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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS UKSCRIIIING ■ THE CHARACTERISTICS, CUSTOMS, HABITS, RELIGION, MARRIAGES, DANCES AND BATTLES OF THE WILD INDIANS IN THEIR NATURAL STATE, TOGETHER WITH THE ENTRANCE OF CIVILIZATION THROUGH THEIR HUNTING GROUNDS, ALSO THE FUR COMPANIES, OVERLAND STAGE, PONY EXPRESS, ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, AND OTHER PHASES OF LIFE IN THE PATHLESS REGIONS OF THE WILD WEST. BY J. LEE HUMFREVILLE, (Late Captain United States Cavalry.) 9 - MAR 196S FULLY ILLUSTRATED FROM ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHS. il^i^ HUNTER & CO., PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK. "ifrmfimm'mmmm' Copyrighted, ISQA Br J. LEE HUMFREVIIXa Ml Rights Reeerved. w \r\\".]r .M-;l!)f!;;?.rr ■» • AUTHOR'S PREFACE. TETON SIOUX. Of the small number of white men who were on tbe Great Plains, or in the mount- ains of the Far West many years ago, when each nation of Indians in its prime- val state occupied its own territory or hunting ground, very few are left who knew the Indian in his absolutely wild condition ; and as none of them have de- scribed him in his untutored state, as he actually lived in his original home, I have ventured to give in this volume some of my experiences among the many nations and tribes with which I came in coniact — sometimes in friendly intercourse, often in deadly strife. Tbese experiences covered a period of twenty years immed- iately preceding tbe time when civilization had begun to exercise an influence over their manners and customs ; during this time I knew the Indian inti- mately, saw Indian life in all its phases, and had abundant opportunity to study Indian character thoroughly and exhaustively. My twenty years of life among the Indians, beginning forty years ago, embraced tbe entire territory from the Saskatchewan River in British America, south to tbe central portion of Mexico, and from the Mississippi and Sioux Rivers west to the Pacific Ocean, which area covers, as the reader knows, a large portion of our country's vast domain. It was then, except to tbe Indians who roamed over its far-stretohing prairies and followed the windings of its rivers and streams, or climbed its mountain heights in quest of game, almost terra incognita. It seems to me, therefore, that in describing the characteristics, habits, customs, traits, religion and mode of life of a race of people of whose orig- XI] author's pkepace. inal condition comparatively little is now known beyond vague traditions, fragmentary descriptions, and more frequently untrustworthy or misleading reports, that I might interest at least a portion of the present generation, as well as those to follow, in portraying the inner life, as it then existed of a savage people who, practically, have now disappeared forever. In this work I shall endeavor to give an accurate account of the daily life of the wild Indians, as I knew them in their natural state. I have often been impressed with the fact that, both in their character and manner of life, they have been grossly misrepresented by modern writers, many of whom evidently depended upon vivid imaginations to furnish what personal experi- ence and knowledge could not supply. The Indian as a wild man lived in a state of nature and followed his natural impulses. He neither dwelt on the past nor anticipated the future. He lived solely in the present, and his life and. actions were controlled by the primeval laws of necessity. Before com- ing in contact with the white man be had neither the virtues nor the vices of civilization. After qo ng in contact with white traders and others, he had all ;the vices of civilization but none of its virtues. The first thing he learned from his civilized brother was his vices; these he acquired and re- tained with wonderful proficiency and tenacity, and instead of improving degenerated. In the following chapters I shall describe the Indian as he was, when I first knew him, at which time he was absolutely a wild man. I shall en- deavor to give a truthful account of what came under my personal experi- ence and observation. It will be my aim to state the truth impartially, and nothing but the truth, to portray the Indiai. of fact, and not the Indian of fiction. If my experience and views are at variance with preconceived ideas of wild Indian life and character, my readers may rest assured that I am testifying to what I have seen or of which I have personal knowledge, un- less otherwise stated. r If I assert that I know as much of Indian life and character as any man now living, the reader may reasonably ask upon what I base so pretentious a claim. My answer is simple. During my experience with the many nations and tribes with which the duties of army life threw me in contact, I was generally protected by troops or r*iher armed bodies of sufficient strength to enable me to enter Indian camps and there observe the inner life and study the character of the Red Man in comparative safety. Some apparent repetitions may be noticed in the text ; but the reader must not forget that while the customs, characteristics, religious belief, and per- sonal traits of the Indian nations and tribes were nearly identical in many AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Zlll respects, yet some of them differed in a variety of interesting ways. Hence in portraying the everyday life of so many nations and tribes, I could not avoid at times a oertain sameness of ideas and expression, which, however, is more apparent than real. I have also briefly described some noted Indian massacres and battles, because they illustrate certain phases of Indian char- acter better than they could be shown in any other way. The reader will observe that I use the words nations and tribes frequently, and in a very distinctive manner. This I do for the following reason: I class as nations all those Indians who spoke a language of their own; and as tribes, those bodies that formed only a part of a nation. A band of Indians, as they were known on the frontier, was a party or body composed of allied nations or tribes, which might, or might not, speak different lan- guages or dialects. They banded together for specific purposes, and when these were accomplished they separated, each nation or tribe returning to its own hunting ground or territory. It was my original purpose to confine this volume to a description of the wild Indians as I knew them, and the animak upon which they depended for subsistence, as well as those they killed for pelts for barter with white traders; these animals at that time roamed over the plains and mountains in countless numbers, but like their pursuers have almost entirely disap- peared. There were other phases of life in the almost pathless West at the time I was there, which deserve mention. These were the Pony Express, Overland Stage and Fur Companies, all of which are things of the past. I have given a brief description of them, as well as an account of a few famous mountain- eers, trappers, and guides, who spent their lives among the savages. They were at that time as much a part of the Wild West as the Indians them- selves, and it was they who paved the way for civilization as it trended westward, at the imminent peril of their own lives. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. • THE PATHLESS WEST OF YEARS AGO— THE NATURAL HOME OF OUR SAVAGE INDIANS— ROVERS AND FIGHTERS. PAGK The Natural Home of the Indians — Their Numbers when I first knew them — Their Superstition against being counted — Keeping a Roster of their Fighting Men — The Terrible Scourge of Small-pux — Indian Dread of this Disease — Leaving the Aflaicted to Suffer and Die — An Imposing Body of Warriors — A Treacherous and Vicious Lot — Visiting the Great Father at Washington — Stories told by them on their Return — Starting a War Party 46 CHAPTER II. THE COURAGE AND FIGHTING QI^ALITIES OF THE WILD INDIANS— FOES THAT ASKED Ai i) GAVE NO QUARTER. Going into Battle — How the Indians Planned a Massacre — Methods of Surprising their Enemies — How we Defended Ourselves against Sudden Attacks — Descrip- tion of a Real Battle with Indians — Hardships of an Indian Campaign — Indian Courage and Ferocity in i3attle — Personal Experiences — How we Felt in an In- dian Battle — Nerved i,o Desperation — Mounted Indian Warriors — Their Per- sonal Appearance p id Peculiar Fighting Tactics — Fight to the Death — Giving and Asking no Quarter — Pursuing the Indians — Indian Wiles and Treachery — A Lurking Foe — Indian War Horses — How the Indians Scalped their Enemies on the Battlefield — Burial of the Bodies of Troopers — Burial of Indians who Fell in Battle — Mourning for the Slain — The Safest Place after a Massacre 50 CHAPTER III. THE INDIAN'S MENTAL FACULTIES— HIS PERFECT PHYSICAL SENSES AND BLUNTED MORAL NATURE— HIS GREAT CRUELTY- SCALPS AND SCALPING. The Indian's Preternatural Cunning and Stunted Intelligence — His Highly Devel- oped Physical Senses — His Perfect Vision and Acute Hearing — Vanishing like an Apparition — His Keenness in following a Trail — His Untiring Patience — His Intractable Nature — His Instinctive Cruelty — His Suspicious and Distrustful xvi CONTENTS. PAOE Nature — His Duplicity — Rarely to be Trusted — The Indian of Fiction, and the Indian of Fact — Indian Orators — Indian Languages — The Fate of Indian Fen^ale Captives — A Living Death — How Indians Computed Time — Mourning for *heir Dead — Return of a War Party — How tiie Indian Scalped his Foe — Customs in regard to Scalp-Taking — Jerking the Scalp from the Skull — Looking for >Jits — How to tell an Indian's Scalp — Curing a Scalp — A Ghastly Spectacle 55 CHAPTER IV. INDIAN SMOKES AND SMOKERS—QUEER CUSTOMS AND SUPERSTITIONS- HOW ANIMALS WERE AFFECTED BY THE UN- ^ SEEN PRESENCE OF INDIANS. Method of Dressing and Decorating the Hair — The Scalp Lock — Keeping It Greased, Smooth, and Shiny — Combs made from Weeds — Curious Ornamentations — A " Beardless Race — Manner of Smoking the Indian Pipe — Method of Lighting the Pipe — Indian Surprise on First Seeing Matches — Smoking and Praying to Two Great Spirits, the Good and the Bad God — Queer Superstitions — Killikinick, or Indian Tobacco — Method of Preparing It for Smoking — Its Strong and Lasting Odor — How Animals Detected the Approach of Indians in the Night — Olfactory Sensitiveness of Horses and Mukj — Smelling Indians at a Long Distance — Red Pipestone — Curious Legend as to its Origin — The Intermingling of the Blood of [ Whites and Indians — Pipe Ornamentation — A Marvel of Beauty — A Neutral Ground for all Indian Nations — Prehistoric Gatherings 61 CHAPTER V. INDIAN INQUISITIVENESS AND CUNNING— CRUEL TREATMENT OF PRISON- ERS—THE FATE OF WHITE CAPTIVE WOMEN. Indian Habits and Customs — Marvelous Instinct of the Indian — His Inquisitiveness — No Idea of Morality, or of Right and Wrong — Power of the Chief — The Medicine Man — Making Medicine — Medicine Horses and Medicine Dogs — How the Women made Medicine — The Medicines of Different Nations and Tribes — How and why they were selected — Women standing in Cold Water while making Medicine — Cutting their Arms and Legs with a Knife — The Greater the Scar, the Greater the Medicine — Striking the Water with their Hands and Feet — Broken Medi- cine — Treatment of Prisoners — Captive Indian Wome n — A Living Death — An Incident on Green River — Indian Treatment of White Captive Women 68 CHAPTER VI. THE INDIANS" STRANGE IDEAS OF THE HEAVENS— INDIAN CAMPS— SIGNIFI- CANCE OF SIGNS— WONDERFUL SKILL IN TRAILING— THE INDIAN AS A PLAINSMAN. The Milky Way — Composed of the Shadows of Departed Spirits — The Road of De- parted Spirits — Their Idea of Thunder and Lightning — The Aurora Borealis — Lighting the Road of the Spirits to the Happy Hunting Ground — Reverence for the Dead — Placing the Dead in Trees — Providing Food for the Spirits to eat — Final CONTENTS. XVll Departure of the Spirits from the Corpse — Indian Camps — Surrounded by Filth ■ — Broken Bones — Care of Wounds — Indian Fortitude — No Kegular Time for Eating or Sleeping — How they bat their Lodges and made their Camps — Drinking Dirty Water — Signs — Everything a Sign to an Indian — The most important Thing to all Indians — Skill in Trailing — Punishment for Crimes — Lack of Mus- cular Strength — No Match for the White Man in Personal Encounter 74 CHAPTER VII. HOW INDIANS COOKED AND ATE— THEIR LOVE OF FINERY AND PERSON. \L ADORNMENT— PAINTING THEIR FACES AND BODIES- MAKING A WILL— PLAINSCRAFT. Cooking Pots made of Fresh Hides — Eating Raw Meat from newly-slain Animals — A Meal twenty-four hours long — A Daily Gorge — Insatiable Appetites — First- class Gluttons — Eating Skins andMoccasins — Their first Coffee — Indian Improv- idence — A Chief's Powers and Limitations — The Chief in Camp and on the War- patli —Forming a new Tribe — The Survival of the Fittest — Love of Ornament — Fondness for Soldiers' cast-off Uniforms and High Hats — Aversion to wearing Trousers — Fashion of Painting the Face and Body — Indian Dandies — Indian Artists — How an Indian made his \M11 — Distribution of Property before Death — Reading the Signs of an Abandoned Camp — Plainscraft 79 « CHAPTER VIII. INDIAN WOOING AND MARRIAGE CUSTOMS— BIRTH OF AN INDIAN BABY- INDIAN WIDOWS AND WIDOWHOOD— NIGHT IN AN INDIAN LODGE. How an Indian Secured a Wife — Price of an Indian Maiden — Daily Occupations in the Lodge — Life in the Camp — The Birth of a Child — Indian Babies — How they were cared for — Endurance of Indian 'Vomen — On Hand for the Promised Pres- ent — How Indian Babies were Cradled — Indian Widows — Weeping and Wailing at the Burial Place — Genuine Grief — Married Women Slaves — Female Occupa- tions — How the Family Lived — Punishments for Infidelity — Mourning for the Dead — A Widow's Weeds — Care and Affection for the Aged — Choosing a Name — How Names were Selected — Life in the I^iodge — No Privacy, and little Decency Observed — The Indian's Affection for his Wife and Children — Dying of Homesick- ness — An Indian Elopement 90 CHAPTER IX. INDIAN AMUSEMENTS AND PASTIMES— THEIR THIRST FOR GAMBLING— THEIR GAMES OF SKILL AND CHANCE— EXPERTNESS IN THROWING A KNIFE. The Indian's Limited Amusements — Horse-racing the Favorite Pastime — Betting on the Results — Women Gamblers — Ball Playing — Skill of the Players — How the Game was Played — Proficiency in R\inning and Jumping — Skill in Throwing the Knife — Indian Music and Musical Instruments — Serenading Dusky Maidens— r The Romance of Indian Youth — Admiring Himself in Nature's Looking-glass — Lack of Amusements and Pasti.Ties in Winter 08 xvni CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. PAOB INDIAN WOMEN TANNERS— THE MAKING OF AN INDIAN LODGE— INDIAN ART AND ARTISTS— AN INDIAN VILLAGE ON THE MOVE. Indian Tepees and Camps — How Lodge Covers were made — Lodge Poles — iJrecting Lodges — The Entrance — Suffering from Cold — Going Barefoot in the Snow — Decorating the Lodge Cover — Doeds of Valor recorded in Picture Writing — Some well Executed Drawings — Going to bed with their Clothes on — Interior Arrange- ment of a Jx)dge — Expert Horsewomen — Dexterity in throwing the Lasso^Pack- ing the Animals — The Travois — Adjusting the Pack — How the Old, Infirm, and Children were T'^anrported — A Village on the Move — A Strange Sight — Crossing Streams — Clothing that was never Cleansed — A Filthy Race— The Art of Pack- ing Animals — How Pack Animals were prevented from lying down 101 CHAPTER XI. THE SIGN LANGUAGE— ITS MYSTERIOUS ORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE— COM- MUNICATION BY SIGNALS. Indian Languages — Their Strange ''^viversity — No two Indian Nations known to Con- verse in the Language of the Other — The Sign Language — Its Mysterious Origin — The Arapaho, Sioux, Cheyenne, and Navajo Languages — Significance of the Sign Language — Sign Language by Horse Riding — The Sign Language of the Hands — Difficult Sentence in the Sign Language — An Incident in my own Experi- ence — Sign Language by Movements of the Horse — Sign Language by the Mirror — Sign Language by Smokn — Communicating at Lon„' Distance — How an Indian Wrote a Letter — Hieroglyphics on the Faces cf Rocks in Texas — Rude Drawing in Caves — Difficulty of Intrepreting them 108 CHAPTER XII. THE INDIAN AS A FIGHTER— HIS BRAVERY AND CONTEMPT OF DEATH— A CUNNING, STEALTHY, AND TREACHEROUS FOE. Born Fighters — The Indian's Contempt of Death — V o Great Courage — Fighting and Hunting His only Occupations — Not easily Surprised or Ambushed — Indian Method of Preparing for Battle — Return of a War Party — Re-enacting the War- like Scene — Treatment of Captives — Prolonging the Torture — Effect of Firearms on the Primeval Indian — How the Indian first secured Firearms — Horse-stealing considered a Virtue — Indian Lack of Inventiveness — Articles that have never been improved on — The Snowshoe, Moccasin, Tepee, and Bow and Arrow — Great Buoyancy of their Canoea 113 CHAPTER XIII. THE INDIAN'S NATURAL WEAPONS AND HOW HE USED THEM- YOUNO BRAVES INDIAN WARFARE. -TEACHING Indian Weapons of War and of the Chase — The Indian War Club — The Tomahawk — The Scalping Knife — The Lance and Shield — The Bow and Arrow — How they CONTENTS. XIX PAGE were made — Dexterity of the Indian in the Use of the Bow — His Lack of Pro- ficiency in the Use of Modern Firearms — His Limited Use of Tools — Boys Prac- ticing w'*h Bow and Airow — Securing their first Firearms — The Indian not a Good R»..e Shot — Sham Battles — A Kealistic and Exciting Exhibition — Their Decorations and Equipment — How the Young Brave Acquired a Knowledge of War — Dexterity in Bescuing their Wounded during Battle — His thorough Mas- tery of his Horse 118 AN INDIAN DOG CHAPTER XI V^. FEAST— FINGERS VERSUS FORK&— AN INDIAN DINNER PARTY— PERSONAL EXPERIENCES. Why the Indians were Nomadic — A Dog Feast — Cooked in its Skin with the Hair on — How tha Favorite Dish Tastes — Its Peculiar Flavor — Giving a Dinner to a Famous Chief — Astonished Indians — Eating all Night — Indians with "Good Hearts" — A Perfect Gorge — Eating with their Fingers — Refusing to use Knives and Forks — A Delicate Meal — Speech of a Great Chief — "Wacpominie" — What it consisted of — Old-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses — An Embarrassment of Riches — Some Valuable Presents — Disagreeable Pests — Manner of Ridding Skins of Ver- min — A Pertinent Conversation with a Chief and his "tgnificant Reply — ^The Grossest Insult known to the Sioux 124 CHAPTER XV. BURIAL OF THE DEAD— STRANGE FJNERAL RITES AND CEREMONIES— THE INDIAN'S IDEA OF THE FUTURE STATE— LIFE IN THE SPIRIT LAND. Funeral Ceremonies — Burial of a Chief — Last Rites — Final Resting-Place of their Important Personages — Burled in a Sitting Posture — Scaffolds on which the Dead were placed — How they were thrown down by Buffalo— Taken by the Whites for Fuel — Killing Animals at the Funeral — Women and Female Children buried in various ways — Dead Bodies eaten by Carnivorous Animals and Birds of Prey — Intolerable Stench at an Indian Burial-Place — Journeyof the Soul to the Spirit I^nd — The Indian's Inability to Compute Time — Feeding the Soul during its Jour- ney — Belief that the Spirit left the Body through the Mouth — Why Indians Mutilated the Slain Bodies of Enemies — Execution of Big Foot, Black Crow, and others by hanging in Chains — Death in its "most Dreaded Form 128 CHAPTER XVI. THE GREAT SIOUX NATION— A FIERCE AND WARLIKE PEOPLE- -LIFE AND SCENES AMONG THEM. One of the Largest and Most Warlike of Indian Nations — Old-Man-Afraid-of-His Horses — A Noted Chief — How he acquire*! his Name — How he became Famous — When and how a Brave could change his Name — A Nation of Meat Eaters — Tiieir Manner of Cooking and Eating — The l^niversal Dirty Cooking Pot — A Vora- cious Sioux — Drinking Dish Water — Why Indians were constantly on the Move — Always at War with their Neii,aooi »- -Why they had no Intoxicating Liquors — XX CONTENTS. Insulting an Indian by asking his Name — Indian Vulgarity — Indian Mothers-in- law — How they were regarded — An Indian Forlorn Hope — An Alliance that meant Death and Destruction — Splendid Horsemanship — The Stone Bath — Prac- tice of Voodooism — Heroic Treatment — Wealthy Indians — Many Ceremonies — Demonstrative Love — No Social Castes — Dog Soldiers — Widely Separated Tribes — Superstitious fear of Hailstorms 136 CHAPTER XVII. STILL AMONG THE SIOUX— THE MANDANS— INDIAN FREE MASONS— THE ASSINIBOINS— THE GROS VENTRES, OR THE BIG BELLIES, CUISSES BRULES OR BURNT THIGHS. The Mandans — Their Interesting History — Nearly Exterminated by Small-Pox — Indian Free Masons — A Great Mystery — How did they Acquire a Knowledge of the Order? — Their Pastimes — The Buffalo Dance — Manner of Disposing of their Dead — How the Skulls of their Dead were Used — Their Happy Domestic Life — The Asainiboins — Their Hunting Ground — A Far Northern Tribe of Indians — Their Characteristics and Customs — Scourged by Small-Pox — The Gros Ventres, or Big Bellies — Origin of the Name — The Brules — Battle of Ash Hollow — The Ogalalas — Their Country — The Bad Faces — The Yankton Sioux — Their Hunting Ground — The Minneconjoux — A Savage Tribe — Their Hunting Ground — The Uncpapas — A Fierce Tribe — Where they Lived — The Kaws, or Kanvas — The W^n- nebagoes — The Poncas — The Omahas — The Osages — The Quapaws, or Arkanaan — The Otoes — The lowas 153 CHAPTER XVIII. THE COMANCHES— FIERCE TRIBES OF THE SHOSHONEE NATION— GUARDING AGAINST AMBUSH AND SURPRISE— THRILLING INCIDENTS. Where the Comanches Lived — A Fierce and Implacable Foe — A Terror to all Settlers — Alliance with the Apaches — Bloody Raids — A Mexican Bandit I^eader and his Fol- lowers — A Lot of Murderous Renegades — The Comanches Receive their First Chastisement — Attack on Fort Lancaster — Soldiers Lassoed while Guarding their Herds — Carried Away and Murdered — Carrying the Mail through a Hostile Coun- try in a Concord Buggy — Cruel Fate of the Driver and Guard — The Wagon Train — Vast Sums in Gold and Silver Carrted through a Hostile Country — How the Trains Were Waylaid — Horrible Fate of a Wounded Trainman — Guarding against Surprise 174 CHAPTER XIX. THE COMANCHES CONTINUED— PUNISHMENT INFLICTED ON THEIR WOMEN- STEALING CONSIDERED A FINE ART. Comanche Home Life — A Nation of Thieves — Polygamy common among them — Miser- able Women — Never known to Marry outside of their own People — What mad« them unusually Virtuous — Severe Penalty for Unfaithfulness — Slitting the Nose — Helf-inflicted Wounds — Mourning for the Dead — Superstitious Healing of tht .:jj^--tiiAtMti^iAMi\ .j^it^t^*-^ I'l n ftiiiillUfciaiallYl CONTENTS. ZZl PAOK Sick— Their Medicines— Curing the Bite of a Rattlesnalfe — Capturing Wild Horse, — Killing Wild Turkeys — Their Scanty Clothing— A Filthy and Repulsive People — Feats of Horsemanship — Cutting the Hamstring of a Running Animal — Mothers at Twelve Years of Age — Making up a Party for Plunder and Pillage — Living in Rocks and Caves — Expert Thieves — Stealing considered a Mark of Honor 181 CHAPTER XX. THE APACHES— APPALLING RECORD— THEIR STEALTH AND CUNNING. In the Country of the Apaches — Shaving off the Nose of a Woman — Horrible Mutila- tions — Apache Depredations — The Ishmaelites of all Men — Their Repulsive and Hideous Appearance — Their Small and Peculiar Feet — Painting Themselves with Mud — An Unspeakably Dirty People — Swarming with Vermin — Murderous Wai- riors — Art oi Concealing their Persons — How they Made Themselves Resemble a Rock — Looking like a IJunch of Grass — Mistaken for a Bush or Shrub — Their Stealth and Cunning — On the Warpath — Return of a War Party — ""hievish and Cruel Propensities — An Appalling Record — Driving Out Ten Thousand Settlers — Hiding in the Dense Jungles 187 CHAPTER XXI. THE APACHES CONTINUED— ELUSIVE, CUNNING AND DA'rINO INDIANS— EX- PERT TRAIL FOLLOWERS— INDIAN LIFE IN TEXAS, NEW MEXICO, AND ARIZONA. Expert Trailers — Detecting Signs— Concealing their own Trail — Their Cunning in eluding I'ursuit — Apnche Cruelty to Captives — Fate of Captive White Hoys and Girls — How the Ajmches Lived — Creat Aversion to Telling their Names — Queer Superstitions — Burying their Dead at Night — Their Fear of a Dead Body — Trav- eling One Hundred Miles a Day on Foot — Marvelous Endurance — Victorious in Capturing Trains — Raiding Settlers — Bones of Victims — An Able but Vicious Chief — Tl.e Deadly Fear He Inspired — Attacking Ranch and Cattle Men — Dread- ful Fate of a Mexican Captive — Stripped, and Staked out on the Ground over an Ant Hill — A Horrible Death — Midnight Groans and Screams — The Story of a Noted Chief's First Raid as Told by Himself 192 CHAPTER XX 11. THE MYSTERIOUS UTES— THEIR SECRET CUSxOMS AND QUEER DOINGS. The Mysterious l^tes — A Part of the Great Shoshonee Nation — Their Fierce Encoun- ters with their Neighbors — A Wandering Tribe — Rarely Defeated — Small, Black, Strong and Vicious — Constantly on the Warpath — Their Home Life — Their Pov- erty — Filthy Indians and Dirty Ixidges — A I>azy People — The Most Secretive of all Indir.ns — Their One Great Peculiarity — Profound Secrecy — Secret Burial — The Mysterious Grave of a Ute — Where Did they Bury their Dead? — Death of the Head of the Fatnily — Dcatniction of his Property — Birth of a (^hild — Treating the Si"k — Their Food, Clothing, and Arms — Eating Rats. Mice, Crickets and Snakes — The Pah-Utes and the Pi-Utcs — A Miserable Ijoi of Red Men 200 XXll CONTENTS. t CHAPTER XXIII. THE SNAKES AND ROOT DIGGERS— INTERESTING AND PECULIAR TRIBE- LOAFERS AND GAMBLERS. The Snakes a Part of the Shoshonee Nation — An Interesting Tribe — Their Hunting Ground — Afflicted with Goitre — Necks Larger than their Heads — Their Great Enmity with the Cheyennes, Blackfeet and Sioux — A Crafty, Treacherous Tribe — Their Fiendish Crueity to Prisoners — How they >Secured Firearms — Manner of Wearing their Hair — Their Poverty — Securing Wild Horses — Their Expertness as Boatmen — Desciiption of a Bull-Boat — Ingenuity of the Snakes — Manner of Catching Fish — Lazy Fishermen — Their Expertness in the Use of the Sign Lan- guage — Communication by Means of Horses, Fire, and Smoke — The Bannocks, or Root Diggers — A Iliserable People — Loafers and Gamblers rjkom 207 CHAPTEPi XXiV. THE DIGGER INDIANS— OUTCASTS OF OTHElv TRIBES— THE LOWEST OF THE LOW. How the Diggers Acquired their Name — A Conglomerate Lot — Living on Roots and Burrowing in Holes — The Lowest in Intelligence and most Degraded of all Indians — Only one Remove from Apes — Their Repulsive Apppearance — Extraor- dinary Voracity — Surrounding the Carcass of a Horse — Leaving Nothing but its Bones — Selling their Children to Obtain Food — Living together in Herds — Below the Level of Beasts — Going Entirely Naked in Summer — Living on Insects and Reptiles — The Personification of all that is Low and Vile — Their Filthy lodges — Ijiving in Caves — A Tribe of Vermin Eaters — Their Gaunt, Half-Famished Dogs — Ignorance of the Sign Language — Marriage Unknown among Them — Eating Raw Fish — Ostracized by Every One — How a Sick Digger was Taken Care of — His Fate after Death 213 CHAPTER XXV. THE BLACKFEET— THE SMALL-POX EPIDEMIC— APPALLING DEATH AND DESOLATION— A CAMP OF HUMAN BONES AND DESERTED LODGES. SCENES OP The Blackfeet Indians — How they got their Name — Their Country — The Neighbors with whom they were at War — The Piegnns. Bloods, and Gros Ventres of the Prairie — Their Standing Grudge against the American Fur Companies — Trap- ping under Difficulties — How Trappers Protected themselves against the In- dians — Unwritten Laws of the Blackfeet — Their Superstition against Fish — Their Religious Beliefs and Burial Ceremonies — Flight of the Spirit — Manner of Feed- ing the Spirit — The Dual Spirit— Carrying out Dreams — The Small-Pox Epidemic — How it Gained a Foothold — Fearful Ravages — How they Treated this Dread Diseast -Fifteen Hundred Ijodges and their Dead Abandoned — Ap])alliiig Seenes of Death and Desolation — Small-Pox Corpses Eaten by Wolves 217 JShah^l.^ t CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVI. zxni PAOE THE CROWS, OR UPSORUKA AS THEY GALLED THEMSELVES— JAMES TECK- WOURTH, THE FAMOUS MULATTO FRONTIERSMAN- LIFE AMONG THE CROWS. The Crov/8 — Driven out by the Sioux — A Skulking, Thievish Race — A Tall and Ath- letic People — Their Flowing Hair — The Crow Women — How the Crows Attacked Trappeis and Traders — Murdering Entire Expeditions — Night Attacks — The Home of the Beaver, Otter, and other Fur-Bearing Animals — The Famous Mulatto Trapper, Jim Beckwourth — His Alliance with the Crows — His Great Influence among Them — His Return to St. I^ouis and Supposed Death — Effect of the Rumor on the Crows — A Bloody Tragedy Averted — Reappearance of Beck- wourth — A Brave and Sagacious Man — A Warrior Race — :Bitterne»s between the Crows and Sioux — What Happens after Death 224 CHAPTER XXVII. THE FLATHEADS— HOW THEY GOT THEIR NAME— PECULIAR CUSTOMS— FLAT- TENING HEADS OF CHILDREN A MARK OF BEAUTY. The Flatheads — Their Peculiar language — Their Habitations, Food, and Clothing — How the Women gathered Camas — Peculiar Manner of Cooking it — How they caught Wild Horses— Manner of catching Fish — Bone Fish-hooks — How they Cooked Fish — Fine Boatmen — How the Flatheads got their Name — Manner of Flattening the Heads — A Peculiar Custom — Position of a Child during the Pro- cess — Appearance of the Head having been Flattened — A Deformity that was Consideied a Mark of Beauty 231 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE KIOWAS— A PART OF THE SHOSHONEE NATION— BRAVE, TREACHEROUS AND CUNNING— SOME FAMOUS CHIEFS— RAIDS AND WARS. The Kiowas — Part of the Shoshonee Family — Originally from the Far North — Hunt- ing Ground in the Black Hills — Driven Out by the Sioux — Their Last Home — Characteristics of the Kiowas — A Murderous People — Treacherous, Cunning and Vicious — Stealing from each other — How Stolen Property was Returned — Med- icine Men — Death of Santanta — Raids into Mexico — Their Alliances — Their Per- sonal Appearance 235 CHAPTER XXIX. THE BRAVE AND WARLIKE CHEYENNES— THE FINEST BODY OF SAVAGES IN THE WORLD— THEIR SINtU'LAR FRIENDSHIP FOR THE ARAPAHOES— BLOODY AND COSTLY WARS WITH THE WHITES. A Brave and Intelligent People — Manner of Caring for their Hair — A Nation of War- riors — Expertness of Cheyenne Women in Handiwork — Religioiis Belief of the Cheyennes — Their Dances and Ceremonies — Their language — Their Alliance with ZZIV CONTENTS. the Sioux and Arapahoes — ^Their Attacks on Emigrant Trains — Treaties with the Government — Broken Faith followed by Fierce and Bloody Battles — The Chiv- ingtoQ Massacre — A Bloody and Costly War — Nearly Forty Million Dollars Spent in Fighting the Cheyennes — Their Home Life — Peculiar Marriage Customs — Treatment of their Wives and Children — Their Singular Friendship with the Arapahoes — A Friendship that has never been explained — Burial of the Dead — Their Lodges — Primitive Weapons — Symbols used by them — The Northern Cheyennes 240 CHAPTER XXX. THE DIRTY AND POVERTY-STRICKEN ARAPAHOES— A SHIFTLESS AND LAZY PEOPLE— HOW THEY LIVED— BEGGARS, MENIALS, AND THIEVES. Where did the Arapahoes come from? — Obscurity of their Origin — A Lazy People — Their Habits, Characteristics, Customs, and Language — A Filthy Lot — Their Strange Friendship for the Cheyennes — Brutal Treatment of their Wives — Menials and Thieves for the Cheyennes — The Vilest of Beggars — Begging and Stealing for a Living — Unable to Speak their own Language — A Language rarely Acquired by a White Man — Their Poor Weapons for War and the Chase — Too Lazy to Fish — How they Made their Clothing — Swarming with Vermin — Disgust- ing Habits — A Wretched Existence 251 CHAPTER XXXI. CLIFF DWELLERS— THE NAVAJOES AND THEIR COUNTRY— THE TONKAWAYS —THEIR WARS AND WANDERINGS— CANNIBALISM AMONG THE INDIANS. How the Navajoes Resembled White Men in their Habits — A Tribe of Cliff Dwellers — Their Famous Blankets — Their Handiwork and Skill — Horsehair Lariats — Beauti- ful Earthen Ware — How they Purified and Cooled Water — How the Cactus was used for Clearing Water — Peculiarity of the C>"-tus Ijcaf — Personal Apppearance of the Navajoes — Children Adepts in Throwing the Lasso — An Expert Indian Lad of Ten — His Feats with the Lasso — Catching a Dog by either Leg — The Navajoe in his Family — A Model Indian — Deserted Dwellings — The Tonkaways — A Rem- nant of a once Powerful People — Their Vague Traditions — Their Wars and Wan- derings — A Cannibal Race — Killing and Eating their Prisoners 255 CHAPTER XXXII. THE PL'EBLOS AND ZUNIS— HIDEOUSLY UGLY GODS AND IDOLS— CUSTOMS OF A STRANGE PEOPLE. Where did they come from? — Why did they keep to themselves? — Supposed to be Christians, but in reality Heathen — Their Ugly Idols — A Mooted Question — Why they were made so Ugly — Smashing them to Pieces — Putting an Idol to a Queer Use — Using a God for a Liquor Flask — Homeliness an Antidote for Pain — Where have the Pueblos Gone? — An Unsolved Mystery — Walled Caves and Ruins of Stone Dwellings — A Lost Art — How did they make Cement? — The Zunis — How they •CONTENTS. XXV rAuu Lived — Their Numerous Flocks and Herds — A Strange People — Praying to the Spirits of Ocean — The Pimas or Papagoes — Buried in a sitting Posture — Feasting at the Grave — Praying for a New Husband — Tar as a Cosmetic 261 CHAPTER XXXIII. THE PAWNEES— A NATION WHOSE ORIGIN IS UNKNOWN— FEUDS FIERCE BATTLES— SKINNING A MAN ALIVE— TRIBES CONSTITUTING THE NATION. AND Once a Numerous and Warlike People — Peculiar Manner of Cutting their Hair — Their Hunting Ground — Natural Home of the Buffalo — Jealousies and Feuds Created in Hunting Them — Hated by all their Neighbors — Hatred of the Sioux — Ambition of the Sioux to be Known as a Pawnee Killer — Vicious Tribes traveling a long way to Fight the Pawnees — Vindictiveness — Skinning a Man Alive — Pawnee Religion — Priests and Doctors — Medicine Bags — Widows of the Pawnees — The Wichitas. . . 267 CHx\PTF.Il XXXIV. THE CHIPPEWAS, OCHIPPWAS, OR, AS THFY CALLED THEMSELVES, OJIBWAS —ALGONQUIN STOCK. The Chippewas — Who They Were — Treatment of the Sick — Curious Customs — Widows — Snowshoe Dance — Striking the Post — Story Telling Season — Large Scars — Strange Burial Customs — The Crees Practiced Sun Dancing to a Recent Date — Sacs and Foxes — Ottawas — Pottawattomies — Miamis — Kaskasias — Seminoles — Caddoes — Wacoes 275 CHAPTER XXXV. THE NEZ PERCES, OR PIERCED-NOSED INDIANS— ON THE WARPATH— SUR- RENDER OF CHIEF JOSEPH— THE CAYUSES. A Part of the Shahaptin Family — How the Nez Percys were first Discovered — Their Pierced Noses — An Intelligent Tribe — White Squatters — First Outbreak against the Whites — Going on the Warpath — Organizing a Bloody Campaign — A Fierce Battle — Indian Tactics — Troops in Pursuit — Peculiar Incident of the Battle — Birth of a Child during the Engagement — Chief Joseph — His Daughter Lost in the Confusion of Battle — Devoured by Wild Animals — The Chief's only Heir — His Wonderful Retreat of Two Thousand Miles — His Military Ability — Indians Fighting with their Clothes On — Rare Instance of Indian Magnanimity — Surren- der of Chief Joseph — Asking no Favors — His Patriotic Speech — The Cayuses — Low, Cunning — Great Thieves 283 CHAPTER XXXVI. CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS OF THE CALIFORNIA TRIBES— INDIANS WHO TATTOOED THEIR FACES AND BODIES. Different Linguistic Stock — Many LanGruages Spoken among this Group— Tribes which went Naked — Garments of Babbit Skins — Painting their Faces and Bodies XXVI CONTENTS. FAOa — Personal Adornment — Slitting their Ears — The Custom of Tattooing and what it Meant — Passing Goose Quills through the Nose — Night Watchers of the Camp — An Indian Bath — Ingenious Ways of Catching Fish — Eating their Food Raw, Entrails and All — A Meal of Grasshoppers — Bread made of dried and pulverized Grasshoppers — Eating Portions of the Bodies of their Enemies — Money Esti- mate of Human Life — Peculiar Marriage Customs — Dances and Festivities — Gam- bling and Games — Treatment of the Sick — Cremating their Dead 291 CHAPTER XXXVII. THE COLUMBIAN GROUP— THE STORY OF AN INDIAN QUEST FOR THE WHITE MAN'S BIBLE— INDIAN ATROCITIES. A Brave but Peaceably Inclined People — Ceremonies when Preparing for the War- path — Imitating the Cry of Birds and Wild Animals — The War Chief— How Braves were Enlisted for War — Treatment of Women among the Different Tribes — Indian Slaves and Slavery — Staking Wives and Children on Games of Chance — A Risky Profession — Burial Ceremonies — A Vicious Tribe Called the Rogues — Why they were so named — An Expedition in Search of the White Man's Bible — Father De Smet — His Life, and Labors among the Indians — The Measles among the Indians — Destruction of the Protestant Mission — Savage Instincts Aroused — An Expedition for the Rescue of Captives 302 CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE GREAT INDIAN NATIONS. Their Marked Characteristics and Radically Different Languages — The Great Algon- quin Family — Their Widely Separated Tribes — Names of the Diffe-»nt Tribes — The Apalachees or Mobiles, Often Called the Southern Indians — Names of the Tribes — The Athabaskees — Names of the Tribes — The I^acotah or Sioux — Names of Tribes — The Shoshone Nation — Names of Tribes Constituting this Nation — The Shnhaptin Family and its Tribes — The Salish Family — The Chinooks— The Haidahs — The California Tribes — The Pueblos — The Columbian Group — Names of Tribes — The Pawnees — Their Obscure Origin — The Miscellaneous Tribes, of whose Origin Little or Nothing is Known 311 CHAPTER XXXIX. THE SUN DANCE OF THE SIOUX— THE GREATEST OF ALL INDIAN CERE- MONIES— SELli'-INFLICTED WOUNDS AND AGONIZING TOR- TURE—A TERRIBLE ORDEAL. The Greatest of all Indian Ceremonies — I find myself in Favor with the Indians and take Advantage of it — Obtain Permission to Witness a Sun Dance — Assurance that I should not be Molested — Precautionary Measures — An Animated Scene — A Moving Mass of Animal Life — Preparations for the Dance — Selecting the Run Pole — Awaiting the Rising of the Sun — Painted Warriors on their best Horses — A CONTENTS. XXVU Wild Dash around the Sun Pole — The Dance formally begun — Scenes in Camp during the First Day — VVoncnrful Endurance — First Niglit of the Dance — Left Naked and Destitute on the I'rairie — Horrible Self-Torture — Slitting Open both BreastH — Inserting a Lariat through the Slits — A Dreadful Ordeal 323 CHAPTER XL. THE SCALP DANCE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE— GHASTLY TROPHIES OF MASSA- CRE AND WAR— THE WAR DANCE AND ITS OBJECT— GREWSOME TRINKETS WORN. The Scalp Dance — Treatment of Scalps — Scalp Poles — Description of the Dance — A Strange Place to make Love — Courting an Indian Maiden — The Scalp Dance next in Importance to the Sun Dance — Excitement of the Dancers — Telling how the Scalp was taken — Exhibition of Trophies — The Scalp the Unmistakable Evidence of having killed an Enemy — Indian Braggarts — Notorious Liars — The War Dance — Its Object — Organizing a War Party — Encouraging the Braves to Join — Praying for their Safe Return — Feasting on Dogs — Prayers of the Old ^Vomen — The Medicine Dance — What it was and why it was held — The Medicine Bag — Nations who used it — Mystery of the Medicine Bag — Disinclination of Indians to talk about it — Grewsome Trinkets Worn — The Fire Dance — The Snake Dance. . . . 334 CHAPTER XLI. ORIGIN OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS— WHERE DID THEY COME FROM— INTERESTING THEORIES— A QUESTION NEVER SOLVED. The Indians of North America — Ingenious Theories of their Origin — Claimed to be of Mongolian, Africa, and Hebrew Descent — Did they Descend from the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel? — Different Theories — Difference between the Indians and Hebrews, Chinamen, and Negroes — Curious Analogies — My Own Opinion — Why I think that the Indian was Placed here by our Great Creator — A Distinct Race — Entirely Unlike any other — Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses' Logical Reasoning — Mountains and Rivers in the Moon — Did they cross over from Asia by way of Bering's Straits? — The Mound Buihlers — Implements found in the Mounds — Their Art in Cutting Precious Stones — Exquisite Gold Images from their Graves — Con- clusion as to the Origin of the Red Man 341 CHAPTER XLII. INDIAN MASSACRES AND BATTLES— THRILLING INCIDENTS OF FRONTIER LIFE— TRAGEDIES OF THE MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS. Indian Warfare — Attacking Field Pieces with Tomahawks — Burial of Massacred Troops — Burial of Dead Warriors — The Fetterman Massacre — Reserving the Last Shot for Themselves — How Information about this Bloody Affair was Obtained — Firing the Station with Burning Arrows — Killing a Lurking Foe — Blowing the top of an Indian's Head off— Our Battle on Tongue River — A Desperate Charge — A Trooper's Grim Remark — A Fierce Indian Battle — Two able Leaders — How they described other Battles and Massacres .348 iiifJMA'iiiiii-iiiiiti'"^'''^^'^'^ ZXVIU CONTENTS. CHAPTER XLIII. PAOB 'iHE MASSACRE OF GENERAL CANBY BY THE MODOCS— CAPTAIN JACK AND SCAR-FACED CHARLIE— INDIAN TREACHERY— PUNISH- MENT OF THE MURDERERS. Wars between the Modocs p.nd their Neighbors — Inexperienced Agents — Surprising Captain Jack's Camp — Fight between the Modocs and the Troops — Massacre of White Settlers Dy the Modocs — Avenging the Massacre — Thirty Soldiers Killed, and not an Indian Injured — The Peace Commission — General Canby Chosen — Sullen and Angry Indians — Schonochin — His Hatred of the Whites — Waiting for Revenge — Ben Wright's Inhuman Massacre of the Modocs — A Bloody Day — Scar- faced Charlie — His Friendship for the Whites — Treachery Suspected — Danger Ahead — The Indians Indicted for Murder — Captain Jack's Retreat to the Lava Beds — A Conference sought with him — Falling into a Trap — Going to the Meeting Unarmed — Massacre of General Canby and his Party — Capture and Punishment of the Murderers 359 CHAPTER XLIV. A FRONTIER TRAGEDY— GENERAL CUSTER'S LAST FIGHT- HIS DEATH, THE ANNIHILATION OF HIS ENTIRE COMMAND— NARRA- TIVE OF RED HORSE, A SIOUX CHIEF. AND Custti's Annihilation — The Country alive with Hostile Indians — Who was Sitting Bui!? — An In(' an Camp of Ten Thousand Men, Women, and Children — Striking the Tinemy — I liief Gall — An Able Indian Leader — The Battle of the Little Big Horn — Custer's Fatal Mistake — A Desperate and Bloody Battle — Where was General Custer? — Discovering the Bodies of the Slain — A Pile of Empty Cartridge Shells beside each Corpse — Coming to the Rescue — Burying the Dead — Appear- ance of the Slain — Their Pained and Terrified Expressions — Rain-in-the-Face — His vow to Cut Out the Heart of Captain Thomas Custer — Sitting Bull a Great Liar, a Wily Old Rascal — My Interview with Rain-in-the-Face — An Indian Ac- count of the Battle by Red Horse, a Sioux Chief 365 CHAPTER XLV. THE (JREAT SIOUX MASSACRE— MIRACULOUS ESCAPES AND THRILLING ADVENTURES— SUFFERINGS OF CAPTIVES. Cause of the Massacre — War of Extermination decided upon by the Indians — They take the Warpath — Their First Attack — Courage of a French Ferryman — His Heroic Death — Killing Fleeing Settlers — Hacked to Pieces with Knives — Children's Brains Beaten Out — Burned Alive — Hung on Hooks — Sticks Driven through their Bodies — Mutilation of the Dead — Roasting a Child Alive — Thrilling Escapes — Two Brothers trying to Save a Sick Mother — The Settlers Rally for De- fense — Holding White Prisoners — Their Extreme Suffering — Miraculous Escape of Two Brothers — Six Hundred and Forty-four Settlers and Ninety-three Soldiers Slain CONTENTS. CHAPTER XLVI. XXIX PAGE THE FUR COMPANIES— HOW THEY OPERATED— HUNTERS AND TRADERS IN THE INDIAN COUNTRY— THEIR EVERYDAY LIFE AND EXPLOITS. The First White Men among the Wild Indians — The Hudson Bay Company — How Trading Posts were Established from Ocean to Ocf^n — Their Maxim, "Never Trust an Indian" — Effect of a White Man's Fist on an Indian's Nose — Fierce Competition — Vile Liquors Sold to the Indians — John Jacob Astor and the Ameri- can Fur Company — Hardy Trappers and Daring Frontiersmen — Danger of Trap- ping in a Hostile Country — In the Wilderness for Several Years — Robbing the Indian — Twenty Dollars' Worth of Beaver Skins for Fifty Cents — "Fire Water" why so Named — How Indians Tested Brandy — Made of the "Hearts of Wild Cats and the Tongues of Women" — Trappers taken by Surprise — Lying in Ambush .... 388 CHAPTEE XLVII. FAMOUS EXPEDITIONS INTO THE INDIAN COUNTRY— PERU OUS JOURNEYS OVERLAND BY OX TEAMS AND PRAIRIE SCHOONERS. Expedition of Lieutenants Lewis and Clark — Preparations for the Journey — Their First Winter in a Wild and Unknown Country — Assistance from Friendly Indians — Meeting the Snakes — Explorations of Lieutenants Pike and Long — Capture of Lieutenant Pike and Party — Expedition of Captain Bonneville — Battles with the Early Traders — Gold Discoveries — The Rush to the Mines — Fremont's Expedition — The Santa F6 Trail — Prairie Schooners — A Dangerous Trip — Excitement in the Pike's Peak Country — An Overland Wagon Train — Waylaid by Indians — How Wagon Trains were Corraled — Fighting against Odds — The Great American Bull- Whacker — His Whip and Skill in Using It — An Incident on the Sweetwater River — An Astonished Indian 398 CHAPTER XLVIII. THE AMERICAN TROOPER AS AN INDIAN FIGHTER— PERILOUS SERVICE- SCOUTING FOR INDIANS. Fighting Indians with Cannon — Their Amazement at, and Dread of Shells — An In- scrutable Mystery — Fighting them after their own Fashion — The best Soldiers in the World — Hand-to-Hand Conflict with the Indians — Fighting on Foot — Keep- ing w^ith the Command — Blowing their own Brains Out — As Mild as a Child but as full of Fight as a Tiger — Fighting Indians Day by Day — Sleepless Nights — On a Scout — How the Trooper Slept at Night — A Duel between two Soldiers — A Sad Incident — After the Duel — Toes, Fingers, and Hands Frozen — Animals Fro- zen to Death — Unwelcome Night Visitors — Grizzly Bears in Camp — The Despised Wolves — Cunning and Dangerous Animals — Eating Boots and Saddles — Eating their Companions Alive — Horses and Mules Crazed by Fright 406 XXX CONTENTS. CHAPTER XLIX. PAOB THE OVERIJVND STAGE— DESPERADOES AND ROAD AGENTS— AN INDIAN ATTACK THAT COVERED TWELVE HUNDRED MILES. The Overland Stage Line — How the Line was Operated — A Hundred Milea in Twenty- four Hours — Its Extraordinary Service — Prey for Indians and Road Agents — Fre- quent Raids on the Stage Stations — Looting the Stages — Road Agents — Jules Bevi and his Tragic Death — Killed by the Noted Desperado, Alfred Slade — Cut- ting Otf his Victim's Ears — Nailing One of them to the Door — Dangling the Other from his Watch Chain — The Woist White Man in that Country — His Misdeeds — His Visit to my Camp — A Heeded Warning — In the Hands of the Vigilantes — Ex- ecution of Slade and his two Comrades — Dying like Cowards — A Massacre that Extended Twelve Hundred Miles — The Wonderftil Mirage 416 CHAPTER L. THE PONY EXPRESS— A DANGEROUS SERVICE IN A DANGEROUS COUNTRY- WONDERFUL ENDURANCE AND DARING FEATS OF THE RIDERS. Riding on Horseback from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean in Ten Days — A Bucking Pony — A Vicious Beast — Bleeding from the Nose, Mouth, Eyes, and Ears — Courage and Daring of Pony Express Eiders — Running the Gauntlet for Hun- dreds of Miles among Hostile Indians and Murderous Road Agents — Exhaustion of the Riders — Unable to Dismount — Incidents and Experiences— -Riding Night and Day — The Fastest and Longest Ride ever made — Wonderful Endurance — How the News of Abraham Lincoln's Inaiiguration was carried across the Continent — Taking a Dead Man's Place — Dangers by the way — Pursued — Safe at last — Physical Strain of Long Horseback Riding — A Personal Experience- -My Escort — A never-to-be-forgotten Ride^A Country alive with Wild and Frenzied Warriors — The Electric Telegraph 422 CHAPTER LI. WILD HORSES— WHERE THEY CAME FROM— HOW THEY WERE CAPTURED AND SUBDUED. Wild Horses — First Known in America in 1518 — Indians' Astonishment at first see- ing a Horse and Rider — The Wild Horse's Struggle for Existence during the Cold Winter — Indian's Mode of Securing them — Their Cruelty to them — Their Great Abundance in Early Days — The White Man's Method of Securing them — "Creasing" — Walkijig them lown — From Twenty-four to Thirty-six Hours Neces- sary to Accomplish it — Difficulty in Breaking them 430 CHAPTER LII. KILLING BUFFALOES— AN EXCITING AND DANGEROUS SPORT— "BUCK AGUE" —GREEN SPORTSMEN— PERSONAL EXPERIENCES AND REMINISCENCES. Millions of Buffaloes— Indispensable to the Indians — How Wolves Attacked and Killed them — Why did they always cross in Front of a Railroad Train? — Buffalo CONTENTS. XXXI PAOB Gnats— Stinging the Animals to Fury— Buffalo Chips— The only Fuel on the Plains — Guests Deceived — Eaten Alive by Wolves — The Latter's Unearthly Howls — Excitement of a Buffalo Hunt — A Thrilling Spectacle — Horses as Buffalo Hunters — Dashing into the Herd — A Shower of Stones and Earth — Dangerous Sport for a Verdant — Shooting the Animal through the Ears — Inexperienced Hunters — Teaching them to Hunt — Shooting his own Horse — An Astonished Sportsman — Danger of being Trampled to Death — Buck Ague — Its Effects 433 CHAPTER LIII. WILD ANIMALS AND REPTILES OF THE PLAINS AND MOUNTAINS— THE DEADLY RATTLESNAKE AND ITS HABITS— FUR- BEARING ANIMALS AND THEIR WAYS. The Rattlesnake — Its Deadly Bite — Its One Good Trait — Its Sickening Odor — Coiling for a Spring — Manner of Striking — How Deer Killed the Rattler — The Rattler's Only Redeeming Quality — How the Peccarj' and Hog Killed Snakes — How the Blacksnake Killed the Rattler — The Pisano or Road Runner — Its 'Tethod of Killing Rattlers — The Bull-Whacker's Method — The Prairie Dog and its Habita- tion — What it Lived on — Its Domicile Invaded by Rattlers and Screech Owls — The Antelope and its Habits — Its Fatal Curiosity — The Elk — The Moose — Use of his Flag Horns — The Black-Tailed Deer — The White-Tailed Deer — The Beaver — A Born Aichitect — Their Beds — A Sagacious and Industrious Animal — Gnawing Feet off to Gain their Freedom— The Otter 443 BEARS AND THEIR CHAPTER LIV. WAYS— ADVENTURES WITH GRIZZLIES— AN EXCITING FIGHT AND A RACE FOR LIFE. The Black Bear — Its Home, Habits and Food — Fondness for Honey — Tenacity of Life — The Bear as a Boxer — How Indians Secured Them — Four Bears Equal to One Scalp — Tearing out the Entrails of a Dog at one Blow — The Cinnamon Bear — Its Peculiarities — A Puzzle to Natiiralists — The Grizzly Bear — The Largest and Most Formidable Bear in Existence — Its Awkward Gait — Why the Grizzly was called "Sambo" — Avoided by Mountaineers — Indians Killing a Grizzly — A Memorable Fight With a Grizzly — Starting Him Up in the Underbrush — An Exciting Time — An Enraged Bear — The Fight On — A Race for Life — A Narrow Escape — Tor- mented by Dogs — Fourteen Bullets in Sambo's Body — Killed at Last 467 CHAPTER LV. JIM BRIDGER, FAMOUS SCOUT, GUIDE, FRONTIERSMAN, AND INDIAN FIGHTER —PERSONAL EXPERIENCES WITH HIM. A Typical Frontiersman — ^Trapper, and Famous Indian Fighter — ^An Unerring Guide — His Skill as a Trailer — The Man who Trained Kit Carson — Bridger's Wit and Humor — Some Characteristic Anecdotes — The Invisible Mountain — A Thrilling and Fatal Adventure — Telling the Story of his own Death — Bridger's Strange Man- ner of Living — Unable to Read, but could Quote from Shakespeare — A High- ZZXll CONTENTS. / PAOK Priced Book -Bridget at the Battle of Powder River — "A Mean Camp" — His Visit to the I'resident — What Bridger thought of Him — A Gang of Desperadoes Discom- fited — Itly Winter with Him — His Queer Habits — Going to Bed at all Hours — Cooking his Meals in the Middle of the Night — Singing "Injun" — Bridger in Battle with the Utes, Killing and Scalping a Ute in a Hand-to-Hand Conflict — Challenging an Arapahoe — What Followed 462 CHAPTER LVI. A FAMOUS FRONTIERSMAN, TRAPPER, SCOUT AND GUIDE— A WHITE MAN WHO HAD A SNAKE WOMAN AND LIVED THE INDIAN LIFE MANY YEARS— HIS ADVENTURES • AND EXPLOITS. Jim Baker a Noted Character — 'Vanders into the Snake Tribe — Lives With a Snake Woman and Adopts the Clothing and the Life of the Snakes — A Desperate Fight with Indians — Fleeced by Gamblers — His Fortitude — Adventures with a Party of Miners — Discovers Gold — Attacked by Indians — Fighting Indians Step by Step for a Hundred Miles — The Killed and Wounded— His Deadly Rifle — Hatred of the Mormons — A Perilous Journey — Concealed by Day and Traveling by Night 411 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOB Portrait of the Author Frontispiece. Teton Sioux xi Jumping Dofr — Ogalala Sioux 46 A Typical Indian Village — Skin Covered Lodges 4!) Spotted Wolf — Typical Chippewa 51 Warrior with Bear Claw Necklace — War Painting. 56 Medicine Man in Mourning — Showing manner of Cutting the Hair for Mourning. ... 59 Many Horns, Gros Ventre Indian, with Ear Pendants of Iroquois shells tipped with Large Shell 62 Red Cloud, the noted Sioux Chief 65 The One who hits the Bear — With Red Stone Pipe and Pipe Stem — Decorated with Scalps — Blaekfoot Indian 67 The Challenge — The Tail of the Scalp Lock thrown over the Head, indicating "Take it" «» Comanche Warrior — Cap in the Salt 75 White Thunder in Mourning — Iroquois shell Ear Pendants 80 Painting on Bodies — Peculiar manner of Cutting the Hair — Pipe Tomahawk 83 Buckskin Shirt with Indian Drawing 84 Indian Drawing on Tanned Deer Skin 86 Lodge and Wind Break 87 Bahy Carrier Ornamented with Bead work in various Colors — Cheyenne 92 Sioux Warrior in Mourning 04 Child's Rattle and Quirt 95 Whistling Bear — Brule Sioux lO?! Kiowa Lodge 10,3 Indian Tra vois — Blaekfoot 106 Kicking Bear's Camp — Sioux 1 10 In«'ian Bark House 112 Bull-Boat of the Northwest 115 Snowshoos of the Blnckfeet 1 Id Little Kiowa Oirl with Doll 117 War Club Ornamented with Brass-headed Nails— Bear Claw Necklace — Decoration on End of Buckskin Shirt Sleeves— Facial Painting— Minneconjoux Sioux 110 I.rfince and Belt — Sioux. Dog Soldier Insignia 120 ScnlTold Craves on the Plains — Sioux — Platte River ^28 Spotted Tail and Wife Numl)er Two— The Noted Chief of the Ogalala Sioux 180 Tree Grave — Brule Sioux — Republican River 182 Mandan Burial Place — Dish with Food for the Spirit 134 Slow Bull— Typical Sioux ISO I XXXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Sioux Camp on the Yellowstone River 137 Barbed Arrrow Head — Sioux 138 Little Wound — War Bonnet decorated with Scalps on End of Feathers — Beaded Leg- gings and Moccasins — Red Stone Pipe and Ornamented Stem 140 Group of Sioux — Woman on Right, Showing Manner of Sitting on the Legs 141 Good Hawk, in full Ceremonial Costume — Sioux 143 Sioux Camp — Shield on Tripod with Scilp Hanging from the Center 144 Sweat House of the Sioux 146 Medicine Man Making Medicine 147 Typical Indian Saddle — Warrior in full Mourning 148 Sioux Woman — Shirt Ornamented with Deer Hoofs 150 Zin-Tha Kin-Yan ( Flying Bird ) — Typical Sioux — Tobacco Pouch, Leggings and Mocca- sins Ornamented with Beads of Various Colors 151 Story Telling— Sioux 152! Mandan Indian 153 Chief with Big War Bonnet — Full Dress — Beaded Leggings and Moccasins — Toma- hawk — Sioux 155 Wash-Ona-Koora — Rushing War Eagle — Bear Claw Necklace — Mandan Sioux 157 Sioux Camp at Agency 158 Ta-To-Kain-You-Ka — Running Antelope — Typical Brule Sioux 160 Brule Sioux with War Bonnet 161 Ma-To-Shi-Sha — Wicked Bear — War Bonnet Decorated with Scalps on Tips of Feathers — Sioux 162 Ma-To-Yeu-Mni — Ogalala — Three Bears and War Bonnet — Sioux 163 Yankton Sioux in the.f Homes , 164 Spotted Dog — Sioux 165 Bloody Mouth — Uricpapa Sioux Ifii Group of Sioux in Ceremonial Dress 168 Iron Face 169 Omaha Indian of Rank — Insignia of Hand on Bead Ornamented Cap 171 Chief of the Omahas 172 Wife of Chevers — Comanche 174 Horse Back's Camp 170 Comanche Woman 179 Mounted Comanche Woman 181 Coniiincho Ixidges 183 lioco, Chief of the Warm Spring Apaches 187 Typical Apache Warrior 190 Warm Spring Apache , 102 Wood Arrow Head 194 Oeronimo, Chief of the Apaches 1 05 Various Indian Characters in Arizona 107 Typical Arizona Indians 108 Children's Toys IO9 Ouray ( Arrow ) , Ute Chief 200 Ute Stone Knife 202 Ute Camp, Los Pino^ 203 Ute Family — Man and Three Wives 206 «PBipipPIPf* 248 249 250 251 253 255 256 257 258 250 263 266 268 260 270 271 272 274 275 276 277 281 284 28(i 288 2!)1 203 301 302 304 311 XXXVl LIST OF ILLU8TKATIONS. PAOR -Decorated Breech Cloth 313 314 Tattooed Warrior- Typical Sioux. . . . Warrior in Ceremonial Costume — Preparatory to a "Big Talk" 316 Ready for the Council — Standing Buffalo 318 Facial Painting — Bear Skin Cap 323 Sioux in Full Mourning 327 Tom-Tom and Elk Horn Scraper 329 A Typical Indian 333 Indian of Rank — Insignia on Cap 335 Indians Preparing for the Scalp Dance 338 Fire Dance 339 Snake Daucerf 340 An Arikara Indian — Belt Decorated with Brass Buttons — Bear Claw Necklace 343 Painted Warrior — Osage 340 Typical Indian Encampment 348 Typical Indian — Buckskin Shirt 350 Typical Lodge and Indians 352 Indian Tree Grave 355 Indian Woman weaving Basket — Zuni 358 Indian in Mourning 359 Indian with Cap, Ornamented Shirt, Leggings and Tobacco Pouch 362 Indian Woman — Cloak decorated with Elk Teeth 364 Gall — Chief Uncpapa Sioux, and I^eader of Battle of Little Big Horn 365 Rain-in-the-Face 372 Sitting-Bull— Sioux 373 Sitting-Bull's Cabin, and the Place of his Death 3/4 Battle of Little Big Horn — Sioux Leaving liattle-Ground — Drawn by Red Horse — Sioux 376 Dead Sioux — Drawn by Red Horse. Sioux Chief 378 Warrior with Government Medal 380 Warrior with Bear Claw Necklace 383 Chippewa in War Costume ?88 Warm Spring Indian 305 Woman's Belt made of Various Colored Beads, with Thongs for Fastening Around the Body 401 Lone Horn 410 Prairie Wolves — Coyotes 413 Gray Wolf 414 Overland Stage 417 Mountain Lion 444 Rattlesnakes at Rest 445 Rattlesnake Preparing to Strike 44O Prairie Dogs 449 The Antelope 45O Rocky Mountain Buck 452 Bark House — Sac and Fox 475 ■ ■■■-■■.W,^»--.: ■■ Ai:l^^A "lit,, ii^fMVrirJit|i^-i-'. kMt ■irtthir^'-'^"'"-^ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS CHAPTER I. THE PATHLESS WEST OF YEARS AGO— THE NATURAL HOME OF OUR SAVAOK ' INDIANS— ROVERS AND FKiHTERS. The Natural Home of the Indians— Their Numbers when I lii-st knew them — Their, j Superstition n^ainst being counted — Keeping a Roster of their Fighting Men — The Terrible Scourge of Small-jjox — Indian Dread of this Disease — Leaving tlie Afflicted to Suffer and Die — An Inijiosing Body of Warriors — A Treacherous and Vicious Lot — Visiting the (Jreat Father at Washington — Stories told by them on their Return — Starting a War Part}'. The majority of people to-day little realize tiaatonlya few years ago that tract of country lying west of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers and the Sioux River from its mouth to its source, north into the British pos- sessions, as far west as the Pacific Ocean, and as far south as the central portion of Mexico, was a trackless waste, but little known to the white man, and inhabited by various nations and tribes of savage Indians, who lived almost exclusively by the chase. When T first went to this wild country the Indian population was almost entirely confined within the boundaries I have described. There were living there, at that time, as nearly as could be estimated, behveen three hundred and fifty thousand and four hundred thousand Indians. These estimates were hased solely on information that came from traders, trappers, and chiefs of friendly nations, of which there were only a few. This information was, of course, vague, but I have little doubt of its ap- proximate correctness. The Indians had a superstition against being . 46 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. counted, and as white men were seldom permitted to enter their camps, no accurate computation of their numbers could be made. Each chief, how- ever, kept himself informed as to the number of warriors in his tribe upon whom he could rely should occasion arise to go on the war-path. Horses and mules, too, were important factors, and the chiefs carried the number of them in their memories with the same accuracy that they kept a roster of their fighting men. In their aboriginal condition each tribe occupied its own hunting ground, and was, so to speak, a free and independent sovereignty. The remnants of these once powerful peoples are now kept on "Indian Reservations," there literally cabined, cribbed and confined. Formerly they were their own masters, while at present they are almost entirely under the supervision of the United States Government. Then they had arras, horses and mules, and hunted and lived on the choicest game. To-day they have no arms, no horses, no mules, and sub- sist on rations doled out to them with niggardly hand by government agents. They have become what they are in many portions of the country where they have been partly civilized, or an effort made to civilize them, namely, miserable specimens of humanity, with hardly enough to eat, not enough clothing to cover their bodies, and with inadecjuate means of shelter. The Indian population has been greatly reduced during the past forty years. There have been various causes for this reduction, the principal being small-pox and warfare among themselves. It is a well-authenticated fact that this dread disease is respon- sible for more deaths among our wild Indians than any other cause. When thi» scourge oi)ce got into an Indian camp it played havoc among the occupants, those who were well fleeing and leaving the afflicted to suffer and die. The appeitrauce of small-pox would not unreasonably throw any JUMPINO nOO— OOAT.AT.A Riorx. 'Ol.L^.'Mal^'^^M. .'a. . TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 47 tribe into tbe utmost coDsteraation ; as tbey bad no means of combating it the disease was generally fatal. Our wild Indians bad no idea of the ownersbip of land, either indi- vidually or collectively. Like most nomadic people tbey roamed within a certain territory, ill-defined in most instances, which they regarded as the exclusive bunting ground of their nation or tribe. As tbey did not till the soil they placed no value on any particular spot or locality, save for tbe game it afforded for the time being. With tbe advent of tbe whites tbey gradu- ally realized tbat tbe lands tbey claimed as their bunting grounds bad a value of wbiob they bad never dreamed. The wbite man was anxious to secure wbat tbe Indians considered a small portion of their land to settle on, and would pay for it in money or valuables. Tbey accordingly bartered away their lands on the best terms and conr^ Mons tbey could obtain, which were usually any offer that the wbite man chose to make. Tbe idea propagated by some modern sentimentalists tbat in resisting the march of civiliaation, the wild Indians were fighting for their homes and firesides, belongs to fiction rather than to fact. In tbe first place tbey had no home and no fireside, in tbe civilized sense of these- terms. Tbey had no regard whatever for home as a locality and no conception of a fire- side as we understand the term. Their home was wherever they could secure food, and when roaming over tbe prairies and mountains, or hunting game, fear alone kept them on their own territory. Tbey had no conception of either individual or common rights, outside of their own nation or tribe. There have been many instances where one tribe or nation appropriated the hunting ground of another, driving the weaker people from their terri- tory, and adding tbe seized tract of land to their own. They did not do this for the purpose of owning territory, as we understand it, but from a spirit of resentment, or, if I may be allowed the expression, from pure cuss- edness. About 1855 the Government sent several parties of Indians to ^^'ash- ington to visit the Great Father, tbat they might see for themselves the great number of white people in tbe East, and, returning to their people, tell them what tbey had seen. They would always compare tbe number of whites to the grasses on the prairie. For a long time those who had remained at home were disbelievers, and said those who had gone East were bewitched by the whites who bad escorted them, and tbat they were great liars. It required persistent effort on their part to make their friends believe the statements tbey made in regard to tbe number of people they bad seen ; but as the Government sent many of these parties to Washington, at different times, who corroborated what had already been told by former i k*ili.^M^' Mjil'dkiufita. i' liii'w^Y -i 48 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. visitorg", the skeptics were finally compelled to accept these wonderful stories as true. It may seem strange that a people so vicious and murderous should pray, — nevertheless the custom obtained among nearly all Indians, and it was by no means uncommon for some of them to pray many times each day. They scarcely did anything of importance without addressing a crude petition to their unknown Great Creator, for it was to him that the prayers of all the wild Indians of North America were directed. They prayed to him because he was good, and had made so much in the world for which they should be thankful. On rare occasions, when there was an important subject to be discussed, the Indians would meet in council, at which the most prominent ones would arise, one after another, and in a standing position address the assembly. These "big talks" were generally in relation to the fitting out and starting of a war party, although other matters of importance might be discussed as well. When a war party was to be made up it was formed of all the available fighting material of the nation or tribe. Sometimes two or three tribes of the same nation joined together to make the war party as formidable as possible. Great care was taken in selecting those who were to go, or rather in rejecting those who were not to go, for, as a rule, every warrior was anxious to fight. A mounted party of several hundred warriors made a very imposing body, and if one were inclined to be nervous their approach in fighting trim would not be likely to add to his comfort. The time taken in preparing a war party varied. If there was no neces- sity for an immediate start they would take one, two, or three weeks in makingj preparations. During the time preceding the departure of one of these xpeditions the entire tribe devoted itself to merrymaking. During the day they engaged in horse-racing, gambling, or other amusements known to aboriginal life, and feasted almost continually. They would form in circles in the open air; dance and sing, or, rather, howl their weird chants. Their dances consisted of jumping up and down on their toes, the men on one side of the circle and the women on the other, not joining hands, but each individual, covered with a skin or blanket, faces painted, hair decorated, acted independently, moving together to the time of their drums. They would vigorouslj* beat their tomtoms, or Indian drums, the noise of which could be heard a long distance. When the war party was ready to leave, the women assembled, began weeping and wailing, offering prayers at the same time to the Great Creator for the safe return of the braves. It was necessary at all times to leave a certain number of men in the camp TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. M to uo the hunting and keep the night watch, as every Indian camp always bad its night watch to prevent surprises from hostile war parties, or un- known enemies, as well as to look after the animals. When going into battle warriors rarely, if ever, used a saddle, and, with the exception of the lariat around the animal's lower jaw, the horse was naked, the Indian riding first on one side, then on the other, using the animal as a shield. When attacking whites, they rode in a circle round and round them; as the fight progressed they would draw nearer and nearer. Their particular object was to stampede the animals of the party attacked. When they accomplished this they generally withdrew, unless the enemy had other plunder they wished to obtain. At that time the Indians' weapons were the bow and arrow, the lance, the tomahawk, and sometimes an old-fashioned pistol or gun; consequently, they found it necessary to approach comparatively near to the party attacked that they might be able to use these primitive weapons effectively. A. TYPICAL INDIAN VII,I,AOE— SKIN COVERED LODGES. Ill: ;i 50 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER II. THE COURA(JE AND FIGHTING QUALITIES OF THE WILD INDIANS- ASKED AND GAVE NO QUARTER. -FOES THAT Going into Battle — How the Indians Planned a Massacre — Metliods of Surprising their Enemies — How we Defended Ourselves against Sudden Attacks — Description of a Real Battle with Indians — Hardships of an Indian Canii)aign — Indian Courage and Ferocity in Battle — Personal Exi)eriences — How we Felt in an Inilian Battle — Nerved to Desperation — Mounted Indian Warriors — Their Personal Ap]iearance and Peculiar Fighting Tactics — Fight to the Death — Giving and Asking no Quarter — Pui'suing the Indians — Indian Wiles and Treachery — A Lurking Foe — Indian W^ar Horses — How the Indians Scalped their Enemies on the Battlefield — Burial of the Bodies of Trcxjjjers — Burial of Indians who Fell in Battle — Mourning for the Slain — The Safest Place after a Massacre. \, ■ . I HAVE been in many engagements with these red men, who always outnumbered us by two or three to one. When attacked our plan of defense was to dismount, side line or hobble our animals, then tie them together to prevent their being stampeded. We would then form a circle outside of our horses and mules^, and wait for a warrior to approach sufficiently near to kill or wound him. We were careful to allow them to come near enough for our men to take deadly aim. In reserving our fire in this way, we re- served our strength, and kept the enemy at a safe distance. An Indian battle, as we usually see it portrayed pictorially, represents the warriors looking as though they had just feasted on a hearty meal at some hostelry, the Indians naked, their heads decorated with splendid war bonnets of eagle feathers, their faces and bodies gorgeously painted in all colors of the rainbow; their horses fine, fat and sleek, painted after Indian fashion in different-colored stripes on body, head, neck, and legs, all decorated with jaunty eagle feathers in their tails and manes; the day perfect; the lay of the land just right; the troops in gay uniforms handsomely mounted on prancing steeds, all indicating that everything had been prepared for an ideal battle. Let me give a brief description of the usual conditions of a real battle with Indians. The trooper, more or less incapacitated by disease incident to long exposed camp life, was usually almost worn out by excessive fatigue; TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. .n his dress consiated of a pair of boots (uo stockings), a pair of old military trousers (no drawers) full of holes and saturated with grease and dirt, a woolen array shirt, blouse and cap. His rations consisted of hard bread (often filled with worms), rancid bacon, and sometimes }iieces of fresh meat, frequently eaten without salt or pepper. For weeks, and sometimes for months, he would be with- out shelter, sleeping on the ground under the broad canopy of heaven in all kinds of weather, often in rain or snow, sometimes with only a blanket crawling with vermin to cover him, half dead with repeated night watches and long daily marches over arid plains or rugged mountains. Such was the trooper's physical condition. His horse, after subsisting on grass alone for a long time, and drinking stagnant water, would be much run down and weakened. Such was his mount. This is a true descrip- tion of the actual trooper, in my time, as he usually engaged in battle with the Indians. The engagement once open, neither men nor animals would get rest or food until it was over. Sometimes the conflict lasted the entire day and per- haps late into the night. Dur- ing the heat of the battle the hardships which tlie trooper had undergone for weeks past might 1 1> tempo- rarily forgotten; and as there was no rear to fall to in a fight with these red men, the safest place for him was at the front. The night before the battle (and every old campaigner will bear me out in this assertion), while lying on the ground, probably in the rain or snow, trying to get a little sleep, the troops were more or less nervous and rest- less, being up and down the whole night. When the battle opened there SPOTTED WOI.F — TYFMCAI. OHirPRWA. ;xuiu&iik. 62 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. was great uneasineiss even among the most hardened campaigners. We were always very anxious from the time the engagement opened until it was finished, for the Indians generally outnumbered us not leas than two to one. Once wounded and left on the field, there was nothing in store for a white man but torture and death. The thought of such a fate added terror to distress, though, at the same time, it nerved us to desperation. On the other band, the Indian warrior when on the war path rarely, if ever, rode his war horse. He rode another horse, leading his war horse to mount when going into actual battle. This horse, which was the best owned by the brave, was a good one, and was generally fantastically deco- rated. When entering battle the warrior wore only his breech-cloth, with sometimes a pair of moccasins; as he was accustomed to living on meat only, he had probably fared plentifully on that and was in good fighting condi- tion. When he thought the battle was likely to be a desperate one, or to the death, he would blacken his face with coals from the fire, or paint it in the most hideous manner, to make himself look as frightful as possible. A dis- tinguished brave or chief would occasionally wear a war bonnet in battle, but this was rare, as it was a great incumbrance while fighting. Every war- rior carried around shield from two to two and a " alf feet in diameter, which covered his back or breast, and which by a dextrous movement of the body he kept between himself and the enemy. This shield was made of the thick hide of a buffalo bull, which when dried in the sun became very hard. The shield was slightly convex in shape and covere self-defense, could not give any. When defeated, or tearing? defeat, the warriors scattered into numerous small bodies and vanished in various directions. Hence it was impossible for the troops to pursue them successfully. Should they attempt to do so, they would lose their strong point of vantage, solid serried formation, and miss their object besides. They might kill a few Indians here or there, but even this was next to impossible, as the latter went into battle on fresh horses, the best and fleetest they possessed. Should the troops break in order to pursue the flying groups of Indians, they might be cut ofif, or surrounded by the Indians and killed in detail ; for the warriors could return to the attack and reunite their forces as rapidly as they had broken up a short time before. By their method of signaling — which was understood by all Indians — they made it perilous for the pursuing party, which was liable to be ambushed or destroyed at an unexpected moment. When an Indian's horse was shot in battle, he usually had another at a short but safe distance, tied or picketed, and was soon back again on his new mount. On the other hand, if the hor=e of one of the troops was shot or disabled, the soldier was compelled to fight and defend himself on foot, as best he could. If some of his comrades were killed, he might, perhaps, secure a remount, but even this was a matter of difficulty. In short, the trooper was at a disadvantage in almost every respect, for he was compelled to fight the enemy after his own peculiar tactics and terms. The officers rarely urged the troops during an engagement. The troopers knew they were fighting not only for their country, but for their lives; and they soon learned the methods of Indian warfare, and the wiles and ways of the red man. The only absolute requisite for the soldier 64 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ■['.i li>! I was not to allow his wily foe to draw and waste his fire, or tire himself or his mount. When, as frequently happened, troops attacked an Indian encampment, the manner of fighting was still more to the disadvantage of the troopers. It then became almost a hand-to-hand conflict, men, women, and children fighting with fiendish ferocity, using every accessible weapon, firing through peep-holes in their lodges, or from behind bushes, rocks, and every object that afforded concealment, with warriors on horseback charging from every quarter and assailing small bodies of troops whenever they could find them separated, or at a disadvantage. Should the encampment be a large one it was all the moredifiScultand dangerous for the troopers, for the Indians who had been caught in their lodges and unable to escape would remain where they were, preparing themselves for the approach of the troops, would shoot them down from their hiding-places. Indian horses were usually small, and the Indian b«.ing an expert rider would mount and ride with lightning rapidity to a bush, rock, or other place of concealment, dismount, take aim, and fire a number of times with his rifio or his bow and arrow at his enemy, then bound on his horse and be off again like a flash. Should he be fortunate enough to kill an enemy in this way, he immediately rushed in and struck his prostrate victim, claiming a coup (a brave deed or act, the killing of an enemy or securing his scalp); then proceeded to scalp him at once. The Indians scalped every person killed in battle whom they could reach. With the fresh scalp, dripping with blood and dangling from his hand, he would again sjring on his horse and return to the fight, elated by his success and stimu- lated to further efforts by his bloody troph}'. The burial of the bodies of troopers who fell in battle in these lonely wilds was a saddening spectacle. The remains were thrown into a trench or large hole in the ground ; these were generally dug up in a day or two and de- voured by wolves or other carnivorous animals. Should the Indians lose a number of their warriors in battle, the families and friends of the dead would repair to the spot for years after, where they bitterly wailed and mourned, and in accordance with their superstition "made medicine" on the scene of the battlefield. The Indians believed, and weie taught from infancy, that death on the battlefield was the highest honor, the greatest glory that could be attained in life. Should they perpetrate a massacre, destroy a wagon train, or commit a great outrage, the scene of their villainy was for some time afterward the safest place that a white man could select. The savages under such circum- stances expected chastisement for the dev^d, and they immediately left the scene of villainy as far behind them as possible. TV/ENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 65 CHAPTER III. THE INDIAN'S MENTAL FACULTIES— HIS PERFECT PHYSICAL SENSES AND BLUNTED MORAL NATURE — HIS GREAT CRUELTY — SCALPS AND SCALPING. The Indian's Preternatural Cunning and Stunted Intelligence — His Highly Develojied Physical Senses— His Perfect Vision and Acute Hearing — Vanishing like an ApiMi- rition — His Keenness in following a Trail — His Untiring Patience — His Intractable Nature — His Instinctive Cruelty — His Suspicious and Distnistful Nature — His Duplicity — Rarely to be Trusted— The Indian of Fiction, and the Indian of Fae — Indian Surprise on Fii-st Seeing Matches — Smoking and Praying to Two Great Spirits, the Good and tiie Bad (Jod — Queer Superstitions — Killikinick, or Indian Tobacco — MetlKM-l of Preparing It for Smoking — Its Strong and Lasting Odor — How Animals Detected the Approacli of Indians in the Night — Olfactory Sensi- tiveness of Hoi-ses and Mules — Smelling Indians at a Long Distance — Red Pipe- Stone — Curious Legend as to its Origin — The Intermingling of the Blood of Whites and Indians — Pipe Ornamentation — A Marvel of Beauty — A Neutral Ground for all Indian Nations — Prehistoric Gatherings. I HAVE never seen a North American Indian who was bald-headed. Their hair was coarse, luxuriant, black, and straight. The men and women plaited it in two plaits as a schoolgirl wears it, letting it hang over both shoulders. These plaits were frequently covered with the fur of the beaver or otter, cut in strips from one to two inches wide. Men and women alike usually parted their hair in the middle, the end of the part on the man's head reaching back to the scalp lock. This scalp lock was two or three inches in diameter, and was formed of the hair drawn together in a circle at the crown of the head. It was plaited in a braid by itself, to which the men sometimes attached a strap ornamented with tin or silver disks, a brass button being often fastened in the middle of each. The disks were fastened on the strap as close together as possible without touch- ing, the first disk next to the scalp lock being as large as an ordinary teacup and diminishing in size until they reached the end of the strap, which fre- quently extended to the heels of the wearer, the last disk being not larger than a twenty-five cent piece. Sometimes the disks were uniform in size. Men did not out their scalp locks, as it was considered an act of cowardice to deprive themselves of this appendage. Indian women did not wear scalp looks, but Indian male children had a scalp lock from the time they first began to dress their hair. The more intelligent Indians, such as the Chey- ennes, Sioux, Assiniboins, and Crows, took great care of their hair, oiling it 62 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ¥. and keeping it smooth and shiny, though not clean. When they had no combs they would use a substitute. The stem of a weed on which were prickly points was often used for this purpose. They also used a straight stick or pointed bone which, after a manner, would separate and comb the hair. As they only un braided their hair at long intervals, it was not a great inconvenience to be without a comb. After they were able to secure combs from the whites, they were highly prized, and they were rarely without them. The Indians did not have beards. I have never seen an Indian with more than a few straggling hairs which would sometimes ap- pear on his face, and which he would immediately pro- ceed to pluck out with his thumb and fingers; or if ho could secure a pair of tweez- ers, he would pluck at every hair as it made its appear- ance, continuing the opera- tion for weeks and months, until the beard was entirely eradicated. The eyebrows and eyelashes of botb sexes were sparse and thin. It was a rare thing to find any hair on the body of either sex. They were, as a rule, a hairless people, but when hair made its appearance on any part of their bodies, except the head, they proceeded to pluck it out and kept at it patiently and persistently until the roots were destroyed. I have never known an Indian to wear a ring in his nose, as they are sometimes represented in pictures. The men would generally sit cross-legged like tailors when in their lodges or tepees, or elsewhere on the ground. The women would sit on their legs, with their feet together on one side or the other, rarely ever resting on their haunches. When a number of Indian men met they would squat on their haunches, or sit cross-legged in a circle, making the circle large or small enough to be complete, in which position tbey would remain and smoke for hours. If there was a circle of sixty or seventy-five, they would have from MANY HOENS, GROS VENTRE INDIAN, WITH EAR PEN- DANTS OF IROQUOIS SHELLS TIPPED WITH LARGE SHELL. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 63 fifteen to twenty-five pipes going at a time. After lighting a pipe, each Indian, as the pipe was passed to bina, would take one or two long whiffs, then blowing the smoke up toward the sky, holding tbe bowl in an inclined position with the end of the stem that goes in the mouth toward the ground, and lifting up his head would say a prayer. All of these prayers were about of the same trend, thus: "This smoke I hope will go to my Great Creator, who lives in tbe clouds, and who is very good to me. I hope he will take pity on me and my family, and send me something to eat and wear." With the other end pointed toward tbe earth, he would say: "This goes to the bad spirit, who I hope will not trouble me or make any disease." Indians were all superstitious. One might have a superstition, — his " med- icine," as be termed it, — not to pass the pipe while smoking to more than one, two, three, or more men to his left. When his pipe was passed as far as hie "medicine" demanded, it was returned by the last smoker to tbe man on his right, who banded it to tbe next man, and so on, until it reached tbe one who started it. Hence, there were many pipes going all tbe time. Tbe pipe was never smoked when it was being passed from left to right. Each man bad his own bag of "killikinick," or tobacco. When tbe pipe came to the smoker with tbe contents gone, be immedi- ately proceeded to clean, fill, and start it again. For cleaning these pipes every man carried a stick about the size of a lead pencil. The pipe was lit with a lighted ember, matches being rare among the Indians in those days. When they first saw a match and tbe manner in which it was lighted, by simply scratching it, their surprise was beyond expression. Killikinick was tbe inner bark or pulp of tbe red willow. It lies next to tbe wood and immediately under the bark. Tbe bark was first removed, then the pulp was scraped off with a knife and laid on the green stick from which it bad been taken, and held over the fire and dried. It was then cut up fine and was ready for use. When tbe Indians had tobacco, killikinick was mixed with it for smoking. The flavor as well as tbe odor of this red willow pulp was pleasant, and it had none of tbe injurious qualities of tobacco. > Among the Northern Indians the women did not smoke. Some of those living along tbe Rio Grande, in Texas and in Arizona, made cigarettes of coarse tobacco rolled in brown paper or in tbe inner leaf of the com husk. They acquired this habit from their Mexican neighbors. Tbe smoke of mixed tobacco and killikinick made a sweet and pleasant odor. The Indian's person and all bis belongings were completely saturated with it, and it lasted for a long time. Horses, and particularly mules, d^MJiii'dk ^iiitk.at^'t^'iP-. f 6* TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. whose sense of smell is very acute, would scent an Indian by this odor at a long distance. It caused them to become uneasy and constantly look in the direction from whence the odor came. Animals, at the approach of Indians, would always get up and become restless at unusual times in the night, when the command was immediately put in fighting condition. In the morning we were sure to discover signs of Indians. Animals when on the march and rather tired, if picketed or sidelined, or tied to the picket rope, would usually lie down when the camp grew quiet, about ten o'clock at night, and sleep for a half or three-quarters of an hour; then all would awake, rise, and remain in that position until about two o'clock, when they would lie down again, and sleep for probably an hour. Every company of cavalry carried a picket rope. It was about one and a half inches in diameter, and two hundred, or two hundred and fifty feet long. A sufficient length of it was stretched to hold all the animals, which were tied to it on both sides, for safety bj' day or night. Should they get up at any other time in the night this unusual movement would attract our attention, and we knew that Indians were near. The Indian pipe was a marvel of beauty. There is only one known quarry in the world where the red pipestone clay can be had, and it is located in Minnesota. The clay when first found is soft and can be cut with a knife. The Indians living in that locality were expert in carving and making pipes which were highly prized by them. I have in my possession the most beautiful specimen I have ever seen. It was smoked at the treaty of peace at Fort Laramie, between Colonel W. E. Maynadier and Red Cloud, and cojst forty-five horses. The clay stem of this magnificent pipe is ten inches in length; the bowl, which stands upright, is four inches iu height; the hole in the bowl for the tobacco is half an inch in diameter, and the hole in the clay part of the stem a little more than three- eighths of an inch in diameter. The pipe throughout its entire length is formed of two different colors of the stone, one side of it being a deep red, the other a pale red, the colors intermingling, and forming a beautiful mottle, after the style of a meerschaum pipe when just commencing to color. Those accustomed to Indian paraphernalia, who have examined this pipe, pronounce it the fin- est specimen they have ever seen. The Indians had a tradition that where the red pipestone quarry is located a fierce battle was fought between the whites and Indians a long time ago, in which a great many red men were killed, and that their blood soaked into the ground, thus forming the red pipestone. But of the piece of stone in this pipe, the legend recites that the blood of some whites who were killed in this battle sank into the ground and intermingled with the blood of the red men, thus giving the two colors. '-'WViWtf!*^ BED CLOUD, THE NOTED SIOUX CHIEF. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. * ' Patre 65 n ■I ;!' j.l : l^j m ;! .Ji I* ■: ■I. li^i 'lit';' it' 66 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. the pale red and the very dark red. This legend gives an idea of Indian tradition. Pipes made from this stone are susceptible of a very high polish, and after having been smoked for a time, become much darker, and rich in color like the meerschaum. The wooden stem to such pipes, made of hard wood, was generally from one and one-half to two feet in length, about one-half to three-quarters of an inch in thickness, one and one-half inches in width the whole length, and oval or flat in shape. On either end was a nipple, one for insertion in the pipe, the other for the smoker's mouth. An Indian never wet the nipple on the end of his pipe stem when smoking, as he only held it between the lips. Each smoker inhaled the smoke into his lungs, and blew it out of his nostrils and mouth in clouds, leaving the nipple as dry as if it had come out of an oven. Many of these pipe stems were artis- tically decorated with buck:,kiu covers, upon which were handsomely worked ornamental designs in beads of many colors, or variegated porcupine quills. Some of the stems were carved into the figures of animals, birds, and other original devices. They would hardly be called artistic by a modern carver, but for Indians the carving was quite well done. On the site of the quarry, according to Indian tradition, the Great Spirit once assembled all the Indian nations, and breaking a piece from the rock fashioned a huge pipe by rolling it in his hands. He then smoked it over tbem to the north, south, east and west, told them that the red stone was composed of their flesh and blood, and that the quarry belonged to all of tbem and was to be used for pipes of peace, and that all, even the bitterest enemies, must meet as brothers on its ground. Giving a final whiff, the Spirit's head disappeared in a great cloud o£ smoke and the stone for several miles around was melted and glazed. Two women, the guardian spirits of the place, then descended into the large ovens that opened beneath, and they ever afterward answered the prayers and invocations of the "medicine men" who visited this spot. This and other legends connected with the place were spread throughout nearly all the Indian nations, and numerous excavations in the rock, marks, hieroglyphics, and other signs, testify that this spot was frequented by many Indian people from a very remote period. Here they met in peace and held their savage instincts in check, in their fear of the wrath of the Great Spirit. The pipes made from this material were found among nearly all the Indian nations of the North American continent, and were highly prized by them. Parties from many nations made annual pilgrimages to this quarry to procure material for pipes. It differs from any other substance known TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 67 to science, and is capable of receiving a lustre superior to and unlike that of any other material. Component parts of this material, as given by Gov- ernment experts, are as follows : Silieia 46 Alumina 28 Moisture 9 Peroxide of Iron 5 Carbonate of Lime 8 Copper 2 Magnesia 7 The Indians procured this stone by digging through the soil and slate to the sub-stratum in front of the wall for a depth of four or five feet. Here they hroke off the stone in such quantities as they required for making their pipes. THB ONE WHO HITS THE BEAR— WITH RED STONE PIPE AND PIPE STEM— DECORATED WITH SCALPS— BLACK-FOOT INDIAN. ! 68 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. m I CHAPTER V. INDIAN INQUISITIVENESS AND CUNNING— CRUEL TREATMENT OF PRISON- ERS—THE FATE OF WHITE CAPTIVE WOMEN. Indian Habits and Customs — Marvelous Instinct of the Indian — His Inquisitiveness — No Idea of Morality, or of Fight and Wrong — Power of tlie Chief — The Medicine Man — Making Medicine — Medicine Horses and Medicine Dogs — How the Women made Medicine — The Medicines of Different Nations and Trities — How and why they were selected — Women standing in Cold Water while making Medicine — Cutting their Arms and I^jgs witli a Knife — The (ireater the Scar, the Greater the Medi- cine — Striking tlie Water with tlieir Hands and Feet — Broken Medicine — Treatment of Prisoners — Captive Indian Women — A Living Death — An Incident on Green River — Indian Treatment of White Captive Women. Some of tbe faculties of tbe wild IndianH were much developed and sharp- ened. They did not jump to conclusions, but arrived at them by a keen process of reasoning after their own fashion. Their mental resources were naturally limited, but in those practices which their mode of life compelled them to adopt and on which the?r existence depended, they became very pro- ficient. In traveling over the trackless plains and rugged mountains they never lost their way; as they had no compass or means cf guiding them- selves, except by instinct, they would go by the shortest route from place to place with remarkable precision and not miss their objective point. . Another peculiarity was their inquisitiveness. They desired to know at all times what was going on about them ; although they would sit apparently unconcerned, yet all their faculties were strained to the utmost to learn what WHS going on and what was being said Morality, as we understand it, was unknown among them. Having no conception of right and wrong, murder was not considered a crime. Theft from strangers was considered an act of cunning. The more adroit the thief the more he was respected. Among their own people, ho% * r, theft was rare, for their individual possessions were small, and every one i:new what bis neighbor owned. Furthermore, it was almost impossible for the thief to conceal any article stolen from one of bis own tiibe. From their earliest ^mmmiifgffim TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. (^ childhood they were brought up to understand that theft, or other crime, committed against a person outside of their own tribe was legitimate; conse- quently such a thing as coscience in an Indian was entirely unknowr. In some of the nations or tribes the chief was a despot in relation to the return of stolen property. He had authority^ to cause the return of such articles, and redress the wrong in any way he might see fit, excppt by tak- ing life. When this was deemed necessary some member of the injured family was depended upon to take the life of the offender. Some of the penalties imposed upon mem- bers of the tribe were severe; this had much to do in keep- ing them honest. The power of the chiefs as civilization pushed westward was greatly diminished, until it was re- duced almost to abstract in- fluence over the tribe. The large nations were divided into many small trills, each under its own chief; the latter used every effort to keep his tribe together and prevent its members from leaving and joining another tribe, or form- ing a nev/ one. There was no penaltj' for this, but it was considered a disgrace to a chief for members of his tribe to desert him. Each chief looked after the unpro- tected members of his tribe, such as the women and children of dead warriors, and saw that they were cared for. This was one of the redeeming features of the re«l man. Nearly all had their "medicine chief," "medicine man," and their pecu- liar manner of "making medicine." This was not, as one would naturally suppose, the medical treatment of the sick and afflicted with herbs or drugs, but was H deep-rooted superstition peculiar to then)8elves. The medicine chief of some of the nations and tribes was a man who by bold-faced con- w - KM pfcv.. M ^^K^Cm^I Hfl ^\. The same may be said of his physical development. It will be noticed, by reference to the photographs in this book, that the Indians are lack- ing in muscular development. They possessed great endurance, but were destitute of bodily strength. This was largely owing to the fact that they lived almost exclusively on meat, a diet that does not seem to create flesh or increase muscular strength as do many kinds of cereal and vegetable foods. Furthermore, as the Indian never deigned to work, the upper portions of his body were not developed by exercise, and his outdoor life tended to make him lithe and active rather than stout or strong. Hence, in personal encounter, without weapons, the Indian was no match for the white man. Such a thing as a fistic combat was unknown to Indian life and custom ; whenever they fought, whether among themselves, or with their enemies, they fought with weapons, and to the death. Il" ' TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. n CHAPTER VII. HOW INDIANS COOKED AND ATE— THEIR LOVE OF FINERT^ AND PERSONAIi ADORNMENT— PAINTING THEIR FACES AND BODIES— MAKING A WILL — PLAINSCRAFT. Cooking Pots made of Frosh Hides — Eating Raw Meat from newly-slain Animals — A Meal twenty-four hours long — A Daily Gorge — Insatiable Appetites — First-class Gluttons — Eating Skins and Moccasins — Their first Coffee — Indian Improvidence — A Chief's Powers and Limitations — The Chief in Camp and on the War-path — Forming a new Tribe — The Survival of the Fittest — Love of Ornament — Fondness for Soldiers' cast-oflf Uniforms and High Hats— Aversion to wearing Trousers — Fash, ion of Painting the Face and Body — Indian Dandies — Indian Artists — How an Indian made his Will — Distribution of Property before Death — Reading the Signs of an Abandoned Camp — Plainscraft. When the Indian first came into intercourse with the white man, his mofit eager desire was to secure knives, hatchets, and kettles. He usually cooked his food by broiling it, or by semi-boiling it in a pot made of fresh hides, or in hollowed wooden receptacles which answered the purpose of ket- tles. In these water was poured, and heated by hot stones which were constantly thrown in. When on the chase, and hungry, he often ate his meat raw and bloody just as it was cut from the newly-slain animal. As to taste, it did not figure at all in the Indian's manner of preparing his food. His only thought was to appease his hunger, not to gratify his palate. Everything was cooked in miscellaneous fashion, a pot-pourri, or mess, of which everybody partook while it lasted. Though the Indians ate only once a day, it must not be supposed that they had only one meal during every twenty-four hours. The meal, if there was enough of it, and the diners were hungry, lasted the whole twenty-four hours through. They sat around the kettle, or the roasted animal, and ate until satisfied, eating again when sufficient appetite returned. The Indian meal was simply a daily gorge — the white man's three meals in one. If another member of the tribe chanced to enter the lodge while food remained he was at liberty to help himself. When food was scarce — for the Indian was the impersonation of improvi- . '.^r^-J^iH^i^itUuiillik- ifiiiii^ei^iMiSu, 80 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. dence— they would endure hunger uncomplainingly. When in desperate straits, they vould eat skins, their moccasins; roots, buds, and the bark of trees were not despised. In times of want, as long as their ponies and dogs lasted, they did not fast long at a time. They didn't use salt with their food or as a condiment ; they did not have it p.'i J were not accus- tomed to its use. Jn eating jerked meat, they rarely cooked it at all. It was left until thoroughly cured, when the entire family could munch it all daj". None of the fruits or berries that grew wild in their country were cooked, but were eaten just as they were gathered, or in dried form. They sometimes put the Pomme blanche — a species of wild carrot — in their pots to boil with meat, but as they kept the pots boiling for a long time the contents were event- uall3'" reduced to pulp, and the mess became a thick mass of namele,?. soup. Their manner of cooking fish was to boil them, sometimes putting in the Pomme blanche, which, when boiled with the fish, made a disgusting dish. They also cooked fish by digging holes in the ground, in which they made a fire, and, placing the uncleaned fish in the hot ashes and coals, left them to bake. Fish cooked in this way, with the help of a sharp appetite, could be eaten, although I must say that I did not relish it. They also broiled fish over hot coals, first placing a stick in the fish's mouth, and hold- ing it over the fire, turning it until done. The first coffee they had was taken from some emigrants crossing the plains, whom they killed. They boiled the green coffee for a long tibie, and, not being able to make anything palatable out of it, they wondered WHITE THUNDER IN MOURNING — IROQUOIS SHELL EAR PENDANTS. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 81 what the white people did with it. This they afterward learned, and be- came very fond of coffee, especially when well sweetened. Their manner of selecting chiefs varied somewhat with different nations; there was no gi'adation, as a rule, between the chiefs of tribes of the same nation. In some of the nations they became chiefs by heredity. The honor was handed down from father to son, though it was necessary in all cases that the son should have the ability and courage to maintain his posi- tion after he had once secured it. Merit and personal attractions had their weight. In other nations a man was made chief by common consent, usu- ally by the warriors of the tribe. There were many jealousies between chiefs and those who aspired to the office. Occasionally these jealousies re- sulted in the death of the chief or the aspirant, or both. An Indian who was once made chief of his tribe would almost rather lose his life than the position. He would fight for it to the death. This is one reason why there were so many tribes of the same nation. Those who de- sired to follow a certain man or chief would secede from the original triba and form themselves into a new one, taking some name by which tbey might be distinguished from their old tribe. This was particularly true of the Utes. It was regarded as necessary that a chief should he able to make a logical speech to his tribe. It was not so essential that he should show great bravery in battle. A chief did not exercise supreme control over his entiie people, nor were his counsels always taken. In the majority of instances he was simply a leading man, to whom the others looked for advice and instruction. When in camp he was little more than any other Indian, and had usually about as much control over the actions of individual members of his tribe as the mayor of a city would have over one of its citizens. When in battle, bow- ever, there must be one in command, and it was generally a noted chief, whose ability in this direction had been tested on many previous occasions. Even then he did not have anything like the control over his warriors that an army officer has over his troops. The warriors in battle usually fought independently, and could not therefore be subject to the command of any one, though the chief might from time to time give orders which were obeyed with promptness. The chiefs of tribes were sometimes deposed, although this was rare. This was accomplished by a leader who, aspiring to be a chief, would create dissension in a tribe, and take as many followers with him as possible. Should the new leader, in setting up for himself an Independent tribe, be able to reduce the adherents of the old chief to such an insignificant number as to be unable to defend themselves against their enemies, they either 1 1 Iff I i. ■ 1 ■' '■■ i>, ■If 1 ! ' '■'• i]i \: |l;j!: I. 1; 1 : j i !!t ' \ M ' ! it <; . -is; 1 1 ■ ;li| 1 /I / ■\ j ■ j! ;; j ' ■'' ''} '. ' ':■ i 1:1 '} ; 1* ■ 1 ■1 - V Mi: ill 1 ];: n ! Ih ; il ■ V .: * ■(i ; i ■;]■; 11 ! 1 1 : n ' i ! I t -•' ii 1 i!;; 1 •J- i:iii. 1 i! !.i,fr ii 82 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. followed the new leader or abandoned the old chief and joined another tribe of their nation, thus leaving the deserted chief to seek some tribe to which he could adhere for protection. Should the position of chief become vacant, and there be two or more aspirants for the oflSce, a struggle followed. The bitterest passions of the rivals were aroused to such a degree that they became engaged in personal deadly conflict, and fought to the death with tomahawks or knives. To become a chief it was sometimes necessary for one of the braves to be the hero of two or three bloody personal combats. When this was the case he asserted himself as chief, and all recognized him as such. Should any one demur to his authority the person so objecting was bound to enter into a personal combat with him. In all such cases the chieftain- ship was determined by the survival of the fittest. The office of chief had no compensation or emolument attached to it. It was honorary, laborious, and its duties were performed without thanks. There was no insignia of rank, except the head dress of eagle feathers worn by distinguished chiefs on ceremonial occasions and occasionallj' in battle; a chief did not dress better than the majority of the members of his tribe. Indians all wished to rule; this created a great deal of jealousy and ill-feel- ing. A chief had to secure his living in the same manner as the otheis, neither did he possess the great power usually attributed to him in fiction. The photographs we see to-day of Indians generally represent them as wearing shirts, hats, coats, woolen leggings, and other articles of civilized apparel. Puring my time among them no wild Indian wore shirts or any wearing apparel whatever after tho fashion of the white man. Hisdrtss usually consisted of a pair of moccasins, buckskin leggings reaching up to the thigh, a breech-cloth and a buflialo robe. Occasionally one would have a buckskin shirt or jacket elaborately decorated with beads, porcupine quills, and Iroquois shells ; it w^is fringed at the bottom and on the lower part of the sleeves. In their hair they wore a few feathers, usually those of the eagle, wild turkey, or hawk. At a later period the men wore woolen shirts, and red or blue flannel for their breech-cloths and leggings. They were fond of personal finery, and would decorate and adorn them- selves with all sorts of trinkets. Brass and copper wire for wristlets and armlets were favorite pcoming the wife of another man would want her share of it, if not the article itself, or its value as represeutet' by something else; yet such was not the case. She was satisfied to take such of his worldly goods as she was entitled to, and could carry away, leaving the tepee, with its good will, to the remaining members of the family. When it came to the last widow, she was then the sole owner of tbini habitation and could do with it aa she chose. Should the woman, however, be taken by au- * i LODGE AND WIND BREAK, ■.*■■ !l 88 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. other Indian for his wife, he was supposed, if he had sufficient wealth, to pay a reasonable price for the lodge to its former owners, or return it to them. As the Indian's worldly possessions were few, so his standards of value were limited. Horses and mules were the chief portions of his wealth; these were the general standard of value among all tribes owning them. Among some of the tribes where horses were plentiful and easily procured, their value was not rated so high as where the contrary conditions prevailed. One good horse was usually considered worth two poor ones. Next to their horses, the principal standard of value was the buffalo robe. One good horse was usually considered worth twenty buffalo skins. But where the buffalo was abundant and easily killed, a lesser value was placed on the animal's hide. Again a tepee was rated as worth from two to twenty horses according to its size and condition. In many places, especially on the barren plains, the poles o^' the lodge over which the skins were stretched were more difficult to procure than the robes, and were accordingly more highly valued. The dressed skins of the deer and antelope, bear skins and other animals, also had a general value among most of the tribes. The bow and arrow, pipes, knives, and trinkets of various kinds, especially if procured from the whites, were all rated by the excellence of the article or by the difficulty in obtaining it. All Indians, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and from the central portion of Mexico to the country occupied by the Esquimaux in the British possessions, in whatever respects they differed, or whether one nation was more intelligent than another, or more advanced in the arts of civilization, or in war, had the distinguishing marks of the North American Indian in- delibly imprinted upon them. Their personal appearance, their mode of life, their innate cruelty, the treatment of their women, animals, and captives, were distinctly and purely Indian, and nothing else. Their amus'^ments and pastimes; their inability to remain long in one place; their resistance to the advance of civilization; their tenacity of life in its primeval state, all were so distinctly Indian as to be veij noticeable, no matter how far they might have been removed from savage life. The traits, habits, characteristics, and customs might differ widely in different Indian nations, yet all unmistakably showed their com- mon origin ; it is probably for this reason that some one once made the silly and often-quoted remark, "See one Indian and you have seen all." No more untruthful statement could be made. A person who by personal intercourse, had become familiar with the different nations, could pick out TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 89 the members of different nations wherever he found them, without hearing them speak a word. He could 'do this as readily as any one can make the distinction between a white person and a black one. By looking at their implemeuts of war, their handiwork and personal effects, an experienced person could tell at sight which nation had made them. When coming upon places where Indians had camped, or in following their trails, an old mountaineer, or an experienced Indian fighter, could tell almost at a glance what nation had been there. So distinctly had each Indian nation its own way of makiag its camps that the trappers and plainsmen who had been among them for any length of time would voluntarily, or involuntarily, fall into the habit of making their own camps precisely like the Indians in whose country they were. To the ordinary person these abandoned camps would indicate nothing; but to the experienced eye they would not only tell with surprising accuracy who the former occupants were, but could at a glance, tell their number, how long they had been there, how long they had been gone, the direction in which they went, whether they were a war or hunting party, and other important things. ,1 90 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. •rr- if; I CHAPTER VIII. INDIAN WOOING AND MARRIAGE CUSTOMS— BIRTH OF AN INDIAN BABY- INDIAN WIDOWS AND WIDOWHOOD— NIGHT IN AN INDIAN LODGE. How an Indian Secured a Wife — Price of an Indian Maiden — Daily Occupations in the Lodge — Life in the Camp — The Birth of a Child — Indian Babies — How they were cared for — Endurance of Indian Women — On Hand for the Promised Present — How Indian Babies were Cradled — Indian Widows — Weeping and Wailing at the Burial Place — Genuine Grief — Married Women Slaves — Female Occupations — How the Family Lived — Punishments for Infidelity — Mourning for the Dead — A Widow's Weeds — Care and Affection for the Aged — Choosing a Name — How Names were Selected — Life in the Lodge — No Privacy, and little Decency Observed — The In- dian's Affection for his Wife and Children— Dying of Homesickness — An Indian Elopement. When an Indian desired a woman of his tribe for a wife the custom among many of the nations was to send one of his friends to the girPs father, or to one of her nearest male relatives, to ascertain the price at which she was valued. An Indian's wealth in those days was usually counted by the number of horses he had, and these were the common standard of value in negotiating for a wife. The friend then returned and informed the wooing Indian of the price demanded, — that is, the number of horses required to buy the girl, — when the barter began. A certain num- ber of horses (always less than the number asked) were led to the tepee and tied to the pole of the lodge where the girl slept ; means would then be used to induce some member of the family to come out. The latter, seeing the horses so tied, knowing well the significance of the act, immediately in- formed the head of the family, or natural protector of the girl. The barter then began in earnest, and was continued until the proposal was rejected or accepted. If accepted, the horses were at once taken away to the herd of those belonging to the girl's protector. Should the bid not be acceptable the horses were left tied where they were, when more could be added by the wooer, or the lot taken away ; the latter meant that the price demanded was refused. The price of an Indian maiden was from on a to forty horses, but on rare occasions more were given, the number usually depending on the wealth and TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. n ardor of the suitor. I have known fifty horses to be paid for a girl. If the bid was accepted the girl became the property of the man making the offer. She had nothing whatever to say about it, or about who her future husband should be. Should he be the most distasteful person on earth to her, she was his the moment her parents accepted the price they had placed upon her, and that ended it. The husband was free to do with her as he pleased, even to the extent of taking her life. If she died and the parents had another eligible daughter, they were supposed to make good his loss. After an Indian woman entered the married state she was simply a slave. The domestic life of the females of the wild tribes was peculiar. They had but few amusements with which to entertain themselves, and no light by which to see at night, except the light of the camp or lodge fire. They generally retired early, and rose early. During the day the old women usually occupied themselves in tanning hides, jerking meat (cutting it up in strips and hanging it on poles to dry in the open air), making moccasins, leggings, and other clothing from skins, making and repairing lodge covers, taking care of the animals, attending to general family duties, and doing the family cooking. As they had no dishes or kitchen utensils, the labor im- posed by cooking was very limited. When they had a pot, everything was cooked in and eaten from it. When they had none the meats were roasted over the fire. One would naturally suppose that women whose natural functions had never been impaired by the restraints of dress, who had been reared from in- fancy in their natural condition, and enjoyed perfect health, would be pro- lific, yet such was not the case. Indian wives rarely had more than two or three children, more frequently only one child, and often none. In extremely warm climates Indian girls became wives and mothers at the age of twelve or fourteen years, and in middle life appeared old and wrin- kled. The women were extremely hardy and their endurance and fortitude were equal to that of the men. I have known an Indian camp while on the move to stop, and a woman to have a lariat placed under her arms, the end thrown over the limb of a tree or lodge pole, and in a few minutes, while partly suspended in a sitting or squatting position, give birth to a child. In a very few minutes, without assistance, she would be astride of her horse, her child on her back, resuming her journey as if nothing unusual had hap- pened. At the first opportunity after the birth of a child an Indian woman would enter the water, no matter how cold, and bathe herself. The child was usually laid on a robe or skin that was covered with a thick layer of the dried contents of the paunch of the buffalo. This was as fine and soft as down. The youngster was covered with this downy stuflf, its arms placed ■liitfiiiiiiiiM ^^I^^^pwlp' 9» TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ! alongside its body, the robe drawn over and around it and tied with a thong. The head was supported by the untanned skin of a buffalo calf oi deer, and so placed that the child's face alone was visible, present- ing the appearance of a dimin- utive mummy. In traveling, the mother would either carry it on her back, place it on a travois, or hang it by a noose over the pommel of the saddle. Infants were often left wrapped up in this manner for days with- out being taken out of their nest. When opportunity of- fered they were removed, washed and replaced in the same manner. The Indians had no infantile food, and mothers nursed their young until they were four or five years old. I have seen them run to their mothers and take their dinner, in a standing position, from the maternal fountain. An instance characteristic of Indian childbirth occurred on Chugwater Creek, under my immediate observation, which is worth recording. One or two army oflScers and a few civilians were engaged in a game of cards in an Indian camp. We were in the lodge of a white man who had an In- dian woman for his wife; in this lodge were several other About two o'clock in the morning one of the women on the other side \ BABY CARRIER ORNAMENTED WITH BEAD WORK IN VARIOUS COLORS— CHEYENNE. women. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 93 of the tepee groaned as if suffering great pain. Some one asked her what was the matter; we soon discovered without her answering, for in a few minutes she was strapped to the poles of the lodge with a rawhide rope placed under her arms and in this position gave birth to a child. I asked the interpreter to tell her to be quiet, promising that if she did so, I would make her a present for herself and child whenever she came to my quarters at the Fort. Long before I was up next morning she was there with her child on her back, waiting for me. Indian children were spoiled by being permitted to have their own way. They were allowed to grow up like young animals, with no other training than the force of example. Hence every generation was precisely like its predecessor. The child was inured to hardship and endurance from infancy. As the youngster emerged into boyhood or girlhood, it did as it pleased, rarely being corrected, taught, or restrained in any way. Though the In- dians were fond of their children they were not given to manifesting their affection towards them. They seemed rather to regard them with total in- difference until such time as the youth was old enough to enter the list of warriors, and the girl was old enough to be salable as a wife. Children usually ran naked until they were from ten to fifteen years of age, though they commonly wore moccasins to protect their feet. After free access to the family dinner pot, their stomachs were very much distended and out of shape; and when a belt was fastened tightly around their waists, they presented a most peculiar and grotesque appearance. As a rule Indian children were healthy and there was but little disease among them; they were not subject to the diseases of children of the white people, such as measles, whooping cough, etc. Indian mothers showed considerable ingenuity in making toys for their children. Toy dolls, often grotesque in dress and appearance, were common enough. Some of them were made to represent warriors and were adorned with miniature bows and arrows, and shields, thus early instilling the spirit of war into the minds of the young. Toy canoes, miniature horses with mounted warriors on them, and various other kinds of toys could be found in almost every Indian camp. Infidelity on the part of the women was almost unknown among the majority of the wild Indians, as the punishment for that offense was so severe that no woman cared to incur it. She was even liable to lose her life for the offense, as the unwritten law of the Indians was an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth. The punishment liable to be inflicted on an Indian who had killed one of his wives was that some relative of the woman might kill him at the first opportunity. The punishment for infidelity u TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ^It ■T-'a w 1: among several of the wild nations, especially the Sioux, was called ''passing on the prairie." The offending woman was inveigled out of the lodge when she was immediately seized by a number of Indians in (vaiting, taken a distance from the camp, tl^rown upon her back upon the ground, a man holding each hand and foot, when each member of the party one by one violated her person. She was thenceforth an outcast of the tribe, and the lawful prey of any man. She could not enter the lodge of a medicine man, or other Indian whose medicine or superstition was against this class. The Apaches and Navajoes cut off the nose of the offending female as pun- ishment for infidelity. The Comanches slit the nose from the point to its connection with the for-head, and pre- vented the wound from uniting. The Cheyennes were at liberty to inflict such punishment as they pleased, but their usual mode was to return the guilty woman to her parents, compelling them to restore the property, or its value, which was originally paid for her. There was, aside from the ques- tion of morals, a special reason why the men were polygamous. They were almost constantly engaged in war and their number was depleted in conse- quence. Hence the women usually out- numbered the men two or three to one. When an Indian died, his wives were at liberty to become the wives of another member of the nation. He was not compelled to buy a wife after her widowhood, as when she was a maiden, unless she returned to her family and refused to become the wife of another without again being bought. When a woman lost her husband she went into mourning, and evinced her grief and proclaimed her widow- hood at the same time by cutting off her long hair. As long as she remained a widow she would visit the burial place of her husband, remaining there for hours weeping and wailing bitterly. If the actions of the women at the burial places were a true index of their feelings, their grief was both genuine and poignant. When an Indian lost a favorite wife or child, he too exhibited his mourn- ing by cutting off one or both of the long plaits of his hair. Some of them IHH mH WM ^^k1 '*^PRS m ^B. . ..^ Vt^_ ^^ ^^^^^^Hhk^^ ^m^^^it ■0,1 ' "^'"Jm B^^^^^^Hi^ ^^^^Mi L^lg^^^^ B k^BL^^^^^^B 1 ^^^^K^I^i^K HbZflflHlH I^Hl SIOUX WAKKIOR IN MOUKNINO. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 96 would cut off the braid of their scalp lock and blacken their faces with coals from the fire. Some would cut off the tails and naanes of their horses and mules, which effected a strange transformation in their appearance. The affection of the Indian for the aged of their families was verj' marked, and was one of the few redeeming features of their vicious nature. Many of them lived to a good old age, if their appearance was an indication. These were as tenderly- cared for in their help- lessness as were the young babies. Ingoing from place to place they were given an animal to ride, if they were able to use it. When too infirm to mount a horse they were placed on the Indian travois, and were transported in the same manner as were the young child- ren and the sick or wounded. It was the special delight and duty of one of their grown-up children, or if there were none, then of their friends, to care for them; so that the aged and infirm were rarely neglected. These persons looked after their every want, served them with food, saw that they had a good place to sleep, and afforded them every Indian comfort. There was, of course, no choice for eiiiher sex as to what they should do in life. When the male arrived at man's estate he had only one line of endeavor open to him — to hunt and fight ; and the female had only one also — to bear children and to work for her lord and master. child's rattle and quirt. ■^m y 96 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Among them the question of ''Woman's rights" was settled absolutely. She had the undisput^'d right to labor, and she was not expected to complain about it. Slave as she was by heredity an«l environment, she accepted her lot uncomplainingly. The women did not question the right of their lords not to do a stroke of work ; and the latter did not question their women's right to do all the camp drudgery, and endure without a murmur the hard- ships of their menial position. The manner of selecting names varied with different nations, although they were all of about the same character. They had no .surnames. The male children were generally named after some animal, or given a name in- dicating some personal peculiarity, or commemorating some event or mat- ter of note, as I shall hereafter describe. The names of the females were always in the diminutive; a woman retained the name that was given to her when sbe was a baby throughout her natural life, unless she changed it for some good and subniantial reason. There was no prefix as Mrs. or Miss ; when a woman became .s wife she did not take her husbv-nd's name, but re- mained the same plain Yellow Chin, Sweet Grass, Yellow Leaf, Small Tree, or Running Water, as before. A child might have a pet or diminutive name given it while very young, but with the privilege of exchanging it for another of its own selection when it arrived at the age of puberty. A change of name was to gratify their own wishes until the boy was grown to be a warrior and had counted a coup. So it was in naming their animals anJ favorite camping-places. Nearly all rivers and streams known to them were given permanent names. The large mountains also had names by which they were known, and so bad notable places in their country. These supplied names for children born near them. Nearly all the wild Indians were polygamists. The number of wives that an Indian could maintain varied with different nations, but the num- ber usunlly depended upon his means to buy them. Sometimes he would have from one to twenty. Strange as it mjExy seem, there was rarely jealousy among them. Their home life v/aa'*^feenerally congenial, and a married man was usually kind to his entire household. Ill-feeling rarelj' existed, much less was it ever shown in an Indian family. Should the hue- '')\ud show marked attention to one of his wives it was taken as a matter of course, and the favored one was not slighted or aonsed by the others. All the wives, be they ^e\y,t9j|;,t many, lived in the same lodge, and there was little or no privacy. Each wife had her own particular place in the lodge; if she bad children they slept vith her. The only division between the sleeping places, which were always on the ground, was at the one next to TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. an the opening. Two sticks might be stuck in the ground and a skin or blanket hung on them. This was the only screen in the entire lodge. The treatment of the female in the civilized world is usually considered the standard by which man's moral qualities can be estimated. This rule could scarcely be applied to the Indians, for the males of every Indian na- tion, with one or two minor exceptions, compelled the women to do all the labor and menial drudgery. One would naturally conclude that there could be little or no afPection between a man and w'.ve» so treated. Such was not the case, however, for the affection of an Indian for bis family and children was particular! marked, although rarely demonstrative. His love of home, not as a locality, but as a place vvlitir*^ his family and friends were, was in- tense. To bfc, «»»>parated fvom kith and kin was a hardship. Therefore it is not strange that scocalgia was common among captives ; they have been known to die of homesickneee, and not unfrequently went crazy from the refusal of their captors to allow them to return to their kindred and friends. Among the far Northwestym nations the I'.nwritten law was that a man should select his wives from different families. In some of them divorce — if such it ci uhl be called — was easily obtained. A woman could leave her husband at will and return to her parents, taking her children with her. This was consideied a great disgrace to the husband. It sometimes hap- pened that ai. Indian would dieal the wife of another. When this occurred the family of the girl was expected to return to the husband the amount he had originally paid for her. The man and abducted weman would go to another tribe and become a part of it. Different tribes had different ways of settling the value of a runaway wife. Among some of them, the new husband was compelled to pay the former husband for his loss a number of horses, skins, or other articles of value. Captive women and children, especially when the captives were superior in intelligence and cleanliness, became the prisoners or wives of their cap- tors. This custom was followed for various reasons. First, it did not cost anything to possess these women. Second, it was the desire of tiiC? captors to induce their prisoners to become part of their own people. Again, it pre- vented an effort on the part of the females to escape. Among some of the nations a female thus married was sometimes treated with kindness, not only b}' the man whose wife she became but by the people in general, though this was rare. 98 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER IX. INDIAN AMUSEMENTS AND PASTIMES— THEIR THIRST FOR GAMBLING— THEIR GAMES OF SKIi.L AND CHANCE— EXPERTNESS IN THROWING A KNIFE. The Indian's Limited Amusements — Horse-racing the Favorite Pastime — Betting on the Results — Women Gamblers — Ball Playing — Skill of the Players — How the Game was Played — Proficiency in Running and Jumping — Skill in Throwing the Knife — Indian Music and Musical Instruments — Serenading Dusky Maidens — The Romance of Indian Youth — Admiring Himself in Nature's Looking-glass — Lack of Amusements and Pastimes in Winter. All Indians had amusements and pastimes of their own, though the more ignorant the Indian the fewer were his pleasures. When the white man in- troduced playing cards among them, they soon learned tc use them after their own fashion, and this enabled them to gratify their thirst for gambling. The Indian did not learn the vice of gambling from the white man. It was universal amorg the savage tribes when the white man first came in contact with them. This penchant for gambling was the natural result of being compelled to piss long periods in a state almost approaching torpidity. They indulged in it to break the monotony of their long winter days, when frosts and deep snows shut them off from the chase and all active outdoor life. Their sports were few, but their quickness of eye and agility of move- ment lent a peculiar interest to thev simple games. Horse-racing was a favorite sport with all of them. They raced their best horses at all times, using the lash unmercifully, driving them to their utmost speed. In these races they would usually bet on the result, but as their worldly por jessions were limited, and some of them absolutely indispens- able, notably their weapons, horses, horse equipments, and articles of daily use, these were not usually risked, though they were always ready to wager such articles as they could spare. The women also bet on tliese races among themselves, and occasionally acted as jockeys, and handled the horses with skill. At times children also rode. The whole popuJf on of the camp would turn out at a horgt race, all taking great inter^t in it. As they had no way of timing horses, their races usually consisted of matuhing two or more, usually two, and the fleeter one was declared the winner. Another isr.- j^UitmddltUtiim mm ■J-HPII.-' TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 99 favorite amusement was ball playing. In this they used a ball stuffed with hair, the players having two bats shaped something like a lawn tennis racquet. They used one in each hand, and were expert in playing the game. They sometimes batted the ball, but the favorite mode of putting it over the goal was to carry it over on their racquets. When a ball game was to be played, the Indians were organized on two sides, a captain over each was selecte''., and a referee chosen. Two posts were set up at each end of the field ; the game consisted of passing the ball between these two posts or goals, each side having its own end of the field. A game would last one or two hours. It was very exciting, and the only surprise to me was that they did not fight or squabble among themselves, for they were rough players, and would hit each other unmercifully with their racquet when striking at the ball. To me these terrific whacks at one another seemed intentional, although they appeared to take them good naturedly. The players looked decidedly pictuiesque, having nothing on but their breech-cloths and a pair of moccasins, their tall, lean, erect forms making them appear like athletes. They were good runners, and played the game with skill. Running was another favorite amusement. A match between two In- dians, with the judges appointed and everything in readiness, was sure to be interesting. Sometimes the race was for a ehort distance, probably an eighth of a mile. Another amusement was jumping. In this some of them attained great proficiency. Tbe standing and running jump whs practiced as well as the hop, skip, and jump. The game of jackstones was a favor- ite pastime. They amused themselves, too, by target practice with bow and arrow. Throwing the knife at an object was a sport at which the majority of In- dians were particularly expert. Taking the knife in tbe palm of the hand with the handle toward the end of the fingers, and standing at from ten to thirty feet from the target, they would, by a dexterous movement of the forearm, throw the knife at an object often not larger than a saucer, and with such precision that tbe point of the krife struck within this small circle at almost every throw. I have seen them stand at a distance of twenty-five feet from the target and h'A. it twenty-five or thirty times consecutively. A buflalo chase or a hunt was not regarded as an rimusement. It was more like work forced upon thorn by the necessity of securing their food and clothing, for upon their success their t.xistence depended. They did not seem to recognize itaa a pastime, but often went reluctantly about it as one doing hard work. Neither was the killing of small game sport; it 100 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. was hard work with them for they were frequently compelled to dismount and crawl a long distance to get within shooting range. Few, if any, of the vfild Indians exhibited any musical talent. What little musical efforts they attempted were confined to rude lutes, and consisted of a few notes without change or expression. All noises or sounds being in the same key, neither were they played har- moniously. In beating tom toms and flint hides at ceremonies and dances, perfect time was observed by each musician. One of their musical instruments was a whistle or lute made of the bone of an animal or bird, or from a hollowed twig of the red willow or birch. An Indian who could play a few notes on such an instrument considered himself un accomplished musician, and, dressing himself in his most gor- geous attire, would stand near some picturesque place — a spring if there was one in the vicinity- -where the young girls came foi- water, and, admiring ihe reflection of himself in the water, blow his lute for hours for the enter- tainment of the dusky maidens. Some of them made a banjo-like instrument, with two or three twisted sinew strings, which were tightened over the drum-like head. The strings were picked with the Angers, or struck with a hard substance held between the ^humb and first finger. The noise made on such an instrument was anything but grateful to the ear of one at all musical. Their tambourines, made of flint hides, were the most perfect musical mstrument they possessed, and nearly every family had one or two, which were in use almost every clear night; for among all the savages, night was the time for merrymaking, and at these times music was indispensable. Vocal music, if such it can be called, consisted of three or four unpleasant sounding guttural notes. When singing in chorus they all sang together, but at the couclusion of each song all joined in a common yell. None of their soigs were pc'^tical, but a repetition of a few sentences in relation to the subject in whicu they were engaged. If in merrymaking, the words related to the charms of both sexes, and were the same that had been used by them for generations. The amusements I have mentioned were nearly all out-of-door sport«, and were indulged in during the warm or summer months. The majority of Indians had few or no winter amusements, especially those living iu a cold or inhospitable climate. Their principal occupation during the cold weatner was to keep themselves warm and secure their food. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 101 > CHAPTER X. INDIAN WOMEN TANNERS— THE MAKING OF AN INDIAN LODGE— INDIAN ART AND ARTISTS— AN INDIAN VILLAGE ON THE MOVE. Indian Tepees and Camps — How Lodge Covers were made — Lodge Poles — Erecting Lodges — The Ertrance — Suffering from Cold — Going Barefoot in the Snow — Decorating the Lodge Cover — Deeds of Valor recorded in Pictm-e Writing — Some well Executed Drawings — Going to bed with their Clotlies on — Interior Arrangement of a Lodge — Expert Horsewomen — Dexterity in throwing the Lasso — Packing the Animals — The Travois — Adjusting the Pack — How the Old, Infirm, and Children were Transix)rted — A Village on the Move — A Strange Sight — Crossing Streams — Clothing that was never Cleansed — A Filthy Race — The Art of Packing Animals — How Pack Animals were prevented from lying down. Indian women did all the tanning for the family requirements, and the work was done in various ways. When it was intended that a skin should be very soft and pliable, only the brain of the animal and clear fresh water were used. Skins tanned in this way were made into dresses, leggings, moccasins, and other articles of personal and wearing apparel. The skins used for lodge covers, and hides used for horse equipments and coarser articles of home and camp life were tanned in a different way and with much less care. They were simply thrown into the water and allowed to remain until the hair fell off, when they were stretched tight on the ground by driving sticks through holes cut in the edges while the hide was wet and soft. Scraping knives made from the horn of the elk were gener- ally used. The women would get down on their hands and knees on the hide and scrape off all the flesh and pulpy matter. After the hide had dried it was put through a process of softening before it was in condition to be used as a lodge oo/er. The hide used for this purpose was usually that of a buffalo bull, as it was much thicker and more serviceable than that of a buffalo cow. Lodge covers were made by the women, who sewed them to- gether with thongs. From ten to twenty bides were required for the cover- ings of each lodge according to its size. Poles for the lodges were difficult to obtain by the Indians of the plaint, where wood was scarce and good straight poles hard to find, and they were wm 102 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. I accordingly highly valued. They were procured and finished by the women, and were necessarily of sound, straight young trees, generally of pine, birch, or other light but strong wood. They were from one and one-half to three inches in diameter, and from fifteen to twenty-five feet in length. The bark and every small knot or growth was carefully removed from them and they were made perfectly smooth. In putting up a lodge from fifteen to twenty- five of these poles were used. The covering was drawn over them and fas- tened with skewers or sticks where the edges of the covering met. At the top of the lodge was a large flap in the corner of which the end of a pole was inserted. When this fiap was closed it kept the heat in and the cold out, and unless opened when the fire was built the interior would soou be filled with smoke. The lower edge of the lodge cov- ering was fastened to the ground by long pegs driven deep into the earth . The pegs prevented the lodge from be- ing blown over by high winds. The entrance was the only hole of any size, except the top, in the entire cover- ing. This entrance was cov- ered by a hide, drawn over a hoop made from a small branch and bung over the hole. The opening was rarely closed, except in cold weather, or to keep the dogs out. Even the best of these lodges afforded but slight protection against severe storms or bitter cold. Rain found its way into them and the snow blew through the boles underneath the covering, half-filling the interior, making it exceedingly uncomfortable. During severe rainstorms the beds and sometimes the lodges were flooded, and the occupants were compelled to flee to higher ground with such effects as they could carry. The fire in the lodges was necessarily built on the ground ; around it the women and children would huddle to keep warm. During winter storms when the Indians were compelled to go about their camps in the perform- ance of nocessary duties, they ^ 'ten did so barefoot, as their moccasins and leggings would become saturated in the snow or rain in a short time ; when WHISTUNO BEAR— BKULE SIOUX. )' ^. ^ KIOWA LODGE. Twenty Tears Atnong Our Hoitlle IndlanR. Paffp 10S 104 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. in that condition were cold and disagreeable to the wearer. They preferred to keep their footwear dry even at the expense of temporary discomi'ort. Both men and women would frequently carry their moccasins and leggings in their hands after having been caught in a cold rain or snow storm. At times during the cold weather they would wear sandals made from the flint hides of some animal as a protection to the soles of the feet. During a pro- longed cold storm or blizzard, which was frequent in the far north, the In- dians and their animals, including their dogs, were great sufferers. Lodges of this description were probably the best habitations that could be used by these nomads; for, being continually on the move, it was neces- sary to transport their entire camp equipment from place to place. They were easily and quickly put up and taken down, and it was a rare thing, even in the severest wind storm, for one of them to be blown down, although it sometimes occurred. Frequently the coverings were fantastically painted with figures outlined in different colors, red and blue being the favorite. These figures repre- sented different scenes, some depicting a warrior seated on his horse in deadly combat with a hostile brave; an Indian fighting a bear with his spear; an Indian on foot killing a man with bis bow and arrow, tomahaAvk, knife, or lance; or some other prodigious deed of valor. Sometimes the entire lodge covering was decorated with these rude drawings. They gener- ally commemorated some great event in the career of the occupant of the lodge, or hairbreadth escape of himself or some of the male members of his family. These drawings were usually made by the men, some of them show- ing considerable artistic ability. Some of the women also possessed no little skill. Nearly all Indians were fond of decorating their lodge covers in this manner, using the brightest colors they could obtain, and some of their imaginary or real deeds of valor were portrayed in the most picturesque style, though they were often more glaring than artistic. When the wild Indians retired to sleep they wrapped themselves in the robes or blankets they had worn during the day. The beds were more a name than a reality ; these consisted of the dried hides of buffalo, horses, or other animals, laid upon the ground to keep out the dampness. Occasion- ally^ they placed an additional buffalo robe or two on top. For pillows they used skins, or any bulky, soft stuff which they might have at hand. The interior arrangement of an Indian lodge was a series of such beds arranged in a circle, leaving a space in the center for the fire on which the cooking was done, and it also served to some extent to warm the lodge in winter. Some of the women were expert at drawing designs on buckskin for bead and porcupine quill work. In ornamenting their clothing they would first TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 105 draw the outlines of the figure, then sew bead or porcupine ornaments on them, using an awl made of bone; and the end of a small sinew for a needle. All Indian women were expert riders and rode astride on the animal's bare back, or on a man's saddle. Like the men they were expert in throw- ing the lasso, and were fearless of any animal, no matter how vicious. Children, both boys and girla, were tied on the backs of horses almost as soon as they were able to walk, and taught to ride, to manage animals, and to throw the lasso or the lariat rope. When Indians moved their camp, which they were frequently compelled to do, the women did all the packing. Their belongings and the whole camp outfit was put in condition by them for transportation and fastened on travoia, or packed on their horses, mules, and dogs. Travois Avere made by lashing the erds of lodge poles together, then throwing the lashed ends over the saddle of an animal, leaving the other end of the poles dragging on the ground in the rear. Immediately behind the animal was a large oval frame made from the limbs of a young tuo, with rawhide thongs woven in and out across it, so that, it somewhat resembled a lawn tennis racquet, only that it was much larger and coarser. This frame was lashed to the poles on each side, forming the bottom of a rude basket on which their effects were to be transported. It also served to keep the poles a suffic'snt distance apart. When the children, and the sick, infirm, or aged were to be transported on a travois, a cage-like covering of the same material was placed over this platform and lashed to it; over this lodge covers were thrown as a protection against the sun, rain, or snow, as well as to keep the inmates from falling out. In traveling, each animal ^ its travois. Even the dogs were not exempt from this sej'vice; m ust oi them were required to drag a travois made of small poles. Children not old enough to care for themselves, but too old to be carried by their mothers, were phiced in them. Drawing the travois was very severe on the animals. After a short time in this service their backs would become a mass of raw sores. Horses and mules that had been in possession of the Indians for any length of time were rarely seen without such sores or scars upon them, which was sure evidence of their labor 'n drawing the travois. To one not accustomed to it it was a novel sight to see Rn Indian village on the move. Some of the horses would have one, two, and three children on their backs while dragging the travois, others would have two women astride in addition to dragging the load. The travois and pack animals wore scattered in every direction along the route, but all moved together toward one general point. In dry weather the dust made by one of these 106 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. moving villages could be seen for miles. When crossing swollen streams the work of the women was very laborious. Everything had to be removed from the travois and packed on the backs of the animals to prevent the goods from getting wet. Once across they were replaced on the travois, and the village proceeded until camp was reached, where they erected the lodges. The packing of animals was an art in itself. The pack saddle was made, both at the pommel and cantle, like the figure *'X." The bottom, where it rested on the back of the animal, was shaped something like the bottom of a INDIAN TRAVOIS— BLACKFOOT. wooden saddle. The Indians used strong rawhide cinches to fasten the sad- dle to the animal. The load was added gradually, and when the pack was complete, a rawhide or hair lariat rope was placed around and over the goods and over and under the animal many times, being fastened on the crosses at the top of the pommel and cantle. The pack of an animal should be so placed on its back as to have the weight equal on both sides, and in such manner that it would not slip or move, or any portion of it fall out or get in such position as to cause repeated stoppages to adjust it. Pack ani- mals would sometimes carry a load of five or six hundred pounds each, and, when packed, it was necessary to lead them around in a circle constantly to I • TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 107 prevent them from lying down, for should they lie down with the pack they would be unable to rise again unless the pack was removed. Of all expert packers in the mountains and on the plains, none oculd compare with Indian women. People of to-day little realize how long it took the Indians to acquire or accumulate the small amount of stuff they had in their keeping. Beads, porcupine work, Iroquois shells, claws and teeth of bears and mountain lions, arrowheads, lances, shields, pipes and stems, bows and arrows, and horse equipments largely made up their possessions. These were handed down from generation to generation, and were much prized as having been the property of their forefathers. As they never cleaned or wasted their effects, their dirty condition can be readily imagined. All their habitations were foul-smelling from the unutterably filthy condition of their entire be- longings. All Indians were fond of trinkets, particularly of the Iroquois shell. The Iroquois is a shell-fish caught off the coastof British Columbia, in the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The method of catcning it was to attach a piece of fresh meat to a rope and sink it to the bottom of the sea, when the Iroquois would settle upon it as thick as the quills on the back of a porcupine. The meat was then drawn to the surface, the shell-fish were laid in the sun, and the animal life soon passed out. The shell, when cleaned and polished, was a beautiful white, like ivory, and slightly curved, like a bear's claw. It was from one, to two and one-half inches in length, tapering from the diame- ter of a rye straw at the larger end nearly to a point. The Indians passed sinews through these shells and made necklaces and breastplates of them for their women; the men also wore them when they could procure them. The shells were highly prized and expensive, because they were diflBcult to obtain. c I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 Ik ■ 50 Hi fm lis Kb 1^ 1^ 20 1.8 U III 1.6 V <5^ /^ Hiote^phic Sciences Corporation 4 93 WIST MAIN STRUT WHSTIRNY MStO (716) •73-4903 Wo S I 108 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XI. THE SIGN LANGUAGE— ITS MYSTERIOU8 ORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE— COM- iNlUNICATION BY SIGNALS. Indian Languages — Tlieir Strange Diversity — No two Indian Nations known to Converse in the Language of the Other — Tlie S'gn Language — Its ^Mysterious Origin — T!»e Arapaho, Sioux, Cheyenne, and Navajo Languages — Significance of the Sign Lan- guage — Sign Language hy Horse Riding — The Sign Language of tlie Hands — Diffi- cult Sentence in tlie Sign Language — An Incident in my own Experience — Sign Language by Movements of the Horse — Sign Laugiiage by the Mirror — Sign Lan guage by Smoke — Communicating at Long Distance — How an Indian Wrote a Letter — Hieroglyphic-s on the Faces of Rocks in Texas — Rude Drawing in Caves — Difttculty of Interpreting Them. All Indian nations spoke a diffeient language, and this diversity has given rise to much diHcussion among philologists. It must he conceded that the Indian nations had a very ancient history, as they lived in compara- tively close proximity to each other and j'et spoke wholly different tongues. The sign language of the Indians was nearly universal among all In- dian nations, and was handed down from a remote period. Neither tlie learned nor the unlearned can throw any light on its origin. The Indians themselves did not know how they acquired it. It descended from their ancestors, and that is all they knew about it. The hieroglyphs of the Aztecs are not more mysterious in their origin than the sign languages of the Indian races of the West. The wild Indian had the faculty of adapting himself to his surroundings, so long as they were congenial, and found means at all times to utilize every- thing suited to his needs. xsothing in his entire existence was more useful to him than tiie sign lan- guage; through this silent means of communication a member of any tribe located in Texas, could converse with a member of another living in the far north, or along the St. Lawrence river, although both were unconscious of the existence of the other. In this, inmiediately on meeting, conversation began by one of these niys- teriouH mediums; probably the Hrst was by the movements of the horse or smoke, when a truce was declared ; then, it satisfactory, a friendly conversa- tion was held hy the more complete, or comprehensive means of the signs by the hands. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 109 So well were the signs understood by all, that no practice was necessary between the parties. Among no other peoples in the world speaking different languages, is there a general means of com'iivmication of any kind that is understood at sight. These signs were exceedingly' graceful, as well as significant. The oral language of one nation might be pleasing to the ear; another might be harsh, coarse, and guttural; in another the words might be very few. It was difficult and sometimes almost impossible for an Indian nation to ac follow closely the thread of con"er8ation, for the wrong interpretation of a single sign was suflicient to break the whole chain of thought. Another peculiarity was tbe rapidity with which Indians could communi- cate with each other by it. The Sioux would by its use express a great deal more in a shorter time than by word of mouth. Tlie sign language was very figurative. For instance, if an Indian de- sired to say that you were not truthful, he would touch his tongue with one finger, and hold up two fingers toward you, signifying that you were double- tongued, that is, untruthful. If he wished to say that a given place was distant two, three, or more days' journey, he would twirl the fingers of both hands, one over the other like a wheel rolling, inclining the head as if asleep, and hold up as many fingers as there were "sleeps," meaning nights, thus indicating the number of daj's of travel necessary to reach the place in question. If he desired to refer to the past, he would extend the hand in front with the index finger pointed, drawing his arm back with a screw motion, meaning a long time back. If he intended to refer to the future, be would put bis hand with the index finger extended at his back, pushing i! \\ ) ?: 110 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. it forward with a screw niotiv)ii, thus iudicatiug a disfca; *■ time in the future. If be desired *o speak of being ou horseback he did so ' putting the first and second fingers over tlie fingers of the left hand, representing a man on horseback. If he wished to state thr.t he had a large quantity of anything, he would make the sign of a heap with his two hands shaped like a funnel, moving tliem upward from the ground to a point, in the form of the letter A. If he desired to say that he had nothing, he would open the palm of his right hand and in a sweeping way, with a movement of the fore- arm to the right would indi- cate that the hand was empty. If he desired to say that he had had a good meal he would extend the thumb and fore- finger of his right hand over the region of his stomach, moving the hand up to his mouth, indicatingthat he was full. These are a few of the symbols of the sign language. The signs employed were innumerable, and every one of them illustrated the idea to be conveyed. One of the most difficult sign sentences that I ever tried to comprehend was in conversation with some Indians in the South Park. We were ex- pecting to go into battle the next day, and the night before one of our Indian allies came to me and talked in the sign language. The first sign given waa one sleep, after which the right hand was passed rapidly under the left, both j)alms being opened downward, which meant "going in," The next sign was opening and shutting the fingers of each hand toward ea'-b other rapidly, which meant to fight, then a downward catch of the forefinger, which meant good or true; and last, the most incomprehensible of all, the making of the figure (» with the index finger and thumb of the right hand, turning the band over as though emptying a bottle. After repeated efforts to interpret th« last sign I gave it up iu despair, but finally learned the translation of it KlLKINi* IIKAU'S C'AMl' — SIOUX. : h TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Ill It meant to pour something out. The whole sentence translated verbatim was, "To-morrow I will go in and fight good, if I ponr my life out," Such was the brief but graphic description of his intentions as expressed by the sign language. Mounted Indians often communicated in the sign language by the move- ments of their horses. I never was able to translate many of these signs, but to the Indian they were all perfectly plain, I have seen Indians con- verse in this manner as far as the eye could see, understanding each other perfectly. The movements of the horses were made in rapid succession, and seemed to me in the long distance all about the same. Another means of communication was by the flashing of a mirror in the sun. This method of signaling was sometimes used for long distances. At that time, however, it was rare for an Indian to have a mirror, and as they could only be used in the sunlight they were not of great service. Still another means of commimication was by fire and smoke. The latter was of great service while in the mountains, and to the Indians was per- fectly intelligible. Although smoke seems uncontrollable, yet they made it serve their purpose well. The sign language enabled each nation of Indians to converse with one another intelligently. By it bands of warriors of different nations could communicate at long distances, making alliances among themselves for descent on their eneni I OS and for attacks upon settlers, overland travelers, and others. None of the wild Indians had any method of general communication by means of pen or pencil, although I once saw an Indian letter written under the following circumstances: Some traders had been sent to trade with In- dians in the vicinity of Rawhide Peak. The Indians had brought in a great nuiny morL> pelts than the traders expected would be offered, and the stores tJey brought for exchange soon ran low. An Indian took the dressed hide of a deer and pictured a letter on it with colored crayons. It rep- resented an Indian leading a mule with a pack saddle on it; a red roll, representing a bolt of red cloth ; a black tin can such as powder is sold in, and a drawing representing a bar of lead, thus signifying that his party wanted a pack nnile, a roll of scarlet cloth, some powder, lead, and ammunition to trade. This letter was considered a great curiosity by all who saw it. Along some of the streams in rexas, there is a limestone formation with j)erj)endicular smooth walls, varying in height from fifty tea hundred and fifty feet. On the rocks along gome of these streams are petroglyphics, drawn and cut by the Indians. They are found in various portions of that 112 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. State, and are the work of different Indian nations. Some of the Jesuit Fathers claimed to be able to translate this figure writing, but I have never known any two of them to give the same translation, M)' opinion is, that the Indians, being in camp near these places, drew and cut these figures for their own amusement, and witnout any serious intention of perpetuating historical or other events. Nearly all the figures on the rocks in that State are of about the same kind, representing horses mounted and unmounted, Indian men and women, deer, bears, and other animals. One striking feature is the great age of some of these petroglyphics. In that State some of the Indian nations buried their dead in the ground, and put a stone over the grave to mark the spot as well as to keep wild animals from digging up the remains. If the Indians were able to write, they would no doubt mark the spot with hierolgyphics cut in stone in some way that would be intelligible to those who came after. If these petrographs were not for this purpose it may be that they are of no special significance, but were rather the wcrk of vain Indians who desired to show their ability as artists. INDIAN BARK HOUSE. TWENTY YEARS AMON'i OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 113 CHAPTER XII. THE INDIAN AS A FIGHTER— HIS BRAVERY AND CONTEMPT OP^ DEATH- CUNNING, STEALTHY, AND TREACHEROUS FOE. -A Boru Figliters — Tlie Indian's Contempt of Death — His Great Counige — Fighting and Hunt ing His only Occupations — Not easily Surprised or Amhushed — Indian Jlethod of Pieparing for Battle — Return of a War Party— Re-enacting tlie Warlike Scene — Treatment of Captives — Prolonging tlie Torture — Effect of Firearms on the Primeval Indian — How tlie Indian lirst secured Firearms — Horse-stealing consid- ered a Virtue — Indian Lack of Inventiveness — Articles that have never been im- proved on — Tile Snovvshoe, Moccasin, Tei)ee, and Bow and Arrow — Great Buoyancy of their Canoes. Whatever may be said of Indian ferocity, whether in conflict witli his own race or with the white man, his courage cannot he disputed. From hie first contact with the whites until his recent round-up on the reservations, he always proved himself a boru fighter. He usually hesitated to attack until he was sure he had the advantage; bi'.t that only proved that he was shrewd as well as brave. The white man had the best of modern weapons, while the Indian for the most part had to depend upon his bow and arrow, or a rustj' old gim or pistol, with limited ammunition. If he resorted to treachery in fighting, and was wily almost to cowardice during battle, he was only making up for his disadvantages, and could not reasouahly be blamed for it. When fighting with other In- dians, on equal terms as to equipments of war. he evinced the greatest cour- age and showed supreme contempt of death. Fighting was as natural to the Indians as hunting. They were fighting among themselves when the white man first met them; they had traditions of strife and warfare from im- memorial periods ; and kept up a chronic warfare with each other, as well as with the whites, until the national government reduced them to submission. When fighting among themselves they had rude military codes and regula- tions, held war councils, and planned campaigns or raids, after true Indian fashion. It was not often that one Indian tribe surprised another, for the Indian instinctively feared an enemy on every side, and was on the alert. Before 114 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. going on the warpath, many of them worked themselves into diabolic frenzy by engaging in their so-called war dance, painting their faces and bodies, uttering fierce cries and war-whoops. The aged, the feeble, and the young who remained behind, cheered them on, and eagerly awaited their return with booty or captives. When the war party returned, its approach was first announced by scouts, and the result of the adventure related. If the expedition had met with disaster, the names of the dead or captured were made known, when the women indulged in wild wailings and other signs of grief. Should the un- lucky party, however, bring with them captives, all the passion and fury of the tribe was sure to be wreaked on them. Unless thoroughly crushed, the returning party did not admit defeat, but indulged in shouts of triumph, brandishing their weapons and waving the scalps or other trophies they might have taken. An imitation of the warlike scene was re-enacted, and the exploits of the braves reL trsed in mimicry. If successful, the captives were sometimes spared and adopted into the tribe. Captive men were rarely permitted to accompany a war party against their own people, the warriors fearing that the prisoner might escape and rejoin his tribe; besides the Indians were suspicious of every one, and placed con- fidence in no one outside of their own people. When condemned to torture and death, the sufferings of the captives were intensified by every method of barbarity the tormentor coald devise. In ingenuity of cruelty, and in the exercise of it, the women were invariably the most fiendish. If the victim manifested any indication of weakness or cowardice he was treated with jeers and scorn, and his sufi'erings were pro- longed and multiplied. If, on the contrary, he bore his torture with indom- itable stoicism, as ho usually did, he elicited the admiration of his torment- ors, and at times his fortitude was rewarded by his torturers putting an end to his sufferings. When the Indian first encountered the white man's firearms he was stricken with superstitious awe. He knew not what to make of the artificial thunder and lightning. As civilization advanced to the West he gradually pocured modern implements of war, and became more or less proficient in their use. The adventurer and trader did not hesitate to supply the savage with these instruments of destruction, although they might be turned against those who supplied them at any moment. . Next to taking the scalp of his enemy, the highest virtue in the Indian's catalogue was success in horse-stealing. When tlie merits of a brave were recounted by others, adeptness as a thief was considered by his tribe as almost equivalent to exploits in battle. Hence there was for the Indian a TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 115 double incentive in horse-stealing — it gained for him admiration and wealth at the same time. The more horses he had the richer he was, and the more influential he was with his -people. Tbe North American Indian was not noted for his inventiveness. Like tk-d animals to which he so closely adapted himself, he was satisfied with his existence, and did not try to improve his condition, or to render life more agreeable. But there are several things that he invented which all the in- genuity of the white man has never been able to improve. These are the canoe, tbe moccasin, the snowshoe, the tepee, and the bow and arrow. .:'&.':rfiV::J^jLa'_: ;v /S I "A. v: ■ "\^ "^^ '•"T^;"' : ^i*>*'"-' u / BULL-BOAT OF THE NORTHWEST. Each of these is simply perfect in regard to the use for which it was intended. The Indians roamed over the entire country in search of subsistence, and utilized the water highways in their rovings to the fullest extent possible. The birch-bark canoe was well adapted to the end for which it was designed. It was made eufficiently strong to carrj" themselves and their belongings over the lakes aud streams; it was also light enough to be transported over port, ages from one waterway to another. Over portages they first transported their goods, and then returned for the boat. The birch-bark canoe was gen- erally used on the waters of the North and Northwest. In the far western plains, where no birch trees grew, they fashioned boats out of the hides of buffalo, making the so-called bull-boat. This was shaped by stretching the green hides over a wooden frame. It was extremely difficult to adapt one's self to those frail canoes without overturning them, but Indians manipulated them with consummate skill. It is, however, worthy of note that the French voyaijeurs handled bull-boats 116 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. and canoes with more facility, and adapted them to a greater variety of nses than the Indian had ever done. The material of which the Indian canoe was made was easily procurable, and if damaged it was easy to repair. Some of the bark canoes were capable of carrying many tons of freight, besides paddlers and passen- gers, and were used b}' all the fur companies, traders, hunters, and pioneers in transporting their stores The mo -isin, as a foot cov- ering, was as admirably adapted to the Indian as was the canoe. It was made of tanned deer skin, and was sewed with the sinews of animals, the hole for the sinew being made with an awl of bone or other sharp instru- ment. The moccasin kept the foot warm, did not impede per- spiration, was elastic and soft, allowing perfect use of the foot and toes in climbing rough places or treading rugged paths. It was easily made and easily mended. The snowshoe was a necessity for the Indian in the more northerly regions, enabling him to travel in winter through deep snows, and to hunt game. With it he could go over the deepest snow drifts without sinking, and where he had level footing he could run with great speed. The snowshoe is to-day universally used in cold coun- tries, and in the armies of north- ern Europe is a part of the mili- in its science SNOWSHOES OP THE BLACKFEET. tary equipment. It is, make and in its use, the same as the Indian gave it to us. Neither nor art has improved on it in the least. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 117 Of the tepee, and bow and arrow, nothing further need be said here, as they are elsewhere fully described. The tepee or skin-covered lodge is a thing of the past. The Indian has passed from his nomadic condition and no longer requires this kind of habitation. Furthermore, the aniriials upon which he depended for the covering of this movable dwelling have become almost extinct. LITTLE KIOWA GIRL, WITH DOLL. 118 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XIII. THE INDIAN'S NATURAL WEAPONS AND HOW HE USED THEM— TEACHING YOUNG BRAVES INDIAN WARFARE. ludian Weapons of War and of t)ie Chase— The Indian War Club— The Tomahawk— The Scalping Knife — The Lance and Shield — The Bow and Arrow — How they were made — Dexterity of the Indian in the Use of the Bow — His Lack of Proficiency in the Use of Modern Firearms — His Limited Use of Tools — Boys Practicing with Bow and Arrow — Securing their first Firearms — The Indian not a Good Rifle Shot — Sham Battles — A Realistic and Exciting Exhibition — Their Decorations and Equipment — How the Young Brave Acquired a Knowledge of War — Dexterity in Rescuing their Wounded during Battle — His thorough Mastery of his Horse. The oft-repeated and commonly accepted statement that the wild Indians of this country used a stone war club as a weapon of offense or defense is largely fictitious. In the first place, it is unfitted for such a purpose. The person using a club must first come in close contact with his enemy before he could make use of such a weapon. Again, the stone club is heavy and unwieldy, and is not dangerous except when the enemy is lying prostrate. Clubs of the kind referred to were common in Indian camps, but were usually employed as mallets in driving stakes or lodge pins, and for general camp purposes. It is true, however, that after a battle the women would sometimes dispatch the wounded and mutilate the dead on the battlefield by smashing their skulls with these clubs. Some of the men carried a peculiar-looking club, painted in gaudy colors, the handle thickly studded with brass-headed nails. On one side, near the top, was fastened one or more formidable looking blades of iron. Other kinds of clubs had a solid wooden head at the end, in which was fastened a long iron spike. The Indians did not, to my knowledge, use these clubs in battle with white men, or between themselves. They were carried upon ceremonial occasions for show. The Indian loved to see himself portrayed with this ugly-looking, but useless weapon, conspicuously displayed, and nothing would tickle his vanity more than to have his picture taken with his favorite club in his hand. With the advent of firearms among the Indians, the tomahawk also ceased ( TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 119 vo be an important war weapon. It was commonly carried, but generally used as a pipe, the back or head being hollow and used for a bowl, and the handle, which had a hole through it, was used for a stem. The blade or axe was of iron or steel; this they procured from white traders. The tomahawk has passed into history as a bloody weapon, and at one time might have been en- titled to its reputation as such, but of late years it was rarely used. If by chance an Indian met another in a hand-to-hand combat his weapon was the knife. Some of the duels with knives were of the bloodiest kind; they would stab and slash each other so terribly that both contes- tants died locked in each other's arms. When a fight of this kind occurred it was sure to end fatally for one or both. I once saw the bodies of two Indians who died in this manner, and counted eight stabs and twenty-one slashes on one body, and eight stabs and fourteen slashes on the other; the bodies were lying close to each other just as they had died. All Indians, both men and women, carried a knife iv a sheath attached to the belt, and were dexterous in its use. The knife was their inseparable con^panion, and was used for slaughtering animals, scalping enemies, and for general purposes. Knives were kept as sharp as possible, the handle being often elaborately ornamented in true Indian style. In earl}' days on the plains it was difficult for them to secure a sufficient supply of knives, but that difficulty ceased after white traders established trading posts throughout the Indian country. WAR CLUB ORNAMENTED WITH BRASS-HEADED NAILS — BEAR CLAW DECORATION ON END OF BUCKSKIN SHIRT SLEEVES — FACIAL PAINTINQ — MINNECONJOUX SIOUX. ■ii 120 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The wild Indian was also armed with a lance, which he sometimes used with deadly effect in battle or on raiding ex- peditions; many of the nations and tribes carried this weapon until they were disarme*!. The head of the lance was made of iron or steel procured from white traders. The old tradition, so common in history and fiction, of Indians using poisoned arrows, is without foundation. In the first place, I am at loss to know where they could procure the poison. It is claimed, however, by some that they used the venom of the rattlesnake for this purpose. Admitting this to be a fact they could have but few poisoned arrows, for the owner would be apt to be the first to suffer from contact with them. If they ever did use poisoned arrows it must have been o*" rare occur- rence. I never saw or heard of any, in my long experience among the Indians. The bow and arrow was well made, and was often a work of art. The shaft of the arrow varied in length among different tribes, and was usually made from reeds, or carefully selected straight, slender branches of the red willow. The lower end was feathered along the sides from two or three inches to more than a foot. The point or head was ordinarily made of hoop iron, and was fastened to the shaft by sinews. Some of these were barbed on both sides like a fish-hook. Once f* barbed arrow entered the body of a human being it was neces- sary to push it entire!}'' through, or cut it out, in order to remove it, for should an attempt be made to draw it out the way it went in, the barbs would catch in the flesh, and pull off of the staff. Should au arrow remain in the flesh for a length of time the sinew used to fasten the head to the shaft became soft, and an effort made to withdraw the arrow at once disengaged the shaft and left the arrowhead in the wound. The bow was usually made of hickory, willow, mesquit, or Osage orange wood. Occasionally bows were reinforced or LANCE AND BELT— SIOUX, DOU SOLDIEH INSIGNIA. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 121 backed with the sinew of tbe elk or buffalo, wbich made them very strong and elastic. A i)erson not accustomed to « bow of this kind might scarcely spring ic two inches, while an Indian wouiu spring it a foot or more, driv- ing the arrow with tremenuous velocity. With a strong bow he would drive the arrow half its length into the body of a buffalo. The bowstring was of twisted sinews and was very strong, lasting a long time. It would cut like a knife when used by unskilled hands. The Indian protected his arm at the wrist by a piece of rawhide, to prevent the relaxed bowstring from cutting and disabling him. A bow and arrow outfit was usually carried in a bow case and quiver, attached to each other, made of skin, generally of the mountain lion, otter, or buffalo, and was slung over the Indian's back. Indian boys would frequently stand in line when practicing with the how, each with his hand full of arrows, firing them with such rapidity that the air woiild be filled with them. After they were through firing each would run and select his own arrows where they had fallen. This seems incredible, as all the arrows looked alike, yet they rarely made a mistake. At first the only firearms they had were the old-fashioned, flint-lock, muzzle-loading pistols and muskets. Later on, however, they managed to obtain the best modern arms, but they still clung to their natural weapon, the Ixjw and arrow. With the advance f-f civilization the Indians experi- enced less difficulty in securing modern firearms and ammunition. It is a notable fact that Indians did not accjuire proficiency in the use of firearms. Even after the red man was employed in the United States mili- tary service, where he had every facility for improvement, he did not com- pare frvorably with the white man in handling firearms. The common idea gained from Cooper's "Leather Stocking Tales," and more modern litera- ture, that all Indian warriors were superior marksmen, is a romantic delu- sion. The liest that can be said of them is that they made progress in the use of modern arms. They were not experts with the rifle, and rarely, if ever, practiced target shooting — which is absolutely necessary to make a fine marksman — principally for the reason that such practice meant a waste of ammunition; as it was difficult for them to obtain this they preferred to re- serve it for fighting or procuring food. Not until about IW.i or 1H(!4, when some benevolent people of the East took pity on these poor red men, did they obtain modern firearms, such as Winchester repeating rifles, Spencer car- bines, and other magazine pieces. As it was necessary to have metallio cartridges for the use of these arms, they were particularly careful not to waste this kind of amaaunition. Besides, the Indian did not acquire pro- ficiency in the use of tools, nor did be b&ve them, so when his modem firearms m TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. got ou' of order he was unable to repair them; therefore they remained use-, less weapons. Efforts were made to teach Indians in the employ of the government the principles of marksmanship, but according to a recent de- partment report they did not reach much more than one-third of the average of the white man either in individual or collective firing with the rifle. At pistol firing they were somewhat better in mounted practice, showing some improvement over their degree of skill with the rifle. In spite of all efforts of the government the record made by them was far below that made by the troops. Notwithstanding the Indian's constant use of his weapons and the fact that from earliest childhood he had but one ambition, proficiency in war, they did not organizethemselven into bodies for drill with arms, or in manceu- vriug or instruction in the art of war. When they attempted a drill of any kind a number of them would come together and go through a sham battle. Sometimes they would choose a chief or leader, when going through an imaginary fight. Sham fights were not for instruction but for amuse- ment. Each member of the tribe was at liberty to join in the fun and retire when he pleased. When going through sham manoeuvres they were often fantastically dreseed in war bonnets and feathers, with their bodies and faces painted in the most hideous style. They were naked, except the breech cloth and moccasins, as though entering a real battle. They would mount tiieir best war horses, which had their bodies painted, and were decorated with feathers in the tails, manes, and foretops. Their shields on such occasions were indispensable. Everything being in readiness, the Indians formed themselves in line on the open ground or field, facing toward an imaginary foe. Suddenly they would make a charge in the direction of the party they were supposed to attack. After the charge had been made every warrior would act independently, throwing himself from one side of his horse to the other, charging and counter-charging, circling as if surrounding the enemy, throwing his lance, firing his arrows, uttering war cries and yells, and mak- ing all sorts of movements as if engaged in the fiercest battles. The shield was fastened about the neck and over the shoulder wi«h a buckskin thong, would by dexterous movements of the body, and without the use of the han Is be constantly moved from one side to the other, to the back and front, and placed in every position possible to prevent the warrior being pierced by the weapons of the opposing party. They presented a pic- turesque appearance when moving and ciicling rapidly with their gayly colored war bonnets and feathers, especially if scalps dangled from the shields, which was often the case. \ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 123 During sham battles the yells of the flyiug warriors were deafening. These imaginary conflicts usually lasted but a short time, for it was hard work; lo this, the red man was constitutionally opposed. The Indian was so independent in his nature and so impatient of restraint, that it prevented his becoming a part of an organization for the purpose of instruction or drill. The young brave acquired much knowledge of war from listening to the old warriors as they told of their many battles, and the glorious part they had acted in them. After hearing these stoiies the young man at the first opportunity mounted one of the best horses belonging to himself or father, and went through an imaginary fight by himself. In this way he became a good horseman, as well as versed in the movements of Indian warfare. One thing all Indian warriors practiced and became proficient in, was the manner of seizing and carrying off a wounded comrade from the field of battle to a place of safety. Owing to this practice the troops rarely captured a wounded Indian. They also practiced hov/ to disperse in case of defeat; this to them was one of their important manwuvres in escaping from the enemy. They scattered in every direction, in ones, twos, and threes, to prevent pursuit. After going a short distance they returned and repeated the same manoeuvre, each Indian selecting a different comrade and going in a different direction. When mounted on a vicious or untrained war horse, it is su'-prising with what skill a warrior managed his mount, with nothing on the animal but a lariat rope around the lower jaw. He was perfect master of his horse, twisting and turning him within his own length, and in every direction without apparent injury to the animal. When in actual battle these movements were rarely ever adhered to, but they served to teach the young warrior how to conduct himself during a real angagement, and made him an expert in handling his mount and weapons. Indians did not use spurs. It would have been difficult to obtain them ; moreover, when riding they thumped the animals constantly with their heels, and spurs would have cut through their sides in a short time. All Indians mounted and dismounted from the right, or off side with or without a saddle. When in mttle they mounted from either aide, when necessary. When mounted they were expert with the lasso, throwing it with groat precision, catching an animal around the leg, neck or almost any part aimed at. This they could do when going at any speed. In throwing the lasso, men, women, and children were all experts. 124 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XIV. AN INDIAN DOG FEAST — FINGERS VERSUS FORKS— AN INDIAN DINNER PARTY— PERSONAL EXPERIENCES. Why the Indians were Noniailic — A Dog Feast — Cooked in its Skin with the Hair on — How tlie Favorite Disli Tastes — Its Peculiar Flavor — Giving a Dinner to a Famous Chief — Astonished Indians — Eating all Night — Indians with "Good Hearts" — A Perfect Gorge — Eating witli their Fingers — Refusing to use Knives and Forks — A Delicate Meal — Speech of a Great Chief — " Wacpominie " — What it consisted of — Old-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses — An Embarrassment of Riches — Some Valuable Presents — Disagreeable Pests — Manner of Ridding Skins of Vermin — A Pertinent Conversation with a Chief and his Significant Reply — The Grossest Insult known to the Sioux. In their wild state the savages were kept moving constantly from one place to another, for the reason that when the grass was consumed in and about their camps, thej' went elsewhere, — not to get away from the filth which had accumulated about them, but to supply forage for their animals and food for themselves. Besides, the wild Indian was naturally of a roving disposition ; he was not satisfied to remain long in one place, no matter how comfortable it might be. He had an insatiable desire for new scenes, to visit old and new acquaint- ances. Often he changed location to please one of his daughters, whose heart was attracted to another portion of the country, where she hoped to see some young man she fancied ; again he moved for reasons known only to himself. I have seen them locate m beautiful places, that afforded protec- tion from the rigors of the winter. In a few weeks the spot was deserted and they were occupying a barren, inhospitable place. The weather had no terrors for the red man when he desired a change of locality; they were con- stantly on the move during all seasons of the yep.r. On notable occasions they held a feast. Of these the greatest of all was a dog feast. Their dogs — every Indian village and camp was overrun with them — were a species more or less inbred win the coyote and gray wolf. For a feast uf this kind some of the fattest dogs were killed. The It dians TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 125 would sit all night eating the meat of a dog boiled in a pot, bones and all, cooked without salt, and eaten without accompaniments of any kind. The flesh of a dog, when boiled Indian style, has its ow.a peculiar flavor. It is stringy and tough, though the fat of the animal -"vhen boiled is passably palatable. I have been "^o many of these foasts, and must confess that I do not relish dog meat. A great feast was once held near Fort I^aramie, pending negotiations between Colonel Wm. E. Maynadier and Red Cloud, at which many Indians were present, probably ten thousand, all Sioux. Old-Man- Afraid-cf-his- Horses was not present at the treaty, but arrived a few days afterwards, when I had a talk with him. This was after the massacre of August, 1863. As he called me his son, I gave him a banquet consisting of hard bread (a kind of cracker supplied by the government to the troops), bacon, salt pork, dried beans, peas, rice, hominy, sugar and coffee. There were about two hundred and fifty Indians present at this feast, in- cluding Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses, and other chiefs less notable. The cooking was done by the troops in kettles and pans belonging to the garri- son, and was served by the soldiers on tin plates. Our Sioux guests sat in a large circle after their own fashion, and ate with their fingers, refusing to use the knives and forks with which we supplied them. This was not a meal, but as some of the troops aptly remarked, a perfect gorge. The Indians sat eating the entire night; when morning came there was not a vestige of what I had supposed was an abundant supply, besides something for each one to take to his lodge for his family. The amount of very much sweetened coffee they consumed was astounding. This feast would not com- mend itself to the ordinary white man on account of the tempting dishes pro- vided, but as few, if any, of these Indians had ever tasted such a variety of food, they made many grunts and gesticulations testifying to their high ap- preciation of such a delicate repast. They licked their fingers and looked at each other in astonishment, their eyes following the men serving the food as if saying to them, "Give me some more." After the feast was over and the Indians had "good hearts" for the time being, on account of the fullness of their stomachs, Old-Man-Afraid-of-his- Horses arose and made a speech, saying in substance, "For this feast and for all that we have received at the hands of our friend Possuscopie" (Roman Nose, for that was the name these people called me) "we will pour out the goodness of our hearts." Many of the Indians who partook of the feast made me presents afterwards, mainly consisting of buffalo robes, some of which were decorated in the most gorgeous style of aboriginal art. I also received some tanned deer and antelope skins, and other articles of small 126 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. value. I must have received tliat day, in all, fully sixty or seventy skins. Many of them were handsomely decorated with porcupine quills, and were as soft and pliable as a piece of the finest cloth. The labor of tanning them on tbe fleshy side required great skill. In preparing them the roots of the hair were not injured ; otherwise the hair and fur would constantly shed, which would diminish the value of the skin and annoy the wearer. Among these presents were a number of beaver skins, which were not only of intrin- sic value but were rendered more so by the way the pelts had been prepared. These were tannea with the brains of the animal and had a pleasant smell. I had some of the beaver skins made into a robe that was much admired, and which often served to co^^er me while lying on the ground exposed to tbe rain or snow. I returned some of the presents to the donors. It may be asked why I did so. In the first place it required a long time for Indians to make such ac- cumulations; secondly, I could not use them all; and lastly, and the most important reason was, they were filled with vermin. The manner of ridding buffalo robes of vermin was to lay the robes on the ground upon or near the hills of the large black ants which were numerous in that country, when the ants would seize the vermin and eat them. It took many days to rid a hide of the pests, as each hair had numerous nits or eggs upon it. These had to hatch out (which took some time) and be destroyed by the ants before the robe was entirely freed from the vermin. On this occasion, there were present Red Cloud, Spotted Tail, Old Smoke, The Trunk, Dull Knife, Lone Dog, Ribs, Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses, and many other Sioux notables. I asked Old-Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses to answer one question, insisting that he should do so frankly. Prefixing my question by saying, "You call me your sou. What would you have done to me, had you met me in a defenseless position during the time of the massa- cre?" He hung his head for a moment as if in deep thought, and without raising his eyes or looking at me, said, "My son, I should have regretted meeting you. I would not have harmed you, myself, but I could not have been responsible for the acts of my young men." My reply was, "I under- stand fully what you mean ; you would not have killed me yourself, but some of your young men would have had that pleasure." To this hi made no answer. Another instance illustrative of Indian character occurred at Fort Lar- amie. S. E. W&/d, who had been an old trapper and mountaineer, and knew Indian character well, was the sutler or post trader. He was a man of keeu perception and spoke the Sioux language well. On one occasion, when flome Minoeconjou Sioux were on a trading visit at this fort they met Ward, \ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 187 who was an old acquaintance. After a pow-wow with them, he offered to give to some army officers present an illustration of Indian character. A short time before this one of the Indians had said to him, "You are rich, and I am poor. 1 want you to make my heart glad by giving me some presents." Ward replied, "You may go into the warehouses and select anything you want, but when you have made your selection, you cannot return to the warehouse again, for I will give you nothing more, no matter how small." The Indian entered the store and selected articles which amounted to a considerable sum. Returning to Ward he said, "My heart is full, I have everything I want," and departed. After a short time he returned, saying that he had forgotten to take some gun flints. The value of the flints would not have amounted to ten cents. He asked Ward to supply them. Ward reminded him of his former proposition, saying that he could have nothing more. The Indian turned on his heel, used a vile name, and thar offered the greatest insult known in the Indian sign language, which was the closing of the hand tightly, with the nails of the fingers downward, thrusting it in Ward's face, then suddenly opening the hand. With a sneer and look of contempt he departed. "This," said Mr. Ward, "is an illustra- tion of one phase of Indian character. I have read and heard of Indian gratitude, but I have never seen an Indian who possessed that virtue." ^ .If... . J'-" . ••• ..\-.t.'. 128 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. PTt---.-- ^$^ CHAPTER XV. BURIAL OF THE DEAD— STRANGE FUNERAL KITES AND CEREMONIES— THE INDIANS IDEA OF THE FUTURE STATE— UFE IN THE SPIRIT LAND. Funeral C^erenionies — Burial of a C'hief — Last Rites — Final Resting-Place of their Impor- tant Personages — Buried in a Sitting Posture — ScafiEolds on which the Dead were placed — How they were thrown down by Buffalo — Taken by the Whites for Fuel — Killing Animals at the Funeral — Women and Female Children buried in various ways — Dead Bod it , eaten by Carnivorous Animals and Birds of Prey — Intolerable Stench at an Indian Burial-Place — Journey of the Soul to the Spirit Land — The Indian's Inability to Compute Time — Feeding the Soul during its Journey — Belief that the Spirit left the Body through t!ie Mouth — Why Indians Mutilated the Slain Bodies of Enemies — Execution of Big Foot, Black Crow, and others by hanging in (^liains — Death in its most Dreaded Form. Thjc burial ceremony among Indian nations varied. Among the majority of them the death and burial of one of their chiefs was at- tended with great ceremony. Large numbers of warriors would assemble to attend the last rites. The body of the dead chief was always attired in the best raiment he pos- sessed during life. His war equipments, bow and arrow, lance, shield, saddle and horse equipments, blankets, buft'alo robes, and other personal be- longings were left with the body when placed in its final resting-place. The body of one of these distinguished personages was somptimes deposited in a tree particular!}' adapted to receive the remains. Others were placed on a platform, six to eight feet in width, and ten to twelve feet in SCAFFOLD GRAVES ON THK PLAINS RIVER. -SIOUX -PLATTE •■•■?,? f?miW?»l!-irf^x\'fT'»'TrwfT^rwKi--; TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 129 leugtb, resting on upright poles set in the ground, and from ten to fifteen feet in height. On these platforms were frequently plticed the bodies of several important chiefs. Scaffold graves were usually set on the summit of a hill or in a valley, selected because it was a favorite place of the de- ceased during life. On top of the platform was laid one or more bodies, over which bu:?Folo robes, a lodge cover, or skins of different kinds, were tightly drawn, and securely fastened by thongs to prevent them falling to the ground. In this manner the corpses were left until they rotted and fell. The bodies of common warriors were frequently disposed of in the same manner, usually heing dressed in the best clothing they possessed during life. Some of them were placed in a sitting posture, and presented a pecu- liar appearance; others were left lying on their backs, all being covered to prevent birds of prey from eating the flesh. On the plains, the scaffolds on which the bodies of the dead were left did not remain standing for a great length of time unless carefully watched. The buffalos, when roaming over the prairie, their hair filled with buffalo gnats, which ate great sores into their tough hides, would, in trying to rid themselves of their tormentors, rub against the poles and throw them down. If the buffalo did not do so, the oxen and domestic cattle belonging to freighters crossing the plains, when turned loose to graze near these places, would rub against the scaffolds with the same result. i When the platforms were erected near the Overland road, the numerous emigrants, in crossing the plains, were usually vandals enough to cut them down for fuel for cooking purposes; consequently this was not so secure a method of diepcing of the bodies as placing them in trees. The Indians, however, had an aversion to placing their dead in trees where members of the tribe were likely to make their camp, as the stench from the decomposing bodies remained for a long time; and a« horses, mules and dogs belong- ing to the deceased were frequently killed and left at the funeral spot, the stench from the decomposing remains of warriors and animals was intoler- able, especially when the sun came out very hot after a rain storm. I recall the illness and burial of one of Spotted Tail's daughters. A very noted Indian was Spotted Tail. He fought the whites only v hen he could be benefited by increasing his number of horses, mules, and stores by pillage. He had his headquarters and that of his tribe in the neighborhood of Raw Hide Peak. When one of his daughters, to whom he was much attached, was taken seriously ill, he immediately repaired to Fort Laramie and asked assistance of one of the army surgeons. His daughter was kindly treated by the surgeon, but finally died, and was given the usual Indian funeral about twenty-five or thirty miles from that place. Her body was placed on a Ill I! SPOTTED TAIL AND WIFE NUMBER TWO— THE NOTED CHIEF OF THE OOALALA SIOUX. Twenty Tears Amonfi: Our Hostile Indians. Faf^ 130 -•-^7, TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 131 scaffold of poles set up after Indian fashion. Afterwards her remains were interred in the bills just outside the fort. I was present at this burial, and was particularly interested in the prayers said by each one of the friends of the family who spoke. Charles E. Querreu, who was the best interpreter of the Sioux language that I ever knew, stood near me and repeated the prayer that each one made. The body was interred in the early evening. One of the Indians in his prayer said : "We bury your body as the sun goes down, and as the sun rises in the morning, so your spirit will go to our Great Creator with the rising of the sun, which will take you to the spirit land, and there keep you until all your family and friends shall join you. You will be in life again with them, and live for a long time without want or care." Other prayers were equally expressive, and all of the same im- port. The death of this young girl, and the kindnebs of the whites at the fort in caring for her during her illness, seemed to soften Spotted Tail's sav- age nature. For a long time he was quite friendly, and made almost weekly visits to the grave of his daughter, after which he would visit the fort, where he was kindly treated. The bodies of women and female children were frequently buried in caves, or in ravines or boles; as the Indians bad no tools for digging the ground, the corpses were covered only with a little dirt, over which grass, leaves or branches were usually thrown. Bodies buried in this manner did not remain long undisturbed. Wolves and other carnivorous beasts in search of food would eat the flesh entirely from the bones in from one to two nights, and drag the remnants far away from the place where the corpses were left. At nearly all funerals of warriors, and sometimes of their favorite sons, a suflBcient amount of food was placed near the deceased to supply them during the journey to the new home. No Indians I have ever conversed with could tell me how long it took the disembodied spirit to make the journey to their imaginary heaven. The Sioux believed that the soul arrived at the spirit land at the adult age, ready and equipped for all the pleasures incident to adult life, and that their animals arrived with them in good condition. The Indians had no way of computing time; it was therefore exceedingly difficult for them to explain how long a time was required to make this jour- ney, nor could they explain how it was made. When it is considered that the most intelligent of them did not attempt to account for the change from day to night, or why the seasons varied, it can readily be understood how difficult it was for them to explain anything about the time required for the journey of the soul to its future home. I once had a talk with Old-Man-Afraid-of-his- Horses in relation to the soul from the time of death to its arrival in the spirit land, and asked him •\ 133 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. if he believed that the soul would have in its new home the articles which were buried with the body here, and if, during its journey, the road wo did be a pleasant and safe one, or one in which all sorts of wild beasts and other TREK GRAVE— BRULE SIOUX— REPUBLICAN RIVER. dangers or obstacles would be encountererl. 1 asked him if the soul made this journey alone, and whether it traveled during the light of day or the darkness of night ; also to explain the flight of the soul from one point to another. He said he could not explain anything about it, but he knew well enough that the articles that were buried with the remains would not be with the person in his new home; that such a person would know how to make exact reproductions of what was buried with the body here, and that the souls of horses and dogs killed at the funeral would accompany the soul of the deceased, and be the souls of those animals in the happy land. I asked, if that was true, why thev placed meats on the scaffold for the journey of the spirit. He replied that it was necessary for the soul to have something \ iiiilWf'i-Tfl#yi1itfliiA'i{ifii^'K'ili^^ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 133 to subsist upon during its journey, be it long or short. I then inquired where he got all these theories. He said, with some warmth, that they were not theories, but facts; that it was necessary for everything that lived to have something to feed upon, and, as the soul was alive, it was necessary that it should be fed in passing from one stage to another. I then said to him : Suppose the soul had left the body for several days, during which time it had traveled a long distance, how could it feed upon the food which was left upon the scaffold and which still remained there? He replied that the soul was a spirit, and that it extracted the spirit food from the meat, which accompanied the soul on its journey. I then asked him how he arrived at such conclusions. He said he did not reach them at all ; that this belief had been handed down to him by his forefathers, that he believed they knew, and he did not trouble himself to learn anything fur- ther about it. He abruptly turned and asked me what my belief was — whether the white man expected, when he died, to go to a happy hunting-ground, or a spirit land. My ansv/er was in the affirmative. He then inquired how our spirits reached that place. Frankness compelled me to reply that I did not know. The questions he propounded as to the change from one life to another re- quired more of a philosopher than I to answer. Every one of his questions would be called, if asked by our children, **a poser," and I found it was much easier to ask questions of this nature than to answer them. The Indian believed that the spirit left the body through the mouth, and that all Indians who were not scalped or hanged would go to the spirit land, where they would live forever, after the manner they had lived here, but on a grander scale. He would need there all the things he required here, or he would not be happy. Hence the best weapons he possessed in life were buried with him, and his best animals were killed at his final resting-place. As he expected his career in the future world to expand and be far superior to bis earthly life, he would, therefore, all the more require the means of livelihood, and of defense against his enemies. The Indian's idea of the future life was purely materialistic. He had no spir^ual conceptions, consequently it was impossible for him to imagine a condition of things in a future state different from what he knew in this. The other world or state of existence was to him only a magnification of the present one. Anything that could be procured here he believed could be obtained there; hence, the only things that were buried with him were those that would be needful to him in procuring his subsistence in the spirit land. If the warrior had not as complete an outfit as was deemed needful in this 134 TWENTY YE/RS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. \i7orld eit the time of his death, his friends endeavored to supply the deficiency before his burial. The final resting-places were never despoiled. A super- stitious awe attached to them, and no Indiatn would dare draw on himself the wrath of the Great Spiiit by touching any of the arti- cles left for the use of the dead. Anotbei phase of Indian belief was that the body in the next life would appear in exactly the same form as it was when the earthly life had departed from it. Young or old, whole or mutilated, it would remain in the spirit land forever the same. Hence the fiendish mutila- tions of the dead by the Indians. They would seek, after killing their enemy, to make his existence in the next life as miserable as pos- sible. The Indian's idea of a future life was based purely on tradition — he never reasoned on the subject. His fathers believed it and that was sufficient for him. He had no fear of death in its natural form, or in battle. He was a stoic and a fatalist. "When Colonel Moonlight decided to execute the Indian chiefs, Big Foot, Black Crow, and others, about the years 1864-65, they were told of their ap- proaching fate, tied, put in a six-mule wagon, and driven to the place of execution. During the time they were being transported to the gallows, on which they were to be hanged in chains and left for the birds to prey upon, or to rot down (which they eventually did), they did not evince the slightest fear. They sang their weird death chant, and were driven under a scaffold made of two poles twenty feet high, with a pole across the top, with the chains hangiog therv^from. The chains were adjusted around their necks, the wagon driven from under them, and they were left dangling in the air. Apparently the least concerned of all were those who were executed, and, as they were to be hung in chains, which, according to their belief, prevented MANDAN BURIAL P1A0E-DI8H WITH FOOD FOR THE SPIRIT. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 135 the spirit from leaving the body through the mouth, the stoicism was all the more remarkable, as death came to them in its most dreaded form. Some tribes of the great Athabaskan nation had different ways of dis- posing of the bodies of the dead. The Zunis, another tribe of this nation, burned the bodies of the dead. First digging a shallow hole in the ground, in this the remains were placed ; logs and branches were then laid over the spot and set on fire; after all had been consumed, the location was marked with a stone. The Cbippewas of the Algonquin family buried the corpses in the ground in a sitting posture, and the funerals were atl^uded witb great ceremony, often lasting for weeks. Among these people females and children received the same funeral as the males and adults. Some of the California tribes had peculiar burial customs: these are fully described in the chapter on those Indians. irim.Mmi!ttitfiii 136 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XVI. THE GREAT SIOUX NATION— A HERCE AND WARLIKE PEOPLE— LIFE AND SCENES AMONG THEM. One of the Largest and Most Warlike of Indian Nations — Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses — A Noted Chief — How he acquired his Name — How he became Famous — When and how a Brave could change his Name — A Nation of Meat Eaters — Their Manner ot Cooking and Eating — The Universal Dirty Cooking Pot — A Voracious Sioux — Drinking Dish Water — Why Indians were constantly on the Move — Always at War with their Neighbors — Why they had no Intoxicating Liquors — Insulting an Indian by asking his Name — Indian Vulgarity — Indian Mothers-in-law — How they were regarded — An Indian Forlorn llo\ie — An Alliance that meant Death and Destruction — Splendid Horsemanship — The Stone Bath — Practice of Voodooism — Heroic Treatment — Wealthy Indians — Many Ceremonies — Demonstrative Love — No Social Castes— Dog Soldiers— Widely Separated. Tribes — Superstitious fear of Hail- storms, t . The name of the great Sioux nation as known among themselves was the Lakotas or Da- kctas. The early French trappers gave them the name of Nadowesioux, or Nad- cessi ; this was afterward a'^breviated to the word Sioux, by which name this nation has long been known. J'uring my life in the Far West, the Sioux were the largest and most warlike nation of North American Indians, num- bering from sixty thousand to eighty thou- sand souls according to the best estimates, for no accurate census could be taken at that time. They occupied the entire coun- try from the Mississippi River on the east to the eastern chain of the Rooky Mountains on the west, and almost from the boundary line between the British possessions and the United States on the north, as far south as the Republican River in Kansas and an imaginary line about due east and west from the mouth of 8i,(>w mi.i.— Tvj'ii AL Sioux. i ifttiiti II III t II 1 1 til tn" '^--■— -'-^>^-^*-«- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 137 that stream, crossing the South Platte River between Julesburg and Fre- mont's Orchard. They were divided into many tribes, each with its own name and chief. Some very prominent Indians wore chiefs of the different tribes. Tbe most noted ohief in the entire nation at that time was Old-Man- Afraid-of-his- Horses. All the other chiefs bore much the same relation to him that the Governors of the different States do to tba President of the United States. It may be asked how Old-Man- Afraid -of-his- Horses acquired such a pecu- liar and suggestive name. The story as I received it from his own lips was as follows : When he was a young man and an aspirant for Indian honors, a war party was made up of Minneconjou Sioux to attack the Pawnees and Pottawottoniies in their hunting grounds in Kansas and Nebraska. During 8IOUX CAMP ON THE YELLOWSTONE RIVKU. the battle that followed, this young warrior captured some very vicious horses and evinced great fear of them; for this the Indians dubbed him Old-Man- Afraid-of-his-Horses. Being thus ridiculed by his Indian comrades he de- termined to relieve himself of the stigma fastened upon him by his name, by performing deeds of valor at the first opportunity; and in 8ubse Indfanii. Page 140 iffirftiawwiWiltiiiiiiiiiiifiitt TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 141 wash down his enormous meal. The amount of food consumed by him on this occasion had been prepared for four hungrj' army oflScers. Large bodies of nomadic people cannot long remain in the same place, especially if, like the Indians, they have a great number of animals, as the struggle for food and fodder is ceaseless. Owing to their numbers the Sioux were less stationary than other nations; as they lived exclusively by the chase, they had to be constantly on the move to maintain existence. In summer they hunted the buffalo and other aniamls, and their horses lived OROUP UF SIOCX — WOMAN ON KHJHT, SHOWING MANNER OF SITTING ON THE LEGS. on the grass; in the winter they were compelled to secure food for their animals. This was frequently supplied by the tender branches and the in- ner bark of the cottonwood tree. As the Sioux had no axes or implements for felliug trees, they often followed in the track of the beaver, which in some localities cut down with its teeth enough trees to give sufficient food for the Indian's animals. This fact affords a striking illustration of the countless number of beavers that existed along the streams and rivers of the West in those days. The Sioux roamed over 60 vast a territory that they were almost continu- ally at war with some of their surrounding neighbors; owing to their 142 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. superior numbers they were generally victorious. Man to man they were not equal to the Cheyennes as warriorp, but were more advanced in general knowledge than any other wild Indian nation. They learned many things that were unknown to smaller tribes, as they were brought into contact with the white man more than any other tribe or nation, as civilization trended to the west. The Fremont trail, or the Overland route, led through the heart of their territory. Thej^ attacked emigrant and other wagon trains crossing the plains, and from these marauding expeditions secured arms, implements, and supplies of many kinds. They sometimes captured muskets and am- munition, and were intelligent enough to use them. After the ammunition had been exhausted these arms were practically useless until more could be obtained in a like manner ; meantime they would return to the use of their own implements of war and destruction. After the establishment of trading posts along the Overland road the Sioux began to trade with the white man, a few of them visiting the stations and bartering with the traders for articles which they 'tarried to their far-off homes. Trading posts were necessarily many miles apart, and all were thor- oughly fortified. Each post had a large corral for the protection of men and animals, and was well adapted for defense. The corrals were made of trunks of trees a foot or more in diameter, sunk deep and firmly in the ground, standing close together and usually about ten feet high, having holes and interstices through which to fire in case of attack. The Indians traded largely through middlemen. They exchanged with the traders the tanned hides of the buffalo, antelope, elk, moose, deer, bear, mountain sheep, and the flint and tanned hides of the beaver, otter, wolf, fox, and other animals, receiving in return small round mil irs, red cloth, blankets, paints with which to paint their faces and bodies, and other coveted articles. The trader in those days was careful to prevent the red man from obtain- ing intoxicating liquors, should they have any on hand, which was rare, as the government prohibited liquors being taken into the Indian country. Most of the hackneyed stories of the Indian being ruined and demoralized by the firewater of the unprincipled white trader are baseless and absurd. The trader, knowing Indian character too well, was anxious under all cir- cumstances that they should not have liquor, well knowing that one or two drunken Indians would be liable to make trouble at his post, and that he might be the first to suffer by them. For this reason the traders themselves were especially anxious to prevent any person supplying the Indians with liquor. One of the most impolite things a Sioux could do was to ask another his II TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. m name. The Indian to whom such an inquiry was addressed would not re- ply, but would haughtily turn to some one who knew him, and say in the loftiest manner, "Tell him my name." Every Indian considered himself so prominent and well known that he regarded the question an insult to his dignity. Sioux names, both male and female, were often obscene beyond expression. Generally the names referred to some personal peculiarity of those who bore them, or to some incident or exploit in their career. Thus : Crying Eagle, Lone Elk, Long Dog, Skulking Wolf, Kicking Horse, Bear Tamer, The-One-Who-Walks-under-the-Sun, The-One- Who- Walks-Before- Day, The-One-Who-Strikes-Twice, Crazy Horse, E. -gle Eye, Bear Catcher, Blue Day, Rain Cloud, Snow Eater, and so on interminably. I mention these be- cause they were the names of noted In- dians of different tribes, all of whom I knew. The Sioux located their camps far away from military posts, frontier traders, and the Overland road. When braves of this class met on the warpath it meant an assault upon every living thing of flesh and hlood with which they came in contact. The only thing that was considered vul- gar by a Sioux was to speak to his mother- in-law. This custom was carried to the farthest extreme. If any communication was to be made to a mother-in-law, it was invariably made through a third party, generally some member of the family; but it was their unwritten law that under no circumstances should an Indian speak to his mother-in-law. I tried, but unsuc- cessfully, to ascertain why the custom prevailed ; but no one could or would tell me its origin or why it was so persistently adhered to. No one seemed to have suf- ficiont courage to face the ridicule that would follow. I once asked an Indian, "Supposeyour wife was dangerously ill, and your mother-in-law was theonly person present, and it should be necessary to give her instructions on the carrying out of which depended your wife's life, what would you do?" GOOD HAWK, IN PULL CEREMONIAL COSTUME— SIOUX. l-.>.fci.'--..-^,^'i-,t. .YA^k^u'iiir., 144 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. "I'd let my wife die," he replied with a gruut, "before I would speak to my mother-in-law." . . 1 11 ^ SIOUX CAMP — SHIELD ON TRIPOD WITH SCALP HANGING FROM THE CKMEU. When the shield of a warrior was fastened on a tripod outside of his lodge, with a scalp dangling from the center of the shield, it informed all ' ;lil ■II',,:: ■i! ■'"!■':[ in TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 146 comers that the scalp was captured by one of the male members of the lodge. It was a token of no little significance. A visitor could not tickle the vanity of an Indian more than to enter the lodge and make inquiries about this trophy. He would be told in the most graphic manner of the terrible battle with the owner of the scalp, of his desperate character, and of the hair- breadth escape the brave had in killing his victim and securing the prize. Indian ingenuity would be almost exhaasted in describing the different stages of the fight, and the tremendous diflSculty the warrior had in dis- patching so gallant a foe. Nothing pleased the braves more than to be asked all the minor details of the combat, and the imaginary or real battle would be described in glowing colors. I use the word imaginary, for should they by stealth manage to kill a person while asleep they would weave about it a picture of prowess and glory that could not be outdone by Cooper or Longfellow. In treating the sick the Sioux used the stone bath. A large number of round boulders were placed in a pile, eight to ten feet in length, three to four feet in width, and one to two feet in height. On this a fire was kept burn- ing until the stones were thoroughly heated, after which the fire was re- moved, and sticks two or three feet high were bent over the entire pile. Over these sticks were thrown the coverings of lodges, three or four thick- nesses, making the hole thus enclosed almost air-tight. In this the person who was to receive a hot-air bath was placed, lying at full length on the heated stones over which was spread his blanket or buffalo robe. If a steam bath was required water was thrown on the stones while the patient occupied the bath. The suffering of a patient in one of these baths was intense, although the sufferer would never display signs of discomfort. The patient was kept in them from twenty minutes to two hours; when the bath was over, he would sometimes take a plunge into the river or pond, near which the sweat houses were always built. The appearance of the patient as he emerged from the sweat house, after a long bath, was pitiable. He was usually bleached to a deathly color, and presented the appearance of one who had undergone a trying ordeal. Another manner of treating the sick was through the ministrations of the medicine man and his voodooism. He would make wild gesticulations, and do mysterious things that nobody could understand, under pretense of benefiting the afflicted person. When his conjury failed he would endeavor to save bis reputation by claiming that he had notcalled upon the right "med- icine" to effect the cure. Th6 old women resorted to voodooism also. A«ifatilHiBili;A;i»&. . ^tSiSe£'. 146 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. as well as to teas made from herbs, meats, berries, and barks; even portions of rare animals were often administered in efforts to relieve the afflicted. One of the greatest featF known to the Sioux was termed by them "throw- ing himself away," or "pouring himself out," and would be with us called SWEAT HOUSE OF THE SIOUX. "a forlorn hope." When one nation determined to have a pow-wow or a talk with another with whom it was at war, a party of young warriors , would carefully approach and signal the other party. If their signal was not respected, one or two of the warriors were selected to make a dash into the camp or a village of the enemy with whom a talk was desired. All be- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 147 ing in readiness, the warriors would "throw themselves away." Mounted on their best horses, and riding at the top of their speed, they would dash into the camp of the enemy, gesticulating in the sign language that they wanted to talk. If the feeling was not too bitter between them they might be accorded a pow- wow. If the pow-wow was granted they would sit conversing for hours in the sign language. Should their desires not be granted, however, they paid the penalty of their rashness with their lives. If the interview terminated favorably, it portended disaster for some one, as it meant the alliance of the two peoples for the warpath. When Indians allied in this way, the warriors of one vied with those of the other in deeds of bravery and atroc- ity. A war party of this kind was always formidable, and left nothing undone to accomplish the object for which the alliance was formed. When the object of the expedition had been attained, the alliance which had been made with such great effort came to an abrupt end, and it would not be long before the parties were again at war with each other; though there are instances where such alliances were lasting, namely, between the Cheyennes and Arapahoes, Utes and Apaches, Comanches and Kiowas. The Sioux — and all Indians for that matter— were splendid horsemen, using saddles of wood made by them- selves; these were covered with raw- hide sewed with a thong of the same material. After this covering had shrunk and dried on the saddle it was very tight. The stirrups were also made of wood, covered with rawhide, the stirrup straps being short. The bridle consisted of a long lariat or rawhide rope, the noose of which was placed loosely around the animal's neck, thence to and around the lower jaw in MEDICINE MAN MAKING MEDICINE. ■I 148 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 1 two half hitches, and thence to the rider. The long end was left trailing on the ground, the rider using it as a whip when driving the herd. When he desired to strike one uf the herd he could, by a dexterous movement of the forearm, hit an animal a severe blow on any part of the body he wished. All men, women, and children, when riding, carried a quirt. This was TYPICAL INDIAN SADDLE— WARRIOR IN FULL MOURNING. a riding-whip, with a handle of wood from twelve to fifteen inches in length and of convenient size. Through a hole in the end a rawhide thong was passed, in two strands, with a knot in the middle. The lashes were from twelve to eighteen inches in length. At the other end a thong of tanned skin was placed through a hole made in a loop, and passed over the wrist for carrying it. A whip made after this fashion was a severe instrument ; r TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILi: INDIANS. 149 with it, an Indian would take an animal which had been overridden and abandoned by a white man and gat many more miles of travel out of it. The Sioux wore moccasins of two kinds, one kind having soles of flint hide and uppers of buckskin sewed together with sinews; the other was made from one piece of buckskin, the soles and uppers being alike. Mocca- sins were generally ornamented with beadwork of various colors, or porcu- pine quills : moccasins were strong and durable, and well adapted for going over rough ground ; they were also soft, pliable, and comfortable for the weirer in dry weather. The Sioux — men, women and children — frequently wore large ornaments in tbeir ears, which were slit open from the top to the bottom of the lobe, sometimes with an inner cut. From these slits hung pendants of various kinds, often of huge size and length. These consisted of Iroquois shells or beads, and to the end, which hung over the shoulders to the breast, was attached a huge shell, usually mussel or mother-of-pearl. From the inner slit hung rings of brass, copper, or iron. Wristlets and armlets of wire were commonly worn. In the extent, variety, and quality of their handiwork the Sioux were far in advance of any other Indians of the West. Their women were more comely than those of other Indians. This may be partly accounted for by their manner of living. Occupying an immense territory, abounding in all kinds of game, the women were not subjected to the privations and drudgery endured by the women of other nations. A certain sort of communism prevailed among the Sioux. Sometimes several families occupied the same lodge, and the stock of food was common to all. But unlike some others, there was no tribal communism. The Sioux were polygamous, securing their wives, few or many, by pur- chase after the usual Indian fashion. Infidelity was practicably unknown among them, and families lived in harmony in their homes. They possessed more wealth in horses, mules, lodges, robes, skins, arms and wearing ap- parel than any of the savage Indians in the entire West. Wild horses were numerous in their territory, from the herds of which they caught large numl)ers. The Sioux had more ceremonies, dances, feasts and pcistimes, than any other nation of wild people on this Continent. Tiiving in a good climat' they were constantly engaged in some outdoor amusement. Their clothing was well made, and for Indians they were well dressed. Their Indian weapons were of the best. Nearly all of them had the red ji.t..i.iM.-m-^'lflfc it^i"' it'll -iiv^ SMlki'\ iiiiiiiiiiii who entered their country. TA-TO-KAIN-YOU-KA RtJNNINO ANTELOPE- TYPICAL BRULE SIOUX. \ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Ml Singing Bear was chief. He was an able, daring and treacherous leader, and was constantly planning mischief. Under his leadership the Brules comnaitted many serious depredations on the whites. Finally the Government was aroused, and sent an expedition to chastise them. This was under the command of General William S. Harney, United States Army, familiarly known as "Old Harney." BATTLE OP ASH HOLLOW. About the year ISoG-'o? he organized a cam. paignat Foit Leavenworth, Kansas, consisting of about thirteen hundred troops to proceed against the hostiles who had been committing depredations all along the Platte Valley. His force was composed of infantry a.id dragoons, and what is now the First and Second Cavalry was then the First and Second Dragoons. General Harney arrived with his command at Ash Hollow, which is in a valley on Ash Creek, a tributary to tue Platte. Joe Tesson, an old plainsman and mountaineer, was his principal guide. After discovering Indian signs, Tesson made a reconnaissance and reported to Harney that there were large bodies of Indians in the Vicinity. Harney prepared his troops for battle, and marching down the bed of a dry creek, he soon came in front of the Indian camps. Upon seeing the troops the Indians sent forward two of their number for a pow-wow, in order to gain time to enable them to retreat. Harney, knowing Indian character thoroughly, had sent a portion of the dragoons up the valley to cut off all chaiice of escape. The two warriors who had been in conversation with Harney, seeing that their ruse had failed, immediately returned to their people. After deliver- ing a volley, the dragoons charged, scattering the Indians in every direc- tion. Harney promptly ordered the infantry to advance and fire. The latter soon put their opponents to flight. After this it was a running tight between the Indians and Dragoons. The Indian horses being freeb, soon carried their riders out of danger, although the flight extended a distance of about ten miles. In this engagement the red men lost over one hundred killed, and left BRULE SIOUX WITH WAR BON NKT. 162 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. behind them twenty-five wounded. The other wounded were carried oflf by the Indians. About a hun- dred women and children were captured, besides a large num- ber of animals. All their camp equipage and provisions were destroyed by the troops. A large quantity of clothing and other articles of civilization were found in their camps, which had formerly belonged to emigrants, and others, whom they had doubtless slain. Among the animals taken in this fight were a number of horses that had formerly been attached to the artillery, and were captured by the Indians on the occasion of the Grattan massacre, thus showing that the Ogalala and Brule Sioux had been the chief actors in that bloody affair. Among the Indians who lost their lives in this bat- tle was the noted chief, Sing- ing Bear. It was he who led the Indians on this and former occasions. After his death Little Thunder assumed com- mand. He reorganized his warriors and prepared for con- tinued depredations, claiming that his people had not been defeated, but only demoralized by the Jeath of Singing Bear Little Thunder was chief when I knew this tribe, and was an Indian of superior judgment. He was a giant physically, weighing about two hundred and MATOSHISHA— WICKED BKAR— WAR BONNET DECOKATKD WITH SCALPb ON TIPS OF FEATHERS— SIOUX TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 163 seventy- five pounds, and fully six feet six inches tall. After this battle tho Brules recognized the power of the army, and were more inclined to peaceful ways toward the whites. This tribe took part in the massacre of 1R64, killing every person for some three hundred miles along the Overland road. Immediately after the massacre I went over this road. The scenes of destruc- tion, death and desolation were appalling. Travel ceased over this line for the whole season, and it was a long time be- fore the country was again sufficiently quieted for set- tlers to enter that territory in safety. THE OGALALAS. The Ogalalas were also a numerous and warlike tribe. Thr>y claimed as their bunting ground all that territory west of the Brules, to the country of the Mmnecoujoux, and from about the northern boundary of Colorado as far north as the Yellow- stone River. Practically they were plains Indians, as there was but little tim- ber in the country they roamed over. Home of the members of this tribe who lived in the north were very savage. At the trraty at Fort LarrtUiie, Wyotiii ^. Red Cloud said to the officers present, that itwasthn lirnttime that he and mauyof bis warriors were ever under a roof made of shingles. Red Cloud was chief of this tribe, and was very noted among all the Indians and whites of the West. MATO-VEN-MNl- -nOAL ALA— THREE BEARS AN* I) WAR BONNKT— HIOUX. 164 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ' ii' This tribe caused much trouble, and it was necessary for the Qovem- nient to keep a strong military force in their country at all times to keep them quiet. THE BAD FACES. The Bad Face tribe lived within the hunting ground of, aUv. were strong allies of the Ogalalas. Black Curling Smoke was chief of the Bad Faces. When the warriors of these two tribes went on the warpath together they were very formidable. When in battle they were very fierce, as both tried to out do each other. These two tribes wsre so closely allied that they were practically one, there being a sort of communism amoLj them, the warriors of both going on raids and the warpath together, without the ceremony of a big talk to decide on an agreement or understanding. Thay selected wives and husbands from each other as though of the samt tribe. Neither of these tribes knew anything about building or han- dling canoes or the bull-boats. THE YANKTON SIOUX. ; Originally the Yankton Sioux were a powerful tribe. For a long period they occupied what is now portions of Iowa, Minnesota, Dakota and Nebraska as their hunting ground. As their country became set- tled by whites, they grew less and less aggressive toward them. It was a portion of this tribe who were the principal actors in the New Ulm massacre. After that bloody affair their warlike spirit was greatly re- duced. They have long been under civilizing influences, conse- quently are not troublesome. Some of the Yanktons left their tribe, forming themselves into new tribes, moving far away from their original homes; adopting new names by which they were afterward known. YANKTON Hiorx IN THEIR HOMES. _ii«, t^ ft r ';»r: TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. THE MINNECONJOUX TRIBE. 166 The Minneconjoux were another large tribe of the Sioux family. They claimed and occupied as their hunting ground all the territory east of the eastern chain of the Rocky Mountains, and as far east as the country of the Ogalalas, as far south to about the northern boundary of Utah, and as far north as the country of the Uncpapa. Being so far removed from civilization they rarely came in contact with the whites. Consequently they remained in ignorance of the ways of civilization longer than many other of their kmdred tribes. The Minneconjoux were very fierce and savage, retaining all their innate savagery longer than any tribe of the Sioux. When the Bozeman road was opened through their country, they became greatly alarmed, and the warriors of the whole tribe started on the warpath against the whites, attacking troops, travelers, and all who came within their bunting ground. It was not until our Powder River expedition entered their country that they realized the strength of the Government and became reconciled to the advance of civilization. Even after this they constantly attticked the troops, defeating them on several rccasions. Their chief, Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses, was the general who planned and carried out most of the attacks. SPOTTED I)0()— SIOUX. li %■ 166 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. It was not until after the Civil War ended tbat su£Scient troops were sent to subdue these savage people, that this country was safe for miners, pros- pectors, and wagon trains to enter. i ■" 1 1 THE UNCPAPA TRIBE, Another very, fierce, savage, numerous and warlike tribe of the Sioux was the Uncpapa. They had their hunting ground immediately above the Minneconjoux and below that of the Crows. The chief of this tribe was Gall. He was one of the ablest leaders of the entire Sioux nation. The Uncpapa and Minne- conjoux Sioux united in their resistance to the entrance of the whites through their re- spective bunting grounds. Uii«..er the leadership of such able men as Gall and the Man - Afraid - of - his - Horses, the savages of both tribes fought the advance of the whites with great vigor and ferocity, and it was not until after the battle of Little Big Horn that this country was safe for any one to enter who did not belong to either of the tribes mentioned. Both these tribes were almost constantly at war with tlie Utes, their neighborn on the south; the Crowe and Snakes, their northern and northwestern neighbors; their eastern neighbors, the Northern Cheyennes. These two tribes frequently joined in war parties going south to the country of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes to make war upon them. Being almost constantly in battle, they became skilful warriors, and were the dread PI :::'vo'^&. Wt/ i/ •' - -'V ■'■ f :. . i ^ ■ < ,■.! •i i J ^^^^^^^^ ^^^1 ^^J^-- ::-4 BLOODY MOUTH— UNCPAPA SIOUX. nip ssssaasm WBBmss^ssesmmsi TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 167 of the surrounding tribes. They even defeated troops in battle for many years, and it was not until after the battle of Little Big Horn that they were finally subdued. THE KAWS, OR KANSAS. The Kaws, or Kansas, were a part of the Sioux family, and occupied the territory just west of the Missouri River, which is now em- braced in the State of Kansas. In their wild state they lived wholly by the chase. The buffalo was plentiful, and they were able to secure their food without much difSculty. The country occupied was an excellent tract of land and if they had had the inclination could have raised by agriculture a sufficient amount of food for their wants. The Indian's natural aversion to labor prevented this, and they were on the verge of starvation nearly all the time, until the Government came to their relief. Even this furnished them with but scanty supplies of food. They were of small numerical strength, but were treacherous to their weak neighbors, on whom they made war. In their habits and customs little can be said that does not apply to all Indians of that territory. WINNEBAGOES. The Winnebagoes originally lived in territory lying between Green Bay and Lake Winnebago, in the present State of Wisconsin. Though belong- ing to the great Dakota family they allied themselves with the Sacs and Foxes and Pottawattomies, against the Dakotas, and the fierce Huron- Iroquois. They were always a peace-loving people, and were never inclined to make trouble for red man or white, if let alone. They had a fine country, the streams and lakes furnishing an abundance offish. Game was plentiful, and they lived well for Indians; they remained on their lands until the pressure of the white population compelled them to cede them to the Government and move west of the Mississippi. They were again removed to a reservation in Minnesota, where they were assured a "permanent home." Here they made progress, although they became addicted to drunkenness and gambling, both of which vices they learned from the whites. Many of them became discontented and wandered back to their old home in Wisconsin, where they remained. 168 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. When the Sioux massacre broke out in 1863, the Winnebagoes refused to join the hostile Indians, and the Sioux threatened to exterminate them. After the massacre the people of Minnesota demanded that all Indians be removed from the State, and the Winnebagoes were again removed from GROUP OP SIOUX IN CEREMONIAL DRESS. I their homes, at their own expense. They were located in a barren, alkali tract of country in Dakota near the Missouri River, where nothing grew, and they dared not go to hunt for fear of the surrounding hostile tribes. To oscape starvation they built canoes, and the greater portion of them, about two thousand in number, made their way down the river to the Omahas in Nebraska. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 169 iV t. THE PONCAS, This tribe was a part of the Sioux nation. Poncaa came into contact with the white man they were looked upon as be- ing among the most peace- able Indian peoples of the West. Their original home was near a branch of the Red River and Lake Winnipeg. They were after- ward driven west of the Mis- souri River by their old enemy, the Chippewaj-s. The latter again drove them from their new home, and the Poncas joined the Omahas, who became closely allied with them. War was constantly made on these people by the Sioux, Pawnees, Osages, and the Kaws or Kansas. These wars greatly reduced them in numbers, and small-pox and the white man's vices destroyed most of the sur- vivors. The remnant was placed on a reservation near the mouth of the Niobrara River in Nebraska. The Government, failing to carry out the terms of its treaty with them, they were again compelled to go on the hunt, but were forced to return by their old enemies. After this they suffered se- verely from want of food. Afterward they were From thf; first time the I IRON KACE. .'>%^jiiLu;iiMk.ki.;-uk& iJ ^*jmiUkMittfjJ^,:atm^i,. The priocipal rendezvous of the Comanches for a great many years was in the Hueco Mountains, Texas, and in the passes of the Chihuahua Mountains, in Mexico. They were divided into four or five differtnt tribes each under its own chief. The names of the largest or principal tribes were the Yamparack, and the Tenawa. The former roamed over the country east of the Lipans, and ware the fiercest as well as the most numerous tribe of the Comanches. The Comanches were among the fiercest Indians on this continent. For years they committed depredations in Texa^, on the settlers, traders, and others, killing hundreds of men, women and children. During the time the present state of Texas was a Republic the Comanche committed so many depredations against its inhabitants that they or- ganized the Texas Rangers to repel and drive them out of that country. When attacked by these troops they fled across the Rio Grande River into Mexico, knowing that the troops could not enter that country to give them battle. Here they recuperated until ready for another dash into Texas. These raids continued until as late as 1875 or 1876. When committing depredations on the citizens of that Republic, and pur- sued by Mexican troops, they would recross the Rio Grande into Texas, where they felt secure for a time with their plunder. They terrorized the entire country along the Rio Grande from its mouth to its source, and on both sides of it, roving north into the United States for hundreds of miles, and south into Mexico for probably the same distance. To them belongs the discredit of keeping that portion of Texas entirely unsettled until about 1800 or 1867. It was not until after our Civil War that the Government sent troops to Texas, who prevented, to a certain extent, these marauding Indians from continuing their frequent expeditions. The entire country for probably a hundred to a hundred and fifty miles in Texas, parallel with the Rio Grande River, was without grazing herds of domestic animals, solely on account of these depredations. Even after the troops were sent there the Comanches continued their destructive and frequent raids, and for a time effectually prevented the country from being settled. The Comanches, Apaches and Kiowas — stealing as they did so many horses and mules from both Mexicans and Texans — were always well mounted, and consequently in prime fighting condition. Knowing that international law would not permit United States tro' ps to pursue them into Mexico, or Mexican troops to enter the United States, they hovered about the border line and fied across whenever they committed depredations on either side. ■1 i H I I- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 177 For more tban a century the Comanches were at war with the Spaniards living in Mexico. They came near annihilating De Soto's army. The feeling between the two people was so bitter that there was constant warfare between them, the Comanches making expeditions far into Mexico to engage the Spaniards, as well as for booty. The Comanches were at home everywhere, either on the plains, in the mountains, or the timl)er8, thus having great advantage over their adver- saries. Furthermore, the supposed boundary ine between the United States and Mexico was the ^iio Grande River. This river is wide, and in a great many places runs through a low country with sandy soil. When there was a great freshet — this usually occurred every year — the river would suddenly cut a new channel for a long distance, sometimes taking two or three miles of territory that had formerly been in the State of Texas, transferring it to the Republic of Mexico, on the other hand, sometimes transferring portions of Meivico to the United States. This did not tend to weld the bond of friend- ship between the Mexicans living along the river in Mexico, and the Texans living on the other side in Texas. For this reason an intensely bitter feel- ing existed between tlie two peoples; manj' depredations were committed by the Texans on the Mexicans, by which the former grew rich in horses, mules, and other animals, the Mexicans returning the compliment at every opportunity. To add to the disturliance the Mexicans had a daring leader of banditti, in the person of Juan Nipomecina Corvina. This leader held some kind of commission in the Mexican army; although freqeuently ordered to the City of Mexico by the authorities of that Republic, he persistently refused to go, consequently he was not brought to justice. He had a large following, composed of the worst vagalxrads and cutthroats that could be found in that country. Cortina himself grew to be very wealtliy from tliiov- ing, numerous raids, and the natural increase of his animals. He was never seen alone, always having with him an armed escort of his renegades. To him and his party must be credited tue killing of a great many people, the destruction of much property, as well as the loss of many animals along the Rio Grande at that time. Nearly everybody in the northern portion of Mexico was either in his employ, or terrorized by bim or his band. All raids and depredations committed by them were laid at the door of the Comanche and Apache Indians. Consequently they were some- times charged with outrages of which they were innocent. Still, they 178 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. were bad enough, and if not guilty of all the crimes attributed to them it was only because they lacked the opportunity. r It was not until about 1871 or 1872 that Colonel Randall S. McKenzie, of the 4th U. S. Cavalry, organized a body of troops at Fort Clark, and fol- lowed these Indians across the Kio Grande into Mexico, where he gave them their first chastisement. After some hard marching he reached their head- quarters, surprised and defeated them, securing a large number of stolen animals, and returned to Fort Clark with them. Before this the government of Mexico had been pressed by the authorities at Washington, who demanded that measures be taken to stop the raids of the Comanches, and their whilom allies, the Apaches. The governor of the State of Chihuahua at that time was Don Louis Tarasas. He directed a body of about a hundred cavalry to be made up from volunteer Mexican rancheros, to show the United States authorities that an effort was being made to check these raids. Captain Tarasas, a brother of the governor, was placed in command. The troops crossed the Rio Grande, between El Paso and Los Crucas, trailing the Indians to the Sierra Blanca Mountains, where a battle was fought, the Indians defeating the Mexicans, who returned to their homes. This was the last effort made ou the part of the Mexican Government toward suppressing these Indians. In tho summer of 1807, the allied bauds of Comanches and Apaches attacked the garrison at Fort Lancaster, situated ou Live Oak Creek, near its confluence with the Pecos River. This fort consisted of corrals, officers' quarters', storehouses, barracks for the troops, etc. ; all were built of sun- dried bricks called adobe. The troops and civilians garrisoned at this point numbered f'-om a hundred to a hundred and twenty-five. The troops belonged to xhe regular army, and were well armed and equipped. The Indians captured the animals belonging to the garrison, and actually lassoed and carried away some of the tnx)ps who were guarding the herds. The bodies of the men were found where they had been left after having been killed and mutilated by the Indians. About this time Ben Ficklin established tho first mail line from San Antonio to El Paso, a distance of about seven hundred miles. The Indians gave this line a great deal of trouble. When it was first est^blislied the mail was carried across the country in a Concord buggy, drawn by two horses or mules; a driver and guard made up the outfit. Once when one of the buggies was traveling between El Muerto and Eagle Springs, a Comanche jumped from behind some rocks after the buggy had passed, ran after the vehicle, and thrust bis lance through tho bodies of the unsuspecting driver and guard. I mention this instance to show the audacity of this ^ \ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 179 treacherous people. They were responsible for more loss of life and prop- erty, were more ferocious and cruel to the inhabitants of Texas than any Indians within its borders. It vas by no means uncommon for them to at- tack travelers and wagon trains of freight while making the overland jour- ne}', and destroy them. In those days freight trains consisted of prairie schooners (wagons), each capable of transporting seven or eight tons of freight. Two • .:.."' ■ • mules were hitched to the pole of the wagon, and then four abreast until the entire team was made up, which some- times consisted of fourteen, eighteen, and occasionally twenty - two animals. The number of wagons that made up a train varied from eight to tweuty-five. It can readily be seen what a rich haul the Indians made in capturing one of these large overland outfits, as well as the great loss the owners sustained by its destruction. At this time the only means of transporting gold and silver coin and bullion from Mexico into the United States was by wagon trains. The gold and silver was placed in boxes of convenient size, and shipped from Chihuahua, Mexico, to San Antonio, Texas, a distance, probably, of one thou.Haiid nnles, retpiiriug from thirty-five to sixty days to make the journey. The route was through a country almost uninhabited except by the Indiana. The trains carried great quantities of coin, sometimes amounting to several hundred thousand dollars. One Avould naturally suppose that such a large sum of money, with the animals and eijuipment belonging to the train, would 1)6 a tempting prize for the Comanches, for the wagon trains passed directly through their country. Strange to say, they did not, to my knowl- COMANCHE WOMAN. ■■.^it -^..-..a,^^ 180 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. edge, attack a train that carried a large amount of money. Whether this was the result of accident or design I do not know. At Howard's Wells the Comanches and ^heir allies attacked a wagon train loaded with stores, while in corral there, killing all the trainmen and securing the animals. After taking what stores they could carry away, they burned the rest, including the wagons. One of the men, who was badly wounded and left for dead, fell under a wagon which was loaded with salt. The hot salt fell upon, and burned him in a frightful manner, adding intense agony to his sufferings until death relieved him. I arrived there shortly afterward, and was much impressed by the destruction of this ill- fated train and the massacre of the entire party. I mention the fact of the Indians attacking this train while in corral, be- cause it was unusual for them to attack a wagon. train while in this fortified position, the trainmen having a better opportunity to protect themselves by using the wagons for breastworks. The usual manner of attacking a wagon train was to do so when it was on the move ; then it was extended over the road for a long distance, each wagon with its team measuring prob- ably a hundred feet, and a train of twenty-five wagons extending over the road not less than half a mile. The wily savages would conceal themselves behind bushes and rocks along the route in advance of the slowly moving train; at a given signal they would attack each wagon separately, making the whole train an easy prey. When a train was in corral and was attacked by Indians, the assault was usually made to secure the animals. When these were quietly grazing at a distance from the train the Indians would suddenly rush upon them with frightful yells, flaping their blankets, stampeding the terrified animals. To prevent this, when a train was in corral the mules were usually side- lined or hobbled. Side-lining is tbe fastening of the hind and forefoot on the same side of the animal together; side-lines had a chain between the feet to prevent the Indians from cutting them and releasing the animals. In addition to this a bell-mare usually accompanied the train. This maro was gray or w' ite, with a bell around her neck. She was securely held by one of the herdsmen, and it was diflBcult to separate mules from a bell-mare. In tijis manner the animals were sent from the train in a herd for food and water, being guarded by a number of armed herders. Sometimes, when the Indians were particularly anxious to secure animals, they attacked the herds, killed the herdsmen, removed the side-lines and hobbles, then seizing the bell-mare and as many animals as possible, rapidly made off with them. Hobbling of animals is fastening the two forefeet together by the same means as the side lines, except that the chain between the feet is shorter. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 181 CHAPTER XIX. THE COMANCHES CONTINUED— PUNISHMENT INFLICTED ON THEIR WOMEN- STEALING CONSIDERED A FINE ART. Comanche Home Life — A Nation of Thieves — Polygamy common among them — Miser- able Women — Never known to Marry outside of their own People — What made them unusually Virtuous — Severe Penalty for Unfaithfulness — Slitting the Nose — Self-in- flicted Wounds — Mourning for the Dead — Superstitious Healing of the Sick — Their Medicines — Curing the Bite of a Rattlesnake — Capturing Wild Horses — Killing Wild Turkeys— Their Scanty Clothing— A Filthy and Repulsive People — Feats of Horse- manship—Cutting the Hamstring of a Running Animal — Mothers at Twelve Years of Age— Making up a Party for Plunder and Pillage — Living in Rocks and Caves — Expert Thieves— Stealing cousiJarod a Mark of Honor. What little home life the Co- manches had was congenial. Like the majority of Indians, they were kind to each other. They were polygamous, each family living in a separate habitation. Their lodges were miserable aflPairs made of poles, over which tanned skins or cloth were drawn. They were not advanced in the ruder arts beyond other Indians. For Hupplies they depended more largely on their ability to steal, than on honest efforts of their own. Their c imp effects were few; even these were generally secured by theft. A Comanche woman did not becomethe wife of a Mexican, a white man, or an Indian of another nation, except after capture. Although miserable, dirty and ignorant, the women were chaste, possibly from fear of MOUNTED COMANCHE WOMAN. Ifi2 TWENTY YEARJ^ AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. punishment; for the penalty for infidelity was terribly severe. For unfaith- fulness the offending woman, while being securely held, had a knife inserted in the carti' ^geatthe end of the nose, which was then split to the eyes. The husband forced this wound to be kept open until healed, to prevent its unit- ing. A woman so marked presented a horrible appearance. They had no religion or worship above a rude superstition. They believed in the Great Spirit, but seemed to take no interest whatever in learning how they came here, or in speculating about the future state. They lived only for the present. When mourning for the dead, the Comanches Avere very demonstrative. The period of mourning lasted from three to fifteen days. During this time the family and friends of the dead visited the burial place of the deceased and showed theii grief in various ways. The principal mauifet^tation of sor- row was by slashing their arms, legs and bodies with knives. Som.Gtimes the blood ran down their bodies in streams from head to foot from these self-inflicted wounds. With them the severest wounds indicated the great- est intensity of grief. On the persons of old Comanche women could often be seen great scars of wounds made on these occasions. At mournings the men pmoked to the Great Spirit, to whom they also offered a prayer. The first puff of smoke was to the Great Spirit, the second to the sun, and the third to the earth. During the period of mourning, whenever they ate the first bite was offered to the Great Spirit for the benefit of thvi dead. Then some of the women buried p portion of the remaining food in the earth, that it might be eaten by the spirit of the departed. They had no medicine men, but performed all the ri'.>es of this class them- selves. In addition to their superstitious faith in their ability to heal the sick, they made medicine from roots and herbs for the treatment of bites of venomous insects and reptiles, which were very numerous in their country. They claimed to be able to cure the bite of a rattlesnake, but aside from cutting out the injured part at once, either by the person bitten or by dome one else, then sucking the wound, their medicines were of little avail. They resorted to conjuring, singing weird chants, making all sorts of noises and hideous displays to drive a' ay disease. Childbirth with them, even when the mother was only twelve to fourteen years of age, was a mat- ter of little moment. Sometimes within three or four hours after the first pains of labor the child was born, and the woman was going about as though nothing unusual had occurred. The coimtry inhabited by the Comanches was, after that of the Sioux, the largest, and more abundantly supplied with game, wild horses, fruits, ber- ries, and nuts than that of any other nation of Indians. Their bunting -t;;": ■•< • ;r^' ;Wi!^'r;l^»tKi^!W^as!*lls.?■> S ;.ii.,'/iij£, \, COM AX OH F, LonOES. Twenty Years AnionK Our HoBtllt> In(linn«. Pa(relR3 184 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ground covered the northern portions of the States of Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, and Chihuahua in Mexico, and Texas from the Brazos River on the north to the Rio Grande on the south. Within this vast area wild horses were abundant. Here, also, the buffalo roamed in vast num- bers in winter, besides several kinds of deer, bear, and wild turkeys in great abundance. The latter lived principally on the pecan nut, and were the finest turkej's I have ever seen. The Indians' mode of killing wild turkeys was sinrple and eflfective, though it could hardly be called sportsmanlike. The birds roost night after night in the same tree. After discovering a roost the Indians visited the tree at night, and, with bow and arrow, drop the birds one by one, always shooting the one nearest the ground. The turkeys looking up for the trou- ble, would not fly ro long as they were not disturbed from above. The climate of their territory was warm, and they wore but little cloth- ing. A blanket or robe, belt, and breechcloth were indispensable parts of a man's dress; these they usually had. The portions of their bodies requiring the most protection were the feet and legs, as the ground in this region becomes hot in summer; in many places it is covered with sharp stones, and overgrown with thorny plants and prickly undergrowth. Tlie dress of the women consisted of a blanket or skin, hanging to the knees from a belt around the waist. This, with the foot covering and leggings, made up their apparel. Comanche men or women took but little care of their hair, letting it grow long and hang over the shoulders and backs, never washing it, and it was in consequence filled with vermin. On the whole, the Comtnches presented a repulsive and disgusting appearance. Both sexes tattooed their faces after the style of Indian art. They were fond of painting their bodies, and fre- quently used mud of various colors in this ornamentation, striping their faces, foreheads and cheeks. When paint was abundant, and the Comanche was enabled to indulge his fancy for personal decoration of this kind, he could make himself disgustingly hideous-looking. In cold weather, or during a norther (a cold wind and snowstorm from the north), they wore a buffalo rol)e or blanket over what little clothing they had, squatting around the fire in vain efforts to keep warm. During these cold blasts they were extremely miserable and suffered greatly. The Comanches differed largely from other Indians in characteristics, customs and sports. They were expert and daring horsemen; and practiced riding and racing almost daily when not on the hunt or warpath. Horse's were abundant in their locality, and they were almost a race of Centaurs. The feats of horsemanship performed by them were equal to, if they did not TWENTV YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 185 excel, anything achieved in this line by any other Indian tribe or nation. On foot they were slow in their movements, but when mounted, they seemed to have undergone a complete transformation. The Comanche off his horse seemed out of his element. When on a buffalo hunt the Comanches would ride close to the hind legs of the fleeing animal, and with a knife, cut its hamstring, compelling the helpless animal to fall. The women and children then attacked the pros- trate beast, cutting it up, almost alive. When butchering animals, they drank the warm blood, and when hungry, ate the liver and entrails raw. At best they ate their meat only partly cooked. The meat secured on one of these hunts was cut into strips, dried in the sun for use as occasion required. It was not an uncommon thing for them to eat their horses and mules, or the meat of an animal which had been dead for days. Notwithstanding their low order of intelligence, the men were brave, and were expert in handling their weapons. During battle the horses were kept in continual motion. When in large numbers, they formed themselves into subdivisions, charging the enemy almost simultaneously from every direc- tion, running away with lightning rapidity, and re-forming, charging again and again in the same manner. It required courage and vigilance to with- stand their attacks. Their arms consisted of bow and arrow, lance, shield, and modern firearms. When an important subject was to be considered, every person was invited to the talk, the warriors doing the talking. At these talks the affairs of the tribe were discussed to a conclusion. Comanche females became wives at an early age, and mothers of twelve and fourteen years were common. The women were compelled to do all the drudgery of the camp, and treated cruelly. They looked old and haggard at thirty-five and forty years. A Comanche could have as many wives as he could buy. He could also repudiate them at any time, and take back the property he had paid for them. Should a wife abandon her hus- band, the latter was considered disgraced, and the stain could be wiped out only by his killing some of her relatives. On reaching the age of puberty the names of the children were changed, the diminutive or pet name was dropped, and a name xnore dignified or suit- able to the age of the person adopted. Drunkenness was rare, although they made a strong intoxicating liquor from the mescal, a plant which grows wild in that country and is plentiful. The Comanches were nomadic, rarely remaining more than a week or two in the same place. They frequently lived in caves when in a mountainous or rocky region. The women gathered the mesquit bean, pinon nut, the iiiit>tiiiiiitih{iitiiiipiVrtirri'ii^^ 186 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. I agave and utber fruits that grew wild in that country; these they used for food. During the winter when the buflfalo migrated into their country, everybody, men, women and children, joined in the chase. They were skillful buffalo hunters, and rode fearlessly into a herd, killing the animals in large num- bers with bows and arrows and lances. When in Mexico, they readily sup- plied themselves with an abundance of fresh meat by raiding the flocks of sheep and goats owned by Mexicans, or by stealing cattle. Among them the acquisition of other people's property by theft was con- sidered a mark of distinguished honor. The warrior who returned from a raiding expedition with the greatest amount of plunder was not only re- garded as the most courageous and skillful brave, but was highly respected for his success as a thief. An old Comanche warrior, in speaking of the good qualities of his two sons, capped the climax of praise, by declaring that they understood horse stealing better than any other two young men of the tribe. In their predatory expeditions they feared only one disgrace, that of returning without plunder. Prom infancy they were trained to war. Each warrior kept a war horse, which was chosen for its swiftness. When raiding a settlement they descended upon it with surprising suddenness, vanishing as quickly as they came. At this time the Comanches had more arms than any wild Indians in the Southwest. Their territory was so vast and adjoined that of so many people having modern firearms that they easily secured a liberal supply from their neighbors, both Texans and Mexicans. Their principal difficulty was in securing ammunition. They were governed by a chief whose term of authority depended on gen- eral consent. He was their leader in war, and presided over their councils in peace; but if proven guilty of cowardice or incapacity was at once deposed. The Comanches counted by their fingers, ten being the highest number they were able to grasp; this was used in the same manner that we use our hundred ; thus, two tens, three tens, four tens, and so on. The Comanches were nearly always in friendly relations with the Kiowas on the north, as well as the Lipans and Apaches on the west. All these Indians held the Mexicans in contempt, frequently allying to enter their country and make war on them. When a body of any of these Indians en- tered Mexico, they raided everything in their path, seizing what they could carry away, and destroying what they could not. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 187 CHAPTER XX. THE APACHES— APPALLING RECORD— THEIR STEALTH AND CUNNING. In the Country of the Apaches — Shaving ofif the Nose of a Woman — Horrible Mutila- tions — Apache Depredations — The Ishmaelites of all Men — Their Repulsive and Hideous Appearance — Their Small and Peculiar Feet — Painting Themselves veith Mud— An Unspeakably Dirty People — Swarming with Vermin — Murderous War- riors — Art of Concealing their Persons — How they Made Themselves Resemble a Rock — Looking like a Bunch of Graas — Mistaken for a Bush or Shrub — Their Stealth and Cunning — On the War Path— Return of a War Party — Thievish and Cruel Propensities — An Appalling Record — Driving Out Ten Thousand Settlers — Hiding in the Dense Jungles. The Apaches were the most southerly tribe of the Athabaska nation. It is more than probable that at one time they lived among the other tribes of this family in the far north, and that they were driven by other Indians whose territory they entered, further south to their present locality. They have been so long in the'^r present territory that neither they or any one else can give reliable accounts of having been elsewhere. Their headquarters were in Arizona, anywhere between the Gila Range and the Mogollon Mountains. They were an itinerant people, and in habits, appearance and characteristics closely resembled the Comanches. Their depredations extended as far north as the Wasatch Mountains, and they frequently made raids as far as the Brazos Ri V ^ in Texas. The A paches, with the Comanches, were responsible for the southern por- tions of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona having been so long closed to white settlers. In their raids they destroyed everything in their path. LOOO, CHIEF OF THE WARM SPRING APACHES. 188 TWENTY YEARS AMONO OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. , / J. . secured all the booty they could, attacked villages, settlements, and wagon trains, killing hunters, miners and settlers, capturing their entire belong- ings. If the booty was more than they could carry away the excess was burned. Their habits and home life were of the lowest order. Though polj'gamous they were very rigorous in regard to the fidelity of their wives. Any infrac- tion of this law was punished by shaving off the nose of the offending woman close to the face. A woman thus mutilated presented a revolting appear- ance. But, happily, there were few of them who had undergone such a severe mutilation; this affords convincing evidence that the Apache women were generally faithful. The Apache was distinguished from all other Indians by his thievish pro- pensities. The Comanche was bad enough in this respect, but the Apache could outdo him. He was a born thief, and his education in this respect was never neglected. The Apache would undergo toil and danger to secure, by stealing or raiding, the articles he could have more easily obtained by hunting or working like his northern brothers, the Pueblos. They were the Ishmaeiites of Indians, the inveterate enemy of all men, red or white, except when they allied with the Comanches against a common foe. It was rare to see a pleasing countenance even among their women. They had thick, rusty, black hair, and a mongrel cast of features. Their eyes were sharp and piercing. A notable peculiarity was their remarkably small feet, and the fact that the great toe was widely separated from the others. This was the result of the children wearing sandals made of thick hide, which were fastened to the feet by strong rawhide thongs, the larger thong passing between the great toe and the next. They painted themselves more profusely and hideously than any other Indians, using a great variety of colors in doing this. They sometimes plastered their heads and bodie& with mud, both as a protection against the heat of the sun, and as a preventative against vermin. They often orna- mented their headdresses with deer hoofs, fishbones, shells, beads, and porcu- pine quills. They were good horsemen, and experts in the use of the lasso. At the time I was among them their arms consisted of the bow and arrow, lance, tomahawk, and old-fashioned guns and pistols. When hunting, they covered themselves with skins of various animals, and by imitating their movements, managed to approach the p:ame within shooting distance. They ate ever}- portion of the animal, the entrails being considered the daintiest part. Usually they half-cooked their meat, but sometimes it was eaten raw. Although they were gluttons of the most pro- ' V TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 189 nouncetl type, and could consume an enormous quantity of food at a time, they (.ould also, if occasion required, go without eating for an incredibly long time. They were unspeakably dirty, both in person and habit. They had a natural antipathy to water as a means of cleansing themselves; their lodges reeked with filth and swarmed with vermin. Ofifal, as well as the remains of dead animals, was allowed to remain in and about their camps until the odors became almost unbearable. Their fighting was invariably of a murderous character. They rarely attacked an enemy unless success seemed certain. They would lie patiently in ambush for days to surprise an enemy, and at the first opportunity sneak upon him under the cover of night. They were trained from youth to theft, murder, and cruelty, and practiced these at every opportimity. The Apache was an adept in the art of concealing his person. He some- times covered himself with a blanket, or sprinkled earth on his body, then placing himself among the rocks and boulders, remain as silent and immov- able as hi? surroundings, so that an inexperienced person often passed within a few yards of him without detecting his presence. Again, he cov- ered himsei* with grass, and lying on the ground, would so closely resem- ble a shrub or bnsh as to be easily mistaken for either. When once they entered on the warpath they fought with deadly feroc- ity. They traversed a large extent of territory, knew every portion of it, and utilized all the strategical advantages of the situation. When ap- proaching a settlement, village, or intended victims, they swept upon them with the fury of a cyclone, securing all the animals and plunder they could carry away, after deliberately killing all who were so unfortunate as to be within their reach, then mutilating the bodies of the victims in every fiendish manner, leaving them in the heat of the almost tropical sun to rot, or be eaten by wild animals. Ibave seen the bodies of women and children who had been killed by these diabolical wretches, mangled in the most horrible manner ; and have taken as many as fifteen arrows from the body of one of the victims. These bloodthirsty wretches killed people merely for the sake of killing. This did not, as a rule, extend to their captives from Mexico ; but the latter would have preferred death rather than suffer what they did at the hands of these miscreants. Before entering on a marauding expedition the families of the warriors were concealed in some of the most inaccessible of the mountain fastnesses, the paths to which were known only to themselves. When they returned laden with booty and elated by victory, a period of feasting and rejoicing followed ; but if they returned empty-handed they were met by the women 190 .TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. v'ith reproaches and jeers. When pursued too closely they killed the cap- tives, and even the horses and cattle that they had stolen rather than allow them to fall into other hands. If one Apache killed another he was not punished for it by th'. tribe, but the nearest relatives of the dead man might kill the murderer. When a cjirl arrived at a marriageable age the event was celebrated with feasting and dancing, durfug which time the girl was isolated in a lodge; at the cojolvsion of *^he ceremony she was divesttnl of her eyebrows. A ir.arr'lage whs soi.netimes celebrated with a feast of horseflesh. The warriors considered it beneath their dignity to ' do anything but hunt and fight. The women were even compelled to saddle the liorses for the braves whea going on a chase or raid. As far back as 1702 the Mexican Government Re- ports state that the Apachts alone had de- stroyed and depopulated one hundred and seventy- four towns and stations. It has been estimated that the Apaches killed or drove out of the country in recent years, more than ten thousand settlers. TLe Jesuits in the early days built missions all through the northern and central portioi'b of Texas as well as New Mexico and the northern portion of Arizona, some of which are at present standing, although in a dilapidated condition. ^'; Jesuits were never able to establish a mis- sion successtully amonij the Apaches, nor did their teachings have any effect upon them. After the acipiisition of the territory they roamed over the government of the United States with its liai/dfnl of trcnps undertook to exeniso supervision over them; but the Indians were so refractory that nothing could be done. While the government did not abandon its project or efforts, it made TYPU'AI, AI ACHE WARRIOR. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 191 no progress in subduing them. Some portions of their country were over- grown with chaparral as well as various kinds of undergrowth, such as cat- claw bushes and other thorny plants. These grew so dense in places that not a blade of grass grew under them. These spots were the hiding places of the Apaches after their raids. It was iniposai ble to penetrate these jungles without the aid of a sharp instrument, on account of the interminable entanglement of the undergrowth. The Apaches wore shoes made of flint hide that successfully resisted the sharpest thorns or cat-claws, and served also as a protection against the bite of the black aut, the scorpion, the cei tipede, the wingless bumblebee, the chigoe, popularly called "chigger" or "./*W/ Vi m o e^ ^'j:^ ^''W Oyf Photographic Sciences Corporation 13 WIST MAIN STRUT WIBSTIR.N.Y MSIO (7U) •72.4S03 202 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. M able to learn, for they believed in the Great Creator and were sun worshipers after their own fashion. Of all the Indians in the great West none were more difficult to under- stand. Everything they did, or attempted to do, of a personal nature was kept a secret among themselves. They would not permit an outsider to learn anything about their personal characteristics if they could prevent it. A Ute would not even tell his name or that of any member of his family, neither would he permit any one else to do so, nor would he mention the price put on one of his daughters when she was to become the wife of one of the tribe. It was known to the father and intended husband only. Everything a Ute did seemed to be obscured in mystery; for that reason less was known of them than of any other Indians in the West. They had one peculiarity which was unlike any other nation or tribe, namely, the great secrecy they observed in their funeral ceremonies; for no white person, so far as I know, has ever seen the funeral of a Ute, or the grave or burial of one of their dead. When one of them died the corpse vanished. Whether they themselves generally knew the resting place of the dead is difficult to decide. It was generally believed by those who knew most about them, and closely observed their ways, that the bodies of the dead were removed during the night and secretly buried in a cave or in the ground, though this is merely surmise. At any rate, they secretly got rid of the bodies in some way. It is my opinion that they buried them deep in holes in the eart!i during the night, and so carefully covered them after interment as to leave no trace of the burial spot. There was no mourning after the body was removed from the family lodge. They would neither talk of the dead or mention their names, and, unlike other Indians, if they knew the burial place would not go near it. Secrecy and a desire to obliter- ate all remembrance of the departed as quickly as possible were marked characteristics. At the death of the head of a family, the survivors destroyed almost everything belonging to the deceased. This is one reason why they were so miserably poor. The lodge covering was cut into shrods, and every article owned by the dead was so distributed as to scarcely leave a vestige of its former owner. They would burn articles of great value to them, that ?> .^. UTE STONE KNU'K. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 203 had once belonged to the deceased, and sometimeB the entire camp moved. The Utes were never visited by small-pox, cholera, or other dread diseases. Had aa epidemic made an appearance in one of their camps it would have ITK (AMI* I.OS I'INOH. Beprodiicpd by permission of C. A. Nichols & Co. " Land and Coiintry." annihilated them, owing to their filthy habits as well as lack of mennB or knowledge of combating disease. In the treatment of the sick and afflicted they had little if any skill. They administered a few herbs and teas, and their medicine men, in their eflforts to perform a cure, went through the usual mystifying process, the meaning 3U4 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. of whioh was known only to themselves. They did not even have the sweat- baths so common to the . oux. The women, in giving uirth to children, did so in their characteristically stealthy manner; frequently nothing was known among the tribe of the new arrival until after the child was sorr.e weeks old. Like all other nomadic people, they were compelled to move frequently to obtain subsistence for their animals and themselves. When camp was to be moved the women, after usual Indian fashion, did all the work, taking down the lodges and packing the effects on the animals; when the latter were in- sufficient, the women themselves became beasts of burden. The women were homely and repulsive in appearance, and wore only the scantiest clothing, consisting of a covering hung over a belt around the waist extending to the knees. They made winter clothing from skins of dogs and wolves, as well as the rabbit and other small animals. Children of both seres were almost always naked during the warm months. The men wore their hair long and sometimes braided in queues; the women cut theirs just above the shoulders. Neither sex took much care of it. Nor did they paint themselves like other Indians. The men wore the customary broechcloth and a pair of moccasins, which, with a robe of buffalo or of some other animal, constituted their dress for winter. The Utes at this time lived wholly by the chase, although large game was not abundant in their territory. They were frequently compelled to live on rabbits and such other small game as they could secure in their im- mediate vicinity. The scarcity of large game in their co(mtry compelled the absence of the men almost constantly on hunting or war parties. If small game was lacking, they ate their horses and dogs. Tn times of great scarcity, rats, mice, crickets, snakes, roots and buds served them as food. Their arms consisted of the bow and arrow, lance, and modern firearms. At an early day they had a few flint-lock guns and pistols; these they ob- tained from white people, and were greatly prized by them. But when sur- prised, or compelled to abandon any portion of their etjuipment, they always discarded the firearms, clinging to their primitive weapons. Unlike the Indians east of the Rocky Mountains, the Utes did notall have the large re(] pipe. When smoking became more common among them they used larL'e cigarettes, made b)' rolling their smoking material in paper, the leaf of a tree, or the inner bark of the red willow. They were too miserably poor to indulge in smoking except at long intervals, or upon special occa- sions. They usually avoided war with the whites, but occasionally some of their bands plundered emigrant trains and killed overland travelers passing over TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 205 the route in the vicinity. As they were divided into so many tribes, which were constantly breaking up and interminr ling with others, it was almost impossible to enter into treaties with them. They would so change and shift from one to another that no sooner would a treaty be concluded with one tribe than one-half of it joined with others that were hostile. The Pah-Ute tribe numbered about six hundred, and inhabited the country which is now the northern portion of Nevada. They were nomadic in su'-u- mer, and lived in houses made of rushes, during the winter. UTB FAJnLY— MAN AND THREE WIVES. (From a very old photop-aph.) Some of the tribes refused to join the Mormons fighting against the Gov- ernment during the Mormon war. This created bad feeling between the two peoples. There was also considerable trouble and fighting between the Utes and miners in that region. Winnenuira defeated Major Ormsby on Truckee River in a well-contested battle. Subsequently some of the tribes ceded their lands to the Government, agreeing to go on reservations, but a bad spirit soon manifested itself among the Indians. The Pah-Utes, under their chief. Black Hawk, committed many depredations, and for several years kept his people in constant war. The chief of the Sampiche tribe was accused of aiding Black Hawk; after his arrest by the troops he attempted escape, but was killed. ». *tiim urn TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Some time after this, Colonel Alexander defeated Onkotaab, chief of the Mohache, killing many of his warriors. A treaty was then concluded between the Government and the chiefs of a number of Ute tribes, whereby a tract of territory was set apart for the Indians. It was stipulated by the treaty that no outsiders should be permitted to settle upon the lands. For ^ ten years succeeding the treaty, the tribe increased in numbers and wealth, and were as peaceable as couid be expected. But the invasion of the territory followed, when hostilities again broke out between the red and white men. The agent and a num- ber of his employees were killed at White River Agen- cy; the buildings burned, the women and children seized and carried off. Troops were called oT't and the war that followed was very costly, as well as san- guinary, as the Utes in all its many branches joined, making common cause against the whites. The Pi- Utes tribe in- habited the southeastern por- tion of what is now Nevada. They had their habitations far away from the Overland road, and did not come in contact with or molest the whites. They were miserable beings, and of about the same standard as their cousins, tlie Kanuocks. All of the Ute tribes bore the indelible mark, and spoke the language of the Shoshonee nation ; the Utes were probably the best specimens of any tribe of this family. The Utes in all their branches constituted one group, but was made up of confederated tribes; of their characteristics and customs all that applies to the Utes in general cover the other tribes. PI UTK HABITATION. I Mini ■■ - "■- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ao7 CHAPTER XXIII. THE SNAKES AND ROOT DIGGERS -INTERESTING AND PECULIAR TRIBE- LOAFERS AND GAMBLERS. The Snakes a Part of the Shoshonee Nation — An Interesting Tribe — Their Hunting Ground — Afflicted with Goitre — Necks Larger than their Heads — Their Great Enmity with the Cheyennes, Blackfeet and Sioux — A Crafty, Treacherous Tribe — Their Fiendish Cruelty to Prisoners — How they Secured Firearms — Manner of Wearing their Hair — Their Poverty — Securing Wild Horses — Their Expertness as Boatmen — Description of a Bull-Boat — Ingenuity of the Snakes — Manner of Catch- ing Fish — Lazy Fishermen — Their Expertness in the Use of the Sign Language — Communication by Means of Horses, Fire, and Smoke — The Bannocks, or Boot Diggers — A Miserable People — Loafers ani Gamblers. The Snakes were a tribe of the great Shoshonee nation. There being no other tribe of that family in the immediate vicinity, the early trappers and frontiersmen called them Shoshonees, believing them to ba all there were of this peculiar people. Lieutenants Lewis and Clark also labored under the same mistake. The Snakes occupied the territory in and around the Snake River Valley, and their hunting ground extended eastward to the footol the Bitter Root Mountains, and as far south as the Ute country. Living so far north they were subject to the rigors of severe winters, and knew how to fortify themselves against bitter cold. It was among this tribe that Jim Baker, a famous scout and frontiers- man, lived the Indian life for many years, married into the tribe, and had many children by his numerous Snake wives. Whether his influence, which was great among them, modified their wild life, is an open question, though I am strongly inclined to believe that it did to some extent. The water in the country occupied by the Snakes was supplied by moun- tain gorges which were filled with snow and ice. Many of the men suffered from goitre — an enlargement of the neck — from drinking snow water. It was not uncommon to see a Snake Indian with his neck as large around as his head. Their country was well v/ooded with various kinds of trees which furnished ample fuel and afforded some protection against storms. To protect them- selves against the cold the Snakes often camped near a beaver dam where 208 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. these little animals had cut down trees, and from the fallen timber they made corrals for their animals, and fortifications to protect themselves against wintry blasts. TYPICAL 8NAKK INDIAN. The Snakes did not differ materially from other Shoshonee tribes. They were cruel, treacherous, crafty, and thievish, and were continually at war with their neij^hborg. but were particularlv aepfres^ive toward the Crows Uj.d.1 .l,.lifjJ&. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 209 northern Cheyennes, Sioux, and Blackfeet. As warriors, they were exceed- ingly brave. They treated captives with great brutality, often killing male prisoners after subjecting them to pitiless and prolonged torture. Female captives were turned over to the women, who took delight in torturing them with fiendish ingenuity. Children captives were frequently adopted into the tribe, the girls eventually becoming the wives of a Snake, and the boys were brought up as warriors. The more scalps a Snake warrior had to his credit the greater was he hon- ored by his people. They often ate the flesh of a brave enemy, in the belief that the valor of the slain would be imparted to them. They were skillful in evading pursuit, both when mounted and on foot; and would scatter in all directions, making it impossible to follow so many trails; or if near a shallow stream they would travel in it for miles; in this way leave no trail to follow. A favorite method of attacking was at night. When approaching by stealth, under cover of darkness, they always endeavored to take the party by surprise, causing a stampede of their animals and creating a panic. Their weapons were few, consisting of the usual bow and arrow, lance, and toma- hawk. Later they obtained firearms from the traders ; but were generally too poor to secure effective weapons, as they had nothing to exchange for them. Their principal means of supply was from their greatest enemy, the Blackfeet. "When victorious in battle with them they secured the arms belonging to the beaten tribe. Their great difficulty however, was in pro- curing ammunition, for this was not plentiful in their country ; consequently they were nearly always compelled to use their primitive equipment. The Snakes wore their hair long and allowed it to flow loosely over the shoulders. They sometimes cut it straight across the forehead, giving the face the appearance of being in a black frame. In habits they were filthy, taking no care whatever of their person, and their hair and bodies swarmed with vermin. They were fond of ornament, adorning themselves in fan- tastic ways, when they could get material for the purpose; but being miser- ably poor they had little indulgence in this direction. With them it was an open fight for existence at all times; they were more concerned in secur- ing a livelihood than in ornamenting their clothing and bodies. They lived in lodges, were nomadic, and constantly on the move to secure game for themselves and food for their animals. They secured horses from the many wild herds that ranged over their ter- ritory. These animals were small and when put to the hard work imposed by the Indians proved of little value. Both men and women were expert workers iu making the birch-bark 210 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. =11 canoe, as well as the bull-boat. A bull-boat was made by fastening to- gether boat knees made of young, tough trees. The framework was made very strong, and braced throughout in the center. Over this was stretched a sufficient number of raw hides of buffalo bulls to cover the entire frame. The hides were sewed together with thongs, and when thoroughly wet were stretched on the frames as taut as possible and left in the sun to dry. The seams and holes were covered with strips of rawhide, sewed on with sinew and faste^^d by glue made from the hoofs, horns, and hides of the animal. They :ide a very tight, snug, and serviceable craft. Bull- boats were of invaluable service in crossing the many rivers that traverse that country. It is my belief that the Snakes showed Lieutenants Lewis and Clark how to make bull-boats, for they were afterwards in common use by the troops and others in crossing swollen and large rivers. Bull-boats can be made almost any size. Some of them were large enough to carry a team of horses or mules, vv^ith a loaded army wagon, across a river in safety. They were very buoyant, but it required a good boatman to handle them. The Snakes were a hardy and healthy race, and associated or allied them- selves with no other Indians. They, unlike the majority of Indians, made some provision for future needs. During the summer they killed a sufficient amount of buffalo and smaller game, and jerked the meat for use during the winter. They also made jackets for themselves from the hides of the elk, moose, or bear, to protect them against the extreme cold. Their handiwork was not t,o ornamental as useful, although they made pretty work with Iroquois shells. The men were expert in the management of horses, treating them and other animals with more kindness than some of the Indians farther south. A favorite method of catching fish was to wait for the water of swollen rivers to recede, when the Indians threw out with their hands fish that had become land-locked. The majority of Indians in the West did not eat fish. The Indian so often represented floating down a stream in his canoe, with spear in hand, spearing fish, may look well in a picture, but such scenes were never witnessed among the wild Indians of the West. In their home life the Snakes were kind. The male was master of his entire household, but universally considerate to all. Women were not re- quired to do all the work, there being a tacit agreement that the men should assist in work of a heavy nature, and caring for the live stock was a part of their daily labor. The Snakes were surrounded on every side by Indians of other nations speaking different languages; when they wished to converse with them it was necessary to do so in the sign language. Consequently, they were more TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 211 expert in tbe use of this language than any other Indians in the far north. They were not only skilled in the sign language of the hands, but could readily communicate by the movements of the horse, or by means of fire and smoke. Their oral language was identical with that of the Sboshonee family, but they had a dialect of their own, which differed materially from that of many other tribes of this nation; so much so, that they could not converse orally with many of their kindred tribes, but were compelled to use the sign language. The Snakes were polygamous ; they had little or no religious belief, but few ceremonies or pastimes, and were contented to live a miserable life with the least possible exertion. THE BANNOCKS, OR ROOT DIGGERS. The Bannocks were a part of the Shoshonee family. Their language was originally that of the Shoshone, but they spoke a dialect of their own. The principal hunting ground of the Bannocks, or Root Diggers, was to the west of the Bitter Root Mountains and south of the Coeur d'Alene River. They acquired tbe name of Root Diggers from the fact that they subsisted largely on roots, which the women ''ugfrom the ground. In the early morn- ing the women, armed with pointea sticks or other sharp implements, went to the mountains, remaining all day, digging enough roots for the family needs, while the men loafed about the lodges in idleness, or engaged in gam- bling. The wild potato grew in their country, as well as various kinds of berries and fruits; these, in addition to small game, made up their daily food. They were a poo", miserable, treacherous, half-starved lot. For their winter habitations they made a hole in the ground large enough to accommodate their families, with an opening at the top to let out the smoke. Some of their habitations were only half dug out, being built partly under and partly above ground; the part above was thatched with rushes and grass. The entrance at the side was large enough to admit the body. In summer they made rude lodges by drawing the tops of bushes together, over which they thiew skins or grass to protect them from the sun. These were only loafing places for the men, while the women were away procuring roots for food. In treating the sick roots and teas were used, also the same kind of a sweat house used by the Sioux. Sweat houses were to be seen all through their territory. 21-2 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The Bannocks were not a warlike people, having onh' a few arms or imple- ments of war. In general intelligence they were only a shade abovr. their cousins, the Diggers. The men careJ for nothing as long as they had enough to eat and a place where they could loaf and gamble. BANNOCK FAMILY AT HOME— MAN WITH THREE WIVES. They were never a numerous tribe, and all their surrounding neighbors held them in much contempt, never molesting them — being so miserably poor and filthy, no one went near them. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 213 CHAPTER XXIV. THE Digger Indians— outcasts of other tribes— the lowest of the LOW. How the Diggers Acquired their Name — A Conglomerate Lot — Living on Roots and Burrow- ing in Holes — The Lowest in Intelligence and most Degraded of all Indians — Only one Remove from Apes— Their Repulsive Appearance — Extraordinary Voracity — Sur- rounding the Carcass of a Horse— Leaving Nothing but its Bones— Selling their Children to Obtain Food — Living together in Herds — Below the Level of Beasts — Going Entirely Naked in Summer— Living on Insects and Reptiles— The Personifi- cation of all that is Low and Vile— Their Filthy Lodges— Living in Caves— A Tribe of Vermin Eaters — Their Gaunt, Half -Famished Dogs — Ignorance of the Sign Lan- guage — Marriage Unknown among Them — Eating Raw Fish — Ostracized by Every One — How a Sick Digger was Taken Care of —His Fate after Death. In stature and bearing the Digger Indians strongly resembled members of the great Sboshonee family. The name Digger was applied to them from their habit of digging in the ground for edible roots, and burrowing in holes for their habitations. The term has been somewhat indiscriniinately used in describing the Indians of California, Nevada, Utah, and the contiguous country. The true Digger Indians lived in the northeastern part of what is now the State of Nevada. It is my opinion that the Diggers were not tribes at all, but were the out- casts of different tribes of the Shoshonees; that when individual Snakes, Utes, Bannocks, and others became so low as to be unfit to remain in their respective tribes they were forced out, finally coming together as a conglom- erate band formed from the outcasts of various tribes. At best their life was but little above that of the ape family, and it is therefore very difficult to establish for them an individuality at all satisfac- tory. The Diggers were divided into two parts, which, for want of a better name, I shall call tribes. One of these tribes, numbering about five hun- dred, occupied the country about the confluence of the north and south forks of the Humboldt River. The other tribe, numbering about six hundred, lived farther west along this river. v . In personal appearance the Diggers were the most repulsive of all Indians. 1 314 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Their hair was long, reaching to the waist, and in coarseness resembled the tail of ahorse or mule. Their faces were as devoid of intellectual expression as if they were the lower animals ; indeed, one could not but notice a strong similarity to wild beasts in their appearance and actions. Their voracity when they could procure a supply of food was almost in- credible. Five or six of them would sit around the carcass of a horse or mule and remain there until nothing but the bones were left. Unlike their Indian neighbors, they stole horses and mules, not to ride but to slaughter for food, and they have even been known to sell their children in order to in- crease their scanty food supplies. Of their home life nothing can be said, for they had no home life, even in the lowest sense. In some respects they seemed below the level of beasts. They sometimes went entirely naked, and their clothing at all times was of the scantiest. They lived or rather herded together without distinction of sex or regard to family relations; decency being wholly unknown to them. They were as low morally as they were poor in worldly goods. Mi^rriage was practically unknown among them; they lived together promiscuously. At times some of them lived together as families, but there was nothing binding in the arrangement, and members of the family could leave when they chose. In winter they suffered greatly from the bitter cold of their climate, and they lived, the Great Creator only knows how. They had no arms, or horses, and were too lazy or too ignorant to hunt. They lived on what little meat thsy could procure, and on anything that grew wild in the territory they roamed over. Sometimes hunger compelled them to eat grasshoppers and crickets in order to save themselves from starving. They were ilso clay-eaters. Altogether they were the most ir lerable people I have ever seen. There was not an article in all their belongings that another Indian, no matter how poor, would have. They were never engaged in war either among themselves, the white, or red men. It has been said that there is not a thing on earth that has not been placed here by the wisdom of our Great Creator, for some beneficent purpose, yet I could never understand why Digger Indians were placed on earth, nor what they were good for. One of the greatest insults that could bb offered to a white man or to an Indian of another tribe or nation, was to compare him to a Digger Indian, as they were acknowledged by all, to be the personification of everything that was ignorant and vile. Thoir lodges, when they had any, were small, dirtj', open affairs, and the stench coming from them was enough to cause the strongest stomach to revolt. In summer, when lying indolently on the ground, naked, or almost so, the k TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 215 men compelled the women to draw the bushes over them for shelter, or, if there were v bushes, to piie up stones or sticks in such a manner that a skin or blanket could be thrown over the top to protect the lazy occupants from the heat of the sun. In winter they lived in caves, or in holes in the ground, in which numbers dwelt at a time without the slightest regard for decency. These habitations were rarely visited jy white men. They reeked with filth and swarmed with vermin which the Diggers picked from each other's bodies and heads and ate with avidity. They would surround the carcass of an animal which had been dead long enough to putrefy, and eat it, sometimes raw. The small amount of food that these miserable, half-starved creatures subsisted upon was surprising. Notwithstanding all chis, their bodies did not show evil effects from lack of food, or the poor quality of the little they had. Their dogs, which were few, were half-coyote or gray wolf, and, like their owners, were half-famished, their bones nlmost sticking through their hides. Their gaunt bodies and fierce eyes presented a horrible appearance. The Diggers were about the only people of Indian origin who did not un- derstand the use of the sign language. They had a dialect which was under- stood by all bearing their name. It was difScult for a white man to ac- quire it. In summer they lived principally on what fish they could catch in the streams. These were secured by the women, in small quantities, with a scoop net, made from grasses, fastened to a hoop, attached to a pole. The fish were eaten raw, or if they attempted to cook them they were not more than half done. They also ate frogs, toads, snakes, and insects of all kinds. The Diggers were so low that none of their surrounding neighbors ever went to war, or had any dealings with them. So repulsive were their women that no person other than their own people ever went near them. In comparison to other Indians, the Diggers were as low as the commonest tramp is to decent, well-ordered society among civilized people. It is im- possible to conceive of anything in the semblance of humanit}' presenting a more degraded appearance. A tramp will migrate from place to place, while a Digger would lie stretched at full length on the ground, in all kinds of weather, Um lazy to stir, and scarcely traveled a mile in a weak. The Digger was too ignorant and lazy to be vicious, which was the only redeeming quality about him. He did not molest anybody, and no one molested him. When one of them was taken sick some of the old women might possibly take compaHsion on the sufferer and attempt to relieve, or make him more comfortable. Generally, however, the patient was lef« to shift for himself as best he could until be ^:A mmmm& Mmmm a. :., ^ '■■'^jiiit'aii liii Hiliiilli 216 TWENTY YEARS AMON(i OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. recovered or died. After death the body was dragged a short distance away and left to be devoured by their half-starved dogs or wild animals. Their amusements or pastimes were very limited, for their possessions were so few they had nothing to gamble with or stake on a game of chance. They did not indulge in any of the usual Indian dances or outdoor sports, such as running, jumping, ball-playing, or kindred amusements. At one time they had a head man or chief, Yellow Hand. He exercised some little control over them, but as they were so indolent his power was merely in name; though when they stole from the whites, he often caused the return of stolen articles. ' TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUl. HOSTILE INDIANS. 217 CHAPTER XXV. THE BLACKFEET— THE SMALL-POX EPIDEMIC— APPALLING SCENES OF DEATH AND DESOLATION— A CAMP OF HUMAN BONES AND DESERTED LODGES. The Blackfeet Indians — How they got their Name — Their Country — The Neighbors with whom they were at War — TJie Piegaus, Bloods, and Gros Ventres of tlie Prairie — Their Standing Grudge against the American Fur Comixinies — Trapping under Difticulties — How Trappers Protected themselves against the Indians — Unwritten I^aws of the Blackfeet — Their Superstition against Fish — Their Religious Beliefs and Burial Ceremonies — Flight of the Spirit — Manner of '^ eding the Spirit — The Dual Spirit — Carrying out Dreams — The Small-Pox Epidemic — How it Gained a Footholil — Fearful Riivages — How they Treated this Dread Disease — Fifteen Hun- dred Lodges and their Dead Abandoned — Appalling Scenes of Death and Desolation — Small-Po;: Corpses Eaten by Wolves. The Blackfeet were the largest, most fierce, proud and haughty tribe of the Algonquin nation. Their language was that of their mother tongue. They wore moccasins and leggings in winter made from the skins of black animals tanned with the hair on ; the moc- casins and leggings made for summer use were also blackened, and the tril)e was in consequence in- variably known as the Blackfeet. They were one of the great Indian peoples of the Northwest. Their home, or principal hunting ground, was about the headwaters of the Missouri and Milk Rivers. The Blackfeet claimed the country as far south as the Yellowstone River, and far north into the Briti'.h possessions. They were an intelligent, and, BLACKFOOT C'HIKK— HEADDRESS OK EAOI.E FEATHERS. 218 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. when aroused, an extremely warlike people. Though living in a cold clim- ate, were healthy, hardy, and long-lived. They were constantly at war with the Sioux, Crows, Snakes, and all their Indian neighbors to the west. The battles between them were of the fiercest kind, for all were warlike and determined fighters ; when either of them encroached on the hunting grounds of the other there was sure to be a bloody and desperate contest. In summer their country teemed with buffalo and other game, of which they killed large numbers, laying by a good store of meat for winter use. Wild horses were also numerous, and the Blackfeet always had good mounts. The women made warm clothing from the skins of bear, buffalo, buffalo calves, elk and deer. This usually consistbd of a jncket and leggings tanned with the hair on. The entire family dressed iri this manner during cold weather. In winter they made their camps in well-wooded valleys of streams, -;vhere forage for their animals and fuel for themselves were easily procured. These valleys also afforded considerable protection from cold winds and storms. Their number was estimated in early days at from twenty-five to thirty thousand souls, but they were divided into many small tribes, the principal ones being the Surches, the Piegans, and the Gros Ventres of the Prairies. Trappers generally spoke of the Blackfeet as being among the most peace- able and well-disposed Indians of any in the Northwest. From the earliest recollection they were friendly toward the whites, though they had a standing grudge against the American Fur Company for some 7eal or imaginary cause; I am inclined to think that it was more real than imaginary, for the Fur Companies werg very unfair and arbitrary in their dealings with all Indians. The Blackfeet claimed that the Fur Companies had killed several of their members without provocation. When the Fur Companies made ex- peditions into the Blackfeet country, it was necessary for them to have from seventy-five to one hundred well-armed and equipped men in each party; even then they were not safe, for they were often attacked, robbed of their stores, and killed by the implacable Blackfeet. Their hunting ground sup- plied a large number of beaver, otter and other valuable pelts, and the Fur Companies were not disposed to abandon this region. Being surrounded by so many tribes speaking different tongues, compelled them to use all the different sign languages almost constantly. In conse- quence of this they were experts in the use of the sign language in all its branches. Their home life was very simple. lu dealing with each other they were \ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. n9 more honest than any other Indians in that wild country. The unwritten laws of the nation were few, but they protected the rights of each person about as common senst dictated. They were nomadic, living in skin overed lodges during summer. They subsisted entirely by the chase. None of them ate any kind of watev fowl, amphibious animal, or fish. They had a super- stition against the use of this kind of food. They believed in and worshiped the Great Spirit, and offered their prayers only to him. Their ideas of the immortality of the soul were beautiful. They believed that after death the soul went to the Spirit Land. When it arrived there it was in the same condition as when it left the earth. During the journey it suffered want and privations; that the road traveled was filled with many obstacles, which it must overcome or avoid. They believed in the soul's duality; that one soul remained in the body while the other was groping through darkness in its effort to discover the road which led to its new home. They also believed there was another spirit which was sent by the Great Creator to accompany the soul until its safe arrival in the Spirit Land. The Blackfeet buried their dead in the ground, then placed the implements of war and ornaments belonging to the deceased on the grave. They did not kill animals at the grave, like some other Indians. The corpse, dressed in its best attire and ready for burial, sometimes sitting and sometimes lying, presented a strange appearance. After burial the friends and family of the deceased visited the burial place every night for a long time. They kindled fires on the grave that the spirit of the departed might find its way back to the burial place, to observe the respect and affection paid by relatives and friends to the remains of the dead. During the time these fires were burning, food was left for the sustenance of the spirit. To a Blackfoot there was no such thing as hell or the Bad Spirit. To him ail things were the work of the Good Spirit. When evil came he claimed it was the anger of the Good Spirit visited upon him, which he made an effort to appease. They were firm believers in dreams. After the death of one of the family all dreams the living had concerning the dead were carried out literally, if possible; though many of them were ludicrous to every one except a Blackfoot. About the year 1837 occurred a memorable epoch in the history of the In- dians of the Northwest. The small-pox epidemic, having gained a foothold among the Indians along the Missouri River, was carried from tribe to tribe imtil it reached the Blackfeet in the far north, destroying fully one-half of their numbers. The Arickarees were so terribly depleted by the scourge thHt they subsequently migrated north and united with some of the neigh- i KM ^i^^SfflL ■fUr 220 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. boring tribes. The Crows also suffered fearful ravages, but were not so unfortunate as their neighbors, for they fled to the mountains as soon as the disease made its appearance among them. The havoc made by the epidemic ._,i . , was largely due to the cold climate and ignorance of a remedy or proper treatment for the afflicted. This was especially true of the Black- feet. When this epidemic first made its appearance among them they attempted to com- bat it. Their first effort to cure it was through the con- jury of the medicine man. Finding this of no avail, they resorted to heroic treatment. When the patients com- plained of burning with fever they were taken from the lodges and rolled in the snow, which meant almost instant death. Another remedy was the steam bath. The patients were placed on heated stones, over which water was poured, and after being thoroughly steamed they were thrown into the river. It is needless to say that they entered the river and the happy hunting ground at about the same time. They also tried other remedies, but without effect; as the disease spread rapidly, attacking a great many, they finally gave up in despair, declaring that the anger of the Great Spirit had been visited on them and threatened to annihilate them. Those who survived were disfigured by great pits in their faces and bodies ; being excessively proud of their personal TYPICAL WARRIOR. 1. fljl^ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 221 appearance, they were so humiliated at sight of these blemishes and scars that some of them committed suicide. As suicide was almost unknown among the North American Indians, one may obtain from this some idea of the distress of the Blackfeet over their disfigured appearance. Some of the survivors of this dreaded disease became insane; as insanity was something now to them, they believed that the anger of the Great Spirit was specially directed to those who had had the disease. As the epidemic visited them during the winter, they could not very well remove their camps. They longed for the return of spring, and as soon as the weather per- mitted, left their camps, leaving the sick and dead in the lodges. Up to the time I last saw them, I do not believe that one of them had returned to it. For years after the visitation of this scourge, the mere mention of small-pox almost created a panic among them. The Blackfeet, Piegans, and Gros Ventres of the Prairie suffered so fear- fully from this dreadful scourge that, according to their own story, more than fifteen hundred lodges were abandoned by them. The lodges were left standing with the bodies of the dead in them just as they died. The Indians who had not been attacked by the scourge fled in every direction, leaving the wolves and other wild animals to feed on the remains of the dead and occupy the habitations of this once proud and haughty people. ^ The scene of desolation in these abandoned villages where the disease had destroyed so many Indians was heartrending. The bodies of the dead were (stripped of their flesh by carnivorous animals, and their white bones were strewn everywhere. The deserted lodges, the deathlike silence, and the absence of almost every kind of life presented a never-to-be-forgotten scene, and one that was almost indescribable. Edward Umfreville maintains* that the Blackfeet had a peculiar manner of mutilating themselves by cutting off several joints of their fingers. Be- ginning at the first joint of the little finger on the right hand, they would take it off; then, after a short time, the first joint of the next finger; and so on until all the first joints of the fingers on that hand were removed. They then did the same with the left hand. Again returning to the right hand, they removed the next joint of the little finger, and so on until they had re- moved all the joints of the fingers on that hand, and then proceeded with the left as before. According to him it required a long time to complete this operation, as the stump of each finger bad to heal before the next joint was removed. I do not believe that this mutilation was done for the purpose of beautify- *In " The Present State of Hudson's Bay," published in London, 1790. ' 222 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. it^ ing tbemselveB, as the author ret'erred to states, but was rather an exhibition of their fortitude in enduring pain. I have seen Indians have a white sur- geon extract some of their large teeth, which were perfectly sound, for no other purpose than to show their fearlessness of pain ; and other Indians presented themselves for *Vi the same operation, and for the same purpose, until the doctors refused to ex- tract more sound teeth to gratify their foolish whims. PIEGANS, BLOODS, QROS VENTRES OF THE PRAIRIE. The Piegans, Bloods, and Gros Ventres of the Prairie were three tribes that lived to the west of the Blackfeet, and were a part of the same people. Each one of them had its own tribal organization, spoke the same language, had the same manners and customs, abided by the same general laws, and were known among them- selves by their respective names and no other. None of these tribes were at war with each other, but all lived in harmony. The Blackfeet proper, with the three tribes just named, constituted one of the most powerful Indian peoples in the Northwest. When starting on the warpath warriors of all the four tribes often joined against a common enemy. During winter these people wore a warm head covering reaching to the CHOPPED UP— PIEOAN. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 223 shoulders, covering the enti/e head except the face. Head coverings were made of skins with the fur on, or of a blanket. They also wore warm mittens made of the same material. Polygamy was practiced, and all the four tribes married and intermar- ried, thus making the tribes more friendly to each other. WILD WARRIOR — LARGE EAR PENDANTS — EAGLE FEATHERS TIPPED WITH SCALPS — IN SCALPLOOK. iiiiijMh|jijaiii|^ ; i ill 2U TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUK HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XXVI. iri THE CROWS, OR UPSORUKA AS THEY CALLED THEMSELVES— JAMES BECK- WOURTH, THE FAMOUS MULATTO FRONTIERSMAN— LIFE AMOxNG THE CROWS. The Crows — Driven out by the Sioux — A Skulking, Thievish Race — A Tall and Athletic People — Their Flowing Hair — The Crow Women — How the Crows Attacked Trap- pers and Traders — Murdering Entire Expeditions — Night Attacks — The Home of the Beaver, Otter, and other Fur-Bearing Animals — The Famous JIuhitto Trapper, Jim Beck\vourth — His Alliance witli the Crows — His Great Influence among Them — His Return to St. Louis and Supjwsed Death — Effect of the Rumor on the Crows — A Bloody Tragedy Averted — Reapjiearance of Beckwourth— ABrave and Sagacious Man — A Warrior Race— Bitterness between the Ci'ows and Sioux — What Happens after Death. The Crows were originally a. part of the great Sioux nation, but were ex- pelled from their oritjinal hunting ground by the Sioux, After having been driven out they mad* their home in the country of the Flatheads, Blackfeet, and other mountain Indians, and subsequently wrested it from them. The Crows were divided into three tribps. the Hidatsa, the name annli'^'l to the Crows proper, the Annahways, and the Allakaweah. The Crows were the next in intelligence and physical stature to the Sioux. They were tall, athletic, and strong of build, far surpassing in this regard most of their neighbors. Being originally a part-of the great Sioux family, their habits closely resembled those of their ancestors, although they tried to establish manners and customs of their own, owing to their intensely bitter hatred of the Sioux. Occupying a country farther removed from civilization than almost any other Indians in the Northwest, they were among the last of the red men to come in contact with the whites. When I knew them they were wilder than any other Indians living in that country. For a long time it was almost an impossibility for ft white man to have intercourse with them. While nearly all Indians of the far West were opposed to the white man, none were more dreaded by adventurous traders and tiappers than the Crows, or, as they called themselves, the Upsoruka or Absoruka. They lived near the eastern chain of the Rocky Mountain?, and their hunting grounds em- braced the basins of the li'ellowstone. Big Horn, and Tongue Rivers. Their territory extended to the south as far as the Sioux would permit them to go. u TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 325 \ wliich was near the headwaters of the Yellowstone. On the east they roamed to the vicinity of the Big Horn River. They were skulking and thievish, and after they became known to the svhite man were noted as marauders, murderers, and horse thieves. Though they were, as a rule, crafty enough to avoid open war with the whites, and seldom missed an opportunity to rob or kill tb' m ; and were dreaded by traders and trappers in all that region. They were almont always at war with their neighbors, especially the ^^*«-s.-_ CROW LODGES. Blackfeet, who greatly outnumbered them. The result of this constant war- fare was that the proportion of women to the men was greater among the Crows than among any of their neighbors. A peculiar characteristic of these Indians was the length and profusion of their hair, which they cultivated with much care, and regarded it as the greatest ornament of their person. It was not unusual to see a Crow Indian with hair reaching to, and sweeping the ground. Some of their neighbors tried to imitate this peculiarity by binding false hair to the natural growth. 226 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. t: J. • In the construction of thuii- lodges the Crows did not differ materially from their neighbors. For winter use they built houses of logs or birch bark, about half-hut and half-cabin. These habitations were located in some low and timbered spot, where they were protected against the severe storms so prevalent in the mountains. They were also used as breastworks against attacks from their enemies. In summer the Crows were constantly on the move, impelled by their natural love of roving and the necessity of procuring food. In their wanderings the women were compelled to do the work of putting up and taking down the lodges, packing the camp belongings on the horses and mules, carrying wood, water, and doing the cooking. The Crow women were among the best tanners of any Indian women in the entire West. In dressing skins they made them very soft and pliable and almost pure white. Their clothing was made of these neatly prepared skins, which were decorated and ornamented with porcupine quills and bead- work. Though the men were among the finest specimens of Indian manhood, the women did not appear to be physically superior to those of neighboring nations. The Crows were exceedingly troublesome in early days to the fur traders and trappers. They were well acquainted with all the routes and resorts of the trappers, and knew where to find them in the trapping season, as well as where they were stationed in winter; they often made raids on them, killing all the men in the expeditions, securing their entire equipments and outfits. The various Fur Companies were justly apprehensive of the safety of every expedition they sent into the Crow hunting ground. Every party of trappers that entered this country had a larger number of men and a better outfit than was considered necessary for any other territory. The Crow country was the natural home of fur- bearing animals, and more valuable pelts could be s<^cured there than in other regions. At times the trappers were compelled to abandon it for a long period, through fear of these Indians, for the Crows were nearly always on the warpath; and if a war party came up on a trapping expedition, if they did not kill the entire party, they were liable to take their belongings, and let the trappers subsist, or escape, as best they could. Sometimes war parties went on foot the better to skulk through the mountains, where they could surprise and ambush trappers. The Crows frequently attacked their enemies at night, hoping to precipi- tate a panic by making a sudden and furious dash. Should the attacked make a determined stand, the Crows skulked off to a safe place, and made another attempt later on. m TWENTV YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 227 For the privilege of trapping in their country the Hudson Bay Fur Com- pany supplied the Crows with arms and ammunition. When they had plenty of ammunition they were aggressive, and made war on all people they could reach. The rivalry hetween the different Fur Companies finally became so fierce that they would take almost any hazard to trap in the country of the Crows. The result was, that it was overrun by numerous expeditions, which were themselves victimized by individual white trappers and traders, who led the Crows into many excesses. Jamei Beckwourth, a mulatto — popular'y known as "Jim" Beckwourth — was a trapper who went from St. Louis into this country in the employ of a fur company. He and others of the party suffered great privations on their first expedition, and would perhaps have perished but for the aid of some Indians. Having returned to St. Louis, he was prevailed upon to make another trip to the headquarters of the fur company in the Rocky Mountains. He traded for a time with the Blackfeet, among wnom he had many alleged adventures, finally making his way into the Cro'v country. He soon acquired considerable fame among the hunters for his skill, and among the Indians, he was regarded as a brave. It is said that one of his companions persuaded the Crows that Beckwourth was a Crow who had been captured in one of their wars with the northern Cheyennes, some twenty years before, and sold by the latter to the whites. At any rate, he was adopted into the Crow tribe. It has been claimed that he became chief of the tribe, but there is no evidence of the truth of this statement. It is, however, certain tLat Beckwourth acquired considerable influence among the Crows. He was brave, adventurous, sagacious, and was therefore greatly admired by them. He accompanied them in their raids, wars and hunts, and impressed them by his courage and skill. Beckwourth returned to St. Louis some years afterward. A party of trap- pers who had heard of his departure told the Crows that he had been killed by the great white chief, because he had lived among the Indians. This story created much excitement among the Crows, who, after a coun- cil, determined to kill all the white men at the trading post, and then send out parties to kill all the whites in that section of country. The director of the trading post prevailed on the Indians to wait until he should send to St. Louis and bring Beckwourth back. This was reluctantly agreed to by the Crows, and after several months, Beckwourth again made his appearance, having traveled the distance of two thousand seven hundred miles in fifty- three days, a great feat at that time. After bis return the Crows were much more friendly toward the whites. ^t" 228 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS Since I left tha. country I have read and heard much of the adventures and daring exploits of Jim Beckwourth. T knew^ him well. The greater part of these stories belong to fiction ; for, at that time the entire country north of the Platte River as far as the British possessions did not contain m- re than a few hundred white men. The character and doings of these were well known to each other, and to all the people throughout this vast territory. Among them beckwourth did not have the credit of being anything more than an ordinary trapper and mountaineer, who had become by marriage a member of the Crow people, and lived the life of the Indian. As warriors the Crows were equal to any Indians in that part of the coun- try. Being trespassers on the hunting grounds of their neighbors, they incurred the hatred of tribes on the east, north, and west of them. As the Crows were renegade Sioux, and their neighbors on the south were also Sioux, the feeling between them was intensely bitter. Hence, they were entirely surrounded by enemies. They had frequent and bloody battles in which they held their own; but if any of their neighbors had allied, and made war on them it would have been disastrous for the Crows. Some of the battles fought between the Sioux, Blackfeet, and Snakes against the Crows were of the fiercest, and had the latter not been warriors of superior ability, their numbers would have been greatly reduced. A-ra-poo-ash was a noted chief among them. He was the hero of scores of battles and encounters, principally with the Blackfeet, the hereditary and inveterate enemies of the Crows. On one occasion a large party of Blackfeet made a raid into the Crow territory, killing a number of them, capturing nearly all their animals, carrying oflF many of their women and children, and committing the usual Indian depredations. A-ra-poo-ash, smarting under the effects of this unexpected raid, called his warriors together. He then harangued them, exciting them to wild frenzy by his talk on the humiliation of their surprise and loss. A war party was at once formed to pursue the Blackfeet for the purpose of rescuing their women and children and recovering their animals. The Crows had but few animals left; these were used for packing purposes only, the warriors going on foot. After traveling almost incessantly for several days and nights, they overtook the Blackfeet. A bloody battle ensued. The Blackfeet greatly outnumbered the Crows, and being well mounted, the latter were at a disadvantage from the first. The Crows, led by A-ra-poo-ash, formed themselves in a circle, keeping the Blackfeet at a distance for a short time. A-ra-poo-ash then Of^lled upon the warriors to charge the enemy in full force and rescue the captives. The charge was so impetuous that the Blackfeet were thrown TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 229 back in confusion, and a number of captives were rescued. The Blackfeet at once sent the remaining captives, under a strong guard of dismounted warriors, up a ravine thick with underbrush. A-ra-poo-ash on discovering this move directed the main body of his warriors to continue the battle, then taking with him some twenty braves started for the place where the captives were concealed. Here a fierce and bloody encounter took place, and, what was unusual in Indian warfare, both parties fought on foot. Under the direction of their great leader the Crows fought with the ferocity of tigers. A-ra-poo-ash, seeing that his party had exhausted nearly all their ammu- nition, now drew his knife, brandished it above his head, shouting to his warriors to follow him, and cut the enemy to pieces. A-ra-poo-ash led the attack and disemboweled the first Blackfoot he met with a stroke of his knife. He then rushed upon another, and nearly severed his head from his body. Ha then attacked the third, but before he could strike, a lance in the hand of a Blackfoot was plunged through his body, inflicting a mortal wound. Thus died the great A-ra-poo-ash, the hero of scores of battles, the Napoleon of his people. As soon as their chief fell the Crows returned to the main body. Being without a leader they ceased to be aggressive and sought places of safety among the rocks, where they remained until dark, when they started for their own hunting ground. In this battle many warriors on both sides were killed. Many of the cap- tives were also killed, not only by the enemy but by their own people, for they were intentionally placed by their captors in an exposed position. This battle was a great blow to the Crows, and it was a long time before they recovc ed from its effects. This is the true story of this bloody fight as given both by the Blackfeet and the Crows themselves, at the time. I heard it translated by Jim Beck- wourth, just as it was narrated to him by the Crows. Jim was then living with the Crows, and had at least one of their women for a wife. The Crows had little religious belief. Unlike the Sioux, they believed only in the Good Spirit. When evil befell them they believed that it was the work of the Good Spirit who was punishing them for some wrong they had committed. When one of their number recovered from sickness or grievous affliction, they believed that the auger of the Good Spirit was ap- peased and that they had gained his favor, after which they indulged in feasting, rejoicing and dancing. The one portion of the Sioux belief which they tried bard to change to suit themselves was in relation to the Great Spirit and the soul. They be- lieved that the soul left the body through the mouth ; that it was a shadov/ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ii ii which hovered about the corpse until it began to decay; and that the smell from the putrefying remains drove it farther and farther away until it started on its journey to the Spirit Land. They believed that the road which the soul traveled was the same by which all souls had gone before. This road was broad and well beaten by num<^rous spirit travelers. It crossed many swift-running waters, tall mountains, and dense forests, and led direct to the west, where the setting sun lighted the soul into paradise. When the soul finally arrived in the Spirit Land the souls of all members of the tribe that bad gone before were in readiness to meet it. The new arrival was welcomed by dances and merry-making. The Crows believed that it took the soul a long time to make this journey, but they bad no idea of the condition it arrived in, whether in the form it left the earth, or as a child or adult, mutilated or whole. They believed, however, that the soul arrived in perfect condition to enjoy life forever after in its new home. The Minitari, or Hidatsa, were an oflFshoot of the Crows, from whom they separated a long time ago. They held friendly intercourse with the Man- dans, but were particularly hostile towards the Snakes and Flatheads. From the time they were first visited by white men they were peaceably in- clined toward them. Trappers and traders secured from them more valuable pelts than from any other nation or tribe of Indians, per capita, in the Northwest. In habits and manners little is to be said about the Minitari that has not been said about the Crows. . _ \ , \. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 231 CHAPTER XXVII. THE FLATHEADS— HOW THEY GOT THEIR NAME— PECULIAR CUSTOMS— FLAT TENING HEADS OF CHILDREN A MARK OF BEAUTY. The Flatheads — Their Peculiar Language— Their Habitations, Food, and Clothing — How the Women gathered Camas — Peculiar Manner of Cooking it — How they caught Wild Horses — Manuer of catching Fish — Bone Fish-hooks— How they Cooked Fish — Fine Boatmen — How the Flatheads got their Name — Manner of Flattening the Heads — A Peculiar Custom — Position of a Child during the Process — Apiiearance of the Head having been Flattened — A Deformity that was Considered a Mark of Beauty. The Flatheads were a part of the Selish nation, and their original home was in the vicinity of Flathead Lake, which lies east of the Bitter Root Mountains, and west of the main divide of the Rocky Mountains; their hunting ground extended to the eastern side of this chain. At the time of which I write all the Indians in this vicinity were known as Flatheads. They were subsequently divided into three different tribes, namely, the Flatheads proper, the Pen d'Oreilles, and the Kootenai. The dialects of all three sprang from the same mother tongue, though the dialect of the Kootenai differed from the other two very materially. Their language was poor and exceedingly difficult of pronunciation. The three tribes lived together in harmony, married and intermarried with each other; and all were constantly at war with their neighbors on the south and west. They suffered severely in winter from the climate; as game in their region during severe cold weather was scarce, they were often on the verge of starvation. In winter their habitations were frequently made horn logs and plastered with mud. Some of them were made of the trunks of trees; these were large and commodious, being from seventy to eighty feet in length, twenty-five to thirty feet in width, and eight to ten feet in height. These large houses were not divided into rooms, and many families occupied the habitation together, though there was nothing in common among them except the dwelling place. For heating, a hole was dug in the ground, in which a fire was made. Sometimes the houses were built on the lee side rf a bluff, and a high wind after a severe snowstorm covered them with snow to a great depth, bo that the inmates were compelled to dig their way out \ * v«.,...'.^uj*^ .'tnAHUk^^ . J..M.. .:».i<^ * The burial of dead bodies of the Kiowas was the same as that of the Sho- shonee family in general. This group was divided into five or six tribes, each under its own chief, and each *,rihe was known among themselves by its own name; but to the whites they were all known as Kiowas. At one time they had three very prominent, daring and dangerous chiefs. Santanta, "styled the orator of Indians," Big Tree, and Black Eagle. These three Indians were responsible for more loss of life and property, as well as carrying into captivity more women and children, than any other three men known to American history. War parties of Kiowas often went through Texas to the country of their friends and allies, the Comanches. When warriors of the latter joined them, they frequently swept the country as far as the present States of Durango, Zacatecas and Chihuahua, killing many people, capturing many animals, and carrying away much property. For years the Mexicans and Texansauflfered severely from the raids of these two peoples. There were no wild men on this continent who roamed over so vast a territory as the Kiowas. In personal appearance these people were short and strongly formed, hav- ing much more muscular development than any of their surrounding neigh- bors. Being also very dark in color, it was therefore easy to distinguish them at sight. Some of their winter lodges were large and well made. In summer they lived in small lodges that could be easily moved. They made a sort of visor of flint hide as a protection for the eyes against the sun during summer. This was generally worn by the men. The women wore but little clothing, a skin shirt, leggings and moccasins, with a blanket or buffalo robe in winter constituted their dress. None of them were skilled in handiwork for ornamenting their clothing. Some of them painted their faces, but this was not common among them. 240 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XXIX. THE BRAVE AND WARLIKE CHEYENNES— THE FINEST BODY OF SAVAGES IN THE WORLD— THEIR SINGULAR FRIENDSHIP FOR THE ARAPAHOES— BLOODY AND COSTLY WARS WITH THE WHITES. A Brave and Intelligent People — Manner of Caring for their Hair — A Nation of Warriors — Exiwrtness of Cheyenne Women in Handiwork — Religious Belief of the Cheyennes — Their Dances and Ceremonies — Their Language — Their Alliance with the Sioux and Arapahoes — Their Attacks on Emigrant Trains — Treaties with the Government — Broken Faith followed by Fierce and Bloody Battles — The Chivington Massacre — A Bloody and Costly War — Nearly Forty Million Dollars Spevit in Fighting the Cheyennes — Their Home Life — Peculiar Marriage Customs — Treatment of their Wives and Children — Their Singular Friendship with the Arapahoes — A Friendship that has never been Explained — Burial of the Dead — Their Lodges — Primitive Weapons — Symbols used by Them — The Northern Cheyeimes. The Cheyennes were of Algonquin stock, and were the most intelligent tribe of this nation. I consider them the finest specimen of wild man in the world. They had none of the low skulking ways so common to the ordinary savage, but seemed above this type in almost every respect. Their language was that of their original family. Both sexes were comely, healthy and seemed contented. In one trait they showed a marked difference to most other savages; this was in punishing each other by flagellation. Should one of their number commit an offence against the customs of the tribe he was soundly beaten, the culprit rarely taking revenge by killing or injuring any one who joined in the chastisement. Wives and children were often beaten severely by the husband or father. The Cheyennes were the only Indians who used this mode of punishment. They were divided into two parts, the Northern and Southern Cheyennes, the latter being the more numerous of the two. Their principal hunting ground was south of the Republican River in Kansas, and south of an imag- inary line running east and west from the mouth of that river to the Rocky Mountains. This territory embraced a portion of what is now westera Missouri, southern Nebraska, Kansas, and eastern Colorado. Having been friendly with the Arapahoes for upwards of a century, the Cheyennes roamed over the entire country south of the line mentioned and east of the Rocky Mountains to what is now the dividing line between the Indian Ter- \ I i ts FKATHER WOLB'— TYPICAL CHEYENNE W.iRRlOR. Twenty Years A—ont? Our Hostile Indians Vage 341. -f!-!fll-«BBBR? wa TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ritory, Colorado and Kansaa. A portion of this territory belonged to the Arapahoes, but by common consent each roamed over the country of the other. Physically the Cheyennes were among the best developed of all North American Indians, and were also the most cleanly of any that lived by the chase. The men were the best and bravest warriors of any Indian nation on this continent. Man for man they could defeat any other Indian, and no body of Indians with whom they came in contact were ever ready to give them battle on equal footing. They were the best riders and marksmen, and bad the best horses, mules, and dogs that could be found among any Indians in that wild country. The Cheyennes were driven out of the Eastern States by the advance of civilization, and forced their way west through hostile tribes across the Missouri River to the Black Hills country of South Dakota, and afterward settled near the Cheyenne River, from whence a large portion of tbem were subsequently driven by the Sioux. This body retreated to the south, and have long been known as Southern Chey- ennes. Those that remained were known as Northern Cheyennes, and allied themselves with the Blackfeet and others, retaining possession of their original home. The Southern Cheyennes raided their neighbors to the south and west, fre- quently going as far south as the Arkansas River. The eastern portion of their territory was near the borders of civilization, and the settlers living there suffered greatly by their depredations. They made good use of their ?s iii i i i M i i i iitfM ii ifij«twiiJiM)iii TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 245 was broken bj' one side or the other, the Government regarding its obligations as lightly as did tb" Indians. The Indian soon learned to look upon these treaties as little better than a means of securing from the Government the usual stores and presents which accompanied these formal talks; and the Government itself, therefore, educated the Indians in the arts of lying and dishouesty. Owing to the constant failure of one or both parties to keep the treaties, hostilities at length broke out, and the Cheyennes were, for the first time, engaged in regular warfare with the Governmeut and white settlers. Shortly afterward, however, negotiations were begun on the p^rt of the Government to restore peace. While these negotiations were pending, Colonel Chivington, of the First Colorado Cavalry, attacked the Sand Creek village of Cheyennes and killed more than a hundred men, women and children. At the time of its occurrence the Indians were formally at peace with the United States and under the protection of its flag, which protection they hatl been promised and induced to seek by the Government. On the approach of Colonel Chiviugton's soldiers the great chief. White Antelope, ran forward holding uj his hands, pointing to the United States flag, indi- cating that he and his people were under its protection. His appeal was dis- regarded. Seeing that the attack was deliberate, he made no resistance, but folded his arms and remained standing quietly until shot down. The United States flag floated over the lodge of Black Kettle, the head chief, as an ad- ditional precaution against attack, he having been advised by United States officers to keep the national colors constantly in sight. As may be naturally supposed, a desperate war was the result. The In- dians believed that it was tlie purpose of the Government to exterminate them, and thoy fought with the ferocity of despair. The Cheyennes, as already mentioned, were among the bravest Indian warriors, and superior to their neighbors in intelligence and cunning, and the war that followed was bloody while it lasted; it is said to have cost the Government from thirty to forty millions of dollars. Even after the conclusion of peace there was constant trouble with the Cheyennes. Treaties were made as before, but as usual, were violated or ignored. Some time afterward, General Hancock burned a Cheyenne village on Pawnee Fork; this precipitated another outbreak, in which General Custer defeated the Indians, killing their chief. Black Kettle and thirty-seven others, two-thirds of them being women and children. In this war more than three hundred soldiers and settlers lost their lives. Treaties were again made with the Cheyennes, who from that time forth manifested a desire to live at peace with the whites. They subsequently divided into three bodies, in each case mixing up with the Arapahoes — one body settling on Milk 8TARVINO KI.K — TYPICAL CHEYENNE WARRIOR. Twenty Years Aiiioiik Our Host'le Indians. PaKe 34(1. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 247 River, Montana, another on the North Fork of the Canadian River, and one remaining in their old territory. The Cheyennes were polyganious, each male having as many wives as be was able to buj*. A man sometimes secured all the daughters of one family for his wives. Having bought the eldest daughter of a family, he in turn became the possessor of each of the others, as they became old enough to marry. Instances were also cwnmon where a mother and her daughters became the wives of the same man. For nearly one hundred years the Cheyennes and Arapahoes were the warmest friends and most devoted allies, living together in the same vil- lages, going together on hunts, and fighting in the same battles against com- mon foes. The singular friendship existing between the two peoples was very striking, for the Cheyennes were a cleanly and intelligent people, their lodges were large, and, for Indians, they were rich in this world's goods. The Arapahoes, on the other hand, were ignorant, filthy and miserably poor. Their lodges were small, dirty, and swarmed with vermin. Their clothing was scanty and of the poorest kind. They took no care of their persons whatever. Their hair was never combed, and hung in matted locks, and they were in every respect repulsive beyond description. Yet, with characteristics so directly opposite, these two peoples lived together in the closest friendship for nearly a century, during which time each preserved its individuality. No instance was ever known where they intermarried, or where a member of either tribe learned the language of the other. Their children grew up together from infancy to old age, j'et could not converse with each other, except through the medium of the sign language. This is the only instance of a lasting friendship between savage Indian nations that was known of on this continent. The Cheyennes placed the bodies cf their dead i i trees. All through the country they roamed over where there was timber could be seen tree graves. These were well built, and often several bodies were placed on the wide platforms; females and children were given the eame burial the warriors received. They did not place the articles owned by the person during life on the graves, nor were they superstitious about the dead. The Cheyennes were very proud and dignified. They dressed well, and all their personal belongings were well cared for. Their lodges were the best of any Indians using this kind of habitation. The interior was nicely arranged, and the beds were the most comfortable of any used by the wild Indians. They were made of robes ami blankets, and cleaned daily. They were arranged around the lodge in a circle next to the lodge poles; each per- son had bis or her owu sleeping place. I * \ CHEYENNE WARRIOK IN FULL WAR OOHTITME. Twenty Years Among Our Hostile InrlianR. PK«;e94a TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 249 They had an abundance of good horses; these were treated kindly. Their horse equipments were also well made; they used bridle bits after the fashion of the whiteman. Their primitive weapons were the best made by any Indians. Some of their bows were from five to six feet in length, and backed with sinews glued to them the entire length. With a bow of this kind a man could drive an arrow two-thirds of its length into the body of a butfalo. Their arrowheads were made of iron ; these were largely secured from white traders. They also had a few tools made by the white man; with these they made many articles for themselves, such as bows, arrows, saddles, bridles, pipe stems, lances, and lodge poles. The females used needles, awls, scissors, and bodkins in making clothing and various family articles. The Cheyenne symbols were medicine arrows, and stafiFs. They did not worship these, but carried them as charms which brought good luck. Their "Dog Soldiers" also carried any war implement they fancied for the same purpose. MEDICINE STAFF AND MEDICINE ARKOWS— CHEYENNE. 260 TWENIY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ' THE NORTHERN CHEYENNES. When the Cheyennes were separated the Northern Cheyennes remained in their original territory for some time. Not being numerically strong, they were constantly attacked by the Sioux; realizing that further efforts to retain their hunting grounds were uceless, they moved north to the country of the Blackfeet, who belong to the same family; an alliance between the two people was made, since which time they have lived together. TYPICAL PLAINS INDIAN. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 251 CHAPTER XXX. THE DIRTY AND POVERTY-STRICKEN ARAPAHOES— A SHIFTLESS AND LAZY PEOPLE— HOW THEY LIVED— BEGGARS, MENIALS, AND THIEVED. Where did the Arapahoes come from ? — Obscurity of tlieir Origin — A Lazy People — Their Habits, Characteristics, Customs, and Language — A tilthy Lot — Their Strange Friendship for the Cheyennes — Brutal Treatment of their Wives — Menials and Thieves for the Cheyennes— Tlie Vilest of Beggars— Begging and Stealing for a Liv- ing — Unable to Speak their own Language — A Language rarely Acquired by u White Man — Their Poor Weajxins for War and the (;iiase — Too Lazy to Fish — How they Made their Clothing — Swarming with Vermin — Disgusting Habits — A Wretched Existence. From whence the Arapahoes came or what their origin was, I will not hazard an opinion. They were unlike all other Indians east of the Rocky Mountains, and must be regarded as a distinct nation or tribe. Their habits, characteristics, cus- toms, and language were distinctly Arapahoe and nothing else; in these respects they bore no resemblance to any other red men of the West. If their looks or actions suggested any nation of Indians it was the Shoshonees. In stature, color, and shape of their heads, they bore more resemblance to the Comanches or the Snakes than to any other Indians. They were the most filthy, poverty-stricken, and shiftless Indians east of the Rocky Mountains. They took no more care of their persons, surroundings, or belongings than they were actually compelled to by necessity. They had scarcely enough energy to secure their food, and would live on any- thing rather than exert themselves to procure a decent living. Although game was abundant at the time I knew them, they were too lazy to secure more than enough to last from day to day, and were content to live in small, dirty lodges. Wild horses were plentiful in their territory ; these they could have easily captured ; yet they had only a few, even these were mis- erable and dejected specimens. The burdens put upon the poor animals when moving the camp would make a heavy load for a strong, sound horse, but their brutal women masters forced them along with extreme cruelty, by beating them unmercifully. It was a rare thing for a party of Arapahoes to go on the warpath by AKROWHEAD MADE FROM A ROOT. il to TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. themselves, for the reason that they had not enough horses and mules to enable them to make a strong expedition. When they accompanied their old-time friends, the Cheyennes, on the warpath, they were compelled to do the camp drudgery and the stealing for the whole camp; when in battle they were forced from necessity and the instinct of self-preservation to arouse themselves and fight for existence. Of all Indian peoples they were among the meanest to their wives. Their women were degraded and extremely repulsive, and were forced to do all the hard drudgery and dirty work of the camp while the men sat in the lodges or in a comfortable place, loafing and taking their ease. The men believed that the women were put on earth to be slaves, and compelled them to act as such. They had little idea of morality, and a husband was at all times ready to barter the honor of his wives or daughters to a stranger. The one remarkable trait among them, which has often been commented upon, was their singular affection and great friendship for the Cheyennes. This I can account for only from the fact that the Cheyennes were infinitely superior to them in intelligence, enterprise and appearance, and the Arapa- hoes looked upon thera with admiration, and were willing to act as menials to them. The Arapahoes did not claim any particular hunting ground of their own, but roamed over the country to the south of the Sioux, all along the base of the Rocky Mountains, under Pike's and Long's Peak, as far south as the Spanish Peaks, and as far east as the country occupied by their friends, the Cheyennes. After the Overland road was established, many of them went down the South Platte along this road to beg and steal for a living. The women were the vilest beggars in that country. Their language was so poor in words that the Arapahoes themselves could scarcely converse with one another upon the most ordinary topics without the use of the sign language. Their oral language consisted of harsh gut- tural sounds, unpleasant to the ear. As they seldom smiled their faces looked rigid and drawn when speaking, as though it required an effort to talk. The worldly possessions of the Arapahoes were of such small value that when the Utes, who held them in great contempt, crossed the mountains in war parties they seldom attacked them, and the Sioux, when passing south through their country to that of the Kiowas, rarely disturbed or molested them, because they did not consider the Arapahoes worthy of notice. Their bodies, clothes, and lodge belongings swarmed with unmentionable pests. They had only the poorest of weapons for war and the chase. A miserable bow, a few arrows, an old-fashioned, discarded firearm, and a heavy lance \ K IN WAR fOHIlME. . 258 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ■^ --''>>, '• .4 ^ s ■ ■ .^ : 4 ■ • \ iiWi-- ■ • % '-^ ^^'. ^ v" "i IB "' '■ i^'-' ''' ■ ' ^W M I 'M ^m^ ' #* ■■■*a& / Al ml V ^ 1 y '. ^^i ^ % ' %^j ^ f ^^^rjM m J . 1 V * i i A M^^^^ *M 4 i d. ^ t \ ■f j ^ _ , . / Z^:*^'--.. 1 NAVAJOE WAKRIOU. the Indian. They were expert horsemen, and were kind to their animals. ^s soon as their children could walk, boys and girls were taught the use of the lasso. They began practicing with a string, or a small rope with a noose at one end, catching cats, dogs, chickens, or each other; every living thing being used as a subject. I have seen a Navajoe boy, ten years of age, lasso a running dog, on any foot he was told to catch. He could take a rope with a heavy substance on one end, but with- out a noose, and throw it in such a manner that it would wind two or three times around the neck of an animal and fasten itself tight enough to allow the victim to be seized by the hands before the rope became disentangled. The Navajoes were a healthy and hardy race, some of them living to very old age. Their home life was congenial; cruelty or harsh words rarely disturbed the harmony of the family circle, as they were by nature more gentle than most other Indians. The men were considerate to their women, did not compel them to do all the work of the family, but shared the labor of raising the crops with them, also attending to the animals, as well as doing outdoor work. 1 WENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 26» Though living near white men, they preserved their individuality scrupu- louBly. It was a rare thing for a white man or Mexican to marry a Navajoe woman, er for a Navajoe to go outside of his own people for a wife. Polygamy may have heen per< missible, but was not practiced. They were governed by a chief and a few select men of the villages, who made a few crude laws or regulations which were respected by all. They had their own religion, which was a kind of idolatry, as they worshiped both stone and wooden images. Both men and women smoked, usually a cigarette made after the style of the Mexicans. They cared but little for intoxicating liquors, although they manufactured a very strong alcoholic beverage from the maguay plant and from bear grass, a species of Spanish bayonet. It had a burnt flavor, and produced intoxication quickly, although the eflfects soon passed away. The Navajoes rapidly decreased in numbers, as the numerous unoccupied dwellings scattered throughout their country testify. They made no marked progress during the long period they were known to white men, were singularly conservative in their mode of living, and did not differ materially from their ancestors of generations ago. CEBRA NEOKA— NAVAJOE. THE T0NKAWAY8. In northern Texas, between Salt and Clettr Forks of the Brazos River, liveti the remnant of the Tonkaways, a once powerful people. Of their origin nothing is known beyond vague traditions sometimes recounted by the old men. According to them, a long time ago the Toukuways lived near the shores of ** the great ocean," supposed to be the Qulf of Mexico. In many bloody wars with their neighbors they became greatly reduced in numbers, and at length were driven north to the vicinity of the Arkansas River. Here again they were surrounded by hostile neighbors, and were finally driven into northwestern Texas. When living in their original home on the shores of the sea, their neigh- iyimiifiiJiiitiLiiiii'ijj^ii^i^^ . i< i r i.i i 260 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. bors claimed that they were cannibals; that their chief object in battle was to secure prisoners rather than to kill the enemy; and that these prisoners were subsequently killed and eaten. After they were driven to the Arkansas River all the surrounding tribes made war upon them for the same cause. The Kiowas and Pawnees claimed that the Tonkaways captured children for the purpose of eating them. The Pawnee tribes were especially embittered against the Tonkaways, for they declared that they had at one time killed and devoured a favorite child of a chief of the Pawnee nation. This eventu- ally caused an alliance of the Kiowas, Pawnees, and other tribes against the Tonkaways, who were finally driven into northwestern Texas, where they made their last stand. Some of their old men admitted that, long before, when living near the coast, the Tonkaways captured the crews of ships that came ashore, killed them, and ate portions of their bodies. They also ad- mitted having eaten portions of the bodies of their enemies, captured iu battle, but claimed that they only ate the heart, and for the purpose of acquiring the courage of the slain. The Tonkaways were the only Indians against whom the charge of cannibalism was openly made. \ mmmm TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 261 * J i CHAPTER XXXII. THE PUEBLOS AND ZUNIS— HIDEOUSLY UGLY GODS AND IDOLS— CUSTOMS OF A STRANGE PEOPLE. Wliere did tliey come from? — Why did they keep to themselves? — Supjwsed to be Chris- tians, but in reality Heathen — Their Ugly Idols — A Mooted Question — Why tliey were made so Ugly — Siiiasliing them to Pieces — Putting an Idol to a Queer Use — Using a God for a Liquor Flask — Homliness an Antidote for Pain — Where have the Pueblos Gone? — An Unsolved Mystery — Walled Caves and Ruins of Stone Dwellings — A Lost Art — How did they make Cement? — The Zuniss — How they Lived — . Their Numerous Flocks and Herds — A Strange People — Praying to the Spirits of Ocean — Tlie Pimas or Pai)agoes — Buried in a sitting Posture — Feasting at the Grave — Praying for a New Husband — Tar as a Casmetic. Ethnologic ALLY, it is difficult to place the Pueblos. They seemed to be a distinct people. In some of their characteristics and customs they somewhat resembled the Navajoes, but in general, all their peculiarities were distinctly their own. They were scattered through New Mexico and Arizona, where they lived in villages, and followed the manners and customs of their ancestors. They received their name from their custom of living in fixed places, the word pueblo being Spanish for village or town. They raised a small quantity of vegetables and grain for their own use, and made excellent pot- tery, which they exchanged for the necessaries of life; they were gentle in their nature, treated their animals with kindness, and did not use horses or dogs for food. They were courteous to strangers who entered their villages^ and did not make trouble unless interfered with. Tbey were supposed to be Christians, but in reality were heathen, if the number of their gods and goddesses was an indication of idolatry. It was difficult to obtain any account of their religion, and it is therefore a question whether they worshiped idols or not. They made and kept them in their dwellings, and did not appear to respect or fear them ; tbey would sell them for a few cents, or barter them for liquor or other articles. These gods were frequently made hollow, and the Indians sometimes put them to the ignoble use of holding liquor. It was not uncommon to see a Pueblo enter a place where li(iuor was sold and present one of his hollow gods to be filled. At the first opportunity be substituted himself for his little god and speed- ily became the liquor holder. The gods were made as hideously ugly as Miii»i i MMjy» ktiA. jMi^. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. possible, in order to ward o£P pain or disease; if tliey failed in this the Indian did not hesitate to smash them to pieces if he could not sell them. The ruins and relics scattered throughout this region indicate a population of great numbers in the past. Fragments of pottery are found in many localities in all this section, which embraces upwards of ten thousand square miles. Stone foundations and walls of cities show that at some remote period thousands of people dwelt within them. The Pueblos had no written language, nor were there traditions current among them as to the cause of their depleted numbers, or if there were they would not impart them to others. There is no record of any branch of the Pueblos having settled elsewhere, so that large numbers of them must have perished near their present location. Pueblo stone foundations are usually found along the streams tributary to the Rio Gila, but occasionally at a long distance from the water. In these cases, however, the topography of the country shows the beds of streams which have long since run dry, or have changed their courses at some re- mote period. Walled caves are also found in large numbers in this region, the history of which the present inhabitants have no knowledge or tradition. In proximity to these caves appear also the ruins of stone dwellings built without cement, and numerous traces of irrigating canals and ditches, which show that the Pueblos were once engaged in agriculture. Their houses were usually made of stone, or adobe (a brick dried in the sun and not baked). The houses were generally one story in height, the entrance and exit was through a hole in the roof. The Pueblos understood the art of making a waterproof cement for their roofs that was very durable, but the process has long been a lost art. Some of the roofs of the old missions in Texas and New Mexico, which have been standing for centuries, were cov- ered with this cement, and are in as good a state of preservation to-day as they were when first built. The floors of their houses were made of the same material. The fireplaces and chimneys were large open spaces, and were used almost wholly for cooking places. During the extreme warm weather the houses were cool, though to a civilized person they were very gloomy. ZUNI8. Of the Pueblo tribes, the Zunis were in many respects the most advanced in the arts of civilized life. Their flocks and herds consisted of horses, burros, sheep, goats and cattle. They also raised chickens and other domes- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 263 tic fowl. Their country was well adapted for raising sheep and goats, which were pastured largely en the mountain side, where they remained without MANNER OF WEARtNH HAIR— ZtNIS FEMALES. water for days at a time. Their farms were cultivated by irrigation, and the crops received much attention. ii'''lVi1inikdliii"iiiii'iiii'i'fi 1^ '.aA^j^^. 264 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Like the Aztecs, they had numerous festival and fete days, which, clad in rir h and varied costumes, they celebrated with processions and dances. They were reticent in speaking of their religious beliefs, but admitted that they worshiped the sun. The government of the Zunis consisted of a Governor, an Alcalde or Mayor, a number of caiques or councilors, eleven of whom were elected annually, and a chief councilor, who was elected to serve for life. They had also an oflScer known as the War Chief, but he had no influence in their councils, unless the tribe was threatened with danger. In their domestic habits the Zunis were more oleanly than any other tribe in that vicinity. They had but little household furniture, nor was much required for their simple wants; they worked, cooked, and slept on their well-kept floors. Their women were usually busy weaving clothing, grind- ing grain, baking bread, and in other household occupations. The traditional type of Indian seemed wanting among these people. All, including the women, smoked. They usually smoked cigarettes made from tobacco and rolled in the thin husks of the corn. Their pipes were crude, looking as though they were made of the coarsest clay. Many of the Indians in that section lived clopo together, had common interests, traditions, customs, dress, yet spoke a language unintelligible to any of the others; none of them bearing any resemblance to the Aztecs of ancient Mexico, or to the nomadic tribes throughout that region. The Zunis bad a tradition that their gods brought them to an arid and sterile plain for a home, far removed from the ocean, and that their fore- fathers taught them the prayers whereby water could be obtained. Th se prayers were addressed to the spirits dwelling in the ocean, the home of all water, and the source from which the blessing must come. They believed that in answer to these prayers rain clouds were brought from the ocean by the spirits of their ancestors. PIMA, OR PAPAGOS. The Pima Indians, or Papagos, as they were sometimes called, confined th«raselves to a restricted territory on the Gila River in Arizona, were peaceful and semi-civilized. Their civilization was their own, for in no way had it been acquired from the white man. Originally they lived in the northwestern part of Sonora, Mexico, and had in a certain way accepted the Christian faith as taught by the Spaniards; this, however, continued to be mixed up with their own heathenish belief. y*' I TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 265 Intolerant of Mexican rule, a large portion of them migrated north to the territory called Pimerica Alta, and adopted the name of Fimas. This por- tion of the tribe numbered about fifteen thousand. After their arrival in Arizona they did not trouble either the white man or their Indian neigh- bors; but lived in a half-civilized way, apart from all other tribes, though they held friendly intercourse with white men, as well as with the * Opata Indians. They were a stationary race, both before their migration from Sonora, and after their arrival in Arizona. Notwithstanding their peaceful inclinations and semi-civilized mode of life they were, when occasion required, as brave warriors as any on the conti- nent. This they proved many times by repelling successfully the attacks and incursions of the Apaches. They lived almost exclusively by agriculture, and in this, as well as in many other characteristics, they seemed to be related to the Pueblos. The Pima Indian was a stoic, and lived and died a fatalist. When the head of a family died a council was called, and all of the property of the de- ceased was equitably allotted to members of the tribe. When a chief died the body was borne to the grave, where it was placed in a sitting posture, and the entire tribe r)articipated in the funeral ceremonies. On such an occasion instead of signs of mourning, there was rejoicing, and a great feast was prepared. A suflBcient number of cattle were slaughtered at the grave to afford every one a full meal, and a goodly portion of meat was carried home to each family. A division of the property' of the dead chief was made and distributed equally among the various members or families of the tribe. On the death of the husband, the widow invested herself with the usual signs of mourning and painted her face with tar. This she continued to do for a stated period, in the meantime praying for a new husband. A young and good-looking woman sometimes married a few days after the burial of her husband, although it was her privilege to mourn for a conventional period, if she so desired. In that case custom required that the husband also should besmear his face with tar, until his wife ceased to mourn for his pred- ecessor. Among the Pima Indians there were no marriage ceremonies; the man and woman elected to live together, and that constituted them husband and wife. Divorce was as simple as marriage. Whenever a husband or wife felt inclined to dissolve the matrimonial contract they separated and that was the end of it. It was not necessary for the abandoning party to assign cause for separation, and no stigma or disgrace attached to either on ac- count of the dissolution of the marriage tie. For this reason divorces among them were frequent. 266 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The PimaB believed in a Good Goil and a Bad God, attributing to the intervention of each respectively all the benefits and evils they experienced during life. Although they had some of the traditions of Christian teach- ing inherited from the time of their subjection to the Spaniards, they had no particular form of worship. % \ QBOUP OF INDIANS WITH BEAR OLAW NECKIAOBS. T \ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. • 267 I CHAPTER XXXIII. THE PAWNEES— A NATION WHOSE ORIGIN IS UNKNOWN— FEUDS AND FIERCE BATTLES— SKINNING A MAN ALIVE— TRIBES CONSTITUTING THE NATION. Once a Niuneroiis and Warlike People — Peculiar Manner of Cutting their Hair — Their Hunting Ground — Natural Home of the Buffalo — Jealousies and Feuds Created in Hunting Them — Hated by all their Neighbors — Hatred of the Sioux — Ambition of the Sioux to be Known as a Pawnee Killer — Vicious Tribes traveling a long way to Fight the Pawnees — Vindictiveness — Skinning a Man .Alive — Pawnee Religion — Priests and Doctors — Medicine Bags — Widows of the Pawnees — The Wichitas. Bbtond vague traditions little or nothing is known of the origin of the Pawnees, and they must therefore he classed as a distinct nation. They had their own language, and called themselves Pani, or Panna; their character- istics and customs were peculiar to themselves, and in these they differed from all their neighbors in many interesting ways. When left undisturbed they were inclined to be peaceful ; but when aroused they were very fierce and war- like. At one time they numbered not less than thirty thousand, but con- stant and bloody battles with all their neighbors, as well as fierce tribes from afar, reduced them greatly. Their hunting ground embraced what is now Nebraska, Kansas and northern Missouri. Their entire country was covered with nutritious grasses; a large portion of their territory was covered with a thick carpet of buffalo grass. This was the natural home of the buffalo. Millions of these huge beasts roamed all over the country claimed by them. These animals drew hunting and war parties from all Indian nations and tribes north, south and west of them. This resulted in jealousies and feuds, which brought the Pawnees in deadly conflict almost constantly. One day it was with a party of Sioux, the next with a band of Cheyennes and Kiowas, the next a war party of Osages and so on. The Sioux in particular bitterly hated the Pawnees, and the battles be- tween them were very bloody. So strong was the hatred of the Sioux that they would go to almost any extreme to kill a Pawnee, and the highest ambition of a Sioux warrior was to call himself "Pawnee killer." I knew several Sioux warriors who claimed this title; upon making inquiry as to why so many had this same 268 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS.' name, each gave a most vivid description of a bloody and desperate hand-to- haud coutiict with a Pawnee, Nearly all Indians who went to war with the Pawnees would give graphic descriptions of battles in which they had been engaged with them, and nothing seemed to delight them more than to recount how they had fought so valiant a foe, each narrator claiming to be the victor. Two fierce tribes of the Sioux — the Miuneconjoux and Uncpapa — who had their hunting ground in the foothills of, and in the Rocky Mountains often traveled the long distance from their country to that of the Pawnees, for PAWNEE VILLAGE. the express purpose of engaging in battle with them, that they might return to their own people and recount their battles in glowing colors. The Pawnees were originally composed of three tribes, the principal being the Pawnees proper. The French trappers and traders called them the Loup or Wolf, after their principal symbol. Another tribe was the Arickarees, afterwards nicknamed the Rees. These people separated from the Pawnees in the early part of the century. Originally their hunting ground was the same as the others, but after their separation they moved to the country of the Mandans, with whom they became fast friends, and have remained in that vicinity ever since. The third tribe of the Pawnees was the Wichitas, sometimes called the Pictured Pawnees, or Pawnee Picts. -m^ -njrm^ieafmw •">- *^^-i PAWNEE WARRIORS— MANNER OF WEARING THE HAIR, Twenty Tears AmonK Our Hostile Indians. Fare 200 270 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. This name was applied to them from tlieir custom of tattooing themselves in various colors, blue ard red being the most prominent. Some of their facial and body ornamentation in this manner was, for Indians, well done. All the tribes of the Pawnees had a peculiar manner of cutting the hair, cutting it as close as possible all over the skulL except a roach about two or three inches wide, from about the center of the head back to the scalplock, leaving a st^'ff tuft standing erect in the center, and inclining back to the height of the scalplock. With hair cut in this fashion, large rings in the slits in their ears, faces and bodies tattooed or painted on their dark skins, made them a strange-appearing people. ii i &HiS^'iS - '^"^^ 1^:-.. - « ' ■ • ■ ■ \ :■ \ ... 1 PAWNEE HABITATIONS— MUD HOUSES. All of the Pawnees were good hunters; as many kinds of game were plen- tiful in their country they bad an abundance of meat, especially that of the buffalo. They also had plenty of horses; these were kept in good condition for war purposes. After civilization made inroads into their territory, they ceased to be nomadic, and lived in fixed habitations. Some of these were made of logs, others were a sort of mud house, none of them having more than one room; this was kitchen, dining room, parlor, sleeping room and all. After they be- came stationary they cultivated the soil after Indian fashion, raising corn, pumpkins and the coareer vegetables. Although the Pawnees early came in contact with white settlers and adopted some of their ways, they could not divest themselves of the vindic- tiyeness and ferocity cf Indian nature. For example, a party of emigrants passing through their country, had a .U-iW •W. '.kf'- ••' , >l '*,t »»•-•> TiiiililAi^M^lii'irilflTH r I ! PAWNER WARRIOR— FULL WAR OOBTUMK. Twenty Years AmotiK Our Hoatile Indianit. Page an 272 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. braggart among their number, who boasted that he would kill the first In- dian he saw. In his endeavor to make good his threat, he fired upon and killed a Pawnee. The Indiaus assembled in large numbers, surrounded the train, and demanded that the offending man be delivered to them. The trainmen being greatly outnumbered, and knowing that a refusal meant death to all of them delivered the man to the Indians. I ■! GROUP OF PAWNEE BRAVES. He was at once 8tripj)ed of all his clothing and literally skinned alive. The Pawnees cut his skin into strips from a half to tbree-quarters of an inch in width, commencing at the shoulders and neck, and cutting down the back and legs to the heels; they then cut the skin at the top and pulled it off strip by strip, until death came to the wretched man's relief. The story of this horrible act was scactered broadcast throughout the western country, and tbereafti r the Pawnees were treated in a deferential manner by people pass- ing through their country. The nation originally was governed by one cliief, the |X)Hition being hered- itary, but the rnler could be dejxjsed should lie not have the necessary fjuali- ficatioDB for the office. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 278 "•ilach of the tribes Imtl its own chief. Tribal chiefs had sub-chiefs for their staffs as advisers. These ruled the affairs of the tribe, but they were all subservient to the grand chief. When there was to be discussed an impor- tant matter affecting the whole nation, the head chief called the chiefs of the tribes with llieir staffs together, when the matter was d;'bated by all present; but should tlie decision of the majority be against the opinion or desire ot' the head chief, ho was compelled to submit. Constant warfare reduced the number of men greatly, consequently there were many more females than males. This may account for the numerous wives each man had; all the wives and children of tlie man lived together in seeming contentment, and the articles a woman used during the life of the husband were supposed to belong to her. After h s death she could live with the family as long as she did not become the wife of another man; if she did so, she carried her belongings with her. Should a widow have con- siderable property, she was much sought after, as she cost nothing and brought wealth besides. They had a crude religion, and priests who were supposed to be the medium of communication between them and the Great Spirit. Priests did not exercise the functit.ns o^ medicine as known by the more westerly nations, and were not supposed to heal the sick. For this purpose they had doctors whose duty was to look after and care for the afflicted, whom they treated with teas, roots, and herbs. The Pawnees were exceedingly superstitious in relation to their "medicine bag"; every habitation had its family medicine bag, which was about the size of a chiM's head. It was supposed to contain the "medicine" necessary to bring them all the good luck desired ; they also believed it to be efficacious in keeping away disease, ns well as in assisting them in all their undertak- ings. This bag was scrup lously guarded, and no member of a family could be induced to speak of it;^ contents. Each individual also carried a small medicine bag on his person. This was considered a great charm, and no warrior ever went into battle without it. The men were the most expert hunters of any Indians iu the West, and were constantly on the chase for all kinds of game. They had a great many good dogs which accompanied them, assisting them in bringing down a ■wounded animal. THE WICHITAS. The Wichitua were so treacherous and unreliable that the principal tribe 274 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. drove them away; after this tbey n:ade their homes in the vicinity of the stream that bears their name. After their separat.on tliey became estranged from the others, and often made war on them, sometimes joiuiug with the Kiowas for this purpose. The Wichitas were a vicious and thievish lot. They were noted horse stealers, and consequeutly despised by all their neighbors who were not of the same class. In stealing horses they dressed themselves with the skins of animals, and imitating the actions of the auimal whose skin they wore, would approach a herd of horses, and at the first opportunitj'^ seize and make off with them. REKD HABITATION — DECOUATED INDJ VN TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 276 CHAPTER XXXIV. THE CHIPPEWAS, OCHIPPWAS, OR, AS THEY CALLED THEMSELVES, OJIRWAS —ALGONQUIN STOCK. The Chippewas — Wlio Tliey Were — Treatment of the Sick — Curious Customs— Widows — Snowshoe Dance — Striking the Post — Story Telling Season — Large Scars — Strange Burial Customs — The Crees Practiced Sun Dancing to a Recent Date — Sacs and Foxes — Ottawas — Pottawattomies — Miamis — Kaskasias — Seminoles — Caddoes — Wacoes. The Chippewas, or as they called themselves, Ojibwao, were a part of the Algonquin nation. Their language was that of the Algonquin, although more or less dialectic. It is from this group of Indians that many words have been accepted, and generally believed by Eng- lish-speaking people to be ap- plicable to all Indians, for instance: Calumet, squaw, mocassin, pappoose, as well as many other words are generally understood by civilization to mean the same among all In- dians. These words are Algon- quin, and are not understood by other nations. The different Indian languages have supplied names for many States, counties, towns, villages, rivers and localities. Nona have been more largely used than the Algonijuin, as the tribes of this group were scattered through- out the country fro 31 the mouth of the St. Lawrence River west to the Rocky Mountains; and all early came into contact with white men. The hunting ground of the Chippewas extended from the Great Lakes as far west as the Blackfoot country. At one time they were estimated to number from fifteen thousand to twenty thousand, and were divided into LITTLE SHELL — TYPICAL CHIPPEWA. if.: 276 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. I many small tribes, which were scattered over the large territory they claimed as their huuting ground. They lived principally by hunting and fishing, and were expert in both They also gathered wild rice, which grew in abundance in the lakes and marshes; it was threshed by digging holes in the ground into which the dried heads of the plant, inclosed in a skin, were placed. The men then treaded on the bags until the grain separated from the stalk. The Chippewas resolutely resisted encroachments on their hunting grounds ; often proving their courage and ability as warriors. They were the first of the Indians to come into contact with the white man; securing muskets, knives, and steel tomahawks long before the tribes farther west. They made the best snowshoes of any Indians, and could travel with them as rapidly over the deep, soft snow, as over bare ground in summer when lightly sliod. They also made the best birch canoes of any of the tribes of all this region; not even the white man could make an improvement on them. In habits the Chippewas were filthy, and they did not hesitate to eat any kind of animal ; whether it was freshly killed, or a half-putrid carcass, made no difference with them. They were exceedingly superstitious. In tbe treatment of the sick the medicine men were at all times ready to go through mysterious performances for the recovery of the patient, by placating the spirit that had inHicted disease. When a Chippewa was ill it was the custom to erect in front of his lodge a pole stripped of its bark, with various ornaments and trinkets attached to the top. This pole was painted in various colors, and made as gaudy as possible, in order to please the Great Spirit, believing that in so doing it would induce him to withdraw his displeasure. These poles were regarded with great reverence, and no Chippewa dis- turbed them until the patient either recovered or died. A peculiar custom prevailed among them in relation to the burial of the dead. Fires were built on the grave in the early evening, and kept burning far into the night. This was continued invariably for four successive nights, and often longer when the deceased was a favorite relative, or a noted war- ORNAMF TED OTTER SKIM iSlBDICINE BAO. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 277 rior. On the death of an infant, the mother carried about with her for months a rude wooden image in the same cradle or frame in which she had carried her child. When a husband died it was the custom for the widow to select her best wearing apparel, wrap it in a skin or blauket, attach to it the ornaments her husband had worn during life, and then lay the bundle away until after the period of mourning; she appearing for a time, generally two or three months, clad in her poorest garb. When a sufficient period had tilapsed, the nearest relatives of the deceased presented her with articles of jipparel as a mark of regard for her fidelity to the njemory of her husband. This was an intimation to the widow that she was at liberty to dress as she chose, and free to become the wife of another member of the tribe. They believed in a multitude of minor deities or spirits, some of which exercised good, others evil influences. Superstitious rites were performed in the worship of both. They believed that spirits lived in the vicinity of water and watercourses, that they could hear every word spoken, and were cognizant of the doings of over}' indivif^Viril of the tribe; but in winter when the streams were frozen the spirits lapsed into a torpid state like the frogs and snakes, and were unconscious of existence. Dur- ing this T riod the Indians would sit around the fires in camp or lodge ight, relating the tales and legends of the tribe, as they could tuen speak with the fullest freedom with no spirit near to overhear them. But at the earliest return of spring, which in this particular relation was supposed to be indicated by the croak of a frog, all story telling of this nature abruptly ceased until the spirits had again gone to sleep with the coming of winter. A widow was sometimes regarded as a seer or prophetess, exercising greater influence with the tribe than the medicine men. When answering questions propounded to her the proph- etess occupied a peculiarly constructed lodge, where she was supposed to be under the direct influence of the spirits. The Chippewas enjoyed the distinction of being able to compute numbers, something which the average Indian was generally incapable of doing. They counted as many as a thousand, doing so by the decimal process; tak- ing ten, the number of fingers, as the basis or unit, then counting ten for each finger, which made a hundred, repeating the process until they had counted a thousand. The value of a dollar was at first a puzzle to them when trad- ing, but by taking the exchange standard of a dollar in skins they could by II WOODEN AR- ROWHEAD. l^r^rf 278 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. their method of computation deal with the white man without giving him much opportunity to swindle them. Thus, if a dollar was worth so many raccoon skins, they computed from that hasis how much they should receive' for so many beaver, otter, wolf or other skins. The Chippewas did not practice polygamy to any great extent. They rarely had more than two wives, and frequently only one. This may b© accounted for partly by the fact that they were not constantly at war like many other Indians, consei^uently the women did not greatly outnumber the men. The men had some regard for their wives ; in this respect, they frequently excelled the white man with whom they were brought in contact. When traders arrived among them, the Chippewas often secreted their women until the white men had departed — a proceeding that was not very complimentary to the white men in that country at the time. Every year, at the approach of winter, when the first heavy snow fell, they celebrated the event with a snowshoe dance a practice peculiar to the Chippewas alone. Its object was to manifest their gratitude to the Great Creator for sending the snow, which enabled them to chase and secure game with greater facility. The ceremonj' did not difiFer from the ordinary Indian dance, save that it lacked the savagery and ferocity that characterized In- dian.dances in general. The men jumped around in a circle, dancing, utter- ing whoops and yells, and waving their weapons of the chase to the rattle of their tom-toms. A custom commonly practiced by them was that known as striking the post. On these occasions a largo number of the tribe, both men and women, assembled. The warriors circled around the pole, uttering fierce cries, danc- ing to the unceasing beat of the tom-toms, and wildly brandishing their war weapons. Then all suddenly stopped, when one, usuallj a chief or noted warrior, rushed madly at the post, striking it with his tomahawk. Amid the silence that followed, tbe brave recounted one or more of his exploits to the multitude. His story generally described some desperate encounter in battle, how he met bis foe in single combat and scalped him; or perhaps a successful contest with an infuriated bear, wolf, or other fierce animal. These stories were very graphically told, and invariably highly exaggerated in the Indian's usual manner; although it was not uncommon to see a brave bear- ing on bia body unmistakable scars of encounters with both man and beast. Most ol the warriors present took their turn at storytelling; at times some of the old men, carried away by the enthusiasm of the moment, would sud- denly rise from the circle, where they sat apart, and rushing to the pole nar- rated wonderful exploits they had performed in their youth, quite outdoing in boastfulness all who had preceded them. . ^ , \ mum TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. THE CREES. 279 The Crees were another tribe of Algonquins, speaking that language. Originally they claimed as their hunting ground the immense territory lying between Lakes Athabaska and Winnipeg, and from Hudson's Bay to the Rocky Mountains. In early days they were a warlike people, repeatedly driving their neighbors, the Athabaskas, far away to the north. They early acquired firearms and were fairly proficient in their use. Thej^ were not of large stature, but were well built, having a smooth skin of a light copper color. At this time they numbered from three to five thousand, but small-pox reduced them greatly. After the visitation of this scourge they allied with the Assiniboins; being unlike the latter in many respects, they refused to conform to the customs of the Assiniboins, then moving farther north made their homes between them and the Blackfoot country. Nearly all Algonquin tribes were intelligent, readily adopting the customs of civilization. The Crees retained their savage ways more persistently than any other tribe of this family, and were very fierce toward many of their Indian neighbors. Coming in contact with the French trappers and voyageurs, as well as the employees of the various Fur Companies, the French Canadians took many of their women as wives; the half-breeds and their numerous descendants in that region to-day are largelj' of Cree blood. The Crees were firm believers in the Sun Dance, practicing this cruel cere- mony after the manner of the Sioux. They held this dance up to a recent date, persistently refusing to discon- tinue it, claiming that it was a religious ceremon}' which they bar! <* right to perform. After the whites settled in the Cree country both the local authorities and the United States Government used their best eff jrts to pre- vent it, but without success. ' a ^ % THE KASKASIAS AND OTHER ALGONQUIN TRIBES. The Kaskasias were one of a number of Algonquin tribes that occupied the territory between the Wabash and the Mississippi Rivers, These tribes formed a sort of confederacy. They were the Kaakaaias, the Cahokias, Tamaronas, Peorias and the Michigamis, All these confederated tribes were known imder the name of Illinois. In the early part of the century they ceded their lands to the United States Government, and moved west of the Mississippi. '^ . /;..■....■'.■ . v. •",■;?■: 7,,>u.'..: ;>:'>'■ ^- ;,..: i. ^ :■; ;vri ,: TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. THE MIAMIS. *■ . These Indians originally came from the western part of Ohio and eastern part of Indiana. They occupied the country south of the Maumee River, and as far as the Wabash. They were removed to Kansas and lived in the southeastern part of that State. At one time they were estimated to number ten thousand souls, and to have been very fierce warriors. Since their re- moval to Kansas they have lived a sort of half -civilized life. THE POTTAWATTOMIES. These people originally occupied the country around Green Bay, Wiscon- sin, but subsequently pushed to the territory of the Miamis, whom they ex- pelled from the region around the southern end of Lake Michigan. They subsequently moved to Kansas, and thence to the Indian Territory. THE 0TTAWA8. The Ottawas were a portion of the Algonquin stock, and originally lived on the banks of the river of tho same name. They compelled the Hurons and other peoples to pay them tribute for the privilege of passing up and down the river through their territory. A small portion of the same nation lived formerly in the upper part of the peninsula of Michigan. When the Hurons were attacked and almost destroyed by the Six Nations, the Ottawas suffered greatly, and the remnant of the nation fled, taking refuge on the southwestern extremity of Lake Superior. t 4ii THE SACS AND FOXES. The Outagamias or Sacs were of Algonquin stock and originally occupied the country about Green Bay, Wisconsin. They allied themselves with the Kickapoos, their neighbors on the south, finally advancing toward the Illinois River, driving out the tribes inhabiting that territory. They were finally ' li TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. removed to Kansas, where they rapidly increased in numbers, hoko tribe refused to leave their home in Black River. These people have al ways been noted for their superior intelligence and their great powers in war. Although liv- ing far to the east they refused to adopt the customs of civili- zation. The Sacs and Foxes adopted among their numbers warriors belonging to other tribes, whom they made chiefs. One of whom, Black Hawk, was a Pottawattomie by birth. Keo- kuk was also one of their prominent men. During the Black Hawk war they allied with the Winnebagoes. 281 The Noko- VARIOUS TRIBES. BEAR OLAW NECKLACE — HEAD COVERING MADE OP SKINS— HORSEHAIR ORNAMENTATION — SAO AND FOX. There were in Texas various Indian peoples. On the head- waters of the Brazos River lived the Huecos or Wacoes. They were a small number of Indians who had lived there for a long time. Little is known of their origin, but they had a language of their own. In the early part of this cen- tury their numbers were less than one hundred. Somewhere about 1840 they numbered about four hundred, and now are partly civilized. The Keechies were also another small body of Indians living in northwestern Texas, having a language of their own. In the early part of this century they numbered from sixty to seventy-five, in 1840 they numbered from two to three hundred. The several members of these small tribes who lived together as neighbors, held friendly intercourse, and lived at peace with other, were more or less of different stock. The languages, manners and customs in some instances were very different, while among some of the others they had a strong resemblance both in language and habits. The language of the Wacoes, Tawaconies, lones were similar, while others were totally different. %$% TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The Caddoes constituted one linguistic stock. Shortly after the acquisi- tion of Texas by the United States, they numbered about two thousand ; ten years later they numbered about fifteen hundred, and at present there is only a remnant of the tribe left, numbering about four hundred. They had their home in northwestern Texas, and were neighbors to the Tonkaways. Little is to be said of them, as little is known. When I last saw them it was about the year 1869 or 1870. They were partially civilized and lived at peace with all their neighbors. THE SEMINOLES. These people originally belonged to the Appalache family and had their home in Florida, and too much has been written of their history for me to say anything about them during the time they lived in their original terri- tory ; but that they married and intermarried with the negroes is evidenced by the fact that a large portion of the Seminoles, after they were removed from Florida, had their home in Texas on the Rio Qrande, in and about Fort Duncan or the town of Eagle Pass, and bore all the characteristice of the Afri- can. Here they lived after a style more Mexican than Indian. Few of them were less than half-blood negro. Their hair was curly, their noses flat, and in appearance looked like the African. Among their number were some very old people who could speak a little English. They had a language of their own, which was guttural and sounded very much like that of the ignorant negro of slavery days. ' , The Seminoles were employed as guides by the troops and others in Texas. They were efficient in running the trail ; this was about the only Indian trait they possessed. They raised sheep, goats and other animals in large numbers, but made only slight advances in the arts of civilization. . ^..Ui4 t TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 283 CHAPTER XXXV. THE NEZ PERCYS, OR PIERCED-NOSED INDIANS— ON THE WARPATH-SUR- RENDER OF CHIEF JOSEPH— THE CAY USES. A Part of the Shahaptin Family — How the Nez Perces were first Discovered —Tlieir Pierced Noses— An Intelligent Tribe— White Squatters— Fii-st Outbreak against the Whites — Going on the Warpath — Organizing a Bloody Campaign— A Fierce Battle — Indian Tactics — Troops in Pursuit— Peculiar Incident of the Battle — Birth of a Child during the Engagement — Chief Joseph — His Daughter Lost in the Confu- sion of Battle — Devoured by Wild Animals — The Chief's only Heir — His Wonderful Retreat of Two Thousand Miles — His Military Ability — Indians Fighting with their Clothes On — Rare Instance of Indian Magnanimity — Surrender of Chief Joseph — Asking no Favors — His Patriotic Speech — The Cayuses — Low, Cunning — Great Thieves. Thb Nez Perces, or Pierced Noses, were the most numerous tribe of the Shahaptin nation, and spoke the language of that family. The name was given them by French Canadian trappers and traders, for the reason that at one time they pierced the cartilage at the end of the nose; in this a polished bone, stick, or feather was worn. They have been erroneously called by many other names, such as Shahap- tin, Numepo, Sbopomish, etc. This can readily be accounted for from the fact that they were divided into many small tribes, each of which had its own name. Sometimes the whole tribe was called hy the name of one or another of the small ones. When first discovered by Lieutenants Lewis and Clark at the head- waters of the Columbia River, they were peaceable and hospitable, and aided the party greatly in making explorations in that region. In their report to the War Department these oflBcers stated that the Nez Perces occu- pied almost the entire Northwestern Territory, that they were the richest tribe of Indians in that country and that they numbered from twenty thou- sand to twenty-five thousand. How they arrived at this conclusion I cannot understand, for the Nez Perces, with even their superior intelligence, had no means of making or keeping records; and as they were scattered all over their territory, it was sim- ply impossible for Lieutenants Lewis and Clark, during their short stHy among them, to have seen more than a small portion of them. I never knew any one to make an estimate of their numbers to exceed five thousand to ten thousand. ■ •« TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 287 "No, we have kept our faith with you, now keep yours with my people." The old chief died and his sou took his place; hoth he and his people refused to submit to the decision of the Quvernmeut, although the Indians had agreed to live on the reservation. Knowing the futility of going to war, the chief reluctantly consented to make concessions; but many of the Indians resented this, and organized themselves into war parties, taking the warpath against the whites. This occurred during the absence of the head men, who were away on a hunting expedition, After their return they upheld the acts of the others, and organized all the warriors of the tribe into a fighting body. One of the fiercest battles that followed took place in a deep basaltic walled canon on White Bird Creek. The troops which had been sent in pur- suit entered the canon thinking that they could approach the Indians and lead them away, as they had always been peaceful. In this they were mis- taken, for the latter threw out a herd of horses to cover their movements. The)'' then deployed as skirmishers, and with sonie fine manoeuvres closed on the troops, and in a short time turned their flank. Among the troops were a number of volunteers from the settlers, who, observing the success of the Indians, became panic-stricken and broke from the lines; the Indians then made fierce and sudden dashes on the soldiers, demoralizing the whole body. The first dash was so quick that the troops had no time to get into position; but for the coolness and courage of the regular forces the whole body of whites might have been annihilated. The army oflScers forced the fighting, compelling the Indians to retreat. During this retreat, which lasted more than four months, the Indians fought many pitched battles with the United States troops, in which the former were usually victorious. A very unusual thing occurred during this retreat. When passing through a village of Indians who wished to join hiui in his fight against the whites, Chief Joseph rejected their proposition, saying, "Keniain where you ar(% and let me fight this out my own way." He also refpiewti'd them t'> do what lie recommended, and not to commit any outrage that might embiuer the feeling then existing. His orders to his v/arriors to H})aro all white pris- oners taken in battle and not to kill a v^hite woman or child, was something unknown among the North American Indians in time of war. Such mag- naniniity is entirely foreign to Indian character. During the many batVu's with the troops the Indian warriors did not strip off their clothing, as was their usual custom, but wore their breechclothi^ and moccasins, and did not look soliideouB wliile engaged in conflict. . •. A peculiar incideht of this battle was that Chief Jjseph's wife gave birth to a child during the heat of the fight. I'his infant daughter was the onl} :|: JH)L'NTEU WAItRIdlt— HAINIKU WA.K HUKSE— NKZ PI.KC'K. Twenty Yflars Among Our Horn lie ludlung. PaffcSm TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 289 child left to him when he finally surrendered; his other child, a girl about ten years, ran away on the day of the final engagement, and being lost, either died of starvation or was devoured by wild animals. Chief Joseph, whose Indian name was Thunder- roUing-in-the-Mountains, must be rated among the greatest Indian chiefs and warriors of this conti- nent. He possessed splendid military capacity, as well as great ability in the management of his people. His retreat from Kamia on the Nez Perces reservation to the Bear Paw Mountains, twice crossing the Kocky Moun- tains, carrying with him the wounded, infirm, and the children of his people, with very insufficient supplies, through a rugged mountainous country, in all kinds of weather, covering a distance of two thousand miles, is one of the greatest achievements ever performed by an uncivilized man. During this remarkable retreat, which lasted nearly six months, Joseph was followed by some of the ablest generals of the Civil War. He was .Anally brought to bay in the Bear Paw Mountains, where, after a six-days' battle, in which both sides fought with desperate bravery and persistence, he finally surrendered. In person Joseph was tall and spare, in intellect he was a giant. He was preeminently a war chief; though he was not so popular with his people at firpl as some other chiefs, he gradually grow in the estimation of his tribe and the whites, until he became the first Indian in the Northwest. When he surrendered he did so with dignity, asking no favors for his people; but calling attention to the many alleged breaches of faith on the part of the Government, made no complaint. On one occasion he remarked that he did not blame the President for his neglect, as he had so much to attend to in looking after the whites that ho could not be expected to trouble himself about anything so unimportant as an Indian. If this utterance was sincere it was magnanimous; if not, it was very sarcastic. The highest eulogy that can be written of Joseph is that his best friends were those who fought him hardest. They learned to respect his ability and character. His language when he surrendered and resigned his freedom for- ever was as touching as it was dignified. He said: "I surrender because I do not wish to see the continued suffering of my people. My camp is filled with wo ided, sick, and infirm; my brother has been killed in battle; my little daughter has been lost on the prairie where she ran in the confusion of the fight; my people, wlio liave been sj rich in horses and the necessaries of life, are now on the snow-covered prairie, comfortless and starving. I am within a short distance of British America, and should I care to leave my wounded behind, I can escape with my well people and cross the line, where I ran be protected; but I prefer to surrender on my own ground, and 21)0 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. !( the Government is at liberty to treat me personally as it may cbooee." To the Shabaptiu family also belonged several otber large tribes. The principal in regard to numbers were the Cayuses Palooses, Umatillas, Walla Wallas and Klikatabs. THE CAYUSES. Of the various tribes the Cayuses were the worst of the whole. They were crafty, cunning, and troublesome, being constantly on some thieving expedition. They were notorious horse thieves, and were despised by all people in their country. The trappers and traders suffered severely from them, as they frequently stole their entire outfit, after killing many of the men when they could do so without being caught. They were probably the meanest as well as the lowest tribeof their family, as they were constantly skulking through the mountains in small parties, and also roaming over the country in search of small bodies of Indians and whites, whom they attacked when found in a defenseless position. When mounted cbey rarely used a saddle, the horse was guided by a raw- hide rope around the lower jaw. The warriors, almopt naked, were ready for any emergency, and could dash on a party with great rapidity, running away as quickly as they came. Having such good mounts it was seldom that they were overtaken. After an attack in which they killed some one, thoy immediately returned to their homes, when the whole tribe protected them in declaring that none of its people bad been away from camp even for an hour. They were so secretive that it was with difficulty that anything could be learned about their affairs; it was not until after their savage instincts liad been reduced that a white man was permitted to have one of their women for his wife; even then they were so suspicious that he was never taken into confidence. Should anything become known about them, it was charged to the "squaw men," when some of them were sure to suffer in some way either by killing, being robbed of hie entire effects, or driven away. TWENT'* YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. m CHAPTER XXXVI. CHARACTERISTICS AND CUSTOMS OF THE CALIFORNIA TRIBES— INDIANS WHO TATTOOED THEIR FACES AND BODIES. Different Linguistic Stock — Many Languages Spoken among this Group — Tribes which went Naked — Garments of Rabbit Skins — Painting their Faces and Bodies — Per- sonal Adornment — Slitting their Ears— The Custom of Tattooing and what it Meant — Passing Goose Quills through the Nose — Night Watchers of the Camp — An Indian Bath — Ingenious Ways of Catching Fish — Eating their Food Raw, Entrails and All — A Meal of Grassliop|)ers — Bread Made of Dried and Pulverized Grass- hoppers — Eating Portions of the Bodies of their Enemies — Money Estimate of Human Life — Peculiar Marriasije Customs— Dances and Festivities — Gambling and Games — Treatment of the Si<'.k Cremating their Dead. Previous to the advent of the white man in California that region was more densely popu- lated hy Indians than any portion of this coun- trj'. They were not of one linguistic stock, there being from ten to twelve distinct lan- guages, and double that number of dialects spoken among this group. In complexion they were much darker than those east of the moun- tains. There was less uniformity of type among them than any other group of Indians in this country; some being short and of com- pact build, others thin and weak; only a few were tall and well entered their country. 1% INDIAN WITH BKADED LEGGTNGH AND MOWASlNa— SHIRT OKNAMKNTEL) \VHH Wol.K SKIN STKIPS — UOVKKN- MKNT HEDAL. I;'il formed; none were fierce, and when the whites 292 TWENTY YKARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ■^: the Indians offered no stern resistance to them, as did those of other sections. The mountain tribes were more warlike and physically better developed than those living in the lowlands. They were better armed and frequently fought among themselves, or made raids on their neighbors. The Indian nations and tribes of North America resembled each other in general characteristics. Nevertheless, the influence of soil, climate, and environment, operating on them through centuries, gave to many nations as marked an individuality as may be observed among different nationalities of the civilized races. The California Indians not only differed greatly from those who were remote from them, but differed from maLy of their immediate neighbors, and even differed in some respects among themselves. Living in a mild climate they were less warlike than many other Indians; their custom of living in rude habitations, and of wearing little clothing, or sometimes none, was not so much characteristic of a lower type of manhood as their inheritance of laziness. They were content simply to exist, and nothing but necessity com- pelled them to the least exertion. ' ' The natives of northern California were the Yurok and Karok, who occu- pied the most northerly portion of the territory on the lower Klamath River, and spoke entirely different tongues. South of the Yurok, on Hum- bolt River were the Wishosks; these two tribes spoke languages of a common origin. Between the Wishosk and the Yuki were a Tinueh tribe, in the vicinity of the Eel and Trinity Rivers. The Yuki con- stituted two divisions or groups, the one embracing the region between John's Creek and the Pacific, and the other the territory south of Clear Lake. The Yuki and the Tinneh tribes, were among the lowest and most degraded of all the California Indiana, and were despised by all their neighbors. They intermarried to such an extent as to produce a mixed race, which inhabited this region, and were worse, if anything, than their ancestors. The Pomo family also occupied a large territory as far north as the Rus- sian River, extending inland to about the borders of Clear Lake, and as far west as the Pacific Ocean. This nation was divided into various tribes that differed but little from one another in characteristics and customs. TbeChimariko, had their home immediately south of the Karok, were few in numbers and insignificant in almost every way. The Wintun family occupied the territory lying between Mt. Shasta and Benecia. The family was divided into two groups, the northern known as Wintuus, and the southern as Patwins. To the south and east of the south- : INDIAN DRAWING ON BUFFALO ROBE. Twiity Years Aiiii>ii*( Our HostUe Indians. Vagf- sm 394 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ern Wintuns lived the Maidn, and east of the northern Wintuns were the Achoniawi, who extended as far east as Nevada. The Maidu family differed somewhat in their manners and customs, and even in their dialect. The further south they extended the more pronounced were their peculiari- ties, and the greater their superstitions. The territory around Lake Tahoe and the Truckee River was the home of the Washo family. Between the Sierra Nevada and the Pacific, and ex- tending southward from above San Francisco to Monterey was the territory of the Mutsun. This great family consisted of four large groups : on the east the Miook; on the south and southwest the IViutson proper; on the north- west the Olamentke, and on the north and northeast the Talatin. To the south of the Mutsun was the Yokuts family, occupying an irregu- lar-shaped territory into which they had been driven by the Pi-Utes. This territory stretched east and west from the Sierras to the Coast Range, and south to Tulare Lake, embracing a narrow tract of country as far as Los Angeles county. They were divided into many small tribes, forming a sort of confederacy, which acted in unison. Each tribe regulated its own affairs, but in matters of importance councils of the chiefs of the different tribes were held. The chiefs of all the different tribes were subordinate to the head chief of the nation, but the decision of the latter was not always final, and might be overruled by a council of the subordinate chiefs. The position of head chief was hereditary, while the tribal chiefs were chosen in the usual Indian manner. Every year a great council was held at which all the chiefs were present. Councils were always presided over by the head chief, and the affairs of each tribe were presented to the council by its chief, and such measures as were deemed necessary for their common interest were agreed upon. They were not particular about their clothing, either as to quality or quantity. The Yuroks wore a breechcloth only, though in the cold season they wore a buckskin, or a robe made of rabbit skins around them. A robe of rabbit skins was made double, with fur inside and out, and required from sixty to seventy-five skins. Among the coast tribes, garments made of s6al, and other skins were often worn. The Pitt River Indians wore only a deer- skin thrown over them. The men usually went bareheaded, but the women wore headgear or covering made of basket work, often gaily ornamented with feathers. In central and southern California the men frequently went naked. The women wore an apron of deerskin or braided grass, and sometimes a gar- ment covering tbe bosom and reaching to the knees. In cold weather the men often wore a deerskin about the shoulders; and the women wore a i' TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 295 garment of skin thrown over them, in addition to a short kilt of braided grass. The women and children of the coast tribes wore petticoats of sealskin, which were occasionally ornamented with fringe and shells. The chief's cloak reached nearly to the ground ; this was the only mark of distinction in his dress or appearance. At times some of these tribes wore a gala dress, covering the body, but this was on special occasions, and was the result of vanity rather than a sense of decency. They made moccasins of braided grass to protect the feet while traveling over rough places, through brush, and sometimes bound their legs and bodies with twisted bands of hide for protection. Both men and women painted their faces and bodies in various colors. They were fond of ear ornaments, and wore huge pendants from slits made in their ears. Some of the ornaments were from six to eight inches in length. Through the ear-holes was inserted a piece of hollow wood or bone as thick as one's finger, this was sometimes used as a needlecase; it was often decorated with glass beads and other ornaments. Bracelets and necklaces made of strings of beads and ornamented shells were also worn. The various tribes differed in the manner of wearing their hair. Some wore it in the form of a queue, some in two twisted braids hanging doVvn the back or over the shoulders, while others let it hang loose. Those who wore the hair loose cut it off at the shoulders, others cut it aroiind the face ; some of the tribes who plaited it wove the fibre of bark or silk grass in the plaits; although the hair was considered the greatest ornament of their per- sons none of them took much care of it. Some of the men tattooed their breasts and arms, but the practice was not general among them. Occasionally they tattooed themselves by certain marks whereby they could be identified if captured. The women tattooed their faces, breasts and arms in colors made from the juices of plants; the lines were sometimes so arranged as to indicate the per- sonal characteristics of the person so ornamented. This, however, was only peculiar to certain tribes. The natives around Klamath Lake bedecked themselves more profusely than their neighbors, covering their bodies from the face to the waist with various colors and figures. Occasionally not only different tribes, but even families of the same tribe had their own distinctive style of tattooing and painting their faces and bodies. Their habitations did not greatly differ. In summer they drew the bushes together to shade them from the sun. Their permanent dwellings, however, consisted of a hole dug in the ground ; around this poles were set, over IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET {MT-3) 1.0 I.I ^Ul |2.5 ijt m mil' 40 IIIII2.0 12.2 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^= ^m ^ ^ 6" »• Vi /< 7 y ^ ^ PhotDsraphic Sciences Corporation 4^ A \ ^1\ 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WIBSTiRNY MSaO (716) 173-4303 ^*^- <<>.^ ^ o \ I .<^. io A ^ ^96 TWENTY YEARS AMONG CUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ! t i'i which a conical covering was placed. The size of the huts, or dugouts, de-- pended on the number of inmates, which greatly varied. Habitations of this kind, as among all nomadic races, were built to meet the requirements of time and place. Some were dome shaped, like beaver houses ; others were square. All bore a certain resemblance to each other in construction and arrangement. A few tribes built more permanent dwellings, and evinced no little inge- nuity in making them strong and serviceable; and all consisted of but one apartment. The sleeping places were invariably arranged in Indian fashion around the wall of the hut. Among certain tribes some of the men re- mained awake all night watching, while the others slept; often the guards took their weapons and joined the watchers in other lodges of the camp — all fearful of being unexpectedly attacked or surprised. The tribes of southern California had the worst, the flimsiest, and most ill-kept dwellings of any of the Californian tribes. Those of the northern Indians were substantial and well adapted for the purposes for which they were designed, while some of the southern tribes seemed to have derived some ideas in regard to house-building from their immediate neighbors to the south, residing in v/hat was formerly Mexican territory. A few of the tribes bathed, or rather took an occasional plunge in the water; but this was done lO cool themselves and not from a sense of cleanli- ness. They only moistened the dirt on their bodies, and came out of the water as filthy as they vrent in. They built sweat houses of earth; these were low and small, and always located near a body of water. When taking a bath of this kind, several of them entered the sweat house, then closing the entrance, remained there until almost overcome by the intense heat; after they were nearly exhausted they rushed out and plunged into the water. Hot baths and a cold plunge wer taken during the coldest weather, which did not seem to cause them in- convenience, or have any effect detrimental to the health of the bather. Sweat houses were heated by hot stones after the usual Indian custom, and were scattered all through California and Oregon. They preferred fishing to bunting, as it required less exertion. Some of them caught fish by building closely constructed willow dams at certain places on the streams, so that the fish could not pass through; and when they swarmed at these dams, they were scooped out by means of baskets and rude drag-nets. Salmon especially were easily taken in this way by the northern tribes. When they swarmed up the rivers in spawning time, they collected in such numbers l)efore the dams that they could be literally taken out of the water in bHsketfuls. Some of the tribes bad fishing chiefs when TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 297 they went on their fishing expeditions, and the orders of these chiefs during that time were implicitly obeyed. The coast Indians ate shellfish, seal, and stranded whales. Their principal food consisted of acorns and nuts. These were often eaten raw, or sometimes pounded into a pulp, then made into bread; this was | baked in a hole in the ground, over which hot coals were heaped. Occasionally they ate their food raw; at other times it was half -boiled in close woven baskets filled with water heated by hot atones. Meat was some- times broiled or cooked in a hole in the ground, over which were placed live coals. The animal was roasted whole, just as it was killed, and entrails and all were eaten. They never washed their cooking utensils, or their hands, although they uniformly ate with their fingers. Fruits, roots, berries and vegetables formed part of their diet. The women did all the fruit gathering, ' the men confining their labors to hunting and fishing. Some of the more provident dried or smoked their fish and meats, and preserved roots, berries and acorns in baskets for seasons of want. Many of the tribes were too lazy to hunt, and resorted to various devices for capturing game. What little game they secured was usually captured by traps or snares, or by running it down by relays, ac which they were ex- j)erts. Often brush fences or corrals were built, into which game was driven. Deer and small game were shot with the bcw and arrow, by stealing close to the animal. In chasing deer the hunter covered himself with a deer skin, with the head and horns aloft, and approached close to the herd before the ruse was discovered by the unsuspecting animals. Grasshoppers were secured by setting fire to the grass in dry weather and driving the insects into pits prepared for the purpose. At other times they formed a line and beat the ground with sticks, driving the grasshoppers into the pit. These insects, when caught in large numbers, were cooked in holes in the ground, over which fires were built; st other times they were dried and put away for future use, and when pulverized were made into a kind of paste or cake. Some of the tribes were deterred by superstition from eating the fiesh of large animals, especially bear, as they believe«Mi..v>.i«''<:v ■■;■ I "l*/:.,- HABITATIONS OF MOUNTAIN TRIBES— SKIN-C'UVEREl) LODGES 302 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 'ill ti-l, I CHAPTER XXXVII. THE COLUMBIAN GROUP— THE STORY OF AN INDIAN QUEST FOR THE WHITE MAN'S BIBLE— INDIAN ATROCITIES. A Brave but Peaceably Inclined People — Ceremonies when Preparing for the Warpath — Imitating the Cry of Birds and Wild Animals — The War Chief — How Braves were Enlisted for War — Treitment of Women among the Different Tribes — Indian Slaves and Slavery — Staking Wives and Children on Games of Chance — A Risky Profes- sion — Burial Ceremonies — A Vicious Tribe Called the Rogues — Why they were so named — An Expedition in Search of the White Man's Bible — Father ^ =} Smet — His Life and Labors among the Indians — The Measles among the Indians- Destruction of the Protestant Mission — Savage Instincts Aroused — An Expedition for the Rescue of Captives. The Columbian tribes possessed a fertile country where subsistence could be procured without much effort. Although nomadic they did not wander far from their central home. In nearly all their characteristics and customs they were somewhat in advance o^ the Indians living east of the Rocky Mountains, yet retaining the innate barbarism of the Red Man. Their wealth consisted chiefly of horses; large herds of these were pastured in the rich valleys of their country. How they first obtained them is not known. They had a tradition that thej' originally obtained them from the Shoshonees, who secured them from wild herds. Some of the tribes, notably the Walla Wallas, when first visited by white men owned thousands of horses; in some places the country was literally covered with them. Among many of these INDIAN WITH BEAVER CAP AND FAN. M^' TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 303 tribes a man was deemed poor if he did not own fifteen or twenty horses. They were the only standard of vahie when used in barter. The Cohimbian Indians were excellent horsemen, and when forced into war handled the animals with great ability. Though living within a comparatively restricted territory, the Oregon and Washington tribes differed in character and personal appearance. The tribes of the interior, from their pastoral life, were, when left undisturbed, generally mild and inoffensive, though when aroused they were vindictive; while the coast Indians, especially those of the north, were ferocious and treacherous. They differed no less in characteristics and customs. Almost every locality had its own tribe, that spoke a language distinct from the others. Before starting on the warpath a grand council was held, which all the chiefs attended, and the old men of the tribes determined on the best meas- ures to be adopted. The pipe was smoked, speeches were made by the old men and tribal chiefs, and the ceremony was concluded with a grand war dance. A field review was held ; the warriors, mounted on their best horses and bedecked in all their rude ornaments, went through the manoeuvres of an imaginary battle. In dress they were not particular. Formerly they were comfortably clothed in furs and skins, but after the trade in peltries became general throughout their country, they found it difficult to procure clothing, and the poor were often unable to protect themselves adequately against the rigors of the cold winters. Hunting and fishing were the two principal sources of subsistence. The streams f'lrnished a plentiful supply of fish, and the woods abounded in game. The Nez Perces, who were the richest, and in many respects the most advanced, of the Oregon tribes, raised a few vegetables. The women made periodical trips and migrations to gather various kinds of roots, berries, and fruits. Salmon and other fish were dried, then pulverized, and after being mixed with oil were laid away for winter use. Fish swarmed so abundantly in the lakes and streams that it was easy to lay in a sufficient store for the winter; yet most of the tribes were so improvident that they took little heed of the future, and frequently passed from the greatest abundance to extreme want — feasting one day and starving the next. The Shooshwaps crossed one chain of the Rocky Mountains on their hunts, but being at war with tribes on the east could go no further. The Okinagans disguised themselves with wolf and bear skins, when hunting buffalo, and could imitate the cry of birds and beasts with wonderful effec- 304 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. i I :} I U : 'I' I! tiveness. The Nez Percea, Flatheads, Cceur d'Alenea, Spokanes, Pend d'Oreilles and other tribes hunted together; the Flatheads and the Yakimas often joined in the eastern hunt. The office of chieftainship was hereditary, although some chiefs were chosen on account of conspicuous bravery. With the exception of the war chief they did not exercise great power. Armed with a whip, the war chief could enforce dis- cipline when necessary by flagellation; he could not, how- ever, compel his warriors to go upon a war exp» .tion against their will. A war dance was therefore held, which was in reality a recruiting measure, for any brave who joined in the dance was in honor bound to go with the war party, or upon the warpath. The Kootenais and others usually entered battle naked, sometimes not even wearing a breechcloth. Their saddles and bridles were the same as those used by other Indians, but unlike most Indians, some of them used spurs made of sharp fishbones. They were extremely cruel to their prison- ers of war, keeping them for torture, which was repeated over and over again at short intervals, until death ended the vic- tim's agony. Instead of scalping, some of the tribes cut off the forefingers of the fallen foe as evidence of the victor's prowess. Many of the tribes used boats, some making them of birch and pine, others of logs hollowed out and sloped at the ends, and others made the more serviceable bull-boat. The Nez Perces, Cayuses, and other mountain tribes had no boats. Some tribes made rude maps of the countries they traversed on skins or the bark of trees. They believed simply in a state of future existence, when the individual would be happy or unhappy according to his merits or demerits. They distinguished readily between right and wrong, recognizing the principles of justice to a considerable degree. Adultery, homicide, theft, lying, and even minor oflfenses were con- demned as wrong, and were punished in various ways by the different tribes, usually by fines, flogging, or the reprimand of the chief. Polygamy was tolerated and practiced; though it was not approved among many of the tribes, among a few it was principally confined to the chiefs. Their laxity of morals was perhaps not any worse than might be expected INDIAN BALL BAT. lii! TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 305 among a rude and ignorant people. Modesty and decency were recognized in a general way and among a few of the tribes were respected. Some tribes had no marriage ceremonies, while among others the occasion was celebrated by feastings and rejoicings. Wives were bought, the price usually being paid in horses; it was not infrequent for betrothals to be made by parents while the parties were yet children. A Spokane wooer was com- pelled to consult the chief and the girl herself, as well as her parents or natural protectors before he could claim her as his wife. When a party eloped, as sometimes happened, the Indians condemned the woman as an outcast, subject to the caprice of any man in the tribe ; then the girl's parents were entitled to confiscate the man's property. If the wife should die in consequence of her husband's harsh treatment the husband was dingraced, and was bound to propitiate the woman's parents or relations with additional presents. The wife could be discarded at will, and it was not uncommon for a discarded wife to be taken back by her husband. The husband, in certain tribes, could at his wife's death recover the price paid for her. A custom prevailed among some tribes, prohibiting the hus- band from marrying for a year after the death of a wife. The rule was often evaded by the husband marrying just before her death, unless she died suddenly. In the Okinagan tribe the wives lived among their relatives a great part of the time, one or two of them remaining with the husband. When a Spokane married a woman of another tribe he joined her tribe on the ground that a woman would be more useful and work better in the tiibe to which she was accustomed than among strangers. Some tribes treated the women with remarkable consideration, for Indians. Most of the work was done by prisoners held by the tribes, therefore they were considered val- uable property. Prisoners were generally treated well except in old age, or when disabled, then they were left to perish of want or negbct. Captives were generally regarded as slaves, and it was not uncommon for some of these tribes to engage in war for the purpose of capturing them. Children born of captives were also considered slaves. Throughout the entire territory occupied by these Indians their habitations were much the same. Usually they lived in lodges, especially when mov- ing about; but during the winter season those tribes that lived almost ex- clusively on fish, and did not wander far in search of food, built themselves huts. These were usually from fifteen to twenty-five feet long, and wide in proportion, verging into conical form at the top. Within, wooden strips or cross pieces were stretched for the purpose of drying salmon, meat, and other articles of food. All the Oregon tribes were fond of amusements, diversions, and were Ii: 306 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 1'^ 1 m i! ':;■ inveterate gamblers. Horse racing was the chief amusement. Those in the region of the Columbia Biver carried the vice of gambling to excess. In horse racing they stopped at nothing. After having lost all their personal effects they staked their children or wives, and last of all, themselves. Should he lose himself, he became the slave of the winner. Sometimes a number of individuals staked their effects together, when one side or the other was sure to be beggared. Their dancing consisted of jumping around, after the usual ludian fashion, uttering fierce yells, singing weird songs, and vigorously beating drums. They were greatly addicted to smoking after the white man taught them the use of tobacco. On all important occasions from the making up of a war party to meetings for barter and trade, the pipe was smoked con- tinually. Their large herds of horses were marked by cutting the ears in various ways, so that the owners could tell their own. Horses were often left with- out a guard, yet they rarely strayed far from the habitations of their owners, who were good, though not remarkable, horsemen. Children learned to ride when two or three years old. They also had countless numbers of dogs, which, in reality, came pretty near being tamed prairie wolves. Oc- casionally when traveling, they used them in carrying light burdens on travois. All the tribes used the same kind of sweat baths as the California In- dians, besides various herbs for curing disease. When these failed, they resorted to the magic of the medicine man. As he was supposed to possess the power of curing all maladies, if he lost his patient he paid the penalty with his life, provided he could not satisfactorily explain bow his medicine was neutralized by that of some rival medicine man. Sometimes he bought off the indignant friends of the deceased. Few medicine men died a natural death, as they were sure to lose a patient sooner or later. Mourning for the dead was shown by painting the face black and cutting off the hair. On special occasions they lacerated their bodies in a frightful manner, and cut out pieces of flesh, and threw them into the fire in their frantic demonstrations of grief. All these tribes had an aversion to mentioning the names of the dead. They had various ways of disposing of the bodies of the dead, and various customs and ceremonies on these occasions. Some buried the bodies in the ground, wrapped in their clothing; others placed them in a canoe, suspended from a tree. The Okinagans bound the bodies of the dead to the trunk of a tree, in an upright position. Food and valuables were left at the burial place, and horses were killed at the spot. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 307 The Ne/ Perces, Flatheads and Kootenais were among the best type of the •aboriginal race found west of the Rocky Mountains. The Klamaths embraced the Modocs, Shasta, and other tribes. The Uraatillas, who were a notable tribe, were a branch of the Cayuses. The Warm Spring Indians consisted of what was called the "confederated tribes," confined mainly to middle Oregon. They were comprised of the Walla Walla and Wasco tribes, which banded together in self-defense, but did not trouble their neighbors as long as left undisturbed. In characteris- tics and customs they were degraded to the ordinary Indian level, and were much less advanced than the Nez Perces and other tribes. The Umatillas, Cayuses, the Walla Wallas, and Nez Perces lived near the Columbia River about a hundred miles east of the Cascade Mountains. To the left of this range lived a tribe, vicious and treacherous, called the Rogues, who gave that name to the river where they had their homes — some- times called the Rascal River. Their aboriginal name was the Potameos, but, owing to their treachery and hostility toward white men, the French Canadian trappers called them the Rogues, or Rascals. Next to the Nez Perces, the Cayuses were the most intelligent and the best disposed toward the whites. They were an inferior off-shoot of the Nez Perces, and lived on the north side of the Snake River. Next to them lived the Spokanes, also a peaceable tribe, quite intelligent for Indians, and usually willing to serve the whites who entered that territory. The tribes that lived in the Willamette Valley, and along the basin of the Columbia River west of the Cascade Mountains, were irredeemably vicious, and the savages east of the mountains in the Dalles country were in no wise better. The country then inhabited by these people was generally avoided by settlers, owing to the hostile and treacherous disposition of the Indians. The Umatilla branch of the Cayuses showed the strongest inclination of any of the Oregon tribes to receive the white man's civilization, which was the result of the influence exercised among them by the French Canadian trappers and voyageurs, and half -civilized Iroquois Indians from Canada, who had come among them and joined the tribe. Some of the Coeur d'Alenes were among the first of the wild Indians to embrace Christianity. It came about in the following curious manner. A party of semi-civilized Iroquois from French Lower Canada made their way to the country of the Coeur d'Alenes, fraternizing with them. They told their newly-made acquaintances of the many wonders in the white man's land; how they lived; of the great things they performed; their countless numbers, and, chief of all, their manner of reaching the happy hunting ground after death. They told them that the white man had a book, a r^ 308 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ]i ill "medicine" book (the Bible), that would show every Indian the true trail to the happy nunting ground, where he would live forever in perfect bliss. After much discussion and consultation the Coeur d'Alenes determined to procure a copy of this wonderful book, and a party was organized to go in quest of it. They had no definite objective point other than the vagne East, where the Iroquois told them they could procure it. This little band, after traveling a long distance, encountered a war party from their neighbors on the east, who attacked and killed some of them. The others escaped, and returning to their own people to'd them what had occurred. Another and larger party was immediately formed to continue the search for the white man's Bible. This party succeeded in reaching Fort Benton, where they sold enough animals and skins to pay the passage of a few of them to St, Louis on the steamboat. Wandering about the cHy, they fell in with Pierre Chouteau, an old trap- per of the Indian country, and by the use of *^he sign language told hiru what they wanted. He took them to the "black gowns" priests, among whom was one Father De Smet. They recounted to him what the Iroquois had told them, and enlisted his sympathies to tiuch a degree that he asked and received permission from his superiors to accompany the Indians back to their country. Fath^-T De Smet was one of the most remarkable men of his day. A Bel- gian by birth, he came to the United States when a young man, and his entire after life was shaped by the Indians endeavoring to secure a copy of tha Bible for their people. The most astoniiibing thing in his entire career among the Indians is the fact that he lived for many years among the Black- feet, the Cceur d'Alenes, the Flatbeads, and other savage tribes without molestation. Endowed with a singular faculty of acquiring languages, he was soon able 'x> jommunicate orally and by the sign language with almost all Indian tribes with which he came in contact. His services were subse- quently enlisted by the Government, and he kept army officers and officers of the Fur Companies well informed of the true condition of affairs among the many Indians with whom he was acquainted. When war parties were being formed, and he knew their object, or objective points, he was fre- quently instrumental in preventing Indian wars and bloodshed. At the request of the Secretary of War, he accompanied the army as envoy extraordinary to the Rocky Mountain Indians on one of the longest marches ever made, covering over fifteen thousand miles. I believe he finally died in bis self-imposed service of attempting to spread Christianity among these wild people. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 80» Id 1847 occurred the firat outbreak of the Oregon Indians against the whites. A party of emigrants, while passing through the Cayuge. country, were attack«'^ ^^ the mountain fever, a disease bi^ ight on by the extremes of temperature that prevail in the mov-.tainous regions of the West. Then the measles attacked the Indian children, soon spreading among the older people. It was in the win^rer season, and the Indians, ignorant and neglectful of advice, took no adequate measures to combat the disease. They noticed, however, tha|t the whites recovered, while many of the Indians died. In addition to this the United States Government had promised to pay the Indians for their lands, but failed to keep the contract. The Indians accordingly be- came sullen, discontented, aud finally turbulent. They thought that the whites were responsible for the death of so many of their number — au idea that was encouraged among them by some half- breeds and other unscrupulous persons. The consequence was that the perse n who had charge of the Protestant Mission, a devoted man who had long served the Indians vt^ith unflagging zeal, was one night called to his door and killed by two Indians, armed with tomahawks. A tumult was precipitated by this act, and a general up- rising took place, in which all of the whites attached to the Mission were slain. In this slaughter Tione of the atrocities usually perpetrated by Indians when inflamed by passion were wanting. The massacre lasted for days, very few of the whites escaping. Even some of the Indians who had shared the hospitality of the Mission and received its assistance, were among the moat bloodthirsty of the murderers. Some of the white women were taken captive, and the horrors to which they were subjected cannot be written. Some of those who surv'ved captivity never recovered their reason. One of the notable features of this massacre was the fact that neither reli- gion or civilization had up to that time, a controlling influence on the Indian character. Some of them were "friendly," or "good Indians," having been for years regarded as sincere Christian converts. But, no sooner was the slaughter begun than, like wolves at the smell of blood, all their innate savagery was aroused, when they outdid their unconverted brethren in deeds of violence and butchery. It is but just to say, for the honor of human nature, that a few of these Indians exhibited humane in.'tincts. and did what they could to protect the defenseless whites. Especially praiseworthy was the action of the chief of the Spokanes, who cared for those who sought bis protection aud sent them away in safety the following spring. An expedition was fitted out to rescue the captives, who would doubtless have been murdered if the Indians had been hard pressed or defeated ; but Mr. Ogden, of the Hudson Bay Fur Company, bad in the meantime efl^ected their release. The prisoners numbered many women and children. How ^ .^S!^ "•— ^••-" '< nm TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. nei\T they were to death may be realized from the fact that when a messenger from Mr. McBean, the agent, arrived at the Cayuse encampment the Indian women — always the most fiendish in torturing prisoners — were assembled with knives to kill the captives. A threat from the messenger saved them. It must be admitted that the Cayuses committed these acts of atrocity under the idea of grievous wrongs, real or imaginary. They had despaired of ever g( 'iting justice from the whites. Meantime a military expedition had been sent to punish the Cayuses, and, as usual in such cases, the innocent were killed in punishing the guilty. An Indian was shot wherever he was seen, simply because he was an Indian. This precipitated the Cayuse war. Five hundred volunteers marched from the Willamette Valley against the Cayuses, and the latter met them in about equal numbers. An Indian battle followed. The savages fought from behind trees, and other obstacles, but the volunteers, all frontiersmen, beat the Indians at their own tactics. The Palooses, who occupied neutral territory between the Spokanes, the Cayuses, and the Nez Perces, joined in the war against the whites. The result was that the lands of the Indians were confiscated, because the latter did not surrender the murderers of the whites. ^ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 311 - - ■ CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE GREAT INDIAN NATIONS. Their Marked Characteristics and Radically Different Languages — The Great Algonquin Family— Their Widely Separated Tribes— Names of the Different Tribes— The Apalachees or Mobiles, Often Called the Southern Indians— Names of the Tribes— The Athabaskees — Names of the Tribes — The Lacotah or Sioux — Names of Tribes — Tlie Shoshone Nation — Names of Tribes Constituting this Nation — The Sahaptin Family and its Tribes— The Salish Fcmily— The Chinooks- The Haidahs— The California Tribes— The Pueblos— The Columbian Group— Names of Tribes— The Pawnees — Their Obscure Origin — The Miscellaneous Tribes, of whose Origin Little or Nothing is Known. The Indians of North America were divided into a num- ber of great nations or familien, each possessing marked characteristics, and speaking radically different lan- guages. Nearly all hibes, wherever located, could be traced to one of these nations; not that they possessed written records, or bad reliable traditions concerning their origin, but be- cause the characteristics and cu^tuiiis of eacbof the great nations were different. The resemblance of members of the same family to one another was so marked among all, that their origin could be traced by their peculiarities or personal api)ear- ance, even if it were not betrayed by their language or dialects. Some of the tribes of the different nations became widely separated, but so indelibly marked were they, that to one knowing Indian character and general outline, their origin oould be readily told. THE ALGONQUIN. ■WOODBN I-ANOR HEAD. Among the largest and most widely spread of these nations was the Algonquin. They were first found along the St. Lawrence River, and afterward throughout the West Hi, mmmmmum^ l^l!.U.. ti....t 312 TV^^EiNTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS". i! I They were divided into a great number of tribef . These differed greatly in cbaracteridtics and customs, some being fierce and warlike, others mild and inoffensive; some being nomadic, living by the chase; others remaining sta- tionary. Some of the tribes of this nation were the best warriors in the great West. This is notably true of the Blackfeet, Bloods, Piegans, Crees and the Northern and Southern Cheyennes. To this nation belonged the following tribes: '■-' ••-■" •-•• ■ ••■ ;; . • - ■ y.i i 1. Piegans, T Bloods, Gros Ventres of the Prairie, Kaskasias, - - .> Keeches, ' Che-'-ennes (Northern), Cheyennes (Southern), Lenni Lenapes, Blackfeet, Chippewas, Sacs and Foxes, Ottawas, Pottowatomies, Menomonees, Miamis, Peorias, Illinois, Pian kasha ws, Kickapoos, Crees (or Abbitibi), Mohicans (or Mohegans), Abenaki, New England tribes, etc. :i THE APPALACHEES, OR MOBILES, SOMETIMES CALLED THE SOUTHERN INDIANS. Another of the great Indian nations was the Appalachees. , Their original home embraced the country bounded by the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, and from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic Ocean. In the early history of our country they caused the settlers much trouble. During the Revolutionary War some of them allied themselves with the British, fighting against the Americans. In early days some of their handi- work was skilfully executed. Specimens of Jasper, Quartz and Chalcedony cut by them are fine. This is the only nation of Indians that has increased in numbers during this century. To this family the following tribes belong : Alabamians, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, Congies, ' Natchez, Cherokees. Muscogees, Seminoles, Someof the tribeaof this family who lived along ti.aQulf, have long been extinct, leaving no trace of themselves. TWENTY YEARS AMjONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 313 . THE ATHABASKAN. Another of the great nations of Indians, was the Atha- baskan. Their original home extended from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific Ocean, on the north to the great Slave Lake, and on the south to the northern portion of the United States. Some of the tribes were found along the Pacific, from Cook's Inlet to Oregon. Other tribes occupied portions of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and the northern por- tion of Old Mexico. This nation had a language of its own, but the dialects of some of the widely separated tribes difi!ered markedly. All the tribes, whether located in the extreme north, or the almost tropical climate of Arizona, or the mild climate of California, bore unmistakable evidence of their origin. In stature those of the north were tall and lithe, those of the south were short but strongly formed. The tribes of this family differed greatly in intelli- gence. The Navajoes and Apaches, who lived in close proximity, are a striking ex- ample of this fact. The Nav- ajoes were mild, inoflFensive, and lived in fixe<] habitations, cultivating the soil, raising animals, and producing some of the finest handiwork. They were monogamous, and universally kind to their females. i >u ^;! TATOOKD WARRIOR — DECDRATEI) BREECH CLOTH. 314 TWJ:NTY years among our hostile INDIANS. The Apaohes were nomadic, of a lo^7 order of intelligence, savage, treach- erous, brutal, and all that was bad. Some of the northern tribes were gentle and peaceful when left undis- turbed. Other tribes of this family had peculiar superstitions, and believed that when the moou was in that phase that it presented the appearance of a man's face, that it was a deity, looking at them, reading their thoughts, and scanning their actions. Should sickness visit them during this time, they believed it to be the work of the "man in the moon," and that thdy must make an offering to appease the offended deity. Other tribee bulieved in a multitude of deities, who watched them constantly ; that when the deity on watch became tired or sleepy, another took its place. When in trouble all the members of the camp went through their mysterious rites to appease its anger. In doing this, both men and vi omen were almost naked. At times they awaited a rainstorm to make their medicine more effective. , . They would stand in the rain until it ceased, when they believed the • penalty had been fully paid. To this nation belonged the following tribes : Chippewayans, Red Knives, Horn Mountains, Sheep Indians, Beavers, Sursees, Dog-Ribs, Brushwoods, Hares, Chins, Rocky Mountains, Mauvais Mondes, Sikannis, Apaches, Kutcbins, Navajoes, Inkaliks, Li pans, ^1 Taculli (or Carriers). > THE LACOTAH, DACOTAH, NAD0WE8I0UX, NADOESSI, AND LASTLY THE SIOUX. TYPICAL 810UX. The largest, most intelligent and warlike nation of wild Indians of this continent was the Sioux, or, as they called themselves, the Lacotah. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 316 Tbey had a language of their own. It was rich in words, soft and pleasing to the ear, and could be more readily acquired than any other tongue of the aborigines of America. There were no dialects among the tribes, of which there were a great many, all living within the hunting ground of the nation in harmony with each other. In characteristics and customs they were the furthest advanced for Indians of all savage people of North America. Their territory was so immense and produced such a diversity of natural food for man and beast, that both they and their animals lived well. They were no- madic, polygamous, and some of the tribes very savage. The following tribes belonged to this family : Yanktons, Osages, Uncpapas, Ogalalas, Winnebagoes, Otoes, Two Kettles, Tetons, Assiuiboines, Bad Faces, Poncas, Missouris, Mandans, . Omahas, Miuneconjouz, lowas, Minitarees, Sans Arcs, San tees, Eaws (or XanstiiS), Crows, Sissetons, Brules, Quaquas, Qros Ventres, Tribe-that-Don't-Eat-Dog, etc. THE SHOSHONEE NATION. Another of the great Indian nations whose many tribes were scattered over the country from the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, west to the Pacific, and from the boundary line between the United States and the Brit- ish possessions on tne north, and south into Mexico, was the Shoshone. This nation had a language of its own, but the dialects of its widely scattered tribes differed greatly. The Shoshones were the lowest in the order of intelligence and manner of living of any of the great families of the con- tinent. None of the tribes belonging to this nation rose above a low level whether in intelligence, customs or property, so far aa such a term can be applied to the effects of Indians. They were for the most part filthy, miserable, thievish, treacherous and bloodthirsty. To this nation belonged some of the lowest and most degraded people in the world. Wherever found, and under what conditions soever, they had marked characteristics that plainly indicated their origin. Their language was also of the poorest, both in vocabulary and flexibility of ex- pression. The Shoshones seemed to excel in nothing save in vice. None even of ^ iaM i i j ii^s i a!! 316 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 'K the moat intelligent tribes of this nation compared favorably with the most degraded tribes of some of the other nations. ( In personal appearance all the various tribes of the Shoshones bore a strong resemblance to one another, from the Bannocks in the far north to the Co- manches in the extreme south. In stature the Shoshones were short, but of compact build. Their complexion was dark, and the characteristics and customs among all the dif- ferent tribes were somewhat similar. Their possessions were few, and of small value, except among certain of the tribes, who stole or captured large numbers of horses. Their intelligence was stunted ; they had no traditions extend- ing back more than one or two generations. They cared little for the future, lived solely in the present, and only exerted themselves in supplying their daily material wants. Some of these tribes, when in war, were very fierce, and would go to any extreme to defeat their enemies. None of these people, no matter under what exigencies, were skilled in handiwork, or in the making or handling of boats. To this nation belong the fol- lowing tribes: Kechi, ^^- Kisbnetela, Kool-Salkara, Tukuarika, Hokandikah. WARRIOR IN ( fcllEMONIAL COSTCME — PREPARA- TORY TO A " BIO TALK.' Snakes, Bannocks, Utes, Pah-Utes, Gosh-Utes, Weber-Utes, Diggers, Comauches, Kiowas, Pah-Vants, Pah-Edes, Wasboes, Sam pitches, Tosawees, Cum Umhahs, Wimmenuches, Chemehuevi, Cohuillo, •ti TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 3ir THE SHAHAPTIN FAMILY. 1 The Shahaptin family occupied the territory lying between that of the Salish on the north and the Suak«8 on the routh. They are tall, muscular, and well formed, especially the Nez Percea and the Walla Wallas. They were in every respect superior to the coast Indians. Their complexion was some- what lighter than that of the surrounding tribes, and many of their young women were fairly good looking. They dressed in skins in winter, using for this purpose the hide of the buffalo, the elk and smaller animala. Their dress was profusely ornamented after Indian fashion. The men painted their faces and bodies. They wore their hair hanging loose over the shoulders. Their dwellings were constructed of poles, and covered with skins, matting or bark. The principal tribes of this family were: Nez Perces, Palooses, Walla Wallas, Waiilatpuans, Klikitats, Molales, Shastas, Scotans, Klamaths, Modocs, Catsops, Tillmorocs, Cay uses, Umatillas, Piscons, Coosas, Wal-pah-pio, Nehalins, Wascoes, Cascades, Yakimas, Alsias, Warm Springs, Cluckmans, Calapoorias, Rogues or Rascals, and numerous coast tribes. • There were many other small tribes speaking the language and living in the territory of this nation. THE SALISH FAMILY. Another family or nation of Indians who had their home in the northwest was the Salish. Some of the tribes of this family differed greatly, and had very marked characteristics, notably the Flatheads, who flattened the heads of their children by compressing the head between two boards in the shape of the letter V. Another tribe, the Pend d'Oreilles, slit the ears, from which hung large and long pendants, made of different trinkets, sometimes reaching to the ground. In these pendants were shells of various kinds. The women of some tribes, when a child was born, wound its legs and hips in a tight bandage in order to keep the legs straight, the hips small, to give the body the appearance of having broad shoulders. These they considered a mark of beauty. They spoke various dialects, but all derived from a common tongue. 1 31« TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. li They were not a warlike people, but when aronsed were brave and skilful warriors. To their prisoners of war they were fiendishly cruel, exercising every art and mode of ingenuity to torture their victims. In this the women were the worst. Among their methods of torture were burning the flesh with hot irons, cutting off the ears, cutting out the tongue, scooping out the eyes, pulling off the nails and other cruelties. In personal appearance they were tall and well formed, and their skins were somewhat lighter in color than the majority of Indians. While this was a distinct family, having its own language, it was not a large one, its chief tribes being : Salish, Pend d'Oreilles, Sans Puell, Spokanes, Okinagans, Lakes, Colvilles (or Skv. elpi), PisquowH, Coeur (^ Alenes (or Skit- shuish). Chaudieres (or Kettle Falls), CHINOOKS. Another of the great families of this continent was the Columbian group. Of these the principal was the Chinooks, the entire family being sometimes called by that name. The Chinooks had their home in the present State of Oregon, west of the Cascade Mountains, extending north of the Columbia River, and were divided into a number of tribes. Those living on the south side of the river differed markedly from those on the north, but all bore a common resemblance in appearance, language, characteristics and customs. They were small of stature, thick-set and muscular. In winter they READY FOR THE COUNCIL— STANDING BUFFALO. ), .„ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 319 K ■■', dressed in skins, but during the heat of summer most of them went naked. Some of the women made a sort of garment from tbe fibre of cedar bark, or of strong grass, which was fastened around the waist, reaching to tbe knee. Their winter habitations were large, built of logs and thatched with bark. They lived largely on fish, there being an inexhaustible supply of salmon, which they caught. Their principal weapon was the bow and arrow, anu some of the tribes made a shield or armor of the dried elk skin, which would resist an arrow. They were not a bloodthirsty people, and when they went to war did not perpetrate the cruelties so characteristic of the North American Indian in general. The captives taken during their wars were made slaves, and the families or descendants of these captives were also slaves. When one of the slaves died the body received no burial, being left on the ground to rot, or to be devoured by wild animals. They had medicine men, who were called in case of sickness. Should the patient not recover, the medicine men were sometimes killed by members of the family. There were some tweuty distinct languages spoken in this group, and all were so peculiar that they could not be reduced to any form of writing, and I do not believe a white man was ever able to acquire any one. All the tribes were polygamous. When a young man bought a wife he took her to the lodge of his parents. When there were several sons, the family grew very large, but they all lived together in harmony. The master of the lodge was not always the oldest, but the most active member of the family. It Avas among these people that the custom of flattening the head of a f'hild originated. Slaves were not allowed to flatten the head, as this custom was regarded as a badge of honor or distinction. The following tribes belonged to this family: Chi nooks proper, Kootenais, Flatheads, Chilts, Wilapah, Sainstklas, Katlawotsetts, Alseas, Calapoogas, Clackamas, Molales. Another family belonging to this group, but which had its own language, and was divided into a number of tribes, was the Haidah. The principal tribes were: Haidah proper, Chimmesyans, Massets, Xaignaies, Nass, and about a dozen others. , 320 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. THE CALIFORNIA INDIANS. One of the Indian families of the west was that known as the Califomian group. They had no traditions concerning their origin or migrations, and it is difficult to classify them generally. They were divided into three somewhat distinctly marked portions, or sub-groups, namely, the northern, the central and the southern Californians. The home of these various tribes embraced the territory of the present State of California. They spoke a multitude of dialects, and differed widely from each other in a variety of ways. Those of the north were superior physically and mentally to those of the center and the south, some of the latter being among the most de- graded type of humanity. Some of these people wore a scanty covering made of skins of the smaller animals, but in tb.o warmer regions they went entirely naked. Both sexes among the various tribes tattooed their faces and bodies, and were fond of paint and the usual Indian ornamentation. Their habitations were of various types, from the log built, earth-covered hut to a mere burrow or hole in the ground. In general manners and customs they resembled the other Indians of the northwest, though there were many things peculiar to certain tribes. Some of the lower tribes could not be said to have marked characteristics or customs, and were human in nothing save in form. This family was divided into the following tribes: Northern Group. Central Group. Tototins, Mattoles, Modocs, Betunkes, Klamaths, Loloncooks, Euroes, Fresnos, Tolemahs, Pomos, Hoopahs, Comachos, Shastas. Kinklas. i Southern Group. Tulares, Yosemites, Cahuillos, Diegnos, Cayotes, New Rivers, San Luisienos. MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES OF CALIFORNIA. Yurok, Karok, Wishoska, Wishosk, Yuki, Chimariko, Wintun, - Patwin, Maidu, Achonrawi, Washo, '• . Mutsun, Miook, Alamentke, Talatin, Yoknt. * i f San Antonia, Santa Barbara. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 321 Many of these tribes were of different linguistic stock, there being as many as five to ten diflPerent languages spoken among them. Some of the northern tribes were physically the equal of any of the In- dians of the northwest, while some of the more southern were repulsive in appearance, and were inferior to the point of deformity. PUEBLOS. Another body of Indians were the Pueblos, or those tribes living in fixed habitations. This was the name given by the early Spanish discoverers to all those Indians living in villages or towns, the word pueblo signifying town or village. These people were not all of one stock, but were an aggre- gation of tribes, scattered throughout New Mexico and Arizona, and were partly civilized, as compared with their wilder nomadic neighbors. Some of them claimed to be of Aztec, and others of northern origin, while many of them cannot be classified with any degree of certainty. To this group be- Icnged: Pueblos Proper, Moquins, Papagos, Pimas, Maricopas, Cosinos, Yampais, Cocopas, Zunis, and a few minor tribes. VARIOUS TEIBES. West of the Mississippi and Sioux rivers, and from the British posses- sions on the north to Mexico on the south, were scattered a multitude of In- dian tribes of whose origin little or nothing is known. Each of these spoke its own language, and differed from the others in personal appearance, char- acteristics and customs. One of the most important, in the order of numbers and intelliger J was the Pawnees. It was claimed by some of \,he early frontiersmen that these people originally belonged to the Sioux. This I do not believe, as their language bore no resemblance to that of the Sioux. Their characteristics and customs were also different. Their mode of cut- ting the hair was peculiar to themselves. They had no reliable traditions as to their origin, and I must therefore class them with the tribes whose family origin is obscure or entirely unknown. These people were divided into three tribes, namely: 322 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Pawnees proper (or Pani), Arickrees (sometimes called the Rees), Wichitaa (or Pictured Pawnees, who tattooed themselves). These tribes were also divided into various minor tribes. There were other tribes or bodies of Indians scattered throughout the great West whose origin is obscure or unknown. All of these spoke a diflFer- ent language, had their own peculiar characteristics and customs, an 1 each differed from the other in many noticeable ways. Some were intelligent, others ignorant; none of these were numerous, con- sequently, as civilization encroached upon them they were compelled to re- main stationary, and live in peace. Some of these tribes were: Arapahoes, Tawaccaras, lonies, Tawacamies, Cad does, Keeches, Tonka way 8, Umpquas, Wacofcs. There were also many other tribes that heve long since disappeared, leav- ing no trace of themselves. This is especially true of tribes who lived all along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 323 CHAPTER XXXIX. THE SUN DANCE OF THE SIOUX— THE GREATEST OF ALL INDIAN CERE MONIES— SELF-INFLICTED WOUNDS AND AGONIZING TORTURE-A TERRIBLE ORDEAL. The Greatest of all Indian Ceremonies — I find myself in Favor with the Indians and take Advtiiitage of it — Obtain Permission to Witness a Sun Dance — As.suranee tliat I should not be Molested — Precautionary Measures — An Animated Scene — A Jloving Mass of Animal Life — Preparations for the Dance — Selecting the Sun Pole — Await- ing the Rising of the Sun — Painted Warriors on their best Horses — A Wild Dash around the Sun Pole — Tlie Dance formally begun — Scenes in Camp during the First Day — Wonderful End'.irance — Firat Night of tlie Dance — Left Naked and Destitute on the Prairie — Horrible Self-Torture — Slitting Open both Breasts — Inserting a Lariat Through the Slits — A Dreadful Ordeal. The Sun Dance was not peculiar to any one nation of Indians, but was held by many nations under other names and in various forms, and was usually given as the result of a vow or solemn promise made by the dancers who euga{j;e(l in it. One, for instance, would make a vow that he would dance the sun dance, if some member of his family who had been very ill, recovered ; another, after a fierce battle in which he narrowly escaped being captured or scalped by the enemy, would say to Lis comra^ion about this Bloody Affair was Obtained — Firing the Station with Burning Arrows — Killing a Lurking Foe — Blowing the top of an In- dian's Head off — Our Bjittle on Tongue River — A Desperate Charge — A Troopers' Grim Remark — A Fierce Indian Battle — Two able Leaders — How they described other Battles and Massacres. From the troopers' point of view, Indian warfare was very unsatisfactory. First it was always necessary for troops to travel long dis- tances before the scene of action was reached ; even then the troops arrived at the battle ground in an ex- hausted condition. Traveling for days, weeks, and months, over dry and arid plains, through rugged mountains, in all kinds of weather, constantly changing water, with poor and insuffi- cient food, broke not only tlio health, but the spirits of the soldiers. When the Indians made a stand the troops were compelled to fight after the red man's vactics, as well as obey the orders of t'je officers, which made it doubly severe for the white men. Therefore Itulian warfare was UHually a one-Hided battle They rarely attacked the whites until tliey felt sure of defeating them. They often hovered aboutacamp for weeks, remaining unseen in the vicinity. TYPICAL INDIAN— HrOKSKlN SHIRT. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 351 waiting for an opTX)rtune moment to strike. Their favorite time for attack- ing was early in the morning, jnst at break of day. The red men mounted their animals, riding in a circle around the besieged party, j'elling at the top of their voices, flaunting buffalo robes, firing arrows and guns, and doing everything possible to stampede the animals. They seldom, if ever, exposed themselves in an upright position when mounted. They would he on the side of their horses away from the party attacked, and fire over or under the animals, thus using the latter as a shield. They rarely, if ever, took chances in killing a party of whites, if they could possibly secure their ani- mals without doing so, unless it was a foregone conclusion that they could kill the whole party without much risk to themselves. There have been many complete annihilations of troops at various times by the Sioux, notably the Grattan massacre, on the North Platte. Lieutenant Grattan was sent from Fort Laramie with a detachment of soldiers and two brass field iiowitzers, twenty-four pounders, to this rendez- vous of the Indians, with instructions to hold them in check. Upon their arrival the troops were placed in position, and the guns double-shotted, but through an error of judgment, or a mistake of some kind, one of the guns was fired prematurely ; whereupon the Indians, who greatly outnumbered the troops, made a rush and massacred them to the last man, with their tomahawks, knives, lances, and bows and arrows. Their fear of the field pieces was so great that during the fight they rushed in, striking a blow at the guns with their tomahawks, and instantly ran away. • Aftev :. while their fears were partly allayed, when they rushed back, again atcacking the gun carriages with tomahawks, viciously hacking the wheels in their efforts to destroy them. These field pieces were at Fort Laramis as late as IHGG or 1867, and still bore the marks of this attack; some of the spokes of the wheels were almost cut through, the brass pieces themselves bearing the marks of the tomahawks in many places. The troops killed in this unfortunate engagement were subsequently buried on the battle ground, just as they had fallen. They were interred in their uniforms, as soldiers usually are buried after a battle, namely, by digging !i trench or large hole in the ground into which the bodies were thrown. In this instance the trench or grave was dug deep and covered with large stones to prevent wild animals from preying on the remains. The last time I passed through this region, I visited the burial place of these unfortunate men, and found it in a fair state of preservation. The locality was a forbid- ding and barren stretch of country, with nothing to break the monotonous stillness save the howling of wolves ut night, and the niouruful wailing of the wind. a i 852 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. The Indiaus killed by the troops in this fight were also buried here. Their relatives or friends erected posts from ten to fifteen feet in height, and made scaffolds on them, upon which they placed the dead. Some of them were deposited in the few trees in the vicinity; the bodies were wrapped in the robes they had used during life; their saddles, lariats, and firearms were placed on the scaffolds beside them. A number of their best horses were killeu under their resting places. For years afterward, relatives repaired to this spot and wailed most dismally, although they had probably never seen one of the deceased during life. I may cite the massacre of the Collins party as an illustration. Lieutenant Caspar W. Collins's command numbered about eighty men, of whom forty or fifty were cavalry and the rest teamsters. They en- countered a large Indian war party at Platte Bridge and haviug allowed their fire to be drawn by their cunning foes, were all massacred. The Indians captured the stores and animals, then burned the wagons and outfit. Warriors from the Uncpa- pa,Ogalala, and Minneconjou Sioux perpetrated this mas- sacre. Fort Caspar stands near this place, and was named after the given name of this unfortunate young officer, because there was already a fort on Cache La Poudre River in Colorado bearing the name of Fort Collins. Lieutenant Collins was an officer of superior ability, highly educated and expert with hie pencil, having made many drawings of the Indians, and the phynica! features of that country. He was brave to rashness, but impetuous, and lacked discretion. He allowed the wily savages to out-general him, and paid the penalty with the lives of himself and of his entire command. When found, his men were mutilated beyond description. They were TYPICAL LODGE AND INDIANS. i TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 363 stripped of their clothing and the bodies of all were penetrated by arrows, some having over twenty driven through theni. Some, though not all, of the men were scalped, and all would have been had not the Indians been anxious to get as far away from the scene as possible, fearing the approach of a body of troops that they knew were in the vicinity. After setting fire to the wagons and securing all the animals, the savages made off to the north, taking their booty to the fastnesses of the Rocky Mountains. They were never punished for this outrage, for the Government at that time did not have suflScient troops in that vicinity to pursue and chastise them. Some of the animals of Lieutenant CoUins's command were subsequently captured in our battle with the Indians on the Tongue River, thus showing that the Sioux had afterward been at war with the Cheyennes and Arapa- boes, as there were no Sioux at the battle of Tongue River. Another noted massacre was that which occurred at Fort Fetterman, on La Paralle Creek, in December, 18G6, when Lieutenants Fetterman and Brown were in command, in which about one hundred persons, and these two oflScers, lost their lives. I was credibly informed by Indians who were in that bloody affair, that Lieutenants Fetterman and Brown, seeing that the day was lost, rather than fall into the hands of the Indians and be tor- tured to death, grasped each other's left hands, and with pistols in their right hands simultaneously blew out each other's brains. As every white person in this affray lost his life, the only means of obtaining information of the battle was from the Indians who participated in it. I do not doubt the truth of the story of the fate of these officers, however, for it was under- stood by every soldier, trapper, and mountaineer, who knew the habits of the wild Indians, that he should save the last shot for himself and take his own life rather than be captured. Not so with the Indian, however. He fired his last shot at the enemy, then made a bold dash with his lance or other weapon, standing in a defiant attitude, as if saying: "Do your worst, I am ready to die." Another massacre was that of Lieutenant John Brown and his command, at Brown Springs, a stream tributary to the Cheyenne River which prior to his massacre had no name. Here Lieutenant Brown, with his command, after a desperate battle, were annihilated. We were never quite able to learn who perpetrated this massacre, whether the Crows or Minneconjou Sioux. I also recall the massacre of an entire party at Sage Run, a small stream west of the stage route crossing at North Platte, thirty- five miles from the mouth of Bridger's Pass. Here the station with its corral whs attacked by Indians. After besieging the party for nearly a whole day, without making . ^ l|-^i>>lllMi«-|l II -I 354 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. M an impreBfliou upon them, the Indians fixed lighted rags to their arrows, firing thena into the station. As it was built of wood it caught fire, com- pelling the inmates to leave the burning building, when the Indians killed them all. Shortly after this affair I was sent to protect the stage route at that place. Just above the station a vicious band of Sioux attacked us, who gave me a hot time for several hours. I received an arrow in my knee during this battle, inflicting a severe and peraianent injury. A snowstorm coming on enabled my command to withdraw, for which I was thankful, for we were greatly outnumbered, and defeat for us was sure. Our campaign to the north, along the Powder River and into the Big Horn Mountains, under General Connor, resulted in the battle of Goose Creek. The troops, numbering some eight or nine hundred, with three or four pieces of mountain howitzers, traveled a long distance north to reach this : place. Colonel Cole, with his command, was to have swept around from the Yellowstone, to make a junction somewhere about the Rosebud River with the ^jroops under General Connor. The latter discovered a large In- dian trail running up Goose Creek, and started in the evening to foUoAv it. After riding the entire night we suddenly came to an Indian village about four o'clock in the morning. It was situated in a beautiful bend of the river, which was skirted with numc'^MS trees and thick underbrush. We were compelled to cross a deep ravine before we could get into the valley in which the village was located. General Connor ordered me with about two hundred cavalry to cross this ravine, and draw up in front of the village. He crossed the ravine a little later with his troops, bringing tiiem into line in fronton the edge of this ravine, which brought them at right angles with my command, or on my flank. When his bugle sounded the charge, we dashed into the village, tired and exhausted as we were, dealing death on every hand. It only required a minute to start up the sleeping warriors, who outnumbered us to such an extent that it was necessary to retreat a short distance; after rallying again, the general's bugle sounded the charge for the entire command. We went into that village as I have never seen cavalry go before or since, and the fight was something terrific. For the first half or three-quarters of an hour we used one of our howitzers so rapidly that it became heated and useless. We drove the Indians out of their camp and across the river (in which many of them lost their lives), attacking them in the foothills of the mountains on the other side. We had the advantage until about eleven o'clock in the day, having them on the run ; the troops were so exhausted by this time that they were scarcely able to do anything further, when we \ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 355 began to retreat. The ground was covered with dead and wounded Indians. A guide named Autoine Ladeau, a Canadian Frenchman, was riding beside me. Pointing to a heap on the ground that looked like some buffalo skins, he said : "Do you see that Indian lying under his robe, pretending to be dead?" INDIAN THEE GRAVE. Whereupon Ladeau ruse in his stirrups, took aim with his carbine, aud sent a bullet into the lurking foe. The Indian jumped two or three feet from the ground after being shot, and fell a corpse, one of the troopers facetiously remarking, "Be quiet after this, please," this caused a grim smile. Re- turning to the village, we set it on fire, burning three or four hundred lodges and contents, and capturing six or seven hundred horses and mules. We had in this expedition a number of Omaha Indians. While we were on the march they were constantly in front, looking for signs. When the 356 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. battle commenced they charged into the village, fighting Indian fashion, showing their savage instincts by killing everybody they met, men, women and children. Many of the Omahas lost their lives in this battle, for when the Indians emerged from their lodges, and saw that we were accompanied by red men they directed their attack on the Omahas. Soon after the beginning of our retreat, when both the Indian and our own lines were wavering and the ground was being contested step by step, the troops killed a warrior, who, falling from his horse, dropped two Indian children he had. been carrying. In retreating, the Indians left the children about halfway between the two lines, where they could not be reached by either party. After a few minutes of severe fighting, they were both unin- tentionally killed either by the troops or the Indians. It was a sad sight, but one of the unavoidable incidents of this kind of warfare. While burning this encampment, we discovered some buffalo skins on the banks of the river piled up like cotton bales, over which lodge covers were drawn. The wind blew the coverings off, exposing the heads of one or two Indians, who, I supposed were wounded, and had gone there to conceal them- selves. One of the Omaha Indians, seeing the head of a Cheyenne just above the bales of hides, knelt down, and taking deliberate aim with his rifle, shot ofiE the top of the Cheyenne's head ; whereupon out jumped two or three more warriors who were quickly despatched by the troops. We con- tinued to fire the village until about three or four o'clock in the afternoon, and then started for our base of supplies, a distance of about forty miles, on Tongue River. Notwithstanding our desperate attack and fighting this was not a com- plete victory for us, for after eleven o'clock we were on the retreat, followed by the Indians, who fired upon us during the entire night. We arrived at camp about seven o'clock the next morning, more dead than alive, having a number of captives, whom General Connor returned to their people. Never have I seen troops undergo such hardships as we experienced during the forty hours of this march and battle. In this engagement we encountered some of the allied Cheyennes, Arapa- hoes, and others, numbering from twenty-five hundred to three thousand, who had for a long time previous been committing exasperating depreda- tions on emigrant trains, overland freight trains, and the stage line, murder- ing travelers and setllers, throughout the entire country from the South Platte to Bridger's Pass, a distance of some three hundred miles. In these raids, they had captur«)d large numbers of horses and mules, as well as arms, ammunition and general stores. The Government, realizing the serious depredations committed by these TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 357 miscreants, determiued to strike them a blow tbey would not readily forget, and the expeditions under General Connor and Colonel Cole were organized for this purpose. Had Colonel Cole succeeded in making the junction where it was originally intended, the result of the battle might have been different. Unfortunately be lost all his animals about seventy-five miles from the point of junction, and name near losing his entire command. They would all undoubtedly have perished had not General Connor come to their rescue by sending them supplies. The command when found presented a pitiable appearance, being nearly dead from starvation, hardship, lack of boocs, clothing, and the necessaries of life. They had been compelled to eat the putrid flesh of horses and mules. Had the Indians come upon them while in this condition, the}' might have massacred the entire command. Probably the fiercest battle that ever took place between tho Indians within the memory of white men, was that fought between a war party of Crows and Sioux. As the warriors of both were brave, well mounted and equipped, the battle was to the death. They met in the Big Horn Moun- tains, near the headwaters of Clark's Fork of the Missouri River. There was about an equal number on each side. The Sioux were led by their chief, Old -Man-Afraid-of-his- Horses, the Crows by their noted chief, A-ra-poo- ash. The Sioux warriors, realizing that they were about to encounter their greatest enemy and most formidable foe, blackened their faces, which in the Indian sign language was equivalent to raising the black flag, announcing no quarter. All the warriors were mounted as usual, and it was nothing more nor less than a series of cavalry charges, fierce, impetuous and deadly. The horses were not encumbered by saddles or bridles. A lariat secured by two half hitches around the lower jaw of each horse made up his equipment. But the daring Indian riders guided their war steeds with consummate skill, and under their control the horses made forward bounds and charges, and halted or wheeled, as the case might be, with lightning rapidity. The war- riors were naked with the exception of a breech cloth ; bows and arrows, lances and some firearms, which, latter, however, were very limited, were their only weapons. The repeated charges were made with a terrific yell — a wild whoop on both sides, which could be heard a long distance. For a few moments the air was clouded with whizzing arrows, and the resounding clash of lances told the fierceness of the fight. At the first onslaught of the battle many were killed and wounded on both sides. Each side then withdrew for a short distance. When they resumed ^^Wf^fjl^' 368 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ii: ] / hostilities they fought with strategy, the battle lasting all day. When night came on each side was willing to retire, and in the darkness they secured as many of their wounded as possible, remaining to make an observa- tion of the situation the following morning. The loss in killed and wounded was very great, so much so that hostilities were not resumed. Each party claimed to their own people to have been victorious. This is the substance of this battle, as given me by the Indians of both sides; some of them when describing it, gave the most glowing det ^riptions of how they had fought, and what they had accomplshed. One of the Indians' methods in attacking wagon trains, freighters, settlers and others, was to surround them ; then by cunning draw the fire of the besieged party. When the latter had exhausted their ammunition, rush upon them and destroy the entire party, or if any were spared it was invaria- bly women and children, who were carried away into captivity. * I INDIAN WOMAN WEAVINa BASKET — ZUNI. '■ ') 5.' ' .! 1 J TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 359 CHAPTER XLIII. THE MASSACRE OF GENERAL CANBY BY THE MODOCS— CAPTAIN JACK AND SCAR-FACED CHARLIE— INDIAN TREACHERY— PUNISHMENT OF THE MURDERERS. Wars between the Modocs and their Neighbors — Inexperienced Agents — Surprising Cap- tain Jack's Camp — Fight between tlie Modoos and the Trooijs — Massacre of White Settlers by the Modocs — Avenging the Massacre — Tliirty Soldiers Killed, and not an Indian Injured — The Peace Commission —General Canby Chosen — Sullen and Angry Indians — Schonochin — His Hatred of the Whites — Waiting for Revenge — Ben Wright's Inhimian Massacre of the Modocs — A Bloody Day — Scar-faced Cliarlie — His Friendship for the Wliites- Treachery SusiHJcted — Danger Ahead — The Indians Indicted for Murder — Captain Jack's Retreat to the Lava Beds — A Conference sought witli him — Falling into a Traj)— (ioing to the Meeting Unarmed — Massacre of Gen- eral Canby and his Party — Capture and Punishment of the Murderers. The Modocs occupied the territory east of he Cascade Mountains, and south of the boundary line between Cali- fornia and Oregon. They were a comparatively insig- nificant tribe, but acquired prominence some years ago by their war with the Gov- ernment, and the massacre of General Canby. Their country was about forty by sixty miles in extent, a most desolate and sterile region, covered with basaltic and volcanic rock. It con- tained no large game, but berries, edible roots, small game, wild fowl and fish were rather plentiful ; on these the Modoc-i subsisted. The country to the north was occu- pied by the Klamath and Snake Indians. With these the Modocs were sometimes at war, and most of the tribes, previous to 1865, were at war with the whites. In that year a treaty was made with the Government by which INDIAN IN MOURNINa. 360 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. a reservation was allotted to the Klamaths, Snakes, and Modocs. The Indians ceded nearly twenty thousand square miles of territory for seventeen thousand dollars. A few of the Snakes, and a portion of the Modocs, accepted this treaty and moved to the reservation. After remaining there for over two years they found that the Qovernment had failed to keep its promises, whereupon the Modocs claimed that they had not sold their lands at all; that they were good lands for fishing and hunting, and intimated that they intended to re- turn to them. They claimed that the parties who sold these lands were unauthorized to do so; were only interlopers who were thrust forward by un- scrupulous and irresponsible parties in order to secure possession of this ter- ritory ; and having at length consented to go on a reservation they found themselves constantly annoyed and harassed by the Klamaths. Having complained so bitterly of the diflBculties of their position, Agent Knapp ordered them removed to another location where they might not be troubled by the Klamaths. But the Modocs were opposed to another removal, and stampeded without a sign or warning. They soon turned up in their old hunting ground, in the vicinity of Lost River, but made no trou- ble, wishing only to be left undisturbed. Soon afterward Agent Knapp, Superintendent Huntingdon, Dr. Mackey, and Mr. Applegate had a parley at their camp and sought to induce them to return to the reservation. After many talks, extending over ten days, the greater part of the tribe returned peaceably to the reservation, where buri kets and provisions were issued to them, the same as to other reservation Indians. Here they remained quiet, giving no trouble and manifesting no signs of discontent, until the following spring, when the agent stopped issuing rations to them. Pressed by hunger, they left the reserve, and hunted over the country lying between Lost River and Yreka. Once more they were induced to take a small reservation of about six miles square, exclusively to themselves, under promise of remaining at peace with the whites. Superintendent Meacham, who always acted honestly and for what he thought the best interests of the Indians, recommended this policy to the Qovernment; but before it could be fully and successfully car- ried out, a change took place in the Oregon superintendency, and a new and inexperienced agent undertook to remove the Modocs to the Klamaih reserva- tion by military force. The officer commanding the troops at the nearest military post was applied to by the superintendent to enforce his order. This officer, with thirty-five men. set out to surprise the Modocs. After a forced march of fifty -five miles the soldiers surrounded the Modocs' camp in the early morning, and sum- \ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 361 moned them to surrender. The Indians came out of their tepees, and upon learning the mission of the soldiers they generally agreed to obey the order, though under protest, saying that they did not want to fight with the whites. While this talk was going on, one of the Indians, Scai-faced Charlie, made some menacing demonstrations, whereupon the military officer in command ordered him arrested. A fight ensued in which four Indians were killed, and some soldiers lost their lives. The Modocs made for the nearest white settlement, where they killed all the men and boys, but spared the women and young children. Intense excitement prevailed throughout that country following this murderous raid, and the settlers demanded that vengeance be wreaked on the murder- ers. A military expedition was sent to punish the Modocs. At the first attack thirty soldiers were killed, and as far as could be learned not a single Indian was either killed or wounded. The Government then sent three peace commissioners to settle the question by inducing the Indians to accept a small reservation in the vicinity of Lost River. General Canby, who had command of the forces at the time, was invested with full power to settle the difficulty. He was a man of sound judgment, of long experience, and just in his acts toward all concerned. The commissioners, under instructions from Washington, were to confer with Lira before taking action looking to ^he final settlement of the affair. The commissioners, after consulting with General Canby, proposed that the Indians remove to Angel Island, in San Francisco Bay, until a suitable reservation could be established for them in Arizona. The interview led to to no satisfactory results ; although Captain Jack's speech on the occasion was pacific, it was evident that the Modocs were in an ugly mood. There were sixty nine warriors present at this talk. Schonochin, one of the leaders of the tribe, was especially hostile, and threw every obstacle he could in the way of an amicable settlement. His hostility to the whites may be more readily understood when we recall the fact that he was the survivor of one of the most dastardly and cold-blooded massacres that white men ever per- petrated on the Indians. Some twenty years before, Ben Wright and his followers massacred in the most treacherous manner forty-one of a party of forty-six Modocs, who, under the promises of friendship and safety, he managed to get into his power. One of the five survivors was Schonochin, then a youth. He never forgot the scenes of that bloody day, and his hatred of the white man was ever afterward unquenchable. Many of those who were murdered were L'lembers of Schonochin's family, and he was deter- mined, if possible, to avenge their death. When the conference ended Scar-faced Charlie asked Commissioner I 'I! i; ' INDIAN WITH CAP, ORNAMENTED SHIRT, I-EOOINGS AND TOBACCO POUCH. \ Twenty Years Among Our Hostile Indians. Page 368 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 363 Steele, the only commissioner present, and who acted for the entire commis- sion, to sleep in his lodge, as he anticipated trouble. The commissioner did so, and Charlie sat beside him all night. Were it not for this action the commissioner would certainly have been killed. In the morning another council was held, as the Indians were menacing and ugly. Captain Jack wore a war bonnet, and Scbonochin made a vicious speech. Captain Jack also made a war speech. The Indians finally declared that if they were allowed to remain in the Lava Beds they would live in peace wUh the whites. They proposed that Mr. Meacham and Mr. Applegate should meet them the next day and shake hands with them, in ratification of their renewed friendship. The Indianfa, when they made this proposition, evidently contemplated treachery. The local authorities of Oregon had in the meantime indicted the Indians for murder; and obstacles in the way of a settlement were precipitated by speculators and others who made money out of the troubles between the Indians and whites. Commissioners Applegate and Steele resigned in disgust; the vacancies were filled by Mr. Roseborough of Yreka, at the suggestion of General Canby. Rev. Mr. Thomas, Agent Dyer, and General Canby himself made up the new commissioners. Captain Jack had in the meantime reached the Lava Beds, and feeling that he was secure would make no terms whatever. He promised to remain at peace if left undisturbed, but he would not consent to a change of location. After many unsuccessful attempts to come to terms, Captain Jack sent word that he and three or four others desired to meet the commissioners at a spot near the lake, about three-qu raters of a mile from the camp. Frank Rid- dle, a white man who had an Indian woman for his wife, informed General Canby of the danger he was about to incur, as one of the Modocs had told Riidle's wife that they intended to kill General Canby and the commission- ers. Mr. Meacham, who had experience of Indian ways and wiles, was un- willing to go; but when General Canby and Dr. Thomas insisted, he ac- companied them. The party went to the conference unarmed. The meeting took place in an open space, the talk for a time being peaceful and satis- factory. Mr. Meacham anticipated danger and kept a close eye on the move- ments of the Indians. After a time the latter grew haughty and insolent, and finally, at a signal from Captain Jack, an attack was made on the party. Captain Jack himself shot down General Canby. Mr. Meacham was the only member of the party who escaped, but he was badly wounded. The Indians fled to the Lava Beds, an almost inaccessible spot. They were followed by the troops, and compelled to surrender within a month. 364 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. >li Captain Jack and his associates were tried by a military commission, and were found guiltj' of murder. Jack and three others were hanged at Fort Klamath for their crimes. This massacre was only another instance of the white man's injustice and bungling in dealing with the Indian, and the Indian's innate treachery in dealing with the white man. ; 1 INDIAN WOMAN— CLOAK DKOOBATRI) WITH EI.K TK'IH. I 1 } TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 365 CHAPTER XLIV. A FRONTIER TRAGEDY— GENERAL CUSTER'S LAST FIGHT— HIS DEATH, AND THE ANNIHILATION OF HIS ENTIRE COMMAND— NARRATIVE OF RED HORSE, A SIOUX CHIEF. Custer's Annihilation — Tlie Country alive with Hostile Indians — Who was Sitting Bull? — An Indian Camp of Ten Tliousand Men, Women, and Children — Striking the Enemy — Chief Gall — An Able Indian Leader — The Battle of the Little Big Horn — Custer's Fatal ilistake — A Desperate and Blootly Battle — Where was General Custer? — Discovering tlie Bodies of the Slain — A Pilt of Empty Cartridge Shells be- side each Corpse — Coming to the Rescue — Burying the Dead — Appearance of the Slain — Their Pained ai Terrified Expressions— Rain in-the-Face — His Vow to Cut Out the Heart of Captain Thomas Custer — Sitting Bull a Great Liar, a Wily Old Rascal — My Interview with Rain-inthe-Face — An Indian Account of the Battle by Red Horse, a Sioux Chief. No frontier tragedy excited greater horror than the anni- hilation of General Custer and his command in the bat- tle of the Little Big Horn^ June 25, 1^70. In this bloody battle two hundred and sixty- five officers and soldiers lost their lives, and fifty-two more were wounded, TJe causes which led to this battle were substantially as follows: A large number of discontented Sioux had re- , fused to be confined within a new reservation. Notice was accordingly served upon them by the GovernT.ent that unless they moved to the reservation before January 1, 1S7(!, they would bo treated H8 hostiles. To chia notice they paid no attention. These wild bands of Indians were influenced by Sitting Bull, an impostor, who never had whom he could depend, and by Crazy Horse, I OALL— CHIEF UNl'PAPA HIOUX, AND LEADER OK HATTLE (IK LITTLE BI(4 HOHN. more than sixty lodges on ' U6 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. !! ■s M |i ■] who was an able leader. These Inflians roamed over an almost unknown region comprising an area of nearly ninety thousand square miles. The hostile camps contained eight or ten separate bands, each having a chief of its own. No chief was endowed with supreme authority, but in this emergency Sitting Bull was accepted by many of the Indians as their leader. From five hundred to eight hundred warriors were the most the military authorities thought tbe hostiles could muster, but this proved a fatal mis- take, as results subsequently showed ; for when Custer met the enemy he found nearly ten thousand men, women, and children, and probably not less than two thousand five hundred warriors armed with Winchester rifles and other firearms, besides Indian boys who were armed with bows and arrows. The campaign opened in the winter, but the troops were partially defeated, and it was not until spring that they resumed the offensive in three isolated columns, the first column under General Crook, the second under General Terry, including the entire Seventh United States Cavalry, commanded by General Custer, and the third column under General Gibbon. It was believed by the authorities that either one of these columns could defeat the Indians. The result showed how utterly mistaken the Govern- ment was in its estimate of the enemy's numbers. The first result was that General Crook's column encountered the en'.my June 17, and was so badly defeated that it was practically out of the cam- paign. On the 31st of June, Terry, with Gibbon's column from the east, which had by this time united with him, was on the south bank of tbe Yellow- stone, at the mouth of the Rosebud. Up to this time not an Indian had been seen, nor recent signs of them. The troops were in good spirits, and the officers expressed the belief that they would find no Indians, and all were sanguine that they would return to their stations by the middle of August. General Terry therefore returned with his t*taff to the mouth of the Tongue River. General (duster, with the left wing, proceeded to the Little Big Horn River, on the 25th, where he found Indians and gave them battle on the following day. The Sioux were commanded by Gall, who was chief of the Unopapa 8ioux. He was a man of more than ordinary natural force and intellect. It was he who planned and directed the battle of the Little Big Horn with the consummate skill of an able and expf rienced general. Gall did not enter the battle personally, but remained at a distance, directing the move- ments of tbe warriors under their respective leaders, and the result proved ibis ability and sagacity as a commander of men, as well as an Indian tac- iieian. On that day he had several able lieutenants, the principal of whom ware Cra:^ Horse, Rain-in-the-Faoe, and several others less notable. wF"^"mi TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 3o7 Rain-in-the-Face afterward told me that the presence of the troops had been suspected by the Indians for sonae days previous to the attack, and after learning that Custer had divided his command into two parts, one being left far in the rear to guard, care for, and bri'ig up the pack-train (this was com- posed of four companies of the Seventh Cavalry under command of Captain Benteen), and that the other eight companies under Custer were advancing rapidly in the direction of the village, they prepared to meet the troops. The Indian scouts soon afterward reported to Gall that Custer had again divided his troops, the smaller portion going in the direction of the Uncpapa camps. This was Major Reno's command, consisting of three companies of the Seventh Cavalry. As he approached the Indian village the Indian skirmishers fell back a short distance, when Gall directed a large number of warriors to surround and attack this body of troops. Here a desperate encounter took place, the troops being compelled to retreat toward the river, when another stand was made, Reno dismounting his men. Trooper num- ber four of each set of fours remained mounted, leading the horses of the other three, and in this way all the horses were taken into the brush. After dismounting, Reno formed his troops into three sides of a rectangle, keeping the space open toward the river and the brush where the horses were. Ob- serving this, some of the Indians crossed the river, got into position from which they could shoot, and killed a number of the horses. One of the troopers reported the situation to Major Reno. As the troops were vastly outnumbered, and would have had no chance of escaping on foot. Major Reno ordered them to retire to the horses and remount. This they did with much difficulty, as during the retreat they had to maintain their lines to keep the red men from rushing in upon them. After reaching their horses, some remained on foot fighting until the others mounted, these latter then taking up the fight until all were mounted. Major Reno, seeing ti it they were virtually surrounded, gave orders to charge to the ford of the river, which was a short distance away, and cross it. Here took place a desperate hand-to-hand encounter with the pursuing savages. Lieutenant Mcintosh being pulled from his horse and cut to pieces. While crossing the river some of the troops were drowned. The opposite bank was steep, and the only way out was through a gap that afforded passage for but one man at a time. The Indians, seeing the helpless position of the troops, posted them- selves along the bank, firing into them, killing and wounding many. After crossing, Reno led the troops to the hills a short distance away. Here they prepared to resist an attack. Meantime, Captain Benteen came up with his command and pack-train, and joined Reno. Shortly afterward a large portion of the Indians withdrew in the direction of the village. This move ia.l.^.^ 368 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ^i' ii •1 k !'|! ! i ■ ■ !! was by order of Gall, and was for the purpose of reinforcing the Indians who were engaged against Custer, The Indian chief also directed that a sufScient number of warriors should remain to prevent Reno's joining Cus- ter. Reno was left in this situation for two or three hours, during which time he fortified his position. After this large numbers of Indians returned and renewed the attack, fighting the remainder of the day and far into the night. On the following morning they resumed the assault, which was con- tinued until late in the evening, when the Indian scouts reported to Gall that a large body of troops were approaching. This was General Terry's com- mand, and consisted of infantry, cavalr}" and artillery. On learning of the advance of this body of troops, the Indians immediately broke camp and started for the Canadian frontier. But where was General Custer all this time? As not one of the troops that followed him escaped, it cannot be known from a white source just what did happen to him, and the brave soldiers who followed his lead in his last battle. While the Indians were engaged with Reno, Custer must have been in conflict with the larger body of warriors, for the leascn that the village was so near, and the time that had elapsed in the fight with Reno so long, he must have reached the Indian camps at the otb .t point and begun his disastrous battle. When Gall drew off the main body of the warriors who had been fighting Reno, to reinforce those engaged with Custer, the latter, seeing the great numbers that confronted him, must have retired to the top of the hill, where the battle was fought, and made his final stand there, as that was the method followed, whenever possible, in resisting the onslaught of the enemy in Indian warfare. After the arrival of this reinforcement Gall directed a simultaneous attack to be made on both sides of tbe troops, Rain-in-the-Face leading the attack on one side, and Crazy Horse on the other. The attack of the Indians was so fierce and overpowering that the troops did not have time to fortify their position, and the conformation of the battle ground was such, that there was no natural protection of which they could take immediate advantage. There could have been little or no shift- ing position, and the troops must have fought dismounted, as was evidenced by the fact that besiue the body of each dead trooper were found many empty cartridge shells, thus showing that the troops had held the position originally occupied when the line of battle was formed. The position of the bodies when found, showed that the troops had maintained their military precision until the last man fell, and that they fought with unyielding determination. The energy and skill with which they maintained the unequal conflict is attested by the fact that although outnumbered by at least ten to one, they killed over one-third more of th<> enemy than their own entire number, be- fore death put an end to the conflict TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Of the arrival of relief for Reno'a command, Captain Godfrey, who was in the battle, eays:* "About 9:30 A.M. a cloud of dust was observed several miles down the river. The assembly was sounded, the horses were placed in % protected situation, and camp-kettles and canteens were filled with water. An hour of suspense followed ; but from the slow advance we concluded that they were our own troops. 'But whose command is it?' We looked in vain for a gray-horse troop. It could not be Custer; it must then be Crook; for, if it was Terry, Custer would be with him. Cheer after cheer was given for Crook. A white man, Harris, I think, soon came up with a note from Gen- eral Terry, addressed to General Custer, dated June 20, stating that two of our Crow scouts had given information that our column had been whipped and nearly all had been killed ; that he did not believe their story, but was coming with medical assistance. The scout said that he could not get to our lines the night before, as the Indians were on the alert. Very soon after this Lieutenant Bradley, Seventh Infantry, came into our lines, and asked where I was. Greeting most cordially my old friend, I immediately asked, ' Where is Custer?' He replied, 'I don't know, but I suppose be was killed, as we counted one hundred and ninety -seven dead bodies. I don't sup- pose any escaped. ' We were simply dumfounded. This was the first in- timation we had of his fate. It was hard to realize; it did seem impossible. " General Terry and staff, and officers of General Gibbon's column soon after approached, and their coming was greeted with prolonged hearty cheers. The grave countenance of the General awed the men to silence. The officers assembled to meet their guests. There was scarcely a dry eye ; hardly a word was spoken, but quivering of lips and hearty grasping of bands gave token of thankfulness for the relief and grief for the misfor. tune. . . . "On the morning of the 28th we left our intrenchments to bury the dead of Custer's command. The morning was bright, and from the high bluffs we had a clear view of Custer's battlefield. We saw a large number of objects that looked like white boulders scattered over the field. Glasses were brought into requisition, and it was announced that the objects were dead bodies. Captain Weir exclaimed, *0h, how white they look I' "All the bodies, except a few, were stripped of their clothing. According to my recollection nearly all were scalped or mutilated, but there was one notable exception, that of General Custer, whose face and expression were natural; he had been shot in the temple and in the left side. Many faces had a pained, almost terrified expression. It is said that Rain-in-tbe-Face, * lu Jlie Century. 870 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. il a Sioux warrior, has gloried that he had cut out and had eaten tde heart and liver of one of the officers. Other bodies were mutilated in a disgust- ing manner. The bodies of Dr. Lord and Lieutenants Porter, Harrington, and Sturgis were not found, at least not recognized. The clothing of Por- ter and Sturgis was found in the village, and showed that they had been killed. Wo buried, according to my memoranda, two hundred and twelve bodies. The killed of the entire command was two hundred and sixty-five, and of wounded we had fifty -two." Had not General Terry arrived just when he did, it is my belief that Major Reno and his command would have suflfered Custer's fate, and that not a single white man would have lived to tell the tale. Longfellow, in the accompanying poem on this battle, makes it appear that Sitting Bull led thj warriors, and that Rain-in-the-Face killed General Custer. As already stated, Sitting Bull was not present at all, and it was Captain Thomas W. Custer — General Custer's brother — whose heart Rain- in-the-Face is supposed to have cut out. THE REVENGE OF RAIN-IN-THE-FACE. In tliat desolate laud and lone, Where the Big Horn and Yellowstone Roar down their mountain path, By their tires tlie Sioux Chiefs Muttered their woes and griefs And the menace of tlieir wrath. " Revenge I " cried Rjiin-in-the Face, " Revenge ujxjn all the race Of the White Chief with yellow hair ! " And the mountains dark and high From their crags re-echoed the cry, Of his anger and despair. In the meadow, spreading wide By woodland and riverside The Indian village stcx)d: All was silent as a dream, Save tiie rusliing of the .stream And the blue-jay in the wood. I In his war paint and his beads, Like a bison among the reeds, In ambush the Sitting Bull Lay with three thousand braves ^ Crouched in the clefts and caves, f-avage, unmerciful! TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 371 Into the fatal snare The White Chief with yellow hair And his three hundred men Dashed headlong, sword in hand; But of that gallant band Not one returned again. The sudden darkness of death ^ ' Overwhelmed them like the breath And smoke of a rurnace tire: By the river's bank, and between The rocks of the ravine They lay in their bloody attire. But the foeman fled in the night. And Rain-in-the-Face, in iiis flight. Uplifted high in air As a ghastly trophy, bore The brave heart, that beat no more, Of the White Chief with yellow hair. Whose was the right and the wrong ? Sing it, O funeral song, With a voice that is f ill of tears, And say that our broken faith Wrought all this ruin and st!athe, In the Year of a Hundred Years. — Longfellow. Rain-in-the-Face presented me with bis photograph, and a printed copy of the foregoing, at the bottom of which he also wrote hid name. He had a good supply of printed copies of this poem. It must not be inferred from the fact that Rain-in-the-Face wrote his name that he was an educated Indian. He had simply been taught to write his name mechanically, and that was all he could write. It was curious to note the surprising uniformity in his signatures, and the ease with which he wrote them. An expert in calig- raphy could not detect the slightest difference in the crude formation of the letters. Here is a facsimile of his autograph written in my presence: (R ourn /rn. j, The reader may notice that the "i" in Rain is rounded, like half of the letter "n." This peculiarity was always present. He seemed to take a pride in writing his name, and repeated the operation over and over again without being asked. When I told him the name by which I was known if m TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ! : il 'lii among the Sioux, be uttered a grunt of recognition. I gave him a few trifling presents, such as I knew took the Indians' fancy, and then asked him to answer a few questions, which were substantially as follows: First? I asked him who Sitting Bull was, as I had never heard him prominently mentioned previous to the battle of the Little Big Horn. He replied that Sitting Bull was not a chief or a leader in any sense, and was not present at the battle; that he was a long distance from the conflict, and that he had gained notoriety among some white people by pretending to be the chief of the Sioux tribes then in hostility. Sitting Bull was not an able Indian, as compared with some of the great Sioux chiefs, but being an impressive talker, a clever charlatan, and a great liar, he achieved influence among a small portion of his people for a short time during an emergency. I asked Rain-in-the-Face if it were true that he had cut the heart out of General Custer "the white chief with yellow hair." He answered, "No!" but said that some time previous to the battle. Captain Tom Custer (the General's brother) had put him in the guard-house at Fort Abraham Lincoln, and treated him very harshly, and that he had at that time told some of the whites at the Fort that he would cut the heart out of him, if the opportunity ever presented itself. I then asked him if he had cut out the Captain's heart. To this question he made no response, but grew sullen and morose, refusing to answer any more questions for a time. Some of the white persons present who knew Indian character well, and spoke the Sioux language fluently, and had been much with Rain-in- the-Face, and with other Indian participators in the fight, told me that Rain-in-the-Face had accompHshed his horrible threat, and had literally cut out Tom Custer's heart while he was yet alive. When the body was found, Captain Custer's heart had actually been cut out, but as no white RAIN-IN-THE-FACE. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 373 man who entered the battle lived to tell of the terrible tragedy, we are com- pelled to take the fragmentary accounts of it, as told by the Indians, for what such stories are worth. It has even been said that Rain-in-the- Face, in his ferocity and thirst for vengeance, ate the heart, after tearing it from his victim's breast. Never did the American trooper give a grander exhibition of his courage and fidelity than in the fatal battle of the Little Big Horn, when every man that followed Custer, from the General himself to the private soldier, went down fighting to the last. There were no wounded, no prisoners, no missing — all were killed. The battle was in no wise an ambush, as has been erroneously stated ; it was a fight in which the pursuers were attacked by the pursued with the UFual result in Indi.in warfare, in which the troops were almost invariably outnumbered and defeated. Had not General Custer in an ill-judged moment divided his command, the result might have been different. That he erred in this regard, no one who knows the character of Indian warfare doubts. Nor did this battle differ markedly from many other miscalled massacres in the history of our Indian wars, except by reason of the numbers engaged on both sides, and the fame General Custer had achieved. One fact seems plain, namely, that Custer's scouts and guides in this campaign were of an inferior kind, as they did not keep the General advised of the presence or numbers of the enemy, and the dangers of the country in which he was operating. I cannot believe that a man of General Custer's military acumen and experience in Indian warfare would have divided his command if kept properly informed of his surroundings. So large a body of Indians as were in the vicinity, counting not less than two thousand lodges SITTING BILL — SIOUX. 374 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. and probably not less than ten or twelve thousand souls, must have scoured the country for miles around in search of food for themselves and forage for their animals, and left signs everywhere of their presence and numbers that even an ordinary guide should have seen. If Custer had had a Jim Bridger or a Jim Baker to guide his command, he never would have been trapped. Although this was a great victory for the Indians, they won it at a terri- ble cost ; for in addition to the large number of slain they left on the field, there must have been also a large number of wounded, many of them mor- 31 SITTma-BtTLL'S CABIN, AND THE PLACE OF HIS DEATH. This cabin was built by the Government for Sitting Bull and his family. While resisting arrest he was killed in it by Bull-Head, au Indian Policeman, tally, for their dead were strewn all along tbe route to the Canadian frontier. The Indians admit that they suffered terribly. Not a tepee, not a family, but bad to lament its slain or wounded. Even Rain-in-the-Face, when I last saw him, was a liviug illustration that his people had paid dearly for their victory. As tbe result of bis wounds, one of bis legs was stiff, and drawn up close to his body so that he could only move about on crutcbee and with much difficulty. Dr. Charles E. McCbesney, acting assistant surgeon United States Army, communicated to the Bureau of Ethnology at Washiugton a unique Indian account, both in carefully noted gesture signs and in pictograpbs, of tbe battle of tbe Little Big Horn. These drawings were made, and the account which accompanied them was given by Red Horse, a Sioux chief, and a prominent actor in the battle. His narrative, closely translated into simple English, is herewith given. The drawings were made on rough manila paper, some of them with colored pencils. Some of these drawings are pre- TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS 376 sented in this volume, not only as specimens of Indian art, but as a contribu- tion from the Indian standpoint to our knowledge of Custer's last fight. Here is the story of Red Horse : "Five spi.'ags ago, I, with many Sioux Indians, took down and packed up our tipis [tepses] and moved from Cheyenne River to the Rosebud River, where we camped a few days; then took down and packed up our lodges and moved to the Little Big Horn River and pitched our lodges with the large camp of Sioux. "The Sioux were camped on the Little Big Horn River as follows: The lodges of the Uncpapas were pitched highest up the river under a bluff. The Santee lodges were pitched next. The Ogalalas' lodges were pitched next. The Brule lodges were pitched next. The Minneconjoux lodges were pitched next. The Sans'- Arcs' lodges were pitched next. The Blackfeet lodges were pitched next. The Cheyenne lodges were pitched next. A few Arikara Indians were among the Sioux [being without lodges of their own]. Two- Kettles [a tribe of Sioux], among the other Sioux [without lodges]. "I was a Sioux chief in the council lodge. My lodge was pitched in the center of the camp. The day of the attack I and four women were a short distance from the camp digging wild turnips. Suddenly one of the women attracted my attention to a cloud of dust rising a short distance from camp. I soon saw that the soldiers were charging the camp. To the camp I and the women ran. When I arrived a person told me to hurry to the council lodge. The soldiers charged so quickly we could not talk [council]. We came out of the council lodge and talked in all directions. The Sioux mount horses, take guns, and go fight the soldiers. Women and children mount horses and go [meaning to get out of the way]. "Among the soldiers was an officer who rode a horse with four white feet. The Sioux have for a long time fought many brave men of different people, but the Sioux say this officer was the bravest man they had ever fought. 1 don't know whether this was General Custer or not. Many of the Sioux men that I hear talking tell me it was. I saw this officer in the fight many times, but did not see his body. It has been told me that he was killed by a Santee Indian, who took his horse. This officer wore a large-brimmed hat and a deerskin coat. This officer saved the lives of many soldiers b}' turning his horse and covering the retreat. Sioux say this officer was the bravest man they ever fought. I saw two officers looking alike, both having long yellowish hair. "Before the attack the Sioux were camped on the Rosebud River. Sioux moved down a river running into the Little Big Horn River, crossed the Little Big Horn River, and camped on its west bank. \ flMmyWiiriilfln' '^11^ ■iL^\Lv'^:'Ai'/!ij: ■:.i^\*i^m* TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. "This day [day of attack] a Sioi *c man started to go to Red Cloud agency, but when he had gone a short distance from camp, he saw a cloud of dust rising and turned back and said he thought a herd of buffalo was coming near the village. "The day was hot. In a short time the soldiers charged the camp. [This was Major Reno's battalion of the Seventh Cavalry.] The soldiers came on the trail made by the Sioux camp in moving, and crossed the Little Big Horn River above where the Sioux crossed, and attucked the lodges of the Uncpapas. farthest up the river. The women and children ran down the Little Big Horn River a short distance into a ravine. The soldiers set fire BATTLE op LITTLE BIG HORN— SIOUX LEAVING BATTLE GROUND — DRAWN BY RED HORSE — SIOUX. to the lodges. All the Sioux how charged the soldiers and drove them in confusion across the Little Big Horn River, which was very rapid, and several soldiers were drowned in it. On a hill the soldiers stopped and the Sioux surrounded them. A Siousr man came and said that a different party of soldiers had all the women and children prisoners. Like a whirlwind the word went around, and the Sioux all heard it and left the soldiers on the hill and went quickly to save the women and children. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 377 "From the bill that the soldiers were on to the place where the diflferent soldiers [by this term Red Horse always means the battalion immediately commanded by General Custer, his mode of distinction being that they were a different body from that first encountered] were seen was level ground with the exception of a creek. Sioux thought the soldiers on the hill [i.e., Reno's battalion] would charge them in rear, but when they did not the Sioux thought the soldiers on the hill were out of cartridges. As soon as we had killed all the different soldiers the Sioux all went back to kill the soldiers on the hill. All the Sioux watched around the hill until a Sioux man came and said many walking soldiers were coming near. The coming of the walking soldiers was the saving of the soldiers on the hill. Sioux cannot fight the walking soldiers [infantry] being afraid of them, so the Sioux left. "The soldiers charged the Sioux camp about noon. The soldiers were divided, one party charging right into the camp. After driving these soldiers across the river, the Sioux charged the different soldiers [i.e., Cus- ter's] below, and drove them in confusion; these soldiers became foolish, many throwing away *heir guns and raising their hands, saying, 'Sioux, pity us; take us prisoner «».* The Sioux did not take a single soldier pris- oner, but killed all of them ; none were left alive for even a few minutes. These different soldiers discharged their guns but little. I took a gun and two belts off two dead soldiers; out of one belt two cartridges were gone, out of the other five. "The Sioux took the guns and cartridges off the dead soldiers and went to the hill on which the soldiers were, surrounded and fought them with the guns and cartridges of the dead soldiers. Had the soldiers not divided I think they would have killed many Sioux. The different soldiers [i.e., Custer's battalion] that the Sioux killed made five brave stands. Once the Sioux charged right in the midst of the different soldiers and scattered them all, fighting amoug the soldiers hand to hand, "One band of soldiers was in the rear of the Sioux. When this band of soldiers charged, the Sioux fell back, and the Sioux and the soldiers stood facing each other. Then all the Sioux became brave and ch:irged the soldiers. The Sioux went but a short distance before they separated and sur- rounded the soldiers. I could see the officers riding in front of the soldiers and hear them shouting. Now the Sioux had many killed. The soldiers killed one hundred an^ thirty six and wounded one hundred and sixty Sioux. The Sionx killed all the&e different soldiers in the ravine. "The soldiers charged the Sioux camp farthest.upthe.river. A short tim,e after the different soldiers charged the village below. While the different ^Wfm^il^^W^w^^^ I DEAD SIOUX— DRAWN BY ?ED H0R8B SIOUX CHIEF, Twenty Year* Amootr Our Hoattle Indlani. P»Re378 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 379 soldiers and Sioux were fighting together the Sioux chief said, 'Sioux men, go watch the soldiers on the hill and prevent their joining the different soldiers.' The Sioux men took the clothing oflf the dead and dressed them- selves in it. Among the soldiers were white men who were not soldiers. The Sioux dressed in the soldiers' and white men's clothing fought the soldiers on the hill. "The banks of the Little Big Horn River were high, and the Sioux killed many of the soldiers while crossing. The soldiers on the hill dug up the ground [i.e., made earthworks], and the soldiers and Sioux fought at long range, sometimes the Sioux charging close up. The fight continued at long range until a Sioux man saw the walking soldiers c< ning. When the walk- ing soldiers came near the Sioux became afraid and ran away." - 1 V -A .:.. ' >»•' '»»» * , ! ., ,' . > ' ;; ■ ' •^.,;."*', .' '■'';i • TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER XLV. • '^ THE GREAT feiOUX MASSACRE-MIRACULOUS ESCAI'ES AND THRILLING ADVENTURES— SUFFERINGS OF CAPTI'/ES. Cause of the Massacre— War of Extermination decided upon by the Indians— They take tlie Warpath— Their First Attack— Courage of a French Ferr> man— His Heroic Death —Killing of Fleeing Settlers— Hacked to Pieces with Knives— Children's Brains Beaten Out— Burned Alive— Hung on Hooks— Sticks Driven through their Bodies- Mutilation of the Dead— Roasting a Child Alive— Thrilling Escapes— Two Brothers tryinp to Save a Siok Mother— The Settlers Rally for Defense— Holding White Pris- Guers— Their Extreme Suffering— Miraculous Escape of Two Brothers— Six Hundred and Forty-four Settlers and Ninety-three Soldiers Slain. During the summer of 1863, while our country was strain- ing every energy in suppres- sing the war of the Rebellion, there occurred in northern Minnesota the bloodiest Indian massacre ir ^he history of the North Ameiican Continent. The Civil War at that time absorbed the attention of the people to the exclusion of almost evei'y other subject, and the great Sioux massacre did not make such an impression on the public as it would had it happened at any other time. This massacre was distin- guished, too, by its suddenness, • its extent, its dreadful results, and the fact that it occurred WARRIOR, WITH GOVERNMENT MEDAL. "'"^""^ ^'*'^'° ^^^ ^'"^'^^ "^ civilization. A part of the Sioux had manifested a tendency to submit to the tranpform- sg influences of civilization. Churches and schools had been established in I TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 881 some parts of their territory in Miunesota, and it looked as if this portion of the Sioux and their white neighbors would live thenceforth in peace. A short time before, they had sold a large and valuable portion of their lands to the Government. They were to receive annuities, food, and neces- sary articles for their new mode ot life, in payment for these lands. The Government kept faith with them in every respect; but the old story of rob- bery of the Indians by government agents, traders, and adventurers was repeated. In this instance particularly, the robbery of the Indians was flagrant in the extreme. They were swindled on some occasions of every penny that was coming to them. In their ignorance they did not know how to seek redress ; and starving men cannot afford to look for relief in a protracted or roundabout way. They could no longer live by the chase, as civilization had driven the ani- mals on which they subsisted far beyond their hunting grounds, and the money and rations the Government furnished them, for the most part, never reached their hands. Finally they were reduced to the necessity of living on their horses and dogs- There were other causes which created dissatisfaction among the Sioux. Knowing that the whitea were engaged in a war among themselves, wild stories were circulated among them about it. It was rumored that the armies of the Government had been destroyed; that Washington had been captured and the Great White Father taken prisoner. It was therefore natural for the Indians to suppose that they could regain their hunting ground by taking to the warpath and exterminating the whites. Although the Indiana had been in a sullen and discontented mood for some time, and rumors of danger had been afloat, the settlers believed tham- selves sec'ire and took no precautions. The outbreak occurred in a simple and unforeseen manner. A party of twenty young bucks started up t'le country a distance of some eighty miles to hunt. On their way a dispute arose among themselves, when seme charged others with being afraid of the whites. To show that the imputa- tion was undeserved, a few of the braves left the party and proceeded to kill several white settlers. The Sioux were asked to surrender the mur- derers. A great council of war was held, and the matter was debated at length. As the talk grew warm, Indian passions were aroused, and it was then and there determined to wage a war of extermination on the frontier settlers. A number of braves, painted and accoutred for the warpath, pijceeded to the dwelling of Little Crow, a semi-civilized chieft*iin, who spoke English, ■—"■■'■ - I!! i$% TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ^ i* 4.1 had been to Washington, knew the power of the whites, and was noted among his people for his eloquence and sound judgment. Little Crow, was surprised at the turn affairs bad taken, sought at first to dissuade the warriors from their purpose; but seeing that they were maddened and determined, and that refusal on his part would be dangerous, he suddenly arose and said: "I am with you." The first attack was made on the Redwood Agency. The savages burst on the place unexpectedly and killed several white people. All who could escape fled in terror across the Minnesota River. The crossing was by a ferry- boat, and was a slow and dangerous process, the fugitives being closely fol- lowed by a horde of infuriated savages. The ferryman was a French Canadian, illiterate and ignorant, and seem- ingly incapable of doing anything higher than running his boat across the river. But in this supreme moment he proved himself a hero of the highest type. He carried the refugees across as they managed to escape to the landing, and returned, time and again, until all who were not killed had been taken to the other side. On his last trip, the savages, maddened at the way in which he had rescued the people, fired a final shot at him and he dropped dead in his boat. He had saved over fifty people, most of them women and children, at the sacrifice of his own life. Having finished at the agency, the Indians moved down the river, under the leadership of Cut Nose, killing twenty-five fleeing settlers on the way. The most fiendish acts of cruelty and atrocity were perpetrated. The vic- tims in some instances were hacked to pieces; children were seized by the legs and their brains wero beaten out against the wall ; some were hung alive on hooks, with sticks driven through their legs, as the carcasses of slaughtered animals are suspended. The women were invariably rt.vished by the whole band, and then killed. The bodies of men and boys were mutilated in a manner that only fiendish ingenuity could devise. Children wore fastened to doors and tables with nails driven through the hands and feet, while the savages amused themselves by throwing knives and nma- hawks at them until they killed them. Sometimes houses were surrounded a (d the surprised inmates burned alive. In one instance, the savages entered a settler's house where a woman was engaged in making bread. They split her head open with an axe, and then took the baby from the cradle and Imked it in the oven until nearly dead, v^'I'.on its brains were beaten out against a wall. iileantime, Captain March had been dispatched from Fort Ridgely to meet the marauders and come to the aid of the setters. On his way up the river i.ii TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS 383 be encountered the Indians, and while parleying with them, on the other side of the river, a number crossed to where he and his little force stood and ambushed them, killing twenty at the first fire. He himself fought his way out, losing all but nine men. While trying to ford the stream farther down, his retreat was cut oflF, and he was drowned, but the nine survivors succeeded in reaching the other side in safety. The Upper Agency on the Yellow Medicine was saved through the good- ness of Other Day, a friendly Indian, who informed the garrison. Instances of escape and thrilling adventure during the march of the sav- ages down the river would be considered exaggeration, if found in the regu- lation Indian dime novel. The instances of heroism and self-sacrifice also were striking. In one case two brothers placed their sick mother on a mat- tress in a wagon, and sought to reach a place of safety. They were pursued by the Indians and could have escaped, but would not abandon their mother, and both were killed while she was compelled to witness their murder. The savages then set fire to the mattress, burning her to death. All the Indians in this locality were now aroused, and their savage instincts were inflamed to the fiercest degree. They were determined on a war of extermination. They moved next on New Ulm, a town then containing abou'. fifteen hundred inhabi- tants and some live hundred fugitives, who had fled before warkior with bkar claw necklace. the advancing hoatiles. Most of the people were women and children, and the inhabitants of the place were unprepared to meet an attack. Before the arrival of the savages, Mr. Board man from St. Peter's, witb fifteeii men, reached the town, and began preparing means for def nse. With what force he could gather in the town, he moved out to the prairie after dark, and repulsed the Indians for some time. At nine o'clock that night. Judge Flandreau, with a force of a hundred men, arrived. After a J rolonged and desperate attack, in which several lives were lost, the savages withdrew and proceeded to join Little Crow in an attack on Fort Ridgely. Sergeant Joi^ea and a small force, with two howitzers, were sent to meet the ^^^^1^^ '< '^ '' ''^'^I^H HI m "' % ^ ' ■■'•' ^^':^^?S _^ J •i '1 ' '*a A i '^F«3i m. ^^^f^^' I, ■'■'33 '■; ■l ::| 1 1 j 1 i '% 1 § 1 I 'i\ i ■■ 'J ''{ \ •684: TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. advancing hostiles, and to save the defenseless settlers. The Indians' dread of artillery kept them at a safe distance for a time; a violent rainstorm com- ing on, the savages, fearing that their ammunition and arms might be ren- dered useless by the rain, retired to the vs^oods, yelling and gesticulating in the usual Indian manner. Meantime the garrison had put the fort in the best condition it could for defense. The Indians, the next morning, after a few desultory movements, aban- doned the attack on the fort and resumed the easier business of murdering set- tlers. They continued atrocities and mutilated the bodies of the dead in the usual revolting manner. A few days afterward. Little Crow, with four hundred and fifty warriors, resumed the attack on Fort Ridgely, fight- ing with desperate persistence. They tried to set fire to the agency buildings by discharging fire arrows into them, and exhausted every means of surprise. For three days the garrison had been cut off, and the country felt alarmed for their safety. Failing to capture the fort, Little Crow now moved on to New Ulm again. After the arrival of Judge Flandreau, the attack on the town had not been renewed. The approach of the Indians was marked by the smoke of the settlers' dwellings on the way. The people were as well prepared as the conditions of the situation allowed. Judge Flandreau, who now had two hundred and fifty well-armed men, left the barricades and moved out on the prairie to encounter the Indians. This was the second time that such a false move bad been made. The defenders were forced to fall back behind the de- fenses of the town. The battle raged all day and was fought in the regular Indian fashion, a series of charges, retreats, and counter-charges. The sav- ages retired to a safe distance during the night and renewed the attack at daybreak, but gave up the attempt to capture the town at noon, and withdrew. Meantime, scattered bands of the hostiles were going through the settle- ments, murdering and burning on their way. All the male adults were killed, and the women were subjected to a worse fate before they were mas- sacred. Even children were subjected to torture. Two hundred inhabitants of New Ulm had gone to Mankato; their am- munition having been exhausted, their position became indefensible. The bodies of the dead, in their precipitate flight, were left unburied. A body of fourteen hundred volunteers who had enlisted for the Civil War were now dispatched under Colonel Sibley to the relief of the Redwood Agency, On the march the most appalling sights were witnessed. The bodies of the murdered settlers were left where they had fallen, a' i were, in many instances, devoured by hogs and prairie wolves. Over two hundred bodies were buried by the soldiers while on this march. MH TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 385 Colonel Sibley, after his arrival at the fort, sent Major Brown with one hundred and sixty men to ascertain in what direction the Indians had gone. He camped at a place called Birch Cooley, admirably adapted for a surprise, where he was discovered by Little Crow. The Indians approached unex- pectedly, and at the first fire most of the guard and nearly a hundred horses fell. Had the Indians charged they could have captured the entire camp, but fortunately they held off. Meantime the troops rallied behind the dead horses, the wagons, and every available object, and fought to the best ad- vantage possible. The Indian warriors were over one thousand strong. Captain McPhail was dispatched to the fort for relief, but before going many miles he met Colonel 8ibley, with his full force on the way, who had heard the firing. As the long line of troops appeared, coming over the prairie, the Indians hurriedly withdrew. When the troops reached the scene of conflict, they found the defenders in the last stage of exhaustion, having been all day without food or water, fighting as best they could, with thirteen of their number dead and sixty wounded. It would have been impoisible for them to have held out more than a few hours longer. Little Crow, realizing the military strength opposed to him, sued for peace. He was crafty, cunning, and quick to discern the impracticability of continued resistance. He was known to be an inveterate liar, full of double-dealing and treachery, but wide-awake and shrewd. He had judg- ment enough to use his influence in preventing the murdering of settlers further, but the traders, whom he detested were murdered ruthlessly. Another incident at this juncture contributed to bring about a cessation of hostilities on the part of the Indians. The tribes who lived on the upper and lower river had a dispute about the distribution of the plunder taken at the lower agency, and the breach nearly ended in a battle among themselves. Little Crow represented that the Indians were only fighting for their rights, and although their rights had not been secured, they were, nevertheless, will- ing to make peace with the white people. Colonel Sibley refused to treat, except on condition of the surrender of white captives by the Indians. Little Crow, knowing that the possession of these prisoners was one of his strongest advantages in negotiating for peace, would not give them up. About two weeks afterward Colonel Sibley marched against the Indians and de ted them at Yellow Medicine Agency, Little Crow, with two hun- dred of is warriors, retreating into Dakota. The others, among whom were a luige number of mission Indians, who now desired peace, requested Colonel Sibley to come and take the white captives before Little Crow could return and kill them. = , . m 386 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 1 1'^ ',} :■ 1 m ''': 'I II i !f Colonel Sibley's forces accordingly marched to the Indian camp, where they were received by the Indians with every manifestation of delight. The wretches, who had murdered so many innocent men, women and children in the most fiendish manner, now shook hands with the soldiers, declaring that they were glad to see them, also that they had always desired to live in peace with the whites. More than two hundred captives, principally women and children, were handed over to the troops. The sufferings of the prisoners had been extreme; some were on the verge of insanity; some told the most heartrending tales as they clasped their rescuers, weeping in rejoicing. Other captives were brought in, and all told the same tale of kindred and friends slain and outrages endured. One incident in this campaign of massacre is especially worthy of men- tion — the escape of Burton Eastwick and his little brother. Burton was but ten years old and his brother five. Having escaped massacre, both started for Fort Ridgely, a distance of eighty miles. They did not know where the fort was; the elder child only knew that the soldiers were somewhere down the river. Sometimes the elder boj' carried his little brother in his arms over rough places, resting with him every now and then when he was tired out or frightened. But the two children finally reached the fort, to the surprise of the soldiers, who could scarcely believe at first they had come such a long and toilsome journey; living on berries and fruits, which they gathered on the way, having to be always on the alert to prevent being discovered by the Indians. Besides those killed many persons were lost in wandering over the prai- ries, vainly endeavoring to escape. Some went mad, others died of starva- tion and exposure. The Indians who surrendered were carefully guarded, and Lieutenant- Colonel Marshall was sent into Dakota, where he captured a portion of Little Crow's band. In October the prisoners were brought to Mankato, and on the way to Fargo passed through New Ulm. All were in wagons, well secured and guarded; as they entered the town on Sunday morning, the news spread in a few moments, when the entire population turned out to attack them. The people of the town who had suffered so severely at the hands of these bloodthirsty wretches, and who had barely saved their lives, assembled with every weapon they could find at hand — guns, pistols, axes, pitchforks, and sticks, while the women filled their aprons with stones and flung them at the heads of the prisoners. One woman seized an Indian by the hair, and half dragged him out of the wagon, pounding his head with a stone, before she was taken 1 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 387 oflE by the soldiers. The soldiers in many cases were compelled to use vio- lence in order to save the lives of the Indian prisoners. The Indians were finally tried by a military commission, and three hun- dred and three of their number were condemned to be hanged, and eighteen to be imprisoned for life. This decision was reversed by the authorities at Washington, who pardoned all but thirty -eight, who were hanged on Febru- ary 26, 1803. The> died with the stoicism characteristic of the Indian, with- out manifesting signs of fear. In this terrible massacre six hundred and forty-four settlers and ninety- three soldiers were slain, and the country round about had been desolated for more than two hundred miles. After the tuppression of the hostiles, isolated bands continued for some time to raid here and there, and killed thirty more whites. Little Crow escaped capture, but retributive justice overtook the miscreant, and he paid the penalty for his atrocities with his life even before the affair was ended. A farmer and his son were passing along the prairie when they saw two Indians picking berries in a clump of bushes. The horrors of the massacre were fresh in the farmer's memory, and he crept stealthily within rifle shot of the Indians and fired. One Indian jumped in the air with a yell, then dropped, and crawled along on his hands and knees through the prairie grass in the direction of his assailant, dragging his rifle with him. When sufficiently close he fired, but harmlessly, and a bullet from the farmer's rifle put an end to him. The other Indian in the meantime had run away. He was afterward captured, and it was not discovered until then that the Indian who was shot was none other than the prisoner's father, Little Crow. The results of this massacre were very disastrous, preventing for a i ^ time further settlement of that part of the countrj'. With proper pre- caution, too, the massacre might have been prevented. Bishop Whipple had predicted the outbreak, and on more than one occasion had warned the authorities. He laid the blame on the Government, owing to its system of dealing with the Indians, and neglect in preventing the robbery of them by agents and traders. For the eight hundred thousand acres of land sold to the Government, the Indians received scarcely anything. The amount due to them was absorbed in various pretended claims, and a large portion of their annuities were stolen under similar pretexts by pirates who made for- tunes by robbing both the Government and the Indian. For every dollar of which the Indian was robbed, the Government lost ten, to say nothing of the loss of human life, the destruction of property, and the retarding, for a long time, of the progress of civilization. 9» 388 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. ii 1 < \ m i,Jl;i! •^);- CHAPTER XLVI. THE FUR COMPANIES— HOW THEY OPERATED— HUNTERS AND TRADERS IN THE INDIAN COUNTRY— THEIR EVERY DAY LIFE AND EXPLOITS. The First White Men among the Wild Indians — The Hudson Bay Company — How Trading Posts were Establislied from Ocean to Ocean — Their Maxim, " Never Trust an In- dian" — Etfect of a White Man's Fist on an Indian's Nose — Fierce Competition — Vile Liquors Sold to the Indians — John Jacob Astor and the American Fur Company — Hardy Trappers and Daring Frontiersmen — Danger of Trapping in a Hostile Country — In the Wilderness for Several Years — Robbing the Indian — Twenty Dollars' Worth of Beaver Skins for Fifty Cents — "Fire Water," why so Named — How Indians Tested Brandy — Made of the ' ' Hearts of Wild Cats and the Tongues of Women " — Trappers taken by Surprise — Lying in Ambush. The first white men with whom the ludiaDS of the north and northwestern parts of this continent came in con- tact were the trappers, hunt- ers, and traders of tho various Fur Companies. An adven- turous explorer, or an enthu- siastic missionary might, from time to time, penetrate into the heart of the Indian country, but they were seen by only a few of the natives in their transient passage, and rarely left a lasting im- pression behind them. The first Fur Company to enter this wild region for barter and trade was the Hudson Bay Company. This association was formed dur- ing the reign of Charles II., for the purpose of importing into Qreat Britain furs and skins obtained from the Indians of British North America, or secured CHIPPEWA IN WAR COSTUME. \\m inif TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 889 in their territory. The company establiflhed numerous trading posts through- out the immense region bounded east by the Altantic, west by the Pacific, north by the Arctic ocean, and south by what is now a portion of the United States. This company had an exclusive monopoly of the fur trade in this vast terri- tory, and it also controlled the entire legislative, judicial, and executive powers within those limits. In the course of time this company developed into one of the most com- plete as well as tyrannical commercial systems in the world. The native Indians were as fierce as those of any other portion of the North American Continent, yet the company and its officials had little diflHculty with them. This, according to the authorities of the company, was mainly attributable to the perfect system of discipline maintained among their employees. One of their maxims was never to trust an Indian, no matter how friendly he might seem or how honest he pretended to be. In case of diflSculty or trou- ble, employees were instructed to act with the utmost prudence and firm- ness, to be as just as they were stern, and never to use their weapons, or kill an Indian, except in self-defense. Any exhibition of hostility or even arro- gance was to be stopped the moment it showed itself. The punishment for insolence or petty offenses was to knock the Indian down at once with the fist. However expert the Indian might be with his knife, lance, gun, or other weapon, he was invariably taken back by the landing of a white man's fist on bis nose. No offense on the part of the Indians was passed unnoticed, but instead of shooting the culprits down, or butchering them indiscriminately, the tribe was frequently prevailed upon to send in the criminal for punishment, and he usually got off with a reprimand, sometimes receiving a present, which made him for the time being at least a "good Indian." Under this system, the company's trade prospered immensely. After the cession of Canada, in 1763, numbers of fur traders spread over that country and into the northwestern part of the continent, and began to encroach on the Hudson Bay Company's territory. These individual spec- ulators finally combined, forming the Northwest Fur Company in 1787. They had their headquarters at Fort William, where the directors or their representatives met once a year. The trade of this company was in the region of the north. There were many other companies engaged in this business both before and after the amalgamation of the Hudson Bay and Northwest Com. panics. Fierce competition at once sprang up between these rival companies. Both supplied the Indians with an abundance of intoxicating liquors, in order to -%. t>. 'vy o^. \% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /l/. A 1.0 I.I I 2.5 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 -^ 6" — ► 7] A y # Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WIISTIR.NY UttO (716) •7a-4>o:i ■■I ^' ^ F.^ ^ :9 :;i UJJ 390 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. iP increase their trade and maintain rommercial supremacy in the Indian country. The consequence was inevitable. The worst passions of both Indians and whites — many of these latter bein^ really half-breeds— were inflamed to the fiercest degree, and great destruction of human life and prop- erty was the result. The supply of furs, too, threatened to become ex- hausted by the indiscriminate slaughter, even in the breeding season, of both male and female animals. The Northwest Company had the monopoly of the fur trade of the entire region of the Northwest, and were also practically the political rulers of that great stretch of territorj'. The Mackinaw Company, another rival, was subsequently established and sought to monopolize the trade to the south and southwest of the Northwest Company. Meantime, John Jacob Astor engaged in the fr.r trade on his own account, and obtained a charter from the legislature of New York in IhO'.J, incorporating the American Fur Company. The rivalry of the Mack- inaw Company rendering his own venture unprofitable, he and some mem- bers of the Northwest Company bought out the Mackinaw Company, and established a new one under the name of the Southwest Company, embrac- ing part of the Northwest Company, the American Company, and probably the interests of individual traders, who had become strong. This company controlled a number of establishments within both British and American territory. Mr. Astor engaged in the trade in conseciuence of the treaty of 17i»4, which permitted commercial intercourse between Canada and the United States, and entailed the evacuation of all the posts held by the Brit- ish within United States territory. Previous to the establishment of the American Fur Company, Congress enacted a law decreeing that all fur traders in the United States territory should be American citizens, and that no foreigners should be employed in this line of business unless under bonds furnished by American employers for the proper conduct of these traders. The central business post of the consolidated companies was near Sault Ste. Marie, on Lake Superior. The interior sub-posts extended over a vast region, running north to the tifty-ninth degree north latitude, and west as far as the Missouri River. It was found impossible to conduct the business suc- cessfully without employing soriO of the agents, clerks, interpreters, and boatmen of the old company, all of whom were foreigners or French Cana- dians. This procedure exercised an evil influence on all Indians in that region. As already litated, when the commercial rivalry between the two British Fur Companies sprang up, both parties sold the Indians ardent spirits. Con- t '> v ;i :■ 'J :: I ;; I'i i it i ■ TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 391 gress passed a law, after the establishment of the American Fur Company, prohibiting the sale of intoxicants to Indians, not even allowing their intro- duction into their country under any circumstancts. But as the old em- ployees of the Northwest Company virtually held the field of trade, this law was almost a dead letter. They were employed to secuie furs, and to utilize the Indians in every way necessary for this purpose, an .^. aimed only to make good returns to their employers. The consequence was that the Indian was debased, and all the inherent evil in his nature was awakened and set in motion. The political influence exercised on the Indians of the Northwest was also bad. The great body of Indians in the region of the upper lakes, and ex- tending to the source of the Mississippi, were averse to American rule. Many of them had been influenced to fight the Americans, who were fre- quently ambushed, surprised, and attacked in various ways and in many places, including Fort Dearborn (now Chicago), Brownstone, River Basin, Maumee, Fort Harrison, Machilim-^ckimac, and other strongholds. The British fur traders made the Indians believe that the Americana were to be driven back to the lines of the Illinois and Ohio Rivers, an old and popular wljh of the Lake Indians from early days. Large numbers of them joined the British in the war that followed, and suffered severely. Their great chief was killed; their prophet, Elksatawa, was driven into Canada; and what was worse, they were abandoned by the British after the close of the war. Many of them never came back; those who did, and those who had remained in United States territory, were discontented, sullen, and hostile. It was among these that the foreign employees of the Amv^rican Fur Company traded. To their baneful influence more than to anything else may l)e largely ascribed the beginrjing of our subsequent troubles with the Indians of tlie Northwest. These trappers included many of the most hardy and daring frontiersmen of tliose days. Their trapping expeditions were always led by one man. It was their custom to travel up the streams until they came to the mouth of a stream confluent to the one on which they were traveling, where they made camp. They then trapped to the entire source of this stream, and after securing all the beaver, otter, and other pelts possible, returntMl to the main stream again, moving camp to the mouth of the next stream above, going up that, and so on until they arrived at the source of the main river. Sometimes trapping parties were absent for one or two years at a time, sulwisting almost entirely on meats and fish. The'r nly means of trans- portation, as a rule, were pack animals and small boats. It may be interesting to state here that while the trappers bad no bread, \ ■ 39-2 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. \t !:^> n flour, or vo^etables of any kind, they subsisted very well on the different meats whi' they obtained in abundance along the rivers, the flesh of the beaver being particular!}' sweet and nutritious, resembling much the flavor of fresh pork. The Fur Companies were exceedingly arbitrary in dealing with their own and other men. Being far from civilization, the only law that they ap- pealed to was force. This they used in various ways. Their traffic was highly remunerative, and the companies grew immensely wealthy. The more wealth they secured, the more arbitrary they became, frequently com- mitting acts for which, in a civilized community, they would have been condemned and severely punished. To the employees of these companies can be traced more viciousness on the part of the North American Indians than to any other source. They did more to demoralize them than any other agency. They simply robbed the Indians of their property whenever oppor- tunity offered. It was not uncommon for them to secure two or three choice beaver skins for a butcher knife valued at fifty or seventy-five cents, one beaver skin alone being worth in gold from four to eight dollars, according to its size and condition. The Fur Companies made all the men connected with them immensely wealthy, from John Jacob Astor down. To offset this record, in a measure, it may be said that the Fur Companies were the first agency to send civilized persons into what was then an un- known countr}'. They first learned the nature of the country and its inhabi- tants. As their trappers and hunters traveled up the streams and along nearly every river throughout this vast region, they made maps of the coun- try, and especially of the rivers where the most valuable pelts were obtained, delivering the maps to the companies' agents. These maps were withheld by the fur companies from the general public, in order that no encroach- ments should be made on their rich hunting grounds. Occasionally a party of trappers sent out by one of the companies were massacred and their goods taken by the Indians. The story of these occur- rences was ah^ays exaggerated by the Fur Companies, then scattered broad- cast throughout the country to show the great danger attending trapping ex- peditions, and the great loss entailed on the companies themselves by such massacres. This was done to prevent others from engaging in the same business. As late as 180(1, these companies sent trapping expeditious throughout the western country, and all of them, even as late as this, secured large numbers of valuable pelts, although they did not trade much with the Indians. Most of the trading done with the red man was for buffalo robes, bear, deer, fox, and wolf skins. The articles traded by the companies for pelts in latter days consisted of butcher knives, red blankets, scarlet cloth, TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 393 various colored paints for the Indians to decorate their faces and bodies, such as yellow ochre, carmine, vermili-^n, and indigo blue, small mirrors, beads, Iroquois shells, brass buttons, and other articles of small value. When the Fur Companies first began to supply ardent liquor to the Indians in order to help their trade, the liquor was imported from England. It was the cheapest and most poisonous brand manufactured at the time, and for that reason was all the more acceptable to the Indian. When it reached the Hndf on Bay territory, or the great region within which the rival fur com- panies traded, it was carried overland to the various posts. For conven- ience of transportation, casks or barrels of liquor were divided into kegs. The carriers soon learned that they could make a profit by diluting the liquor with water, when changing it from the barrels into kegs. The Indians, however, missed the powerful effects and suspected that they were being cheated. They learned how to test liquor before exchanging peltries for it. The liquor was poured on a fire, and if the fire was extinguished it was evident that the liquor was watered, and they at once pronounced it "bad." If, on the contrary, the liquor added to the flame, they knew that the alcohol had not been tampered with, and it was accepted as genuine "fire water." Hence the name "fire water," as used by the Indians, when referring to liquor. That the "fire water" supplied to the Indians of that day was com- parable to the vilest stuff of present day manufacture, is illustrated by an Indian chief who had experienced its effects, and who had witnessed the sad havoc it had produced among his people. "Fire water," exclaimed this savage, "can only he distilled from the hearts of wild cats and tongues of wor.ien, it makes my people at once so fierce and so foolish." The hunters and trappers employed by the Fur Companies were shrewd and adventurous characters. They were perfect mountaineers and frontiersmen, as much at home in the untrodden forest as in the civilization they had left behind. They learned the habits of the red man, the untamed savagenessof his nature, and the danger of placing confidence in him. Hence, they were rarely taken by surprise. They were led by such men as Major Henry Vanderburgh, Jim Bridger, Jim Baker, and many others whose names will always be connected with the history of that country. These hardy and intrepid men pursued their trade at all seasons of the year, and in the face of tremendous obstacles. They penetrated into the ter- ritory of unknown tribes, and were prepared to resist, if they could not evade, all perils and enemies. Many romances of Indian life have been written, most of them greatly exaggerated, and some of them preposterously absurd ; but if the real details of some of the daring adventures of these early trappers could be written they would verify the old adage that "truth is I HI ^an for what was known as the Pike's Peak country. Prospecting for gold and silver was largely carried on in that region, and the stories of the mineral wealth which this territory contained, when reported in the East, gave a wonderful impetus to western settlement. The gold discoveries of the Pike's Peak counti-y resulted in greatly in- creasing the tide of emigration over this vast stretch of territory; and the adventurous and intrepid people who composed the caravans and encoun- tered the dangers and difficulties of the routes, were naturally calculated to bring a spirit of enterprise into the new land. Thoy embraced all sorts of characters, but as each and all were bent on seeking fortunes or bettering their condition, it resulted in the rapid settlement of the country. These new settlers were men of darini; and enterprise, and soon established numer- ous villages and communities, with lines of communication between them. As the settlements grew the frontier lines were strengthened. The red man was driven back and forced to recognize the undisputed right of all people to travel from one point to another through his country without molestation. The next exploration of the western country was that undertaken by Colonel John C. Fremont. The object of his expedition was to discover, if possible, a route along the Platte Valley, and through the mountains to Salt Lake and California. Thisexpeditionconsisted of sixty soldiers and civilians, and a sufficient number of six-mule teams to carry the outfit. It was the best equipped of any expedition sent out by the Government. The party dis- covered and made what was afterward the Overland Route through this val- ley, and through the mountains by way of South Pass. This was the most direct and accessible route between the western borders of civilization and TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 408 the Pacific coast, and was afterward traveled by the Mormons, the Overland Stage, and the Pony Expreps. ^fter this route became known, there followed during the summer months, an itlmost endless stream of horse, mule, and ox-ieams traveling over it, some of which were composed of freighters, and others of prospectors, miners, or settlers. The trains were frequently attacked by bands of hostile Indians, and sometimes were entirely anr^'bilated, as the bones of the dead which were left to bleach in the sun, where the wolves had drawn them after eating the flesh, bore ghastly testimony. It was afterward found necessary by the military to organize these trains so that they couiu, to a certain extent, protect themselves. The wagons were detained until there were about fifty in number, with a sufficient force of able-bodied fighting men in the company to afford protection. A captain was appointed from among the travelers by the military commander of the post at wl ch the train was organized. This captain received a written document from the military, giving him absolute command of the train, with authority to detail the men of his train to ^tand guard over their animals while grazing, and over the camp at night. A company orgaoi:i,d in this way proceeded with some sort of discipline and with a good prospect of reaching the next mili- tary post. Upon its arrival the captaiu of tde train reported to the military commander, who demanded to know if he had kept sufficient guard over his animals and trains by day and night, and if his men were obedient, and did their duty promptly. If not, the commanding officer of the troops read a severe lecture to the deliniiuent or disobedient individual, or replaced bim by another man, when the train rosnmed its journey. This was purely arbi- trary on the part of the military, but it had become an absolute necessity to compel travelers to exercise at least ordinary precaution for their own safety. Frequently, when an attack was made on an unprotected train by Indian,., the military were compelled to go to that point and relieve the dis- tressed party, often having to care for of a number of wounded until they recovered or died. After the action of the military in organizing the wagons into companies, fewer were attacked and destroyed by the Indians. The wagons of the com- panies thus organized traveled close together, and the men were always in a position to defend themselves. After a few of these purely military. The soldier knows and feela this. He knows that officers hold their places by virtue of authority, obtained by capacity for their posi- tion; not as in the armies of the Old World, by virtue of so-called noble lineage, social caste, or wealth. Hence in our army there is not, as a rule, arrogance or superciliousness on the part of an officer toward a soldier, or enmity or jealousy on the part of a soldier toward an officer. To see the American trooper on the plains in a hostile Indian country, after interminable marches, wearied and reduced by exposure, protracted work, and insufficient food, with his worn-out rusty uniform, one would at first glance write him down as a slouchy kind of soldier. And this judg- ment would be correct if one compared him to the gayly bedizened and dash- ing French hussar, the prim and strait-laced British cavalry man, or the pre- cise and machine-like German 'Uihan, when on a field review. But wait, and you will see in the American trooper something that can never be seen in any other. The bugle sounds ; and these apparently ungraceful troopers, after long marches, pnd a few hours of sleep, perhaps on the wet prairie or on the snow-covered ground, will swing into their saddles with a motion that daz- zles the eye by its mechanical precision. There they sit motionless; and scanning their faces one will observe that unmistakable look of intelligence which is not the result of discipline, but of education, and which is so notice- ably absent in the automatic soldiers of the Old World. When the bugle soxmds again mark the soldierly ease and elegant grace with which these troopers dash off, though they have been weeks on the march, half-starved meanwhile, fighting Indians day by day, passing sleepless nights, enduring every kind of weather and privations, undaunted by pitiless frosts and snows, the dust of the great plains, or the terrible thirst of the desolate alkali deserts, and one must say, in view of their great endurance, their ever cheerful readiness and easy but perfect discipline, that American soldiers are the best in the world. It is owing to these qualifications that we had in them such excellent Indian fighters. And I venture to say that nowhere in the armies of the Old World could a body of troops be selected, of equal numbers, who would compare at all favorably with them in Indian campaigns. In the Indian country, when a detachment of cavalry went on a scouting expedition, the men were always reduced to light marching order. Neither the officers, troops, nor guides were provided with shelter of any kind. Sometimes, if the scout was to be a long one, they might have an extra shirt, a towel, a piece of common soap and a tooth brush, but these were the limit of extra baggage. Their beds consisted of the saddle blanket and a rubber poncho spread on the ground. Sometimes two or three troopers bunked 410 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 1 1 M!l 11 bf together at night, and if the weather was clear two ponchos were placed on the ground, thus having two or three blankets with which to cover them- selves. In this wav thoy securer! the best shelter possible under the circum- LONE HORN. . A stances. When camp was made for the night, everything was left as com- fortable and secure as possible, and the most favorable position was selected to prevent annoyance from unwelcome visitors of all kinds. Among the many hardships borne by the American soldier at that time, was Wsl TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 411 the neglect of the Oovernment to furnish suitable clothing for those stationed in different latitudes. For thope serving in Texas in an almost tropical region the clothing was the same, both in quality and quantity, as that issued to the troops stationed in the cold regions on the borders of the Brit- ish possessions. There were no warm gloves, wraps, or coverings for the neck or ears furnished to the troops during long winter campaigns; neither were there extra supplies of blankets nor an extra quantity of rations. The clothing and rations were the same the year round; during winter cam- paigns against the Indians both men and animals often suffered from an insuflScient supply of both food and clothing. At night, when near the enemy, no fires could be built, and when the cold was severe, the suffering of the troops and animals was intense. On these campaigns the men's fingers and hands were frequently frozen, and it was not uncommon for the animals to freeze to death where they were fastened. The poor beasts were com- pelled to live on grass, which they could only obtain by pawing away the snow that covered it. In Texas, during the extreme heat of summer, with the same regulation clothing, both troops and animals suffered greatly from the heat. Even the medical supplies furnished bj' the Government for cam- paigns were limited, consisting only of a few articles such as each officer could administer to his men. The hardships endured by the troops engaged in fighting the Indians were thus greatly multiplied. When transportation was furnished for a campaign it was always limited in amount. The con- sequence was, that in a short time the pack animals broke down, or their backs became a mass of sores, thus compelling the command to abandon a portion of its limited supplies. The one thing that was never neglected for an instant by the troops in this wild country, was their arms. No matter how severe the weather, these were always protected and kept in good firing condition. When sleeping on the ground in water or snow the arms always received first attention, and were stowed away in the best possible manner to protect them. The first thing a trooper did, on awakening, was to buckle his belt with his pistols on it around his waist, and then sling his carbine (attaching it to a strap over his shoulder). This done, he immediately examined his arms, and put them in the best firing condition, for on these his life depended. Arms were not only used as a protection against the enemy, but also in procuring food. On an Indian campaign, when pack mules were used, the supply of com- missary stores was limited. The command lived largely on the wild meats of the country, and these were secured by the troops themselves. This was done by selecting the best hunter each day to secure game when any was discovered in the vicinity of the camp. > t 412 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTII.E INDIANS. On rare occasions misunderstaudings and quarrels occurred among the troops, but thej' were almost always settled amicably. I recall an instance, though, a sad one, that deserves notice, as illustrating the quickness and expertness of the American soldier in the use of his arms. Some troopers were playing cards on a poncho spread on the ground. Two of them quar- reled over the game, one drew his revolver and shot his comrade through the top of the shoulder. The other immediately drew his pistol, remarking, "Ah, you wanted to wing me, did you?" whereupon he fired at his com- rade's right elbow, shattering it to pieces; down went his right arm, the six-shooter falling to the ground. Quick as thought the wounded man drew the other revolver from the holster with the left hand and tired with intent to kill. The bullet made a severe scalp wound. Again his antagonist fired at the other elbow of his friend, breaking the joint, which put an end to the firing. The man with his two elbows shattered remarked, "You have made a fine soldier of me." To which his comrade replied, "That was the only way I had to stop you, for if you had killed me you would have been sorry for it all your life." The army surgeon in dressing the wounded man's arms, set the right arm at right angles across his body, and the left almost straight; in ..is position they remained during the rest of his life. The trouble began and ended in shorter time than it takes to tell; both men wert> devoted friends before and after the occurrence. Another trouble that men and animals had to contend with in the elevated portions of that country was the rarity of the atmosphere. It required some time to become accustomed to the thin air of those high altitudes. Those who were not accustomed to it constantly complained of being unable to get their breath. They could not undergo severe physical exertion with- out becoming greatly distressed, and it usually required from eighteen months to two years before this was overcome. Another foe was the Rocky Mountain fever. This was a peculiar form of low fever that attacked those not accustomed to the mountain air and pros- trated them for a long time. After partly recovering from it, it often assailed the patient again and again, sometimes attacking him in the feet. When this occurred the patient could not bear oven the weight of a sheet on any portion of his feet, as he was in constant pain. The feet often swelling to almost double their natural size, and as recovery was alow, a trooper once taken with this disease was unfit for service for a long time. It frequently happened that the camp was disturbed by other than human enemies. When fresh meat bad been cooked, visits were to be expected from all sorts of carnivorous animals. Sometimes a grizzly bear made his appear- ance, seizing and carrying off the carcass of an antelope, deer or piece of TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 413 buffalo. If he could be driven from camp without firing a shot it wao always done, for should a shot be fired in the death like stillness which prevailed at all times in that country, it could be heard for a long distance and might disoiose to the bostiles the whereabouts of the troops. The regular visitors in every camp were wolves, both gray and coyote. The latter were skulking beasts and sitting at a safe distance from the camp, would utter such unearthly howls that one not accustomed to hearing them imagined from the noise of three or four that there were hundreds present. Should there be from fifteen to twenty gathered about the camp, their howls prevented the troops from sleeping that night. They were cunning thieves and arrant cowards, and were justly despised by every person in that coun- try. With the setting in of cold weather these famished animals became very bold, and coming into camp would eat a pair of boots, the leather of a saddle, or anything they could find to appease their voracious appetites. m •. . "'V.XtfS-- PRAIRIE WOLVES — COYOTES. The large gray wolf was another and more dangerous animal. He was a cunning, skulking thief, and approached the camp by stealth, carrying awriy whatever he could get hold of. In winter, when these animals were great sufferers from hunger, they became very vicious, and a pack of them often attacked cattle and horses, killing and devouring them. At times old hunters and trappers shot one of the pack, when the rest, crazed by the smell of blood, proceeded to eat their companion alive. The skins of both kinds of wolves were sent East and made into clothing, robes, mats, or ornaments. Could some of my readers who delight in hav- ing wolf skins around them, know the habits of these miserable animals, I fancy they would discard them at once; for the dirty beasts crawled into the carcass of an animal which had been dead for a long time, and once inside of it, rolled over and over in the putrid mass, saturating their hair as much 414 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. as possible wilu the filthy and rotten inside of the dead aninaal. It was not uncommon for one accustomed to it, to locate the presence of these animals by their disgusting odor. The most important trouble for troops to guard against was a stampede of the animals, as the Indians always tried to effect this by surprising and frightening them when tied or picketed. The stampede of a large number of animals was a frightful thing. When once a herd of horses and mules became thoroughly frightened they seemed GRAY WOLF. to lose their senses, and became entirely unmanageable. In their flight they ran over anything that lay in their path. They did not seem for an instant to recognize any obstacle in their way. They often ran over an embank- ment, or up against it, nearly dashing themselves to pieces; or rushed wildly into a stream and drowned ; or into the mud and mire and became hopelessly swamped. The farther they ran the more frightened they became. The only way to stop a stampede was to cause the animals to run in a circle; in this way they ran until exhausted or cooled down. I once saw a stampede of a herd of horses and mules which had been picketed after the usua army fashion, by lariat ropes fifteen to twenty feet in length attached to the halter of each animal. The end of the lariat rope was attached to a picket pin made of round iron, about eighteen inches in length, sharp at the point, and having a pear-shaped belly about three-quarters of a inch in diameter at the thickest part. At the top it had a ball-like bead TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 4T5 with an iron swivel attachod to it, shaped like the figure 8. To this was attached the lariat, which enabled the animal to graze the full length of the rope in a circle around the pin. The picket pins were driven into the ground the full length, when it was difficult to withdraw them from the solid earth. The animals became greatly frightened from some cause, ran the length of the rope, threw themselves against the picket pins with all their strength, and, jerking them from the ground, ran at the top of their speed. It was but a minute before the earth trembled under the hoofs of the frightened beasts. The air was filled with dust, and the roar of the stampede could be heard a long distance. The picket pins which were attached to the ropes flew all about the flying herd, and striking the ground with great force rebounded, the sharp points of some of them wounding many of the animals severely. This stampede continued for a distance of fully ten miles before they were rounded up. The troops followed on such horses as they could secure, but were careful not to get hit by the flying picket pins. After securing the herd many of the animals wert? found to be so badly wounded as to be unfit for further service. On going back over the ground many dead and wounded animals were found strewn along the entire dis- tance. Many of those that were brought back were more or less injured. This stampede left the temper of the herd in such a state that they never could be picketed again without being hobbled or side-lined. 30 HUMOROUS READINGS. proaches,' as a military man would say, as the steps in laying siege to some extravaganza oi' might perchance assail Pat thus : * By the by (addresting a distinguished guest), Pat has a story which something you told me to-day, i of. You remember, Pat, (turning to the mai pleased at the notice thus paid to himself) — yo that queer adventure you had in France ? ' ' Throth I do, Sir,' grins forth Pat. 'What !' exclaims Sir, John, in feigned su Pat ever in France ? ' * Indeed he was,' cries mine host, and Pat and farther, plase your honour.' ' I assure you. Sir John,' continues my hos me a story once that surprised me very mucl the ignorance of the French.' ' Indeed,' rejoins the Baronet, ' Really, I posed the French to be a most accomplished ' Troth then they're not. Sir,' interrupts Pat. ' Oh, by no means,' adds mine host, shaki emphatically. ' I believe, Pat, 'twas when you were cross lantic,' says the master, turning to Pat with air, and leading into the ' full and true accoi had thought fit to visit North Amerikay for a had ' in the autumn of the year '98. ' Yes, Sir,' says Pat, ' the broad Atlantic,' phrase of his, whicn he gave with a brogue « most as the Atlantic itself. ' It was the time crassin' the broad Atlantic a comin' home, decoyed into the recital, ' when the winds be ? READINGS. 1 would say, as the preparatory e extravaganza oi his servant) thus : ' By the bye, Sir John, guest), Pat has a very curious told me to-day, reminds me urning to the man, evidently lid to himself) — you remember id in France ? ' ibrth Pat. hn, in feigned surprise, ' was ine host, and Pat adds : ' Ay, Dur.' continues my host, ' Pat told sed me very much respecting I.' ronet, ' Really, I always sup- lost accomplished people.' Sir/ interrupts Pat. mine host, shaking his head en you were crossing the At- ling to Pat with a seductive ill and tme account,' for Pat th Amerikay for a ' raison he ^ear '98. e broad Atlantic,' a favourite e with a brogue as broad al- ' It was the time I was lost in : a comin' home,' began Pat, i'hen the winds began to blow THRAVELS Ilf FRANCE. 31 and the sae to rowl, that you'd think the "Colleen Dhas," (that was her narae) 'ud not have a mast left but what 'ud rowl out of her. Well, sure enough the masts went by the boord at last, and the pumps were chok'd (divil choke them for that same), and av coorse the wather gained on us, and throth to be filled with wather is neither good for man or baste, and she was sinkin' fast, settlin' down, as the sailors calls it, and faith I never was good at settlin' down in my life, and I liked it then less nor ever ; accor- dinly we prepared for the worst, and put out the boat and got a sack o' bishkets, and a cashk o' pork, and a kag o' wather, and a thrifle o' rum aboord, and any other little matthers w^e could think iv in the mortial hurry we wor in, and faith there was no time to be lost, for my darlint, the ' Colleen Dhas ' went down like a lump o' lead afore we wor many strokes o' the oar away from her. Well, we drifted away all that night, and next mornin' we put up a blanket on the ind iv a pole as w^ell as we could, and thin we sailed illigant, for we darn't show a stitch o' canvas the night afore, bekase it was blovvin' like bloody murther, savin' yer presence, and shurelts the wondher iv the world we warn't shwallowed alive by the ragin' sae. Well, away we went, for more nor a week, and nothin' afore our two good lookin' eyes but the canophy iv Heaven and the wide ocean — the broad Atlantic — not a thing was to be seen but the sae and the sky, and though the sae and the sky is mighty purty things in themselves, throth they're no great things when you've nothin' else to look at for a week together, and the barest rock in the world, so it was land, would be more welkim. And then, sure enough, throth, our provisions began to get low, the biskits an' the wather 416 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. s m ■'1 CHAPTER XLIX. THE OVERLAND STAGE— DESPERADOES AND ROAD AGENTS— AN INDI/N ATTACK THAT COVERED TWELVE HUNDRED MILES. The Overland Stage I>ine — How the Line was Operated — A Hundred Miles in Twenty four Hours — Its Extraordinary Service — Prey for Indians and Road Agents — Frequent Raids on tlie Stage Stations — Looting the Stages — Road Agents — Jules Bevi and his Tragic Death — Killed by the Noted Desperado, Alfred Slade — Cutting Off his Vie- tims Ears — Nailing One of them to the Door — Dangling the Other from his Watch Chain — The Worst White 5Ian in that Country — His Misdeeds — Hin Visit to my Cami) — A Heeded Warning — In the Hands of the Vigilantes — Execution of Slade and his two Comrades — Dying like Cowards — A Massacre that Extended Twelve Hundred Miles — The Wonderful Mirage. - ; The authorities at Washington had been urgently appealed to for an overland mail service to the Pacific Coast, and this stage line was the result. Tho Overland Stage Line was started about ISSD. The eastern end of the line began at St. Joseph, Missouri, and ran to Sacra- mento, California, a distance of nearly two thousand miles. About twenty- five days were recjuired to make the trip. At first the service was semi- monthly, then weekly, then semi-weekly, then tii-weekly, and after coming under Ben Holiday's management was made daily. The stages were what was known as thorough brace coaches, strong, dur- able and well suited for this service and built in Concord, N. H., these were drawn by four, six, or eight good horses or mules. Each stage had a boot in front and rear for baggage and mail, the express and mail matter being always carried in the front boot under the feet of the driver. From nine to twelve persons could be accommodated inside, while four could ride outside on the deck and two with the driver. The stations were usually from five to ten miles apart. A team running from one station to another with its stage constituted its daily work. At each station a number of men were kept to guard the place, take care of the animals, and assist in hitching and unhitching the teams on arrival. The Btages ran on schedule time; the people at the stations knew about when to expect them, and Lad everything in readiness to prevent delay and enable them to change horses with the utmost celerity. The driver rarely left his TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR ilOSTILE INDIANS. 417 box while a change was being made, but when all was in readiness the reins were passed quickly to him, a start was made at once, and the horses were forced to their utmost until the next station was reached, when the same scene of hurried change was re-enacted. The stages ran night and day, covering a hundred miles each twenty-four hours, which in these days of modern travel does not seem a long distance, >:4i»c,««-" Reproduced by perintssion of OVERLAND 8TAOE. U. LIppincott & Co., riiiladelphia. but in those days with a heavily loaded stage, hindered by frequent and unavoidable delays, bad roads through mountain passes, swollen streams, and other obstacles, it was regarded as extraordinary service. The ordin- ary day's work of a driver covered a distance of from fifty to sixty miles, and in making this journey from five to six teams were used. He went up the route one day and came down the next. His drive was made continu- ously, whether by day or night, and he was expected to reach his r- gotteu Ride — A Country alive with Wild and Frenzied Warriors — The Electric Telegraph. The Overland Stage proved too slow as a means of communication be- tween the East and the Pacific Slope. At first the stage reduced the time from long months required by ox-teams, to twenty-five days, and it was in turn beaten by the Pony Express, which carried letters and small express parcels through in ten days. The Pony Express was started in 1859, and ran between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California, It was not a passenger service, but was established for the special purpose of carrying light express matter, funds, special letters, etc. The weight carried by each horse was limited to twenty- five pounds. The horses used in this service were of small size, usually bronco or wild horses, intractable and vicious, but having a tender mouth they obeyed the bit and spur promptly. To saddle and bridle one of them usually required the united efforts of two or three men. After being caught, a blanket was placed over the animal's head covering the eyes; while thus blindfolded the beast was saddled and bridled. As soon as the rider was firmly seated in his saddle he put the rowels of his large Mexican spurs securely through the hair cinch (this was woven open for that puprose) to prevent the animal from throwint; him. When all was in readiness the rider yelled to the men who were holding the blind- folded horse to let it go; whereupon the blanket was suddenly pulled from TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 423 its bead, and the animal was left to the control of the rider. The beast at once began "bucking" in the most furious manner. Bucking was peculiar to these animals. The operation consisted of suddenly humping its back like a cat in the presence of a beligerent dog, at the same time lowering and thrusting its head between its fore legs, its tail thrust between its hind legs, and all four legs as stiff as if they had no joints in them. In this manner the pony made astonishingly rapid jumps sideways, backward, forward, and in every other way possible, using its utmost endeavor to throw the rider. Some of them, at times, seized the rider's leg with their teeth, holding it as in a vise, in their vicious rage making a strange noise through the nose and mouth. Sometimes they bucked so furiously that the rider bled from his nose, mouth, eyes and ears. After the beast was satisfied that it was impossible to get rid of the burden on his back, it apparently came to its senses and all at once ran off at ''nil speed. The rider then applied both whip and spur and away they wuut at a mad pace to the next station. The saddles used were Mexican, were very comfortable for the rider, and well adapted for this service, being prepared at the cantle to hold and carry the bags or pouch containing the express matter. A man can ride n longer distance on one of these saddles without injury to himself, than on ai.y other saddle in use. As the riders bore a large portion of the weight of their bodies on the stirrups, the latter were made of wood, with broad treads for the soles of the feet. Some riders hugged their horses so tightly with the thighs that the}' rubbed the hair off the animal under the skirt of the saddle. The saddle bags used for carrying the express matter were two small leathern pouches, hung on both sides of the cantle of the saddle. They were sealed and locked at one end of the route, and were not opened until reaching their destination. There were about two hundred stations along the line, requiring six hun- dred horses, about one hundred riders, and from five to six hundred other men were employed in maintaining the equipment, supplying fuel, forage, and other necessaries. The qualifications for a Pony Express rider in those days were expert horsemanship, undaunted courage, and sound judgment. The route was through a country infested by roving bands of wild and murderous Indians, as well as by desperate road agents whose sole object was plunder and who did not hesitate to commit murder on the slightest pretext. From the latter the rider had as much to fear as from the savages. Almost the entire distance between the two ends of the line was constantly raided by war parties of Indians who were at all times ready to resist all efforts to wrench from them the control of, or the making of roads through ■jSi^jt^iML:.,r i. :jJtikitA 424 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. their bunting grounds. Besides, the whole country was subject to blinding snowstorms and blizzards during the winter; and in summer its dry, parched, long, weary road, its ragged sandhills, rugged mountains, long brown plains, and peculiar watercourses made it lonesome and dangerous bej'ond description. The many remains of wagons and human bones that were strewn by the roadside all through that country were sufficient to send a shudder through the frame of the stoutest- hearted traveler. The Pony Express horses were compelled to carry their riders and express matter from station to station on regular schedule time, which was very fast. The rider, therefore, had to ride with judgment; for should he go too rapidly at first, he was liable to exhaust the strength of his mount before he had gone over his route. It was necessary at all times that the animal should have enough strength, not only to cover his route, but to carry him- self and rider out of any danger they might encounter. After riding a few miles the rider noted the condition of his horse, when, if all right, he put spurs to him, urging him at the top of his speed to the next station. The horses usually arrived at the station in an exhausted condition. The dis- tance between the stations which a horse was compelled to cover was usually from ten to twelve miles. Sometimes the distance was shorter or longer, depending upon a suitable place for the station, which whenever possible was located where wood, water and grass were to be had. The men in charge of the stations always had a number of horses in readi- ness for the arrival of the rider. While the latter was getting a hasty bite to eat, the men hurriedly removed the saddle and equipment to a fresh horse, which the rider mounted in the manner already described. After its usual bucking, the horse with its load started for the next station. It was not un- common for riders Avhen near the end of their route to arrive so much ex- hausted as to be unable to dismount. In such cases the station men took rider, saddle, and trappings, lifting them bodily from one horse to another, when the rider continued to the next station. The distance covered by each ridei' from one end of his route to the other was usually from forty to sixty miles. He was compelled to ride night and day, sick or well, and in all kinds of weather. Each rider usually rode from four to six horses in going over his route. I have heard these riders talk among themselves of thrilling experiences while riding over their routes on dark and stormy nights, with practically no road to follow or mark to guide them, compelled to make their way as best they could. They continually expected to run upon a prowling band of In- dians, be held up by road agents, or fall into a deep gully or swollen stream, and were always haunte() by the fear of dangers that might cost their lives. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 425 Nor were these dangers altogether imaginary, for many a Pony Express rider paid the penalty of his daring with his life. Sometimes it snowed for twenty-four hours consecutively, covering the earth to a depth of two or three feet. The wind, rising to a gale, blew the snow into the ravines, filling them up flush with the plains. Should a rider be so unfortunate as to lose his way in one of these terrific and blinding snow- storms, he was liable to lose his life by falling over a precipice, lauding on the top of a tree, in a river, or at the bottom of a deep ravine. I have known riders to fall over a precipice with their horses, landing at the bottom of a deep ravine in snow many feet deep; and in the terrible struggle that followed under the snow, the horses broke the arms or legs of the riders, sometimes killing them. The Pony Express did not continue more than twelve or eighteen months. It was a financial failure, although for each letter weighing half an ounce, going over the route, from ten to fifteen dollars was charged. Even at this high price the enterprise did not pay. The letters were written on tissue paper, were very light, and a large number of them were carried in each pouch. President Buchanan's last message to Congress in December, 1860, was carried from the Missouri Kiver to Sacramento, California, a distance of about two thousand miles, in a little less than eight days; and President Lincoln's inaugural address, March, 1861, was carried over the same route in seven days and seventeen hours. When the tremendous obstacles that had to be surmounted are taken into consideration, such as rains, snows, storms, swollen rivers, hostile Indians, road agents, and real dangers of almost every kind and on every hand, together with the terrific strain on men and horses in going over these trackless wilds, one can scarcely realize, in these days of fast express trains and luxurious parlor cars, the feats of wonderful endurance performed by these hardy and daring riders. It would be invidious to single out particular instances of daring and en- durance where all did their duty so well. But I recall one feat of riding iu this service which I think is worthy of mention, for it has never been equaled before or since. A rider named F, X. Aubrey covered a distance of eight hundred miles in five days and thirteen hours. During this time he stopped only for the shortest rest. On reaching the end of his route he found that the rider who was to take his place had been killed by Indians. Nothing remained for him but to take the dead man's route. He anticipated the difficulties ahead, though he knew that it was equally dangerous to remain where he was or to turn back. The country at that time swarmed with many bands of Indians on the warpath, and Aubrey was pursued by them 426 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. from OQe point to another. He was compelled to leave the road and strike around the mountains and hills to keep in hiding from the hostiles, some- times leading one horse, which, when the one he rode was exhausted, he mounted and continued his journey. He made his way successfully over the route and brought his express pouches through in safety. Aubrey was ii man of small stature and light weight, as all Pony Express riders were required to be; he was the impersonation of grit, endurance and fearlessness. This ride came near killing him. For months after he was scarcely able to walk. The mental and physical strain of a long horseback ride, with the knowl- edge that at each step one was likely to encounter overwhelming numbers of murderous Indians, and that he was liable to meet death at their hands in its most horrible form, can hardly be realized by one who has not experienced it. I recall an instance in my own experience that I shall never forget. I was detailed to carry important messages from Deer Greek to Fort Laramie, a distance of about one hundred and twenty-five miles. It was of the utmost importance that the despatches should be delivered in the shortest possible time, as they contained a request for troops to relieve a party in dis- tress. I had an escort of nine picked cavalrymen, and our mounts, and equipments were of the best. Each was heavily armed, having two six- shooting Colt's revolvers in the holsters of our belts, a breech-loading carbine slung over our shoulders, and sixty rounds of ammunition. As there was at this time a general uprising of the Indians throughout this vicinity, the country through which we passed was swarming with roving bands of fren- zied hostiles, all intent on murder. Almost from the start, and along the entire route, we saw numerous signs of Indians, sometimes indicating only a few, and at other times a considerable number. Although we kept the sharpest lookout we failed to see Indians during the first ninety miles of our journey. The road lay through a broken and mountainous country, afford- ing excellent ambush for these bloodthirsty wretches, as we approached each rock or bill we expected to be attacked at almost any moment. Our nerves were strained to the utmost tension, and our horses seemed to partake of our feeling, for they were startled at the slightest unusual noise. A crow sit- ting on the ground seemed to my overwrought imagination like a veritable Indian. A crackling in the bush, the snapping of a twig, or the moving of a stone by my horse's foot, as we rode rapidly, along, sent a shudder through me. On approaching a place ^called Le Bonte's Camp — a beautiful spot in a bend of the North Platte, where the Indians were accustomed to camp, the place being well wooded and watered and affording abundant game — we expected TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 427 to encounter the savages. For two or three miles before reaching this locality we disinounted, leading our horses in order to rest them. On near- ing the spot we remounted and prepared to run the gauntlet, passing through at a sharp trot. Much to our surprise and relief we saw no Indians, but plenty of signs showing that they were in the immediate neighborhood. From this point on, the road led through a limestone formation that was covered with a growth of small cedar trees. Here we again brought our horses to a settled pace, sparing them as best we could until we arrived in the open country. When about fifteen miles from the fort we discove'-ed signs that were fresh and pronounced, whereupon we dismounted, leading our horses for about a mile. Suddenly some Indians appeared oflp to our right, scattered in ones and twos, when we at once remounted. They had doubtless been watching us for some time. I saw that they contemplated an attack, but hoped to be able to keep them at a safe distance until we reached the stage station a few miles below. On arriving there we found it had been abandoned. We thereupon urged our horses to a sharp trot, and soon discovered that the Indians' horses were tired also, for they could not twist and turn them in their usual rapid manner. In a short time the savages, who now seemed to grow more numerous came nearer, and it was not long before one of the warriors approached with- in rifle shot. I immediately ordered a halt, and directed one of the men who was a fine shot to bring down the Indian's horse by shooting it through the shoulder. This he did and the Indian was left afoot. Soon after the reds divided and were on both sides of us. When one came too near I or- dered a halt, directing a trooper to shoot the Indian's horse, being care- ful not to kill the Indian, as I knew that would precipitate an attack that might cost us our lives. Within a short time we had killed three or four horses, leaving the warriors on foot ; and as we were approaching the hills situated two or three miles from the garrison, the Indians, seeing they were about to lose their advantage, closed in upon us. Instead of firing singly as before I now ordered all hands to put all the lead possible into both horses and Indians. This we did with such effect that sev- eral more beasts and riders were brought down. In a last desperate attempt the savages sought to surround us entirely, and prevent our reaching the hill- top. Urging our tired horses to a sharp gallop, and firing when we could, we succeeded in maintaining the distance betweeen ourselves and pursuers; shortly after getting over the hills, cavalry hastened to meet us from the gar- rison, where the firing had been heard. The Indians now abandoned the pursuit, and gathering together retreated over the hill. They numbered between thirty and forty. 428 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. We knew from experience how to cover the distance with the least dis* tress to ourselves and horses, and the ride was made in thirty-two consecu- tive hours. On arriving at our destination I do not believe there was a man in the party who could have gone ten miles farther. After reaching the fort and resting, the reaction from the prolonged strain, both mental and physical, set in. My knees began to swell until they be- came near]}' twice their natural size, and I was ho physically shaken up and exhausted that I could not walk without diflBculty for weeks. Some of my men were unable to leave the hospital for a long time; and some of the horses were so badly used up that they were never again fit for service. After the discontinuance of the Pony Express it was found necessary that telegraphic communication be had between the people of the Atlantic and Pacific states. Many projects were originated by which this object could be accomplished, and many influential firms and telegraphic companies were appealed to for money and means to secure this mode of communication. It was not until the project was brought to the notice of the Creightons, who had built telegraph lines in Ohio and elsewhere that this line was built Having fully imbued the Creightons with the practicability and financial success of such a line, they were induced lO undertake it. Having spent large amountu of money and much time in securing the necessary material and equipment, some time, about 1801 or 18(52 they commenced its construc- tion along the route formerly traveled by the Pony Express. In construct- ing this line they had many fine mule teams. These teams consisted of two, four, and six large Kentucky mules to each wagon. In this way telegraph wire, poles, insulators, and other material necessary to build the telegraph line over the entire route were transported. The telegraph poles for the first seven hundred miles were brought a long distance, as the country through which the line passed was without timber. It required a great deal of cour- age to construct this line, although they accomplished it and had it in full operation within a year after they began. The line was well constructed, and was the natural outgrowth of the requirements of civilization. A strange coincidence, and one that probably prevented the destruction of the overland telegraph, happened near Beauvaia' ranch, about nine miles below Fort Laramie. When the men were constructing the line in that locality, some of Old Smoke's tribe, who where friendly with the white men, made inquiries as to what it was. They were informed that the tele- graph could talk long distances, and if they injured it in any way, it would tell the great father in Washington, which would make him very angry. Three Frenchmen, Beauvais, Bissinette and Bordeaux, were Indian traders, and had Indian women for their wives, which circumstanoe TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 4»B made the Indians more friendly to tbem, If such a thing could be. Mr. Beauvais was a large, intelligent and courageous gentleman, for whom tl^ Indians who were at all friendly had great respect. He told them if they did not believe that the telegraph could speak instantaneously for a long distance, he should prove it. When the line was finished as far west as the Platte Bridge, some Indians belonging to the Minneconjoux tribe (the others were Ogalala Sioux) were in the oflBce at or near his ranch. They held a conversation over the telegraph wire with others at Platte Bridge, and agreed to meet near Le Bonte's camp, a distance of about one hundred and twimty-five miles. When they met and compared notes, they were fully satisfied of the ability of the telegraph to talk at long distances. Another incident happened in this connection. Some Indians tore down a portion of the telegraph, using the wires for making trinkets for themselves. It chanced that smallpox broke out among these Indians, and almost annihil- ated the whole of them. Aft^r this they had a profound respect for the tele- graph, and it was not molested further by them, as they believed the wire was the cause of the disease. i>f*j6;..'jij^;kj .A^.\\i.^ ■ 480 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER LI. WILD HOIvSES— WHERE THEY CAME FROM— HOW THEY WERE CAPTURED AND SUBDUED. Wild Horses— First Known in America in 1518 — Indians' Astonishment at first seeing a Horse and Rider — The Wild Horse's Struggle for Existence during the Cold Winter — Indian's Mode of Securing them — Their Cruelty to them — Their Great Abundance in Early Days — The White Man's Method of Securing them — " Creasing" — Walking them down — From T.venty-four to Thirty-six Hours Necessary to Accomplish it — Difficulty in Breaking them. Previous to the discovery of the New World domestic animals were un- known to the Indians. The first known importation of horses to this conti- nent was made in 1518. When Cortez invaded Mexico the Indians looked with wonder and astonishment on the Spanish cavr.liers. When thoy first saw a man riding a horse they imagined that horse and man were one animal. During and after the conquest many horses escaped to the wilds, where they multiplied, and in time large herds of them in their wild state spread over the territory of Mexico and the prairies and mountains of the entire North American continent. They have been captured as far north as the Great Slave Lake, where the Indians at first killed them for food. The herds of wild horses that roamed in the far north in winter when deep snows covered the ground had a severe struggle for existence. They became greatly weakened from insufiicient food ; when the watercourses and ponds were frozen, and the ground was bare of snow, they became almost frantic from thirst. When in this condition they were easily secured by the Indians. Nearly all the tribes of the Shoshone nation captured them with the lasso, while on foot. Their favorite method, however, was to mount a fleet horse, and with a lasso approach the wild horses as near as possible without alarming them ; then suddenly dashing into the herd they selected one of the best animals, throwing the lasso with unerring aim over its neck, secur- ing the other end firmly to the saddle and following the fleeing wild horse, slowly slacking the pace of the trained horse until the lasso became firmly fliretohed between the two animals. The noose around the wild horse's neck TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 431 was chen gradually tightened uutil the animal was choked sufficiently to cause it to fall. The Indian then dismounted and quickly tied the front feet of the wild animal together, leaving it in this position until it had ex- hausted itself in efforts to regain its freedom. He then gradually ap- proached, until he could touch it, when he placed the lasso around the ani- mal's lower jaw. lu this position the wild horse was completely at the mercy of its captor. The animal once in the Indian's possession was treated with great cruelty until it was broken. Some of the wild horses were very obstinate, and it was necessary to almost kill them before they could be sub- dued and made tractable. In summer when grass was plenty, it required an extraordinarily good horse to enable an Indian to overtake a drove of wild horses, for the mounted horse was compelled to carry the rider and his trappings, while the wild horse was entirely free, fresh, and ii: good condition. In the entire country along the foothills oi the Rocky Mountains, from the Great Slave Lake as far south as the central portion of Mexico, wild horses were found in great abundance. The white men and trappers secured them in various ways, one of which was by "creasing." This was done by shooting the animal through the grizzly part of the neck, just in front of the withers, and a few inches below the mane. If well done, the shot gave the horse a shock sufficient to throw it down, where it laid stunned for a few minutes. While thus dazed, the hunter ran quickly to it and tied the ani- mal's fore or hind legs together until it was sufficiently subdued ; or he fas- tened a lasso around the animal's neck and lower jaw, making it fast to the saddle of his own horse. In this manner the wild horse could be securely held until it was taken to camp, where it was afterward broken. Another mode of capturing them was to walk them down. In doing this it was necessary to have h party of mounted men, numbering from ten to twenty, according to the size of the wild herd. When a herd was seen, one or two mounted men approached it cautiously, and when near enough they endeavored to cause the animals to move la a circle. Great care was re quired to prevent them from running or stampeding. The mounted men kept them constantly on the walk, never for an instant permitting them to stop even long enough to bite the grass, and above all, preventing them from getting water. After the animals had been kept moving in this way for two or three hours, another mounted man appeared on the scene, to assist the first one. In the course uf another hour, two other mounted men care- fully approached to relieve the first two men, who with their horses gradu- ally dropped out and returned to camp for rest and refresment. After three or four hours uf constant walking without food or water, the wild animals Ml ■■' ' '-- ' ! I 432 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. became dazed, and if not frightened could easily be kept moving in a circle* After some twenty-four tc thirty-six hours of continuous walking in this manner, the men approached the herd with lariat ropes, catching one at a time, holding it until the herd had walked a short distance away, then, after placing the lasso around its lower jaw, they led it, plunging and fight- ing, to camp, where it was securely tied by the neck to a tree, or to a broken animal. The majority of wild horses were stubborn and it required much patience to train them without breaking their spirit. The stallions were particularly vicious and difficult to break. They sometimes attacked a man with their teeth, almost tearing him to pieces. From start to finish the work of captur- ing them in any way was difficult and fatiguing. The Indians did not understand the science of making a gelding; conse- quently they and the stallions were at constant war ; every time one of these horses was to be used, he had to be subdued, and the longer rest the ani- mal had the more difficult the task. After capture, wild horses rarely, if ever, became tractable. It was neces- sary to break them to each morning's work. If the animal was to be rid- den, one foreleg was tied up, and the saddle was securely fastened on its back, and after the bridle was placed over its head, its leg was let down. A lasso was then fastened about its neck, and the animal was turned loose and allowed to buck until exhausted. If it was to be used iu harness, its leg was tied up as before, the harness put on, the animal turned loose, when the usual bucking was indulged in. After it had been tired out, the horse was hitched to the vehicle and ready for work. These animals were small in stature, very hardy, though not tough. For sharp, quick work they com- pared favorably with domestic horses. f TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 433 CHAPTER LII. KILLING BUFFALOES— AN EXCITING AND DAN(}EROUB SPORT —• BUCK AGUE"— GREEN SPORTSMEN— PERSONAL EXPERIENCES AND REMINIS- CENCES. Millions of Buffaloes — Indispensable to the Indians — How Wolves Attacked and Killed them — Why did they always cross in Front of a Railroad Train? — Buffalo (Jnats — Stinging the Animals to Fury — Buffalo Chips — The only Fuel on tiie Plains — (Juests Deceived — Eaten Alive by Wolves — The I^atter's Unearthly Howls — Excitement of a Buffalo Hunt — A Thrilling Sjjectade — Horses as Buffalo Hunters — Dashing into the Herd — A Shower of Stones and Earth — Dangerous Sjiort for a Verdant — Shoot- ing the Animal through the Ears — Inexjierienced Hunters — Teaching them to Hunt — Shooting his own Horse — An Astonished Sportsman — Danger of being Trampled to Death — Bu k Ague — Its Effects. Years ago buffalo herds were numerous and large, and covered almost the entire country west of the Mississippi River, to the eastern chain of the Rocky Mountains. I am inclined to give full credit to thei stories of their enormous numbers. To persons not accustomed to seeing them in herds, the surprising statements as to their numbers thirty or forty years ago may seem to be overdrawn; but, as I know them, I cannot remember any statement that exaggerated the number of these huge beasts that roamed over the western country, in the early part of my experience there. The artillery at Fort Kearney actually fired into them to keep them out of the fort. I have traveled for months at a time and never been out of sight of their countless numbers. In Kansas, where the buffalo grass was plentiful, their numbers were incalculable. As far the eye could reach in every direction was a solid mov- ing mass of buffaloes, as the plains were literally black with them. Soon after the Union Pacific Railroad was opened its trains were detained for hours while waiting for buffalo herds to cross the railroad tracks. At first, the engineers thought they could rush the trains through the herds with impunity, but they soon discovered that the only way was to let the animals take their own time in crossing. They were not always assembled in close, compact herds, but were fre- quently scattered while feeding on the prairies, after the manner of domestic oattle. Forty years ago it would have been impossible to estimate their 1 f 1 1 : i 1( 1 ■ i 1 :i L 434 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. number even approximately, but there were millions of them; and it is diffi- cult to realize that they have now become nearly extinct. Formerly the buffaloes ranged over the greater part of the American con- tinent. They were migratory, and their wandering habits were well under- stood by the Indians. They claimed to know of four kinds; the common buffaloes found on the plains, mountain buffaloes, wood buffaloes, and beaver buffaloes. I have not seen all these varieties, but the Indian accounts of them may be correct, as the different kinds of robes in their possession seemed to testify. The new coat of the bui^alo was dark brown in color; later it grew paler, and when the hair was shed, the coat, especially of the young animals, be- come a dark brownish red. The cows had one calf at a birth, which was usually dropped during Maj' or June. At birth the color of the calf was a bright yellow, with a pale red stripe covering its backbone, this stripe grad- ually changed to the natural color with age. The robe was at its best in the fall or winter when the buffalo had its full winter coat. Occasionally a buffalo robe was seen in the silk. These robes were as beautiful as they were rare. The hair was fine and of a dark rich color, as glossy as the finest silk, and as soft as velvet. There was no shaggy mane on these robes, every part of the skin being covered with hair resembling the coat of the finest horse. Years ago the buffaloes supplied nearly all the food of the North American Indians; especially for those living west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains. These great animals roamed as far north as the Saskatchewan River, in Canada, and as far south as Mexico. Millions of them were slaughtered every year for the sustenance of the Indans oc- cupying this vast territory. They supplied them not only with food, but fur- nished them with robes and hides for clothing and dwellings. Many of the tools used by them were made from its hide, horns and bones. The hide of the bulls was tanned and used for lodge covers. When dried in the sun, after the hair was taken off, it become as hard as flint; this was used for ojles of moccasins, belts, and other purposes. It was also used to keep dampness and cold out of their beds, being laid on the ground and the rest of the bedding placed on top of it. The rawhide was cut into strands and braided into ropee. The green hide was converted into kettles in which they boiled their meat, and it was also used in making canoes. The tough, thick hide of the neck of the bull made battle shields that were proof against arrows and lances. The Indians, in short, allowed no part of the buffalo to go to waste. The brains were used in tanning skins; the bones were boiled ; the extract was used as a soup; the marrow was eaten; and the entrails TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. iU were also eaten either cooked or raw. There was no sweeter meat than that of a fine barren cow, or young bull, the most desirable part being the muscle lying on both sides of the animal's withers. This was called the hump. The liver and tongue were of fine flavor. No one ever thought of telling the numberof buffaloes he had killed, unless able to produce the tongues, and the number of these told their own story. The Indians were not alone in pursuit of the buffaloes. Wolves, both gray and coyote, frequently attacked the old bulls for their meat. A number of wolves would single out an old bull, when one or two attacked him in the rear, and with their sharp teeth, cut his hambtring, bringing him down on his haunches. This accomplished, they at once proceeded to eat their victim alive. When a pack of wolves attacked a buffalo, they set up a yell that was unearthly. Their noise did not seem to frighten these old mon- archs, but they formed themselves in a circle, preparing for battle, in which some were sure to be killed. When gracing along the foot-hills of the mountains and thus attacked, and one of their number lay prostrate surrounded by hungry wolves, a grizzly bear sometimes made his appear- ance and with one stroke of his paw cleared every wolf from their prey. Then they sat at a respectful distance from the carcass of the animal, licking their jaws, and whining like whipped dogs; but not until bruin had fin- 7'';hed his meal and taken his departure, would these skulking animals again attack the carcass. These great animals were migratory, not from inclination, but from neces- sity. When the ground in the far north was covered with snow and ice, it was impossible for them to reach their food, and when the rivers were frozen over, they were compelled to eat snow to quench their thirst. It was distressing to see them on the ice of a frozen river endeavoring to get water. They slipped and fell in all manner of ways. Sometimes falling into an air- hole in the ice; one after another falling or being pushed into the water and drowned. The buffaloes were peculiar in one respect. If they attempted to cross a road upon which was a moving wagon train, body of troops, or a railway train, they all invariably. crossed in front, never breaking and crossing at the rear. When alarmed and running, their heads were always down, and they kept as close together as possible. While moving in this manner uhose in front were unable to stop, even if they had the desire to do so, those \a the rear forcing them irresistibly on ; should a herd be suddenly frightened and start to run over a precipice, all of them nished over before they could stop, and when found their bodies were one mass of bloody jelly, unfit for 't 486 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. food. The Indians, knowing that these animals were valuable to them, were careful not to kill more than were required for their needs. Late in the summer and fall when buffalo gnats were abundant, they annoyed these great animals beyond endurance. The buffalo gnat was a small black fly and looked like a black bead. It settled on the buffaloes, bury- ing itself in the thick hair and hide, driving them almost frantic, sometimes eating great sores on them, Buffalo "wallows" were depressions in the land caused by the animals wallowing in the dirt, trying to free themselves from the countless gnats that were torturing them. When the first telegraph line was erected over the plains the poles were frequently thrown down from some unaccountable cause; it was subsequently discovered that this was done by the buffaloes rubbing ag;'i"^"t them to scratch themselves in their efforts to allay the irritation caused b; be gnats. An experiment was made of driv- ing heavy spikes in the poles to keep the animals away, but this only attracted them all the more. Under ordinary circumstances buffaloes were stupidly dull and inoffen- sive animals, spending their time in eating and sleeping, fighting gnats dur- ing tbe day, and seldom going far from water, of which they required large quantities. I am of the opinion that if care had been taken in domesticating the buffaloes they would have become a valuable acquisition to our food supply, and furnished robes for use in the northern latitudes during cold weather. It was not uncommon along the borders of civilization to find domestic cattle running wild with buffalo herds. These cattle, after they had been with the buffaloes for ashorttimo, became much more ferocious and wild than the buffaloes themselves. When the buffaloes shed their long hair, which turned to a dirty brown in the spring, they presented a singular appearance, the old loose hair hanging in patches and mats over their bodies. One of the most useful products of the buffaloes, along the wood less course of the Overland wagon road, was the buffalo "chip." This was the dried dung of the buffaloes, and was composed of the woody fiber of the grass which the animals had eaten. After lying in the sun these chips became dry, and were the only article on this long road which could be col- lected and used for fuel. They made a hot fire, with only a small flame. Without buffalo chips it is difficult to conceive how travelers and plains- men could have secured fuel for cooking purposes, for there was absolutely no other fuel in that country. Perhaps fastidiotis people would revolt at having their meals cooked over such a fire, with the wind blowing and covering the eatables with the ashes and dust from the burning embers. w TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 437 m But buuger is the best sauce ; and as a cook once said in my bearing, to some gentlemen who were with us on a hunting expedition, who asked what time dinner would be ready : "Dinner in this camp is always served promptly at six o'clock, except on three occasions, when it id earlier, when it is later or when we don't dine at all," so in early days it would have been the latter alternative to everybody on the plains but for buffalo chips. It seems incomprehensible that the millions of buffaloes that once roamed over the vast plains should have almost entirely disappeared, and that our government should not have taken steps to prevent hunters and others from wantonly killing these valuable beasts for their hides alone (which brought only three or four dollars esch,) leaving the carcasses to rot where they had been slain. South Park was filled with buffaloes. It was well watered, had suitable grass for their subsistence, was well proctected from the elements, and, at small expense, large numbers of these great animals could have been maintained there. Once while on a hunting expedition in Texas, a party of gentlemen from the East joined us, and, as domestic cattle were plentiful, and could be had for the killing; we always had in our wagons a good supply of fine beef. After killing some buffaloes one afternoon, and bringing the meat into camp, I asked my guests if they desired some of it for dinner. They said no; that the beef they had been eating was good enough for them, and politely insisted that they wanted no buffalo meat on the bill of fare. I said no more, but called the cook, who was a son of Ham, and said, in their hearing: "Professor, I want for my dinner the finest and juicest piece of buffalo hump that you can find ; for the rest of the party you may cook some of the prime beef in the wagons," — at the same instant giving him the wink. He replied, "All right, sab." That evening at dinner, my guests did not cease to comment on the fine flavor of the beef they were eating, and to disparage the dry meat of the buffalo which they supposed I was eating. Dinner over, I said to them: "I noticed that you particularly liked the beef you had for dinner; permit me to say that I did not enjoy mine as much as you did yours, for I dined off a piece of beef and you feasted on the hump of a buffalo." It did not require persuasion afterward to induce them to eat buffalo hump. On approaching a herd of buffaloes the old bulls were always encountered first. They formed a sort of fringe around the great brown surging mass, and were usually scattered in groups or singly at a distance of from a hun- dred yards to half a mile from the body of the herd, from which they had been driven and kept at a distance by the young bulla, after the latter bad attained full growth and strength. Hence when buffaloes were attacked by 3: 1!" ?' ..2.^-^^,^.i^^.i:i^A^. 438 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. wolves, it was the old bulls on the outer edge that met the attack. Their ostracism resulted in forming a guard for the rest of the herd. When the herd was frightened or stampeded, however, the old bulls mingled with them in their flight. At times groups of these ex-monarchs abandoned the herd entirely, wandering away by themselves. When young bulls attacked the old ones they were no match for the latter in single combat. When a young bull attacked one of these sturdy old fel- lows and defeated, other young bulls came to the assistance of the beaten animal, a desperate and ferocious combat was sure to take place. The fight sometimes lasting for hours, and in the furious encounter the young bulls were often disabled or mortally wounded. The old bulls were some- times of enormous size and strength, and fought with great ferocity. It was only after the fiercest and most protracted encounter that they would relin- quish leadership among the herd, leaving the places to their younger rivals. During these combats both the young and old bulls fought until both fell exhausted. In this condition, with blood pouring from many wounds, tongues hanging from their mouths, panting and gasping for breath, they continued the battle. The ground fought over in these encounters showed the fierceness of the struggle, being torn up for rods around and covered with blood and tufts of hair. Sometimes one or two bulls might lie prostrate mortally wounded ; at other times, with a broken leg, or having lost both eyes, they remained on the scene of carnage presenting a pitiable sight, and in this condition were frequently eaten alive by wolves, bears, and other carnivorous animals. It did not take long after blood had been drawn before the keen-scented scavengers made their appearance in large numbers, par- ticularly wolves. They quietly sat or stood in circles by daylight, around the scene of battle, and at the first opportunity one of the bolder or hungrier made a dash for its victim. If successful, it was but a short time before the carcass was literally covered by these snarling beasts. If the battles were at night, especially when the weather v/as sharp and cold, the wolves set up an unearthly howl, and soon there were countless numbers of them on the spot waiting an opportunity to appease their voracious appetites. The killing of an old bull was a perilous undertaking. When a number of old bulls discovered the hunter, they prepared for battle, their heads down, and their eyes glowing like balls of fire. At the first shot they either ran away or charged the attacking party. An old buffalo bull when wounded was a very dangerous animal, and used every effort in his power to reach his pursuers. I have seen them with blood running from their noses^ scarcely able to move, stand and tear the ground with their sharp hoofs, their tails erect in the air, doing their utmost to induce the pursuer to come TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 439 near enough for attack, and uatil life bad left them it waB dangerous to go near the furious beasts. The excitement of a buffalo hunt, in which I often participated during my long sojourn in the Indian country, will always remain with me a vivid and pleasing memory. To see the Indians on their fleet ponies, in swift pur- suit of those shaggy -maned monarchs of the prairies, was, to me, a spectacle more thrilling than the fiercest bull fight in the pent-up amphitheatres of Spain. To be a participant in the hunt was still more thrilling, an experi- ence never to be forgotten ; and so fascinating that the more it was indulged in the keener grew the enjoyment, until finally ii became a passion. The space for the hunt was as limitless as the prairies. In the eagerness of the chase every muscle quivered, every nerve was at its fullest tension, every faculty was keenly on the alert, and the excitement brought with it the glow of health and the vigor of youth. It was magnificent outdoor sport. The long rides, the exhilaration of the exercise, and deep draughts of pure air, made this sport one of the most fascinating tbat could be indulged in. When on a buffalo chase only the best horses were used. It was necessary that the animal selected should have not only great courage and speed, but intelligence enough to carry its rider without guidance after the killing once began. When the firing began the reins were dropped over the pom- mel of the saddle, and not touched again by the rider until he was through firing. The horse was expected to jump over a rock or hole of his own ac- cord, as well as to avoid all obstacles in the way. After approaching the herd as near as possible, without being discovered, the hunting party dashed into it. The buffaloes, now thoroughly alarmed, first wildly stared, then crowding together, with heads down and tails up rushed at a mad pace from their pursuers, the small herds joining the others in their flight until they formed au immense solid black mass fleeing across the prairie. In their flight, when the ground was dry, they raised great clouds of dust which could be seen for miles. This was exceedingly trying for both men and horses. The eyes, nose, and mouth of both soon became filled with dust, and when dampened by the moist breath formed a sticky mud, not only disagreeable in itself, but creating intense thirst. Should the ground be soft or wet both rider and horse were covered with the wet earth, which the buffaloes, in their flight, threw back with great force from their sharp hoofs into the faces of horse and rider. It required a horsd of courage to withstand the constant rain of clods of earth on breast, flanks, face, nostrils and eyes. When buffaloes were once frightened and started to run, or were stampeded, they kept close together, forming a compact mass. Should one stumble or i I 440 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. fall, many others stumbled over their prostrate comrade before it could rise, and often could not get up at all. The hunter had to avoid groups of fallen and stumbling buffaloes, for should he get into them his horse might also fall, and both it and the rider be severelj' injured if not trampled to death. Buffalo hunting was a science that had to be learned. To those not ac- customed to it, it was dangerous sport. The inexperienced hunter was always doing what he should not do, sometimes wounding his horse, or that of a comrade, or wounding or killing himself or some one else. A man might be ever so good a hunter f(>r other game, and yet be the veriest bungler in hunting buffaloes. In killing these animals the hunter rode hodly into the fleeing herd, his horse running only as fast as the buffaloes. Then selecting the animal de- sired, he fired directly behind the fore shoulder, as this was the tenderest place, and a shot entering at this point was most likely to strike a vital part. This threw the buffalo down, and after the hunter had exhausted his am- munition, or had shot a sufficient number, be returned and killed those be had already wounded that were left lying on tho prairie. When in the chase and shooting these animals, it was neoesaary at all times to have one or two buffaloes between the rider and the animal selected to be shot, for if this precaution was not taken the wounded buffalo was liable to fall in front of the horse of the hunter, or strike the animal next to it a severe blow with its horns. It was useless to fire at the head of one of these huge beasts, for no ordinary bullet would penetrate its thick skull ; yet, I have seen an ex- perienced buffalo hunter shoot a buffalo in the ear, killing it instantly. The animals selected to be killed were usually barren cows, young bulls, or heifers, as the meat of the old bulls was strong in flavor and stringy, although it was used as food by the Indians. We frequently had visits from distinguished visitors who desired to learn something of the life of this wild country. On several occasions, I, with my command, escorted them on a general hunt for antelope, elk, deer, buffalo, and sometimes bears. When a herd of buffaloes was discovered, a detail of eight or ten of the best troopers in the command were chosen for the chase, selecting those who were good shots, and expert riders. When any of the civilians cared to accompany us on a buffalo hunt the first request made of them was to disarm themselves, this was sure to excite their indignation and was invariably followed by the question, "Why do you ask us to disarm? We can't kill buffalo without weapons." The in- variable reply was that it was more important that they should not kill or wound themselves, or any of the troops. We then started for the chase, I directing each civilian to ride close to one of the troopers, and selecting one TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 441 of the verdants to accompany me. We always kept the civilians on our right, as the firing was usually to the left with a carbine, and to the right with a pistol. On a hunt near Fort Phantom Hill, in Texas, after having taken a party through their first chase, I consented that on the next some of them might accompany us armed. One of the gentlemen had a Colt's army revolver, and was mounted on a tine horse. We had scarcely entered the herd before I heard a shot, and looking in that direction, saw a horse falling, the rider going heels over head through the air. The rider in his excitement had placed the piatol between the ears of the animal, and fired a bullet into its brain. I assisted the rider to his feet, but he was so confused that he could scarcely speak. In reply to my inquiry as to why he had shot his horse, he said, after some hesitation, that it was incomprehensible to him, unless he was so excited that he did not know what he was doing. Fear seemed to take possession of everyone making his first attack on these animals. The experience of all plainsmen, mountaineers, and army officers, when initiating new men in the buffalo hunt, was, that they became very nervous and excited when coming up with the herd, and were seized with what was known as "buck ague." When once seized with buck ague, inex- perienced hunters trembled as though suffering from a violent attack of chills; and seemed to lose control of themselves, and were liable to discharge their arms unconsciously in every direction. During the chase it frequently occurred that the buffaloes, when frightened, and running at the top of their speed, squeezed so close together that they crushed the legs of the hunter against his horse. On such occasions it was necessary that the experienced hunter should exercise control over the novice and force him to ride as rapidly as the running buffaloes; for, should he attempt to stop his horse, he might be run down by those pressing relent- lessly forward in his rear. I have often been compelled to strike the back of a buffalo with my carbine in order to drive it away to prevent my horse from being thrown. After we had expended all our ammunition, or had killed enough buffaloes, it was not uncommon to find ourselves in the center of a great herd of these animale a mile or more in diameter. The effort then was to withdraw. This was ac- complished by slacking the pace of the horses gradually, until the herd ran past, for if we attempted to stop at once, the buffaloes, in their mad rush, might throw our horses down and trample us to death. It often required half an hour's run to get out of a great herd. The horse that I rode on many hunts had great speed, and possessed more courage and intelligence than any horse I have ever seen. He was a per- M lii If W: 442 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. feet buffalo hunter, and seemed to enjoy the chase as much as I. While I was sometimes frightened at the position in which we found ourselves, this horse, with the reins lying over the pommel of the saddle, and without guid- ance whatever, would run only as fast as the buffaloes surrounding him. When he came to a small depression or ravine he cleared it with a jump. If passing through small timber, he would always leave sufScient room be- tween a bush or tree so that neither of us might be injured. He seemed to enjoy the sport so much that with every shot I fired, frightening the buffaloes more and more, be only increased his speed sufSciently to hold his positior in the herd, never for an instant losing his head or temper. ■ -;; ■ TV—' •-. <•-■■;. ■ : ■■■ ■---^. .-»>i,4_iv' ;_..4«.,.U'- !, . » i... ■'• < /. . Vr"-- ' . i I. . '• ; i, J - 1 ''ij ■'.:' <"' TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 443 CHAPTER LIU. WILD ANIMALS AND REPTILES OF THE PLAINS AND MOUNTAINS— THE DEADLY RATTLESNAKE AND ITS HABITS— FUIl-BEARING ANIMALS AND THEIR WAYS. The Rattlesnake — Its Deadly Bite — Its One Good Trait — Its Sickening Odor — Coiling for a Spring — Manner of Striking — How Deer Killed the Rattler — The Rattler's Only Re- deeming Quality — How the Peccary and Hog Killed Snakes — How the Blacksnake Killed the Rattler — The Pisano or Road Runner — Its Method of Killing Rattlers — The Bull- Whacker's Method — The Prairie Dog and its Habitation — What it Lived on — Its Domicile Invaded by Rattlers and Screech Owls — The Antelope and its Habits— Its Fatal Curiosity— The Elk— The Moose— Use of his Flag Horns— The Black-Tailed Deer— The White-Tailed Deer- The Beaver— A Born Architect— Their Beds — A Sagacious and Industrious Animal — Gnawing Feet off to Gain their Freedom —The Otter. The Overland road, (after being changed) from Denver west, passed near the foothillH of the Snowy Range of the Rocky Mountains whose summits are covered with perpetual snow. Hidden among these mountains are the most beautiful glens, parks, and streams that can be imagined. Here the elk and flaghom moose were numerous, also black and white tailed deer, as well as black, cinnamon, and grizzly bears, and mountain lions. On the plains below, on either side of this range, were found antelope in countless numbers. On the tops of the mountains lived the mountain sheep, the meat of which was the finest of any animal in this region. Here also the feathered tribe thrived in great variety; geese, ducks, California quail (a beautiful species, with a tuft on the head like a peacock, but without the song of the familiar Bob White), pinnated grouse, prairie chickens, and pine cock were in great abundance. The latter lived on pine cones, and its meat tasted strongly of the resin contained in them. Our esteemed friend, the rattlesnake, also flourished in all this region. I call him our "esteemed friend" because all who knew him had great respect for this venomous reptile, always allowing ample space and treating him with due consideration. It was rarely, if ever, that anything except the hog survived the bite of one of the death-dealing rattlers. They made their homes generally among the stones, sometimes in the habitations of prairie dogs, and were usually from one foot to four feet in length. Of the truth of m 4AA. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. the statement that for each year of a rattler's life a rattle was added to his tail, I have my doubts; for I have frequently seen large rattlers, probably three inches in diameter, and three or four feet in length, having only a few rattles, while others only an inch in diameter and two to three feet in length, with fifteen and sixteen rattles on their tails were common. The rattlesnake has one good quality when alive, i.e., if j'ou gave him a chance he always notifies you not to come too near. If alarmed and angry he immediately coils, and in the center of his coil the end of his tail with the rattles on it stands erect, with these rattles he makes a peculiar noise that MOUNTAIN LION. once heard is never forgotten. At the same time he emits an odor from his mouth that is so sickening as to cause any living thing near to pause. The rattler cannot strike except when coiled, and when he does so, he uncoils so quickly that the eye cannot follow the movement. He can only spring about three-quarters the length of his body. The upper jaw being almost vertical, the two fangs standiii|^ at almost right angles to it. With these he strikes the object aimed at, injecting the poison at the same time. When at rest, the fangs, which work as if on hinges, lie close along the upper jaw, the points turned backward. The fangs are connected with ^.he sac that con- tains the poison. After striking, be immediately resumes his coiled position and prepa.es for another stroke. The rattlesnake i' "^n enemy to all living things, and nearly all things of tlesh and blood are ei.' a^es of his. It was interesting to watch deer kill rattlesnakes. The deer would run from the side of a bill, and when close to the snake crossed their feet in the TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 445 shape of the letter X, landing with a bound on the body of the snake, and springing away before he had time to coil and strike. Deer never jumped on a rattler when he was coiled. The hog, and the peccary, which is a species of the hog, both of which were numerous in Texas and Mexico, were also great enemies of the rattle- BATTLE SNAKES AT BEST. Supplied by '' CosmopolitaD MaKOiiiie," April, 1890. > snake. Both killed the rattlers with their teeth. The venom of the reptile does not seem to have a bad effect on either of these two animals. A hog will never seek its dinner elsewhere while he can scent a rattler. Many stories are told of the hog's invulnerability to poison, how he will turn bis cheek to the snake, letting it strike repeate : ': ^i THE BEAVER. The beaver was found throughout this entire country in all the rivers in which they could live. I make this exception because some of the rivers were so filled with alkaline matter and other impurities, that no animal life could exist in them. To these animals we hre more indebted for early dis- coveries in this region than to any other cause. It was the beaver that gave rise to the formation of the various fur companies, who organized expeditions for their capture. Their skins at that time brought in the market twenty dollars each in gold. This animal is worthy of note on account of its remarkable intelligence and curious habits. They assembled on the banks of clear-flowing streams on which was situated a growth of cotton wood timber, and with their sharp cutting teeth, two of which are in the upper and two in the lower jaw, cut down a tree a foot and a half in diameter, in a short time, taking out chips with their teeth, four or five inches in length and two or three inches in breadth, the result of their labor being equal to the work of the best woods- man with a sharp axe. They always fell the tree in the direction of the il !ii ■ii| : 11 ;■ » i : I » * I 464 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. stream, so that as much of it would fall iuto the water as possible, and they could cut down the entire forest along the river bank in a short time. When the trees were felled it did not take them long to cut them in lengths sufiScient for use in building dams across the river. Then with their tails and paws the beaver moved the logs into the stream, placing them in position, much the same as an engineer would in building a dam that was expected to sustain the pressure of a large body of water. Beaver dams were built in crescent shape, the crescent being up the streams, and were built in the fall of the year. These animals built dams in the mountain streams that were sometimes twent.y feet in height, forming a pond above the dam twenty feet deep, and from ten to a hundred ftet in width, the dams being so securely constructed that they withstood the severe freshets of spring. In the pond above the dam they stored cottonwood, on which they partly subsisted during the winter. Their habitations were in the ground, or bank, near the river, and were built a sufficient distance to protect theL- from encroachment either by water or their natural enemies (the principal of which was man). The mouth of the tunnel leading to the beaver's home was deep down in the water of the pond above the dam. It was then dug upward above the level of the water, when it made a sharp turn downward, going below the water level. Again it made a turn upward, going above the surface until it reached the bank where it had its home. Its habitation was the most ingenious in construc- tion that can be imagined. The beds were located on the sides so that one or two beavers could lie comfortably in a bed. The animal required a bed of considerable length, for a full-grown beaver, tail and all, was from four to five feet in length. Its tail was from one foot to eighteen inches long, and was unlike the tail of another animal, being stiff, so that it required a special place for its reception to enabLg its owner to lie comfortably. The beaver's tail, next to its cutting teeth, was its greatest tool. It was its means for transporting logs, dirt, and heavy substances, it was also used as a hoe, trowel, and broom. The beaver was the most affectionate of animals, as well as one of the most knowing, and were fond of playing with their young in the water, it was interesting to watch them unobserved. They indulged in all sorts of antics with their young, turning somersaults, swimming with great rapid- ity, jumping out of the water pnd then diving head first, cutting such capers as only a beaver can. Trappers in olden days used to lie for hours watching them in their sportive moods, and then shoot them at a favorable opportunity. The manner of trapping the beaver was by means of an ordinary trap, pat- terned like the modern steel rat-trap, only stronger and without teeth in its ! inr' TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 455 jatvs. A heavy chain was attached to it, this was fastened to a stone, a tree, or a stick firmly driven into the ground. The trapper entered the stream some distance above where he intended to place his trap, and waded to the spot he had selected for it. He thus prevented these intelligent ani- mals from scenting his trail. After setting his trap at the bottom of the pond, he placed near it a stick of sufficient length to reach above the surface of the water. On the exposed end of this stick was tied dried castor of the beaver, this had a strong musky smell, resembling that of the musk deer. As soon as the beaver appeared above the water and scented the castor it immediately swam to the stick; then following it with his nose to the bot- tom M-as caught in the trap by one of its legs. The smell of the castor seemed to cause this wily animal to lose all sense of its surroundings. If the beaver did not drown, it would sometimes gnaw its foot off to escape. The foot of the beaver was webbed and was used for swimming. They also had nails with which they scratched the earth in a similar manner of the mole or badger. Their meat was juicy and resembled fresh pork. They were exceedingly wild, and their sense of smell was very acute. At the slightest approach of danger they dove deep into the pond, rarely if ever, entering the tunnel leading to their home, if there was the slightest chance of being observed. The beaver was as much at.home on land as in the water, and when on the ground was in constant motion. However, it never strayed far from the water. I ■ > ; I III '111 ^l. ! ' H 'i M fi THE OTTER. The otter was perhaps the most valuable of all the fur- bearing animals of America, on account of the richness and fineness of its fur. This animal measured about two and one-half feet from its nose to the root of its tail. It lived almost exclusively on fish, but when hungry it ate frogs, snakes, and other small animals. It was admirably adapted by nature for pursuing and catching fish. Its body was lithe, and its toes so broadly webbed that it was able to propel itself with great speed through the water. The tail was long, and was used as a rudder to direct its movements in the water; while its short, powerful legs were so loosely jointed that the animal could turn them in almost any direction with ease. The hair on its body and limbs was of two kinds; a close, fine soft fur, lying next to the skin protected the animal against heat and cold; the other composed of long, shining, coarse hair, permitted the animal to glide easily through the water. Its teeth were very sharp and strong, and when diving for fish it rarely missed its prey. In 111 :i: Ml i hi ^S^^I^f^TW^ ' 'IJSPw 450 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. color it varied somewhat, but was generally of a rich brown, intermixed with whitish gray. The otter made its habitation along the banks of rivers and streams, gen- erally in some natural crevice, or deserted excavation. If these could not be found, it made a hole for itself. The entrance to the holes or burrows were always below the surface of the water. When alarmed, the mother otter with her young plunged into the stream, taking refuge amid the vegetation, or anything that afforded shelter; but as they could not remain under water for a great length of time, they often came to the surface for air. This they did by putting their noses above the surface, filling their lungs, then disap- pearing again. The otter was a remarkable fighter and could defeat almost any animal of its size. In fighting a dog, it required but a short time to cut the flesh of its opponent to shreds with its sharp teeth. They were prolific, and had from three to five young at a birth. The young made their appearance early in spring, about March or April, and at first were nursed by the mother, but were soon turned adrift to obtain their own living. They were extremely fond of play, both young and old went to an inclined bank of a river, sliding into the stream on their wet bodies. The trappers called these places "otter slides." At the bottcon of the slides he placed his traps into which the otter plunged, becoming prisoners. Like the beaver, when caught in traps it would sometimes gnaw off its foot to rega n its freedom. The beaver and otter were the most tought after by the different fur companies of all the animals in that great country. About the same means were employed in capturing them, and both were trapped for at the same time. The otter did not go to the ponds like the beaver, but was found almost everywhere. The meat of the otter was never considered a palatable dish. As it lived on fish largely, its flesh had a strong, fishy ti.ivor. These animals were prized only for their fine fur. In the early days the otter was found in great abundance, but in latter years became scarce. Among the Indians their pelts were much prized. They used them for making medicine bags, pouches, and articles of ornament. Having only limited means for capturing them, and the otter was so wary that it was difScult for the red men to secure them at all. When they did, it was usually at an otter slide, where they waited for days at a time, patiently watching for an opportunity to shoot them. Then, if they did not kill it instantly, the animal disappeared in the water, dragging itself off to its hole, where it died. After death the others dragged the remains into the stream to float away with the current. HI TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 457 CHAPTER LIV. BEARS AND THEIR WAYS— ADVENTURES WITH GRIZZLIES— AN EXCITING FIGHT AND A RACE FOR LIFE. The Black Bear — Its Home, Habits and Food — Fondness for Honey — Tenacity of Life — The Bear as a Boxer — How Indians Secured Them — Four Bears Equal to One Scalp — Tearing out the Entrails of a Dog at one Blow — The Cinnamon Bear — Its Peculiarities— A Puzzle to Naturalists — The Grizzly Bear — The Largest and Most Formidable Bear in Existence— Its Awkward Gait — Why the Grizzly was called "Sambo" — Avoided by Mountaineers — Indians Killing a Grizzly — A Memorable Fight With a Grizzly — Starting Him Up in the Underbrush — An Exciting Time— An Enraged Bear — The Fight On — A Race for Life — A Narrow Escape — Tormented by Dogs — Fourteen Bullets in Sambo's Body — Killed at Last. Although the bear family is at home in many parts of the world, there are but three varieties indigenous to our country, viz. : the black, the cinna- mon, and the grizzly. Of these the black bear was the most common, and was smaller in size than the cinnamon or grizzly, usually weighing from two to four hundred pounds. Its coat was soft and the fur thick and long. It is clumsy in ap- pearance, with a thick-set body, short, stout legs, though it is active and vigilant and had great strength it could scarcely be called a ferocious ani- mal, for it always avoided man. It changed its haunts with the seasons, in the spring living on roots and juicy plants found in the vicinity of streams, ponds, and lakes, during summer spending most of its time in the under- brush, where it fed ou berries, bugs, frogs, and such small animals as it could procure. In the fall it sought higher ground, and fed on wild fruits, acorns, and nuts. It is extremely fond of honey, and in its rambles through the woods, being an excellent climber, it never passed a bee tree without robbing it of its store of sweets. Although living for the most part on vegetable food, it was also carnivorous; but it would not eat meat which was tainted, unless pressed by hunger. Notwithstanding its clumsy gait it could run rapidly, and when closely pursued would, whenever possible, take to a tree. It is also a good swimmer, crossing rivers with ease. Its cubs were dropped in the spring, and were as frolicsome as kittens in their play. By the time cold weather set in, the cubs had attained fully two- thirds of their growth, and when hibernating were fat and in good condition to remain in a torpid state until the return of spring. J ii, > !l !{' If 458 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. When hibernating, these animals generally bid themselves in the hollow of an old tree, or iu caves and crevices, where they remained undisturbed until spring. Sometimes the heavy snows and ice imprisoned them until long after the usual time for making their appearance. When an Indian secured a bear he regarded it as a great prize; first, for itu skin, which made a beautiful robe; next, for its claws and teeth, which were used as ornaments; next, for its meat, which was the red man's pork, and with him was a dainty dish ; and last, though not least, is the fact that when an Indian had killed four bears it wan considered equal to taking an enemy's scalp. This was considered by them equal to counting a coup. The black bear was to a certain extent migratory in its habits, and be- fore very severe winters set in they sometimes moved southward in large numbers. It was sagacious in escaping the hunter, but when wounded would, like all the bear family, tight to the death. It was dexter- ous in the use of its forepaws, and when fighting it stood on its hind legs boxing after the manner of an athlete. With one blow of its sharp claws it could tear out the entrails of a dog. All the bear family have very strong jaws, with which they can crush any small animal. The cinnamon bear in form and size, as well as in its habits, much resem- bled its cousin, the black bear. It was larger, however, more fierce and dangerous when molested ; but, like most of the bear family, it was com- paratively harmless if let alone. The larger specimens of this animal meas- ure from nose to tail over five and a half feet, and in height a little over threo feet. It lived largely on berries, roots, and vegetable food, though it by no means disdained flesh when it could get it. It never voluntarily at- tacked man, but retired on seeiug him ; but, if cornered or wounded, it was about as ugly a customer and gritty a fighter as could be found. Its hair was softer and thicker than that of the black bear; under it the fur was finei' in texture and considerably longer. Naturalists are generally agreed that the cinnamon is not a different specie of bear, but is a distinct variety. The idea once prevalent that it was a cross between the grizzly and the black bear, has long since been rejected. It was sometimes known as the silver-tip bear, on account of the silvery color of the hair at the ex- tremity of its stunted tail. It has never been found near the seacoast, or in any place far removed from the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains. It is also a northern animal, not being found as far south as Texas. Its natural habitat v,c»s west and north of the Missouri River, in the direction of the cold and ban-en regions of the northwest. It is found in no other part of the world. Its existence was unknown to naturalists until the advent in that region of the fur trappers and hunters. They purchased a bear's skin from TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 459 the Indians, which was of a pale reddish brown ; this the Indians said was from an animal entirely distinct from the grizzly bear. This led to inquir} as to the different species or varieties of bears in that region. The Indians showed the different kinds of bear skins they had, and persisted in saying that there were three kinds of bears in their territory, viz. : the grizzly, the extremities of whose hair were of a white or frosty color ; the black bear, and another bear, having white hairs in his light reddish-brown coat. The cinnamon bear had long been known to the trappers and fur traders before white settlers entered that territory, and the skins of these ani- mals, < a account of the fineness of the fur, were much sought after and were more valuable than those of the black bear. The grizzly bear was the largest and most formidable of any of the bear family whose habitat was in the West, sometimes attaining the length of nine feet and weighing ten to twelve hundred pounds. Specimens have been shown weighing as high as eighteen hundred, and even two thousand pounds. Its habitat were about the same as that of the cinnamon bear. The coat of this animal was of a dirty brown, or grizzly gray, whence it derived its name. Its claws were long and large, measuring seven or eight inches, sharp and gouge-shaped, and were used with terrible effect in strik- ing down or tearing its prey. They were also of great eflBciency in digging for roots. With its sharp claws the grizzly would at one blow tear the en- trails from a buffalo, ox, or horse. Like its cousins, it was a great boxer, and used its forepaws with tremendous effect when in battle. In moving, it had a shambling, clumsj', gait, its head constantly swaying from side to side. Its color ranged from brown to nearly black, and sometimes to almost white. It confined itself exclusively to the Rocky Mountain regions and the plains adjacent thereto, where the grizzly made its haunts, the black and the cinnamon bears were scarce. From this I conclude that it was con- stantly at war with the other two members of the family. All other ani- mals retreated from the presence of this ferocious beast. The grizzly bear may be called the king of American wild beasts, for it occupied the same relation to the wild beasts of North America that the lion does to those of Africa, or the tiger to those of Asia. In fact, I believe that neither of these latter would be a match in combat with it, for, unlike them, it not only had jaws that were large and |X)werful enough to crush almost any animal at one bite, with its chisel-like claws could tear open the hide of the largest animal with a single blow. Next to taking the scalp of an enemy, the Indians considered the killing of a grizzly bear their greatest feat. They greatly prized the long claws, the large, sharp teeth, and great warm robe. Thej' wore the claws as or- :Mi' ! ii \ 460 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. naments around their necks, and were fond of boasting of their battles and hair-breadth escapes in killing this powerful beast. When the Indians knew that a grizzly bear was in their vicinity, the men, mounted their best horses and armed with their best arms, went in parties to give it battle. Among the mountaineers and plainsmen the grizzly was known as Sambo, a name given to it because of the resemblance of its hind foot to that of a negro. The old mountaineers and plainsmen, unless they were a strong party, gave Sambo a wide berth. The meat was unfit for human food, being rank, strong, tough, and stringy, especially in an old one, but the flesh of the cubs of three or four months could be eaten if it was allowed to hang in the open air for several days. The cub of a grizzly bear, no mat- ter at how early an age it was captured, could neither be tamed nor trusted. At the foot of Medicine Bow Mountain, on a creek of that name, I once had a few well-mounted cavalrymen, half a dozen Indians, and a pack of good hunting dogs. Three or four of the dogs were greyhounds, two or three were fox hounds, and the remainder were common-bred animals. I sent a few of the troops with some of the dogs into the thicket to start a grizzly, for they were plentiful there at that time. In a short time after entering the dense underbrush the fo^ hounds set up their yell, and Sambo soon appeared in the open where we gave him battle. After he had received one or two flbjh wounds, ne became furious and made an attack on one of the Indians. The latter was mounted on a good horse and fled at the top of his speed, all hands and the dogs following at full cry. In attempting to escape from the bear, the Indian rode his horse up the smooth side of a butte for almost half a mile, until nearing the top and knowing that he must go over a precipice or turn back, he chose the latter alternative. As soon as he turned, the grizzly turped also, when the whole party of pursiiers scattered in every direction. The Indian, knowing the character of the grizzly, ran his horse down the face of the butte with all his speed, lashing him at every jump. The bear was so close to him that at almost every leap he struck with one of his fore paws at the horse. Finding that he could not outrun the bear down the hill, the Indian opened his blanket and threw it in the bear's face, completely blinding him for a few seconds. Bruin made short work of the blanket and was soon in pursuit of bis intended victim again. Seeing the Indian's perilous situation, I directed some of the troops to open fire on the grizzly. Some of the bullets must have passed close to the Indian, for he yelled at the top of his voice, while making directly for a ureek a short distance from the bottom of the butte. On reaching the water, the bear plunged in to cool himself, and the Indian made his escape. Then began the real fight. ^^^"^j' TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 461 While the bear was in the creek, one of the greyhounds came too near him and the bear with a stroke as swift as lightning hit him in the side with its paw, and with its sharp claws tore out the dog's entrails, killing him on 1 he spot. After this we fought the bear out of the water on to the plain where tor two hours, we had some royal sport. The greyhounds showed their great value and peculiar cunning in fighting it. They would never get near its pawa, but at every opportunity one of them jumped at and snapped the bear's hips, springing away instantly, while another then repeated the operation. When the grizzly turned to strike its tormenter, a dog from the other side made a snap at it in the same way. In this manner the bear was kept turn- ing from one side to the other constantly, and not permitted to get away. After a fight of two hours, we succeeded in killing it, some twelve or fourteen bullets had been fired into its body. No animal ever fought with more ferocity than that bear. It was particularly annoyed by the arrows the Indians fired into it, and grabbed the shaft of the arrow with its mouthy standing on its hind legs, fighting the stick as though fighting the enemy. It was a fine specimen and weighed about eleven hundred pounds. After the death of Bruin, every Indian in the party made a mad rush for the carcass, and, jumping from their horses, each made an effort to be the first to strike it with his bands. There was great excitement, much loud talk, and wild gesticulations among them. Upon making inquiries as to what the row meant, I found they were wrangling among themselves as to who was entitled to the honor of striking the carcass first, and were also con- tending as to who should have the claws, the teeth and skin. ti ,A j I I ^i 462 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. CHAPTER LV. JIM BRIDGER, FAMOUS SCOUT, GUIDE, FRONTIERSMAN. AND INDIAN FIGHTER —PERSONAL EXPERIENCES WITH HIM. A Typical Frontiersman — Trapper, and Famous Indian Fighter — An Unerring Guide — His Skill as a Trailer — The Man wlio Trained Kit Carson — Bridger's Wit and Humor — Some Characteristic Anecdotes — The Invisible Mountain — A Thrilling and Fatal Adventure — Telling the Story of his own Death — Bridger's Strange Manner of Liv- ing — Unable to Read, but could Quote from Shakespeare — A II -yjli -Priced Book — Bridger at the Battle of Powder River — 'A Mean Camp " — His Visit to the Presi- dent — What Bridger thought of Him — A Gang of Desperadoes Discomfited — My Winter with Him — His Queer Habits — Going to Bed at all Hours — Cooking his Meals in the Middle of the Night — Singing " Injun " — Bridger in Battle with the Utos, Killing and Scalping a Ute in a Hand-to-riand Conflict — Challenging an Arapahoe— What Followed. DuR.NG my long and varied experiences in the pathless wilds of the West, it was my good fortune to have met pome of the most noted trappers, moun- taineers, plainsmen, frontiersmen, and guides in that country, and to have been associated with them in various ways. Many of these men were fam- ous throughout that country. They were as much a part of its wild life as were the savage Indians, wild animals, mountains, rivers, and forests, some of them were of invaluable service to the pioneers who first entered that unknown region, as well as to the army, in guiding the troops when in pursuit of the savages. I think, therefore, a brief sketch of the most noted of these will not be uninteresting to ray intellectual reader. James Bridger, or, as he was familiarly spoken of in that country, "Old Jim Bridger," was the most efficient guide, mountaineer, plainsman, trap- j)er and Indian fighter that ever lived in the Far West. He knew more of that country and all things within its borders than any one who ever lived. He had been a trapper for various Fur Companies, and had trapped on his own account for many years, long before the foot of a white settler entered that territory, having trapped from the mouth to the source of nearly all its rivers and streams. Although Bridger had little or no education, he could, with a piece of charcoal or a stick, scratch on the ground or any smooth sur- face a map of the whole western country that was much more correct than those made at that time by skilled topographical engineers, with all their scientific instruments. I have seen Bridger look at a printed map, and TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 4G3 point out its defects at sight. His experience in that country was not con- fined to a few nations and tribes of Indians. He knew more about them, their habits, customs, and characters, than any man who ever lived in all that region. On no occasion would he trust an Indian. His disgust for them knew no bounds. He called them "sarpints," "varmints," and "pizen,-' He maintained that a rattlesnake was of some good, but that an Indian was good for nothing. He prided himself on the fact that in any- thing the "sarpints" (meaning the Indians, not the rattlesnake) did, he (Bridger) could outdo them. He was a marvelous trailer — unquestionably the most expert that ever lived. Even when old, and with dimmed eyesight, he could run a trail, when mounted, as fast as his horse could carry him. The trappers, when trapping, as a rule, took but little notice of the water- courses, canons, foothills or mountains. Bridger, on the other hand, was careful to note the lay of all these, and this habit of keen observation and the knowledge it brought subsequently served him well when guiding ex- peditions through the pathless western wilds. He noticed every feature of the country, especially its configuration, and possessing, as he did, a reten- tive memory, he could invariably recall all landmarks with unerring accur- acy, even though he had not seen them for years. Bridger hardly knew his birthplace. He was scarcely able to write his name, although his wonderful memory and natural abilities served him so well that he was much respected by army oflBcers and by the authorities at Washington, as well as by all whites with whom he came in contact. The Indians also learned to respect and fear him. When an important military expedition was planned, Bridger's services were secured whenever possible. The most important man on these campaigns was the guide, for on him everything depended, even the very existence of the command. Should he lead into ambush, or where there was no water or fuel, the command might perish. The majority of the guides in that country at that time were brave and in the front when marching, until Indians were sighted or the trail be- came very pronounced, when they were somehow generally found in the rear. Not so with Bridger. He was always at the front. It was necessarj- at all times for the guide to be acquainted with, and on the lookout for traps laid by wily savages, and to know how to guard against them to prevent the trooj)8 from being outgeii raled. While Bridger had ample caution, he had the courage of a lion. In that country, in opposing the cunning savage, an army of deer led by a lion was worth more than an army of lions led by a deer, and Bridger was the leader. Bridger was an old man when I last saw him, about seventy-six years of age, and a great sufferer from goitre, brought on by the long use of snow I ! \ ! I' !l 404 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. water. In some of jis many engagements with the red men he received three arrow wounds in his back, and was in consequence unable to straighten himself without suffering great pain. He was also badly ruptured, and I could scarcely understand how he rode a horse at all. Yet with all his bodily infirmities he was cheerful and ready to do valiant service at all times. The government appreciated his services so highly that he frequently received twenty-five dollars per day, his rations, horse, arms and quarters, while in its service. It was Bridger who first brought Kit Carson to the notice of General John C. Fremont, who made Carson famous. I have seen Carson take his orders and instructions from Bridger as a soldier does from his commanding officer. Some of the most skillful guides and famous mountaineers in the western country were trained by Bridger. Bridger was first employed by the Rocky Mountain Fur Company when a boy but eleven or twelve years old, and, after working for this and other Fur Companies, he was given charge of a trapping partj^, which position he re- tained until he engaged in the same business for himself, at which he amassed quite a fortune. Fort Bridger, situated on Ham's Fork, a branch of Green River, Wyo- ming, was originally established by him as a trading post, and was, at the time of its estalilishment, probably the farthest outpost occupied by a white man. Here Bridger kept supplies, and traded with the Utesand other tribes of Indians who occupied or visited that country. It was not until after the Mormons established Salt Lake City, and their destroying angels, known as the "Danitet;," became prominent for their mysterious deeds of violence and murder, that Bridger was compelled to leave this place. They had a particular dislike of him, and he would certainly have felt their vengeance and probably lost his life had he remained much longer. Bridger was much sought after by emigrants crossing the plains, for his reputation as a guide and Indian fighter was well known. The pilgrims annoj'ed him with all sorts of questions, which often compelled the old man to beat a retreat, yet he had a streak of humor, and gave them a ghost story every now and then. Some of these stories were unique. He had a quick and surprisingly vivid imagination, and reeled off story after story with a spontaneity that was astonishing. He told these stories, too, with a solemn gravity that was intensely amusing. I know that I am largely indebted to him for often keeping up my spirits when the^ were at a low ebb. I always knew something good was coming when ho began to tell a story, but never dared to smile until the climax was reached, for that would have spoiled it all. "Is there anything remarkable to be seen about here?" an inquisitive pil- grim asked him one day. T TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 4G5 "W-a-1-1," he replied, in a peculiar drawling tone, which he generally assumed in telling stories, in order to gain time to give his imagination fuller play, "There's a cur'ous mountain a few miles off'n the road, to the north of here, but the doggon'd trouble is you can't see the blamed thing." "A mountain and can't see it — that's curious," interrupted the pilgrim. "How large is it?" "Wall, I should say it's nigh onto three miles in circumference at the base, but its height is unknown," continued Bridger with imperturbable gravity. "Is it so high you can't see the top of it?" inquired the puzzled traveler. "That's what I say, stranger; you can't see the base of it either. Didn't you ever hear of the Crystal Mountain?" "I never did." • "Wall, I'll tell you what it is. It's a mountain of crystal rock, an' so clear that the most powerful field glasses can't see it, much less the naked eye. You'll wonder, p'r'aps, how a thing that can't be seen no how wus ever discovered. It came about in this way. You see, a k»t of bones an the carcasses of animals "r^' birds wus found scattered all around the base. You see they ran or How against this invisible rock and jest killed themselves dead. You kin feel the rock an' that's all, You can t see it. It's a good many miles high, for everlastin' quantities of birds' bones are jest piled up all around ' ;ise of it." On anothei - ocasion he told one of these persistent questioners the story of a gold mine, which he said was not far from the Overland road. " Why, the gold's so plentiful," said Bridger, "that all that's necet^sary to secure it is to jest pick it up. Great nuggets of the purest gold are scattered all over the ground. There's no diggin' to be done, or rock-crushin' machines an' siftin' required. You orter to stop over and fill your pockets; you'll find it mighty useful on your journey. Anybodj' who's in want of gold need only go there an' load himself." "Do you mean to say that it is free to anybody?" asked the traveler. "Free as the air we breathe," said Bridger. "How can we get there?" one of the listening crowd ventured to inquire. . *^Hire a biajgy — easiest thing in the world," answered Bridger. The joke was that a buggy could not be had nearer than six hundred miles. Another story of this strange and eccentric character : "You must have had some curious adventures with, and hairbreadth escapes from the Indians, during your long life among them," observed one of a party of a dozen or more, who had been relentlessly plying him with questions. M; lli 466 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. "Yes, I've bed a few," he responded reflectively, "and I never to my dyin' day shall forget one in perticlar." The crowd manifested an eager desire to hear the story. I will not under take to give his words, but no story was ever more graphically told, and no throng of listeners ever followed a story's detail with more intense interest. He was on horseback and alone. He had been suddenly surprised by a party of six Indians, and putting spurs to his horse sought to escape. The Indians, mounted on fleet ponies, quickly followed in pursuit. His only weapon was a six-shooter. The moment the leading Indian came within shooting dis- tance, he turned in his saddle and gave him a shot. His shot always meant a dead Indian. In this way he picked off five of the Indians, but the last one kept up the pursuit relentlessly and refused to be shaken off, "We wus nearin' the edge of a deep and wide gorge," said Bridger. "No horse could leap over that awful chasm an' a fall to the bottom meant sartin death. I turned my horse suddint an' the Injun was upon me. We both fired to once, an' both horses wus killed. We now engaged in a han'-to- han' conflict witn butcher knives. He wus a powerful Injun — tallest I ever see. It wus a long and fierce struggle. One moment I bed the best of it, an' the next the odds wus agin me. Finally " Here Bridger paused as if to get breath. "How did it end?" at length asked one of his breathless listeners, anxiously. ^^The Injun killed me," he replied with slow deliberation. The climax freed him from further questioning by that party. While on a visit to St. Louis, one of his old mountaineer friends of the American Fur Company met him on the street, and greeting him, said : "Jim, Wi.v4t are you doing here?" With an oath he answered, "I'm trying to find my way out of these canons;" adding, "This is the meanest camp I ever struck in my life. I have met more'n a thousand men in the last hour, and nary one of 'em has asked me to come to his lodge and have something to eat." When on a visit to Washington, he was introduced to the President. After staring at him in amazement for a few moments, Bridger turned to the member of Congress who had introduced him, and said, "Looks jest like any other man, don't he?" He had expected to see in the President a super- human person, and was much astonished to find that he looked very much like other people. While his trading post flourished at Fort Bridger he was supposed to have a large amount of money in his possession. Some desperadoes entered his house one night for the purpose of robbing h'm. Bridger, awakening from »!' TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 467 his sleep, quickly said, "What are you lookin' for?" One of the despera- does answered, "We are looking for your money." Bridger replied, "Wait jest a minute an' I'll git up and help you." This disconcerted the robbers, and knowing their man concluded not to wait until he "got up," but "got" themselves. The wagon trains crossing the plains at that time were very numeroiig, and usually before leaving the starting points along the Missouri River, the emigrants bought little guide books for ten cents, giving the location uf good water and grass along the road. Hence it frequently happened that camp was made at night where not a spear of grass was to be found for the horses and cattle, it having been consumed by the thousands that had camped there before. Then the travelers called on Bridger and asked bim where the next good camping place was. The information was cheerfully given, and the travelers immediately turned to their guide books, and not finding mention of the locality would accuse Bridger of deceiving them, which was very annoying, and did not increase his regard for the pilgrims. Sometimes he would sit for hours and act as if deaf and dumb, in order to put a stop to the silly questions of travelers. I occupied the same quarters with him one whole wiiuer, where I had ample opportunity to study his character and learn his peculiar ways and manner of living. He never did anything until he felt so inclined. For instance, if he grew sleepy in the afternoon, say by three, four, or five o'clock, he went to bed, and when he awoke, say in four, five or six hours afterward, he would rise, make a fire, roast meat, eat it, and sing "lujun," to use his own term, the rest of the night. If he had a tin pan, he turned it bottom side up, and with a stick, beat on the bottom, making a noise like the Indian tom-tom. He never ate until he was hungry, and, as he lived largely on meats, he was thin and spare, although strong and wiry. His n::inner of living during this winter did not coincide with my habits or ideas, by any means, so I tried to entertain him every afternoon and keep him awake until nine or ten o'clock in the evening. My first effort was in reading to liim. A copy of "Hiawatha," was found among the troops, which I read to him as long as he permitted it. He would sit bent over, his long legs crossed, his gaunt hands and arms clasping his knees, and listen to the reading attentively, until a passage was reached in which Longfellow portrajed an imaginary Indian, when Bridger, after a period of uneasy wriggling on his seat, arose very wrathy, and swearing that the whole story was a lie, that he would listen to no more of it, and that "no such Injun ever lived." This happened over and over again. After a while I quieted him, and began reading again, but after a short time he was sure to stop t r it 46 8 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTIl.E INDIANS. me, swearing that he would not listen any longer to such infernal lies. However, I managed to entertain him in this way for two or three weeks, during which time T secured a reasonable amount of sleep out of each twenty-four hours. Bridger became very much interested in this reading, and asked which ■was the best book that had ever been written. I told him that Shakespeare's was supposed to be the greatest book. Thereupon he made a journey to the main road, and lay in wait for a wagon train, and bought a copy from some emigrants, paying for it with a yoke of cattle, which at that time could have been sold for one hundred and twenty-five dollars. Rehired a German boy, from one of the wagon trains, at forty dollars a month, to read to him. The boy was a good reader, and Bridger took great interest in the reading, listening most attentively for hours at a time. Occasionally he got the thread of the story so mixed that he would swear a blue streak, then compel the young man to stop, turn back, and re-read a page or two, until he could get the story straightened out. This continued until he became so hope- lessly involved in reading "Richard the Third" that he declared he "wouldn't listen any more to the talk of any man who wus mean enough to kill his mother." That ended our reading of Shakespeare, much to my disgust, for I was again doomed to be kept awake at all hours of the night by his aboriginal habits. After that it was amusing to hear Bridger quote Shakespeare. He could give quotation after quotation, and was always ready to do so. Sometimes he seasoned them with a broad oath, so ingeni- ously inserted as to make it appear to the listener that Shakespeare himself had used the same language. During that winter Bridger's suit of buckskin clothing (and it was all he had) became infested with vermin, and in despair he at last asked me how he could get rid of them. I told him that if he would take off his buckskin jacket and breeches and wrap himself in a buffalo robe, I would under- take to rid his clothing of the pests. He thereupon took his clothing off, and turned it inside out. After spreading the garments on the ground, I poured a ridge of powder down all the seams of the suit, and touching it off burned the vermin, but the process also burned the buckskin clothing badly. On the seams of the leggings I had sprinkled so much powder that :t burnt the garments to charred leather. They were drawn up short at the steams, and after being turned, each leg curled up until it looked like a half-moon. Bridger looked at me for an instant in great disgust, and with a big oath said, "I'm goin' to kill you for that." 1 was afraid he would make his threat good, for he was certainly very indignant. I laughed at him, and taking hold of the leggings stretched them into the best shape possible, but iiiiiiiiiiiiiiittitiiii TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 469 the leather was burned to brittleness, and the breeches broke at the slightest touch. Bridger did not forgive me for this for two or three days, during which time he was compelled to go about in a buffalo robe until another buckskin suit could be procured. Every time he saw his ruined suit he blessed me, saying, "The next time you want to rid me an' my clo's of varmints don't you do it with a doggon'd train of gunpowder." An instance of Bridger's courage happened under my own observation. While scouting in the South Park he was our guide; we also had with us some Arapahoe Indians, and a white man who had an Arapahoe woman for his wife. After a sharp engagement vnth a war party of Indians, who greatly out- numbered us, we were compelled to withdraw to the hillside. As soon as the Indians saw our position a number of warriors dismounted and hid themselves in the bushes and tall grasses; from this concealment they began firing upon us. I did not consider it advisable, for the time being, to sepa- rate the command and send a party to charge into the ambush. Bridger all this time was growing restless, and at last challenged an Arapahoe to go into the copse with him and attack the Indians hand to hand. The Indian refused and Bridger abused him soundly by means of the sign language. The Indian at last grasped Bridger by the hand, and the two started. It was not long before I heard the report of a six-shooter, and in a few minutes Bridger returned holding in his hand the scalp of a warrior covered with warm blood ; he found an Indian in the brush and before the latter had time to move had killed him. The Arapahoe not returning, I was satisfied that his earthly career was ended, or that a worse fate was in store for him. I determined to burn the tall, dry grass, and ordered the white man with the Indian wife to send one of the Arapahoe Indians to set it on fire; they all refused, until Bridger ridiculed them so unmercifully that the whole party accompanied him, and the grass was fired. It burned rapidly, and it was not long before the fierce flames disclosed a great many Indians hidden in the underbrush. When the command opened fire upon them, they ran in every direction ; but soon returned with their mounted warriors ready to resume the fight. Bridger insisted that under no circumstances must we leave our present position, as there were at least two or three Indians to one of us. In a short time they made an attack, but we had the advantage of high ground and could anticipate every movement they made. Bridger picked off the first Indian who got within range of his deadly rifle, and the best shots among the troopers also used their Spencer carbines with effect. The Indians were thus prevented from getting near us, and after a few hours of this kind of fighting they withdrew. 470 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. Bridger was chief guide and scout on our Powder River expedition. When we arrived in the vicinity of Kosehud River, Bridger informed the oflBcers that we were near a large body of Indians, and that they had large numbers of newly stolen animals, giving their numbers. This he did from the marks of the animals' shoes, as the horses and mules of the Indians are never shod. When we entered this battle everything he said was found to be correct. An instance of Bridger's wit occurred on the expedition. While en- camped unde^ the Big Horn Mountains one night, when all was quiet, an oflBcer asked him why this chain was called "Big Horn Mountains." Bridger turned his face to the mountains and saw the new moon standing on end, and half hidden by the summit of the moimtain. Bridger said, with his usual gravity, "Look, don't you see the horn on the mountains, that's why." During the winter we roomed together Bridger told me many interesting stories of early life, one of which was that of killing a mule. It is well known that during the night when everything is still, animals will approach a fire, their eyes shining like fireballs; the hunters then aimed directly between the eyes and fired, which was sure to kill. This mode of killing animals was common among all hunters of the plains and mountains, and was known as "flashing." When a young man Bridger was trapping with a party on Green River; during the night he heard a noise, and Loking in the direction whence it came, saw a pair of eyes flash, and taking deadly aim with his rifle, fired. Going to the spot where he expected to find a deer, or elk, that he had killed, to his horror he found that he had shot a fine mule between the eyes, killing it instantly. For this mule Bridger was compelled to work two years without one cent of pay. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. m CHAPTER LVI. A FAMOUS FRONTIERSMAN, TRAPPER, SCOUT AND GUIDE— A WHITE MAN WHO HAD A SNAKE WOMAN AND LIVED THE INDIAN LIFE MANY YEARS— HIS ADVENTURES AND EXPLOITS. Jim Baker a Noted Character — Wanders into the Snake Tribe — Lives With a Snake Woman and Adopts the Clothing and the Life of the Snikes — A Desperate Figlit with Indians — Fleeced by Gamblers — His Fortitude — Ad intures with a Party of Miners — Discovers Gold — Attacked by Indians — Fighting Indians Step by Step for a Hundred Miles — The Killed and Wounded — His Deadly Rifle — Hatred of the Mor- mons — A Perilous Journey — Concealed by Day and Traveling by Night. True mountaineers and frontiersmen, possessed the important qualities of courage, coolness, perseverance and physical endurance. Of the few white men who visited this almost unknown territory at that time, few remained longer than the time it took them to get away ; those who remained per- manently did so for various reasons. Some of them built ranches, around which they erected stockades for protection as well as for corraling their animals in case of attack. At these ranches they established trading posts for the purpose of trading with Indians. Nearlyall of these "ranchmen" had one or more Indian women for their wives. It was not uncommon for frontiersmen who had Indian women for their wives by whom they had children, to remain among the tribes to which their wives belonged. Of this class was Jim Baker, who became noted through- out the entire northwest. He was originally employed by the American Fur Company, and in his early days was sent by them to the headwaters of the Missouri River. Subsequently he wandered into the Snake tribe of Indians, and secured according to Indian custom, a Snake women for his wife, by whom he had several children. Baker possessed all the (lualities, both mental and physical, of the typical frontiersman. In a short time after he had married into this tribe, he adopted the clothing and life of the red man, and soon became an adept in the ways of the savages. His mental faculties seemed exactly suited to this kind of life. He could follow the trail of almost any animal that had walked over the ground at the top speed of a fleet horse. His marksmanship with rifle or pistol was unerring, and as he depended upon these weapons for subsistence, was in constant practice. II 472 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. In throwing the lariat he was very skilful. As there were large numbers of wild hors38 in his immediate vicinity, he rode into the herds, lassoing as many as he needed, always selecting the best. In this way he kept a large supply of horses on hand at all times. From his early experience with the fur companies in trapping in thenumer" ous streams in that region from the mouth to their source, Baker became famil- iar with the watercourses, the caiions of the mountains, and the geography of the country ; hence he was much sought after as a guide through this pathless region. Baker, with some Ute Indians, piloted an expedition from Salt Lake to the headwaters of the Arkansas Kiver, during 1850 or 1857. On this cam- paign the commanding officer compelled Baker to dress himself in the cloth- ing of the white man. Baker said with an oath that it v/as "the first time in many winters that he had worn such an outfit," and when he was through he declared that it would be "the last time that store clothes would decorate his bod}'." Baker often buried himself in the wilderness for one and two years at a time, and after securing a large number of pelts, he returned to civilization and converted his accumulations into cash, when he invariably wont on a wild spree. On one of these occasions he viaited a gambling house, having with him his accumulations of three or four years. He played against the game until bis last dollar was gone, and then discovered that he had been robbed by the gamblers. After looking the sporting gentlemen over, and studying their faces for an instant, as if determining what to do, he realized tlie desperate characters of the men, and the folly of attempting to recover aijy of his money. He said, as he turned to leave, "Well, easy come, easy go!" This 80 pleased the gamblers that they made inquiry as to who he was; after learning that it was Jim Baker, they gave him sufficient money to pay his way back to his own coimtry, where he could suffer and toil for many moons to again accumulate sufficient for another debauch. Once when crossing a swollen strenm onailat boat, he got into an alterca- tion with one of the boatmen, who, after a few words, struck Baker a severe blow on the head with a stanchion, knocking him into the stream. After being fished out, he braced himself U[>, looked at his assailant, and remarked coolly to his friends: "That fellow came mighty near getting the best of me, didn't he?" When the gold fever brohe out prospectors and miners swarmed to that country in search of tl;e precious metal. One of these jwirties met Baker, }.ud knowing his qual'fications as a trailer and mountaineer, induced him to join them. Baker led the party up a valley, prospecting all the way, but found no evidences of gold or silver. TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 473 They crossed the summit of the mountains, prospected down the valley on the other side. Coming to a plateau, where camp was made, Baker, as was his custom, immediately started to reconnoiter. He soon came to a place covered with bright, shining yellow metal. He at once filled his pockets and rushing back to camp, excitedly yelled: "Here we are, boys! I've found a place where there is gold enough to make clinkers to supply the world." After showing the contents of his pockets, one of the party, who was an expert miner, quietly said : "Baker, you old fool, this is only pyrites of iron." Baker paused for a moment and said : " What a great thing we have lost then !" and at once began to make "medicine." One of the party who was 1< king at him in his ridiculouf. posture, asked him what he was doing. He replied that if bo only had hi^ old woman with him to help him to make I'n' righ^ cjedicine, he "couid turn the pirates of iron into pure gold." His companion said: "Well, further down this valley, we may strike a rich find yet. " Baker, well knowing the jharacter of the country signifi- cantly replied : "If yor. do, you may run against some more pirates, but they won't bo like these, tl.ey will be the Palous, the Coeurd' Alenes, the Spok- anes, i le Pah-Utes, or worse, them pirates of Mormons." Curiously enough, it turned out as Baker predicted. The party was shortly afterward attacked by Indians, and some of the miners killed. Bakei, well understanding the methods and wiles of the savages, retreated with his party to a supposed place of safety, but the savages followed up their trail, and came upon them suddenly. Bakwrrvahed from his hiding-place and despatched two of the most advanced with hia six-shooter. This so demoralized the rest of the Indians that they fled in confusion. Baker and his par*y reported to the authorities the killing of their comrades, and Colonel Steptoe, with his comanmd, was sent to avenge the murder of these men. This unfortunate afi«ir was one of the o-i'iKes th;it precipitat9d the war between the tmops and the allied forces of the Paiooses, CcBur d' Alenes, Spokanes, and probably other Indian tribes. The troops being greatly outnumbered, were defeated in the onslaught, and compelled to retreat. During the retreat, they were harassed at every step, and compelled to tight the savages every inch of the way. During the day they fought from hastily thrown-up breastworks, and such natural shelter as they coulil secure. When darkness fell, they retreated as far aa possible. Here they made a stand, throwing up earthworks, and when darkness again came on, resumed their retreat until they finally reached the Snake River, over one himdred miles distant from the scene of the attack. Here, with the aid of some Nez Perces they crossed. From the 474 TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. sufldennessof the attack, the premeditated treachery, and the overconfidence of the savages, it was obvious to Colonel Steptoe and his oflRcers that their assailants were instigated and supported by the Mormons, a suspicion sub- sequently found to be true. During this retreat of nearly one hundred and ten miles the troops lost several officers and many men, some of whom were killed outright, among the lattor being the brave Captain Taylor. It mij^bt naturally be supposed that the loss of these officers and men had a depresi^ing effect on the survivors; on the contrary, it stimulated them to greater effort. As their numbers grew smaller, and their ammunition gre\i less, they stood closer together, fighting with increased energy. The soldiers were also hampered in carrying their wounded. In one of these desperate stands, Baker seeing a number of the enemy ap- proaching, called to an officer near him, who, I think was Lieutenant Gas- ton, to allow him to advance from his position with fifteen soldiers to attack this detached body. Baker sallied forth, leading the attack. They were met by one of the chiefs at the bead of a large number of the enemy. This chief was a skilful warrior and leader, whose Indian name was Pow-ti-mine, but was called by the Mormons "Vincent," A desperate conflict ensued. Baker seeing that they were greatly outnumbered, advanced only a short distance, and called upon the troops to kneel, take good aim and make every shot tell. The troops' fire was so hot, that it held the Indians in check for a time. Soon Lifjutenant Gaston fell mortally wounded, and was left on the field, the troops oeing unable to carrj^ bim away. Baker seeing that further re- sistance was useless, directed the troops to retire as best they could to the main body of the command. On reaching it, they discovered that but seven of the fifteen were left. During the retreat Baker was the last man to leave everj' point of vantage, and he used his muzzle-loading Hawkins rifle with deadly effect. After joining the main body of the troops, and observing the few that were left, he said with his usual oath, "that pace was hotter than my old woman's frying-pan. i don't want to get into any place like that any more." In this battle the Canir d* Alenes were led by Mil- kap-si, one of their chiefs, whom Baker knew well, and bad met ou former occasions. It was thin chief, who on meeting Baker afterward, told him who the allied party consisted of, and gave their numbers, from which it was learned that the Mormons were the real instigators of the war. After this afl.«ir Baker returned alone through the mountains to the Snake country, a distance of over two hundred miles. On this journey he was TWENTY YEARS AMONG OUR HOSTILE INDIANS. 475 compelled to pass through the country of the hostiles, and was constantly in danger of falling in with bands of roving Indians. Baker always claimed that this was the most perilous journey of his life. "Were it not for his knowl- edge as a frontiersman, he could not have accomplished it. He lived on game, and frequently, when in the neighborhood of hostile Indians, was re- duced to the verge of starvation, not daring to fire his rifle, lest its sound should betray his presence. At other times he was forced to remain in con- cealment all day, and to travel only by night. He finally reached the Snake country. This is his own story in brief as he gave it to me. I BAHK UursK— SAC AND FOX. A i!fm,AUA G iil*i f-i i INDEX. Algonguin, The, 311. American Fur Co., The, 390. American Trooper, The, 406. Amusements, Indian, The, 1)8. Animals of the Plains and Mountains, 448. Arapahoes, The, 247, 251. Ar-a-poo-ash, 228, 357. Areckarees, The, 268. Arkansas Tribe, 171. Arrows, Indian, 120. Apaches, 187. Apaches, Characteristics, Customs, etc., of, 188. Ash Hollow, Battle of, 161. Assiniboins, Tribe, 157. App; uchees. The, 312. Astoi, John Jacob. 390, 392. Atlirtbaska Nation, 313. Aubry, F. X., 425. Aztecs, The, 347. Bad Face, Tribe of, 164. Baker Juu, 201, 394, 402. Bannocks, The, 211. Battles, Indian, 50. Beckworth, James, 229. Bears, 457. Bible. Indian search for. 308. Big Tree, 230, 239. Black Eagle, 239. Blackfeet, The, 21., 337. Blackfeet Snowshoes, 116. Black Kettle, 245. Bloods, The, 222. Bonneville, Capt., 400. Bridger, James. 201, 394-402. Brown, Joh ."^SS. Brulf' Sioux, The, 160. Buiraloes, The. 433. JUill Boat, The, 115-210. Burial Ceremonies. 128. Caddoes. The. 282. Cahokias, The, 279. California Indians, The, 291, 320. Camas, The, 233-318. Carson, Kit, 464. Captives, Treatment of, 72. Cayuses, The, 290-307. Cheycnnes, The, 240. Children, Treatment of, 91. Chinooks, The, 233, 318. Chippewas, The, 275. Chivington Massacre, 245. Cochise, 195. Connor, Genl., 354. Coeur d'Alenes, The, 307. Columbian Indians, The, 302. Collins, Lieut. C. W., 352. Comanches, The, 174. Cooking, Indian means of, 79. Cortina, Juan N. P., 178. Crees, The, 279. Crows, The, 224. Crazy Horse, Chief, 305. Custer, Genl. Geo. A., 365. Dacotah, The, 313. l)e Smet, Father, 308. Digger Indians, The, 213. Dog Feasts, 125. Dog Soldiers, 151. Dress Indian. 82. Execution of Indian Chiefs, 134. Expeditions, 398. Fetterman Massacre. 358. Fire Dance. The, 339. Flatheads. The. 'i'M. Fort Laramie. Treaty at, 163. Fur Comi)anie8, The, 226. 388. Fremont, Genl. John C, 49. Gall, Sioux Chief, 166, 366. Gerorimo. Apache. 195. Goose Creek, Battle of, 354. #1 ML ■ ,.:.j...wi..^.i:.^^^ifeaifeS.l^^ 478 INDEX. Giattan ilnssacre, 1(52, 351. Great Indian Nations. 311. Gros Ventres of the Prairie, The, 218, 221. Guadalajara Ware, 250. Guerreu, Charles jb}., 324. Harney, Genl. W. S., IGI. Hudson Bay Fur Co., 368. Hidatsa, The, 230. HoUiday, Ben, 416. Illinois, The, 279. Indian, Origin of, 341. Indian, Duels with Knives, 119. Indian Country, 45. Indian, Number of, 45. Infidelity, Punishment for, 93. lones, The, 281. lowas, The, 171. Iroquois Shells, 107. Julesburg, 419. Kansas Indians, The, 167. Kaskasias Indians, The, 279. Kaws, The. 167. Kiowas, The, 235. Klaniaths, The, 307, 360. Klikatahs. The, 290. Kootenai, The, 231, 304. Keeches, The, 312. Lacotah. The. 313. Lanffuajics, Indian, 58-108. Lewis and Clark, Lieuts., Expeditions of, .398. Little Crow, Chief. 382. Little Thunder, Chief, 162. Lodges, Indian, 75. Long, S. H., Lieut., 400. Mackey, Ma jo.- T. L.. 324. Mackinaw Fur Co., 390. Mandnns, The, 163. Marriage CuHtoms, 90. Maugus, Colorado. 195. Maricopas, The, 198. Massacres, Indian, 54. Massacre, Brown, Jv^hn, Lieut., 353. Massacre, Canby. Genl. E. R. S., 359. Massncre, Collins. Lieut. C. W., 352. Massacre, Chivingtnn, 245. Massacre, Emigrants, 420. Massncre, Lieuts. Fetterman and Brown, 353. Massacre, Grattan, Lieut., 351. Massacre, Sage Run, 353. Massacre, Major Vanderburgh, 394. Massacre, Sioux, New Ulm, 380. Massacre, Wright, Ben, 361. Maynadier, W. E., Col., 04, 125. Medicine Bags, 273, 338. Medicine Dance, 337. Mental Faculties, 55, 68, 78. Miamis, The, 280. Michigames, The, 279. Minitari, The, 230. Minneconjoux, The, 165. Mirage, 419. Mobiles, The, 312. Modocs, The, 359. Mohaves, The, 197. Mormons, The, 474. Mourning Customs, 94. Music, Indian, 100. Navajoes, The, 255. Nez Perces, Ihe, 283, 307. North West Fur Co., The, 389. Ogalallas, The, 103. Old Man-Afraid-of-his-Horses, 125, 126, 131. 137. 165. Old Smoke, 428. Omahas, The, 171. Oratory, Indian, 57. . Osages, The, 170. Otoes, The, 170. Ottawas, The, 280. Overland Stage, The, 416. Packing Animals, luo. Pah Utcs, The, 205. Painting Faces and Bodies, 85. Palooses, The, 290. Papagos, The, 198, 264. Pawnees, The, 267. Pend d'Oreilles, The, 231. Pcorias, The, 279. Picgans, The, 218, 221-2. Pike, Zebuion N., 400. Pimas. The, 264. Pi Utes, The, 200. Poncas, The, 169. Pony Express, The, 422. Pottawatomies, The, 280. Prairie Schooner, 402. Prayer, Mode of, 48. Quapas. The, 315. INDEX. 479 Rain-in-the-Face, 3C6, 370. Red-Cloud, 64, 163. Red-Horse, 374. Reptiles, 443. Road Agents, 418. Rocky Mountain Fur Co., 394. Rouges, The, 307. Root Diggers, The, 211. Sans Arcs, The, 315. Santees, The, 315. Sacs and Foxes, The, 280. Salish, The, 319. Scalping, 59. Santanta, 336, 339. Scalp Dance, The, 334. Scalp Lock. The, 61 Semino es. The, 282. Sham Battles, 122. Shahaptin, The, 290. Shield, Indian, 52. Short Ribs, 139. Shoshonees, The, 313. Sign Language, The, 108. Sign Reading, 76. Singing Bear, Chief, 162. Sioux Nation, The, 130, 314. Smokers and Smoking, 63. Snake Dance, The, 340. Snake Indians, The, 207. Sisseton, The, 315. Sioux Nation, The. 136. Small Pox Ravages, 46, 219. Sitting Bull, 365, 370, 372, 384. Snake Indians, 207. Snake Dance, 340. Snow Shoes, 116. Snow Shoe Dance, 278. Southern Indians, The, 312. Southwest Fur Co., 390. Spokanes, The, 307, 309. Slade, Alfred, 420. Spotted Tail, 129. Steptoe, Col., 473. Stampede, 414. Striking the Post, 278. Surches, The, 218. Sun Dance, The, 323. Tamaronas, The, 279. Tanning, 101. Telegraph Overland, The, 428. Tesson, Joe, 101. Teton Sioux, The, 173. Tonkaways, The, 259. Trappers, The, 391. Travois, 105. Trooper in Battle, 51, 406. Uncpapas, The, 166. Umatillas, The, 290, 307. Umfreville, Edward, 396, 403, 413, 415. Upsoruka, The, oi Crows, 224. Utes, The, 200. Vanderburgh, Henry, 394. Various Tribes, 321. Wacoes, The, 281. Wagon Train, 404. Walla-Wallas, The, 290, 302, 307. War Dance, The, 336. War Parties, 48. Weapons, Indian, 118. V, hi e Antelo e, 245. Wichitas. The, 268, 273. Wild Animals, 443. Wild Horses, 430. Winnebagoes, The, 167. Young Man-Afraid-oi-his-Horses, 138. Yankton Sioux, The, 164. Yellow Hand, Chief, 216. Yampais, The, 321. Zunis, The, 262.