every year. Philan- thropists and statesmen, no less than the sufferers them- selves, are seriously at fault for not duly considering the value of our colonies for what Lord Bacon called * the double commodity in the avoidance of people here, and the making use of them there.' If the administrators of our poor laws, and the dispensers of private charity, understood their duty, they would do vastly more than they have hitherto done in lessening the load of domestic pauperism by encouraging emigration to colonies in which there is room and need for millions of fresh settlers. Useless paupers, however, would be as useless in the colonies as they are at home. Men and women who have PROSPECTS OF EMIGRANTS, 3? I : I easily much at vast would t once ilation. y step, ilustra- he way 5 ample iber of surely ,tion to itiou of Britain , About } all the Dr more or hin- heavy irt, find Bssaries ces the hilan- them- mg the double making >r laws, ir duty, done in raging ed for in the have T>\ been rendered apathetic and witless by the degradation of poverty have small prospect of advancement in regions where everything depends upon capacity for hard work and readi- ness in using that capacity in any labour that circumstances require. And the same remark applies, with equal force, to those other paupers of a higher social grade, who, by train- ing or natural deficiency, are unable to mdintain their ground in the struggle for independence that arises in every sphere of occupation, from that of the field-labourer or the artisan to that of the merchant or the candidate for pro- fessional employment. In the colonies, even more than at home, none but those who have power and will to work can expect to make progress. But as every calling is over- crowded with such, it is eminently desirable, both in their own interests and in those of the nation, that their ranks should be chinned and the colonies should be aided by the transference of some of them to new scenes of enterprise. England can spare a goodly number of them, and is con- stantly breeding more than she herself can give work to, and the colonies require all they can receive, for generations to come, of immigrants who will have to toil as manfully as at home, but who may fairly expect far richer gains than they could expect from their toil at home, and who may derive an additional satisfaction in their good fortune by knowing that their gains involve no loss to +^heir neighbours. Each colony has its special needs and its special facilities for advancement ; but in nearly all — in all but the few that are already well supplied with an enterprising population — there is room fo^" hard-working settlers of every grade. In the great emigration-fields of British North America and Australia, however, there is most, and for the present boundless, room for farm labourers and their employers, and for artisans and their directors. "Where vast tracts of land wait only to be tilled, and to have their useless vegetation replaced by wholesome cultivation, where new roads and canals have to be constructed, and where, as the produce is multipUed, the towns require fresh building of houses, i' p w wmm \ 38: THE END OF THE STORY. increased development of manufactories, and augmentation of all the resources for rendering available and transmitting,' to near and distant marts the fruit of agricultural and other labours, it is evident that all who can supply these demands will be most welcome, and will profit most by their enter- prise. That enterprise, if rightly directeci, cannot fail of success. It must benefit the individuals who engage in it, and confer equal benefit on the countries that receive them, and the country that sends them fortl. , The noblest outcome of English colonization appears in the vast empire of the United States of America. But the foundations of other empires as noble have been laid, and whether they continue to own formal allegiance to their mother country, or in the end become independent nations, they cannot but be of inestimable advantage to the lUtle island that gave them birth. And no political divergence need break the bonds of friendship, or retard the progress of the highly-endowed race of men which, emerging from its English cradle, promises to spread the civilizing influences of its birth over the fairest and broadesli portions of both hemispheres, and, in spite of any turmoils that may be incident to its development, to continue its good work ' Till the war-drum throbs no longer, and the battle-flags are furl'd In the rukliament of man. the Federatitm of the world.' tation littiivu' [ other mauds enter- uccess. confer lid the ome of of the f other ontinuo in the t be of ■e thein )onds of ved race mises to fairest spite of hr I'd INDEX. Abercuomby, Sir Ralph, Trinida'l captured by, Gl ; Canada invaded by, 92 Acadie, or Now Franco. Sec Canaila and Nova Scotia Adttlaido River, Ninth Australia, -'314 Adelaide, South Australia, 256, 2i)0, 2tjl, 203, 2G7, 308 Africa, Colonies in Western, 1 .">;'>- lo7 Albany, Western Australia, 302, 30i Alberta, Canadian Dominion, 130, 142 Alexander, Sir William, Nova Scotia granted to (102 1), 87, 9G Annapolis, Nova Scotia, 85 Anti>.;iia, its colonization and history, Gl, G2 Arthur, Sir George, first governor of Tasmania, 235 Assam, 190 Asainiboia, Canadian Dominion, 130 Athaba-ca, Canadian Dominion, 130 Auckland, New Zealand, 337, 3 17, 351, 356 Australia, 140, 202-201, 208, 209, 231, 270, 30G-319, 3G7-372. See also New South W; 'i>-j (Queensland, Suutli Australia, Victoria,aJui Western Australia Australia Felix, 228, 242, 308 Australia, South. See South Australia Australia, Western. See Western Australia Australian Aborigines, 203, 200-209, 229, 230, 304, 309-311, 316, 317 Ayacue, Sir George, his invasion and conquest of Barbados in 1051 and 1652, 34, 35 Bacon, Lord, on colonization, 373 Bahamas, the, first visited by Columbus, 28 ; their colonization by the English, and present condition, 60, 61 Baird, Sir David, in Cape Colony, 102 Ballarat Gold-Fields, Victoria, 272, 274, 277-279, 285, 286 Barbados, discovered by the Portuguese, 31 ; robbed of its Indian inhabi- tanta by the Spaniards, 32 ; visited by the English in 1005 and 1025, 32; colonized by Sir William Courteen in 1025, 32 ; its early troubles, 33 ; made a Royalist stionghoM by Lord Willoughby of I'arham in 1650, 33 ; conquered for the Conimonwealtli by Sir George Ayscue 384 INDEX. 1 ; in 16r)2, 34, 35 ; furnished with white slaves from England in ICn? and other yearH, 30 ; its prosperity in the middle of the sevtiiteeiUh century, 37 ; Lord Willouf,'hby'8 second j,'overnnient, 37 ; its later I)ro(,'re8s, 37 ; its slave laws, :KS ; its present condition, 05 Rarktr, Captain, the Australian explorer, 257 liarkly, Sir Henry, governor of Victoria, 280, 281 Uass, the Australian discoverer, 215, 232, 210 Bass's Straits, 21 G, 240 Basutoland, 171 Batliurst, Australia, 217, 272, 280, 306 Batman, John, his early settlement in Victoria, 241, 242, 244 Bay of Islands, the. New Zealuud, 321, 332, 337, 350 Bechuanalaiid, 174, 176 Benbow, Admiral, 50 Bendigo Gold-Fields, Victoria, 273, 274, 286 Berbice, 03 Bermudas, the, their discovery and colonization, 59 ; their progress and present condition, CO Berry, Sir John, in Newfoundland, 73 Bla.xland, the Australian explorer, 1.17, 306 Bligh, Captain, governor of New South Wales, 214 liloemfontein, South Africa, 173, 174 Blue Mountains, the, New South Wales, 217, 219, 228, 306 Boers, the, 159-101, 171-174, 181-186 Borneo, 196-200 Botany Bay, 200, 207, 209, 211, 212 Bourke, Sir Richard, governor of New South Wales, 220, 227, 215 "MO 327 Bombay, 189 Bowen, Sir George, governor of Victoria, 282 ; of Queensland, 297, 299 ; of New Zealand, 351 Boyd, massacre of the crew of the, in New Zealand, 321-323 Bradford, Ontario, 119 Brady, the Tasmanian bush-ranger, 233, 234 Brazil, the fabled Island of, 17, 19 Brisbane, Sir Thomas, governor of New South Wales, 220, 226 Brisbane, (^leensland, 291, 293, 294, 296, 299 Bristol, early voyages of exploration from, 17-21 British Columbia, its early history, 128 ; its establishment as a colony, (1857), 129, 148 ; its gold and other wealth, 129, 148, 151, 152; its union with Vancouver Island, 129; its absorption in the Canadian Dominion, 130, 133 ; its present condition and resources, 142-144 British Guinea, its history and present condition, 63, 64 British Honduras, 65 British Kaffraria, 174 British North Borneo, 200 British New Guinea, 366 Brooke, Rajah, in Borneo, 197-199 Broome, Sir F. N., governor of Western Australia, 305 Bruce, George, the first English resident in New Zealand, 321 Buccaneers, the, of the West Indies, 42-48, 52 Buckley, William, his adventures among the natives of Victoria, 243-245 Burke, Robert O'Hara, the Australian explorer, 315-317 r IX DEW 3«5 \ in 16r.7 ■inteenth its later )y the French (1608), 84; Champlain's government (lOOS-lti:}.-)), 8.'»-^7 ; comiuered by Sir David Kirke in 1629, and restored to France in 1633,87 ; earlyhistory of, 87-89; its condition in the v.ightetnth century, 90, 91 ; wars with Ani' rica i nd England, 91-9') ; couipiered hy the Knjflish (1759), 93-95, 1 ; its early condition as an English colony, 103, 106 ; its first war with the United States (1775-1776), 101. 105 ; the relations of its French and English inhabitants, lOcMlO ; pitlitical disputes, 110, 111 ; formation of tiie pntvinces of Up])er and Lower Canada (1791), 110; the 'Reign of Terror' (1807-1^11), 111 ; xU second war with the United States (18121814), 112-114; further political troubles, 114-116 ; insurrections in Upper Canada (1837-1838), 116, 117 ; the Earl of Durham's visit to the colony (1838), 106-109, 117 ; Charles Plaiii, Saiiiml, his cnlonizatidH and gdvcrmneiit of Canada, 84-87 ChildiTs, H. C. !•:., ill Vic-t'tiia, 281 ChriHtchurc'h, Xuw Ztaland, '-VMS Chiikc, Dr., discovtTV of i,'uhl in Australia by, 271 Cnd-tishirit:s, Xfwfiumdlaiid, 7--S1 Collins, ColontI, his attt-'iiiptcd Hcttlcnu-nt in Port Phillip, 210, 211 Collins, Colonel, in Cajw Colony, 1(5-"J Colombo, Ceylon, 1!I2 Colmnlnis, his discovery of America, 18, 20, 2S ; his exile in Jamaica, 40, 11 Convicts in New South Wales, 210-215,220-223, 221-227; in Tasmania, 2:52 ; in Western Australia, ;{0;5, ;J01 Cook, Captain, his visits to New Zealand and Australia, 204-208, 2fl:j Cook Strait, New Zenlanrl, .'}.'}.'] Cooper's Creek, Australia, 31 "t, 316 Courteen, Sir William, his coloniiiation of Barbados, 32 Cuba, 43 Cunningham, Allan, explorations in Australia by, 306 Cyprus, 153, 154 Damimku, William, as a buccaneer, 48, 203 ; his visits to Australia, 203, 204 Daniel, J, F., on the Jubilee of Melbourne, 282 Darlinj,' Downs, Australia, 295, 297, 306 Darling liiver, Australia, 228, 242, 307 Darling, Sir Charles, governor of Victoria, 281, 282 Darling, Sir Ralph, governor of New South Wales, 226 Darwin, Charles, in New Zealand, 329 Delagoa Bay, 178, 181 T)eiuerara, 63 Denisim, Sir W. T., governor of Tasmania, 237 ; of New South Wales, 287 Derby, the Earl of, on New Zealand warfare, 342 Detroit, 112 Dorado, El, 63 D'Oyley, Colonel, governor of Jamaica, 46, 48 Drake, Sir Francij, his piracies and public warfare against Spain in the West Indies and elsewhere, 23, 30, 31, 43 ; his visit to the site of British Columbia, 128 Du Cane, Sir Charles, governor of Tasmania, 238 Dundonald, the Earl of, his visit to Trinidad, 64 Dunedin, New Zealand, 356 Durban, Natal, 181 D'Urban, Sir Benjamin, governor of Cape Colony, 167 Durham, the Earl of, in Canada, 106-109, 114-li7 Dyaks, the, of Borneo, 197-199 East India Company, the, 24, 188, 191, 201 Entry Island, New Zealand, 327 Erie, Fort, 112, 113 I'^ssequibo, 63 Evans, the Australian explorer, 306 r condition 81-87 11 1 Jiunaicii, Tiismaiila, 8, 29:} Htralia, 20:?, Wales, 287 pain in the the site of IXDEX. Kyre, Sir E J ward John, the Australian explorer, 30S-:j12 Eyre, Lake, Australia, 318, 315) 387 Fairwkll, Lieutenant, his nettlement in Natal, 17!>, ISO Falkland, Lord, his share in coloni/.in*,' Newfoundland, 7*2 Fawkner, John Pascoe, his early settleintnt in Victoria, 242 Fiji, early visits to, 3r>8, 3'>i) ; English settlements in, 351) ; us an English colony, 3r)9-3t)3 Fisheries, Newfoundland, 71-82 Fitzrcjy, Sir Charles, governor of New Soutli Wales, 287 ; of New Zealand, 338. 343 Flinders, Captain, the Australian discoverer, 215-217, 22S, 232, 240, "'.yt), 293 Fort Darwin, North Australia, 208, 317 Forrest, John and Alexander, Australian explorers, 317, 318 Franklin, Sir John, ^'overnor of Tasuiania, 2;Jl] Freemantle, Western Australia, 302, 30G Free Town, Sierra Leone, 156 Frere, Sir Bartle, in South Africa, 183, 184 Gaika, the Kaffir chief, 105-167 (iranibia, 155, 156 Gardiner, Captain Allen, in Natal, 181 Gawler, Colonel, Governor of Soutli Australia, 258, 259 Geelong, Victoria, 241, 245, 251 George Town, British Guiana, 64 (ieorge Town, Tasmania, 232, 235 (Gibraltar, 151 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, his attempted colonization oi Newfoundland, 21, 72 Gipps, Sir George, governor of New South Wales, 246, 287 (rlenelg. Lord; on the Kaffir wars, 168, 169 Goderich, Lord, on New Zealand atiocities, 327 Gold Coast, the, 156 Gold Mines, of British Columbia, 142; of Cape Colonv, 175; >f New South Wales, 271, 272, 285 ; of Victoria, 272-275, 277-279, 285 ; of Queensland, 297 ; of New Zealand, 339, 353 Gordon, Sir Arthur, governor of New Zealand, 354 ; of Fiji, 302, 363 Gore-Browne, Colonel, governor of New Zealand, 353 Gozo, 151-153 Graham, Colonel, in Cape Colony, 163-165 Graham's Town, 165, 166 Graydon, Admiral, in Newfoundland, 75 Gregory, A., the Australian explorer, 318 Grey, Sir George, governor of South Australia, 259, 200 ; his explorations in West Australia, 308 ; his services as governor of New Zealand, 338, 343, 353 Guiana, 63, 64 Habitans, the French, in Canada, 103-110 Hamilton, Ontario, 119 Hau-Hau superstition in New Zealand, the, 349-351 Hargreaves, E. H., gold discovered in Australia by, 272 25—2 1!PP 388 INDEX. % li Hawkins, Sir John, \\\* Hlave-trading expeditions to the African cnfti.t anil th." W.'^t In.litH, '2f)-.'n. 155 Ifiiwke'H 15jiv, New Zeuhmd, 'iWl H..yti, 2H, 4:J, 50 Head, Sir Krutici«, governor of Canada, 116 Ht'li^iiluiid, 151 Hi-nty, Thoniaw, his early settlement in Victoria, 241 Hindniarsh, Sir John, first governor of South Anstrulia, 258 llispaniola, 2S, l.'J Hobart, Tasmania, 232, 235, 241 Hohson, Cai»tiiin, the first governor of New Zealand, 331, 335 Honif Koti',', llt'i, Ut(5 Hotham, Sir Charles, governor of Victoria, 277, 280 Hottent(.ts, the, ISi'-lOl, KIO, lt)7, 170, 171 Hovell, W. C, the Australian explorer, 241, 306 Hoviitt, Alfred William, the Australian explorer, 317 Hudson, Metuy, in America, 72, 121 Hudson's Bay Cotnpany, the, 121-129 Hudson's Bay Territory, the, its extent and character, 122-130; early Hottlements and trade in, 123 ; its Indian natives, 127 ; its surrender to Canada, 12!) Hughes, Captain, in South Australia, 265 Hume, Hamilton, the Australian explorer, 241, 306 India, British, its history and commerce, 24, 149, 150, 187-190, 378, 379 Indians. North American, their early relations with the French and Kngli.vh, 84-89 Ipswich, I2»t!t;n'''lii'"d , 296 Jackson, Colonel, his visit to Jamaica, 41 Jamaica, discovered by Columbus in 1494, 40 ; his residence in it, 40, 41 ; captured and almost depopidated by the Spaniards. 41 ; first visited by the English (1605), 41 ; captured for Cromwell by General Venables (1655), 42, 46 ; its first English colonists, 42 ; its connection with the buccaneers, 42-48 : it pro,'.,'ress in the seventeenth century, 48 ; its losses by earth(|uakes and hurricanes in 1692 and later years, 49, 50 ; its com- mercial importance in 1728, 51, 52 ; its progress in the eighteenth cen- tury, 52 ; its condition as a slave colony, 52-58, 67 ; tho insurrection of 1760,54,55 ; the Consolidated Slave Act of 1792, 56 ; the insurrection of 1832. 56. 57 ; the abolition of slavery in 1834, 58 ; its natural beauties and resources, 65-67 ; its degradation and the causes, 07-69 ; the chances of its amelioration, 69, 70 Jay, John, 'the younger,' his voyage in search of Cathay, 19 Kaffirs, the, in South Africa, 162-174, 176—186 Kapunda Copper Mines, South Australia, 260, 261 Kennedy, Sir Arthur, govc-rnor of Queensland, 299 Kimberley, South Africa, 174 Kimberley, Western Australia, 318 King, Captain, his account of South Australia, 256 King (xeorge's Sound, Australia, 309 King Movement, the, in New Zealand, 345 Kingston, Jamaica, 48, 54, 68 f rXDEX. 389 Kirku, Sir Duviil, his shiiru in colDni/.itig Nuwfouudland, 72 ; hid iiivudiim of Ciinada, 87 K<»n>rariku, Nuw Zealand, 332, 342 Kowlooi), 1!»6 Lahradoii, 19, 20 liabuaii, lit7, 200 Layits, ir»o Lande.sborouj^h, William, tiio Australian explorer, 317 Lane, Sir lialph, the Hr.st governor of Virginia, 22 Latrobe, Charles James, in Victoria, 21.'), 277 Lanncr-Hton. Tasmania, 235 Lawson, William, the Australian explorer, 217, 306 Ltake, Sir tfohu, in Xewfoundland, 7'» Leichhardt, Dr., the Australian explorer, 295, 312 Leigh, Sir Olive, in Barbados, 32 Levuka, 3G3 Ley, Lord, in Harbados, 32 London, Ontario, 119 Lonsdale, Captain William, in Victoria, 245 Macauthl'k, John, ' the father of New South Wales,' 214, 223 Macartney, the Earl of, in Cape Colony, 161 Macdonell, Sir liichard, governor of South Australia, 264 Macomo, the Kaffir chief, 171 M'Kinlay, irohn, the Australian explorer, 317 M'Leay, Alexander, in South Wales, 248, 249 M'Nab. Lieutenant-Colonel, his suppression of the Toronto insurrection in 1837, 116 Macquarie, General, governor of New South Wale-*, 214, 217, 220, 226, 287 Maccpiarie River, 217, 306 Malabars, the, of Ceylon, 193 Malacca, 194 Malta, 151-153 Ma.i':toba, 128, 130, 133, 140, 141 Manoa, the Golden City of, 63 Maoris, the, of New Zealand, 204, 205, 320-352 Marlb, LSI lion with visited bv , 7-2 ; sir L, 72 ; the the fishers ^session of hories, 78, to, 303 ; [lony, 206- ••ihe first Hip (17S7- Igovernors, 12U, 220; ;i tolN3y, 220, 226 ; ^lacarthur in 1829. ; politicid s31-lS8S), Gii^ps's 183'." to Ihe colony -covjries, If (.Jueens- few South New Zealand, its earlv inhabitants, 320 ; Captain Cook'.s visits, 201-206, 20s, 321 ; early Kni,'lish intercourse with it, 321 ; the massacre of the crew of tlie lioyd (1809), 321-323 ; missionary work in it, 323, 324, 329, 337, 338 ; the first traders and their influences, 32-l-;V2S ; the character of the Maoris, 32S-331 ; the beginning of JMiglish coloniza- tion, 328 ; the New Zealand Company, 332-337 ; establishment of the colony (1S3!>, ISIO), 333-335 ; Captain Hobson's rule as first governor (1S40-1S12), 33"., 336, 338 ; growth of the white population, 336, 341; the nine provinces (jf New Zealand, 337, 338; its cnminercial progress, 339 ; tlie gradual displacement of its Maori inhabitants, 338, 340, 341 ; Colonel Wakefield's aggression in 1843, and -ts conse- quences, 341-343 ; Sir George Grey's government, 338, 343, 353, 354 ; rise of tlie King-movement, 345, 346 ; the disturbances of 1860, 346 ; warfare between 1862 and 1869, 347-351 ; the Hau-Hau superstition, 349-351 ; the dying out of the Maoris, 352 ; its recent history and prospects, 353-357, 370 Niagara, 91, 112 Nicholson, General, first governor of Nova Scotia, 96 Norfolk liland, Australia, 231 Normanby, Lord, governor of Victoria, 282 ; of Queensland, 299 North Australia, 268, 269, 315-317 Nova Scotia, colonized by the French (1604), 84, 85, 96 ; conquered by the P]nglish (1614), 86, 96 ; retaken by the French (1667), 96 ; finally transferred to the English (IT"* 3), 90,96 ; its early French inhabitants — their expulsion in 1755, and return, 96, 97 ; its progress as an English colony, 98, 99 ; its imion with Canad?., 132 ; its present condition and resources, 136, 137 Ontario, 132, 139, 140 Orange Free State, 172-174 Osborn, Captain Henry, first governor of Newfoundland, 76 Otago, New Zealand, 337, 339 Ottawa, Ontario, 119, 132, 140 Oxley, the Australian explorer, 293, 306 Pai-marire superstition in New Zealand, the, 349-351 Parkhnrst, Anthony, 71 PatotitU, the Maori, 345 Penang, 194 Perth, Western Australia, 302, 306 Phillip, Captain Arthur, first governor of New South Wales, 211, 212, 215 Pitch Lake of Trinidp.d, the, 64 Placentia, Newfoundland, 74, 75 Pocahontas, 25 Pondoland, 174 Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony, 167, 171 Port Essington, Australia, 312 Port Jackson, New South Wales, 211, 220, 289 Port Louis, Mauritius, 201 Port Mac(iuarie, New South Wales, 220, 228, 233 Port Maria, Jamaica, 54 Port Phillip, Victoria, 220, 228, 243, 306 Port Phillip District. iS'ce Victoria, Australia 392 INDEX. Port Royal, Jam.iica, a buccaneer haunt in the seventeenth century, 48 ; destroyed by an earthquake in 1092, -19, 50, (38 Port Royal, Nova Scotia, 85, 80 Prince Edward Island, its history, 102, 132 ; its present condition, ]3i, 135 Prince Rupert's Land, 122 QuKBKC, the city, 84, 85, 87, 88, 90, 93-95, 104, 105, 110, 124, 138, 140 Quebec, the province, 132, 138-140 C^ueensland, its early exploration, 293-295, 312 ; its separation from Nf\v South Wales and establishment as a separate colony (1859), 287, 29(J ; its progress and prospects, 291, 293-299, 308, 309 Raffles, Sih Stamfoud, capture of Singiiport. by, 195 Raleigh, Sir Walter, his attempted colonization of Virginia, 22, 23 ; his expeditions to Guiana, 03 Red River Settlement, the, 128, 141 Ristigouche River, New Brunswick, 137 Robinson, Sir Hercules, governor of New South Wales, 2S8, 361 ; of New Zealand, 354 Rockhampton, Queensland, 291, 297 Rotumah, 364 Sable Island, 84 Saint Christopher, or St. Kitts, first colonized by the English, 32 Saint John's, Newfoundland, 75, 78 Saint Lawrence, Gulf and River of, 83, 84, 87, 88, 94, 102, 105, 134, 138, 139 San Dt>mingo, '/8 Sandwich, Canada, 112 Sarawak, 197-200 Saskatchewan, 128, 142 Seal-hunting, Newfoundland, 79, 80 Selwy Bishop, in New Zealand, 342 Seychelles Islands, the, 201 Shepstone, Sir Theophilus, in Natal, 183 Shirley, Sir Anthony, his visit to Jamaica, 41 Sierra-Leone, 155, 156 Singapore, 194, 195 Sinhalese, the, 193 Slaves, African, in Barbados, 36-38 ; in Jamaica, 42, 48, 52-58, 69 ; in Antigua, 61 ; in Cape Colony, 160, 161, 173 Slaves, Caribbean, in tlie West Indies, 31, 41 Slaves, English, in Barbados, 36 Smith, Captain John, 24 Smith, Sir Harry, in Cape Colony,, 168-171, 173 Somers, Sir George, his visits to the Bermudas, 59 Somerset, Lord Charles, governor of Cape Colony, 165 South Australia, its discovery, 256, 257 ; its colonization on the Wakefield scheme (1830), 257 ; its first governors. Captain Hindmar.-h and Colonel Gawler, and its early troubles (1836-1841), 258, 259 ; its im- proved condition under Sir George Grey (1841-1845), 259, 200 ; and Sir Henry Young (1848-1854), 203, 264, 270 ; its copper and lead miius, 260, 261, 265 ; effects of the gold discoveries, 202-204 ; its progress under Sir Richard Macdonell (1853-1862), 264 ; its wool trade, 260 ; INDEX. 393 iry, 48 ; 134,13;') 110 nm "SfW ;S7, 29ii ; , 23 ; his ; of New 4,138,139 r.8, 69 ; in IWakefifld InarHh and li) ; its iin- 260 ; and lead mines, Is pi'ojrress lade, 266 ; its wheat trade, 266 ; its wine trade, 266, 267 ; its present condition, 267, 268, 368 ; its northern territory, 268, 317, 318, 368 Spanish Town, Jamaica, 48 Squatters, Australian, 227, 246-250 Stockenstrom, Mr., in Cape Colony, 164, 165 Strahan, Sir G. C, governor of Tasmania, 238 Straits Settlements, the, 194, 195 Strzelecki, Count, his discovery of ;old in Australia, 271 Stuart, John M'Douall, the Australian explorer, 312-315 Sturt, Captain, the Australian explorer, 228, 256, 257, 307, 308, 312, 313 Suva, Fiji, 36S Swan River, Western Australia, 300-302 Sydney, New South Wales, 211, 214, 217, 220, 224, 225, 228, 254, 284, 285, 288, 289, 306, 321 Taranaki, New Zealand, 337, 344, 347, 349 Tasman, Abel Jansen, 202 Tasmania, its discovery, 202 ; Captain Cook's visit to it, 208 ; its insularity proved by Bass and. Flinders, 216 ; its adoption and early progress as a convict settlement, 232, 233 ; its bush-rangers, 233-235 ; its refor- mation and growth, 233, 235 , its governors — Sir George Arthur, 233, 235 ; Sir John Franklin, 236 ; its progress and present condition, 237- 239, 369 Te Ranga, New Zealand, 349 Thakombau, King, of Fiji, 359-361 Thompson, Charles Poulett, governor of Canada, 118 Tippahee, the Maori, 321, 322 Toronto, 113, 116, 119, 139, 140 Torrens, Lake, Australia, 309, 313, 318 Tortuga, 45, 46 Transvaal, the, 174, 182, 184, 185 Trinidad, its history and present condition, 64, 65 Truganina, or Lalla Rookh, the last of the Tasmanians, 239 Tufton, Sir William, governor of Barbados, 32 Udinquan, the Zulu chief, 180, 181 United States of America, the, their commencement and early history, 22-26, 148 ; their Canadian wars, 89-95, 104, 105, 111-114 Usibipu, the Zulu chief, 184 Utshaka or Cbaku, the Zulu chief, 180 Vancouver, British Columbia, 144 Vancouver Island, its early history, 128, 129 ; its formation as a colony (1848), 129, 149 ; its union with British Columbia (1866), 129, 130 ; its condition and resources, 143-145 Van Diemen's Land. Ste. Tasmania. Veddas, the, of Ceylon, 193 Venables, General, conquest of Jamaica by, in 1655, 41, 46 Verazzano, GioTanni, exploration of North America by, 83 Victoria, or the Port Phillip District, Australia, its discovery, 240 ; its colonization attempted (1803), and early settlements in, 241, 242 ; Mitchell's visits to, 228, 242 ; William Buckley's wanderings ia, 243- 245 ; its formal oecupation under Sir Richard Bourke, 245 ; its early ^m 394 INDEX, h progress as a province of New South Wales, 245, 250, 251 ; Melbourne in 1838, 251, 252 ; its establishment as an independent colony (1851), 270 ; the gold discoveries, 271, 272 ; their effects on the colony, 273- 275 ; its recent progress, 275-277 ; the growth of Melbourne, 276 ; the Ballarat outbreak (1854), 277-279 ; political changes in Victoria, 279-282 Victoria, British Columbia, 144 Victoria, Hong Kong, 195, 196 Victoria Lake, South Aiistralia, 256, 257 Victoria River, North Australia, 296 Virginia, 24 Vogel, Sir Julius, in New Zealand, 354 Waikato, New Zealand, 347, 348 Waimati, New Zealand, 329 Waitara, New Zealand, 345, 346 Wakefield, Colonel, in New Zealand, 333 Wakef.Jd Scheme of Colonization, the, in South Australia, 257-260 ; in New Zealand, 332-336, 341, 342 Walker, Frederick, the Australian explorer, 317 Wallaroo Copper Mines, South Australia, 265 Warner, Sir Thomas, colonizer of Antigua, 61 Weld, Sir F. G., governor of Tasmania, 238 Wellington, New Zealand, 337, 354 Wentworth, William Charles, the Australian explorer and statesman, 217- 219, 287, 306 West Griqualand, South Africa, 174 West Indies, our colonies in the, 28-70. {See names of Islands.) Western Australia, its early explorations, 300 ; its unfortunate colonization (1829-1832), 300-302 ; its subsequent progress, 302, 303; its convicts, 303, 304 ; its present condition, 305, 368 Westland, New Zealand, 337 WilloughlDy of Parham, Lord, governor of Barbados, 33-37; his reconquest of Antigua, 61 Wills, William John, the Australian explorer, 315-317 Wilmot, Sir Eardly, governor of Tasmania, 237 Winnipeg, Manitoba, 141 Wirimu Tamihana, the Maori, 345 Wolfe, General James, his capture of Cape Breton, 92 ; his siege of Quebec and death, 92-95 Wolseley, Lord, in Canada, 141 /; PR Yorke's PENINSULA; South Australia, 265 Young, Sir Henry, governor of South Australia, 264 Zulus, the, 177-182 THB KND. \\m- ll 11!: BILLINS « SONS, PRINTERS, QUILOrORO. 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It is soinid, whole- 8oiMe food, and it is so administered that it can bo easily .assimilated. Uulos, roa.son- ing, illustrations by anecdote, suggestions as to the ethics and manners of the game, are happily mingled togetlier." — Wi»t- miuftcr Gazette. " Any one who knows Whist must pri7,c the book highly, and everyone who thinks he knows tlio game ought to be compelled by law to keep quiet about it until ho is qualified to pass an exarainatiou in the matter of tho book." — Scotsman. "The most important compilation that has yot appeared of everything relating to our most popular indoor game." — Indian Daili/ Neirs. " Mr. Wilks has now laid down tho law on Solo Whist." — Detroit Free Press, "Caters for every class of players. Amongst its contributors are all the elect of the green cloth tables." — DuKy Teh graph. HOURS IN MY GARDEN: and other Nature Sketches. By A. H. Japp, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Author of " Life of De Quincey," etc. With 138 Hlustrations by W. H. J. Boot, A. W. Cooper, and others. In large crown 8vo., 344 pages, cloth, bevelled boards, price 6s. ; gilt edges, Gs. Gd. " A book that would have made Par.son Wliite, of Selborne, sit up all night. Every page is poetry and sutjgestiveness. " — Liverpool Mercury. "There is a very genuine love of rural nature and a happy touch in describing its aspects and its living manifestations." — Times. London : John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, RO. (») m ! I f i i Sixth Thousand. Fcap. 8vo., boards, price la. Depression: What it is, and how to Cure it. By A. E. Bridger, B. A., M.D., B.Sc, F.R.C.P.E., Late Physician to the Hospital for Diseases of the Chest. Author of " Man and his Maladies," " The Treatment of Oonsumption," etc. " Doserves to be studied for ita frank, healthy, itnd helpful advice."— S/i#eirf Inde- pendent. . _ ^ ■ — ii!rr^ir!Ziii77T!r — ~ — — "m , r_r— ii — i — l' POPULAR LEGAL HANDBOOKS by ALMARIC RUMSEY, Barrister at-Law, Professor of Indian Jurisprudence at King's College. Fcap. 8vo., strongly bound, price Is. each. Jievised to dale. 1.— Will-Making Made Safe and Easy, An Aid to Testators, Gentle and Simple, Male and Femait, Married and Single, Infant and Adult, Civil and Military, on Land and at Sea, at Home and Abroad ; with a Great Variety of Forms and Rules of Descent of Real and Personal Property on Intestacy " We can commend it both to those who have no legal adviser at hand, and to the country practitioner liimself." — Lato Maga- zint and Review. [ —Law Journal. " His directions are clear, his law sound." "J!ay be the means of saving many a man from leaving that doubtful legacy — a lawsuit." — Literary World. " It seems to be the best of all books of its kind." — Athenaeum. "For clergymen, too, who are often called upon suddenly to make the wills of poor parishioners, it will be very helpful. It is remarkably concise and clear in itb J inguage and practical in its suggestions." — Guardian. 2.--The Way to Prove a Will and to take out Administration. Containing Full Instructions Where, How, and When to Apply ; with Alphabetical Tables, Forms of Oaths, Bonds, etc. ; Rules for Personal Applications ; and other Information required for obtaining Probate or Administration. "Contains much useful information arranged with a careful regard for readinesf of ac- cess. A special feature ia the forms, to which much labour has been devoted. " — Law Times. "Such a capital condensation of the law and practice, that no doubt many solicitors will find it remarkably handy for reference." — BHslol Mercury. " Executors and next-of-kin will find it a useful hook."— Literary World. WITH STOTHABD'a ILLUSTRATIONS, ENGRAVED BY HKATH. Demy 8vo., richly bound, cloth, gilt edges, 7s. 6d. ; half calf extra, 128. 6d. The Life and A dventures of Robinson Crusoe, with a Sketch of Defoe, by Henry J. Nicoll. Note. — A complete, unabridged edition of Defoe's masterpiece, with all the 22 beautiful Illustrations by Thomas Stothard, R.A., engraved by Charles Heath. These are now printed from the Original Copper Plates, which are still in perfect condition, having been steel-faced to preserve them. " Mr. HogK is to be thanke 1 for re-issuing the ' Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe withStothard's twenty-two designs engraved on copper by Charles Heath. Their charm is Irresistible, and as book prints they rank among the classics of English art. They are delightful works. The text before us is complete, and well printed in a clear type. This edition 18, therefore, excellent"— Athena!um. HINTS FOR THE SELECTION OF CHRISTIAN NAMES. Second edition, 176 pp., cloth, price Is. 6d. The Pocket Dictionary of One Thousand Christian Names (Masculine and Feminine) ; with their Meanings Explained and Arranged in Four Different Ways. iW Every Parent ahovld comult this hefore deciding on a Child's Name. "This will be a useful and interesting book for those who like to learn the meaning of their own and their friends* appellations. Parents should purchase it, as it might help them to name their children a little more originally than they do."— Glasgow Herald. (10) London : John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow^E^. POPULA« COOKERY BOOKS. Med Hum 16mo., 128 pages, boards, la., printed in brown ink. 1. What shall we have for Breakfast? or, Everybody's Breakfast Book. Containing over 175 Recipes. By Agnes C. Maitland, Author of " The Afternoon Tea-Book." "An epicure, or rather a glutton, might after reading Miss Maitland's book answer her title question by sajing, 'Everything you Lave got here, please.' It is a worthy little book..' — Manchester Guardian, Dedicated to H.R.H. the Duchess of ALBANY. Second Edition. Eleventh Thousand. Medium 16n)0., price Is. 2. The Afternoon Tea Book. How to make Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, Cakes,- Scones, Rolls, Sandwiches, Cooling Drinks, and Ices. By Agnks C. Maitland. "A most useful little manual." — Glasgow Herald. Crown 8vo., 160 pages, price Is., strongly bound in linen cloth. 3. The Cookery Primer for School and Home Use. By Aqnks C. Maitland. The Book contains One Hundred and Twenty-five Becipes for very Cheap Wholesome Dishes, Hints for Hard Times, Rcmiirks about tht; Higlit Kinds of Food, Prices of Various Foods, Specimen Breakfasts, How to Sjiend the Money and do the Cooking, About Cooking Pans and Tins, Best Ways of Cooking Meat, llow to Cook Fish, Invalid Cookery, etc. Tlie Cookery Primer will be found very usefulju Elementary Schools, as well as in Cottage Homes. Eleventh edition, crown 8vo., 302 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. 4. Dainty Dishes. Receipts collected by Lady Harriet St. Clair (late Countess Mimster), " A design so excellent, and un aciomplishment so complete, may well recommend this volume to the consideration of the ladies of this kingdom. If economy can be combined with an agreeable and nutritious diet, by all means let the fact be well known." — BHtish Hail. " It is something to say in this age of many cookery-books, that the recipes given are not fanciful, but practical. They can really be cooked, a recommendation that cannot be given to many of our cookery-books." — Glasgow Herald. 5. Dainty Dishes. Cheap Edition. SeejKigei. Second Edition, Tenth Thousand, crown 8vo., 176 pp., linen cloth, price Is. 6. Toothsome Dishes : Fish, Flesh, and Fowl ; Soups, Sauces, and Sweets. Nearly One Thousand Recipes, with Household Hints and other Useful Information. Edited by Carrie Davenport. "Just the work for a domestic manager to consult and esteem."— Daiiy Telegraph. "The recipes arc plain and good." — Saturday Review. Crown 8vo., 128 pages, boards, price Is. 7. TheHousewife'sHandy-book. Three Hundred and Fifty Useful E very-day Recipes. By C. J. S. Thompson, Author of " The Best Thing to Do," etc. " An exceedingly useful supplement to an ordinary cookery or household book. . Another class of recipes is for Toilet preparations'"— 6'/i':/''c7(^ Lidcpcukii.t. 8. Drinks of all Kinds, Hot and Cold, for all Seasons (hidudmg Temperance and lie. ^t oral ice Driulcs), By Fhedhkick and Skymouu Daviks. Fcap. 8vo., \b'l pp., pricu Is. " This is ti capital little manual, containing numerous recipes for the best summer and inter drinks, both British and foreign."— S/kjIu.;-/ In'ki)endent. "Wl London : Jolm Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, E.O. (11) ih > •; 1 1 ' hi ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY BOOKS, INCULCATING KINDNESS TO ANIMALS. WITH UPWARDS OF 300 ENGBA VINOS BT BEWICK AND OTHEBS. FIFTH AND CHEAP EDITION. Large crown 8vo., 520 pp., cloth, price 3b. 6d. ; gilt edges, 48. 1. The Parlour Menagerie: Wherein are ex- hibited, In a Descriptive and Anecdotical form, the Habits, Resources, and Mysterious Instincts of the more Interesting Portions of the Animal Creation. Dedicated by permission to the Bight Hon. the Baroness Burdett-Goutts (President) and the Members of the Ladies' Committee of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. MB. MORWOODS NATURAL HISTORY BOOKS. From the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. "I am directed by the Literature Committee to inform you tliat Mr. Morwood's books (' Facts and Ptiases of Animal Life ' and ' Wonderful Animals ') are calculated greatly to pro- mote the objects of this Society, and, therefore, it is our earnest hope that they will be purchased by all lovers of animals for circulation among young persona, and in public institutions.— John Colam, Secretary." WI^H BEVENTY-FIVK WOOD KNQKAVING8. Second Edition, small crown 8vo., 288 pp., cloth, prico 28 6d. ; gilt edges, 38. 2. Facts and Phases of Animai Life, and the Claims of Animals to Humane Treatment. With Original and Amusing Anecdotes. By Vernon S.Morwood, late Lecturer to tli;^ Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. WITH BIGHTT-ONK ILLUSTRATIONS, Second Edition, small crown 8vo., 288 pp., cloth, price 2s. 6d. ; gilt edges, Ss. 3. Wonderful Animals: Working, Domes- tic, and Wild. Their Structure, Habits, Homes, and Uses — De- scriptive, Anecdotical, and Amusing. By Vernon S. Morw^ood. Dtdicated by permission to the Royal Society/or the Prevention qf Cruelty to Aritnals, SECOND EDITION, WITH FIFTY-NINE ILLUSTRATIONS. 128pp., small crown 8vo., boards, price Is. ; or bound in cloth, Is. (id. 4. Tne Band of Mercy Guide to Nrtural History. An Elementary Book on Zoology : I. ;« tive, Amusing, and Anec lotical. Bj' Vernon S. Morwoox; . WITH THIRTY ILLl'STRATIONS. Attractively bound in the New and Effective Chromatic Style (Four Colours and Gold). Crown 8vo., 192 pp., cloth, price Is. 6d. 5. An Easy Guide to Scripture Animals. Being a Description of all the Animals mentioned in the Bible, with the Scripture References, Numerous Anecdotes, etc. For Home Use and for Day and Sunday Schools. By Vernon S. MORWOOD. *• Mr. Hogg is, without question, a specialist in the art of catering for the literary tastes of the young." — Shropshire Guardian. (12) London: John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, E.O. SPECIMEN ILLUSTRATION From Natural History Books. (13) Pii '^ MR. ASGOU R. HOPE'S BOOKS. " Mr. Aflcott R. Hope now occupies the foreraoRt place as a writer of fiction for the Hchoolboy, and as he never produces a weak book, and never disappoints his clients, his name is always a bufficient passport." — School Board Chronicle. " The friend of all British hoy a."— Manchester Examiner. " As a writer of boys' books, Mr. Hope has discovered a vein for himself which he has worked with perseverance and success."— ^6erde«n Journal. WITH EIGHT ILLUSiUATIONS. Third edition, crown 8vo., 384 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4s. 1. Stories of Young Adventurers. WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS. Small crown Svo., 384 pp., cloth, price Ss. 6d. ; gilt edges, 48. 2. A Book of Boyhoods. WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS. Small crown 8vo., 352 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, 48. 3. Our Home-made Stories. WITH NINETEEN ILLUSTRATIONS BY GORDON BROWirE. Small crown 8vo., 352 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4s. 4. Evenings away from Home. A Modem Miscellany of Entertainment for Young Masters and Misses. WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS. Small crown 8vo., 352 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d . ; gilt edges, 4s. 6. Stories out of School-time. WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS. Small crown 8vo., 384 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges. 4s. 6. 1? oung Days of Authors. WITH TWELVE ILLUSTRATIONS. Crown 8vo., 384 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, 48. 7. Romance of the Mountains. WITH TWELVE ILLUSTRATIONS. Crown 8vo., 352 pp., cloth, price Ss. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4s. 8. Romance of the Forests. WITH TWELVE ILLUSTRATIONS. Crovyn 8vo., 352 pp., cloth, 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, 48. 9. Redskin and Paleface : Romance and Adventure of the Plains. "There are no books for boys that can compare with Ascott R. Hope's in gonuiue pleasure and instruction."— ire«/'iy Dispatch. v_, \^ \^ v^ \,y \^ \^ \^"^_/ \-/ "w s^ N* V. «^ s..-" ^-^ X^'X'*^'' \_'"^''v^\ ■"X-^"^^ V' v-^--/'' . ^ "A series of excellent books for boys is pvhlishedby Mr. John Hogg, London." — Scotsman. (14) London: John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Row, RC. THE GOVERNOR LOSKS HIS TKMl'liK. SPECIMEN ILLUSTRATION From '' MaUheio FlimkrH" [Zs. Qil. Booh). (n) WITH EIGHT ILLUOTRATIONS. Seventh Edition, crown 8vo., 384 pp., cloth, price 38. 6d. ; gilt edges, 48. The Secret of Success ; or. How to Get on in the World. With some Remarks upon True and False Success, and the Art of making the Best Use of Life. Interspersed with Numerous Examples and Anecdotes. By W. H. Davenport Adams, Author of "Plain Living and High Thinking," etc. " Mr. Adams's work Is In some respects more practical than Mr. Smiles's. He takes the illustrations more from the world of business and commerce, and their application is un- mistakable." — Aberdeen Journal. "There is a healthy, honest ring in its advice, and a wise discrimination between true and false success Many a story of success and failure helps to point its moral. — Bradford Observer. "The field which Mr. Adams traverses is so rich, extensive, and interesting^ that his book is calculated to impart much sound moral philosophy of a kind and in a form that will be appreciated by a large number of readers The boc't is otherwise a miue of anecdote relating to men who have not only got on in the world, but whose names are illustrious as benefactors to their kind." — Dundee Advertiser, [\ H:d I ■I )i i I M WITH TWO COLOURED PLATES AND EIGHT PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. Fifth edition, crown 8vo., 432 pp., cloth, price 38. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4b. Our Redcoats and Bluejackets: War Pictures on Land and Sea. Forming a Continuous Narrative of the Naval and Military History of England from the year 1793 to the Present Time, including the War in Egypt and in the Soudan. Interspersed with Anecdotes and Accounts of Personal Service. By Henry Stewart, Author of " The Ocean Ware," etc. With a Chronological List of England's Naval and Military Engagements. " A capital collection of graphic sketches of plucky and brilliant achievements afloat and ashore, and has, moreover, the advantage of being a succinct narrative of historical events. It is, in fact, the naval and military history of England told in a series of effective tableaux." —World. " It is not a mere collection of scraps and anecdotes about our soldiers and sailors, but a history of their principal achievements since the beginning of the war in 1793. The book has charms for others than l&dB."— Scotsman. " Possesses such a g'^nuine interest as no work of fiction could surpass."— /16erd«enJo«rna/. WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS. Martyrs to Freedom ; or. Struggles for National Liberty. A Book for Old and Young. By the Rev. Philip Barnes. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4s. " P.irents and teachera who desire to bring up the boys of to-day on ncble lines will put this book into their hands."- PH'>;i.s7/cj-«' Ctrndar, [Post. " Its stirring incidents, as well as its historical value, make it acceptable." — Morning "There is not a dull page in the lives of such heroes as these."— Bradford Observer. " Will win the interest and admiration of everybody."— C/tristian World. " Should bo read by every boy and girl in the empire." — Weekly Dispatch. The Parlour Menagerie. ^s.6d. SeepageU, " Among the multitude of publishers who issue books suitable for presents, Mr. Hogg holds a high place. A catalogue of his publications, samples of which lie be/ore us, contains a number of iiseful and interesting works eminently suitable for presentation to young people of both sexes, and they contain as much reading at as low a price as any books in the market. " — Pall Mall Gazette. (16) London : John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, EO. I I Journal, Fourth and Cheap Edition, mth Twelve Portraita. Crown 8vo., 472 pp., cloth, price 3a. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4b. Landmarks of English Literature. By Henry J. Nicoll, Author of "Great Movements," etc. " Mr. NicoU's book has many comp> .titors to contend with, but will be found to hold its own with the best of them."— S<. James's Gazette. " Mr. NicoU's facts are commendably accurate, and his style is perfectly devoid of pre- tentiousness, tawdriness, and mannerism."— .Sahtrrirtv Review. " Mr. NicoU's well-arranged volume will be of service to the student and interesting to the general reader. The volume deserves praise for simplicity of purpose, as well as for careful workmanship."- Spectator. Second and Cheap Edition. WITH BIGHT PORTRAITS, 464 pp., crown 8vo., cloth, price 3s. 8d. ; gilt edges, 48. Great Movements, and tliose who Achieved Them. By Henry J. Nicoll, Author of " Land- marks of English Literature," etc. " A useful book. Such work should always find its reward in an age too busy or too care- less to search out for itself the sources of the great streams of modern civilization."— 2'i7n«.f. "Immense benefit might be done by adopting it as a prize book for young people in the upper classes of most sorts of schools."— ScTioot Board Chronicle. Second edition, small crown 8vo., 384 pp., cloth, price 3b. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4s. A Popular Technical Dictionary of Commercial and General Information. By Edward T. Blakely, F.S.A. (of the Board of Trade). "It should certainlv find a place in com- mercial schools as well as upon merchants' tables."— Bristot Mercury. " A valuable addition to our works of in- struction, as well as to commercial litera- ture."— Britis/i Journal oj Commerce. Footsteps to Fame : A Book to Open other Books. By J. Hain Friswell, Author of "Out and About," " The Gentle Life," etc. A New and Revised Edition, with Seven Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 320 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4s. " An ideal boy's hools.."— Belfast News Letter. "An admirable volume to place in the [ "A pleasantly written volume. Would hands of young ptople."— Glasgow Herald. make a good present."— Brttts/i Weekly. Dainty Dishes. 3^. 6d. Seepage ii. Manuals of Self-Culture for Young Men and Women. 1. The Secret of Success. See page 16. 2. Plain Living and High Thinking. See page 21. 8. Woman's work ana Worth. See page 7. 4. Hood's Guide to English Versification. See page 2(5. 5. Landmarks of English Literature. See page 17. 6. Blakely's Technical Dictionary. Seepage 17. 7. Self-Help for Women. See page 7. ' ' JOHN HOQG on the title-page of a publication is always a guarantee that it is wholesome andinstmctive as welt as entertaining, and may be eagerly welcomed into the most fastidious home. Mr. Hogg prints nothing hut works of a high order, whose influence for good is as evident as their artistic get-up, and whose price is as low as their interest is deep and healthf^iV—OhvnXTS Chronicle. London : John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, E.G. (17) < 5 I t i WITH TWFLVE PORTRAITS. Crown 8vo., 352 pp., cloth, 38. 6d. ; gilt edges, 48. Some Historic Women ; or, Biographical Studies of Women who have made History. By W. H. Daven- port Adams, Author of " Woman's Work and Worth," etc. " The sketclies are cliarminftly written."— liookHller. WITH EIGHT 1LLU8TBATI0N8. Small crown 8vo., 384 pp., cloth, price 3b. 6d. ; gilt edges, 48. A Few Good Women, and what they Teach Us. A Book tor Girls. By CatherineMaryMacSorley, Author of " May Lane," " His Chosen Work," etc. " It would be well for the girlliood of England if such books as this were more road by the gir^B."— Methodist il'orld. *' A nice gift-book for thoughtful girlH." — Orophie. WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS. Fourth Edition, Crown Svo., 384 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. gilt edges, 4s. Exemplary Women: A Record of Feminine Virtues and Achievements (abridged from " Woman 'f Work and Worth "). By W. H. Davenport Adams. "The qualiflcations and influence of women indifferent spheres of life are detailed and Illustrated by notices of the lives of many who have been distinguished in various positions. " —Bazaar. Second Edition, with Eight Engravings after Celebrated Painters. Small crown 8vo., 392 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4s. The Church Seasons. Historically and Poetically Illustrated. By Alexander H. Grant, M.A., Author of " Half-Hours with our Sacred Poets," etc. " Mr. Grant's scholarship is endorsed by authorities; his method is good, his style clear, and his treatment so impartial that his work has been praised alike by Church I'ivien, Record, IVatchman, Freeman, and Nonconformint. No words of ours could better prove the catho- licity of a most instructive and valuable vfork."— Peterborough Advertii^er. ILLUSTRATED BY A. B. HOUGHTON AND OTHERS. Crown Svo., 576 pp., cloth, price 3s. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4s. Royal Children. By Julia Luard. a New, Revised, and Cheaper Edition, with 8 full-page Illustrations. "It is a big book, but there is not a dull, disappointing page in it."— Northern Bail ii Telearavh. " if there is one thing young people like, it is reading about youthful kings and queens. —Spect'itor. "It makes history an interestini: Btoiy."— Literary fVorld. " It is a book with a backbone."— i>r(7i»/i and Colonial Printer and Stationer. " The youth of both sexes are wider deep obligations by the publication of Mr, Hogg^s very interesting and attractive volumes. It is a great object to attract the young to the habitual practice of reading. That can only be ac- complished by putting into their hands books which will interest and amuse them, and at the same time furnish them with usefid knowledge, and with sound lessons of a mx)ral, judicious, and sensible character, calculated to be. useful to them as they advance in ijears." — Dundee Courier and Argus. (18) London ; John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, £.0. ;. WITH ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS BY OEORGE THOMAS, ' ENGRAVED BY VV. H, THOMAf. Large crown 8vo., 512 pp., cloth, Hs. Gd. ; gilt edges, 4a. Uncle Tom's Cabin ; or, Life among the Lowly. A Tale of Slave Life in America. By Harriet Beecher Stowe. With a Biographical and Critical Sketoh of the Author (accompanied by Vignette Portrait and Auto- graph) by Alex. H. Japp, LL.D. t^ The Illustrations are from the Original Wood Blocks (now in possession of the Publisher) which were preparcil at great cost, Mr. George Thomas havii)g made a special visit to America so ao to be accurate in detail and local colournig. They were originally used in the edition published by Nathaniel Cooko {Illustrated London Neioa Office) in 1853, which is now a scarce book. Largo crown 8vo., 402 pp., cloth, price Ss. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4o. The Pilgrim's Progress. In Two Parts. By John Bunyan. With Bibliographical Notes, and a Life of the Author, by Robert Southey ; Portrait and Auto- graph of Bunyan, and Thirty Wood Engravings by W. Harvey, from the Oiigiual Blocks. The Text in large type. " An excellent edition of the great alle^orv. It containa Southey's ' Life,' which certainly stands first for literary merit."— J'ati Mall Gazette. " Costliereditions are on sale, but none produced with more taste than this one."— i>i«»at(h. "A real service has been rtndered for those wlio want a thoroughly readable copy of 'The Pilgrim'a i'rogXQsa.'"— Literary World. y- ' rhis edition has exceptional claims upon public favour. The late poet laureate's biography is in his best manner, while Harvey's effective woodcuts are in themselves a feature of very considerable interest to lovers of British art. In the matter of typography and general get-up the reprint is in every respect superior to the original edition, and ttiu luw price at whicii tlie book is published should tempt many to obtain a copy."— Ox/brd Tvmts. WITH TWELVE ILLU8TEATION8 BY THOMAS STOTHARD, B.A., AND A PORTRAIT OF DEFOE. In one volume, 512 pp., large crown 8vo., cloth, price 38. 6d. ; gilt edges, la. Tiie Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner. With an Account of his Travels round Three P'arts of the Globe. A complete, unahidged Edition of both Parts, xoUk no curtailment of the "Further Adventures." "It has every fejvture for becoming the boy's favourite edition of 'Robinson Crusoe. '"- School Board Chronicle. " This handsome volume cannot fail to command an extensive sale ; It contains both parts of the immortal hero's -idvent -ros, and is therefore properly styled a 'complete edition.' A portrait and brief Alemoirof i. fnf nrpcfides his t^lti."— Manchester IVeckly Post. "This edition of 'boyhood's classic' wIU take rank among the best. Every boy should read ' Robinson Crusoe,' and will if he has he chance, and no better copy could be provided than the one published by Mr. Hogg."— Jreii«i/an Methodist Sunday School Magazine. A NEW BOOK FOR BOYS. WITH TWELVE ILLUSTRATIONS . Small crown 8vo., 334 pp., cloth, price Ss. 6d. ; gilt edges, 4s. Master Minds in Art, Science, and Letters. A Book for Boys. By W. H. Davenport Adams, Author of " The Secret of Success," etc. "Skilfully adapted to the capacity of the young reader." — Saturday Review. *• Mr. John Hogg is always successful in prodivcing an attractive array oj books for youthful readers, .... and toe ought to add, that all his puNications are prettily got tip." — Bristol Mercury. London: John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, E.G. (19) !^ I'l ' i WITH BIOHT ILLUBTRATIONB. Sucond Edition, crown 8vo., 384 pp., oloth, pricu 3b. 6(1. ; gilt edgen, 4r. The Ocean Wave: Narratives of some of the GreatoHt VoyagoH, Seamon, DJHcoverioH, 8hipwre<;H and niniirnf\tl diHaRturH ; while the nnuth neaH and Ihtt north, the bMuatnr and tlie pohts, are all l)rouKht to notice."— /iV(U<>''('>/tirf Mercnr\i. "Ailik'ht - - movement ( . , _ sea' to the iron coast of Nova /embla."— N/c/'/WW I ndivi'ndfnt. ik'ht tliroiik'h the air on tlie enchanted iirayer-cariu^t winild not RuriiaRn In intercHt t)ie lent of thcHe narrativcH from 'Hummcr ittlefl of Kden lyini; in dark puriile Biihurus of WITH EIGHT ILLUHTUATIONH BY VHANK ABRLL. Large crown 8vo., 422 pp., cloth, price 3b. 6d. ; gilt cdgoB, 4s. The Adventures of Maurice Drum- more (Royal Marines), by Land and Sea. By Lin don Meadows, Author of " Whittlings from the West," " College Recollections and Church Experiences," etc. " It InalmoHt equal to llobinson Crusoe." —Shfjiild Ind'iwndint. " It Is thorouKhly healthy, not 'Koody ' in the least ; in short, junt sucli a boolc as one would wIhIi to i>lace in the hiiuds of a i)uro- minirited hoy." — Nottiniiham Guardian. "We are inclined, after much delibera- tion, to call it tlio best book for boys ever written."— (Vimtiau Leader. " It would bo aj)ity if ttio merits of such ho cr( ICOLMli -Aberdeen Dailu Frre Prens, ipitv 1 a story were lost in the crowd, and we trust it will receive the recognition which is its due." With Frontispiece, small cr. 8vo., 3.52 pp., cloth, price 38. 6d. ; gilt edges, 48. The Glass of Fashion: A Universal Handbook of Social Etiquette and Home Culture for Ladies and Gentlemen. With Copious and Practical Hints upon the Manners and Ceremonies of every Relation in Life — at Home, in Society, and at Court. Interspersed with Numerous Anecdotes. By the Lounger in Society. '•J " ITseful, sensibly written, and full of amusing illustrative anecdotes. " The most sensible book on etiquette that we remember to have seen."— Pall Mall Gazette. "Creditable to the good sense and taste, as well as to the special information of its author. -Af oniinff Post. —Teleuraiih. WITH FIVB WOODCUTS, ILLUSTRATING " THB HAND OP GOOD FORTUNE," BTO. Fifth Edition, crown 8vo., 304 pp., cloth, price 38. 6d. Your Luck's in Your Hand ; or. The Science of Modern Palmistry, chiefly according to the Systems of D'Arpentigny and Desbarrolles, with some Account of the ; Gipsies. By A. R. Craig, M.A., Author of " The Philosophy of Training," etc. " The Rlove-makers oufjht to present the author with a service of gold plate. He will be a ■ rash man who lets anybody see his bare hands after this. We are anxious to find a lost pair | of gloves before we ro out for a breath of fresh air after such an exhausting study as this ; book has furnished UB."—Sheitfield and Jiotherham Independent. ! "Palmistry, chiromancy, and their kindred studies may be mystical indeed, but neTer] unworthy. There is more in them than the mass imagine, and to those who care to wade into them, Mr. Craig will prove himself a capital guide."— Manclu.iter Weekly Post. 'Miives the fullest rules for interpreting trie lines and marks on the hands, fingers, and wrists, as well as the points of character indicated by their ahave."— Bookseller. -N A -> -> '^ '-N ^-V'*N-'^ ^ "v ^ ' •^ -^ ^ - ~\ ■ X '^ ^^ ^> --\ '^ • ^ 'X. '"X r^ /"\ -A '"\ r> '~\ ■ ^■\ ^-\ '"\ .-"v ^\ ' •' As in every book which Mr. Hogg has sent tis, so in this : we have to praise j the typography, the paper, and the strong but also ornamental binding." — Manchester Weekly Post. (20) London : John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Row, EC. WITH RIOHT ILLUHTRATIONS. FoMH)k fullH oii^ur to unjoy tho fuant pre]Miru(l for lilin. . . . We vuiitiiru to jirudtct for thin clmrniiiig by'H hanuH, and it will bocuino a Httindard work for tho school librtiry."— /ScAo8, 38. Ada Norman's Trials and Difficulties. A Story for Girls. By M. Sioymour, Author of '* Dethroned," •'Two and Two," etc. With Illustrations by O. L. Thomas. " Ada ia n genuine girl. . . . Tlio entire utury In full of valiublu HUggoMtioUM for gir readers." — Littrary World. [Aid, "A Bplondid book. ... It doservoH a foremo.st i)laco in every hcIiooI library." — Ttw.htr't Second edition, crown 8vo., cloth, bevellud bnardH, price 2m. 6d. Fortunate Men: How they made Money and Won ilonown. With Portrait of N. M. do Ilotlischild. "The real value of its contents conHists in itH asRertinK tlie clalinn to reflpect of virtues, ■uch aa peraeverance, metliod, and punctuality, whiuli are often con^eniptuouNly treated, but wliich are invaluable, wliettier for niakiuK money or, which ia much more important, for formation of character. We wlah the book aucct'sa."— WifWf/oiM Herald. " Tliere are naaaaKea anionx theae aelectiona which are worthv to be inacribud in braaa in every place of Duaiueaa. Every young man may read thia book with profit."— .Swoni and JVowel. WITH THIltTY 1LLU8THAT10N8. Crown 8vo., 288 pp., cloth, price 28. 6d. ; gilt edgeH, 38. The Burgomaster's Daughter, and other stories. By W. H. G. King.stcn, M. E. Siijim.icy, GEitTRUDE Crockford, and others. With Tliree Coloured Plates, Six Full- page Woodcuts, and Twenty-one Illustrations in the text. " A capital book for both boya and kMs."— Stationery and liookaellina. WITH THIHTY-FOUU ILLUHTUATIONS. Crown 8vo., 288 pp., cloth, price 2h. 6d. ; g'lt edges, Ss. Gilbert's First Voyage, and other Stories. By M. C. Halifax, Thomas Miller, Frances II. Wood, and others. With Three Coloured Plates, Six Full-page Woodcuts, and Twenty-five Illustrations in the text. "A pleasant voluine, in whicli youngsters will And a variety of entertainment."— Daiij/i Chronicle. irn ILLU8TRATKD BY C. A. DOYLR. Crown 8vo., 288 pp., cloth, price 28. 6d. ; gilt edges, 38. The Steady Aim : A Book of Examples and Encouragements from Modern Biography. By W. H. Daven- port Adams, Author of " The Secret of Success," etc. A New, Revised, and Cheaper Edition, Illustrated by C. A. Doyle. " Splendid reading."— Li^pran/ World. ____^ _ n7LUOTiiATEinJY~GE01tGE CRUIKSHANK. Crown 8vo., 256 pp., cloth, price 28. 6d. ; gilt edgea, 3^. Out and About: A Boy's Adventures. By J. Hain Friswell, Author of " Footsteps to Fame," etc. New, Revised, and Cheaper Edition, Illustratoil by George Cruikshank. "It can hold its own as a bracing, spirited, exciting, and instructive story." -Neivr.astle Chronicle. London : John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, £.C. i2'6) v:l.r 1*1 NEW AND CHEAPER EDITIONS OF POPULAR BOOKS. In New and Handsome Cloth Bindings, 2s. 6d. each ; gilo edges, 3s. each. The Habits of Good Society: A Hand- book of Etiquette for Ladies and Gentlemen. With Thoughts, Hints, and t Anecdotes concerning Social Observances, Nice Points of Taste and Good Manners, and the Art of Making One's Self Agreeable. The whole interspersed with Humorous Illustrations of Social Predicaments, Remarks on the History and Changes of Fashion, aud the Differences of English and Continental Etiquette. Famous London Merchants : A Book for Boys. By H. R. Fox Bourne, author of "English Merchants," *' English Seamen under the Tudors," etc. With Twenty-four Illustrations. Watchers for the Dawn, and other studies of Christian Character. By Mrs. W. R. Lloyd, author of " Pictures of Heroes and Lessons from their Lives," etc. With Illustrations by James Godwin. Adventures in the Ice: A Compre- hensive Summary of Arctic Exploration, Discovery, and Adven- ture. Including experiences of Captain Penny, the Veteran Whaler, now first published. By John Tillotson, author of " Stories of the Wars," " Our Untitled Nobility," etc. With P< irtraits and other Illustrations. Pioneers of Civilization. By John Tillotson, Author of " Adventures in the Ice," etc. A New, Cheaper aud Revised Edition, with an Additional Chapter. With Eleven Illustrations. Contents.— The Soldier.— The Adventurer.— The Explorer. —The Man of Peace.— The Trader.— The Settler.— The Missiouary.— Recent Pioneers. Small Beginnings; or, The Way to Get On. A New and Cheajjcr Edition. With Eight Illustrationd by C. A. Doyle. From the acorn springs the oak ; " despise not the day of small things." The biographical sketches collected in this volume show to what heights the earnest may aspire from the humblest beginuiugs : — John Walter from a pruiter's apprentice rises to be proprietor of The Times; Brotherton from a factory-boy to sit as a respected member iu the House of Commons. The other examples include— Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, George Heriot, Wedgwood and Minton, Girard, John Leyden, Francis Drake, Dupuytreu, Lafltte, Montgomery, Breguet, and David Wilkie. 1^ The 2/6 Series now number.^ 24 Vols., see Catalofjue. jn^ " Mr, Hogg is to be congratulated on the healthy moral tone of his puhlica- c/,>/i ice Gazette. Fourth edition of a new and enlarged edition, fcap. 8vo., cloth, price 2s. 6d. A Practical Guide to Enghsh Versifica- tion, with a Compendious Dictionary of Rhymes, an Examina- tion of Classical Measures, and Comments upon Burl'^sque and Comic Verse, Vers de Societe, and Song Writing. By Tom Hood. " A dainty little book on English verse-making. The Dictionary of Rhymes will be found one of the most complete and practical in our lanKuape."— i''re(;7;ian. " Alike to the tyro in versifying, the student of literature, and the genera) leaaer, this guide can be confldently recommended."— .SVt)t.s?))a?t. Red Line Edition (the Fourth), with Illustrations, quarto, price 2l8. CAREFULLY REVISED, WITH NUMEROUS EMENDATIONS. The Directorium Anghcanum: Being a Manual of Directions for the Right Celebration of the Holy Communion, for the saying of Matins and Evensong, etc., ac- cording to ancient uses of the Church of England. Edited by the Rev. Frederick George Lee, D.C.L., F.S.A. " The existence of one such work of credit and reputation must do something to diminish the varieties of Ritualism into which the tastes or studies of independent explorers miglit lead them."— Gitardtan. Crown 8vo., cloth extra, bevelled boards, price 7s. 6d. The Manuale Clericorum. A Guide for the Reverent and Decent Celebration of Divine Service, the Holy Sacrament, etc. Abridged from the " Directorium Anglicanum." With Additions of Special Value. Edited by Rev. F. G. Lee. (26) London : John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, E.O. ( I rWENTY )ther !iiAiu-i:s lie volume " — Dundu TWENTY other RUSSliLL by good ■a. hake- Index of Ideas of i, and the iene) had rice 2s. 6d. ! of the well- iluable book ce 28. 6d. sifica- Examina- sque and )M Hood. ill be found leaaer, this e2l8. ing a the Holy ;, etc., ac- Mited by to diminish orers uiiglit )r the I 3 Holy te iicanum." | 1 G. Lee. I SPKCiMEN ILLUSTRATION FROM "CHILDREN'S EVERGREENS," In the New Is. 6rf. Series for Juveniles. (27) r i! New Dlnstr ated is. 6d. Jnye iiile Book Attractively bound in the New and Effective Chromatic Style (Four Colours and Gold). Crown 8vo., 192 pp., cloth, price 1b. 6d. each. 1. Little Neighbours in London. A Story for Young Readers. By E. C. IIickards, Author of ** A Strange Exhibition," etc. With Illustrations by J. Jellicoe. Third Edition. 2. The Wondrous Tale of Oocky, Olucky, and Cackle. Tra nsla ted by C. W. Heckethorn. Illustrated by H.W. Petherick. 3. "If Wishes were Horses, Beggars would Ride." A Tale for Young Folk. By M. Seymour, Author of "Little Arthur at the Zoo," etc. Illustrated by K. J. Key. Second Edition. 4. A Strange Exhibition, and other Tales for the Young. By E. C. Rickards, Aiithor of "Little Foighbours in London," etc. Illustrated by H. W. Petherick. Second Edition. 5. An Easy Guide to Scripture Animals. See imge 12. 6. That Boy Jack I A Story for Young Folk. By Helen H. Rogers, Author of " An Old- World Story." With Illustrations by A. Hitchcock. Second Edition. 7. A Living S^ory; or, The Would-be Authoress. A Tale for Boys and Girls. By A. W. Wright. With Illustrations by O. L. Thomas. Second Edition. 8. Red Herring; or, Allie's Little Blue Shoes. A Tale for Young Readers. By Frances Armstrong, Author of "Noel and Geoff," etc. Illustrated by O. L. Thomas. Second Edition. 9. Children's Evergreens. A Selection of Fifteen of the Old Favourite Tales. With Fifty Illustrations. Third Edition. 10. Noel and Geofif; or, Three Christmas Days. A Story for Children. By Frances Armstrong, Author of "lied Herring," etc. With Illustrations by H. W. Petherick. 11. Songs and Poems for Children. Edited by Carrie Davenport. With Sixty Illustrations by T. Sidney Cooper, R. A., ; J. C. HoRSLEY, R.A., T. Webster, R.A., and others. 12. Meg and Olive; or, Life at the Grey House. Byj M. Rickards, Author of " The Boy who was not Wanted." With Illustrations by 0. L. Thomas. 13. The Boys of Priors Dean. By PnojiE Allen, Author j of '* Matchbox Phil," etc. With Illustrations by H. W. rEXHEitiCK. 14. A Tale told by Two. By li. E. Tiddeman, Author ofj •* Prim's Story," etc. Illustrated by O. L. Thomas. 15. Up in thG Old Pear Tree. A Holiday Story. By S. P. Akmstkong, Author of " Pop and Peggy," " Dolly's Adventuits," etc. Illustrated by H. W. Petherick. "Admirably adapted for rewards, the more so as the children will appreciate the works] on their own merits. Their ' get up ' is unexceptionable." — Britiih Mail. 19" Others in Preparation. f (28) London: John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, £.0. Ite the works j r,-^X r- f^«WiK- jim's discovery in the ice plain. SPECIMEN ILLUSTRATION From •' That Boy Jack" (Is. Qd. Juv&nihs). (29) u !■-. J New Illnstrated Slling JuTenile Books. Attractively bound in the New and Effective Chromatic Style (Four Colours and Gold). Small crown 8vo., 128 pp., cloth, price Is. each. 1. We Four Children. By M. A. Hoyer, Author of "A Canterbury Tale," etc. With a Frontispiece by R. J. Key, and other Illustrations. Second Edition. 2. The Ups and Downs of a Sixpence. By M. SEYi\rouR, Author of " If Wishes were Horses," etc. Illustrated by 0. L. Thomas. Third Edition. 3. Dolly's Adventures ; or, Happy Days at Cranberry. By Yvonne, Author of •' Pop and Peggy," etc. Illustrated by K. ,J. Key. Third Edition. 4. Exiled ; or, When Great-Grandmother was Young. By C. M. MacSorley, Author of " A Few Good Women," etc. Illustrated by O. L. Thomas. Second Edition. 5. Under the Walnut Tree : Stories told by the Birds. By Frances Armstuong, Author of " lied Herring," etc. Illustrated by H. W. Petherick ar d others. Second Edition. 6. Little King I : j± Story for Young Readers. By Louisa Emily Dobuee, Author of " Turned to Gold," etc. Illustrated by OsMAN Thomas. Second Edition. 7. The Fortun3s of Ruby, Pearl, and Diamond. By Frances Armstrong, Author of " Nciel and Geoff," etc. Illustrated by A. BoucHiTTE and otliers. Third Edition. 8. A Canterbury Tale. By M. A. Hoyer. Author of " We Four Children," etc. Illustrated by H. Evans. 9. Father Christmas's Stories. By Louise Alice Riley. Illustrated by E. W. de Guerin. 10. Cousin Deb. A Story for Children. By Alice Gar- land. Illustrated by O. Thomas. 1 1 . Black and White. An Anglo-Indian Story for Children. By Gkraldine Butt, Author of "Christmas Roses," "Esther," etc. Illustrated by Harry Evans. 1 2. The Palace of Ideas. By Louise Alice Eiley, Author of " Father Christmas's Stories." Illustrated by Robert Buxton. 13. Uncle Tom's Cabin. Abridged for Young Readers. With Illustrations. 14. Plucky Rex ; or, the Secret of the Mine. A Tale of Pengarvan Bay. By F. M. Holmes, Author of " Jack Marston's Anchor," etc. With Illustrations by W. Rainey. 15. The Lad from London. By Ascott R. Hope, Author of "Stories of Young Adventurers," "Redskin and Paleface," etc. Illustrated by Harold Copping. MSB" Others in preparation. {See page 4.) *• A glimpse through Mr. Hogg's catalogue shows how admirably he caters for the young of both sexes." — Wolvbrhampton Chronicle. I I (30) London : John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, E.O. ; ■ / , ooks. ir Colours I, ' of "A and other EYMOUR, by 0. L. a berry. i by K. J. Young. nen," etc. 3 Birds. Illustrated jrs. By Illustrated Qd. By Illustrated uthor of E UlLEY. CE GAR- Jhildren. ther," etc. , Author p IxTON, 'i: iKeaders. !• r ine. A I iMarston's |' Author lace," etc. he caters f'i SPKCIMEX ILLUSTRATION From the New Shilling Series for Juveniles. (31) r I ! I I h A TRILOGY OF BOOKS ABOUT WALES. ITS HISTORY, LEGENDS, FOLK-LORE, Etc. By MABIE TREVELYAN. Dedicated by OraciovA Permiaaion to Her Royal Highneaa the DUCHESS OF YORK. 1. Glimpses of We?sh Life and Character. Crown 8vo., 408 pages, vellum cloth, "There are stories of ancient super- stitious and customs, of poets and musi- cinns, of pioneers of dissent, of eccentric persons, of folk-lore and ghosts, some of which are new to us, and, new or old, are told in a spirited style. Spirited also are the pictures of religious festivals, of the old Welsh Tory gentleman, the Wo-sh farmer, the hiring fair, the Eisteddfod, and other nationa' products and institu- tions." — Saturda]/ Review. illuminated, price 68. ; gilt edges, 68. 6d. " A laudable attempt, by means of social sketches, pictures of character, legends and traditions, and studies of folk-lore, man- ners, customs, and other local characteris- tics and peculiarities, to awaken English interest in the land and life of the Cymru." — Times. " ' Glimpses of Welsh Life and Character has been a theme of admiring conversation since the first day of its appearance. "~ Wettem Mail, Cardiff. Dedicated by permiaaion to The Right Honble. LORD WINDSOR, Lord Lieutenant oj Glamorganahire. 2. Prom Snow- don to the Sea: stirring STORIES of NORTH and SOUTH WALES. Crown Svo., 432 pages, cloth, emblazoned, price 6s. ; gilt edges, 6s. 6d. "Will be read and enjoyed far beyond the limits of the principality." — Abevdeen Free Frets. "Rich In the traditions, folk-lore, and romances which have been woven into stories by this able authoress." — Sheffield Independent. "This is one of the best collections of Welsh tales we have yet scon It is a book which every lover of romance should purchase."— ^«irca«(ie Chronicle. " Some of the specimens of legendary lore are of absorbing interest, and the last is actually dramatic in its intensity."— Weekly Citizen. Dedicated to the Immortal Memory of Llewelyn ap Oruffydd, laat Native Prince of Wales. 3. The Land of Arthur : its Heroes and HEROINES. Crown Svo., 440 pages, cloth, illuminated, price 68. ; gilt edges, 6s. 6d. " We warmly commend the book. Qat ii &i otiqq." —Dundee Courier. " Full of old world romance »nd chivalry." — Chrittian Wtrld. Her Majeatythe QUEEN,— H.R.H. the PRINCE OF WALES,— H.R.H. the PRINCESS OF WALES,— H.R.H. the DUCHESS OF YORK,— H.R.H. the DUCHESS OF TECK, have been graciously pleased to aeeept copiea of the above boohs. (32) London : John Hogg, 13, Paternoster Bow, E.O. WALES. , Etc. iracter. dges, 68. 6d. neans of social er, legends and olk-lorc, man- al characteris- viiken English »f thoCymru." ind Character g conversatioa .ppearance."— oermtssion Honhle. NDSOR, •nant of lahire. Snow- o the ITIRRING 3f NORTH I WALES. 32 pages, •ned, price , 6s. 6d. far beyond ■." — Ahendeen )lk-lore, and woven into a."— Sheffield id, 3 and price 68. ; -II. RH. YORK,— pleased to 0.