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 1 
 
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 1 
 
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r 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 T 
 
THE STORY OF 
 
 THE AMERICAN INDIAN 
 
 HIS ORIGIN r3EVELOPMENT DECLINE 
 
 AND DESTINY 
 
 •?! 
 
 
 By 
 
 ELBRIDGE S BROOKS 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 D LOTHROP COMPANY 
 
 FRANKLIN AND IIAWLEY STREETS 
 
 
 i --4 
 
 mmim^mmmmm 
 
 -•"—■*-"" 
 
Press of 
 BERWICK AND SMITH, 
 
 BOSTON. 
 
 Copyright, 1887, 
 
 BY 
 
 D. LoTHROP Company. 
 
 Hi * 
 
' 
 
 « 
 
 'I 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The popular opinion of the American Indian has for generations been based 
 upon prejudice and ignorance — as thoughtless as it is unreasoning and unjust. 
 The red man of America may be no saint, but he is at least a man and should 
 not be condemned unheard. He has his side of the story quite as much as 
 has his white conqueror. 
 
 Desire, acquisition, superiority, indifference — these have been the steps 
 toward the ostracism that has been visited upon the American Indian, denying 
 him justice and opportunity for advancement since the earliest days of white 
 occupation. It is these barriers to progress that have alike created and com- 
 plicated the vexed Indian problem. 
 
 This volume does not attempt to state or solve that problem. It simply 
 seeks to arrange in something like complete and consecutive form the story 
 of the North American Indian as he has existed for generations, and as from 
 supremacy in the land of his fathers he has fallen under the ban of the white 
 civilization that conquered and displaced him. 
 
 The mistreatment of the Indian, a recent writer declares, is one of the 
 abuses of the age, and one of the reproaches of civilization. It is high time 
 that the abuse and the reproach should give place to something like fairness 
 and moral sense. If this story of a race that has played its part in the drama 
 of human progress shall lead readers to exchange indifference for interest and 
 contempt for justice, the labor and study that it has involved will not have 
 been in vain. 
 
 A mass of material bearing on the Indian's story has been consulted and 
 drawn upon, and the author makes grateful acknowledgment of his obligation 
 to Miss Tracy Thompson of Brooklyn for interested and painstaking assist- 
 ance in this direction. 
 
 \l 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 If the future of the American Indian is to be brighter and more self- 
 helpful than ever before, the credit of this advance is in great measure due to 
 the self-sacrificing exertions of those missionaries of good who have, in spite 
 of heedlessness, and in spite of slur, devoted so much of their lives to the 
 bettering of a misunderstood and unfortunate race. 
 
 To all such, and to all friends of humanity who, despising injustice, seek 
 to convert public opinion into public conscience, this story of the American 
 Indian is gratefully inscribed. 
 
 £• Sa B« 
 
 i 
 

 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Pagb. 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN .... 
 
 ••••. II 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 THE RED MAN BEFORE COLUMBUS . .^ 
 
 • • • • • 4u 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES CQ 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS . Q^ 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM TO^ 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE INDIAN YOUTH • j >- 
 
•/ 
 
 viii CONTENTS. 
 
 ' CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Pacr. 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS IC5 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 TI.x^ COMING OF THE WHITE MAN 1 75 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 COLONIAL INJUSTICE : igj 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PLACING THE RESPONSIBILITY 2IO 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PUSHED TO THE WALL 23 1 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 INDIAN TYPES 249 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 THE Indian's outlook 280 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Quigualtanqiii's defiance .... 
 
 " The oldest of existing lands " 
 
 Ruins called "the Governor's house," Uxmal, Vutacan 
 
 Skeleton of the megatherium . 
 
 The niylodon 
 
 Hunting the dinornis 
 
 An ancient volcano in the Rocky Mountain range 
 
 The mammoth and primitive man 
 
 Primitive household utensils . 
 
 Mounds on the Kickapoo river 
 
 Skull found in a mound in Tennessee 
 
 Skull found in a mound in Missouri 
 
 (Jround plan of " high bank pueblo " 
 
 Mound in the shape of the elephant 
 
 Moteuczonia, lord of the Aztecs 
 
 Probable appearance of an ancient puebl 
 
 Home of the " village Indians " 
 
 Ground i)lan of the pueblo Honito . 
 
 In the grand canon of the Colorado 
 
 A cliff-dwelling .... 
 
 Ruins of an Arizona cliff-dwelling . 
 
 Nature's wonderland 
 
 The home of the ancient American . 
 
 A study of comparative cranial outlines 
 
 An Indian myth .... 
 
 Interior of a partially restored cliff-dweller's house 
 
 Hiawatha, the "river-maker." 
 
 Atotarho, the war chief . 
 
 An Indian village 
 
 One of Nature's highways 
 
 " The ' spoor ' of the game " 
 
 The wounded buffalo 
 
 The hunted elk 
 
 Shell ornaments and fish-hooks 
 
 First discoveries .... 
 
 The landing of Columbus 
 
 " Not friends, but foes " . . . 
 
 Frontis. 
 
 Page. 
 
 '3 
 
 'S 
 l6 
 i6 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 '9 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 =7 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 38 
 40 
 
 41 
 43 
 44 
 46 
 
 47 
 SO 
 SI 
 IZ 
 IS 
 S6 
 
 n 
 61 
 
 63. 
 
 ii • 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 The return of Columbus 
 
 All Iro{)uoiH scout . 
 
 The gate of I. adore 
 
 In the shallow of Shasta 
 
 A I'ueblo boy . 
 
 I'owhatan . . 
 
 One of the higher types . 
 
 Glen caFion 
 
 " The marvellous white man " 
 
 " The sjiirit of peace " . 
 
 An In'lian myth 
 
 Fighting the stone giant 
 
 Cayote fetich . 
 
 In the land of the fetich 
 
 The Navajo of to-day 
 
 Palisaded Iroquois village 
 
 In the Moki land . 
 
 The home of the Columbians 
 
 A town of the Zunis 
 
 White Buffalo 
 
 An Indian's greeting 
 
 "The White Chief " . 
 
 The domed earth-houses of the Pacific tribes 
 
 In the Iroquois country . 
 
 An Iroquois long-house . 
 
 An admirer of warlike prowess 
 
 The Mandan Lodge of the Northwest . 
 
 Here I discovered five pappooses slung to 
 
 An education in drudgery 
 
 Dreaming of his "medicine " 
 
 As happy as a white baby 
 
 The scalp-dance 
 
 On the war-trail 
 
 The ceremony of the wampum belts 
 
 A lesson in archery 
 
 A wampum necklace 
 
 Decorated wampum belts 
 
 Indian method of lighting fire 
 
 Navajo basket work 
 
 Indian weapons 
 
 Council of chiefs and warriors 
 
 So the white man came . 
 
 " Along the narrow trail the startling tidings 
 
 Spanish occupation 
 
 The death of his comrade 
 
 The pitiless man-hunter . 
 
 The burial of De Soto . 
 
 *' Killed in the swamp " . 
 
 " Red man and white " . 
 
 Civilization distrusts savagery 
 
 " Doomed and uncovenanted heathen " 
 
 the trees 
 
 sped 
 
 Pack. 
 
 65 
 68 
 69 
 
 71 
 73 
 76 
 
 78 
 79 
 83 
 85 
 89 
 
 91 
 94 
 96 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 104 
 
 'OS 
 107 
 no 
 
 i'3 
 116 
 121 
 
 I2S 
 127 
 •30 
 133 
 139 
 142 
 
 "43 
 146 
 149 
 
 IS' 
 IS7 
 162 
 164 
 167 
 1 68 
 169 
 171 
 
 '73 
 177 
 179 
 185 
 192 
 194 
 
 '95 
 197 
 199 
 200 
 201 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XI 
 
 An episode of the French and Indian War 
 
 " Justice or war — which ?" .... 
 
 " Ho, VValdron 1 does your hand weigh a pound now 
 
 " A new feature in the Indian landscape " 
 
 llispanioia 
 
 C;oh)nie9 at the time of the Revolution 
 
 Attack on stockade 
 
 Military tyranny 
 
 In contact with civilization 
 
 An episode of the Seminole War 
 " The white man wanted the land " 
 
 Fighting the Indians on the Virginia frontier 
 
 The home of the Indian 
 
 Types of a " fading race " 
 
 F'ra Junipero Scrro 
 
 The meeting of the races 
 
 Charging an Indian camp 
 
 The renegade of civilization . 
 
 Pocahontas and her son . 
 
 I'ontiac, chieftain of the Ottawas 
 
 Te-cum-thc, chief of the .Shawanoe 
 
 .Sa-go-ye-wat-ha the Seneca . 
 
 Ma-ka-tai-me shc-kiakiah the Sauk 
 
 Spotted Tail with his wife and daughter 
 
 " His story is a simple one " . 
 
 Contact with a higher intelligence 
 
 A candidate for Hampton School 
 
 The land of their fathers 
 
 Pack train leavin;; a pueblo . 
 
 In i^rocv'ss of civilization 
 
 Darkness .... 
 
 Daylight .... 
 
 Pagi. 
 203 
 206 
 207 
 212 
 215 
 217 
 
 221 
 
 22 C 
 227 
 
 239 
 240 
 
 243 
 246 
 
 250 
 
 253 
 257 
 259 
 261 
 265 
 269 
 
 273 
 277 
 279 
 281 
 
 283 
 28s 
 289 
 292 
 294 
 298 
 299 
 
i>- 
 
 n 
 
 THE STORY OF 
 
 THE AMERICAN INDIAN 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ANCIKNT AMKRICAN. 
 
 In the great past, so says an 
 Iroquois legend, Ta-rliu-liia-ua- 
 kii, the Sky-holder, resolved upon 
 the creation of a race which 
 should surpass all others in 
 beauty, strength and bravery. 
 So, from the bosom of a great 
 island, where they had previously 
 subsisted upon moles, the Sky- 
 holder brought into the daylight 
 six perfectly mated couples who 
 were set apart as the ancestors of the greatest of all peoples. 
 Such, according to Iroquois legends, were the beginnings of 
 the human race ; and the greatest of all peoples, who could 
 look back to these six perfect pairs as their ancestors, were, 
 presumably, the historic red-men of America. 
 
 Ever since the modern discovery of America speculation 
 has been rife as to the origin and intermediate history of 
 the races of men that Columbus and Cortez, the Cabots and 
 
 II 
 
FT 
 
 12 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN 
 
 \ I 
 
 John Smith, the Jesuits and the Puritans found upon the 
 shores and in the forests of the new world. But speculation 
 has led to little that is tangible. A mystery they are, a mystery 
 they must remain, until some truth-grounded plan of ethnolog- 
 ical reasoning, supported by an undeniable chain of archaeo- 
 logical and anthropological relics, shall be able to settle beyond 
 dispute the beginnings of a race whose manners and customs 
 suggest those of every nation of civilized antiquity, and yet can 
 positively be traced to none. 
 
 That America is the oldest of existing lands many wise 
 geologists confidently assert ; that a certain pre-historic and 
 apparent semi-civilization prevailed upon the North American 
 continent, hundreds of years ago, the silent ruins of giant 
 mounds, tenantless temples and forest-covered cities indisput- 
 ably attest; that this possible civilization antedates the race 
 of red-men known to us and to our forefathers is apparent. 
 But just how absolute a race connection existed between our 
 historic red-men and their pre-histfTic forerunners is still an 
 unsolved problem. Certain it is, that this older civilization, 
 however cultured or however questionable it may have been 
 went down in ruin before the resistless assaults of savagery. 
 As cruel as they were barbarous these savage wanderers — 
 veritable "Huns of America" — decimated and dispersed the 
 now unknow^n builders of mound and temple and city ; and, their 
 conquests complete, roamed at will over the grass-grow^n ruins 
 they had made, hunters and harriers all, until, in logical course, 
 an avenging civilization coming from the East, made them in 
 turn the hunted and the harried. 
 
 It is the story of this strange and interesting race — the red- 
 men of North America, mistakenly called " Indians," that these 
 pages seek to tell. 
 
i\n 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 ■l i 
 
 J- -4- 1 ■ 
 
 "S*" 
 
w«. 
 
THE ANCIENT AMERICAN. 
 
 IS 
 
 « 
 
 %M 
 
 Recent students of race-characteristics assert that there is 
 nothing in the physical or mental conditions of the early 
 Americans that should force us to ascribe to them a foreiirn 
 origin. Man may have had his beginning in America quite 
 as logically as in Asia. The human remains that have been 
 found all over our land, mingled with those of what are 
 
 RUINS CALLED "THK GOVKRNOR'S HOUSE," UXMAL, YUCATAN. 
 {Dimensions T,icj feet long, ^c) /eei wide, and ih feet high.) 
 
 termed the antediluvian animals are evidence of this great antiq- 
 uity. Mammoth and mastodon, mylodon and megatherium, and 
 others of the jjijxantic and lono: extinct monsters of an earlier 
 world have left their bones side by side with those of men 
 almost as ancient and scarcely less intelligent than they. 
 Hunters and hunted, destroyers and destroyed, these relics of a 
 far-distant epoch hint at a more positive era of creation ; and 
 
:'* 
 
 .V 
 
 US 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN. 
 
 SKKLF.TON CM' THE MKGATUERIUM. 
 
 SO, out of misty and uncertain theories, which yet are worthy 
 of consideration and of partial acceptance as fact, we may 
 
 weave tliis story of 
 the origin of the 
 American Indian. 
 
 Ages ago — thou- 
 sands, jDcrhaps tens 
 
 of thousands of 
 years — a race of 
 
 men peopled the 
 valleys and river bot- 
 toms of A m e r i c a. 
 With barely more 
 than an i m a 1 i n- 
 stincts, knowing enough to eat and to sleep, to hurl a great 
 stone or plunge a great stick in defence or assault against the 
 mighty beasts with whom they 
 fought for existence, this prim- 
 itive race lived as nearly an ab- 
 solute brute life as it is possible 
 for a human being to endure. 
 A naked, low-browed, big-jawed, 
 uncouth race of men, their lives 
 were nothing but a constant 
 stru2:2:le against the forces of 
 nature that kept them in con- 
 tinual fear — the flood, the vol- 
 cano, the tempest and the earth- 
 quake, — or against the monstrous forms of animal life that 
 have long since disappeared from the plains, the forests and 
 the waters that were their haunts. 
 
 THE MYI.ODON (PARTIALLY RESTORED). 
 
V • ' • 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN. 
 
 17 
 
 So from generation to generation these first men lived, with 
 just enough of slowly awakening intelligence to discover that 
 the fire that could burn could also warm, that the strength that 
 could hurl could also subdue, that a sharpened stone could 
 wound and cut and bring about a speedier death than one 
 that was simply flung at their enemies or their game, and 
 that hands were intended for something better than merely 
 
 •*• 
 
 
 
 HUNTIM; TlIK UINOKNIS. 
 
 to hurl or pull, to cling or tear. In pursuit of food they roved 
 over the land leaving their traces along the bottom lands of 
 Western rivers, by the marshes of Southern Louisiana, in the 
 sand stretches of New Jersey, and along the broken shore 
 line of the Great Lakes. 
 
 Gradually, as intelligence grew stronger within them, they 
 became more social and distinctive. They began to separate 
 into communities and, finding that shelter from the elements, 
 and from heat and cold, could be obtained in the shadow of 
 
 HW> 
 
 Jl^. 
 
 
i8 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMhKlCAN. 
 
 overhanging rocks, they learned to live in caves, and to com- 
 bine for mutual protection or defence against those of their 
 own kind who yet remained rovers and brutes. Still progress- 
 ing, they developed other faculties. They discovered that 
 warmth and comfort could be obtained from the skins of 
 
 AN ANCIENT VOLCANO IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN RANGE. 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 slaughtered animals, drawn about their naked bodies; that 
 arrow and spear-head, knife and axe could be made of their 
 sharpened bits of flint, or trap or hard obsidian ; while in the 
 great shell heaps that have been investigated, and which are 
 believed to be the house rubbish of these cave communities 
 the rude attempts at pottery, table utensils, carving and even 
 drawing that ive been discovered, show a sluggish, but grad- 
 ual development out of mere brutish living into something 
 like a rudimentary manhood. 
 
 Savagery and cowardice usually go hand in hand. Brute 
 force and brute fear are comrades, and the outgrowth of both 
 cowardice and fear is a desire to propitiate the person or the 
 
THE ANCIEXT AMERICAN, 
 
 «9 
 
 power feared. A slave to the forces of nature which he could 
 not understand because he could neither conquer nor control 
 them, this primitive man sought to propitiate what he believed 
 a higher and un- 
 friendly !> o w e r . 
 Propitiation demands 
 the giving up of what- 
 ever is esteemed of 
 value by the suj> 
 pliant. But the cow- 
 ard can never consent 
 to give himself. He 
 seeks to shirk respon- 
 sibility by substitu- 
 tion. From this came 
 the idea of a personal 
 offerintj: that in the 
 lowest grades of hu- 
 manity has always 
 meant human sacri- 
 fices. The cave 
 dwellers of America, 
 advancin"" from the ^"^ mammoth and primitive man. 
 
 absolute earth-brutality of their predecessors, turned their cow- 
 ardly desire to propitiate the hidden and mysterious powers of 
 Nature into offerinfjjs and sacrifices of their enemies or of their 
 own weaker kinsman. And thus was laid the foundation of 
 that sacrificial religion that, at a later time, appeared equally 
 in the bloody teocalli of the half-civilized Aztec and the torture- 
 stake of the ferocious Huron. 
 
 Communities beget helpfulness. Wherever men gather in 
 
 ! J 
 
•o 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN. 
 
 groups or families labor becomes, first, divisible, and then pro- 
 ductive. Mere herding together leads finally to mutual sup- 
 port, and one need ministers to another. Agriculture, rude 
 enough at the outset, gradually becomes systematized, as the 
 desires of the community increase ; manufacture, ruder still, 
 begins to assume design and shape; and the more thoughtful 
 or less careless workers in both agriculture and manufacture 
 begin to struggle towards something like definite form and 
 
 PRIMITIVE HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, FOUND IN A CAVE NEAR NASHVILLE, TENN. 
 
 decoration ; while these, in turn, lead to a barbaric but positive 
 phase of architecture and of art. 
 
 So, from the cave and the shell-heap came, very slowly, the 
 tent of skins or the hut of boughs, the cabin and divided lodge ; 
 and as the home took shape, another stage of progress was 
 reached. 
 
 Communities create civic strength. Strength means na- 
 tional growth and increase. And this growth and increase 
 
THE ANCIENT AMERICAN. 
 
 at 
 
 develop, as their natural concomitants, a certain mental and 
 moral advance. 
 
 Through, possibly, thousands of yeai>, ->£ gradual progress 
 the home idea broadened wherever in communities these early 
 Americans lived in daily comradeship and union. Tent and 
 hut, cabin and lodge, grouped together as settlements. The 
 iiettlements became towns ; the towns grew into walled cities. 
 For rivalry and jealousy have always had a place in the world, 
 more marked and more vindictive in the lower staiies of civili- 
 zation, than in either absolute barbar- 
 ism or the highest culture; and man 
 has ever found it needful to raise a 
 wall against his brother. • , 
 
 We are also to remember that, in 
 the gradual development of a race, 
 not all of that race will equally ad- 
 vance. The wild habits of our far- 
 distant ancestors sometimes reap- 
 pear in us. . in, separated from 
 the refininji influences of civilization, 
 
 inevitably retrogrades, and a wandering people is always a 
 wild one. The North American continent was a vast and 
 diversified an^a affording, alike, opportunities for settlement 
 and scope for the free life of a labor-hating tramp. 
 
 So, while communities prospered and increased, and certain 
 portions of the people, growing gregarious, massed themselves 
 in settlem.ents, other portions, scattering in families and bands, 
 roamed at will from place to place. They lived upon what 
 Nature offered them ; developed slowly and imperceptibly ; 
 preyed upon other hostile families or bands ; and, as their 
 numbers increased, actually menaced and attacked the set- 
 tled communities. 
 
 MOUNDS ON THK KICKAI'OO RIVER. 
 
 l^. 
 
 m 
 

 THE ANCJKN2' AMEHICAN. 
 
 Thus it was that, against rival coninumities, rival cities 
 fortified themselves; and, against the dreaded incursions of 
 savagery, ramparts were reared and watch-towers were built. 
 It is beyond dispute that, the 
 
 ■ high-raisctl Ij.Utlcmcnt or labored mound, 
 Thick wall or moatcii gate — " 
 
 which, the poet assures us, does not " constitute a State," still 
 does constitute an admirable defence for a State, and this the 
 
 SKULL FOUND IM MOUND IN TENNESSEE. SKULL FOUND IN A MOUND IN MISSOURI. 
 
 early Americans learned from stern necessity and bitter expe- 
 rience. 
 
 Over great stretches of country from Western New York, 
 west and southwesterly as far as the Mexican deserts, but princi- 
 pally confined to that central belt of the United States between 
 the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains, may still be seen 
 grass-grown mounds, embankments and low earthworks that 
 have long baffled the minutest inquiry. These are now, 
 however, believed to have been the walls, temple-sites and 
 foundations of friendly or rival communities of the long ago. 
 
$CAL& 
 
 GaOUND PLAN OF "HIGH BANK PUEBLO," — EMBANKMENTS 
 
 BL'ILOEHS IN ROSS COUNTY, OHIO. 
 
 BY THE MOUND- 
 
THE ANCIENT AMERICAN. 
 
 25 
 
 They were perhaps cities, towns or villages, teeming with a 
 busy life, and seem to have been protected against each other 
 and a savage foe by single, double or triple ramparts, flanked 
 with watchtowers. Within these ram})arts huge altars built 
 for bloody sacrifices, stood, central in each, and the crowding 
 wooden houses of chieftain, noble and laborer, set in orderly 
 array, were grouped around the central temples. 
 
 The civilization that existed fully three thousand years ago 
 in these long-silent cities is now being rigidly investigated and 
 
 Stale 3t feot to the inch. 
 MOUND IN THE SHAPE OF THE ELEPHANT OR MAMMOTH IN OKANT COUNTY, 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 w 
 
 slowly read by the light of accumulating relics. The Mound- 
 builders, as th*2y are called — more for convenience than cor- 
 rectness — are believed to have lived in the midst of a civili- 
 zation that was crude and uncertain, but strong and far-reach- 
 ing. It had government, priestcraft, and official station, mili- 
 tary and home lite, and, growing with the centuries, finally 
 culminated, as climate, growth and possible dissension forced 
 
26 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN 
 
 it North and West, in ihc great Aztec civilization that filled 
 Mexico with empires, cities and temples, and strewed the Pacific 
 slope from California to Central America and Peru with mar- 
 vellous structures that, since the days of the Conquerors, have 
 been alike a study, a mystery and a regret. 
 
 It is not the design of this volume to consider, in the least, 
 the so-called Aztec civilization. The Spanish nature, always 
 prone to exaggerate — the priestly records, never weak enough 
 to underestimate the triumphs of the Romish Church, have 
 invested the tales of Spanish conquest with both the halo of 
 romance and the flavor of uncertainty. Half-mythical as these 
 relations are felt by modern students to be, even sober second- 
 thought is not yet prepared to accept the sweeping conclu- 
 sions of such inconoclasts as Wilson, who not onlv discredits 
 the grandiose stories of Bernal Diaz and other Spanish his- 
 torians of the Conquest, but denies the very existence of both 
 civilization and ruins in Mexico. 
 
 The middle course most nearly approaches the truth in 
 all matters of s})eculation, and we must therefore conclude 
 that the semi-civilization of Mexico and Central America had 
 existence, power and influence, and, finally, that this civilization, 
 however real it ma\- have been, was the next stage of progress 
 reached by the Mound-builders of the Mississippi and the Ohio 
 valleys, and the highest point of advancement ever attained by 
 the so-called " Indians " of America. 
 
 It is probable, however, that this Southwestern or Mexican 
 civilization rcjiresents the real progress of a portion only of the 
 Mound-builders. It comprised, j)()ssiblv, tlie most warlike, ambi- 
 tious, intelligent and cultivated of these people. The remnant, 
 long a majority perhaps, clung to their homes and their occu- 
 pations, working the copper in their Michigan mines, cultiva- 
 
Ml 
 
 
 
 MOTEUCZOMA, LURU OF THK AZTECS. 
 
 ^^'^ . ^H^y -^^ 
 
 i! 
 
I r 
 
 ^^im^rmmmmmmmmimmmgmmmttmitmm 
 
 wmm 
 
 pi 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
!i ^r-»^^ ;»'ft w^':'"-'*yi«s rfrjT . 'T' g gsaa 
 
 '" 111" Ml 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN 
 
 29 
 
 tins: their immense elevated farms in the South, and mouldine 
 their pottery, or developing other now unknown home indus- 
 tries, in their river and valley towns. But, always about them 
 raged their savage and relentless foemen — the wandering tribes, 
 the Bedouins of America. Wasted by the fury of continual 
 
 PROKABLE APPEARANn-, OF AN ANCIENT PUEBLO. 
 
 and ferocious invasions, and also, perhaps, by bitter internal 
 strife, the flourishinc: communities cfrevv weaker and weaker. 
 Driven in time from the broken ramparts which they could find 
 neither the time nor the spirit to repair, the fleeing inhabitants 
 of the central valleys themselves became wanderers and, relaps- 
 ing into a less civilized condition, drifted westward. At last, 
 
 Ji:1) I 
 
 
 t ! 
 
30 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMEKFCAN. 
 
 after years of wandering, they placed the deserts of the South- 
 west between themselves and their savage foes and found tem- 
 porary rest, though a far less intelligent existence, in the adobe 
 villages which constitute what the Spanish Americans term 
 the "pueblos" of Arizona and New Mexico. 
 
 In these new homes the "village Indians," as they have been 
 called, proceeded by irrigation and untiring labor to make 
 the sun-dried plains of the great Southwest yield them support 
 
 THK HOME OK THE "VILLAGE INDIANS.' 
 
 and comfort. Only years of patient toil, however, were able 
 to brinix this result. 
 
 Their low-walled, two and three-storied houses, pierced with 
 LiKputian windows, and reached by movable ladders, stood 
 upon rising terraces or broad plateaus and overlooked plains 
 made fertile by careful ditching, over fields of waving grain 
 and pastures dotted with cattle. 
 
 But the ever-constant terror of savagery found them even 
 
 ^ 
 
 tbm 
 
i 
 
 c^ 
 
 ! l 
 
 % 
 
 e 
 
 O-rr 
 0) =r 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,s<J-^ 
 
 
 o* 
 
 ---' /I 12 p. 
 
 ^ — - 
 ' 18 ! 
 
 
 h-i- . -J I — H I I I ■ I I- 
 
 ttt to »• 40 90 «0 70 ao M 109 
 
 I I I I I =a 1 \ I - > I 
 
 SOILE , 100 rCGT. 
 
 GROUND PLAN OK THE PUEIU.O liONlTU, CTIACU CANoN, N. M. 
 (Estu/n IS Spanish for Council Room.) 
 
♦v» 
 
 t!A 
 
 €im 
 
 t 
 
MMhMWH 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN, 
 
 33 
 
 »^ 
 
 ilm 
 
 here. Ferocious tribes (of which the Apache of to-clay is a 
 partial type) or less successful members of their own wander- 
 ing communities rendered desperate through failure and fam- 
 ine, swooped 
 down upon the 
 unprotected 
 "pueblos" and 
 once again, after 
 years of f r u i t- 
 less resistance, 
 the " village In- 
 dians " fled to 
 still more inac- 
 cessible regions. 
 Leaving the ex- 
 pose d valleys, 
 they now sought 
 safety higher up 
 in the caves and 
 fissures of the 
 c^reat cliffs that 
 enclose the f^iant 
 canons of the 
 Far West. 
 
 These singu- 
 lar dwellings, 
 the last refuge 
 of a hunted and 
 helpless people, were for many years the homes of successive 
 generations. From their almost inaccessible eyries, reached 
 only by steps cut in the solid rock or by baskets drawn 
 
 IN TllK c;KANU canon of THK ColAlKADu. 
 
 :■! SJ 
 
 ii 
 
 T 
 
Ml I 
 
 34 
 
 TlH'. AXCIE.XT AMKRiCAN. 
 
 A CLII I'DWII.I.INC. — "TIIK I.A.ST REFUGE OF A HUNTKl) I'EOI'LE. 
 
 from lc(l<;t* to Icdiijo, the Cliff Dwellers, as they arc termed, 
 could " s])y out all the land," guard themselves from surjjrise 
 and prei)are to repel attack. Their i)inkish gray houses, one, 
 two and three stories in height, were built (lush with the sheer 
 
 walls of t h e 
 mighty j^reci pi- 
 ces within whose 
 crevices they 
 w ere hidden. 
 I'ar below them 
 ti o w e d s o m e 
 rapid river, while 
 here and there, 
 on river lands or irrigated spaces, were fields of grain or graz- 
 ing droves of cattle. 
 
 The canons of the Colorado, the sandstone-cliffs of Arizona, 
 New Mexico and Southern Colorado, still punctured with these 
 "cubby-holes" of houses, give evidence of the wide extent of 
 territory occupied by these rock-perched communities, and are 
 proof alike of the wonderful ingenuity and the ceaseless activity 
 of man who could thus sustain himself in the midst of the most 
 unfavorable circumstances and surroundinq;s. 
 
 But, more relentless than savage foemen, more tireless than 
 the most inveterate human enemy, the forces of nature which 
 terrified and dominated the first American came now to scatter 
 and destroy this remnant of his more intelligent descendants. 
 The forests disappeared before the needs of men or the destruc- 
 tive torch of war; the fearful and loi ^-continuin"; drouuhts 
 which have ever been the curse of that Southwestern country 
 overcame even the vigilance of the cliff-dwellers. Water-courses, 
 upon which they relied for '.rigation and commerce, dried up 
 
 : 
 
 t 
 
i 
 
 A 
 
 TJIK AXCJK.\T AMERICAN. 
 
 35 
 
 and disappeared; tlieir fertile fields became arid and sterile; 
 and in place of these came desert and sand-drift, while t;rain 
 and cattle alike were lost. The j^oor cliff-dweller, who could 
 climb to safety far above the head of liis roving focman, could 
 not resist the stern decrees of nature. Defeated and power- 
 less, the inhabitants of these airy fortresses gradually deserted 
 their rocky homes and, becoming themselves rovers and Ish- 
 
 RIIINS OF AN ARIZONA CLll'K-DWKLI.INU. 
 
 maels, lost the feu^ last vestiges of a partial civilization that 
 lor centuries their fathers had developed and enjoyed. 
 
 But, as civilization decreased, savagery spread. Coming all 
 from one common stock, the roving tribes of America were 
 
36 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN. 
 
 changed in manners, customs, speech, stature and complexion 
 by climatic and other causes. Diffused over the whole North 
 
 nature's wonderland. — lllE MOUTH OK THE LIITLE COLORADO. 
 
 American continent they used its vast plains, > its hillslopes, val- 
 \Q^' -'vers, seashores, lakes and forests as their unfailing store- 
 houses. Alike, conquerors and conquered became restless 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 ■i»i«"- 
 

 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN. 
 
 37 
 
 wanderers, hunters, or rude agriculturists; and, spread thus over 
 an immense section, they Hved as savage proprietors — lords 
 paramc unt of one of the grandest domains ever given to man. 
 
 What the possibilities of primeval America were, as the 
 hunting-ground and the grain-field of a wandering people, ca.i 
 be but faintly conjectured, /-.ny one who has traversed its vast 
 area and noted its present fertility, from the tropical coast-line 
 of the Gulf to the valleys of the great rivers, the prairies of the 
 West, the shores of the Pacific and the plains and table-lands 
 of the North, may perhaps imagine what, even in its unculti- 
 vated state, must have been its resources in fish and game, in 
 fruit and grain. 
 
 The land had already created and supplied the needs of 
 crowded cities and of wide-bordered communities , and the agri- 
 culture necessary to their subsistence, though neglected and 
 dissipated, had left its seeds in the wildernesses that had suc- 
 ceeded to the farms which savagery had destroyed. 
 
 The cities of the central valleys, the stone-walled pueblos 
 and the cliff-towns of the Southwest were tenantless, silent and 
 overthrown, while over all the land, North, South, East and 
 West, roamed its savage possessors, victorious over an order of 
 living they could neither desire nor comprehend. 
 
 Cruel, vindictive, brutal and fierce, they had hunted and 
 worried, tortured and destioyed, and had blotted out an at- 
 tempted civilization which had now lost itself in the wild life 
 of its conquerors. 
 
 A religion whose corner-stone was bloody and merciless 
 torture ; a life whose best efforts were defeated by its own 
 incompetencies ; a possible civilization that had proved itself 
 crude and ineffectual because it had in it neither love, pity, 
 mercy, nor justice, had risen, flourished and fallen. And now. 
 
 \ '% 
 
 L, Jfig- 
 
 *i 
 
38 
 
 THE ANCIENT AMERICAN. 
 
 I !j 
 
 Wx 
 
 as if in strict accord with a Divine and logical plan, its savage 
 destroyers were themselves to pass through a schooling that 
 should lead them out from savagery into barbarism. By slow 
 
 processes and 
 natural meth- 
 ods they were 
 to be prepared 
 themselves to 
 be confronted 
 by a still higher 
 civilization — a 
 civilization 
 more helpful if 
 more greedy, 
 more progres- 
 sive if more re- 
 lentless, more 
 lasting if more 
 arrogant than 
 was the society 
 • they had al- 
 ready confront, 
 ed and over- 
 thrown. 
 
 Just why the 
 Divine plan 
 should require 
 these stages of 
 
 progress and deflection, of rise and fall, that upon the stepping- 
 stones of dead states savar jry shall climb only to be itself a 
 step for other states to mount upon, we need not here inquire. 
 
 THE llOMK OF THK ANCIKNT AMERICAN. 
 
 T 
 
 !!< 
 
 I 
 
 ""^grnvn-m.-^- 
 
I 
 
 THE ANCIEN2' AMERICAN. 
 
 39 
 
 But the world's history shows this continual growth, decline 
 and fall, and growth again; and still eternal progress leads to 
 nobler heights. 
 
 The Power that had impelled the ancient American out 
 of his primitive degradation and made him the citizen of an 
 incohate but progressive state was now to lead his lapsed 
 descendants along the same pathway, and to use them as 
 unconscious but helpful workers upon the ever-broadening 
 highway that leads from savagery to civilization. 
 
 So the student of race-development, whether he reads Ihe 
 stories of Egypt and of Rome, or of England and America, 
 may ever find reason for his faith in the world's advance, and 
 find himself prepared with Milton to 
 
 " — assert Eternal Providence 
 And justify the ways of God to men." 
 
 i^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE RED MAN REFORE COLUMT5US. 
 
 Through just how many changing years the red race, found 
 in possession by European discoverers, lived supreme in North 
 America, no one, as yet, may truthfully say. The scientist, the 
 antiquarian and the ethnologist, probing mounds in Ohio, de- 
 ciphering rude hieroglyphics in Vermont or in Yucatan, study- 
 ing cranial develop- 
 ments in Michigan and 
 placing pottery and ex- 
 cavated relics in chron- 
 ological order, can, after 
 all, only conjecture, as- 
 sume and as&ert. 
 
 Basing a hypothet- 
 ical calculation upon the 
 assumptions of recent 
 theorists it would seem 
 fairly safe to accord to the North American Indian a period 
 of at least a thousand years of sole possession of this continent 
 after his absolute extinction of the pre-historic races. 
 
 In ten centuries of existence man can do much for progress 
 and civilization. Within that limit had Greece risen, ruled and 
 fallen, and Rome from a mud-walled city of robbers, became,. 
 
 A STUDY OF COMPARATIVE CRANIAL OUTLINES. 
 
 A , a European skull. B, a skull found at StimpsotC s Mound, 
 
 Mo. C, the Neandertluil skull. D, skull from Dun- 
 
 leilh Mound, III. E, skull of a chimpanzee. 
 
 I 
 
 )rsa 
 
ta 
 
 THE RED MAN BEFORE COLUMBUS. 
 
 41 
 
 first, mistress of the world, and, tiien, the prey of barbarians. 
 What could the red denizens of the American forests do 
 within that limit ? 
 
 Only the myths and legends of the Indian race can afford 
 any answer to this query. And that answer can, at the best, 
 be but vague and unsubstantial. It is the universal " we hear 
 so " upon which so much 
 of the Indian information 
 is founded — an element 
 that was applied alike to 
 the lodge-fire legends and 
 the misunderstood teach- 
 in qts of the 
 white mission- 
 aries. It is 
 possible, how- 
 ever, even by 
 their imper- 
 fect light, to 
 
 read in partial form, the story of the growth of the Indian 
 power within the confines of the North American conti- 
 nent. 
 
 The human race cannot stand still. Retrogression is never 
 final, for eternal progress is the Divine law. Savagery must 
 lead into barbarism, as barbarism must develop into civili- 
 zation. 
 
 The effects of climate and surroundings, of personal contact, 
 association and union, and, above all, the interminglings of 
 those ties of kinship and of home that make all men stable, 
 would work with proportionate effect even upon a nomadic 
 savage, reared in slaughter and developed by destruction. 
 
 AN INDIAN MYTH. — MAKING MAN FROM THE SENOMOIZA-TREE. 
 
42 
 
 THE A' ED M.l.y BEFORE COLL'MJWS. 
 
 
 For savciLijcry and destruction must in time yield to a more 
 peaceful and ambitious way of life. Nomads become settlers, 
 root-digiijers become agriculturists, hunters become acquirers, 
 and thus, in logical course, families become tribes, tribes be- 
 come nations, and nations confederacies. 
 
 So, by gradual, but uneven changes the destroyers of the 
 older America became the denizens and upbuilders of the new. 
 They developed slowly, but, out of their condition of chaos, 
 they really did evolve a crude system of state-craft, polity and 
 law. Indeed, it may be asserted that but for the coming of tiie 
 white man the Indian might, perhaps, have worked out for 
 himself a second though scarcely more substantial phase of 
 American civilization. 
 
 Hut this was not to be. The Divine architect had other 
 plans, and the upbuilding of the real .American civilization was 
 to be upon other foundations than those of aboriginal savagery. 
 
 And yet the effort, which this chapter attempts to sketch — 
 the gradual development of a peoj)le out of absolute savagery 
 into a more orderly though barbaric form of living, even 
 though formulated upon a hy})othetical basis — has still in it 
 enough of loijical cohesion to f^ive it interest and force. 
 
 Ferocity always rebounds ujDon itself. For every act of sav- 
 agerv there is usually more reason than excuse, and the result 
 of continued violence is the final weakening of violence itself. 
 The l-vomans became more Grecian than the Greeks them- 
 selves, the Goths more Roman, the Normans more English. 
 The conquerors of a nation are often themselves the conquered. 
 
 Inch by inch, the savagery that upon the American continent 
 had, even from primeval times, kejjt pace with its crude though 
 slowly developing intelligence, forced that intelligence into 
 terrorism and decline ; but as it chd so, it gave to successful 
 
 T 
 
 i 
 
I 
 
 THE A'/U) MAX BEFORE COLUMJWS. 
 
 43 
 
 ferocity, even in its success, the first germs of a desire for 
 progress. 
 
 Rampart and temple, pueblo and cliff-dwelling might, one 
 by one, be left ruined and tenantless, but the last stages of the 
 
 INTERIOR OF A PARTIALLY RESTOKLI) ( Lll 1 -DWKLI.LK S HOUSE. 
 
 so-called early American civilization overlapped the first steps 
 in advance taken by American savagery. 
 
 Even amonc the Indians of a century aG[o there still existed 
 legends of the people who had been their predecessors and who, 
 though long since conquered, had, in a measure, beCi: deified by 
 their conquerors. 
 
 N 
 
 I 
 
 J. 
 
44 
 
 THE RED MAN BEFORE COLUMBUS. 
 
 \ 
 
 it^ 
 
 In Mr. Pidgeon's " Traditions of De-coo-dah " is given the 
 story of a highly imaginative old Indian who asserted that 
 he, himself, was one of the last remaining relics of " the Elk 
 nation." No such nation can be found among the Indian tribes, 
 
 HIAWATHA, THK " RIVKR-MAKKR. 
 
 but it was, presumably, one of very ancient origin : successors 
 and descendants of the last of the Mound-builders. 
 
 However much of fiction there may have been in the mar- 
 vellous tale which the credulous Mr. Pidgeon has here set down, 
 it is no doubt true that under the fiction there is a basis of fact ; 
 and this basic fact. Indeed, Is the origin and cause of the count- 
 less myths and legends in which are sketched, not only the 
 dwellers in a forgotten past, but those less impossible and more 
 heroic fiofures of Atotarho and Hiawatha, common to so manv 
 
 ^ 
 
THE RED MAN BEFORE COLUMBUS. 
 
 4S 
 
 . ■ 
 
 Indian tribes. These latter, indeed, may stand as the types of 
 those ceaseless conflicts between savagery and progress which 
 marked the growth of the Indian state. 
 
 Atotarho, " the entangled one," with his Medusa-like head of 
 twisted, living snakes, was the representative of skill, cunning 
 and cruelty in war. He stood for that baleful spirit of ferocity 
 and that open hostility to improvement that is to be found in 
 every savage people. 
 
 Hiawatha, literally " the river maker," represented all that was 
 noble, helpful and progressive in the Indian nature. His name 
 implied intertribal friendship, treaty and peace, and whether we 
 meet him as the Iroquois " Hiawatha," the Zuni " Po-shai-an- 
 kia " (Father of the Sacred Bands), the Omaha " Hanga," or the 
 Aztec " Moteuczoma," this beneficent leader of men, known to 
 all the tribes as the being sent " to clear the rivers, forests and 
 fishing-grounds and teach the arts of peace," may be regarded 
 as a sort of " composite photograph " of the progressive Indian. 
 
 These two characters, half mythical, half possible, represent 
 the two most divergent qualities of Indian life and, as has 
 been remarked by Mrs. Erminie Smith, the myths that have 
 accumulated around their history are so many and varied that it 
 is impossible to define the vague boundary line separating fact 
 from fiction. 
 
 It was Atotarho — spirit of savagery — who overthrew the 
 flourishing communities of pre-historic times. It was he w'^o 
 laid waste the cities and villages, the farms and gardens of the 
 so-called Mound-builders and drove this less warlike people 
 into destruction or flight. It was he who, as leader of a fe- 
 rocious foe, stormed the pueblos of the Southwest and the cliff- 
 dwellings of the Colorado canons, and blotted out a people 
 whose ruined homes are now their only monuments. 
 
 ! 1 
 
iii 
 
 III 
 
 'Si 
 
 
 46 
 
 T//E RED MAN nEFORR COLUMBUS. 
 
 For how many ages this ruthless influence — that of Ato- 
 tarho, the War Chief — relentless, destructive and untiring, 
 dominated the savage American it is impossible to determine. 
 But, even in its greatest intensity, it generated, in the very 
 satiety of savagery, the desire for rest from slaughter. This 
 
 ATOTARHO, THK WAR CHIEF. {Fnmi an Indian drawing.) 
 
 increased with the years, and, as the devastated sections were 
 themselves occupied as occasional homes and burial grounds by 
 the conquerors, it finally developed into the yearning for a 
 more settled and secure manner of living, typified in Hiawatha, 
 the Wise Man, the Teacher, Maker of Rivers and of Treaties. 
 
 It was Hiawatha — spirit of progress — who induced the 
 restless nomads to become settlers and sojourners, to add to 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' I 
 
V . 
 
 ' 
 
 ' ; » 
 
 I ^- 
 
 AN INDIAN VlLLAUIi. — J'/^OM un old ait. 
 
 ;t: 1 
 
 .1 .11 
 
 1 II 
 
 „ .. /" ii ffi Lv,, 
 
■ M I 
 
 ^. 
 
 
 •V 
 
 ^ 
 
THE RED MAN BEEORE COLUMEL'S. 
 
 49 
 
 their strictly carnivorous bill of fare the cereal and vegetable 
 products of the land — corn and beans and sc[uasl-.cs, bread- 
 roots aiul natural fruits. It was iliavvatha who gradually 
 changed the rovers into communities and confederacies. Me 
 taught them the arts of peace, led them into a clearer form 
 of tribal and domestic institutions, and advanced them from 
 remorseless sava'»;es with no hi'>her ideas than hatred, venire- 
 ance and plunder, a brutal religion and a bestial appetite, 
 into those hiuher grades of savai>e life which students of 
 race development have denominated the " middle period of bar- 
 barism." 
 
 Personifications of types are but arguments for the types 
 themselves. Deucalion and Pyrrha in Greece, Visvametra in 
 ancient India, Men-es in old Egypt and Jimmu in Japan were 
 but the prototypes or parallels of Manco-Capac in Peru, Votan 
 and Ouetzalcoatl in Central America and Mexico, and Hiawa- 
 tha among the Indians of the North. 
 
 There is still another type noticeable. This is a hybrid one ; 
 a seeming compromise between the vices of Atotarho and the 
 virtues of Hiawatha, and compounded of each. This type was 
 known as Manabozo, a personage who, according to School- 
 craft, was " strong enough in his necromantic and spiritual 
 powers, to bafifle the most malicious, beat the stoutest, and over- 
 reach the most cunning. . . . Whatever man could do he 
 could do. He affected all the powers of a necromancer. He 
 wielded the arts of a demon and had the ubiquit)- of a god." 
 
 It is Manabozo, indeed, who, even more than Hiawatha, 
 seems to have been the inspiration and basis of Longfellow's 
 now famous and beautiful Indian poem. He was, in fact, the 
 most popular personage in the red man's lodge-fire lore. The 
 feats portrayed in Longfellow's " Song of Hiawatha " are those 
 
 IP^n 
 
 r 
 
f il 
 
 so 
 
 77//': A'/'!/) MAN BEFORE COLUMnUS. 
 
 ONK OF nature's HIGHWAYS. 
 
 of neither Iliiuvatha nor 
 Atotarho, but of IManabo- 
 zo, witli this exception, 
 that the poet invests his 
 hero with none of the 
 malicious propensities that 
 are ever cropping" out in 
 the Indian tales of Mana- 
 bozo. 
 
 It is therefore safe to 
 assume that in these three 
 types are portrayed tlie 
 condition of the American 
 Indian throuirh the cen- 
 turies that elapsed be- 
 tween Jiis days of savage- 
 ry, following his conquest 
 of the prc-historic civili- 
 zation, and the state of 
 progressive barbarism in 
 which the white man 
 found him. 
 
 Atotarho was the fierce 
 and roving outlaw, hunter 
 alike of beasts and men, 
 brutal in tastes, pitiless in 
 disposition,thoroughly sav- 
 aQ:e in manners. Hiawa- 
 tha was the progressive 
 Indian, the dweller in com- 
 munities, with a growing 
 acquaintance with agri- 
 
 T 
 
 ■tby 
 
I 
 
 TJfE RED MAN BEIORE COf.UMnUS. 
 
 s« 
 
 •]V 
 
 ^ 
 
 culture, of government and even a crude form of manufac- 
 ture and of writing. And between these stood Manabozo, 
 half-wanderer, half-settler, ready to fight and quick to be pacified, 
 swaying now this way, now that, toward savagery or progrei-'S, 
 as surroundings or necessities influenced or compelled him. 
 
 Hy various natural highways, up and down, and across the 
 North American continent, from the Arctic seas to the Isthmus 
 
 "THE 'spoor' of the GAME." 
 
 of Panama, and from the Pacific slope to the Atlantic seaboard, 
 the tide of Indian migration ebbed and flowed. 
 
 At first, following the course of conquest, westward, savagery 
 hurried fast upon the heels of dest'uction, from the dismantled 
 fortifications of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys to the New 
 Mexican pueblos and the canons of the great Southwest. 
 
 Whenever they devastated communities, such as those of the 
 
 ^ili 
 
 f 
 
 ; "1 
 
 i'i 
 
 :i 
 
i 
 
 liiii 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 52 
 
 2'//E /v'AV) jr.l.y B F.I' ORE COLUMBUS. 
 
 so-called Moiincl-iUiildors, those ruthless conquerors, havini;-, as 
 yet, neither the needs nor the inclinations of the agriculturists 
 by whom these communities had l)een formed, naturally fol- 
 lowed the track of their tleeii ^- foe or the "spoor" of the game 
 they sought as food. This, consequently, kept them westward 
 for generations. 
 
 P)Ut when the last hunted remnant of a less savage past 
 also relapsed into savagery, conquerors and conquered, now 
 merged into a shifting and heterogeneous mass of nomads and 
 Ishmaels, swept North and South along the river ways and 
 valley lines without purpose or destination save the satisfying 
 of appetite or the need for rest. At times, perhaps, for years 
 they would be held by the attractions of promising hunting 
 grounds upon the borders of some treeless plain or inland sea, 
 or again, it might be, their wandering w^ould for a while be 
 stayed by the barrier of some vast stretch of dense and impene- 
 trable forest. Then, necessity or desire would force them into 
 some ncv." line of departure ; and so, surging this way and that, 
 the half-million souls that made up this savage mass, without 
 domestic animals and with few even of the rudest arts of com- 
 munity life, drifted about as need or inclination led. 
 
 The plains and prairies of the West were to the nomadic 
 tribes little better than some trackless sea or desert. Without 
 the knowledge of the horse or of any beast of burden save their 
 ow'.i brute selves the Indians found upon these treeless stretches 
 of country but few opportunities for subsistence. They were 
 indeed of little \alue save as the home and breedinu-ground 
 of the Imlian's greater game — the buffalo, the elk, and the 
 antcloi^c. 
 
 It was therefore in the valleys, whose rivers gave them alike 
 fish and game, and whose forest-covered slopes afforded shelter 
 
 *TV 
 
 ^* 
 
 tr* 
 
 I 
 
X 
 
 T 
 
 «e«c 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 w 
 c 
 z, 
 & 
 o 
 
 a: 
 
 ■< 
 
 o 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
THE RED MAN BEFORE COLUMBUS. 
 
 55 
 
 and all the opportunities for savage wood-craft, that the most of 
 the Indian life was found. 
 
 Drifting farther and still farther apart, separated by mountain 
 chains and these same trackless plains, and with opposing 
 interests growing out of the ties of clan and kin, the conquerors 
 gradually resolved themselves into crude but distinct tribal 
 
 3k 
 
 TlIK INDIAN'S (;AME. — TUK IlLNTEU LLK. 
 
 relations, speaking, upon a rough estimate, at least forty dis- 
 similar and seemingly unrelated languages, though these in 
 reality were but perversions of a parent stock. 
 
 Of all these natives the forest Indians seem to have been 
 the most manly and progressive, far surpassing in ability and 
 ambition their more conservative and degenerate brothers of 
 the plains and hills. 
 
 So, gradually, along the natural highways afforded by the 
 
 
S6 
 
 THE RED MAN EEIORE COLUMBUS. 
 
 I. I 
 
 m 
 
 I •■ '* 
 
 |M 
 
 courses of tlic larger rivers, the great lakes and the valley of the 
 St. Lawrence the Indian path of migration touched all the more 
 habitable and fertile sections of the continent until the Nomads 
 became less Nomadic and settled in comparatively distinct race 
 
 %^ 
 
 .y-' 
 
 SIIKM. KISIMIOOKS OK TIIK CALIFORNIA TIUHES. 
 
 or clan areas North, West, South and East, in small but vigor- 
 ous communities all over the broad iAmerican continent. 
 
 Ferocity and feud still marked the Indian's life. Atotarho 
 still held the supremacy in many a restless tribe ; but, year by 
 year, the nobler Hiawatha gained among his brothers a firmer 
 and surer foothold. Clans cfrew into tribes, the tribes became 
 confederacies, and men, especially those of kindred language, 
 became friends and allies instead of rivals and foes. Villages, 
 each with its cultivated spaces of corn and vegetables, began to 
 
 r 
 
 T 
 
; 
 
 THE RED MAN BEFORE COLUMBUS. 
 
 57 
 
 4 
 
 
 r 
 
 T 
 
 multiply, the war-chief gave place to the council, while the pipe- 
 bowl and the arrow-head, to-da\- upturned by the plough of the 
 white man in fields once trod only b) the red man's foot, testify 
 to the rude skill in manufacture which the Indian once again 
 attained. Hiawatha was fast becoming the stronger chief. 
 Thus, by a gradual but logical advance, based upon natural mi- 
 frrations, increasing needs and developing desires, did the Amer- 
 ican Indians progress rrom a body of ruthless destroyers into 
 something li' 
 a consistent 
 and kindred 
 race of men. 
 
 Through 
 the ages that 
 succeeded the 
 conquest of 
 pre-h i storic 
 America, how- 
 ever or when- 
 ever this may 
 have been 
 achieved, the 
 savaofc devel- 
 oped into the 
 barbarian. His 
 real progress 
 
 had beoun. And thus the first discoverer from the distant 
 East found him. 
 
 The legends that were current in so many Indian tribes, of 
 an expected messenger or visitor from distant lands, — oki, 
 manitou or god, fair of face, majestic in form and gifted with 
 
 THK WHITE MAN CAMIC AT I.A.ST. 
 
S8 
 
 THE RED MAN BEFORE COLUMBUS. 
 
 ■ 
 
 I 
 
 supernatural powers — may, perhaps, have a basis of fact in the 
 real presence, in ages past, upon American shores, of some 
 white voyager from the distant East. 
 
 Phoenician and Israelite, Arabian and Welshman, St. 
 Thomas the Apostle and the Irish missionaries of St. Patrick 
 have all found their advocates and supporters as the early dis- 
 coverers of America. Even in the wildest of legends may 
 sometimes lie a germ of truth. The white man came at last. 
 
 Whether this modern discoverer of America was Lief the 
 Northman, or Columbus the Genoese, matters little to us here. 
 But, from the day when, sailing across unknown seas, the broad 
 banner of Castile was borne to the new-found land a second 
 chapter in the story of the red man was begun. 
 
 The Marquis de Nadaillac's " primeval Americans " had be- 
 come Mr. Carlyle's " copper-colored chiefs in wampum." And 
 what was to be the issue between the destroyers of one civili- 
 zation and the harbingers of another ? 
 
 The days of myth and fable, of misty speculation and un- 
 certain legends have passed. From this time forward we are to 
 deal with a race whose chroniclers were their conquerors, and 
 whose story has been told and retold in written records that 
 yet remain for our guidance and information. 
 
 '\ 
 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '.! 
 
 1 
 
 : ''.\ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ; 
 
 n > 
 
 i 
 
 " It is a fact worthy of a pause 
 for thought," says Dr. ElHs in his 
 excellent sketch of Las Casas, " Pro- 
 tector" of the Indians, "that in no 
 single instance since the discovery 
 of our islands and continent by 
 Europeans, has any new race of men 
 come to the knowledge of travellers, 
 explorers and visitors from the 
 realms of so-called civilization, when 
 the conditions were so fair and fav- 
 orable in the first introduction and 
 acquaintance between the parties as 
 in that between Columbus and the natives of the sea-girt isle 
 of Hispaniola." 
 
 Columbus greeted the new-found land with a kiss. For the 
 startled and wondering natives he had only smiles and signs of 
 loving-kindness. But this auspicious opening of an era of 
 discovery that was to give a new world to an old, was not 
 destined to continue. From the days of the Great Admiral to 
 those of La Perouse and Vancouver, greed, rapacity, and a 
 careful disregard of the rights of all men to life, liberty and the 
 
 59 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
6o 
 
 RACJ'] DHISIONS AND KJASJJJT TIES. 
 
 I 
 
 pursuit of liap]Dincss, have marked the dealings of the white 
 disc:()vercr wilh llic red luibitaut. 
 
 Cc)]unil)us himself inaui^urateu the slave trade. The very 
 iiati\-c's who had received hini as a t^'od were seized and shipped 
 to Spain as " cannibal slaves." " The ill that he had done," 
 says Pr. I'^Uis, " lived after him, to qualify the splendor of his 
 nobleness, grandeur and constancy." 
 
 So malign an example from so exalted a source could 
 scarcely fail to Inid imitators. Within less than twenty years 
 after the first landing of Columbus the islands comprising the 
 West India group were almost depopulated of their native 
 inhabitai^.ts. 
 
 Even the most trustin'^ native will throui^h ill-usatje and bad- 
 faith grow suspicious and revengeful. The Southern Indians 
 whom the Spaniards thus foolishly maltreated, much more 
 gentle than their brethren of the North, turned at last upon 
 their tormentors. " Wliere once the Indians were like sheep,' 
 wrote, in 15 14, Vasco Nunez, commonly called Balboa, "they 
 have now become like fierce lions, and have acquired so much 
 daring, that formerly they were accustomed to come out to the 
 paths with presents to the Christians, now they come out and 
 kill them ; and this has been on account of the bad things 
 which the captains who went out on the incursions have clone 
 to them." 
 
 And Spain was not the only criminal. Greed for gold that 
 sent the ships of all the natirins of Europe west^vard seeking 
 new dominions and an impossible El Dorado, was from the 
 very first liidced with a fatal disregard for the peoples to whom 
 these dominions belonged. Frenchman and Englishman, 
 Dutchman and Swede saw in the red-man only a heathen to be 
 deceived, overmastered and fleeced. 
 
 -L 
 
i'^^ifki^^^T- ^^ 
 
 M- 
 
 ■ i^>.-r 
 
 
 ^X'-i- 
 
 ■>:'.■'■■ 
 
 
 
 i'-':¥y 
 
 
 l:'^. 
 
 
 m>^ 
 
 '■\K' 
 
 »A •.■, 
 
 ;'■■ 
 
 tg-vv;'; 
 
 ^•^ 
 
 
 ;.--.,X. 
 
 
 'h 
 
 
 
 ill 
 
 THK I.ANDINd OF CCJUTMHUS. 
 
 1 
 
 ■i I 
 
RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 Ox 
 
 t 
 
 . 
 
 From the Arctic Circle to the Equator wherever an Indian 
 tribe was found the charge of selfishness and violate J faith 
 must stand against the discoverers. The Indian nature, based 
 upon the suspicion that is always fostered by barbarism, grew 
 still more uncertain, wily and vindictive as the native learned 
 that the new-comers were not friends, but foes. Thus wrongly 
 grounded, the inter- 
 course between the red 
 man and the white de- 
 veloped into a cease- 
 less warfare between 
 power and prejudice, 
 and this bitter strife 
 penetrated into every 
 section of the great 
 continent, wherever an 
 Indian lived and, after 
 his own fashion, did 
 valiant battle for his 
 home-land. 
 
 How disproportion- 
 ate must have been 
 this native population 
 to the area occupied recent figures demonstrate. 
 
 It has always bcv .^ the custom to speak of the red races of 
 America at the time of the discovery as outnumbering " the 
 sands of the sea " — a quantity beyond compute, and to be ex- 
 pressed only in millions. 
 
 Sober fact, however, has again asserted itself and dispelled 
 all this exaggeration. So far from there being any truth in the 
 statement recklessly made that " five hundred years ago it re- 
 
 NOT FRIENDS, BUT FOES. 
 
64 
 
 RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSIIJP TIES. 
 
 \ 
 
 quired niilHons to express in numbers the Indian jiopulation," 
 it is certain that at that date the total nuniber of Indians in 
 North .America barely exceeded, if it even reached, five hun- 
 dred thousand. 
 
 And this possible half-million was scattered over the length 
 and breadth of the land from Hudson's Hay to the (iulf of 
 Mexico, and from the Everglades of Florida to the far north- 
 western shores of Onalaska and the Frozen Sea. 
 
 These scattered descendants of savao^e hunters, rovinir 
 herdsmen, dismantled villages and fallen civilizations, dispersed 
 over this vast area and differing radically in customs, com- 
 plexion, and costume, language, stature, laws and life, had still 
 one physical and one mental characteristic common to all. 
 These were the straight black hair and the " bunch-words " or 
 polysynthetic speech. These point to a common origin, while 
 the basic name given to themselves by all the American tribes, 
 variously expressed but always meaning " men," indicates a 
 positive fundamental relationship of blood as well as of brain. 
 
 Dismissing the first hundred ycirs of discovery as too vague 
 in both report and record for definite statistics it may be stated 
 that at the bes^innintjj of the seventeenth centurv the native 
 races upon the North American continent, exclusive of Mexico 
 and Central America, numbered something less than five hun- 
 dred thousand and were divided into twelve distinct stocks or 
 families. An enumeration of these families and a rou;;>:h outline 
 of the sections they occupied may afford a more intelligent idea 
 of the composition of the Indian Races of North America than 
 is conveyed by the customary broad generalization. 
 
 Along what is known as the Atlantic seaboard, northward 
 as far as Labrador and the St. Lawrence and southward to the 
 latitude of South Carolina, radiating westward to points in 
 
 i- 
 
<- 
 
 THK RKTURN OF COLUMliUS. 
 
 
 55 li 
 
 5 •'• i 
 
r.' MhwbiaMj-b V^woifef A ^ 
 
 V-» 
 
 T 
 
 f 
 
 RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 67 
 
 Illinois, Michigan and even to the Mississippi a kindred race 
 lived, which ethnographers have called the Algonquin family. 
 Warlike, ambitious and powerful this great tribal family became 
 the most famous as they were among the most fearless of the 
 Northern races. 
 
 Closely allied to the Algonquin stock and touching their 
 country in the region of Upper Canada and the Great Lakes, 
 Northern New York and the Virginia highlands lived the 
 Wyandot-Iroquois family, a stock that has furnished, more 
 than any other, the model for the so-called " noble ^d-man " 
 of fiction and of which the historian Parkman declares that 
 " their ferocious vitality, but for the presence of Europeans, 
 would probably have subjected, absorbed, or exterminated, every 
 other Indian community east of the Mississippi and north of 
 the Ohio." 
 
 Distantly connected, through the medium of a related 
 language, with the Wyandot-Iroquois came, next, the Dakota 
 family, sometimes called by the French explorers the Sioux. 
 Their domain stretched across the Western prairies that lay 
 between the Miss'3sippi and the Rocky Mountains, and reached 
 northward as far as the Saskatchwan region, beyond Manitoba, 
 and southward to the Red River of Texas. 
 
 North of the territory of these kindred races, though inter- 
 secting them at certain points, stretched the country of the 
 great Athabascan family. Almost all of what is now the vast 
 Dominion of Canada was occupied by this hardy race, whose 
 trails and hunting grounds crossed the Arctic Circle into Alaska 
 and the land of the Eskimos and zigzagged the broad area be- 
 tween the Rocky Mountains and Hudson's Bay. 
 
 The Eskimos, with the natives of Alaska and all the inhab- 
 itants of the far northern lands from Baffin's Bay westward to 
 
 111 
 
-^ 
 
 68 
 
 A'ACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 
 •111 
 
 I! 
 
 Behrinfr's Straits, formed what is known as the HvPERnoREAN 
 Race — the folk " beyond the north." 
 
 Distantly allied to them, though with a completely isolated 
 language, were the tribes that comprised the Tiilinkeet family, 
 so called from their national name, T'linketantukwan, or "men 
 
 belonginfj to 
 all villages." 
 This family oc- 
 cupied a com- 
 pact geograjih- 
 ical area along 
 the northwest 
 coast from 
 ]\IountSt.Elias 
 in Alaska 
 southward to 
 the Simpson 
 River. 
 
 To the south 
 
 of the Thlink- 
 
 eets was the 
 
 home of what 
 
 have been 
 
 termed the 
 
 Columbian Races. This family occupied the section now 
 
 embraced in British Columbia, Washington Territory and 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 Northern California from the Klamath River to Monterey 
 was the home of a low-grade and rapidly degenerating stock, 
 which for reasons of locality has been called the Californian 
 Races, while the other half of the great Western State with a 
 
 AN IROQUOIS SCOUT. 
 
 !h 
 
 vU 
 
 f 
 
h' 
 
 V^i 
 
 THE GATE Of LAUOKE. — THE UUME Oh IHE bllOSUUNE RACE. 
 
 -T1 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ' ' ill 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 '¥ iHrl 
 
 
 ri! 
 
 P 
 
 
 I ii 
 
 i 
 

 •^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 n 
 
 'J 
 
 portion of Southern Arizona was the home of the Yuma family. 
 
 To the East, embracing the sections now known as Idaho, 
 Utah, and Wyoming, with parts of Oregon, Montana and 
 Nevada and the greater part of Texas, Kansas and the Indian 
 Territory, lived the Shoshone and Pawnee families, related as 
 to race character- 
 istics but entirely 
 distinct as to lan- 
 guage. 
 
 In New Mexico, 
 closely massed as 
 a strictly separate 
 family were the 
 Pueblos, the last 
 remnant of the 
 once wide-spread 
 civilization that 
 had occupied the 
 cliffs, the cafions 
 and the pasture 
 lands of the dry 
 Southwest and 
 that went backward into barbarism before the combined assaults 
 of savage man and still more savage nature. 
 
 One other family remains. It occupied the great southern 
 space of the United States, from the Carolinas and Tennessee 
 southward to the Gulf of Mexico and westward to, and includ- 
 ing, Louisiana and Arkansas. These tribes, for purely geo- 
 graphical reasons, have been denominated the Appalachian 
 Races and have included many notable and interesting types 
 of Indian character, such as Oganasdoda the Tsaraghee and 
 Asseola the Seminole. 
 
 IN THE SHADOW OF SHASTA. — THK HOME OF THE CALI- 
 FORNIAN RACES. 
 
 
 ■P 
 
"C 
 
 m:^ 
 
 'ft i 
 
 li|!i 
 
 'i ^ 
 
 72 
 
 /^ACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 Thus, three hundred years ago, was the North American 
 Continent peopled. From the Arctic Ocean to the borders of 
 Mexico — a region now under the supreme control of the 
 English-speaking race — twelve great families possessed and 
 divided the land. All were, presumably, attributable to a com- 
 mon origin, but, when first known to the white man, they had 
 for ages been broken and subdivided into confederacies, nations 
 and tribes, warring upon each other or bo.und in solemn though 
 oft-violated compacts, and living under the influence of manners, 
 customs, religions, and laws as foreign to those of the nations 
 who discovered them as were the peoples, themselves, an enigma 
 and a confusion. 
 
 In so diffused and varied a people as were the native 
 Americans the fashion of life must have ranGfed from absolute 
 lawlessness to some attempted form of regulated government. 
 
 " Government," says Burke, " is a contrivance of human 
 wisdom to provide for human wants." The fewer the wants the 
 less there must be of wisdom. Both the wants and the wisdom 
 of the savage govern, therefore, his position in the scale of 
 progress. 
 
 "A state," says Major Powell, "is an organized group of 
 men with an established government and a body of determined 
 law." Neither established government nor determined law, as 
 we understand them, seem to havj been existent among the 
 American races, and yet the tribal relation, common to them 
 all, had as its central motive the fundamental idea of both gov- 
 ernment and law — obedience to an established authority. 
 
 Schooled by centuries of tyranny, monarchy, feudalism and 
 class distinctions to an entirely arbitaray division of mankind 
 into the governor and governed, the tyrant and the tyrannized, 
 the European discoverers of America brought to their super- 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
%r 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 A PUEBLO BOY. 
 
 
 ' r 
 
 asd 
 
 ^, ; 
 
 i 
 
 li^^ 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 M 
 
 t 
 
m 
 
 
 V 
 
 I I 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 75 
 
 •r 
 
 ficial and negligent study of the Indian composition their own 
 caste-ridden notions. Kings and subjects, barons and vassals, 
 lords and serfs were the only divisions of society known to 
 them ; and king and subject, baron and vassal, lord and serf 
 was the manner in which they read the Indian fabric. 
 
 The reverse was indeed the case. The Indian tribes of 
 North America were in greater or less degree autonomic — 
 self-governed. And each tribe, however high or however low 
 it stood in intelligence, had the one fundamental idea referred 
 to above : obedience to an established authority. 
 
 This authority, commonly vested in chieftainship, ranged 
 according to the composi ion and proclivities of the tribe, from 
 elective or hereditary chieftainship down to the strong man 
 power that dominates, though it may not always dictate, in the 
 most barbrvous communities. 
 
 Broadly speaking, however, the Indian state in its higher 
 form may be esteemed what has been described as a " kinship 
 state ; " that is, according to one authority,* a state " in which 
 the governmental functions are preformed by men whose posi- 
 tions in the government are determined by kinship." The 
 "law" of such a " state " regulates marriage and the rights of 
 the several members of a body of kindred and their duties 
 to each other. Individuals, he declares, are held responsible 
 "chiefly to their kindred, and certain groups of kindred are 
 held responsible to other groups of kindred." 
 
 Such a regulation, which could only hold in a family or 
 patriarchal nationality, will largely explain the meaning and ex- 
 tent of the " gens," as they were called, into which tribes and 
 kindred tribes were divided — a system somewhat analagous to 
 the " clans " of the old Celtic communities. 
 
 * Rev. J. Owen Dorsey of the Bureau of Kthnogvaphy. 
 
76 
 
 RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 
 To whatever extent we may bring against the Nortli Ameri- 
 can Indians the charges of ferocity and cruelty, superstition and 
 duplicity, barbarity and even cowardice, to these remorseless 
 savages belongs, at least, more than to any other barbarous or 
 
 semi-barbarous race 
 on earth, one char- 
 acteristic that must 
 commend them to 
 the better judgment 
 of the civilized 
 world — itself not 
 always above re- 
 proach in this re- 
 spect. The native 
 North American 
 was, and always has 
 been, loyal to the 
 ties of kindred and 
 of blood relation- 
 ship. " The sacred 
 tie of family," de- 
 clares Mr. School- 
 craft, " is the great 
 fulcrum upon which 
 the lever of hope, 
 in doing anything 
 to raise this people from barbarism, rests." 
 
 In one of the numerous inter-tribal wars of the seventeenth 
 century the little son of Bi-aus-wah, a famous Ojibway chief, was 
 surprised and captured by the Foxes not far from the site of 
 the modern city of Duluth. The news of disaster reached the 
 
 POW^HATAN 
 
 JzeM tliisjtale &L^/i/on when Capt.Smth 
 ^-u/as deliaered /o Mn £ri^mr 
 
 (Fio/n ait old print.) 
 
 UUIIW II J IIIIII III UUl l il.l IL Jl - U M lt UWIIU i » --- 
 
RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 77 
 
 
 father who knew at once what fate was in store for his boy. At 
 once and alone he followed the trail of the victorious I'oxes 
 and reached their village as the fatal fire was being kindled. 
 Without hesitation the old chief walked boldly to the place of 
 sacrifice. " My little son, whom you are about to burn with 
 fire," he said to the hostile warriors who knew him only too 
 well, " has seen but a few winters ; his tender feet have never 
 trodden the war-path. He has never injured you. Hut the 
 hairs of my head are white with many winters, and over the 
 r^raves of my relatives I have hung many scalps which I have 
 taken from the heads of the T^oxes. My death is worth some- 
 thing to you. Let me therefore take the place of my child, that 
 he may return to his people." The offered substitution was 
 .accepted. The boy was carried back to his tribe, and the lov- 
 ing father without a groan met his death amid the fagots 
 "which had been set alight for his son. 
 
 It was by such examples of paternal sacrifice as this that the 
 value of the family tie was stamped into the very soul of each 
 new and rising generation. And this strength of kinship was, 
 naturally, the one most pronounced result of the patriarchal 
 basis of the American tribes. Respect for age has always been 
 a leading characteristic of the Indian nature. The father of a 
 family except for the " motner-right," to be explained hereafter, 
 was supreme in his own lodge. Heads of lodges — "fathers," 
 as they were called — were, of course, the ruling spirits in the 
 tribe. From them came the chiefs, the men of action and 
 executive ability. But the still older men, those who were no 
 longer " fathers," constituted a sort of post-magisterial council 
 for the tribe — veterans who could caution, suggest or advise 
 when they had grown too old to lead or act. 
 
 This patriarchal bond has always been the source or accom- 
 
 1 
 
RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 \\: 
 
 
 panimcnt of a nomadic life. It is found in the Hcdouin of to- 
 day as it was in the Goths of Europe and the shepherds of old 
 Judea. Naturally, it leads, at last, to a sub-division of the 
 original material as families enlarge, separate and grow into 
 
 other families. And out of this, 
 with the American nomads, came, 
 also naturally, their division into 
 " gens " or tribes. 
 
 So, though the barbaric state is 
 supposed to be the most simple, free 
 and unfettered of all the forms of 
 human living, it really becomes 
 through these family and sub-family 
 complications, at once involved and 
 intricate, a puzzle to the outsider, 
 and to the sociologist a problem 
 worth the research. A great, rov- 
 ing people therefore, like the North 
 American race, with a basis of mingled su])erstition and 
 family traits, becomes confused, baffling and often inexplicable 
 to one who, versed in the simpler ways of the more intelligent 
 composition of civilized society, seeks to unravel the mazes 
 of a barbaric race. 
 
 But, starting from this family or patriarchal basis, a patient 
 student of the life and customs of the twelve great sub-divisions 
 of the original Amencan stock may be able to determine how 
 it is possible, even in a complexity of hostile and stranger tribes, 
 to still discover in all a certain strain of kindred manners, a 
 certain similarity of government, and, alike in the most lawless 
 rovers and the most advanced confederacies, a certain related 
 phase of polity, policy and law. 
 
 ONK Ul' THK IIUIHKR TYl'Eb. 
 ZUNI INDIAN. 
 
 
RACE DlllSlOXS AND KINSIflP TIES, 
 
 79 
 
 \ 
 
 . 
 
 An Indian chief being once asked whether liis people were 
 free, replied, " Why not; since I myself am free, although tiieir 
 chief." 
 
 Th 
 
 IS. m 1 
 
 tself. 
 
 is an indication of the absolute Indian 
 
 equality. As before stated, tliere was neither baron nor sen in 
 the Indian state. The power of the chief was limited. Ability 
 always asserted itself; there was always room at the top. Pub- 
 lic opinion was the real governing force, and in the tribal 
 
 GLEN CANON. — THE INDIAN'S HOMELAND. 
 
 councils every lodge had a voice. Those who exalted could 
 also abase, and a chief rarely dared go counter to the will or the 
 demands of his tribe. He seldom presumed to dictate as to the 
 domestic concerns of individual lodges, and indeed any inter- 
 ference by a chief was quickly resented by the father of a 
 family. 
 
 wa 
 
i*w^ ^mimmmU9 ' 
 
 m lyui iii ni i ii f I I i j I L 
 
 80 
 
 A'^Cili DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES, 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 Next t the Indian's love of kindred, stood his affection for 
 hia home-land. This is always an accompaniment of the tribal 
 life. Dividing between them a vast area, aggregating nearly 
 seventy-five hundred thousand square miles, the twelve great 
 native families to which reference has been made, each held 
 tenaciously the uncertain boundaries that marked the confines 
 of their several sections. In the same manner the nations, 
 tribes and sub-tribes that constituted these larger families as 
 jealously guarded their several ranges from intrusion. 
 
 It cannot be learned that any Indian tribe, victorious in war, 
 ever appropriated as its own the lands of the defeated tribe. 
 Hostile hunting-grounds might be invaded, but they were never 
 " annexed." And, within its acknowledged territory, the mem- 
 bers of a tribe had equal interest, right and ownership in that 
 territory. There was no individual property in land. The 
 tribe owned all that it he'd. 
 
 Modern theorists who so strenuously advocate the abolition 
 of ownership in land fail to give due weight to the fact that 
 personal ownership in land is the first step toward civilization. 
 The foundation of the Roman state was the hcrcdium, or owner- 
 ship of one-and-a-half acres in perpetuity by each householder; 
 and it is certain that, as national progress is largely b ied upon 
 personal proprietorship, so barbarism clings to the idea of a com- 
 mon property. '1 he Indian was as tenacious of his tribal rights 
 to the tribal lands as he was careless of his individual possession 
 beyond the shadow of his own lodge poles. 
 
 Upon these two fundamental principles therefore — love of 
 kindred and love of home land — was the native Americ. -■ 
 race firmly gronndca. And it is these two characte- ' Lies that, 
 from the days of the first discoverers until now, the English, 
 Colonial and the L nited States Governments have been com- 
 
 t#/» 
 
 *»»»' 
 
RACE DIVISIONS AND KINSHIP TIES. 
 
 8i 
 
 ■• 
 
 T** 
 
 pelled to combat or respect. The natural reluctance of so 
 tenacious a people to abandon these ties of r.ncestry and land 
 has, by its very recognition by the government, been the cause 
 of , complicated system of treaty relations ; and thes' as a 
 recent writer declares, have " undoubtedly been the greatest 
 stumbling-block in the way of the Indian's advancement to 
 civilization and citizenship." 
 
 Even a virtue may be wrongly directed. Personal prefer- 
 ences or prejudices shouM never be permitted to militate against 
 the general good. As American citizenship seems the only 
 logical settlement for the so-called Indian problem, there are 
 those even among the friends of the Indian who hold that "only 
 by a movement toward the disintegration of the tribes " can be 
 secured that citizenship which shall make them no longer aliens 
 but units in an undivided nation. 
 
 It is of value, however, to remember, as we seek to read con- 
 sistently the story of the American Indian, that the fabric of 
 that story has been determined and developed by the unalterable 
 tenacity with which, through full three hundred years of alternate 
 war and peace, he has clung to those characteristics that lie at 
 the foundation of the Indian nature — the love of kindred and 
 the love of his home-land. 
 
 I If 
 
 j»>< 
 
' fi' y i 
 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 When the discoverers of America 
 first touched upon, or journeyed into 
 the nc.v-found lands, Spaniard and 
 Frenchman, Englishman and Dutch- 
 man encountered the representatives of 
 a ;'^'->ple peculiarly fitted to be either 
 moulded or marred. 
 
 The savage mind is essentially child- 
 like. It receives and appropriates new 
 ideas in faith or in diplomacy in the 
 broad sense of a general receptiveness 
 and engrafts them upon such a basis 
 of belief, conjecture or superstition as 
 fill the heart alike of savage and of 
 child. 
 " Had I been there with my Franks," said Clovis the Pagan 
 king, when the Bishop Ren.i told him of the death of the 
 divine sufferer on Calvary, " I would have taught those Jews a 
 lesson." "Why did you bapuze this Iroquois.? " asked a Huron 
 convert of Gamier, the Jesuit, who had just performed his 
 sacred office upon a dying captive; "he will get to heaven 
 
 before us, and when he sees us coming he will drive us out." 
 
 82 
 
 1 
 
 T 
 
 :vi^Vv 
 
INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 83 
 
 T 
 
 The savage of every land is a literalist at heart, however 
 much of an idealist he may ho. in thought, and in his treat- 
 ment of new theories he is as full of unreasoning imitation as 
 is a child with a new doll. 
 
 Before the white man came with his peremptory but diverse 
 statements of the same general truth the North American In- 
 dians throughout all their broad area of occupation, held with 
 almost unvarying unanimity the same generic form of religious 
 belief — if that may be 
 deemed religion or be- 
 lief which was mainly 
 superstitious fear em- 
 bodied in a worship of 
 symbols. 
 
 This worship indeed 
 was little more than a 
 sort of primitive phil- 
 osophy such as always 
 rules the life of man 
 in the childhood of the 
 world. " All thinii^s liv- 
 ing or moving," says 
 Prof. Tiele, "or start- 
 ling him by something 
 strange and extraordi- 
 nary, and of which he does not know the natural causes, he 
 ascribes to the working of mighty spirits, moving freely through 
 earth and air and, taking up their abode either temporarily 
 or permanently in some living or some lifeless object." 
 
 Deriving from their common, primeval ancestor, the first 
 American, this fear of natural phenomena the Indian had no 
 conception of a central governing omnipotence or deity. 
 
 "THE MARVELLOUS WHITE iMAN." 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 
84 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 Mrs. Erminic A. Smith, whose lone: residence amonG^ the 
 Indians gives especial force to her statements, emphatically 
 asserts that " the * Great Spirit ' so popularly and poetically 
 known as the god of the red man, and the ' Happy Hunting 
 Ground,' generally reported to be the Indian's idea of a future 
 state, are both of them but their ready conception of the white 
 man's God and heaven." 
 
 "In no Indian language," says Mr. Parkman, "could the 
 early missionaries find a word to express the idea of God. 
 Manitoit and Oki meant anything endowed with supernatural 
 powers," 
 
 The Indian, therefore, deified or, rather, personified those 
 forces of nature that ever surrounded him, expressing them in 
 the corresponding types of animal life with which he came in 
 daily contact, but which, also, he could not understand. 
 
 The most assertive natural forces were the strongest in per- 
 sonification. The thunder in the North, and the sun in the 
 South seem to have held precedence over all other spirits, while 
 both at the North and the South, alike among the Algonquins 
 of Canada and the Aztecs of Mexico, the four mythical 
 "brothers " — the winds — were objects of peculiar veneration. 
 
 To the imaiiinative Indian, 
 
 \ 
 
 " wIkjsc untutored mind 
 Sees Govl iu clouds, or In-.us him in the wind," 
 
 the birds symbolized the winds as with strong and steady pin- 
 ions they swept through the airy spaces, or like fleecy clouds 
 poised in mid-air; the snake was the visible expression of the 
 lightning that darted and flashed across the sky, while similar 
 parallelisms between physical and material qualities became 
 basic points in the Indian philosophy. 
 
1 
 
 II 
 
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 "THE bl'IKlT Ul' I'EACE. 
 
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 1 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 8r 
 
 To the Dakota family of the West the antelope typified 
 the spirit of peace; the snarling grizzly was the divinity of 
 war. In fact, the wild beasts with whose ways and voices the 
 Indian was familiar were regarded by him as in every way his 
 superiors. 
 
 "We must remember," says Dr. Brinton, "that as a hunter 
 the primitive man was always matched against the wild crea- 
 tures of the woods, so superior to him in their dumb certainty 
 of instinct, swift motion, muscular force, and permanent and 
 sufficient clothing. Their ways were guided by a will beyond 
 his divination and they gained a living with little toil or trou- 
 ble. They did not mind the darkness so terrible to him, but 
 throuc^h the night called one to the other in a tongue whose 
 meaning he could not fathom, but which, he doubted not, was 
 as full of purport as his own. He did not recognize in himself 
 those god-like qualities destined to endow him with the royalty 
 of tl lid, while, far more than we, he saw the sly, strange 
 
 faculties of his brute antagonists." 
 
 Reared upon a basis of symbolism and myth, good and evil 
 powers, spirits of luck and calamity, dreams and spells, and all 
 the distorted images of superstition and of fear, the North 
 American Indian could formulate no gods "one whit better 
 than himself." His natural " animism," as such blind worship 
 of the phenomena of nature is termed, exhibited a marked ten- 
 dency to gloomy rites, half-insane ecstasies, and bloody self-t'^ r- 
 ture. More than this, it still possessed the same crude elements 
 of a propitiatory faith, that manifested itself in the occasional 
 cannibal feasts and the horrible human sacrifices of the torture- 
 stake, that had marked the North American savage from the 
 far-off days of the Mound-Builder and the Cave-Dweller. 
 
 To a people thus grounded upon an unsubstantial faith — a 
 
 ^^^iHiMi 
 
88 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 faith that taught nothing and imagined mucli — the peculiar 
 teaching of the white man, |;eculiarly taught, led to a curious, 
 though logical result. In the South, the Spaniard with cross 
 and corselet, priestly rites and inquisatorial fires, in the North, 
 the French Jesuit with his open and conflicting desires of 
 material and moral advantage, alike preached and promised all 
 the realistic crudities of the Romish Church. And, between 
 these two, Puritan, Lutheran, Quaker, Cavalier, and Huguenot, 
 each with tenets diametrically " 1 often hostilely opposed, 
 sought to instill into the receptive but unreasoning Indian 
 mind the message of the Truth as each ojjposing sect dogmat- 
 ically held it. 
 
 The savage, knowing nothing of the ethical nature of the 
 reliirion thus flung at him, received it within the limited circle 
 of his own fantastic faith, and made for himself a new belief — 
 a jumble of mystery, materialism, ecstasy and stern alternatives 
 in which appeared but little of that broad and civilizing love of 
 a Father who had made of one blood all nations of men, and 
 who had equal regard^ for all. 
 
 From the first the material element was all that was ad- 
 vanced as a basis for faith. To the Spanish Indians conversion 
 was an alternative that meant either acceptance or death. To 
 the Jesuit proselytes were promised a purely Algonquin Heaven 
 and Hell. " Images of all the holy mysteries of our faith ; " 
 "pictures of souls in perdition — of souls in bliss one will be 
 enough ; " these were what the Brothers in France were re- 
 quested to send for the Huron conversion. The Indian was 
 given only what his senses could appreciate. 
 
 But more than this material religion the mortal hates of 
 the new-comers had an influence upon the minds of the red 
 men. More cruel than the Indian, because more intelligent ; 
 
 i 
 
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 i^ggE^gg 
 
 , 
 
INDIAN FATTHS AND CONFEDERATION^;, 
 
 89 
 
 I 
 
 % 
 
 springing at each other's tliroats in a frenzy of mingled relig- 
 ious zi>al and jealous greed, Spaniards and iM-enchmen alike, 
 as Parknian declares, "laid their reeking swords upon God's 
 altar "' and placed the necessities for their fiendishness at the 
 door of their All-Merciful God. The butcher Menendez and 
 his gang of Spanish cut-throats ravaged Florida " for the sake 
 of Christ and His Blessed Mother." In the name of the Sav- 
 
 AN INDIAN MYTH — THE INDIAN BOY LEARNS WISDOM FROM THE SQUIRREL. 
 
 iour of men, Frenchmen and Englishmen strugcflcd for the con- 
 trol of Canada. From Pemaquid to the capes of Delaware, 
 Puritan and Papist raged vengefully against one another. 
 Swede and Dutchman bandied threats and blows, while 
 brothers of the same nation and the same blood, in defence 
 of creed, or for love of gold, were more vindictive toward one 
 another than were ever Huron and Iroquois, or the dusky fol- 
 lowers of a Satouriona and an Outina. 
 
 A conflict of creeds and lessons in hatred were thus en- 
 grafted upon abject and fantastic superstition. And what could 
 be the outgrowth.? Schooled in an atmosphere of rapacity, 
 
9° 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 duplicity, fraud, and greed, of falsehood in trade and unbal- 
 anced enthusiasm in religion, during his three centuries of asso- 
 ciation with the white man the Indian could not improve a 
 nature already compounded of savagery. The red-man of 
 America has been precisely what his conquerors have made 
 him. r\)r every torture-stake and every burning village, for 
 every cry of the terror of surprise, and every scene of Indian 
 pillage, the white colonists of America are very largely respon- 
 sible. The Indian's desire was his relif'ion — nothinij: else. 
 In too many instances, also, was the white man's desire his 
 religion; and the overmastering spirit of greed, the stern de- 
 mands of a self-imposed necessity, and the promises lightly 
 made, and quite as lightly broken, furnish alike cause and ex- 
 cuse for scores of Indian atrocities. 
 
 There is, however, no cloud so dark but has its bright side. 
 Even this hybrid and wrongly developed pseudo religion had 
 in it many things to lighten the weariness of a most monoto- 
 nous existence. The myths that filled it were often beneficent 
 in design ; the good spirits were quite as numerous as the evil 
 ones, and were lielps in seed time and harvest, in woodcraft 
 and the chase, while, even in the most ferocious of the tribes, 
 there is apparent a certain indication of humor, that may be 
 dense and dull, but is humor, nevertheless. 
 
 The tribes of the West as they were the latest to encounter 
 the white man were also the last to feel and fall victim to his 
 influence and precepts. Here, too, the primitive faith remained 
 longest intact. Both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts nrrew^ 
 familiar to the tread of the white man, but on the plains and 
 prairies, by the lakes and rivers ' ' the great West, from the 
 Alleiihanies to the Rockies, the red-man retained the lonijest 
 his own native customs, manners, and speech. 
 
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INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 93 
 
 Here, too, for many a weary year was the Debatable Land — 
 the "dark and bloody ground" that witnessed, long after the 
 East had accepted civilization, the feud, the foray, the attack 
 and the repulse, the horror, the ferocity and the valor of border 
 war. But here, too, remained longest unchanged, the primitive 
 beliefs of the red-man — the giant and the pigmy; the dream 
 god and the sleep spirit, the witch woman and the magic med- 
 icine, the Great Head, the Stone Giant, the myths of Atotarho 
 and Hiawatha, and all the childish mysteries that, long since, 
 had, among their Eastern brothers, yielded to the dominating 
 influence of the misunderstood religion and the questionable 
 ethics of the all-powerful white man. 
 
 It was also among these Western tribes that the peculiar 
 system of tribal government remained longest intact — a system 
 that, until the arrival of the white stranger, had, to a widely 
 related extent, had place in all the American tribes. 
 
 As has already been indicated, this government had a kin- 
 ship or patriarchal basis, and, by intermarriage among the tribes, 
 this spirit of kinship was fostered and increased. 
 
 Out of this tie of kin grew, also, one of the strongest bonds 
 of Indian unity — the do dainty or totem, as the word has been 
 anglicized. This was essentially a system of symbol-association 
 among the numerous Indian clans, and was one that ramified 
 and intermingled all the native races of America. 
 
 "In the days when all was new," says a Zuni legend, "the 
 ' Holder of the Paths of men,' the Sun-Father, created from his 
 own being two children who fell to earth for the good of all 
 that live. These children cut the face of the world with their 
 magic knife and were borne down upon their magic shield 
 into the caverns in which all men dwelt. These caverns were 
 very dark, and as men increased they began to crowd one 
 
94 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 u 
 
 another and were very unhappy. Then, at last, the two chil- 
 dren of the Sun-Leather listened to the supplications of men 
 and led them out of the caverns, eastward, toward the home 
 of the Sun-Father. But, lo, the beasts cf prey, powerful and 
 like the gods themselves, would have devoured the children 
 of men, and the two Brothers thought it not wise that these 
 all should be permitted to live ; ' for,' said they, ' alike will 
 the children of men and the children of the beasts of prey 
 multiply, and the children of men are the weaker.' So, 
 whenever they came across the pathway of one of these ani- 
 mals, were he mountain lion or mole, the Brothers struck 
 him with the fire of lightning which they carried in their 
 
 magic shield. Thluf 
 and instantly he was 
 shrivelled and burnt 
 into stone. Then 
 said they to the an- 
 imals they had thus 
 changed to stone, ' That ye may not be evil unto men, but 
 that ye may be a great good unto them, have we changed 
 you into rock everlasting. By the magic breath of prey, by 
 the heart that shall endure forever within you, shall ye be 
 made to serve instead of to devour mankind.' " 
 
 These beasts, represented in stone "fetiches" among the 
 Southwestern tribes and in rude " pictographs " by most of 
 the others, were accepted or adopted as the guardian spirits, 
 or protectors, of man. Each individual family, in the earlier 
 days, had such a tutelary genius. Intermarriage carried the 
 genius of an especial family into other tribes, for the warrior 
 always followed the clan of his wife and became a member 
 of the family into which he married. 
 
 CAYOTE I'Kl'ICH ; A TOI KM OV THli ZUNI. 
 
INDIAN FA J THS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 95 
 
 A* 
 
 The Bear and the Wolf, the Tortoise, the Eagle, the 
 Snipe and other well-known creatures of earth and air be- 
 came, thus, the family gods — the Lares and Penates of the 
 American Indians. 
 
 When such a reptile, bird, or quadruped was adopted as 
 a guardian spirit, its rude representation, or pictograph, wher- 
 ever seen, was at once recognized and respected by other 
 possessors of the same totem. Like the hand-clasp or pass- 
 word of modern secret societies, the symbol of the totem 
 secured for its owner all the rights of hospitality, help and 
 friendship wherever claimed or needed, alike among hostile 
 and stranger tribes, as among friendly and confederated ones. 
 '*' The wayfarer, the hunter, or the warrior," says Mr. Parkman, 
 *' was sure of a cordial welcome in the distant lodge of the 
 clansman whose face, perhaps, he had never seen." 
 
 A warrior might change his name repeatedly. Prowess, 
 exalted service, or increasing possessions might lead to this, 
 and " Rain-in-the-face " to-day, might be " Two-feathers " to-mor- 
 row. But the totem name was never changed. Its central 
 motive was the modern German doctrine of "once a citizen 
 always a citizen." Bear or Beaver, Turtle or Wolf, the pos- 
 sessors of these badges of consanguinity were always and 
 unalterably Bear or Beaver, Turtle or Wolf, wherever they 
 might be or whatever they might become. It is not entirely 
 possible to assign a sufficient reason for the great impor- 
 tance attached to the totem, unless it be the expression of 
 that stronu: love of kin that formed the basis of the Indian 
 nature. This, if explaining its importance, would also explain 
 the respect paid to it, and if, as appears, the totem is the out- 
 growth of the original clan-marks of all the Indian tribes 
 without regard to the tribal organization, in it may be dis- 
 
 n :1 
 
 f 
 
96 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 covered the very earliest traits of association, political or 
 social, among the separating races, while it may also be re- 
 garded as an immediate outgrowth of the original or patriarchal 
 state. 
 
 This mystic connection of the totem, as it was the first to 
 take its place among the tribal phases of Indian life, is the last 
 to disappear. The influence of a resistless civilization may 
 
 have modified, altered, 
 or obliterated most of 
 the original and distinct- 
 ive characteristics of the 
 native races. The steady 
 advance of the white 
 man's conquests may 
 have degenerated or cul- 
 tivated the Indian na- 
 ture; but, alike among 
 the scattered reserva- 
 tions of the East, the 
 roving tribes of the 
 North and the pueblo 
 dwellers of the South- 
 
 IN THE LAND OK THE FETICH.-AN ARIZONA CANON. ^^^^^^ ^J^^ influenCC and 
 
 permanence of the totem are still apparent and still religiously 
 adhered to. 
 
 " Very many years ago," still say the Navajo sages, *' the 
 grand Mother brought from her home in the setting sun nine 
 separate forms of plant and animal life. These were : first, the 
 deer race; second, the sand race; third, the water race; fourth, 
 the bear race; fifth, the hare race; sixth, the prairie-wolf race; 
 seventh, the rattlesnake race ; eighth, the tobacco-plant race ; 
 
 
INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 97 
 
 X. 
 
 ninth, the rccd-grass race. Having placed or planted them 
 upon the spot where the villages now stand the Mother trans- 
 formed them into men. They built the pueblos, and the totem 
 distinctions are still kept up." The Navajo from whom Mrs. 
 Ellen Russell Emerson received the above modernized tradition 
 was of the deer race. The deer was his totem, and throughout 
 his clan, in spite of all the words of the white missionaries, the 
 belief prevailed that after death the soul of every member of 
 the Deer totem would transmit^rate into the form of a deer. 
 
 The basic difference between the clan and the tribe is thus 
 at once apparent. The clan was totemic, the tribe was direct- 
 ive; the clan was the bond of kinship, the tribe of daily life; 
 the clan had no distinct chieftain, it was simply a diversified 
 bond of blood relationship ; the tribe was the governmental 
 organization, necessary wherever the families of men unite for 
 mutual protection and support. 
 
 The tendency of all society, whether civilized or barbarous, 
 is naturally, though gradually, toward cohesion, union and cen- 
 tralization. The Athenian and the Roman states both grew 
 out of such a coalescence of antecedent tribes. 
 
 The narrower the limit of the land the speedier is this 
 union. Scattered over a vast area and separated by the bar- 
 riers of climate and of speech, the Indian tribes of North 
 America emerged but slowly from the barbarism into which 
 the whole land had fallen when the suggested and unsubstantial 
 civilization of pre-historic days had gone down into savagery. 
 For this reason the spirit of union was of but slow and retarded 
 growth, but that it did exist the numerous confederacies that 
 were found in the land at the time of its discovery by Euro- 
 peans is sufficient evidence. 
 
 Of these confederacies the strongest, the most intelligent, 
 
 ' :;| 
 
 'C'^i- 
 
 
 
98 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 the most alert — "foremost in war, foremost in eloquence, fore- 
 most in their savage arts of policy," declares Mr. Parkman — 
 were \\\<i Hod'cnosauncc — the " People of the Long House." This 
 was the only name by which the five confederated Indian tribes 
 called by the French "Iroquois" ever designated themselves. 
 The tribal union of this remarkable people was not exceeded 
 in rude state-craft even by the half-mythical Aztec confederation, 
 and their story, briefly told, will indicate the general nature of 
 the other though less perfect Indian confederacies of North 
 America. 
 
 Fully five hundred years ago there lived on the banks of 
 the Mississippi and its tributary streams an extensive branch 
 of the Indian race, known as the Dakotas. A small but ambi- 
 tious section of this central family, impelled by the roving dis- 
 position that has always been the cause of race emigration, 
 separated itself from the parent stock and moving north- 
 eastward halted, at last, in the valley of the St. Lawrence. For 
 years the exiles lived near to the present site of Montreal as a 
 semi-agricultural community. But their numbers were small, 
 and they were continually harassed by the fierce Adirondacks, 
 a tribe of the hostile Algonquin race among whom they had 
 settled, and were pushed to extremities for maintenance and 
 subsistence. 
 
 Again they resolved to emigrate, and leaving behind them a 
 small fraction of their tribe, who became finally the Hurons of 
 Canada and their bitterest enemies, the settlers made another 
 remove. 
 
 This time they resolved upon a southward route. Embark- 
 ing in their frail canoes they coasted along the eastern shores 
 of Lake Ontario unti^ they reached the mouth of the Oswego 
 River. Here they remained for generations, and, their numbers 
 increasing, they scatterc lemselves over the fertile lands in 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
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 T 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATIONS. 
 
 9y 
 
 the lake section of Central New York. Out of the central 
 stock three tribes first formed themselves — the Mohawks, the 
 Onondagas and the Senecas. Later, portions of these with- 
 drawing themselves made two additional tribes, the Oneidas 
 and Cayugas. Their villages surrounded by palisades housed 
 and protected them, and from rovers they became settled In- 
 
 
 
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 ». ' / 
 
 
 4 
 
 A VOUNC NAVAJU SHEl-HKRUKSS. 
 
 dians, hardy agriculturists, living upon the produce of their farm 
 lands and the fish and game that lakes and forests had ready at 
 hand. Thu.^ he original stock became at last, five independent 
 though neighboring tribes, bound together by the common ties 
 of race and lamruac^e.* The ties of kindred and of the totem 
 made many of their interests identical, while the onsets of 
 
 • In 1715 the Tuscaroras, a kindred tribe living in the Carolinas, were admitted into the League as a sixth nation, 
 and although they h.id not the same standing in the confederacy as had th j five original tribes the League was there- 
 after known to wliite men as the " Six Nations." 
 
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 INDIAiY FAITHS AXD CON/'EDEJiAr/OXS. 
 
 other and unfriendly tribes made a scheme of mutual protection 
 highly feasible. 
 
 The men of these five nations were capable and far-seeing 
 beyond their kind. They had the intelligence not only to appre- 
 ciate the wisdom of confederation, but the skill to undertake it. 
 
 Somewhere about the 
 middle of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury a council of the wise 
 men and chiefs of the five 
 tribes met upon the north- 
 ern shore of Onondaga 
 Lake near the site of the 
 present thriving city of 
 Syracuse. It was at this 
 council that a plan of con- 
 federation was formulated, 
 adopted and immediately 
 entered upon. 
 
 The confederacy thus 
 formed by these five kin- 
 dred tribes was based uj> 
 on the principle of absolute and fraternal equality. Each 
 tribe remained independent so far as local self-government 
 w^as concerned, but in matters of mutual interest they were 
 united and patriotic. The principle of totemship was, how- 
 ever, the real and underlying strength of the Iroquois con- 
 federacy. Three of these totems — the Wolf, the Hear, and 
 the Turtle, — were common to all the tribes; and three more 
 — the Deer, the Snipe and the Hawk — were common to 
 three of the five. " Thus," says Mr. Parkman, " the five nations 
 of the confederacy were laced together by an eightfold band ; 
 
 I'AI.ISADlil) IR()(ilIOIS VILLAGE. 
 {From n» old cut J) 
 
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 T 
 
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 ^am 
 
 «#> 
 
 INDIAN FAITHS AND CONFEDERATJOXS. 
 
 lOI 
 
 and to this hour the slender remnants clinu: to one another 
 with an invincible tenacity." And Mr. Morgan, in his exhaust- 
 ive study of this kindred confederacy, says: "The history of 
 the Iroquois demonstrates the reality as well as the persist- 
 ency of the bond of kin, and the fidelity with which it was 
 respected. During the long period through which the con- 
 federacy endured, they never fell into anarchy, nor ruptured 
 the organization." 
 
 The composition of the confederacy gave to each tribe 
 unhampered, its chief, sub-chiefs, and councillors. But all 
 matters of national importance that called for united action 
 were discussed and settled by the central council, composed 
 of the chiefs of tribes. This met, when summoned, in the 
 bark council house — the "Long House" — in the valley of 
 Onondaga. 
 
 So intelligent a political organization was really a long 
 step in the direction of civilization. Just how far this step 
 might have led can only be matter for conjecture. There is, 
 however, little doubt that it would have been a dominatinsr 
 influence on the American continent. 
 
 " The Six Nations," proudly declared the Mohawk Thayen- 
 dancgea, known as Joseph Brant, " have no di' 'ator among the 
 nations of the earth. We are not the wards oi ^^ngiand. We 
 are a Commonwealth ! " 
 
 A confederacy compounded of such pronounced statecraft 
 and such restless activities, though formed for mutual protection, 
 logically became adherents of a policy of open aggression. 
 Themselves firmly established in a range of country admir- 
 ably adapted for their secure unity the Iroquois year by year 
 grow more ambitious and arbitrary. Aiming at greater 
 power they brought their neighbors under tribute or waged a 
 
 V 
 
 
 1 
 
 ! i: 
 
 Ml 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 [!:'> 
 
 
 I 
 
 * 
 
 102 
 
 JmNdian faiths and confederations. 
 
 remorseless and continuous warfare against such as dared to 
 withstand or attack them. 
 
 It has been claimed for the Cherokee nation — a part of 
 the former Creek confederacy of the South — that it repre- 
 sented, in intelligence and capacity for civilization, in manner 
 of living, agricultural advantages, architecture and laws, the 
 highest type of Indian civilization. But whatever may have 
 been their attainments it is certa. that they lacked the vitality, 
 progressivencss, and political sagacity that marked the rest- 
 less and resistless Iroquois. 
 
 East and West, North and South the power of the Hod'oio- 
 sauiiec spread. A nation of warriors, their " unsatiable ambi- 
 tion and restless ferocity " brooked neither enemy nor rival, 
 and the career of conquest of these " Romans of the West " 
 as they have been not inaptly called, was checked only by 
 the interposition of a foreign and unlooked-for power greater 
 than themselves. 
 
s 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ;«i^' 
 
 ,*^ 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 The warlike Hod'enosauna\ with 
 their conu;ress and their council 
 house, their careful organization, 
 alike political and military, their forays and 
 friendships, their treaties and tributaries, may 
 stand as a type of the slowly growing intel- 
 ligence that, before the cominsj of Eastern 
 civilization, was already moulding and uniting 
 the tribes of North America. 
 
 " A tendency to confederate for mutual defence," says Mr. 
 Morgan, " would naturally exist among kindred and contigu- 
 ous tribes. . . . The organization, at first a league, would 
 gradually cement into a federal unity.'' 
 
 This, he claims, would be simply a growth from a lower 
 into a higher organization by an extension of the principle 
 
 which united kindred people into a tribe. 
 
 103 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 vV. 
 
 h 
 
 n 
 
104 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 '^1 
 
 II! 
 
 w 
 
 Growing thus out of pre-existing elements, by a law of 
 intellectual development, the league or confederacy became 
 naturally a phase of Indian life. The most intelligent, be- 
 cause the most ambitious 
 of the tribes gravitated 
 toward this state of 
 union. 
 
 Amons!" the confed- 
 eracies on the North 
 American continent 
 known to have been in 
 existence at the time of 
 discovery were the Ho- 
 dcnosa7incc, or Iroquois, 
 already described and 
 composed of the five in- 
 dependent tribes of Cen- 
 tral New York ; the Creek, or INIobilian Confederacy of the 
 South, formed by a union of six tribes; the Ottawa confed- 
 eracy of the North embracing three tribes; the Dakota League 
 of the Mississippi Valley made from thiC union of seven tribes, 
 — the "Seven Council Fires," as they called themselves; the 
 Moki Confederacy of seven pueblos in New Mexico, and the 
 Aztec Confederacy of three tribes in the valley of Mexico. 
 
 Other similar though smaller confederacies possibly ex- 
 isted, but this enumeration doubtless comprises the leading 
 and dominant ones. 
 
 There were, also, other tribes \vho were perceptibly pro- 
 ijressino: toward this state of confederation. Such, as an 
 example, was the Thegiha union, comprising the three tribes 
 of the Omahas, the Ponkas and the Osages, who with the 
 
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 I 
 
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 T 
 
 CULTURE AND COMML'XJSM. 
 
 105 
 
 ''P 
 
 ^ 
 
 iowas and Kaws, or Kansas, formed, for a time, a sort of 
 roving confederacy through Upper Missouri. Later still, as 
 friction with the whites produced confiicts and warfare, tribes 
 that had previously been hostile united on the common bond 
 of vengeance, as in the days of Philip, the sachem of Pokon- 
 oket, and of Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas. But these all 
 were partial or peremptory unions and arc in no wise to be 
 associated with the real confederacies of which the Iroquois 
 stands as the type. 
 
 The law of intellectual development to which this prin- 
 ciple of confederation has been referred was of varying exist- 
 ence throughout the land. In so many phases of human life, 
 ranging from savagery up 
 to intelligent barbarism, 
 from the degraded types of 
 the Columbia Valley to the 
 Iroquois of New York, and 
 the village Indians of the 
 southwestern Pueblos, it 
 was possible 10 find exam, 
 pies of all the intermediate 
 stages. 
 
 Ethnologists agree in 
 giving to what they call the 
 " culture periods " of man- 
 kind seven distinct steps 
 from absolute savagery to 
 civilization. These steps, 
 or "periods," are based upon the acquisitive and inventive 
 faculties of man. 
 
 Allowing to the North American Indian a relapse from 
 
 lllli HU.MK OK TIIK ( Ol.r.MIUANS. 
 
 I 
 
n tiT 
 
 xo6 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 I 
 
 \ i 
 
 I 
 
 
 the spurious civilization of pre-historic times into a general 
 state of savagery, and from thence a consistent though gradual 
 progress out of savagery again, it is permissable to accept 
 the deduction of the ethnologists and to place the Indian races 
 of North America at the era of European discovery in those 
 several stages of development occupied by what is termed the 
 Later Period of Savagery, the Older Period of Barbarism and 
 the Middle Period of Barbarism. 
 
 This classification advances an American Indian from but 
 two removes from the initial or Older Period of Barbarism to 
 within two removes from the highest Period, that of Civiliza- 
 tion. It must be assumed, however, that there were tribes who 
 were living in a condition still closer to savagery as there were 
 also tribes living nearer to civilization. As the statement of 
 a fact, however, this general classification may be accepted. 
 
 Upon this basis, therefore, Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, who has 
 devoted careful study to the ethnic theor}', thus divides the 
 tribes who occupied the land at the time of its discovery: 
 
 " When America was discovered in its several parts the 
 Indian tribes were found in dissimilar conditions. The least 
 advanced tribes were without the art of pottery and without 
 horticulture, and were therefore in savagery. But in the arts 
 of life they were advanced as far as is implied by its upper 
 status ( ' the Later Period of Savagery ' ) which found them in 
 possession of the bow and arrow. 
 
 "Such were the tribes in the valley of the Columbia, in 
 the Hudson Bay Territory, in parts of Canada, California 
 and Mexico. The use of pottery and cultivation of maize 
 and plants were unknown among them. 
 
 " The second class were intermediate between these and 
 the Village Indians. They subsisted upon fish, game, and 
 
 T 
 
1 
 
 e 
 
 &K 
 
 T 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 107 
 
 the products of a limited horticulture, and were in the 
 Lower Status ( the ' Older Period of Barbarism ' ) . 
 
 " Such were the Iroquois, the New England and Virginia 
 Indians, the Creeks, Cherokees and Choctaws, the Shawnees, 
 Miamis, Mandans, Minnitarees, and other tribes of the United 
 States, east of the Missouri River, together with certain 
 tribes of Mexico in the same condition of advancement. 
 Many of them lived in villages, some of which were stock- 
 aded, but village life was not as distinctive and common 
 among them as it was among the most advanced tribes. 
 " The third class were the Village Indians proper, who de- 
 
 THE HOME OK THE "VILLAGE INDIANS — A TOWN OK THE ZUNIS 
 
 pended almost exclusively upon horticulture for subsistence, 
 cultivating maize and plants by irrigation. They constructed 
 joint tenement houses of adobe bricks and of stone, usually 
 more than one story high. 
 
 "Such were the tribes of New Mexico, Mexico and Central 
 America. These tribes were in the Middle Period of Bar- 
 barism." 
 
 Accepting this classification, with its apparent and neces- 
 sary modifications, as, in the main, correct, it will be seen that 
 the so-called " Village Indians," though possessing the highesb 
 culture were neither the most assertive nor the dominating 
 
 ■Sf 
 
 
 I 
 
 ■w 
 
r 
 
 ! 
 
 k 
 
 108 
 
 cuj.tuke and communism. 
 
 class. With the exception, perhaps, of the alleged civilization 
 of the Aztec Confederacy, the Village Indians never attained 
 either power or supremacy. The restless and resistless ferocity 
 of the other tribes and the untiring ambitions especially of the 
 more aircjressive o'" ♦^^he intermediate class made them the most 
 powerful and, really, the most progressive section of the native 
 American races. The Iroquois confederacy undoubtedly rep- 
 resents the highest supremacy ever attained by the so-called 
 "Indians "of America after the decline and fall of its pre-his- 
 toric peoples. 
 
 The theory of government that held in all American tribes, 
 in whatever period of savagery or barbarism they were grouped, 
 was a plain and simple one. It grew, naturally, out of the pa- 
 triarchal basis of Indian life, with its respect for age and its 
 regard for the ties of kindred. 
 
 It consisted merely of a collection of families grouped to- 
 gether as a tribe, with one governing but not arbitrary chief as 
 its head. There were subordinate chiefs who led in war of~ 
 directed the chase, and a council of the older men, or certain 
 of the heads of families would in cases of special need or grave 
 import advise the ruling chief as to his duty in the case. 
 
 The ofifice of chief was rarely hereditary in the sense of a de- 
 scent of the ruling power from father to son. This did hold in 
 a few of the Pacific tribes, but as a rule the ofifice of chief was 
 dependent upon special and personal attributes such as wisdom 
 in council or fearless leadership in war. Preference in selection 
 was given to the son of a chief if he had exhibited peculiar fit- 
 ness for the ofifice, but no man of lazy habits or of coward blood 
 could raise himself to the post of chief. 
 
 Although there have been instances of chiefs who were 
 tyrants and despots such cases were rare. So great was the 
 
 1 
 
i 
 
 ni^p^^n««fM*)i«pi 
 
 w^^i 
 
 ^^tmtif^im 
 
 ^m^no^^m 
 
 i^^^^mmwmmmm^mmi^ 
 
 rr- Tlf^ 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 109 
 
 love of personal liberty among the Indians that absolutism in 
 office was a dangerous experiment. IMahto-Tatonka, the Ogil- 
 lallah, whose story Mr. Parkman has told in " The Oregon 
 Trail " was a case in point. " No chief could vie with him," 
 says the narrator, " in warlike renown or in power over his peo- 
 pie. He had a fearless spirit and an impetuous and inflexible 
 resolution. His will was law. He was politic and sagacious 
 and it fared hard with those who incurred his displeasure. . . 
 In a community where, from immemorial time no man has 
 acknowledged any law but his own will, Mahto-Tatonka raised 
 himself to power little short of despotic." But his career came 
 to a sudden end. His assumption of supremacy raised up a 
 host of enemies, and maddened at last by his arrogance and 
 tyranny they turned upon him in desperation and this " Nero 
 of the West " fell beneath the arrows of his own tr'besmen. 
 
 Cases like this, however, were, as has been said, exceptional. 
 In many instances the chief was less comfortably housed and 
 less generously provided with the necessities of life than were 
 his warriors. A chief, if he would secure and retain popular 
 favor, must be shrewd and diplomatic in his dealings with those 
 who, for the time, recognized his authority. Indeed, like many 
 a feudal lord or political leader of civilized lands an Indian 
 chieftain has often beggared himself in his efforts to bind his 
 followers to his fortunes. 
 
 A noticeable defect in the Indian character was, indeed, 
 based upon this very quality of desire for personal liberty. 
 This defect was to be found in the frequent irresolution con- 
 cerning matters that demanded union of action. Where each 
 man decides for himself and is, to a certain extent, a law unto 
 himself, a conflict of opinion is certain to result in disputes or 
 in the uncertainties of a divided council. The failure of In- 
 
 V 
 
 r 
 
 i' i 
 
 \ ■ 
 
I) 
 
 Hi 
 
 ii 
 
 no 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 dian wars has, next to the superiority of the white man's 
 weapons and discipline, been largely due to the indecision as 
 to joint action which tlie red men have displayed. 
 
 The prominence of the Iroquois league was a result of thc'r 
 
 "^"-""""T^^^^^^B ^^'3''^^^}' t^ the decisions 
 '*>'*i **<*', ^^HIH' ^" council, and the wis- 
 
 7^1^^' dom that made them 
 an exceptional race n-as 
 quite as much the se- 
 cret of their success 
 over their neighbors 
 and their enemies. 
 
 But, while this de- 
 fect might apply to joint 
 action in large bodies 
 it does not appear to 
 touch the Indian's tri- 
 bal relations. Here all 
 were as members of 
 one large family, and 
 what affected one af- 
 fcted all. The chief 
 of a tribe was merely 
 the exponent of public 
 opinion, and all the af- 
 fairs of the tribe or the 
 related lodges of a tribe 
 were regulated by the heads of households. 
 
 The kinsmen of a chief were usually his most reliable adhe- 
 rents, and the influence of the totem was apparent in the divi- 
 sions and tenements of every village or tribe. But a spirit of 
 
 WHITE BUFFALO, THE BOY CHIKF OF THE CHEYENNES. 
 (Front a photograph.) 
 
 V 
 
CULTURE AND COMMUNISM, 
 
 XXX 
 
 \ 
 
 M 
 
 .. 
 
 harmony always appears to have exisLcd in every tribe, the 
 chieftain of whicli was politic enough to be mindful of the inde- 
 pendent nature of his tribesmen. 
 
 Due respect however was always paid to the office of chief. 
 " They never interrupt him when he is speaking," says Sir 
 William Johnson, " nor use harsh language, whatever be their 
 thoughts. The chief assumes most authority in the field, but 
 this must be done, even there, with great caution ; as a head 
 warrior thinks himself of most consequence in that place." 
 
 The manner of Indian life tended to communities. Single 
 or scattered lodges there may occasionally have been, but a her- 
 mit Indian was rare. The necessity for subsistence was itself 
 sufficient cause for the necessity for union. Even the roving 
 bands that moved from hunting-ground to hunting-ground, rest- 
 less, nomadic and vagrant, were composed of separate families 
 and held their inter-tribal relations quite as positively as did 
 their more sta.ble and intelligent brethren. 
 
 Even more than in a civilized state the members of an In- 
 dian community needed each other. Their very usages were 
 proof of this. War and the chase — the pursuit of power and 
 of food — equally depended upon self-help and showed the ten- 
 dency to a cojnmon purpose. Fish and game sought with 
 equal labor and equal risk by all the fishermen and hunters of 
 the tribe were equally divided. " Their large houses," says Mr. 
 Morgan, "usually contained several families, consisting of par- 
 ents, their sons and daughters-in-law, and grandchildren. Pro- 
 visions in such a house were all in common and the harmony 
 of the joint home was scarcely ever interrupted by disputes." 
 As has already been stated an Indian village was like one large 
 family wherein whatever affected one affected all. 
 
 In this phase of living, indeed, may be found that element 
 
 
 \>t) 
 
 : H 
 
 'I 
 ■i ir 
 
1^ 
 
 Wi 
 
 Mi! 
 
 I>i -A 
 ' -! ! 
 
 [J: I 
 
 112 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 of simple communism which was common to all the North 
 American tribes. Equals in all things — in property, in power, 
 and in responsibiHties, the Indians were especially equals in the 
 matter of tribal relations. 
 
 The land, as has already been shown, was common property. 
 According to the Moravian missionary Heckewelder who made 
 a minute study of Indian manners and methods the red man 
 held that Hi-nun the beneficent had "made the earth and all 
 that it contained for the common cfood of mankind. When he 
 stocked the country that he gave them with plenty of game, it 
 was not for the benefit of a few, but of all. Everything was 
 given in common to the sons of men. Whatever liveth on the 
 land, whatsoever groweth out of the earth, and all that is in the 
 rivers and waters flowing through the same, was given jointly 
 to all, and every one is entitled to his share." 
 
 "Sell a country!" indignantly exclaimed Tecumthe the 
 Shawanoe patriot, when protesting against the sale of lands to 
 the whites ; " why not sell the air, the clouds, and the great sea, 
 as well as the earth } Did not the Great Spirit make them all 
 for his children ? " 
 
 And this communistic phase of Indian faith leads, naturally, 
 to another marked and positive characteristic in the native 
 American — his boundless hospitality. It sprung from this 
 community of interests repeatedly alluded to, and appears to 
 have been a universal practice at the time of discovery. It was 
 this that obtained so gracious a welcome for the earlier discov- 
 erers, every one of whom fiom Columbus to Hudson and John 
 Smith reports t offerings of food pressed upon them by the 
 natives. It is this that, to-day even, notwithstanding all the 
 years of the white man's selfishness and bad faith, holds in. 
 the lodge of the savage. 
 
 ;: 
 
 \ 
 
T 
 
 T^ 
 
 CULTURE AXD COMMUNISM, 
 
 "3 
 
 '* They would come to us," says Mr. Parkinan, describing 
 his adventures among the Dakotas, "muttering certain words, 
 which being interpreted convoyed the concise invitation ' Come 
 and eat.' Then we woukl rise, cursing the pertinacity of 
 Dakota hospitality, which allowed scarcely an hour of rest be- 
 tween s in and sun, and to which we were bound to do honor, 
 
 AN Indian's crektinc;: //<///, itah — "duou kk to vuu." 
 
 unless we would offend our entertainers. ... So boun- 
 teous an entertainment," he adds, "looks like an outgushing of 
 good-will ; but, doubtless, half at least of our kind hosts, had 
 they met us alone and unarmed on the prairie, would have 
 robbed us of our horses, and perhaps have bestowed an arrow 
 upon us besides." 
 
114 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 % 
 
 hi-- 
 
 P 
 
 But alike the proffered fruits of the island of Hispaniola 
 and the " Come and cat " of the northern Dacotas were based 
 upon a law of hospitality that is deeply ingrained in Indian life. 
 
 "It was," says Mr. Morgan, "an active, well-established cus- 
 tom of Indian society, practised among themselves and among 
 strangers from other tribes." It was based upon the commu- 
 nistic principle referred to by I leckewelder the Moravian, and 
 with the Indians, he says, "hospitality was not a virtue but a 
 strict duty. . . . They give and are hospitable to all with- 
 out exception, and will alv/ays share with each other and often 
 with the stranger, to the last morsel." 
 
 ' They rather would lie down themselves on an empty stom- 
 ach," declares the good Moravian, " than have it laid down to 
 their charge that they had neglected their duty by not satisfy- 
 ing the wants of the stranger, the sick or the needy." 
 
 The subr^ance of the Iroquois law of hospitality, according 
 to Mr. Morgan, is as follows: "If a man entered an Indian 
 hou^e, whether a villager, a tribesman, or a stranger, and at 
 whatever hour of the day, it was the duty of the women of the 
 house to set food before him. An omission to do this would 
 have been a discourtesy amounting to an affront. If hungry, 
 he ate ; if not hungry, courtesy required that he should taste 
 the food and thank the giver." 
 
 No one, surely, will dissent from Mr. Morgan's assertion 
 that " the common and substantially universal practice of this 
 custom shows generous dispositions and exhibits traits of char- 
 acter highly creditable to the race ; " but it must, nevertheless, 
 be remembered that the Indian's hospitality was not so much a 
 spontaneous virtue as it was a traditional one — the result of a 
 settled communistic policy. 
 
 Indeed, this communistic principle not only explains much 
 
 
 ,|J 
 
T 
 
 •w 
 
 I 
 
 CULT UK E AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 "5 
 
 of the *" :istent similarity in the manner of living among the 
 native races of North America at the epoch of discovery, 
 but it helps to explain numerous jihases in Indian life, during 
 their gradual conquest, that have heretofore been almost prob- 
 lematical. 
 
 The belief that the Indians held in relation to the freedom 
 of the land and of its products operated, as has been shown, in 
 a peculiar manner in their reception of the white strangers 
 from an unknown land. Uncertainty as to the origin of these 
 newcomers and the inherent superstition of the savage mind 
 gave to their bounden duty, under their laws of hospitality, the 
 additional element of curiosity. 
 
 Anything incomprehensible in the Indian philosophy was 
 adjudged to be supernatural. These wonderful strangers cased 
 in steel or bright with gorgeous clothing, with their tubes that 
 sent out thunder and lightning, their great "canoes with 
 wings," their prancing steeds and their commanding and asser- 
 tive manners made each one of them, to the myth-filled mind 
 of the savage, oki and manitou, something more than mortals, 
 the brothers of the powers of the air. 
 
 So, in ilmost every instance of American discovery on 
 record, the first explorers were made welcome after the custo- 
 mary Indian method. De Soto's " Indian queen," and Ribault's 
 garlanded pillar on the River May, Donnacona's kiss to Cartier, 
 and Captain Barlow's royal \/elcome at Roanoke — these were 
 but instances of the invariable hospitality that, wherever they 
 landed, the early discoverers found awaiting them. Alas, that 
 Christian civilization could so illy requite pagan courtesy. 
 
 And yet, as has been shown, this courtesy was but a matter 
 of duty, an unwritten law of the Indian state against which 
 no one dared go counter. 
 
 ;$P 
 
iiC 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 ' ! 
 \ I 
 
 'ti 
 if ■ ) 
 
 Improvident and neglectful of the future as the Indian 
 nature gradually became, this law of hospitality never quite 
 lost its hold even where degeneration or civilization alike 
 
 changed the native character. 
 
 "THK WHITE CHIEF. 
 
 chari.es the fifth of SPAIN — "lord of all the indies." 
 
 An excellent illustration of this fact was recently found 
 in the action of an old Seneca chief who, becoming "civ- 
 ilized " and well-to-do, still kept up some of the traditions of 
 his earlier days. His daughter, educated to the usages of civ- 
 ilized life, acted as his housekeeper. But not even the adop- 
 
 t 
 
T 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM, 
 
 tion of the three regular daily meals of civilization could 
 move the old chief from his desire to have, according to 
 Indian custom, a constant supply of food prepared, to offer 
 the casual visitor. The Indian law of hospitality in his mind 
 far outweighed the white man's usages. 
 
 Theory and praclce are vastly different. The commu- 
 nistic theory has never furnished the basis for national growth, 
 nor has it ever supplied the motive for a permanent or pro- 
 gressive state. The early Christian church, itself at first an 
 advocate of the community of inierests, soon realized the in- 
 stability of such a foundation if practical or cohesive work 
 was to be hoped for. 
 
 Communism in living and in land, therefore, may be es- 
 teemed as essentially barbaric. An advancing civilization 
 must of necessity admit of a personal proprietorship in prop- 
 erty and in land if lasting progress is to be attained. Only 
 the freeholder is che free man. 
 
 The Indian system of living could never make either a 
 positive civilization or a coherent state. It required the ^'"ti- 
 ing of a nevv order of things v/hich, while overturning, should 
 also upbuild upon a more lasting, because a more substantial 
 basis. This only could ensure a strong and permanent state. 
 
 The lodge and palisaded village, the common household 
 and the cr ncil fire must give place to the cabin and the 
 town, the privacy of individual families and the senate house. 
 
 The white man's methods were harsh and unjust. Wicked 
 rnen wickedly took advantage of the errors of a wrongly de- 
 veloped system. But the Divine plan often permits seeming 
 wrong and apparent injustice as the forerunners of a real 
 progress. Before the advancing light of a positive civiliza- 
 tion the virtues as well as the vices of a weaker state must 
 
ii8 
 
 CULTURE AND COMMUNISM. 
 
 I 
 
 fall. Even as in the days of the conquest of Canaan force 
 and fraud must sometimes be permitted as factors in the 
 development of a plan that neither force nor fraud can 
 wreck or ruin, and even these negative factors may be 
 turned to advantage as warning lights when a free people 
 are founding and up-building a mighty nation. 
 
 We shall need to read the Indian's story with minds divested 
 of the white man's prejudices and the red-man's limited percep- 
 tions. The Lord in his infinite wisdom doubtless intended the 
 Indian's hard schooling for his ultimate good, but the school- 
 masters, it must be admitted, have been such as might cause a 
 finite being to question the ways of the Infinite did he not feel 
 the truth of Pope's immortal lines: 
 
 i 
 
 "All Nature is but Art unknown to thee; 
 
 All Chance, Direction which thou canst not see; 
 
 All Discord, Harmony not understood, 
 
 All partial Evil, universal Good." 
 
 I 
 
■^^ 
 
 1 
 
 »i 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 W^' 
 
 \, 
 
 
 is_-^\,v- 
 
 
 ?H^f*;< 
 
 /■^^ 
 
 Y 
 
 •*%_ 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 "Home," says Carlylc, "is not poetical, but prosaic." And, 
 surely, nothing more prosaic and less poetical than the home 
 of the North American Indian ever divested romance of its 
 fflamour, or fiction of its charm. Loni^fellow's tidv wio-wam and 
 Cooper's savage castle may fascinate and thrill, but they are no 
 nearer the real fact than is the lurid description of the " blood- 
 and-thunder" novelist, which decorates the red-man's solitary 
 wigwam with innumerable scalps and lures the civilization-sated 
 boy of the East to make a walking armory of himself for the 
 conquest and destruction of the " pesky redskins " of the West- 
 ern plains. 119 
 
 i ii 
 
 5:; 
 
 r I 
 
i 
 
 
 Is 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 P 
 
 1*^' 
 
 i'--( 
 
 *'^l ! 
 
 I20 
 
 T^y^ INDIAN HOME. 
 
 The houses of the North American Indians as they were 
 first known to the white man varied greatly in construction 
 and in form. Thev ranched in deqirees of comfort from the 
 dirt-holes of the CaHfornia savage to the frame house of the 
 Mandans, the long house of the Iroquois and the stone house 
 of the Pueblo, or village Indians. 
 
 These degrees of comfort represent, also, the three stages 
 of human progress under which, as we have seen, the native 
 Americans of the sixteenth century may be classified, viz : the 
 Later Period of Savagery, the Older Period of Barbarism and 
 the Middle Period of Barbarism. 
 
 The I'ldian homes, however, in whatever scale of comfort 
 they may be arranged, all agreed in the one general principle 
 of communistic living. 
 
 No Indian family of that early day, so far as can be learned, 
 ever owned or occupied as an individual family any wigwam, 
 hut, house or lodge. They herded in cramped and comfortless 
 hovels or assumed something like a decent disposition of the 
 proprieties in the divided apartment house, but always and 
 everywhere the lodge of the American savage was the home of 
 anywhere from twenty to two hundred human beings, men, 
 women and children, usually bound together by the perplexing 
 mazes of Indian kinship or family ties. 
 
 The tribes living in savagery, built for themselves, as a 
 rule, the lowest order of houses. These contained little in the 
 line of comfort, nor were they anything more than the merest 
 shelter for the inmates. Such were the round, domed earth- 
 houses of the Pacific slope, in which, it is estimated, fully two 
 thirds of the California Indians lived; the L-shaped thatched 
 lodije of the Gallinomeros and the Sierra Indians, and the con- 
 ical or wedge-shaped huts of Southern California. 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
■^ap 
 
 4 
 
 "W-5: 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 2'I/£ INDIAN HOME. 
 
 121 
 
 Among the triljcs in the intermediate stage of progress — 
 the " Older Period of Barbarism " — there was a greater diver- 
 sity of the primitive architecture. Here were to be found the 
 Ojibwa cabin of elastic poles covered with bark, with its floor 
 space of from ten to sixteen feet square, and a height of six to 
 ten feet; the Da- 
 kota huts, made 
 of pole frames cov- 
 ered with bark, 
 and larsre enoudi 
 to accommodate 
 several families, 
 (alas, for the poet- 
 ical wiofwam of 
 "the ancient ar- 
 row-maker," pros- 
 pective father-in- 
 law of Hiawatha); 
 the long, round- 
 roofed house, fifty 
 to eighty feet long, 
 and covered with 
 a movable mat- 
 ting, built by the 
 Algonquin tribes ; 
 the warm and 
 
 roomy houses of the Iroquois, sometimes over a hundred feet 
 long and strongly made with stout frame-work of upright poles, 
 triangular roof and close covering of elm bark; and the tim- 
 ber-framed house of the Mandans of the upper Missouri, evi- 
 dencing excellent workmanship alike in design and execution. 
 
 THE DOMED EARTH-HOUSES OF THE PACIFIC TRIUES. 
 
122 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 !■; fi 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 W 
 
 IP:- 
 
 The Village Indians, corresponding to the " Middle Period 
 of Barbarism," possessed the ist pretentious of all the Indian 
 dwellings. In their construction is seen the vestiges of that 
 earlier civilization which savagery had swept away. They 
 were such as still constitute the now famous Zuni village, and 
 were groups of adobe or stone houses, built on terraces, two 
 hundred feet in length, and had usually one story in the front 
 and two in the rear. They were secure, durable and comfort- 
 able \\\ their way ; they were reached by movable ladders, and 
 were entered through trap doors in the roofs and floors. 
 
 This class of dwelling represents the most advanced archi- 
 tectural standard ever attained by the North American Indian. 
 It is, indeed, questionable whether the alleged and boasted 
 Aztec civilization ever produced anything higher in the scale 
 of architectural progress than the stone and adobe houses of 
 the present Zuni Indians. 
 
 The result of this testimony, therefore, would seem to be 
 that the circumscribed Indian wigwam or tepee of to-day is of 
 comparatively recent construction, and that the native Ameri- 
 cans at the time of their discovery by the white man lived in 
 primitive " tenement houses," ranging in accommodation and 
 comfort from absolute squalor to comparative well-being, ac- 
 cording to the stage of progress out of savagery whi i the 
 inhabitants had attained. 
 
 The importance of a house depended upon the number of 
 "fires" it contained; for, around these fire-pits was congregated 
 the strength of each household, and, according to the length of 
 the house, was its quota of fire-pits. This principle of division 
 seems to have had weight irrespective of location or condition. 
 The single house of the Columbia River Indians, with its 
 length of one hundred and fifty feet, its twenty-four fires, its 
 
 'iui 
 
THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 123 
 
 fifty families and one hundred fighting men, — the long house 
 of the Eastern Iroquois (" Men of the Long House "), with its 
 length of one hundred feet, its five fires, twenty apartments and 
 twenty families, and the veritable bee-hive of the Village Indians 
 of the Southwestern Pueblos, with its length of two hundred 
 feet, its terraced rows of apartments, and its household fire^ 
 alike testify to the one general principle of communistic living 
 that, as has been shown, was adhered to throughout the entire 
 North American Continent. 
 
 The importance, indeed, of the household fires should not 
 be overlooked. They furnish one of the reasons for the com- 
 munity of interests that marked the native Americans. Though 
 innured to cold, an Indian detested it, and his greatest comfort 
 was to join in the throng about the home fire-pit. Diffused 
 warmth was not so practical a theory with him as was direct 
 heat which could be perceptibly felt. " Ugh," grunted an ob- 
 serving old redskin as he studied the white man's ways and 
 apparent waste, "ugh; Injun make a little fire and set close to 
 him ; white man make a big fire and set way off. " 
 
 In such a home system it would be as impossible for the 
 inmates of a house to be divided in interests or to be dependent 
 entirely upon individual desires, as it would for any of the 
 institutions of to-day to exist without an executive head. 
 
 And here enters another phase of Indian life quite at vari- 
 ance with the idea popularly held regarding our savage prede- 
 cessors. This is, the supreme importance of the woman in the 
 Indian home. The "woman right" indeed was far more pro- 
 nounced than it is to-day in many so-called civilized homes. 
 
 This influence, which the German ethnologist. Professor 
 Bachofen, denominates gyneocracy or the " mother right," was 
 a primal feature in Indian life. 
 
; 
 
 ill' 
 
 e 1 
 
 Ci5'' 
 
 !?«' 
 
 '^ I 
 
 fi 
 
 124 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 A chief was great in council or upon the war-path. A war- 
 rior might " strike the war-post " or lead the t'^rrible Medicine- 
 dance. His was the arrow that with unerrins: aim could brine: 
 down the beast or bird needed for food, or the foeman crawling 
 to the attack. But, be he chief or warrior or half-grown brave, 
 he bent submissively before the women of his household, when 
 once he passed the door-flap. For, within the lodge, woman 
 was supreme. 
 
 The very composition of the kinship bond — shown to have 
 been the basis of the Indian state — is proof of this supremacy. 
 The power and importance of a family came from the maternal 
 side. A man who married "became one of the clan of his wife; 
 and though, very rarely, a timid fellow would bring his bride 
 into his mother's lodge, he was very soon made to feel that his 
 room was preferable to his company. 
 
 In case of separation or divorce it was the husband and not 
 the wife who left the house. The female contingent always 
 ruled the lodge, and the man who failed to do his share as one 
 of the common providers of home necessities was speedily 
 brought to a realizing sense of the strength of the "mother- 
 right.'* 
 
 The Rev. Ashur Wright, who made a study of the Iroquois 
 household economy, is authority for the statement that, " no 
 matter how many children or whatever goods a man might 
 have in the house, he might at any time be ordered to pick up 
 his blanket and trudge. After such an order it would not be 
 healthful for him to disobey. The house would be too hot for 
 him ; and unless saved by the intercession of some aunt or 
 grandmother, he must retreat to his own clan, or, as was often 
 done, go and start a new matrimonial alliance In some other 
 clan." 
 
 s:| I 
 
THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 125 
 
 This last sentence would seem to indicate that the marriaiic 
 tie was not rigidly binding among the native .Vmerican tribes. 
 To a certain extent this was the fact. Polygamy, too, was fre- 
 
 quent, though not 
 general, and, as in 
 any land, civilized 
 or savaG:c, where 
 marriage is a mat- 
 ter of convenience 
 or of civil contract 
 merely, ihe bond of union was 
 but lightly held. 
 Among the 
 
 Indians the 
 custom appears to have been 
 universal that " when the hus- 
 band and wife were satisfied with each other they stayed to- 
 gether, but if either party turned out badly the other one 
 always wished to abandon the unworthy consort." 
 
 IN THK IROQUOIS COUNTRY. 
 
 "^ ^ \ i 
 
 \ H 
 
 m 
 
rrr^ 
 
 !f 
 
 126 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 I 
 
 '1 
 
 M 
 
 It is a curious fact that even polygamy, when practised, was 
 largely based upon the kinship theory. A man's " plural wives " 
 were usually the blood relations of his first spouse. There was 
 therefore more of real human feeling in the polygamous practice 
 of the North American red-man than can b? found among the 
 followers of the Koran or the even more pagan Book of Mormon. 
 
 With equal force was it true that the main bar to a sep- 
 aration was the kinship bontl. This would have weight where 
 all other ties failed. When, among the Omahas, a woman who 
 had married contrary to the desires of her kin wished finally 
 to leave her husband, the male kindred of her clan would inter- 
 fere. " Not so," they would say to her ; " still have him for your 
 husband ; remain with him always." 
 
 In re-marriage, as well as in the systems of marriage and 
 divorce, this strongest of ties exerted the greatest influence. 
 " Pity your brother-in-law," a dying Ponka woman said to her 
 own brother; " let him marry my sister." - • 
 
 A home, therefore, in which the ties of kindred were so 
 pronounced a force, and in which the element of a community 
 of interests made all the lodge-folk as one family, had in it 
 many of the possibilities of growth that a wholly savage race 
 could scarcely possess. It was through the home that the 
 Indian was finding advancement. 
 
 And yet we must not confound the Indian's idea of home 
 with our own understanding of that most beautiful of words 
 What is entirely satisfactory to the barbarian is often altogether 
 repulsive to the civilized man, and in treating of the Indian's 
 home life we must dismiss from our minds the refinement and 
 culture of the white man's home-circle, as surely as we would 
 send away from the banquet-board of civilization, the undrawn 
 fowl and the roasted puppy of the Indian's forest-feast. 
 
 ^ 
 
 4 
 
 %\ 
 
THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 127 
 
 It is, therefore, needless to go to extremes for compari- 
 sons. Squalor is squalor, alike in the lodge of the unkempt 
 Gallinomero of the Western Sierra slopes and the swarming 
 den of a modern tenement in Baxter Street or the Seven Dials. 
 Within the sound of the printing presses of civilization may be 
 found to-day foul and fetid rooms, even less inviting than were 
 the thatched lodges of the Sacramento savages, in which the 
 early explorers found the red natives sleeping on the ground 
 *' underneath rabbit skins and other less elegant robes, and 
 
 ^W\ 
 
 
 \. 
 
 AN IROQUOIS' LONG-HOUSE. 
 
 amid a filthy clutter of baskets, dogs and all the trumpery dear 
 to the aboriginal heart." 
 
 But even the tidiness of the old-time " long house " of the 
 Iroquois, warm, roomy, and well-ordered though it was, would 
 be but slightly appreciated by the modern housewife, over-bur- 
 dened with details and cares of which the Indian housewife 
 knew nothing. Minnehaha had neither servants to support and 
 superintend, furniture to dust, carpets to sweep, nor bric-a-brac 
 to set in studied and disorderly array. The beds in her house 
 were simply raised bunks built against the walls of each of the 
 
za8 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 'Mi; 
 
 i> 'ft 
 
 pi' 
 
 ' ■'■ 
 
 twenty apartments or closets into which a " long house " of " five 
 fires" was divided. Her only household decorations were the 
 deer or bear-skin " portieres " in the doorways at either end of 
 the lodge, or the strings of dried squashes, pumpkins and corn 
 in the ear that festooned the roof-poles above her head. 
 
 In such a house of " five fires," or twenty apartments, 
 twenty families would live. Each family occupied its own 
 apartment — a sort of open stall or closet, some six or eight 
 feet wide, and facing the central passage. 
 
 Alone this central passage-way the fire-pits were ranged at 
 regular intervals, so that every four stalls, two on either side, 
 faced one of these several fires. The mother of each family 
 was responsible for the good order and conduct of her apart- 
 ment, and her right and influence were protected and strength- 
 ened by the bond of kinship which united all the wives of a 
 household. Over every such joint household a matron was in 
 charge. Her word was law, and neither chief nor warrior, buck 
 nor boy dared dispute her authority. 
 
 Crops and stores were in common ; fish and game were 
 equally divided, and there could be no rivalry in a household 
 where personal acquisition was unknown. 
 
 But one meal a day was served; and when the four families 
 around each fire-pit had cooked their share the matron would 
 divide the antire quantity among the several families according 
 to their size or their respective needs. What remained was 
 given, by the matron, into the charge of her assistant to be 
 kept until required. 
 
 Here, then, was primitive but orderly housekeeping* quite at 
 
 
 * On this point Mr. Lewis A. Morpan, in his c.iredil study of Indian life and customs, says: "This mere 
 glimpse at the ancient Iroquois plan of lite, now entirely passed away, and of which remembrance is nearly lost, is 
 hij^hly suggestive. It shows that their domestic economy was not without method, and it displays the care and 
 management of woman, low dovv-n in barbarism, for husbandmg their resources and improving their condition." 
 
f 
 
 A 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 129 
 
 variance with the charge of improvidence and carelessness as 
 to the things of the morrow which has always been cited as one 
 of the chief defects of the Indian nature. 
 
 The improvidence of the Indian seems, indeed, to have been 
 one of the baleful effects of his contact with civilization. The 
 white man's labor-saving conveniences, readily obtained, in ex- 
 change for skins, destroyed the necessity, which, up to that 
 time, the Indian had always known, for the laborious manufac- 
 ture of bow and arrow, hatchet of stone and kettle of clay, soft 
 fur garments and ground shell money. " His guns, his traps, 
 his knives, his hatchets, his outer garments and his wampum 
 money," says Dr. Eggleston, " were all purchased in exchange 
 for skins, and thus he lost his skill, exterminated his game, and 
 sacrificed his independence." 
 
 But, if the woman was supreme within the lodge, even in 
 this very supremacy was to be found the barbaric theory of 
 man's superiority. It was woman's duty to cater to her acknowl- 
 edsred lord and master. To do this she must control her do- 
 mestic affairs and thus serve him even while governing and 
 guiding his household. 
 
 With the American Indian war was the one end and aim of 
 living. Clansmen were brothers, but rival clansmen were 
 natural enemies. This kinship of clans dates back beyond all 
 known history of the red men, and doubtless had its beginnings 
 in the first leagues of the savage bands against the prosperous 
 cities of the so-called mound-builders. 
 
 So, too, from the earliest times, has this rivalry between the 
 clans kept the American Indians in almost perpetual warfare. 
 Each clan was believed by its rivals to be possessed of some 
 supernatural power which could be exerted, with malign effect, 
 upon all hostile clans. A death, therefore, in any one clan was 
 
 \ 
 
TT 
 
 130 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 (I 
 
 WW 
 
 considered the work of some member of a rival clan. Murder, 
 according to Indian philosophy, was an injury solely to the 
 person murdered, and not an offence to the gods. Being an 
 injury against the dead, it remained for the friends of the mur- 
 dered man to avenge his death. Revenge therefore was lawful, 
 
 and war, upon this 
 theory, was esteemed 
 not only as a right, 
 but as a duty to the 
 dead. 
 
 This peculiar and, 
 certainly, simple 
 method of reasoninc: 
 will at once show why 
 it was that the eagle's 
 feather — symbol of 
 success on the war-path 
 — was the prize which 
 every Indian lad hoped 
 one day to attain. 
 " The whole force of 
 public opinion in our 
 Indian communities," 
 says Mr. Schoolcraft, 
 " is concentrated on 
 this point ; its early lodge-trainings, its dances, religious rites, 
 public harangues — all, in fact, that serves to awaken and 
 fire ambition in the mind of the savage is clustered about the 
 idea of future distinction in war." * 
 
 ♦ The inquiry might be here pertinent; In how far does this statement vary from one tliat might be applied to 
 the earlier stages of our boasted Christiati civilization ? And has the deification of the war spirit even yet ceased 
 imong men ? The reflection of the wise old Spaniard Hamirez holds to-day quite as strongly as when he made it, 
 
 AN ADMIRKR OF WARLIKE PROWESS. 
 
 r 
 
THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 131 
 
 L 
 
 Schooled in this belief it may readily be seen that the 
 Indian woman would be an even irfeatjr admirer of warlike 
 prowess than the warrior himself. This is but following a law 
 of human nature, civilized as well as savage. To see her father, 
 brother, husband or son a dauntless warrior was equally the 
 ambition and the aim of the Indian woman. To this end she 
 could allow no menial "abor to be performed by him whose only 
 thought should be of war and glory. 
 
 The cause, therefore, of the long-decried but miscalled 
 servitude of the Indian woman is to be found not in the tyranny 
 or mastership of the man, but in the woman's own peculiar 
 system of logic and her practical way of putting it to the test. 
 
 The drudgery of Minnehaha was her choice and not her 
 obligation. Hiawatha must be a hero, a wearer of the eagle's 
 feather, a terror to his enemies, the envy of his clansmen. And 
 how could a hero plant corn, or carry wood and water, or perform 
 the menial duties which, from her youth up, Minnehaha had 
 been taught to esteem her own and indisputable province ? 
 
 Upon this theory the system of female servitude among the 
 American Indians is found to have been no servitude at all. 
 A coward could secure neither respect, assistance nor obedience 
 from the women of his tribe. 
 
 And this devotion was well repaid. The Indian would 
 fifjht to the death in defence of his wife and children. Kind- 
 ness, affection and mutual concession were the rule in the 
 Indian home, quite as much as in that of the white man. 
 Mention is made in some of the old records of a Delaware 
 Indian who travelled forty miles to obtain some cranberries for 
 his sick wife ; and, at a time when corn was scarce, an intrepid 
 
 years ago : " For, as far as concerns the peoples called modern, regarding them as the nursery whence emerged the 
 nations that to-day carry the standard of civilization, it is vury easy to show that not one of them has escaped that bap« 
 tism of blood which forms one of the steps in the scale of social progress which none have the privilege to omit." 
 
f 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 I 
 
 '■1 
 
 w. 
 
 1 
 
 in: : 
 
 :H:i 
 
 pi i ( 
 
 132 
 
 T^"^ INDIAN HOME. 
 
 warrior willingly rode over a hundred miles of country to 
 procure corn for his suffering family. When he was able to 
 obtain only a hatful of the coveted corn in exchange for his 
 horse, he unhesitatingly parted with his horse, and, taking the 
 corn, returned to his home on foot. 
 
 The proverbial sullenness and taciturnity of the Indian 
 nature and the Indian home are equally without foundation, 
 so far, at least, as applies to the earlier era of European dis- 
 covery. 
 
 Years of ill-tr-satment and centuries of dishonor may have 
 soured the natural disposition of the red-man, as they would 
 men of any color or of any land. The dispirited brutes who 
 fret and chafe in their cramped menagerie cages, or look through 
 the bars with sullen and vindictive stare, are changed alike in 
 color, appearance and manner after months and years of con- 
 finement;. The free lords )f the forests and plains of America, 
 driven from their homes, despoiled of their lands, cheated, con- 
 fused and despised have become in disposition and in manners 
 only what such treatment could logically make them. " No- 
 where," says Mr. Turner, " in a long career of discovery, of 
 enterprise and extension of empire, have Europeans found 
 natives of the soil with so many of the noblest attributes of 
 humanity as the American Indians. They were possessed of 
 moral and physical attributes which, if they could not have been 
 blended with ours, could, at least, have maintained a separate 
 existence, and been fostered by the proximity of civilization and 
 the arts." 
 
 So, in the Indian homes, before the days of deceit, injustice 
 and greed, the red-man was a jovial and happy fellow, fond of 
 fun and feasting ; \c Ing, in his own uncultivated fashion, his 
 wife and children, and the free, unfettered life he had known 
 
 t 
 
r^ 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 133 
 
 through generations; hampered as to fluency of speech by a 
 restricted language, but given, because of this, to metaphor and 
 crude allegory that would sometimes rise even to eloquence. 
 
 As fitted a barbaric nature, his fun was coarse, his play rude 
 and rough, his manners far from courtly or refined; but, in a 
 home based upon hospitality and freedom of possession — a home 
 that, unblessed by the conveniences and enjoyments of civiliza- 
 tion, had still its games and sports, its ready story-teller, its 
 folk-lore, legends, and traditions — man could not be altogether 
 
 r 
 
 THE MANDAN LOUUE OV THE NORTHWEST. 
 
 brutal, woman altogether a drudge, nor children entirely savage. 
 " Home is home, though it be never so homely," and the Indian 
 of the sixteenth century could, and doubtless did, often express 
 the very sentiments that have immortalized the verses of 
 John Howard Payne, though his only musical accompaniment 
 was his crude flute of reed, or his dismal and monotonous log 
 drum with its top of thin, raw skin. 
 
 As has already been remarked comparisons are misleading. 
 The points of view from which savagery and civilization regard 
 things are never iden*^'cal. All natures have their limitations, 
 
134 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 dependent, always, upon their peculiar and traditional environ- 
 ments. 
 
 The barbaric mind may be both imaginative and philo- 
 sophic, but its basic senses are dull and limited from the lack of 
 those stimulating preceptive faculties that come only from a 
 constant use of the higher intellectual powers. "A savage," 
 says Mr. Powell, " sees but few sights, hears but few sounds, 
 tastes but few flavors, smells but few odors. His whole sen- 
 suous life is narrow and blunt, and his facts that are made up 
 of the combination of sensuous impressions are few. . . . 
 The stages of discernment from the lowest savage to the high- 
 est civilized man constitute a series, the end of which is far from 
 the beoinninf^." 
 
 Upon this theory it must be evident that the American 
 Indian, when first known to Europeans, was on the high road 
 toward civilization, but had as yet only reached such a stage of 
 advancement as w'ould be deemed neither desirable nor pro- 
 gressive when viewed from the higher standpoint of civilization. 
 
 And yet it is from this stage of semi-advancement that we 
 must regard alike his surroundings, his home-life, his customs 
 and his acts. All progress is slow, and when, as, for instance, 
 in the matter of equality at meals, the Indian made any advance 
 his progress toward the modern idea of courtesy was but that 
 of a laggard. 
 
 Originally, in the communal houses common to all our 
 tribes, the men ate first and then the women and children. 
 Upon the barbaric idea of concession to prowess there was 
 nothing degrading in this. The change in this custom came 
 only by degrees, with the breaking up of the old plan of com- 
 munal living and the gradual substitution of the single house 
 and the single family for the former mode of life. 
 
 \m 
 
 \ 
 
i 
 
 THE INDIAN HOME. 
 
 135 
 
 It is said, however, that when, among the Senecas, the 
 proposition that man and wife should eat together was solemnly 
 decided upon, it was only agreed to with this compromise — 
 that man and wife should eat with the same ladle from the same 
 dish, the man taking the first spoonful and then the woman, 
 continuing thus, alternately, until the meal was finished. 
 
 Thus the old Adam clung to the new man ; and this seem- 
 ingly insignificant insight into the Indian nature will be found 
 to cover a profound fact. For it may be regarded as an indica- 
 tion of one of the main barriers toward an acceptance of the 
 ways of civilization which, even had the white man proved 
 other than he did, would still have modified and retarded the 
 red-man's intellectual growth. 
 
 I 
 
w^ 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 fi \ 
 
 Hill 1 
 
 Si 
 
 i ! . 
 
 To the barbaric mind endurance 
 and courage are synonymous. Endur- 
 ance was the first lesson learned by 
 the baby Indian ; it was the last act 
 of his life as, bound to the fatal stake, 
 he laughed at the taunts of his captors 
 and urged them to greater indignities 
 that they might see how a warrior 
 could die. 
 
 No doubt times have changed, for 
 there are those who assert, after a 
 study of the life of the Indians of the Far West, that the red- 
 man of to-day knows neither courage nor endurance. But, in 
 the days before the white man's whiskey and the white man's 
 methods had destroyed the finer qualities of the red-man's 
 nature, his chief characteristic was his superiority to physical 
 privation and suffering. 
 
 The Iroquois traditions tell of a Seneca lad who, while but 
 a little fellow, was taken captive by the Illinois. The boy knew 
 what to expsct, but braced himself to meet his fate and prove 
 the value of his Seneca blood. " If he can live through our 
 
 tortures," said the Illinois chief, " he shall become an Illinois." 
 
 136 
 
T 
 
 THE INDIAN YOUTH, 
 
 137 
 
 7 
 
 They held him barefoot upon the coals of the council fire, 
 until his feet were a mass of blisters. Then, with fish-bone 
 needles, they pierced the blisters, filled them with sharp tlint 
 stones and bade the little fellow run the gauntlet for twenty yards 
 between two rows of warriors armed with thorn-brier branches. 
 
 " His agony was intense," says the story, " but up in his heart 
 rose the memory of his tribe." He ran the fearful race and, 
 passing the goal, darted into the " Long House " and paused 
 not until he sank almost fainting upon the place of honor — 
 the wild-cat skin that marked the seat of the chief. 
 
 "Good," cried the Illinois; "he has the stuff for a warrior 
 in him. 
 
 Again they bound him to the stake, tortured him with fire, 
 and then, cutting his thongs, put him to the final test by holding 
 him beneath the cold water of the drinking spring, again 
 and again, until he was well-nigh strangled. And still neither 
 complaint nor moan came from the brave-hearted lad. 
 
 But when the test was complete the watching warriors gave 
 a shout of approval. 
 
 " He will make a warrior," they cried. " Henceforth he 
 shall be an Illinois." 
 
 Then they adopted him into their tribe; they re-named him 
 Ga-geh-djo-wa, and raised him up to be a chief. " And as the 
 years passed on," says the story, " he was much esteemed for 
 his feats as a hunter, and his strength and endurance were 
 by-words among the Illinois." 
 
 In such a display of boyish pluck as was this, the young 
 Seneca was but carrying out the teachings of his earliest child- 
 hood. The Indian baby's first lesson, as has been said, was one 
 of endurance. Strapped to a flat piece of wood the little 
 pappoose took hi;i first views of life from this painful posture, 
 
 »-<MMMa<WJ«R„ 
 
^ 
 
 138 THE INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 suspended from a tree or secured to the back of his hard- 
 working mother. 
 
 One of the cleverest contributions to the Indian question 
 is a recent " tract " prepared by a bright young student of this 
 perplexing problem.* It seeks to give in direct and simple 
 
 I'fT phrases the backward view of life and things that the "little 
 
 Injun " sees from its mother's back — fit type of the backward 
 way of looking that, for the past two hundred years, has been 
 the Indian's lot. " I go ahead backward," sighs the little 
 pappoose ; " I don't know what is coming, and I can't dodge it 
 till it is past. That is what comes of going ahead backward. 
 -' My people are pretty much like me. The old Mother Govern- 
 ment straps them upon a board, and shoulders them around 
 from one place to another. She lets them live on the hind side 
 of somewhere till somebody else wants it ; and then she bundles 
 them off to the other side of nowhere, which nobody wants." 
 But though endurance was a precept early instilled, the 
 little red baby was as fondly nurtured as is the petted darling 
 of many a civilized home to-day. Its hard cradle-board was 
 made comfortable with softly dressed buckskin, or fragrant with 
 a bed of sweet grass and odorous ribbons of the bark of bass 
 or linden tree. The finest beadwork that the mother could 
 make, or the most deftly plaited reed-splints and grass that she 
 
 H| % could braid, decorated her baby's bed, and over and over again 
 
 ^i* I she sang the little one to sleep with her monotonous but rhyth- 
 
 ll I mical lullaby : 
 
 11 i 
 
 1 "Swinging, swinging, 
 
 Lul-la-ljy; 
 Sleep, little daughter, sleep. 
 'Tis your mother watching by, 
 Swinging, swinging, she will keep; 
 Little (laughter, 
 Lul-la-by." 
 • " One Little Injun," by Miss M. K. Ditto. 
 
 ;*1 
 
 k 
 
1 
 
 HERE I DISCOVERED FIVE PAPPOOSES SLUNG TO THE TREES. 
 
4 I 
 
 -;-i- 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 -f 
 
 t 
 
THE JNDTAN YOUTH. 
 
 141 
 
 H» 
 
 -f 
 
 \ 
 
 Up to two years of age the Indian baby was kept lashed 
 to the unyielding board, which vvas alike carriage and cradle. 
 Once a day its bonds were loosed and it was allowed to play 
 and roll upon a blanket or the grass. When the mother 
 was busy the board, baby and all, was hung upon the most 
 convenient tree or placed in a corner of the lodge. 
 
 Mr. H. VV. Elliott relates that some fifteen or twenty years 
 ago, being one day near to old Fort Casper, on the River Platte, 
 he paused to kneel and drink from a stream he was crossing. 
 " Suddenly," he says, " my attention was arrested by a succes- 
 sion of queer, cooing, snuffling sounds that caused me to peer 
 curiously about in the recesses of the surrounding birch and 
 poplar thicket. Here I discovered, to the right and just above 
 me, five pappooses slung to the trees, all alone in their glory, 
 amusing themselves by winking and staring at one another, 
 apparently as happy as clams at high water. But, unfortu- 
 nately for their serenity, they caught sight of the pale-face, and 
 with one accord, began to howl in dismal and terrified accents, 
 so that in less than a minute six or seven squaws came crashing 
 through the underbrush to the rescue. Happy mothers ! It 
 was not, as they had feared, a bear, and the tempest was quelled 
 at once." 
 
 At two years of age, as has been said, the child was released 
 from the imprisonment of its uncomfortable cradle and, accord- 
 ing as it was boy or girl, its real education would begin. 
 
 Even at this early age the difference in treatment accorded 
 the sexes was noticeable. For, following the traditions of 
 their race, which regarded the boy as the future warrior and 
 the girl as the future drudge, all the training of the one and 
 all the duties of the other lay in the traditional course. 
 
 "The girls," says Mr. Elliott, "fall in line behind their 
 
 I ( 
 
 i 1 
 
ill 
 
 
 f ^ J 
 
 > \ 
 
 |l 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 v^-\ 
 
 iM 
 
 
 143 
 
 T/f£ INDIAN YOUTH 
 
 mothers as soon as they can carry a five-pound weight, and 
 become liewers of wood and drawers of water before they enter 
 ♦"heir teens." 
 
 " When she was four or five years old," says Mr. Dorsey, 
 "the Indian girl was taught to go for wood, etc. When she 
 was about eight years of age she learned how to make up a 
 pack and began to carry a small one on her back. As she 
 grew older she learned to cut wood, to cultivate corn, and other 
 branches of the Indian woman's work." This education in 
 drudgery, however, seems never to have soured the disposition 
 of the little red-skinned maid, for Mr. Dorsey declares that she 
 " maintained the most affectionate regard for her mother and 
 other kindred." 
 
 From the Indian boy's earliest years his training was such 
 as prophesied the future warrior. Although allowed to run 
 
 wild and to be 
 spared anything 
 that seemed like 
 labor or work, he 
 learned to swim, to 
 run, to jump and 
 to wrestle. Some 
 of the southern 
 tribes, such as the 
 Natchez, seem 
 even to have had 
 a sort of master 
 of gymnastics to 
 look after the physical development of their youth. At an 
 early age, too, the boy was put to archery practice with blunted 
 arrows shooting at a target of hay, bunched at the top of a 
 
 r 
 
 AN EDUCATION IN DRUDGERY. 
 
 iM 
 
 « »» 
 

 'i! 
 
 THE INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 H3 
 
 Stick, or at the birds that swarmed about his forest and 
 prairie home. 
 
 When the boy was about seven years old his first fast was 
 imposed — an all day's watch upon some high or exposed point; 
 here, smeared with white clay, he kept, 
 like the boyish squires of the knightly 
 days, a sort of vigil, filled with contin- 
 ued calls upon his selected manitou to 
 make him a great man — a warrior. 
 These fasts increased in length and in- 
 tensity with the lad s years until the age 
 of fifteen or sixteen when, after a five 
 days' fast, the troubled dreams of hun- 
 ger would reveal to him some bird, beast 
 or reptile which was to be esteemed his 
 " medicine " — his mysterious protector 
 through life. This creature, whatever 
 it might be, must be hunted and killed 
 by the boy; its skin, made into a pouch 
 or bag, and stuffed with grass, was relig- 
 iously sealed, and was worn or carried by the young warrior 
 as his " medicine bag" — his materialized "good luck," without 
 which he could have neither strength in battle nor guardian 
 care in death. 
 
 The Indian boy was seldom if ever punished for disobedi- 
 ence or insubordination. It was esteemed as altogether im- 
 proper and unwise to lay any chastisement upon one who 
 might in future years be a mighty warrior. The mother was 
 the strongest advocate of this theory. Ton-ti-le-augo's Wyom- 
 dot wife left him and returned to her people — an unusual thing 
 for the wife to do — because he had given her eight-year-old 
 
 DREAMING OK HIS " MEDICINE. 
 
II; 
 
 ¥ 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 I! 
 
 K 
 
 h 
 
 If I r 
 
 liill 
 
 '''iw- - 
 
 1 
 
 ■\ 1 ' 
 
 jji 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 iiffiif 
 
 1 
 
 ■ il;^i:, 
 
 i 
 
 144 
 
 T//£ INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 son a moderate whipping for some offence committed. " She 
 acknowledged that the boy was guilty of a fault," says Colonel 
 Smith, who tells the story, " but thought he ought to have been 
 ducked, which is their usual mode of chastisement. She said 
 she could not bear to have her son whipped like a servant or 
 like a slave." And so when her husband went out to hunt 
 she left his lodge in displeasure never to return. 
 
 The main defect in the Indian education was, of course, that 
 semi-savagery that must, logically, result from a system that 
 developed the combative rather than the conciliatory in both 
 boy and man. And yet it is a fact worthy of especial note that 
 the Indian boy, barbarian though he was, received and gave 
 due heed to many a lesson in good breeding that the boys and 
 girls of our larger day too frequently neglect. 
 
 Generosity, thoughtfulness for others, hospitality, magna- 
 nimity, respect towards elders, abhorrence of evil speech, truth- 
 fulness, temperance, honor, honesty, toleration, independence, 
 pity for the unfortunate, courtesy and humanity — these all 
 found place in the education of the Indian boy and girl and 
 remained '^ part of the Indian nature until that nature was 
 dwarfed cteriorated by the degradations of a civilization 
 
 pres' . the red-man " wrong end foremost." 
 
 X , student of Indian character as it now app'^ars upon 
 our plains and in our lava beds would scarcely find himself 
 prepared to admit the existence of any of the above qualities in 
 the Indian of to-day. And yet the burden of proof is all in 
 favor of ascribing to the Indian of three centuries ago everyone 
 of these attributes — and others of even nobler strain. 
 
 Superstition and sorceiy, cannibalism and cruelty, a lax 
 morality and a remorseless spirit of revenge — all these too the 
 Indian possessed, and, as boy and man, practised and adhered 
 
 :: 
 
 ■' fi" 
 
 + 
 
„ 
 
 THE INDIAN YOUTH 
 
 '45 
 
 - 
 
 to them. But there is reason in all things, and the student of 
 human nature, progressing from the lowest types to the highest 
 intelligence, has been able to discover a logical reason for the 
 existence of these seemingly evil attributes in the composition 
 of the American Indian. 
 
 There are ceremonial forms peculiar to the most advanced 
 phase of civilized life that could by careful study be traced to a 
 common origin with those observances of savaire life which 
 civilization most abhors.* It is results not causes that deterio- 
 rate. The cannibalistic feasts of the red devotee (never for the 
 mere satisfaction of hunger), the horrible scalp-lock (the taking 
 of which has stained the hearths of so many American homes 
 with innocent blood), and the uncouth ceremonies attendant 
 upon the red-man's burial sprang, all, from motives quite as 
 elevating and fully as philosophic as those that have given 
 life and permanence to the white man's most cherished rites. 
 
 Indeed, it was the opinion of Father La Jeune, one of the 
 most devoted of the earlier French missionaries, that " in point 
 of intellect," the American red-man could be placed in a high 
 rank. " The Indian," he said, " I can well compare to some of 
 our own (French) villagers who are left without instruction. 
 I have scarcely seen any person who has come from P'rance to 
 this country who does not acknowledge that the savages have 
 more intellect or capacity than most of our peasantry." The 
 French traveller, Charlevoix, was even more emphatic. " The 
 beauty of dieir imagination," he says, "equals its vivacity, 
 which appears in all their discourses. They are very quick at 
 repartee, and their harangues are full of shining passages which 
 would have been applauded at Rome or Athens. Their elo- 
 
 * For a more exhaustive study of this most interesting comparison consult Dorman's " Origin of Primitive 
 Superstitions." 
 
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 m h 
 
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 146 
 
 T//£ INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 quence has a strength, nature and pathos which no art can give> 
 and which Greeks admired in the barbarians." 
 
 A circumscribed Hfe is always a simple one, but such a life 
 has its pleasures, however limited, an<i its diversions, however 
 crude. The Indian's day had in it much of rude enjoyment ; 
 his games, thoug'- comparatively few, were heartily entered 
 
 into, and however high or harsh the 
 sport might run, the player never lost 
 his good-nature. 
 
 " An Indian youth," observes one 
 writer, " although intensely interested 
 in a game from beginning to end, ap- 
 peared to be just as well pleased, and 
 laughed just as heartily, when beaten 
 as when victorious. If the game was 
 a gambling one, as were most of their 
 games of skill, he would unconcern- 
 edly part with his last piece of clothing, laughing as cheerfully 
 as when he commenced to play." And Mr. Elliott in his study 
 of Indian child life to which reference has already been made, 
 afifirms that " Indian children are light-hearted and cheerful, 
 rippling with laughter and mischievous mirth. They play sly 
 tricks upon the dogs and one another incessantly, and are much 
 given to singing." 
 
 The boys had their ball games, both " shinny " and football 
 as well as an incipient game of base-ball ; they flew their kites 
 of fish bladders, spun their teetotums, played at tag and hide- 
 and-seek, blind-man's-buff and hunt the slipper. The girls, 
 though brought up to work long and hard, while the boys were 
 free to come and go as they chose, still enjoyed their dolls in 
 such leisure hours as they had, and though girls and boys rarely 
 
 AS HAPPY AS A WHITE BABY. 
 
 :: 
 
 *> 
 
,. 
 
 THE INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 X47 
 
 *>> 
 
 played together, both sexes were just as fond of making mud 
 pies as are the little folks of our day. One word indeed in the 
 Omaha dialect comes from this childish disposition to play in 
 the mud. It is the verb tigaxc, meaning to make dirt lodges, 
 and having, hence, the broader significance: to play games. 
 
 An Indian never hunted for sport. He found no enjoy- 
 ment in worrying a dumb brute to death for the mere excite- 
 ment of the chase or the savage pleasure of seeing it die. 
 Necessity sent him upon the track of the game as duty im- 
 pelled him to follow the trail of his enemy. "His worst bar- 
 barities," says Mr. Dorman, "were committed at the instigation 
 of superstition ; and cruelty, from sheer malignity, such as has 
 been laid to his charge, was really foreign to his nature." 
 
 War, as it was the predominant feature in the Indian life, 
 was entered into and followed out upon a system as inflexible 
 and methodical as holds among civilized nations. It was not, 
 as a rule, entered into for purposes of personal revenge or 
 individual renown, but was undertaken as a concession to the 
 manes of the tribe's dead. Only by the performance of the 
 Me-da-we, or grand medicine rites, or by the vicarious bestowal 
 of an enemy's blood, could an Indian, as the saying was, " wipe 
 the paint of mourning from his face." 
 
 The inter-tribal wars projected for purposes of retaliation or 
 redress might, of course, partake of something of a national 
 character, though even these were not unfrcquently the result 
 of raids planned for this vicarious mourning rite. But the 
 majority of war-parties, before the days of the frontiersman and 
 the stand in defence of the home-land, were composed and 
 carried out in deference to the rites referred to. 
 
 There was, therefore, as marked a distinction between the 
 Indian raid for religion and his warfare for redress, as between 
 
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 j WgWn i. TW 
 
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 ^li 
 
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 B 
 
 148 
 
 TJI£ INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 the borc'er foray of some Highland chief or German baron and 
 the warfare between nations based upon political grievances. 
 The one was sudden, unexpected and brief; the other the result 
 of debate, forethought and negotiation. The first could be 
 started by any single warrior, moved by devotion to his dead 
 or by personal hatred ; the other c.dled for days of council, the 
 interchange of presents, an embassy, a demand for redress, and 
 the pipe of peace with its fan-like decoration of white-eagle 
 feathers, or the calumet of war with its fan of flamingo or other 
 red-dyed feathers, according r the result of the embassy should 
 be for peace or war. 
 
 But whether for foray or war, the warriors who went upon 
 the war-path were always volunteers. No chief could order or 
 compel his tribesmen to follow his feather to the wars. Hos- 
 tilities once decided upon, a chief or crier would make an- 
 nouncement through the villages of the tribe and invite the 
 warriors to the preliminary war-dance. 
 
 The dance which has always played so important a part in 
 Indian life and ceremonies is but another indication of the 
 common origin of man. In savagery, in barbarism and in civil- 
 ization, wherever or however man lives and moves, the dance 
 has place and part. 
 
 Originally a ceremony of superstition or of religion, traces 
 of which may even be seen in the kneeling and genuflections of 
 modern Christian ritualism, the dance, as such, is never entirely 
 relegated to the domain of social pleasure until civilization 
 emerges from barbarism. Among the American Indians, 
 therefore, as among all other peoples in barbarism, some form 
 of dance has always been inseparable from rites or ceremonies. 
 
 The medicine dance was strictly religious, described by one 
 writer as analogous to the camp-meeting fervor of some of our 
 
 *. 
 
•>' 
 
 J 
 
 THE INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 149 
 
 modern church bodies. The scalp-dance was ceremonial and 
 superstitious, every scalp taken being esteemed as just so much 
 control over the spirit-life of the enemy. The war-dance which 
 preceded the foray or the tribal war was simply the ceremony 
 of enlistment, in which, under the excitement of the song and 
 dance, warrior after warrior should be induced to " strike the 
 
 THE SCALP-DANCE. 
 
 war-post " and thus signify his intention of taking the field 
 against the enemies of their tribe. 
 
 The Indian warfare was one of surprises and ambuscades. 
 A land of forest and of thicket made such a system not only 
 possible, but imperative. The multitude of tribal divisions, 
 and the small proportionate population of the land kept the real 
 warriors limited in numbers. There were no Indian armies* 
 
 « ! 
 
 
\m 
 
 150 
 
 THE INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 
 This made the natives also, as one writer has expressed it, 
 " economical of their lives," and, except in the cases of confeder- 
 ated tribes, who combined for both defensive and offensive war- 
 fare, the losses on any raid were comparatively slight. If the 
 tribe or village attacked proved too strong for the assailants, 
 discretion was judged the better part of valor, and a retreat 
 was ordered. 
 
 The speech of an old Natchez warrior to the younger 
 braves about to set out upon the war-path would seem to out- 
 line the whole theory of Indian warfare. 
 
 " Now, my brothers," he said, " depart with confidence. Let 
 your courage be mighty, your hearts big, your feet light, your 
 eyes open, your smell keen, your ears attentive, your skins 
 proof against heat, cold, water and fire. If the enemy should 
 prove too powerful, remember that your lives are precious, and 
 that one scalp lost by you is one cause of shame brought upon 
 your nation.* Therefore, if it be necessary, do not hesitate to 
 fly, and, in that case, be as wary as the serpent, and conceal your- 
 selves with the skill of the fox, or of the squirrel. But although 
 you run away, do not forget that you are men, that you are true 
 warriors, and that you must not fear the foe. Wait awhile, and 
 your turn will come. Then, when your enemy is in your power, 
 and you can assail him with advantage, fling all your arrows 
 at him, and, when they are exhausted, come to close quarters, 
 strike, knock down, and let your tomahawks be drunk with 
 blood." 
 
 Inured by fast and vigil, by tests of endurance and of 
 
 skill, by athletic games and the education which a hunter's 
 life gave in abstinence, suffering, danger, and endurance of 
 
 * It was customary to bear home the bodies of the fallen, or, at least, their scalps, rather than permit any tro- 
 phies or proofs of victory to remain in hostile hands. This custom was due to the theory already referred to, that 
 the possession of my portion of a person gave his rival endless power over him, alive or dead. 
 
 ■I 
 
THE INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 151 
 
 fatigue, the Indian lad grew to manhood longing for the time 
 when he too might strike the war-post and make for himself a 
 name among the warriors. To this end his mother and his 
 sisters toiled uncomplainingly, and his father, almost from baby- 
 hood, initiated him in all the ways of war. He learned the 
 
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 H -m 
 
 iiV ■ ' . , :' ■ . ■'' • 
 
 ON THE WAR-TRAIL. 
 
 language of the grass and of the sky, the wonderful and intri- 
 cate system of sign communication, the minutest details of 
 woodcraft and the keenest methods of trail-seeking and of 
 scent, primarily, for use in hunting, but ultimately for success 
 upon the war-path. 
 
 I 
 
 :1: 
 
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 mmm 
 
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 J 
 
 152 
 
 rJI£ INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
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 But, underlying all this barbaric education, was its basis 
 of superstition upon which has always rested the savage and 
 barbaric nature. Fear, which was the prevailing sentiment 
 among the American red-men, permeated all their beliefs and 
 colored all their customs. And this was not physical coward- 
 ice, it was dread of the supernatural. The Indian feared the 
 control of evil spirits while living, and doubly feared their 
 dominion when he should be dead. Half his life was passed 
 in the endeavor to baffle or propitiate them. As Mr. Dor- 
 man remarks, "the Indian's worst barbarities were committed 
 at the instigation of superstition," and in the horror of the 
 scalping-knife and of the torture-stake we are to see not the 
 pitiless malignity of a savage mind, but a blind and frenzied 
 concession to an undefinable fear of consequences which had 
 its root far back in the grosser and still more brutal days of 
 primeval savagery. 
 
 But, though he might be full of superstitious notions, the 
 personal bravery of the American Indian of earlier days is a 
 matter of historic fact. The moral decay of a race implies alsa 
 the degradation of its finer personal qualities. Bravery and 
 courage are lost as honesty and manliness decline, and the 
 deterioration of the red race of America is one of the 
 saddest evidences in proof. 
 
 The Indian lad of to-day, in tepee or on reservation, has 
 the same lofty contempt of manual labor that his ancestors 
 possessed. But with this he possesses none of the old-time 
 incentives to manly endeavor, to personal prowess, or to 
 brave and daring deeds. To lie, to cheat, to beg, to steal, 
 to live without work and to die as does the brute, consti- 
 tute in far too many cases the round and the desire of the 
 Indian's life, save only where some unselfish and strong-. 
 
THE INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 153 
 
 heartod friends of humanity seek to educate and lead him 
 into a better and more helpful way of living. 
 
 But with the loss of manhood caiv the loss of valor, and 
 one of the earliest signs of this deciine was the strain of 
 personal cowardice that, superinduced by a desire for the 
 white man's whiskey, gradually became a new factor in 
 Indian nature. 
 
 " White men who have dwelt all t. ir lives with the 
 Indians," says the Earl of Dunraven, "have to confess that 
 they know very little about their inner lives, and understand 
 nothing of the hidden springs of action rnd of the secret 
 motives that impel them to conduct themselves in the strange 
 and inexplicable manner they sometimes do." 
 
 There was much in the earlier Indian character that 
 recalls those still older barbarians — the Greeks and Trojans 
 of whom Homer suno:: 
 
 ! ' !'' 
 
 i; i 
 
 ?« 
 
 "O friends, be men, and let your hearts be strong. 
 And let no warrior in the heat of fight 
 Uo what may bring him shame in others' eyes ; 
 For more of those who shrink from shame are safe 
 Than fall in battle, while with those who Hee 
 Is neither glory, nor reprieve from death." 
 
 A certain old man, so runs the Omaha story, had been 
 very brave in his youth ; he had gone many times on the 
 war-path, and had killed many persons belonging to different 
 tribes. His only children were two young men. To them 
 he gave this advice: "Go on the war-path. It will be good 
 for you to die when young. Do not run away. I should 
 be ashamed if you were wounded in the back ; but it 
 would delight me to learn of your being wounded in the 
 breast." By and by there was war with another tribe, and 
 the two young men took part in it. Their party having 
 
154 
 
 THE INDIAN YOUTH. 
 
 PI 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 «■;■ 
 
 Jii' 
 
 been scared back, both young men were killed. When the 
 men reached home some one said, " Old man, your sons were 
 killed." " Yes," said he, " that is just what I desired. I 
 will go to see them. Let them alone ; I will attend to 
 them." He found his eldest son wounded all along the 
 back, but lying with his face toward home. " Wa ; wa ! " 
 said he ; " he lies as if he felt a strong desire to read', 
 home ! I said heretofore that you were to lie facing that 
 way ; " and, taking hold of the arms, he threw the body in 
 the other direction, with the face toward the enemy. He 
 found his younger son wounded in the breast, and lying 
 with his face toward the foe. " Ho ! this is my own son," 
 said he. " He obeyed me." And the father kissed his dead 
 boy and bore his body home. 
 
 4 
 
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 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ,1 
 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 The domestic life of any people is the surest index ta 
 its history. Only as the home element assumes a definite 
 and developing individuality is real progress possible. The 
 brute beast simply exists and multiplies. Brute man does the 
 same, until the soul-power, long lying dormant, begins to 
 assert its supremacy. And, as the family instinct, becom- 
 ing something more than merely brutish desire, gradually 
 develops the best faculties of man — affection, pride, self- 
 sacrifice, devotion — and thus leads the brute c.way from the 
 beast, so may we mark the advance of a people out of abso- 
 lute savagery toward an enduring civilization. 
 
 The story of the American Indian is the story of just 
 such an advance. Even the superficial civilization in which 
 the red-men had a place and which they themselves over- 
 threw doubtless had the family idea at its base ; but, because 
 of its lack oi the element of loving self-helpfulness without 
 which the family can never grow into a perfect nationality^ 
 this pseudo-civilization relapsed into savagery. 
 
 There is little doubt that the family life of the Iroquois, 
 the Ojibway and the Cherokee had in it more of real heart- 
 affection than had the home life of the Aztec and the 
 Mound-builder whom they overthrew. 
 
 III 
 
 

 i 
 
 m 
 
 m ' 
 
 111 t 
 
 «S6 
 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 And yet, as the preceding chajiters have shown, this 
 family Hfe of the Indian though it exhibited affection, care- 
 taking, self-sacrifice and pride, was wrongly centered and lacked 
 still the vital elemenl; of unselfishness without whi-.h no home 
 system can stand. 
 
 Husband and father, brother and son thought more of 
 personal glory and prowess than of the comfort and well- 
 being of those whose happiness should have been their 
 especial care. And even the woman element in the home 
 wasted its energies upon laborious details, from a mistaken 
 sense of personal proprietorship in the valor rather than the 
 love of the man. There was, thus, none of that mutual 
 sharing of sympathy and support that is necessary for a 
 happy home. 
 
 The Indian woman's idea of the future Hfe consisted only 
 in the relief from care and drudgery that it would bring. " Oh, 
 that I were dead, ' many an Indian woman has been heard to 
 say, " for then I shall have no more trouble." 
 
 There are, however, many indications from which it may be 
 inferred that there was prevalent among Indian women a yearn- 
 ing for a broader equality than that based simply upon labor 
 and valor. 
 
 We have seen how advanced was this 2quality among the 
 more intelligent tribes, such as those constituting the Iroquois 
 league, and, even among the lowest type of the California sav- 
 au:c were found evidences of this desire that w^ould be ludicrous 
 were they not so sadly real. Mr. Stephen Powers regards as a 
 significant fact the " almost universal prevalence, under various 
 forms, of a kind of secret league among the men, and the prac- 
 tice of diabolical orgies, for the purpose of terrorizing the 
 women into obedience. It shows," he continues, " how they 
 
 
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 H 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 i4 
 
 ■•J 
 
 i' I 
 
 I , 51 I 
 
 i«i 
 
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 1<l 
 
 i*«Hliiaitf]imm>iriii 
 
Af.LV.V/iA'S .l\D M. ITER J. M.S. 
 
 '59 
 
 . 
 
 (the women ) were coiUinually strui^ijjHng uj) toward equality, 
 and to what desperate expedients their lords were compelled to 
 resort in order to keep them in due subjection." 
 
 Mr. Bancroft, after an exhaustive study of the Native 
 Races, gives as his opinion that " it is among tribes that live by 
 the chase, or by other means in which women can be of service, 
 that we find the sex most oppressed and cruelly treated." In 
 proportion to their usefulness therefore was their degradation — 
 sure sign that the real home element, based on mutual help, had 
 no place in the Indian state. 
 
 And yet, as there were signs of a yearning for more real 
 equality there were indications also that this equality might 
 some day have been secured. Some women, like We-ta-moo of 
 Pocasset, whom the English called the warrior-queen, were able 
 to assert and to maintain their independence and supremacy,* 
 and among the progressive Iroquois the women of the tribe 
 while they had no absolute voice in the council were represented 
 by orators who were, on this account, knovv'n as " squaws' men." 
 Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, the Seneca — otherwise known as Red Jacket 
 
 — is said to have won no little reputation for himself in this 
 capacity and, as the representative of the women of his tribe, to 
 have spoken eloquent words for peace and independence and 
 thus to have laid the foundation of his future eminence. 
 
 It was by such a representation as this that the Iroquois 
 woman could oppose a war or secure a peace and in the sale of 
 land, they claimed a special right to exercise their prerogative 
 
 — for, as they claimed, "the land belongs to the warriors who 
 
 *The " Old Indian Chronicle " of Massachusetts says of We-ta-moo : " She is as jiotent a prince as any round 
 about her, and hath as much corn, land and men at her command ; " and Cooke's " Virginia " declares that the 
 aboriginal Virginians were content to be ruled by women. "Of this singular fact," says Mr. Cooke, "there is no 
 doubt, and it quite overthrows the general theory that the Indian women were despised subordinates." Pow-ha-tan's 
 " kingdom," as it was called, would, so it was stated, eventually descend to his sisters though the chief had sons 
 living. 
 
 W ;5 
 
 I 
 
 1! 
 
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 m 
 
 ! IB 
 
 ^i 
 
 hti 
 
 i6o 
 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 defend and to the women who till it." And this tilla2:e of 
 the land was no small thing. As it occupied much of a woman's 
 life, it gave to the Indian the means of existence through the 
 winter months when fish and flesh were hard to obtain, or 
 absolutely unattainable. 
 
 To the labors also of these female agriculturists is America 
 to-day indebted for a knowledge of some of the most important 
 vegetable products, as well as for some of the dishes now con- 
 sidered as strictly American. 
 
 The corn that is even now the staple American breadstuff, 
 was first brought from some unknown point in the West along 
 the paths of Indian migration. It speedily became the Indian 
 staple and was used in many ways as yet unknown to us. It 
 was planted, harvested and cooked by the Indian women, and 
 from the well-tilled Seneca corn-patches came the first sweet- 
 corn ever known to man. 
 
 F'rom these indefatic^able women-workers came also our 
 knowledge of the existence of such necessaries as squashes and 
 pumpkins, beans and melons. The Indian women were the 
 first to serve the smoking meal of baked beans, and to teach the 
 colonists from over-sea how to pic'pare the hoe cake and the ash 
 cake, pone and hominy, samp and succotash, gruel for the sick- 
 room, and the toothsome "corn that flowers," dear to our child- 
 hood as "pop corn." 
 
 With tools that \vere as primitive as are all aboriginal im- 
 plements, these women-farmers of old America yet made their 
 garden-patches yield a plentiful increase. But in the absence 
 of anything like systematic commercial intercourse, this yield 
 was limited to the tribal garden-patches, and needed to be used 
 to the best possible advantage. There was no waste among the 
 Indians until the white man fostered it. 
 
 ■I 
 
 1 
 
T 
 
 ^" 
 
 i 
 
 ,^ 
 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS, 
 
 i6i 
 
 The seasons of want, from long winters or dry summers, of 
 necessity made the Indian provident, and, as Dr. Eggleston 
 says, " None know better than the red-men with what last 
 resorts to sustain life in time of famine." 
 
 But, if the women were the farmers, the men were the 
 hunters. Food, as one of their chroniclers says, was precious 
 to the Indians; and meat, quite as much as corn, was the staff 
 of life among them. Indeed, it played a prominent part in 
 the economy of their domestic relations. " Squaw love to eat 
 meat," an old Indian once declared; "no husband — no meat. 
 Squaw do everything to please husband ; he do everything to 
 please squaw — all live happy." 
 
 In the more advanced tribes, where a higher necessity 
 demanded more forethought than General Fremont found, for 
 instance, in some of the Columbia River tribes who, as he says, 
 "grew fat and became poor with the salmon," the yields and 
 harvests of the woman-tilled soil were augmented by the fish 
 and flesh which weie secured by the bone fish-hook and grit- 
 stone hatchets, the fibre-woven nets and the unerring bow and 
 arrow of the wary hunter. 
 
 The tomahawk seems really to have been a creation of 
 the white traders, and not an aboriginal weapon. The war 
 club of hard wood, sometimes edged with flint, which certain of 
 the Southern Indians used, may have suggested the white 
 man's tomahawk, but before that invention the Indian's armory, 
 as a rule, contained only the bow and arrow. 
 
 So great, says Mr. Dorsey, was their skill in archery, that 
 they frequently sent their arrows completely through the 
 bodies of the animals at which they shot, and there have been 
 instances reported when, so great was the force of this flight of 
 the arrov/, with its sharp poin': of deer-horn or of the spur of the 
 
 ii 
 I 
 
 ;'5> 
 
 
 
 11 
 
I 
 
 V. 
 
 nil 
 
 I 
 
 \-A-^ a. . ; 
 
 mi ] 
 
 162 
 
 MAyA'EKS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 wild turkey, that it has not only passed entirely through the 
 body of a hunted buffalo, but has even gone flying through the 
 air far beyond the wounded animal. 
 
 Each hunter had his own distinguishing mark of proprietor- 
 
 A LESSON IN ARCHERY. 
 
 ship upon his arrows, so that he could recover his own again, 
 or could tell which animals he ^ ad slain. The " that was my 
 shot" quarrels of the hunting field were unknown to the Indian 
 marksmen. 
 
 Many of the tribes understood the art of dressing hides to 
 
 t 
 
 •r 
 
MANNERS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 163 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 perfection. The skins of the buffalo, deer, beaver and other 
 animals, made soft and pliant by the skilful manipulation of the 
 women, were manufactured into comfortable winter clothing by 
 the help of the awl-like needles formed from the small and thin 
 bone in the leg of the heron or in the larger sort of fish. 
 
 The Natchez Indian as also some among the Southwestern 
 villages, or "pueblos," understood the art of dyeing in various 
 colors, and made their skin robes brilliant in alternate stripes of 
 white and yellow, red and black. 
 
 The canoes made of fire-hollowed logs or of strips of birch 
 bark deftly laced and ribbed were the only means of navigation 
 known to the Indian; but these varied from the light shallops 
 of the East to the forty-foot war-boats of the Pacific tribes. 
 
 The red-men were expert paddlers and g()t)d near-shore navi- 
 gators but, so great was their confidence in their ability to 
 "paddle their own canoe," that they sometimes ventured be- 
 yond the bounds of caution. We have it on record that certain 
 of the Carolina Indians, disgusted with the treachery and bad 
 faith of the white traders, determined to remedy tho abuses by 
 trading direct with the consumers. They, therefore, secretly 
 fitted out several great canoes and dispatched them with their 
 freights and crews for England. Jkit the wide ocean was as 
 remorseless as the white-man's treachery, and the jDoor paddlers 
 were never heard of more. 
 
 It has been said that there was no system of commercial 
 intercourse among the American Indians. This, so far as it 
 relates to a uniform and organized method of barter and sale, 
 was undoubtedly the fact, and yet the well-worn and connecting 
 trails and the preeminence given to one especial article of Indian 
 manufacture would indicate the existence of some recos:nized 
 system of business inter-communication. 
 
lii: 
 
 ;'' ' 
 
 KltiJI 
 
 - I 
 
 164 
 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 From the remotest antiquity the use of shells as ornaments 
 amonir mankind has been universal. The earliest anions: men, 
 obtaining their food from the ocean or the great lakes, put the 
 larger shells from which they extracted their food, to practical 
 use as cups and dishes. 
 
 As these shells were broken or thrown aside some more 
 reflective mind, in which was slowly awakening the first 
 gleams of the artistic faculty, conceived the idea of perforating 
 
 and stringing the thicker portions of 
 the broken shells; and thus was origi- 
 nated the use of personal ornaments — 
 possibly the earliest necklaces and pen- 
 dants. 
 
 Gradually these rude strings of 
 shells, becoming attractive to the savage 
 eye, obtained a certain value as, in the 
 course of migration or of barter, they 
 found their way into localities remote from their source of 
 supply. Increasing demand led to more careful manufacture, 
 and thus was brought about that crude attempt at a circula- 
 ting medium which became at last an established article of 
 sava2:e manufacture. 
 
 Through all the changes of peoples and communities these 
 coveted bits of shell held place and prominence, appearing, 
 finally, in historic times, as the chief, and indeed the only 
 material approaching the standard of permanent value which 
 among civilized man has always been given to the precious 
 metals and the more precious stones. 
 
 Certain choice sea or lake shells laboriously ground and 
 perforated to the size of " a wheat straw," were variously colored 
 and strung upon a single strand of vegetable fibre, a strip of 
 
 A WAMI'U.M NKCKl.ACK. 
 
 r 
 
 * 
 ^ 
 
MANNEJiS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 165 
 
 «« 
 
 buckskin or a bit of sinew. These strings of shell beads grew 
 in value as the demand for them increased, and though known 
 under a variety of names, as diverse as the native dialects, they 
 have retained most widely their Algonquin name of warn-pum- 
 pe-age (" the belt of rounded shells"), a word abridged for 
 English use into the well-known name of Wampum. 
 
 From the red denizens of Labiiidor to their far-off brethren 
 of Lower California, in the Mississippi valleys, and from the 
 Lakes to the Gulf, was this precious wampum used. It was the 
 Indian's most coveted possession. Even at a recent date the 
 tribes of the Columbia River, according to Lewis and Clark, 
 would " sacrifice their last article of clothing or their last 
 mouthful of food " to procure it ; and John Lawson, writing 
 long ago, declared : " This is the money with which you may 
 buy skins, furs, slaves, or anything J-he Indians have ; it being 
 their mammon (as our money is to us) that entices and per- 
 suades them to do anything, and part with everything they 
 possess, except their children for slaves. . . . With this 
 they buy off murders ; and whatsoever a man can do that is ill, 
 this wampum will quit him of and make him, in their opinion, 
 good and virtuous, though never so black before." 
 
 Probably in no land and among no race of men has an 
 article of apparently so small an intrinsic value become of such 
 immense importance, and none surely was ever put to so many 
 uses. 
 
 Aside from its circulation as a sort of natural currency * 
 the wampum of the American Indians was used by them for 
 
 * Mr. Morgan, it is true, claims that there is no sufficient reason for calling wampum the " money of the Indian," 
 or for the assertion that they ever made it an exclusive currency. "There is however no doubt," he says, " that it 
 came nearer to a currency than any other species of prnpi-rty among the Indians, and its transit from hand to liand 
 became so easy that everyone could be said to need it." Mr. William H. Holmes, however, ni an exhaustive study 
 of the ancient American " art in shells," holds that the shells used as wampum did have a fixed and uniform value 
 and formed a natural currency. 
 
 I 
 
 ^m 
 
 1 
 
 \\i 
 
M 
 
 Kit J. I 
 
 V 
 
 !l t 
 
 it' 
 
 •I 
 >■ 
 
 1 66 
 
 MAXXEJ^S AND MATERIALS. 
 
 personal adornment, for the decoration of costumes, robes, the 
 cradles of their children and the grave-clothes of their dead. 
 It took the place of written records, * and stood, by the wonder- 
 ful power of memorizing possessed by certain of the red-men, as 
 the record of histories, laws, treaties and speeches. It was a 
 method of communication between friendly and hostile tribes, 
 it was used in connection with compacts, agreements, and con- 
 tracts, in opening and closing councils, as proof of authority 
 and credentials, in marriage feasts and at funerals, for summon- 
 ing councils, solemnizing oaths, declaring war and proclaiming 
 peace. 
 
 Mr. Brice in his description of an Indian council held in 
 the Muskingum valley, gives the following" report of a speech 
 in council accompanied by the delivery of wampum belts. 
 Each sentence, he says, was pronounced with great solemnity 
 and confirmed by the delivery of a belt of wampum : 
 
 " Brothers, with this belt I open your ears that you may hear 
 — with this I remove grief and sorrow from your hearts — with 
 this I draw from your feet the thorns that pierced them as you 
 journeyed thither — with this I clean the seats of the council- 
 house, that you may sit at ease — with this I wash your head 
 and body, that your spirits may be refreshed — with this I con- 
 dole with you on the loss of the friends who have died since we 
 last met — and with this I wipe out any blood which may ^ave 
 been spilt between us." 
 
 The value and infinence of this Indian mediuin can scarcely 
 be over-estimated. It stands as an important element in Indian 
 life, and its history is, indeed, the story of the rise and progress 
 
 * " These wampum bells as I have said took the place of contracts, of public acts, and of annals or registers. For 
 the savages, liaviiig nn wiiiinR or letters, and findinsj tliemselves soon forgetting the transactions that orcur among 
 lliein from time to time, supply this deficiency by inaking for themselves a local memory by means of words which 
 they attach to these belts, of which each one refers to so-i e particular affair, or some circutnstance which it repre- 
 sents so long as it exists." — Lafitau : Afaeurs des Sdiivages A meriqunines. 
 
 m 
 
 Y 
 
I 
 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS, 
 
 167 
 
 of the race in whose duties, occupations, organizations and 
 ambitions it played so conspicuous a part. 
 
 But there were other things, also, that determined the char- 
 acter and quality of the Indian life: — arts and inventions, 
 beyond the attainment even of peoples who have not been 
 esteemed barbaric ; workmanship, of which even the skilled 
 artificer of to-day might be proud ; productiveness, that betrays 
 an intelligence never yet conceded to these so-called " savages." 
 
 I \ 
 
 
 DKCOKATKD WA.MI'LM HELPS. 
 
 Relics and excavations attest their skill in the making of 
 pottery, beyond that which even their pre-historic ancestors of 
 mound and pueblo attained. The Indian method of tanning 
 skins is still esteemed the best; the Indian deer-skin shoe, or 
 moccason, as originally made, was a better shoe than ancient 
 Rome or media^vel Europe produced and, so experts have 
 declared, "deserves to be classed among the highest articles 
 
 H; 
 
 it; 
 ■i 't 
 
 
 Ik -Sill 
 
 I 'i 
 
 I 
 

 1 68 
 
 MANNERS AND MATF.KIAI.S. 
 
 of apparel ever invented, alike in usefulness, durability and 
 beauty." The bark rope, the beautiful, strong and skilfully- 
 made burden-straps of porcupine-quills, the canoe, bark tray 
 and sap-tub, the corn-mortar, snow-shoe and Da-ya-ya-da-g'd - 
 ne'd-t'd or fire-maker (really a unique and ingenious invention 
 
 for creating a fire, in 
 the absence of matches, 
 metals, and chemicals) 
 all testify to the pa- 
 tience and developed 
 skilfulness of the In- 
 dian manufacturer. 
 The basket making 
 and ivory turning of 
 even the degenerate 
 races known to us to- 
 day, the delicate and 
 often wonderfully artistic weaving of the Navajos, and the peo- 
 ple of Zuni, the air gun and arrows still made by the Chero- 
 kees, the buckskin ball and the hickory rackets of the Choctaws 
 and Seminoles, the polished stone ware and the rotary drill of 
 the Moki and Zuiii Indians — relics of the lost arts of their 
 ancestors — all attest the high state of semi-civilized inventive- 
 ness which the Indians before the discovery had attained. 
 Indeed it is by a careful study and comparison of Indian arts 
 and inventions that students of race-characteristics have been 
 able to assert the common origin and connected life of the red- 
 men of America. The similarity of their labors and their pro- 
 ductions is ample proof that their life in all sections of their 
 wide domain was essentially the same, modified only by the 
 degrees of intelligence to which they had severally attained. 
 
 a H.rtMlS.*. 
 
 INDIAN METIKJl) OK l.IC.IITING FIKK. 
 
 T 
 
 Y 
 
 i 
 
■^ 
 
 T 
 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 169 
 
 The main barrier to the lii<j;lier intellectual development of 
 the American Indian — even had not the white discoverer 
 come to so comj)letely change his destiny — was undoubtedly 
 an ethical quite as well as an ethnical one. 
 
 With a philosophy based upon superstition rather than 
 reason, a morality that sprung from the limitations rather than 
 the exaltations of life, and a system of law based on security 
 
 ! \ 
 
 l 
 
 i 
 
 \ 
 
 .NA\AJU IJAsKEl WORK. 
 
 rather than justice, the Indian mind was as slow to reach con- 
 clusions as was its volition contracted. Though it held the 
 same elements of morality that form the basis of civilized char- 
 acter, their right development was retarded because the stand- 
 ard of attainment was low. 
 
 " Law," says Major Powell, "begins in savagery through the 
 
 i' i 
 
 li 
 
 i X 
 
 m\ 
 
'TajEIT'-flfl 
 
 i 
 
 
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 vl 
 
 iiii:. 
 
 I 1 1- 
 
 
 ■} 
 
 ./ ! 
 
 "1-. : 
 
 170 
 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 endeavor to secure peace, and develops, in the highest civiliza- 
 tion, into the endeavor to establish justice." 
 
 A careful study into the fundamental principles of the 
 Indian idea of justice and equity will discover that this idea 
 related solely to the pre^T'^'ticn of controversy or its termina- 
 tion. All the doings and talk of the Indian councils, the inter- 
 change of presents and the payment of tribute or of indemnity 
 were directed toward this end, and many a pliase of tribal life 
 seemingly without reason, will be found to spring from this 
 cause. 
 
 As has been shown elsewhere, the arrows of each hunter or 
 warrior bore upon them private marks so that the game or the 
 scalp might be claimed by its rightful owner; and it is on 
 record that a Sioux war-party having surprised and killed, at 
 the first fire, a squad of sleeping soldiers, left the bodies, the 
 arms and property of their victims untouched because it could 
 not be determined by whose bullets the soldiers had been 
 killed. This, according to the Indian law, was the only just 
 settlement of a dispute as to possession — prove your property 
 or leave it alone. 
 
 The deference shown to age, that has also been elsewhere 
 referred to, will upon investigation be found to have another 
 basis than that of mere affection. It holds even where affec- 
 tion does not exist, and is due to the universal law, always a 
 part of the Indian economy, that authority belongs to the elder. 
 It was this law — a sure way of settling controversy — that gave 
 rise to the seemingly curious custom among the Indians of 
 never addressing a person by his proper name, but always by 
 his kinship term. 
 
 Such a kinship term would convey a relative idea of the age 
 of the person addressed, and would itself show to whom author- 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 
AfANA'EJiS AMJ MATERIALS. 
 
 »7« 
 
 > 
 
 ity or possession bclonu;cd. " When we are young," said an old 
 Wastonquah medicine man, " we do not care how old we are, 
 and when we are old we do not care to know." 
 
 Among the Omahas there were fourteen of these "consan- 
 guinity terms " for male relationship, and for female kindred 
 fifteen. The most remote ancestors were called grandfathers 
 
 '11 
 
 7 
 
 r~^2^ 
 
 INDIAN UKAl'ONS. 
 
 T 
 
 1 
 
 and grandmothers ; the most remote descendants were addressed 
 or spoken of as grandchildren. The Seneca child called its 
 mother's sisters "mother" — either "great" or " little " mother, 
 according as the sisters were older or younger than the real 
 mother. 
 
 So closely allied to law, among barbaric peoples, is super- 
 stition that this very law of consanguinities led to a supersti- 
 tious dread of speaking or telling one's own name. Disuse 
 
172 
 
 MANiYJ'lUS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 pit' 
 W 'I 
 
 H 1 1 
 
 W0^ 
 
 creates distrust, and it became one of the canons of the Indian's 
 faith that to tell or speak aloud one's own name gave to the 
 enemy, or the evil spirit that the Indian always feared and 
 sought to baffle, a power over the speaker which would be used 
 for purposes of sorcery or witchcraft. 
 
 For this reason there was always much difficulty in learning 
 an Indian's real name, and he would employ both reticence and 
 evasion to conceal it. This did not preclude another person 
 from telling the name; it only applied to the Indian in question 
 or to some member of his immediate family.* 
 
 Johann Kohl, the German traveller, relates a curious exam- 
 ple of this absurd superstition. " To whom does this gun 
 belong? " he asked an Indian squaw. " It belongs to him," she 
 replied. " And who is ' him ' ? " demanded Mr. Kohl. "Why, 
 the man who has his seat there," the woman answered, pointing 
 to her husband's seat in the lodge. And at another time, 
 havinij asked an Indian his name the man remained silent for a 
 long time, and finally, when the question had been repeatedly 
 asked by Mr. Kohl, the Indian nudged a bystander and said, 
 " Tell him my name." 
 
 Thus, in many and often unexpected ways, can the whole 
 fabric of aboriginal life in America be traced to a logical cause, 
 resident in the red-man's peculiar and childlike conceptions of 
 the superstitions, moralities and laws that lay at the basis of his 
 circumscribed and limited powers. 
 
 There is, in the whole life of man, no happening that is due 
 to chance. Even the smallest occurrence or custom may be 
 traced to a logical and legitimate cause. And to this rule the 
 American Indian was no exception. From North to South, 
 
 * It it because <,f this supeisf.tion that so much confusion arises in the identification of historic Indians, and it 
 is because of this that the dauj^hter of the wily chief of the Pow-ha-tans, Ma-ta-Ua, is known to us only by her 
 nickname of " little wan'.aii " — f.o-<,i-hu>i-t is — \vr fallier rofiisinc; tn (li«cVise lier real name to his wliite neighbors. 
 
 V 
 
 -«3» 
 
r 
 
 MANJVE/iS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 »73 
 
 from East to West, wherever a red-man lived and labored, 
 hunted, fought or died, from birth to burial his life was but that 
 of his brothers. Faiths, customs and methods were at base 
 identical. 
 
 All Indians, alike, located their misty and mythical paradise 
 in the West " toward the sinking sun "; their laws of hospitality 
 were the same ; their modes of war and worship, their tribal 
 
 a'- 
 
 \ 
 
 
 CUUNCII, OV ClllKlS AM) WAKRIUKS. 
 
 relations, their manner of hunting, their amusements and their 
 burial customs were largely similar. 
 
 " Peculiarities of manners and customs," says Schoolcraft, 
 " where they exist in the most striking forms, are found to be 
 due in oreat measure to the diversities of latitude and lonoi- 
 tude, changes of climate, geographical position and the natural 
 products and distinctive zoology of the country." 
 
 And Mr. Lewis H. Morgan in his careful study of the life 
 and history of the Indians sees in the similarity of their arts 
 and inventions a certain proof of their undivided race connec- 
 tion. "To this day," he says, "Indian life is about the same 
 
 ■If 
 
 li 
 
 a 
 
 ifii 
 
I 
 
 ' r 
 
 r I 
 
 174 
 
 mmmmmmm 
 
 MANNERS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 over the whole republic, and in describing the fabrics which 
 illustrate the era of Indian occupation, we should take in the 
 whole range of Indian life, from the wild tribes dwelling in the 
 seclusions of Oregon, to the present semi-agricultural Iroquois 
 who reside amongst us. Many of the relics disentombed from 
 the soil of New York relate back to the period of the mound- 
 builders of the West, and belong to a race of men and to an age 
 which have passed beyond the ken of Indian tradition. Our 
 first Indian epoch is thus connected with that of the mound- 
 builders." 
 
 And during all the era of Indian occupation, so this laborious 
 student assures us, though there were diversities of manners 
 and customs Indian Hfe was essentially the same. "One sys- 
 tem ot trails," he Sc , " belted the whole face of the territory 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific; and the intercourse between 
 the multitude of nations who dwelt within these boundless 
 domains was constant, and much more extensive than has ever 
 been supposed." 
 
 It was to this widely-scattered, but generically-related race — 
 so different in every way from the masses of Euiope, them- 
 ;.elves just emerging from the darkness of feudalism, of igno- 
 rance and of a system little else than barbaric- — that the white 
 men from across the sea came, seekinc: for riches and dominion. 
 Let us draw from the historic records the story of this clashing 
 of alien customs and manners, faiths and laws — the story of the 
 m'"igling lives of the red-man and the white 
 
T 
 
 ' WVIVH'"'*"' 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE COMING OF THE WHITE MAN. 
 
 J- 
 
 mmm 
 
 :>^>!^^ 
 
 After a thousand years of ab- 
 solute supremacy this, then, had 
 the American Indian become — 
 a free man of the forest and the 
 plains, a citizen of a sylvan 
 republic, ranging in intellectual 
 force through the several phases 
 of progressive barbarism, as op- 
 portunity, capacity or occupation 
 placed him. 
 
 A home-lover and a home-liver 
 after his kind; holding peculiar 
 but, judged from his standpoint, 
 altogether logical ideas of life, liberty and the ■pursuit of happi- 
 ness, and with a certain, regulated system of law that may 
 have been crude and primitive, but was yet respected through- 
 out all his broad domain ; with a nature capable of advance 
 along certain restricted lines — a nature dwarfs-' and warped 
 by superstition and the forms it creates, but yet with the high- 
 est possibilities of courage, endurance, virtue and honor; with 
 a mind restricted in its workings, but singularly childlike and 
 imitative when brought into contact with higher intelligencies, 
 
 I7S 
 

 176 
 
 tj/Jl coming of the u'hjte man. 
 
 the Indians of North America were struu;Q:lino; t(nvard an ad- 
 vanced })osition in the scale of civilization which, though far 
 below that attained by the Caucasian race might, still, have gone 
 far beyond that which other semi-civilizations have reached. 
 
 The logic of events is inexorable. Nowhere in the history 
 of the world has a nomadic, a hunting, or a purely agricultural 
 race been allowed to monopolize a territory which could be 
 made to support a more numerous, because more intellecaially 
 productive population. 
 
 The history of the People, from pre-Adamite times to those 
 of Canaan and the Congo, furnish incontestable proof of the 
 inevitable woi ngs of this law. Through ages, and aeons per- 
 haps, the continent of America had been preparing for its ulti- 
 mate possessors. Its veins of iron, of coal, and of practical and 
 precious metals, its noble sea-harbors, its mighty lakes and 
 rivers, inviting commerce, its vast stretches of fertile farm-land, 
 its inexhausti])le forests, its unrivalled sites for the great cities 
 \^hich the accumulating life of a greater nation must eventually 
 occupy — all these pointed to a possibility which must in time 
 be evolved from an era of preparation. 
 
 So the V hite man came. He came with his mvsterious 
 ships and his more mysterious implements and arms, with his 
 prancing horses that, alone, were to revolutionize the ways of 
 Indian life, with his greed for gold and gain, his determination 
 for dominion, his arrogant and overbearing nature, his manhood- 
 destroying drink, his love of barter and his peculiar creeds. 
 The first rav of light that showed to the watchful Columbus 
 from the Santa Maria's deck the low-lying islands of the South- 
 ern sea ushered in, for the American Indian to whom the ureat 
 admiral thus unwittingly came, not the sunrise, but the twilight, 
 of iiis' race. 
 
 i 
 
!=« 
 
 u^ 
 
 THE COMING OF THE IVHETE MAN. 
 
 177 
 
 ^ 
 
 1. 
 
 t, 
 
 That the red-man and the white had met before Columbus' 
 day there is Httle doubt. But this acquaintance had been so 
 limited and fragmentary that the existence of a white race was 
 to the Indian little else than mythical, mysterious and legendary. 
 The discoN'cries of Columbus fjave to the red-man of the Ameri- 
 can continent his first real and lasting knowledge of the abso- 
 
 hO TllL UlUn. MA.N CAMK. 
 
 lute existence of the "white manitous" of his lodge-fire legends 
 and tales. 
 
 lUit, because of these legends and tales, he was all the more 
 ready to put in jn-actice his universal law i>f hospitality, and to 
 extend to the strangers a ready and generous welcome. 
 
 Rumor never lags, and rumor that has its foundation in fact 
 travels even swifter than a groundless fabrication. Along the 
 
 I 
 
 % 
 
 ii: 
 
 
 ■*_ 
 
 I 
 
178 
 
 THE COMIXG OF THE JV/f/TT MAN. 
 
 ^1 
 
 narrow Indian trails tliat skirted tlic Atlantic seaboard and 
 stretched far away into the back country, or over tlie gleaming 
 water-ways that bore the frail canoe, there sped with ever- 
 increasing force the startling reports of the coming of the 
 canoes with wings, the men with white faces and invulnerable 
 bodies, the strange animals — neither dog nor deer — upon 
 which the pale-faced chieftains rode, the black-frocked medicine 
 men, the wooden cross, and the tubes that shot out liuhtninu:. 
 
 Around the fire-pit in lodge and council house, as from tribe 
 to tribe the marvellous stories ran, the strange tidings were told 
 and retold, discussed and pondered upon, and the mysterious 
 visitors were reckoned as white manitous sent from the far- 
 distant shores of Che-ba-ku-nah, the Land of Souls. 
 
 The Algonquins of the North listened to and spread the 
 story as it came from those of their people who in 1497 had 
 seen the ships of the Cabots, and those who, in 1500, had 
 watched from rocky shores the sails of Cortcreal ; the tribes of 
 the South responded witli the reports of those who had wel- 
 comed the caravels of Ojeda and Vespucci in 1499, and, 
 during the months of 1500 and 1502, had seen through the live 
 oaks and the pines the vessels of now unknown Spanish navi- 
 gators who explored the coast from Pensacola and the Gulf to 
 the mouths of the Chesapeake 7\vx\ the Hudson. The Indians 
 of the sea-coast received as gifts or in barter new and marvellous 
 trinkets and cloths, glittering and gorgeous in color, such as had 
 never been seen before. i\nd, as they showed these baubles 
 and stuffs to tlieir brethren of the interior, they told also of a 
 maiiic drink which the white manitous had given them, and 
 which first set tl.em on fire and then filled them with pas.-.ion 
 and mirth and the desire for sleej? 
 
 So, with extravagant demonstrations of welcome, with pres- 
 
 ' ' «^r3^TWf , 
 
" Al'lNt' 1111 
 
 ^,KUou Tuvn. mK^iAK'MN.; n..iN..s si.ia.. 
 
m 
 
 
 t 
 
THE COMfNG OF TIfl' U'lfJTE MAN. 
 
 i8i 
 
 «j 
 
 at*. 
 
 ents of maize and fisli and fruits, and, often, with offcrini^s in 
 sacrifice to propitiate and please their mysterious visitors, the 
 Indians of the North .American coast from Yucatan to Labrador, 
 gave to the first of the navigators a cordial, hearty and helpful 
 welcome. There does not appear a single exception to this 
 spontaneous Indian hospitality in the whole story of early 
 American discovery. 
 
 But this record of friendship was soon to be changed, and by 
 the very men who should have perpetuated it. All too speedily 
 the trustful and superstitious Indians found their white mani- 
 tous to be but mortal men, and very scurvy ones at that. 
 
 The opening years of the sixteenth century saw Europe still 
 but half-civilized. Letters and learning were monopolized by 
 the few, and tlie letters were as crude as was the learning 
 pedantic. The invention by means of which Faust and Guten- 
 berg were to give an immeasurable advance to man's possi- 
 bilities, the freedom of thought that was to emancipate him 
 from the slavery of Rome, moved both slowly and uncertainly. 
 The baleful influence of feudalism, and the iron bands of a 
 priestly despotism which even then held over one third of all 
 the land in Europe in thrall, still kept the men and women of 
 Europe in political and spiritual bondage. And it was the 
 nation most deeply sunk in this feudal and religious despotism 
 that gave to the world the knowledge of a new continent and 
 sent her shij)s and her sailors across the western sea to discover, 
 explore, conquer and claim for the king of Spain all the new- 
 found lands. 
 
 Schooled in the ruthless tutelage of ei«'ht centuries ot war- 
 fare and of conquest amid the Moors of Spain, every Spaniard 
 was a figliter, and, in the eyes of hidalgo and of don, evC' y infidel, 
 as Dr. Ellis says, was " an enemy exempted from all tolerance 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
; 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 182 
 
 y/Z/i COMING OF THE WHITE MAN. 
 
 and mercy. Trcaclicry, defiance of pledges and treaties, bru- 
 talities and all wild and reckless strata^^ems, had educated the 
 champions of the Cross and faith in what were to them but the 
 accomplishments of the soldier and the fidelity of the believer." 
 
 Brutality may be evnlained, though it can never be excused^ 
 and this condition of the .Spanish nature in 1500 helps to 
 explain the atrocities which befouled the pathway along which 
 Spanish dis( yvery passed. Add to this an insatiable greed of 
 gold and of spoil, an absolute disinclination to work, more 
 marked than that of the Indian brave himself, and an arrogance 
 of bigotry w'hich saw in all men not of Castilian faith and 
 blood heretics and infidels, and in all whom the Church held as 
 pagans material only for serfs and slaves, and the cause that 
 led alike to Spanish dominion and to Spanish downfall is at 
 once disclosed. 
 
 It was with such a nature as this that the Indians of America 
 were, first of all, brought into contact. 
 
 The child-nature, as it is quick to welcome and appropriate 
 the marvellous, is also quick to retaliate when what it has 
 loyally accepted proves unworthy or hostile. • A child, hurt by 
 a new pet or injured by a new toy, angrily punishes or destroys 
 its aggressor ; a savage, deceived or abused by one at first 
 accepted as faultless, speedily learns to distrust and detest. 
 Familiarity does often breed contempt, and when the sadly 
 mortal nature of the supposed manitous became so painfully 
 api)arent to the disillusioned red-man, distrust and hatred soon 
 worked their logical course. 
 
 The European occupation of America naturally divides 
 itself into three epochs : the days of the navigators, the days of 
 the cojiquistadores, the days of the colonists, and in each epoch 
 is to be found the same misunderstanding and disregard of the 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
TJIE COMING OF THE U'JIJTE MAN. 
 
 183 
 
 i'> 
 
 1* 
 
 Indians character and the Indian's riulit. The treachery of 
 the navigators, the brutaUty of tiie conquerors, and the studied 
 injustice of the colonists laid the foundation for the years of 
 terror, of massacre and of blood that fill the jKiges of early 
 American history. 
 
 The very first phase of European contact with the Ameri- 
 can was the knavish kidnapping of hosts by guests as "sam- 
 ples " for exhibition at home ; the next was the cruel system of 
 Indian slavery which, instituted by Columbus himself, was prac- 
 tised by every nation that thereafter found a footing on Ameri- 
 can soil. 
 
 In the days of the navisfators the slave-catcher and the 
 explorer travelled in company, and, basing the authority for 
 their actions upon the infamous Sparish law that gave to the 
 King as suzerain and liege a proprietory right over all tlie 
 lands discovered, and all the natives thereof, the Spanish 
 explorers took possession alike of lands and natives in the 
 name of their King and allotted their human spoils according 
 to the rank and station of the "gentlemen" of the expedition. 
 The system of Indian slavery thus instituted by Columbus and 
 his companions outri vailed in horror and atrocity all the malig- 
 nities of the most fiendish form of modern African slavery. 
 
 Spain, with the long line of her navigators, from Columbus 
 the admiral, and Velasci'iez, the slave-catcher of Yucatan, to 
 De Soto, bloody and brutal in his greed for Indian slaves, led 
 this infamous and demoralizing trafiic. lUit, as has been said, 
 the other nations who followed her as explorers and colonizers 
 were but little behind her in their treacherous trade in men. 
 Gasper Cortereal in his Portuguese vessel brought away from 
 Labrador a number of its natives, "admirably calculated for 
 labor, and the best slaves I have ever seen ; " Verrazano the 
 
:m 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 i 
 
 184 
 
 77//? COMIXG OF 77 IE WHITE MAN. 
 
 Frenchman foully returned the h()S|)itality of the North Caro- 
 lina Indians who had rescued his drowning; sailors, by kidnap- 
 ping the children of the tribe; Mawkins the I^lnglishniaii in his 
 slave-ship, bearing the merciful name of "Jesus," followed suit, 
 and the iniquitous system thus begun did not entirely disappear 
 until the brighter days of colonial revolution. 
 
 The Indians of America acknowledged neither master nor 
 lord. The Iroquois and the Cherokee republics, fit prototypes 
 of the greater republic that was to follow them, taught the 
 lessons of man's equality and freedom that were common to all 
 the Indian tribes. Brave and chief were upon an equal footing, 
 and the red-men could neither understand nor appreciate the 
 iniquitous law of Spain nor the arrogant assumption of posses- 
 sion which the white men claimed. 
 
 The logical result of brutality and bad faith on the part of 
 the stronger party must be hatred and duplicity on the part 
 of the weaker and persecuted one. No wonder that the startled 
 natives of the seashore tribes shot off great flights of arrows at 
 the approaching ships thinking to kill them as they would the 
 beasts of prey; no wonder that Jacques Cartier, feeling his way 
 alone: the northeastern coasts, where for vears Breton fisher- 
 men and unscrupulous voyagers had trafficked and cheated, 
 reported the Indians to be " wild and unruly ; " no wonder that 
 the red-man's hatred of the S [vanish conqiiistadorcs should be so 
 intense that a captive chief bound to the Spanish torture stake, 
 when promised e.^inal bliss or eternal torment as he should 
 accept or reject the Catholic faith, asked the pertinacious 
 " black-coat " if there were any Spaniards in heaven, and on 
 being assured that there were he bade the prie.-t begone and 
 added " I will not go to a })lace v/here I may meet with one of 
 that accursed race," 
 
 \ 
 
 «a 
 
THE COMlMi or TlfE in//'/'/- JA/yV. 
 
 •85 
 
 4^ 
 
 As, first, along the narrow trails had sped the rumor of the 
 white man's landing upon the shores of the "(ireat Salt Water," 
 until the tribes of the coast had seen and the tribes of the 
 interior had heard of this new factor in Indiai. life, so now 
 quickly followed the tidings of disaster and of death which the 
 the new comers had 
 wrought, until those 
 wh(j had been ready 
 to welcome were hot 
 to meet and repel this 
 treacherous invader. 
 The brothers of the 
 kidnapped Donnacona 
 in the North, and of 
 the butchered Chero- 
 kee patriots in the 
 South, replaced their 
 gifts of hospitality with 
 the war-whoop and 
 gave to their persecu- 
 tors blood for blood. 
 Step by step they dog- 
 ged the track of Euro- 
 pean exploration and 
 the battle of Mauvila 
 on the Alabama, " the 
 bloodiest battle ever ft)ught on our soil between the red-man 
 and the white,"* marked the protest as it showed the inherent 
 weakness of the Indian tribes. 
 
 * Koiiglit ill tlie year 15(0 between l)e Solo and tlie Indians of the Cherokee confederacy. Tlie Spanisli loss in 
 Unied and woniided was 175 ; the Indi.m, accordin.; to Spanish records, nearly 3000. Mauvila was an Indian town 
 on the Alabama river about thirty miles north of the present city of Mobile — which derives its name from this old 
 Indian stronghold. 
 
 SPANISH UCCUl'ATIUN. 
 
 n rw .III a^iap m i 
 
IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-S) 
 
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1 86 
 
 THE COMING OF THE WHITE MAN. 
 
 Still the conquerors persisted, and fast upon their heels 
 came the colonists — a mingled and constantly-increasing 
 throng, the oppressed, the adventurous and the scum of Europe 
 seeking homes and wealth in a new world where liberty could 
 be turned to license, and tlie force of a man's strong arm was 
 the only or the surest law. 
 
 But now another element, more potent than the white 
 man's arm and the red-man's vengeance, was introduced into this 
 conflict of races; an element more destructive, because more 
 insidious, more fatal because more degrading than Sjmnish rack 
 and chain or Eniilish ^m\\ and sword. 
 
 The white man's fire-water was his strongest and most 
 deadly ally in the conquest and disintegration of the native 
 American race. The story of its introduction, its influence, 
 and its triumph is the saddest record yet made of the downfall 
 and destruction of a once noble race and is, in itself, the strong- 
 est plea for temperance that the annals of man's weaknesses 
 can show. 
 
 Up to the time of Columbus drunkenness was an unknown 
 vice among the American Indians. Their sole drink was cold 
 water save among certain of the Southern tribes where it is 
 said, though this is not entirely proven, that a certain decoction 
 of herbs steeped into what was termed "the black drink" was 
 an occasional though by no means appetizing beverage. Smoke 
 was sometimes swallowed and retained in the lungs until partial 
 intoxication resulted, but even this was considered a demoraliz- 
 ing habit and was used more as an anaesthetic than an excitant. 
 
 When Ma-se-wa-pe-ga, the Ojibway, brought back from his 
 visit to the "white spirits" a certain allowance of the fire-water 
 received from them as a gift, none of his tribe dared drink it, 
 believing it to be some deadly poison that the white man used 
 
 ^ 
 
 BSSSB 
 
#• 
 
 I 
 
 J] 
 
 r 
 
 THE COMING OF THE WHITE MAN. 
 
 .87 
 
 as a snare. To test its virtues, however, so runs the story, they 
 resoKed to try its effect upon a very old woman wlio liad but a 
 short time longer to live, and whose death would therefore be of 
 small account. The old woman drank of the proffered "poi- 
 son " but, instead of dying, she appeared perfectly happy ; recov- 
 ering from the first effects, she begged for more. Thereupon the 
 braves themselves dared to taste and speedily drank up what 
 remained. From that time, says the narrative, " fire-water 
 became the mammon of the Ojibways, and a journey of hun- 
 dreds of miles to procure a taste of it, was considered but as 
 boy's play." 
 
 And as with the Ojibways of the West, so with the tribes of 
 the East, the South, and the far Pacific coast. The advent of 
 the white man's "fire-drink" marked the first downward step 
 for the red race of America, whose desire like that of the child- 
 nature everywhere, knew no limit to appetite but gratification. 
 
 " Take these Indians in their own trim and natural disposi- 
 tion," wrote Master William Wood in his " New En(j:land's 
 Prospect," two hundred and fifty years ago, "and they be 
 reported to be wise, lofty-spirited, constant in friendship to one 
 another, true in their promises and more industrious than many 
 others." And so they remained, he continues, " until some of 
 our English, to unclothe them of their beavei* coats, clad them 
 with the infection of swearins: and drinkin*'- which was never in 
 fashion with them before, it being contrary to their nature to 
 guzzle down strong drink, until our bestial examj^le and dishon- 
 est incitation hath brought them to it, and, from overflowing 
 cups there hath been a proceeding to revenge, murder, and 
 overflowing of blood." 
 
 " The crowning curse, the source of nearly all other evils 
 that beset the Indians, and nearly all that embarrassed our 
 
 iip'iii 
 
mgfmmmmmmm 
 
 i88 
 
 7'//fi: COMING OF THE WHfTK MAN. 
 
 early relations and intercourse with their race," says Mr. Tur- 
 ner in his history of Indian treaties, " was the use of sj)irituous 
 liquors. In the absence of them the advent of our race to this 
 continent would have been a blessins: to the red-man instead of 
 what it has proved — the cause of their ruin and gradual exter- 
 mination. . . . The introduction of 'fire-water,' vitiating 
 their appetites, cost them their native independence of char- 
 acter; made them dependants upon the trader and the agents 
 of rival governments ; mixed them up with factions and con- 
 tending aspirants to dominion ; and from time to time, impelled 
 them to the fields of blood and slaughter, or to the stealthy 
 assault with the tomahawk and scalping-knife. F'or the ruin of 
 his race the red-man has a fearful account against the white." 
 
 Any one who reads the Indian story in the light of accumu- 
 lating facts cannot but be impressed with the real cause of the 
 Indian's decline and fall. As we see how the cursed love of 
 drink can change and vitiate the nature of men born to be 
 peers of the greatest minds of earth, we can readily understand 
 how a less intelligent nature, scarcely midway on the road to 
 civilization, could be affected and turned back by this same 
 degrading agent. 
 
 " If the discernment of the savage is little," says Major 
 Powell, " his discrimination is less ;" and where appetite sways 
 desire, neither discernment nor discrimination can exist. 
 
 The trader with his keg of rum could accomplish more than 
 with all his barter-stock of duffel cloth and beads. Wherever 
 the Indian trails led to trapper's hut or trader's post the infat- 
 uated red-man, inflamed by the one taste of the white man's 
 fire-water that created the thirst for more, bore his load of pel- 
 tries, careless of their cost and reckless of their selling price 
 if only rum was the return. 
 
 > 
 
 f^ 
 
THE COi\f/XG OF TlfE WHITE AfAN. 
 
 18) 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 L 
 
 Appetite is the grave of reason, as it is of manliness, honor, 
 decency and truth. Priest and missionary might implore and 
 threaten, colonial authority might legislate and restrict, chiefs 
 and councils might protest and plead, but the curse of rum 
 once fastened uj)on an heretofore abstemious race was more 
 powerful than priest or governor, chief or council. 
 
 "With his keg of rum," says !\Ir. Turner, "the l^nglishman 
 could succeed, and with a morbid and sordid perseverance he 
 plied it in trade as well as in diplomacy. It was rum that first 
 enabled the Englishman to get a foothold upon the Hudson, 
 upon the Mohawk, along the shores of Lake Ontario ; and, in 
 the absence of its use, bold as the assertion may appear, he 
 would not have succeeded in putting an end to French domin- 
 ion in America." 
 
 As we look at the red race to-day — a problem and a puzzle 
 alike to statesman and philanthropist — we need to remember 
 that, debased, uncouth, blo(xly-minded, treacherous and bestial 
 as he may appear, the very degradations that render him an 
 unsavory quantity in the eyes of culture and refinement are due 
 to the ancestors possibly of the very persons who now regard 
 him with loathing and contempt. 
 
 Before the white man came theft and dissimulation, cow- 
 ardice and drunkenness were unknown amonc: the Indian 
 tribes. " No people," says Mr. Morgan (referring to the earlier 
 Iroquois), "ever possessed a higher sense of honor and self- 
 respect in regard to theft or looked down upon it with greater 
 disdain. . . . Their lanfj:uatjc does not admit of double 
 speaking, or of the perversion of the words of the speaker. 
 Dissimulation was not an Indian habit, and before the coming 
 of the whites the Indian at large had not a mercenary thought." 
 
 "From the hour," says Mr. Turner, "that Henry Hudson 
 
 «J» 
 
 ,-atmammtmn 
 
I9C 
 
 THE COMING OF THE WHITE MAN. 
 
 first lured the Indians on board his vessel, on the river that 
 bears his name, and gave them their first taste of spiritous liq- 
 uors, the whole history of British intercourse with the Indians 
 is marked by the use of this accursed agent as a principal 
 means of success." 
 
 But the use of this " accursed agent," however, stretches 
 still further back. It came in with Spanish cruelty and Portu- 
 guese greed, with French diplomacy and English avarice, and 
 from the days of the explorers until now it has been the chief 
 abettor of the Indian's vices and the chief cause of the Indian's 
 woes. 
 
 As, therefore, we read the story of the growing contact 
 between the red race and the white we must never forget that 
 beneath all the accumulating causes for friction, distrust and 
 even for open lupture and war there ever lurked this baleful and 
 insidious foe of all that is manly in man or womanly in woman. 
 It was this demon of appetite, this devil of drink, that as Cassio 
 declared could make a sensible man " by and by a fool and 
 presently a beast." A resistless destroyer where reason and 
 intelligence hold sway it was more to be feared and exorcised 
 by the poor savage than manitoit, oki o\ jcbi or all the countless 
 spirits of evil and of woe that his childish superstition could 
 conjure or his unreasoning fear could dread. 
 
 Till 
 
 l^ 
 
chaptI':r X. 
 
 n % 
 
 COLOMAI, INJUSriCK. 
 
 != I 
 
 ,j. 
 
 / "TiiK red men know nothini; of troiil)le," 
 
 said Sa-go-yc-wat-lia the Seneca, commonly 
 called Red Jacket, in one of those mas- 
 terly speeches that showed him to be at 
 once an orator and a j^hilosopher, " until 
 it came from the white men. As soon as 
 thev crossed the <''reat waters thev wanted 
 our country, and in return have always 
 been ready to teach us how to quarrel 
 about their reliiiion. The thinus tliev tell 
 us wc do not understand, and the light 
 they give us makes the straight and plain path trod bv c^ur 
 fathers dark and drearv." 
 
 This pathetic statement of an undisputed fact furnishes the 
 key to the strained relations that for full four centuries have 
 existed between the red-man and the white. 
 
 Civilization seems invariably to have taken hold of bar- 
 barism by the "hot end," and the danger of playing with fire 
 has been proven again and again. Rum and religion are both 
 forced down the wide open mouths of the wondering savage 
 and, appetite being always stronger than reason, the bad that 
 
 civilization gives takes precedence over the good. 
 
 191 
 
 » l i»iM i ik.iMi mstiitimii 
 
192 
 
 COL ONI A r. JXJ( 'S TICE. 
 
 This, at least, was the case so far as the native races of 
 America were concerned, and a study of Christian discovery 
 and proselytism will show a similar experience in other new- 
 found lands. 
 
 Appetite inHamed, natural characteristics combated, and 
 superstition illogically attacked are certain to result in friction, 
 
 
 
 
 " ■ ■'••■' ^■'_?:>^'"' 
 
 i 
 
 If 
 
 TIIK DIAIU (Jl' Ills (JUMKADE. 
 
 dispute and conflict. It was not alone what Dr. Eggleston 
 denominates " the wide difference between the moral standards 
 and social customs of the white race and the red" that proved 
 the chief obstacle to the civilization of the Indian; it was the 
 too frequent absence of these standards and customs on the 
 part of the European that was at fault, A thoughtless method 
 
COL ONJAL INJUSTICE 
 
 «93 
 
 of approach, an unwise system of communication, and a studied 
 injustice or brutality in treatment first unsettled and then 
 aroused the diverse nature of the unsophisticated Indian. 
 
 Received as gods the white men proved to be devils; wel- 
 comed with overflowing hospitality they repaid it with deceit 
 and theft ; freely offered homes and harborage they surrounded 
 them with frowning forts and instruments of murder; and, 
 recompensing simple faith with social vices, they gave in barter 
 for the fertile fields and free air of their Indian hosts the 
 plague pests of their race — debauchery and disease, the white 
 man's foulest evils — rum and the small-pox. 
 
 In the year 1494 Columbus cruising among the islands of 
 the West India group sent home to Spain twelve ships laden 
 with captive Indians as slaves. 
 
 In 1494 young Sebastian Cabot, with two shi{)loads of 
 English convicts, skirted the North American coast from New- 
 foundland south to New York harbor and Cape Hatteras. He 
 came for purposes of colonization and the first gift of the old 
 world to the new was this questionable contingent of Knglish 
 jail-birds, pardoned by the king to proselyte and people the 
 Western wilderness. The expedition proved a failure and, 
 lacking in both sailors and provisions, it turned toward Eng- 
 land carrying nothing hoiiieward but the memory of hardships 
 and a number of kidnapped Indians, stolen for slaves. 
 
 In 1500 Caspar Cortereal, sailing along seven hundred miles 
 of the northeasterl) Anerican coast found the people "well 
 made, intelligent and modest," living in wooden houses and 
 " admirably calculated for labor." He kidnapped fifty-seven of 
 these hospitable natives for slaves, and the name of that north- 
 erly coast is to-day a lasting monument of the white man's 
 treachery — Terra de Labrador, the " land of laborers." 
 
 5^ • 
 
 ^^AaUX 
 
194 
 
 COI.OMAL INJUSTICE. 
 
 P 
 
 n 
 
 ■1 
 
 And thus, on almost every year succeeding the days of 
 these first navigators, was their pernicious example followed. 
 The European adventurers, mostly in the clumsy caravels of 
 Sj)ain, sought with never-fiagging zeal the coasts of the 
 Southern United States of Mexico, Central America and the 
 
 islands of the Spanish 
 Main impelled by two 
 desires — the discovery 
 of gold and the cap- 
 ture of Indians for 
 slaves. 
 
 Wherever alone: 
 those tropic shores an 
 Indian tribe was found 
 or an Indian lodtje 
 looked out toward the 
 sea came with blood- 
 hound and with lash, with harquebuse and spear the pitiless 
 man-hunters, while above their heads floated what Mr. Park- 
 man has well called " the portentous banner of Spain." 
 
 It was, at least, but stern and merited justice that fate 
 visited upon these earlier explorers in a land wherein they 
 hoped to find the spoils of a second Mexico or of a richer 
 Peru. Ponce de Leon, seeking in a land of flowers boundless 
 riches and the fountain of perpetual youth, found only the seeds 
 of death from the poisoned arrow of a hunted Indian fighting 
 for his home-land. Velasquez, de Cordova, Miruelo, Garay, 
 de Ayllon, de Quexos and Estavan Gomez discovered little but 
 disappointment, loss and death along the then unknown shores 
 from the Carolinas to the mouth of the Mississippi. Narvaez, vio- 
 lator of Indian graves, ended in famine and shipwreck on the 
 
 TllK Piril.KSS MAN-IIUMER. 
 
 J,. 
 
 I 
 
CO I. ONL / / JNJUSTJCE. 
 
 195 
 
 Texan coast, and Cabeca dc Vaca, the questionable hero of 
 adventures more romantic than any ever imagined by Del'oc or 
 told by Stevenson, wandered for six weary years, an outcast 
 and a tramp, through unknown Indian tribes — the first white 
 man to cross the continent, befriended and pitied by the very 
 
 savages 
 
 he had 
 
 hoped to capture and 
 enslave. 
 
 And Hernando de 
 Soto — "noble knight 
 and true Christian " 
 — the foremost fig- 
 ure in the story of 
 the Gulf region — 
 what of him ? The 
 very crown and re- 
 finement of Spanish 
 cruelty, an ardent ad- 
 mirer of " this sport 
 of killing Indians," 
 De Soto repaid wel- 
 come with treachery 
 and marked his whole 
 disastrous march 
 from the Everglades 
 of Florida to the 
 banks of the Missis- 
 sippi with the blood of tortured Indians and tlie smoke of 
 burning villages. Not the name of this much vaunted Ade- 
 lantado — bankrupt, butcher and tyrant — should be held high 
 for the esteem and pattern of American youth, but those 
 
 THK HURIAI, OK DK. SOTO. 
 
 ! 
 
 H 
 
196 
 
 cor. o.\ '/A I. J. \jus 1 ici'.. 
 
 
 rather of the native American patriots wiio dared withstand the 
 white man's arrow-proof arms and to valiantly flight to the death 
 for their homes — Ilirihiujua the Suminole, Capafi the Creek, 
 Tuscaloosa, chief of the Chickasaws, and the betrayed young 
 chieftainess of Cofitachiqui. 
 
 l''()r 'generations the vouth of America have been trained to 
 venerate the sturdy and uncomp. .nising manliness of their 
 ancestors. It has been a cardinal point in all historical teach- 
 ing to exalt the white man and abase the Indian. 
 
 To come of a line of " Indian fighters" has been esteemed 
 an honor that far outshone the heroic ancestry of bygone 
 times; and, as i)residents have been made of Indian conquerors, 
 and statesmen of frontier lawyers and j)ioneers, so has the 
 Indian invariably been depicted as an ignorant, cunning and 
 ferocious savage whose conquest was a patriotic duty and whose 
 extermination was a divine necessity. 
 
 No doubt there may have been wisdom even if there appears 
 but scant justice in this line of teaching. Here, again, opinion is 
 largely determined by the point of view from which the past 
 history of America is to be regarded. The aggressive manhood 
 by means of which the vast area of the North American con- 
 tinent has been reclaimed from unproductiveness and made the 
 home of millions where, before, it could barely sustain thousands, 
 is in strict accord with the plan of eternal progression which 
 has marked the history of the whole human race. 
 
 But, in the interests of truth, of justice and of humanity it is 
 only right that some credit should be given to the conquered 
 minority. While we revere the ancestors to whose indomitable 
 fortitude, courage and perseverance America's present ):)reemi- 
 nence is due, we should, with equal candor, be ready to acknovvl- 
 edge their faults and their short-comings and allow to the race 
 
COI.ONIAr. INJUSTICE. 
 
 •97 
 
 that gave them place, such measure of patriotism and of valor 
 as the truly brave man is always ready to concede to his foe- 
 man and his rival. 
 
 " Truly," said Mendoza the viceroy, when he heard of the 
 achievements of Ouigualtanqui, chief of the Chickasaws, and 
 how he had driven the 
 Spanish invaders from 
 the bayous of Louis- 
 iana and the shores of 
 the great river into 
 which had been hur- 
 riedly flung the bones 
 of the defeated De 
 Soto, " truly, here was 
 a noble barbarian, an 
 honest man, a true 
 patriot ! " 
 
 In one of the piti- 
 less massacres by 
 which the patriotic 
 Pequot Indians were 
 reduced to submission 
 by our "heroic ances- 
 tors" a certain por- 
 tion of them in a lofty 
 c o n t e m p t of death 
 were, says the old record, "killed in the swamp like sullen 
 dogs who would rather, in their self-willedness and madness, sit 
 still and be shot through or cut to pieces, than to beg for 
 mercy." A writer of seventy years ago, commenting on this 
 scrap of history, says: "when the Goths laid waste the city of 
 
 "KILLKU IN THK bWAMl'.' 
 
10 
 
 COLONIAL INJUSTICE. 
 
 Rome, they found the nobles clothed in their robes and seated 
 with stern tranquility in their curule chairs; in this manner 
 they suffered death without an attempt at supplication or resist- 
 ance. Such conduct in them was applauded as noble and 
 magnanimous; in the hapless Indian it was reviled as obstinate 
 and sullen." 
 
 Let us, therefore, in the light of history as written by the 
 conquerors of the Indians themselves, or by the eulogists of 
 those conquerors, regard the conquest and colonization of 
 North America from the Indian's side of the question and see 
 to whose charge might justly be laid the conflicts and the 
 troubles that accompanied colonization. 
 
 " It is from the old times of which I am speaking to thee," 
 an old Ojibway woman explained to Johann Kohl, the German 
 traveller and explorer, "the very, very old, when there were no 
 white men at all in the country. Then the Indians were much 
 better than at this hour. They were healthier and stronger. 
 They lived long and became very old. They could all fast 
 much longer. Hence they had better dreams.* They dreamed 
 of none but good and excellent things, of hero deeds and the 
 chase, of bears and stags and caribous, and other great and 
 grand hunting animals ; and when he dreamed the Indian 
 knew exactly where those animals could be found. He made 
 no mistake. . . . But now," she added sadly, "their strength 
 is broken and they have lost their memory. Their tribes have 
 melted awav, their chiefs have no voice in the council. Their 
 wise men and priests have no longer good dreams, and the old 
 squaws forget their good stories and fables." 
 
 It was into the life of thf^se "old times," these "very, very 
 old " that the white man abruptly came. 
 
 • " Dreams " when used by the Indian always meant tliouglits, determinations, or plans of life. 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 i 
 
COLONIAL INJUSTICE. 
 
 199 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 T/ 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ^* 
 
 The Indian, as we have seei., met him with a kindly wel- 
 come, an open hospitality, and an eager readiness for barter. 
 It was only when despoiled, deceived, hunted, kidnapped and 
 maltreated that the hospitable welcomer became the wary foe. 
 And thouijh this chansfe came srraduallv it came all too soon. 
 
 o 00*' 
 
 It came even before the days of the colonists, for navigator and 
 conqueror alike had proved deceivers. 
 
 Civilization always distrusts savagery. The European col- 
 onists were, for the most part, sufferers from the savageries of 
 civilization — the tyrannies of king and creed. But despite 
 their bitter experiences — perhaps because of them — they 
 came to the American shores with a distrust of the natives, 
 whom they expected to 
 meet only as foemen, 
 as absolute as was their 
 determination to con- 
 vert and conquer them. 
 And conversion thouijh 
 foremost in announce- 
 ment was always last in 
 fact. Columbus is even 
 said to have excused his treacherous kidnapping of the island- 
 ers of the Caribees by the statement that they were to be taught 
 Spanish and then sent back to their brethren as " interpreters " 
 to assist in the work of conversion. 
 
 To the French Jesuits in Canada and the vSpanish " padres " 
 in Southern California full praise should be accorded for good 
 intention and patient zeal. The effects of their earnest though 
 wrongly grounded teaching lived long after the bones of these 
 devoted teachers had mingled with the inhospitable soil of the 
 land they had hoped to save. But even their efforts were 
 
 RKDMAN AND WHITE. 
 
 V 
 
 :■ 
 
 r 
 
^00 
 
 COLONIAL INJUSTICLi 
 
 ;.l^-^;^^i^Vi 
 
 calculated to arouse hostility among the race they had come 
 to helj). 
 
 The Indian superstitions were too firmly rooted to yield at 
 once to other and antagonistic superstitions. Crucifix and 
 
 beads, censer and candle, mass 
 and mysteries were to the In- 
 dian but the white man's " med- 
 icine," and were only better 
 than his own as they possessed 
 more of ijlitter and barbaric at- 
 tractiveness. " His pictures of 
 infernal fires and torturing dev- 
 ils," says Mr. Parkman, " were 
 readily comprehended, but with 
 respect to the advantages of the 
 French paradise he was slow 
 to conviction." 
 
 The Jesuit conversion and absorption oi the American 
 Indians failed because of the arrow of the Iroquois and the 
 rum of England. But the duplicity and greed of the Canadian 
 fur-trader and voyagciir accomplished what the zeal of the 
 priest could not compass, and Algonquin and Athabascan 
 became little less than spiritless serfs of these arrogant lords 
 of trade. 
 
 y\nd yet such was the " fascination and flexibility " of the 
 French character that this conquest was a comparatively blood- 
 less one. The French seemed to read the Indian nature better 
 than any other of the new-comers and they sought to identify 
 themselves with the personal interests of the Indian whereas 
 the English had only contempt for the red men. The English 
 colonists looked upon the natives, so says Mr. Coolidge, "with 
 
 " Civil. IZAIION DISTKI'SIS S.WACKKY.' 
 
'I 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 COL ONIAL INJl STICK. 
 
 20l 
 
 detestation and horror, taking every opportunity for their exter- 
 hiination, and using every means to annoy and exasperate 
 them." 
 
 As merciless as the Spaniard in the South, as bigoted as 
 the Jesuit in the North, the Puritan element that was the 
 dominant one in the colonization of the New England " Planta- 
 
 "DOOMED AND UNCOVKNAN I KD llEATilEN." 
 
 tions"was equally regardless of the Indian's rights and care- 
 less of the Indian's wrongs. 
 
 The Puritan saw in the red-man only a "doomed and 
 uncovenanted heathen," a non-productive pagan whom, by the 
 Lord's will, it was his duty to dispossess of his unrighteous 
 inheritance that the sons of God might occupy and develop 
 
 i ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 .r' 
 
 s; 
 
 - 1 ' 
 
 V 
 
 i 
 
 n 
 
 f 
 
 I 
 
 '■'■: 
 
 i ;i 
 
202 
 
 COL ONI A I. INJl 'S 1 ICK. 
 
 m 
 
 it. As Dr. Ellis says, "the enemies of the Puritans were the 
 enemies of Ciod." 
 
 In justice however to the Puritans it must be admitted that 
 even before their day the Indians of New England had felt the 
 white man's tyranny had learned to distrust and hate him. 
 
 Weymouth and Harlow, Smith and Hunt and others among 
 the explorers, kidnapped and enslaved the natives; such ques- 
 tionable colonists as Popham's men on the Maine coast, who in 
 1608 hunted the Indians with dogs and practised upon them 
 " many impositions in barter and bargains " were but poor 
 samples of the white man's civilization, though they found 
 their imitators in Wollaston's unprofitable colony at Mount 
 Wollaston, or Quincy, in 1625, and in the suggestions of the 
 Rev. Samuel Stoddard, of Northampton, who as late as 1703 
 advised the huntinc: of Indians with doos because, said this 
 pious reasoner, " they are to be looked upon as thieves and 
 murderers; they doe acts of hostility without proclaiming war; 
 they don't appear openly in ye field to bid us battle ; they use 
 those cruelly that fall into their hands; they act like wolves 
 and are to be dealt with as wolves." 
 
 The men who colonized Maine were, according to their own 
 historian, " encroachinsf aij^ressors ; " the merchant adventurers 
 who first settled New Hampshire were " the terror of the 
 Indians." The stern and merciless injustice of Endicott — 
 the culmination of countless acts of tyranny, treachery and 
 aggression on the part of the Plymouth and Connecticut col- 
 onies — precipitated the Pequot War and decided the position 
 of a naturally warlike people toward their persecutors. The 
 patriotism of Metacomet of Mount Hope, known to the English 
 as "King Philip," fired to resistance by the continued encroach- 
 ments of the men whom his father Massasoit had befriended, 
 
 'f 
 
 1 
 
..^i^-atAikiii^Mat- 
 
 I 
 
 t| 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 AN 
 
 EPISODE 01-- THE lUKNCIl AND INDIAN 
 
 ^VAR-RESCI'K or ISUAEI. PUTNAM. 
 
 ^f] 
 
 .1 
 
COLONIAL INJUSTICE. 
 
 205 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 found a response among the Eastern Inrlir.ns smarting under 
 " repeated injuries at the hands of the English," 'ut it was only 
 after long-continued negotiation and council and the feeling 
 among the Indians that there was no relief possible by other 
 than warlike methods that the frenzy of what was known as 
 " King Philip's war " burst upon the New England colonists. 
 The " French and Indian wars " of the colonies that, dating 
 from the closing years of the seventeenth century, culminated 
 in the bloody hostilities of 1754-58 were directly traceable to 
 the aggressions of the colonists. They were, indeed, doubly t'le 
 work of the white men, in that their cause is to be found in the 
 steady usurpation of the land by the English and in the deter- 
 mination of the French to check the advance of their rivals by 
 combining with the Indians against them. 
 
 It may also be added that the numerous Indian massacres 
 that marked the years of the colonial period were caused not 
 by Indian barbarity, but by so-called "Christian" policy — the 
 plain result of the malign influence of either France or Eng- 
 land. " Neither nation," says a recent student of this phase of 
 American history,* " was high-minded enough to scorn availing 
 herself of savage allies to do bloody work which she would not 
 have dared to risk national reputation by doing herself. This 
 fact is too much overlooked in the habitual estimates of the 
 barbarous ferocity of the Indian character as shown by those 
 early mas'^-acres." 
 
 In the Middle-State colonization the same general fact is 
 apparent. The Indian was never the aggressor, until forced, 
 by repeated bad faith, to the only remedy known to him — 
 armed retaliation. The story of the brutal massacre of the 
 Indians at Pavonia by order of the cowardly and obstinate 
 
 * Mrs. Jackson (" H. H." ) in " A Century of Dishonor." 
 
2o6 
 
 COLONIAL INJUSTICE. 
 
 k 
 
 W ii 
 
 I! 
 
 Dutcb governor, Van Twiller, is proof of this. The Esopus 
 war of 1663 was altogether due to the brutality of the colonists 
 and the frenzy caused by the distribution of unlimited rum. 
 "The Indians," says the editor of the Holland Documents, 
 
 " were sof)n made to 
 feel the presence of 
 the whites." Their 
 corn-hills were tram- 
 pled by Dutch cattle, 
 they were taxed by 
 the Dutch authori- 
 ties for the expense 
 incurred in the erec- 
 tion of forts under 
 the pretence that by 
 these ramparts the 
 Indians were de- 
 fended from their 
 enemies, and a refusal 
 to be taxed was threatened with punishment. " This combi- 
 nation of unfavorable circumstances," says the Documents, 
 "required but a slight addition to convert into estrangement 
 whatever good understanding or friendship hitherto existed 
 between the natives and the new comers, and this provocation 
 was not long wanting." 
 
 The Virijinia massacre of 1622 was the direct result of the 
 cruelty and rapacity of her colonists. Treachery and dissimu- 
 lation throughou. marked the dealings with the Indians, and 
 the Indian " wars" of the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida were 
 entirely brought about by the jealousies, quarrels and incessant 
 disturbances between the English and Spanish colonists. A 
 
 'JUSTICK (JR WAR — WHICH?' 
 
 ""^ 
 
 HMi 
 
 »rTiia', 
 
COLONIAL INJUSTICE, 
 
 207 
 
 pa<;e from the history of South Carolina's early days affords a 
 fair sample of the Indian policy of our stalwart forefathers 
 throughout all the colonies. 
 
 When first settled by the English South Carolina was inhab- 
 ited by some twenty Indian tribes. They had alrjady tasted the 
 treachery of the early Spanish explorers and had no great 
 desire for the presence or the homes of the white man. To 
 save themselves from Indian attack therefore, according to 
 Ramsey, one of the State's historians, " the Carolinians soon 
 found out the policy of setting one tribe of Indians against 
 another. By trifling presents they purchased the friendship of 
 some tribes, whom they employed to carry on war with others. 
 This not only diverted the attention of the natives from the 
 white settlers, but encouraged them to bring their captives to 
 Charleston for the purpose of transportation to the West Indies." 
 
 The Spaniards in 
 Florida man^iled the 
 living bodies of their 
 dusky captives; the 
 Fre nc h i n Canada 
 used the torture-stake 
 for the punishment of 
 their Indian foes. The 
 Puritans of Massachu- 
 setts " exulted " over 
 the grief of Philip at 
 the loss of his wife and 
 child, whom they had 
 sold into West Indian slavery. The cavaliers of Virginia and 
 of the Carolinas added to frequent treacheries, slavery and 
 torture. Dutchman and Swede alike plied their Indian allies 
 
 "no, WALDRON ! DOKS YOUK HAND WEIGH A 
 I'OUNI) NOW ? " 
 
1^ 
 
 2o8 
 
 COL ONI A L IN/US I JCK. 
 
 with rum and then cheated them in trade, and it was not so 
 mucli the benevolence as the shrewdness of William I'enn 
 that made friendship a business investment and quietly ob- 
 tained the better of the Indians when he appeared to be 
 favorins: them. 
 
 Duplicity in trade and treachery in diplomacy worked 
 their lotjical results, and it was but a stern commentarv on 
 the white man's ways when certain Maine Indians, capturing 
 Major Waldron during one of their numerous outbreaks, 
 grimly satirized the trader's method of using a hand's weight 
 in the scales as a pound; cutting off the fingers of his left 
 hand they demanded tauntingly "Ho, Waldron! does your 
 hand weigh a pound now ? " 
 
 The first contact of civilization with barbarism had proved 
 far from creditable to the white men who came to convert and 
 to colonize. Las Casas and Eliot are names that stand out 
 amid all the bic..:kness of European treachery and deceit as the 
 friends of the Indians, luminous and peculiar because they 
 were exceptional. The Indians of colonial days had but few 
 friends. Amity was but a question of policy dependent only 
 upon the relative strength or weakness of the white man's arm. 
 
 It is small wonder that the Indian grew to distrust and 
 despise the hollow friendship of the white man. It is, indeed, 
 possible to find both force and feeling in the story that Mr. 
 Drake tells to the effect that a white man once meeting an 
 Indian in his path addressed him as "brother." "Ugh!" 
 grunted the Indian with an expression of evident meaning on 
 his face, "how came we to be brothers?" "Oh! by way of 
 Adam, I suppose," the specious white man replied. "Ugh!" 
 grunted the Indian again, "me thank him Great Spirit we no 
 nearer brothers." 
 
 i 
 
 T 
 
I 
 
 COLONIAL INJi'STlCE. 
 
 209 
 
 The vidence is iindcniablL', declares Dr. Hllis, that in the 
 Indian wars of the colonists "the civilized man was generally 
 the aggressor, and though he expressed horror and disgust at 
 the barbarous and revolting atrocii! s of savage warfare, his 
 own skill and cruelty in wreaking vengeance hardly vindicated 
 his milder humanity." 
 
 Modern apologists for the later policy of repression and 
 extermination need to remember this as they lay down the 
 barbarous Western dictum that the only good Indian is a dead 
 Indian. The white man from the very first has requited kind- 
 ness and hospitality with oppression and cruelty, and it is little 
 wonder that the red-man turned at last upon his oppressor, and 
 displayed in his defence of lodge-fire and hunting-ground a 
 patriotism as intense raid devoted as was ever that of a Tell or 
 a Winkelried. 
 
 " He saw the cloud ordained to grow 
 
 And burst u|)(>n liis hills in woe; 
 
 He saw his i)eople withering lie 
 
 lleneath the invader's evil cvc. 
 Strange feet were trampling on his fathers' bones; 
 
 At midnight hour he woke to gaze 
 
 Upon his ha|)py cabin's blaze, 
 And listen ti) his children's dying groans. 
 
 He saw; and, maddening at the sight 
 
 (lave his liold Iiosom to the fight; 
 
 To tiger rage his soul was driven, 
 
 Mercy was not, nor sought nor given ; 
 
 The pale man from his lands must fly; 
 
 He would be free, or he would die ! " * 
 
 * From the ode by Cliarles Sprague (1S30), said to be one of the most fervent appeals in behalf of justice to tliu 
 Indian 
 
 11 
 
 I M inim.>^ 
 
 \M 
 
rrrrrss 
 
 CHAFTHR XI. 
 
 PLACING TllK RKSl'ONSIHIMTY. 
 
 It is to be regretted that, 
 upon first approach, a superior 
 civilization always presents its 
 most questionable elements to 
 the inferior. The viciousness 
 and crudities, the demoraliza- 
 tion and temptations of all bor- 
 der settlements are well-known. 
 The trapper, the trade, the 
 hunter and the pioneer as they 
 are the hardiest are, also, too often, the hardest of men. 
 
 To fight with Nature for subsistence does not seem to sym- 
 metrically develop the Christian graces and the free life of the 
 forest and the hill3 tends more to license than to simple liberty. 
 In addition to this it may be asser+^ed that far too many of 
 the earlier settlers in any new land are prompted to emigration 
 by greed rather than by the nobler qualities of manly character. 
 To the attainment of their one selfish end do they bend not only 
 their own energies and endeavors but, quite as determinedly, the 
 plastic nature of the natives with whom they are brought into 
 contact and of whose welfare they are studiously disregardful. 
 The fur trader, the trapper, the Indian pedler, the Canadian 
 
 V 
 
 MO 
 
K?^".'>™ 
 
 rr.AClXG THE RESrONSnUI.ITY. 
 
 an 
 
 voyageur and the conrciir de bois did more \q^ pervert and distort 
 the simple Indian manliness than it was possible for missionary 
 or apostle, colonial or home government to rectify and controvert. 
 Individual influence is always more powerful than indirect or 
 impersonal effort. 
 
 So, while it is a fact that the policy of the colonial and the 
 parent governments toward the Indians was based upon an 
 attempted equity, and that the lands occupied by settlers were, 
 presumably, to be acquired only by purchase, barter or treaty, it 
 is also beyond dispute that the business transactions and espe- 
 cially the real estate ventures of individual colonists were too 
 often in direct violation of treaty, bargain and contract. The 
 agents and representatives of the governments were often them- 
 selves the most culpable and, next to the white man's rum, the 
 white man's peculiar methods of land traffic with the Indian 
 were the cause of frequent and bitter hostilities. 
 
 The Indian's views on the land question were, as has been 
 shown, peculiar. 1 he tribal tenure of land was in perpetuity, 
 and no individual tribesman had authority or right, as an inui- 
 vidual, to sell a single foot of soil. The consent of the tribe was 
 necessary to such a transaction, and as, previous to the white 
 man's comino;, no land sales between tribes had ever taken ulace 
 this new order of things as it demanded new requirements was 
 altogether pc lexing to the Indian mind. 
 
 As no individual Indian could obtain absolute title to land, so 
 could no individual Indian transfer such title by sale, deed or gift. 
 This inability, never before disputed or even questioned, nat- 
 urally acted as an unconscious bias in the mind of the Indian, 
 totally unable to comprehend the white man's law of land 
 purchase and tenure. 
 
 The sachem Metacomet — otherwise known as " King 
 
 * J 
 
 J 3 
 
212 
 
 PLACING THE RESrONSIBlLITY. 
 
 Philip" — though lavish in his gifts of land to the Massachusetts 
 colonists could not understand why his tribe should not be per- 
 mitted to hunt over those lands, which, so he supposed, he and 
 his white neighbors could still occupy in common. 
 
 " You are welcome," said Archihes, the Maryland sagamore, 
 to the men of Calvert's colony ; " we will use one table. My 
 
 
 \ 
 
 "A NKW I'KATUKK IN TIIK INDIAN LANDSCAI'Ii. 
 
 people shall hunt for my brothers, and all things shall be in 
 common between us." 
 
 But things could not be in common. This the Indian, 
 reared to vastly different ideas of property and of living than 
 those held by his white " brother," speedily discovered. His 
 lands, given to the colonists for but small considerations, were 
 permanently closed to him ; his home, invaded by the white 
 
 i 
 
4. 
 
 ^ 
 
 K 
 
 1 
 
 PLACING THE RESPONSIBILITY. 
 
 213 
 
 man's labor-saving clothing and implements, became less and 
 less self-dependent, and his tribesmen, unable to resist the 
 white man's seductive barter and tempting fire-water grew 
 dissatisfied, quarrelsome and, even, less manly. 
 
 The very '" improvements " of civilization were factors in this 
 deteporation of Indian character. " With the introduction of 
 iron and brass kettles," says Dr. Eggleston, "and poor iron 
 hatchets, made on purpose for the Indian trade, all necessity for 
 earthen jDots and stone hatchets vanished; the rudimentary 
 arts of pottery and stone cutting were quickly forgotten and the 
 Indian took a step backward in becoming by so much less an 
 artificer and by so much more a mere hunter. . . . The 
 elaborate fur garments were ripped up and sold, and their kind 
 made no more ; the duffel cloth, without so much as a hem or 
 seam, was thrown about the shoulders and the Indian was more 
 than ever a savage." 
 
 The white settler's horses — a new feature in the Indian 
 landscape — trampled down the unfenced fields of standing corn 
 upon which the Indian so largely depended ; the hogs of the 
 colonists, roving at will, uprooted the inland Indian's garden 
 beds and the seaside Indian's clam banks. On the other hand 
 the Indian himself, accustomed to the belief that all nature, 
 animate and inanimate, was for man's subsistence and conven- 
 ience, failed to respect the theory of property in live stock and 
 regarding the white man's hogs, poultry and cattle as lawful 
 prey hunted them as he had always hunted the wild food-creat- 
 ures of his native woods. 
 
 It is the little worries of life that make up an aggregate of 
 woe, and the most destructive wars have often grown from the 
 most insignificant causes. The accumulation of these petty 
 annoyances on both sides of the color line fostered the growing 
 
 (il 
 
 
.iJlaii 
 
 214 
 
 PLACING THE KESPONSIBILirV, 
 
 It; 
 
 
 seeds of discontent and finally developed into animosity, dispute 
 and open rupture. 
 
 The colonial political system also largely contributed to this 
 uneasiness and final disturbance The Indian was a thorou<j:h 
 democrat. He knew no king but himself, acknowledged no 
 authority greater than himself and admitted of no restraining 
 government except that of his own democratic tribe in which he 
 himself was as great a power as any. 
 
 Even such tribes as yielded to superior force — as did the 
 Delawares to the Iroquois — and made regular payments of 
 tribute looked upon this tribute simply as a prevention of con- 
 troversy or an avoidance of war with the powers which they 
 knew to be stronger than themselves. 
 
 When the European governments without show of reason 
 or justice, began to claim the American lands as their property, 
 they based their claim upon the right by discovery, asserted a 
 proprietary interest in the lands discovered and denied to the 
 Indians anything beyond a possessory title. The Indians how- 
 ever utterly failed to appreciate the unreasonable assertion that 
 they were no longer free men or the owners of the lands they 
 occupied, but vassals and liegemen of an unknown and far 
 distant power. Unaccustomed to obey their own chiefs save 
 at their own royal pleasure, they were unable to comj^rehend 
 the demanded submission to a Spanish, a French or an 
 Enolish kino^. 
 
 We have seen how brutally Spain met this democratic 
 denial of supremacy. France applied to it the same tactics 
 that had spread blood and slaughter among the Albigenses 
 and the Camisards, and England, harshly exacting submission 
 where none was due, accounted the Indians who dared with- 
 stand the colonial tyranny as guilty of high treason and visited 
 
 T 
 
s 
 
 T 
 
 PLACING THE KESPOXSIBILITY. 
 
 215 
 
 them with the punishment of traitors, as in the case of the 
 followers of Philip of Pokanoket and the Yemassee "rebels" of 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Thus, due entirely to the misunderstandings of conflicting 
 natures, the brutalities of border life and the soulless policy of 
 trade that ignored every virtue for the sake of one profitable 
 
 tr 
 
 lUbl'ANIDLA. — SI'.VIN's IIRST SLAUCU I l-.U C.KOlNI) IN AMKKICA. 
 
 i 
 
 barter, were Indian wars fastened upon the red and the white 
 man alike. And as, almost without exception, the earlier 
 colonial wars were the offsprings of white aggression, tyranny 
 and greed, so the later disturbances — from those of Revolu- 
 tionary times to Minnesota, the Lava Beds and the Apache out- 
 breaks of to-day — have the same basis of unstable methods and 
 of broken faith on the part of the white man. 
 
 What the Indians thought of this one-sided policy may be 
 
 i 
 
2l6 
 
 PLACING THE RKSPONSIBILITY. 
 
 
 !ir 
 
 gathered from the rf^mark mack by one of their own leaders. 
 In 1794 an Americi.n officer presented a Western chief with 
 a reconciliatory medal upon one side of which was represented 
 President Washington standing with drawn sword, while on 
 the other appeared an Indian burying the hatchet. " Ugh ! " 
 grunted the chief, at once appreciating the inconsistency, " why 
 does not Great Father bury his hatchet, too ? " 
 
 A careful study into the causes of the Indian troubles of the 
 past, investigating them, State by State, from those of New Eng- 
 land, South and West, to the distant Pacific coast, will show that, 
 almost without exception, the blame in the matter rests directly 
 or indirectly with the white settlers. 
 
 The encroachments upon Indian lands, the sale of whiskey 
 among the native population, and the disregard and ill-treatment 
 accorded them by traders, settlers and agents have all contri- 
 buted toward an Indian hostility that has alternately smouldered 
 and blazed out from the first days of colonization to the present 
 time. 
 
 While America was colonial the Indian was alike the tool 
 and the terror of each nationality whose colonies were here 
 fostered. Remorselessly played with by each he was made the 
 instigating cause or the coercing quality by each unscrupulous 
 national rival. And, quite as positively, too, did he hold the 
 balance of power between England and France on the North 
 American continent, and was a factor which neither nation 
 could spare from its territorial schemes. 
 
 During the revolt of the colonies against the power of 
 England the Indian once more found himself in a quandary. 
 Made suspicious by repeated grievances and broken pledges, the 
 Indian was slow to form new alliance or allegiance. Years of 
 slow conquest had bound him at last in fealty to the English 
 
eaders. 
 ef with 
 2sented 
 lile on 
 Ugh ! " 
 A, " why 
 
 s of the 
 ;w Eng- 
 ow that, 
 directly 
 
 « 
 
 whiskey 
 eatment 
 I contri- 
 )uldered 
 present 
 
 the tool 
 ere here 
 nade the 
 rupulous 
 hold the 
 le North 
 r nation 
 
 )0wer of 
 uandary. 
 dges, the 
 Years of 
 English 
 
 I 
 
 it' 
 
 i^ 
 
Coi 
 
 U* T/inKitada 7'- Wejt from 4* W»«Him;ton 3' 
 
■y; 
 
wmmmmmm' 
 
 1 
 
 PLACING THE KESrOXSlBILlTW 
 
 217 
 
 throne, and with the old spirit of liberty gone lie was unable to 
 appreciate the exalted principles of resistance to tyranny which 
 he had repeatedly tested to so little purpose. 
 
 The home liovernnient of England had been his court of 
 last resort, his one bulwark acrainst the a<j:<j:ressions of the settle- 
 ments. To see his natural enemies in revolt against his only 
 protectors would, logically, make him the unhesitating ally of 
 the red-coated warriors who fought for the great white chief 
 beyond the water of sunrise. 
 
 His loyalty was unquestioning, unwavering and aggressive, 
 and, because he followed the dictates of his reason and his con- 
 science, the Indian in the American Revolution has always been 
 regarded with feelings of horror and detestation. 
 
 The Mohawk Tha-yen-da-ne-gea, upon whose English name 
 of Joseph Brant has been heaped every contemptuous adjective 
 that hati"ed can apply to cruelty, saw in his loyalty to England 
 the only hope of independence for his tribe, and the man who 
 could forget his careful education and relapse into the vengeance 
 of savagery at Wyoming could also remember his own demo- 
 cratic birth and race and refuse to kneel to English royalty or 
 kiss the kingly hand at Windsor. 
 
 Mr. Lockwood L. Doty in his sketch of the position of the 
 Iroquois during the American Revolution says " It was a dic- 
 tate of policy, during the Revolution, to paint the Indian as 
 black as possible in crimes and cruelty, and to hold him often 
 responsible for deeds of which it might easily be shown the 
 British alone were guilty. Since then, the prejudice has 
 been adroitly fostered by those whose selfish ends it sub- 
 served. That the Indian committed excesses and barbarities 
 it would be in vain either to deny or palliate. But how far he 
 was justified in waging the only system of warfare known to 
 
 \:. 
 
 \ 
 
2l8 
 
 PLACING THE KRSPONSIIULITY. 
 
 7 
 
 ■^ 
 
 his race, as a nicasurc of retaliation, it is for the moralist to 
 say. If the whole story were told, if the Indian could tell 
 his side, how then would the record stand ? " 
 
 At the close of the Revolution the territory under control 
 of the white race in North America embraced the entire eastern 
 slope of the Appalachian system reaching from the Gulf of 
 Mexico to the St. Lawrence. Over the greater part of this, 
 with the exception of the English possessions in Canada, the 
 new republic had control. Florida and Louisiana were so 
 speedily ceded to the United States that their possessions 
 along the Gulf arc really to be considered as the property of 
 the Republic. 
 
 Although the colonial possessions were acknowledged io 
 extend westward as far as the Mississippi River, only a com- 
 paratively small section of this indefinite area was actually 
 settled. The Ohio River w^as the limit of even the sparsest 
 civilization as it was also understood by the Indian tribes to be 
 the actual and permanent boundary of white occupation. 
 
 At a treaty concluded at Fort Stanwix in 1768, betw-een 
 the Indian commissioner. Sir William Johnson, and the Iro- 
 quois tribes, it was agreed that the Ohio River should be the 
 w^estern boundary of English occupation. This was but car- 
 rying out the policy of the British government, made public by 
 ofificial proclamation in 1763, that the entire Western country 
 was to be reserved for the use and permanent occupation of the 
 aborigines then in possession. " All other persons," says Mr. 
 W^hittlesey, " were forbidden to remain or settle within this 
 Western reo;ion, and thus the most civilized nation of the earth 
 decreed the continuance of barbarism over the best portion of 
 North America." 
 
 So, too, during th progress of the American revolution, the 
 
 f 
 
 <. $■ 
 
PLACING THE RESPOXSIH lUTY, 
 
 219 
 
 liritish authorities in Canada "solemnly granted the Western 
 domain to the Indians residing upon it." 
 
 Such thoughtfi.l and observing Americans as Washington 
 and others of his time foresaw the inevitable, and oi)enly 
 declared the impossibility of this limitation by the Iinglish 
 government. But to the Indians it seemed only just and proper, 
 and trusting to the promises of England they ceded the East 
 to the white man on condition of their unobstructed possession 
 of the West. 
 
 It was to this disputed question of land limits that most of 
 the Indian troubles succeeding the Revolution were due. And 
 thus to an era of personal aggravations succeeded an era of race 
 quarrels for absolute possession. 
 
 The foresight of Washington as he studied the future from 
 the white man's standpoint was paralleled by that of the more 
 patriotic Indian chieftains as from their own barbaric standpoint 
 they regarded the white man's " inching along." And, as they 
 began to appreciate the truth that there was no limit to the 
 desires and demands of the white settlers who were each year 
 increasing in numbers and pertinacity, they began to advocate 
 native confederation for mutual protection and for white 
 extermination. 
 
 Pontiac, chief Oi the Ottawas, whom historians have called 
 the Napoleon of his race, early foresaw the necessity for Indian 
 confederation and, even before the Revolution, sought to join the 
 tribes in an aggressive union which by simultaneous and con- 
 centrated efforts, should drive the En^j^lish eastward into the 
 great ocean over which they had come to invade and appropriate 
 the Indian's heritasfe. 
 
 The Conspiracy of Pontiac, in 1 763-64, was the first united, 
 aggressive stand against land absorption by the American 
 
 ■\ 
 
220 
 
 ri.AClNC Till'. KI'.srOXSUilJ.lTY. 
 
 Indian. " Kint; I'liilip's War," in 1675, altliouL^li it has fre- 
 quently been regarded as a united stand against land appro- 
 priation was in reality only the protest of savagery against 
 civilization based uj)on personal grievances and barbaric ani- 
 mosities. There is, indeed, no j^roof that Philip's cons])iracy 
 was a combined effort of the New I'lngland tribes or anything 
 more than an Indian uprising provoked by the fiery nature of 
 so relentless a foeman as were the sachem Metacomet. 
 
 The sj)irit of tribal jealousy inherent in Indian nature, and 
 which the kinship distinctions and totem divisions at once 
 created and fostered, made any intertribal union im])ossible. 
 The natural and absolute independence of the Indian, which 
 resented even the authority of his own tribal chief, scorned any 
 assum))tion of leadership by chieftains of other and heretofore 
 rival tribes. Algonquin and Iroquois, Ojibway and Dakota, 
 Chevenne and Pawnee could not so far for<j:et the traditions of 
 their fathers and the almost ceaseless feuds of centuries as to 
 exchange the wami)um belts in mutual and defensive union. 
 
 All the art of a prudent leader, as Mr. Parkman says, could 
 scarcely prevent dormant jealousies from starting into open 
 strife. Pontiac's irreat scheme failed and so too did all the 
 later attempts at Indian union. Black Hawk and Red Jacket, 
 Tecumthe and Asseola, Joseph the Nez Perce and \s.ki(\ Cloud 
 the Sioux alike have tried and alike have failed uj^on this 
 unstable basis of race confederation. The animosities of totem 
 and of clan proved more antagonistic than even the invincible 
 arms of the mutually hated white man. 
 
 Savagery can never sink its own personality even in the 
 hour of supreme danger. The history of the world shows that 
 the union of rivals against the common foe is possible only to a 
 positive and vigilant civilization. 
 
 K 
 

 •""•mmmmm^mmm 
 
 
 
 ■Mr ' > 
 
 N>r>?/>j.', 
 
 
 ATTACK (JN Sl()( KADK. 
 

 BUS 
 
 ■i> 
 
PLACING THE RESrONSIBILITY. 
 
 223 
 
 But the arrogance of this same civilization, as it was the 
 underlying cause of the Indian troubles of the colonial days,* 
 has also, as certainly, been at the bottom of all the more recent 
 outbreaks. 
 
 The vitiatino: influences of the ne^'ative side of civilization — 
 its perfidy, its haughtiness, its contemptuous disregard of what 
 it deems an inferior race, its debasing influences, its whiskey 
 and its wiles — have ever been the persistent and pitiless 
 obstruction to every conciliatory policy. 
 
 The Indian speedily discovered, to use the words of an 
 earlier writer, that "it is the Indian's property in the white 
 man's hands that gives the white man importance, makes him 
 arrogant and covetous, while he despises the Indian as soon as 
 his ends are answered and when the Indian has nothing more 
 to part with." 
 
 An offensive manner always breeds retaliation. The wild 
 love of freedom and impatience of all control which, according 
 to Mr. Parkman's observation, mark the Indian race, is the very 
 one to protest against an assumption of superiority bv those 
 who are neither physically superior nor morally helpful. From 
 the days of Pontiac the Ottawa to those of Kient-poos the Modoc 
 and Moc-peah-lu-tah the Sioux,t Indian retaliation has always 
 proceeded from the haughty and offensive manners of the set- 
 tlers, soldiers or agents toward the natives with whom they are 
 brought into contact. 
 
 " The moral influence of the soldiers upon the Indian," says 
 Mr. Howland in his paper on " Our Indian Brothers," " has been 
 of the worst character." The barbarities of the trappors and 
 
 * In tlie " Remonstrance " of the deputies fr; n New Xethcrl.iiitl to the home government of Holland in if)i4 it 
 is complained against the l)uich West India Company that "the Christians are treated almost liUe Indians in the 
 piMchase of necessaries which they cannot do withiuit " -an imconscioiis acknowledgment of the contemptuous 
 and unjust bearing of these very coniplainauis themselves toward the people whom they had displaced. 
 
 t Tl\e native names of " Captain Jack " and " Red Cloud." 
 
 i 
 
 ■i .J 
 
 
224 
 
 PLACING THE KESFOXSIBILITY. 
 
 :l 
 
 the villainy of the fur-traders are too well known to need details 
 in proof. The open immorality and undiluted selfishness of the 
 border settlements develop the worst traits not only in the white 
 but in the Indian nature. Truly, as was said at the opening of 
 this chapter, it is to be regretted that, upon first approach, a 
 superior civilization always presents it^ most questionable ele- 
 ments to the inferior. 
 
 It was the existence of these demoralizing influences, pushed 
 to the extreme of aggravation and exasperation, that brought 
 about the later Indian troubles. A sjlance at the succession of 
 these "troubles" will warrant this assertion. 
 
 The conspiracy of Pontiac in i 763 was due to the rascality 
 of the English fur-traders, the tyranny of the British soldiers 
 and the unwarranted intrusion by settlers upon the Indian's 
 lands. 
 
 The war with Tecumthe in 181 1 was caused by the encroach- 
 ment by settlers upon Indian lands in open violation of treaty. 
 
 The Creek troubles in Georgia in 1S13 were brought about 
 by the endeavors of the State of Georgia to enforce its remark- 
 able compact with the United Stales government by which it 
 bound itself " to extinijuish the Indian title to all the lands 
 within the State of Geori^ia." 
 
 Black Hawk's War in 1832 along the Upper Mississippi, 
 resulted from the indignities visited upon this eminent and 
 patriotic chieftain and upon his tribesmen by the pioneers and 
 settlers who evinced the most determined eagerness for the 
 forcible removal of the Indians. In fact, in the border wars of 
 the West, almost without exception, the frontiersman has not 
 only commenced the trouble, but carried off the palm for cruelty 
 and inhumanity. 
 
 The Seminole War of 1835 which was never upheld by the 
 
PLACING THE RESIOXSIBIUTW 
 
 225 
 
 best men of the Morida tribes, was the result x)f open provoca- 
 tion by lawless frontiersmen, retaliation by the " rabble " of the 
 corrupted Seminoles and the double dealings of the Scotch half- 
 breed demagogue Asseola who presumed to leadership. 
 
 The Pueblo massacres of 1847 were due entirely to the 
 cruelty of Mexican desperadoes. 
 
 ^'^ 
 
 MILITARY TVRANNV. 
 
 The Cayuse massacres among the Oregon missionaries in 
 1847 were instigated and abetted by the Jesuit priests. 
 
 The California massacres of 185 1 were the result of the 
 greed of the gold hunters and, primarily, of the licentiousness 
 of a drunken miner. 
 
 The fatal Sioux and Cheyenne wars of 1854 were due to 
 a combination of Mormon duplicity and military brutality. 
 
 The Oregon massacres and the Klickitat wars of 1855 were 
 
'^■wamttpt 
 
 226 
 
 rf.ACLXG TUK RESrOASJlULJTY. 
 
 1 i 
 
 I 
 
 the result of tlic foolish insolence and fiendish attacks of the 
 white traders and settlers. 
 
 The Digger war of 1S5S was simply a butchery by the 
 white men of these most inoffensive of all the Indians because 
 they drove away the cattle they found eating their acorns. 
 
 The Navajo trouble of 185.S was caused by Ahirmon 
 diplomacy and Mexican feuds. 
 
 The Apache outbreak of 1S61 was the beginning of yet 
 unsettled trouble with this ferocious race — made ferocious, 
 however, by the white man's ferocity. The cause is found in 
 the mistaken treatment of these Indians by the soldiers and 
 frontiersmen at a time when they might have been conciliated, 
 so hostile were they to the tyrannical Mexicans and so favorably 
 inclined toward the new comers. 
 
 The fatal Sioux war which, in i(S62, ravaged Minnesota and 
 marked a bloody trail across that growing State, was the result 
 of governmental trilling and delay and of the agents' trickery 
 and the white man's frauds. 
 
 The Arapaho and Cheyenne troubles of 1S64 were induced 
 bv the shifting plans of government, and the failure to carrv out 
 treaty agreements. It was fanned into fury by the brutality of 
 the soldiers who were sent among them to "adjust difficulties." 
 
 The Sioux war of 1S66 was the vigorous protest of these 
 despondent and oft-removed Indians against forcible dispos- 
 session from the lands given them in Dakota. 
 
 The Blackfeet outbreak of 1S69 was occasioned by bar- 
 barities committed by lawless white men (" roughs and whiskey- 
 sellers," General Sully called them) and for which the Indians 
 were punished. 
 
 The Modoc "war" of 1872 was caused by vacillation, indif- 
 ference and contradiction on the part of the government. 
 
 ^ 
 
IN CUM'ACX Wmi CIVILIZATION. 
 
 \ I 
 
 M 
 
T 
 
 ■Sit -t 
 
 1^1 < 
 
 i 
 
 
 ie- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • j. 
 
 
 -f. 
 
 '1' 
 
 
 i 
 
 i ^ 
 
 t I .,: , "1 
 
^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 PLACING THE RESPONSIBILITY. 
 
 229 
 
 The Sioux war of 1876, in which Custer and his command 
 were slaughtered, was due to the neglect on the part of the 
 United States government to maintain its promises, as also 
 to the forcible occupation of the Black Hills by settlers and 
 uold hunters. 
 
 The Nez Perce "war" of 1876-77 — "the meanest, most 
 contemptible, least justifiable thing that the United States was 
 ever guilty of," so declares Mr. Dunn, in his history of Indian 
 Wars in the West,* — was due to the " foily, weakness or dis- 
 honesty ' of the government's Indian agents. 
 
 The foregoing summary, incomplete and fragmentary as it 
 is, indicates that the cry of the Indian hater for complete 
 extermination is but the logical outcome of years of injustice 
 and treachery toward the red-man on the part of the very 
 people among whom the Indian hater is found. 
 
 From the days of the first discoverers until now the Ameri- 
 can Indian has been alike the tool and the scapegoat of the 
 negative forces of Christian civilization. Despoiled, despised 
 and trifled with — whenever he has protested he has been tyran- 
 nized over, whenever he has sou<^ht to strike in defence of his 
 riohts he has been branded as an outlaw and hunted d;)wn 
 with relentless ferocity. From the first the white man's policy 
 of aggression has been the only one with which the settler has 
 met the rightful possessor of the soil he would appropriate. 
 
 What head, then, could Indian patriotism, handicapped as it 
 was by totemic rivalries, make against a united system of fron- 
 tier aggressions? The w^hite man's policy was backed by a 
 public opinion always hostile to the Indian, and by 'he settled 
 theory that America was the ultimate and legitimate posses- 
 sion of the white race. 
 
 • " The Massacres of the Mountains," by J. P. Dunn, jr. 
 
 
230 
 
 PLACING THE RESJ'OXSIBILITY. 
 
 Greed stops at no such sentimental barrier as justice in 
 pursuit of its desires. Colonization permits no obstacle to 
 block its pathway toward future empire. Civilization admits 
 of no concession to barljarism ; and the conciliatory measures 
 of to-day are forgotten in the territorial desires of to-morrow. 
 
 So, step by step, has the Indian been pushed from the 
 inheritance of his fathers. Treaties have been violated, national 
 honor forfeited, and any attempt at resistance has been met by 
 coercion, conquest, and relentless " punishment." 
 
 " I love the English so well," said Maqua-comen, chief of 
 the Paw-tux-ents of Maryland, in 1634, "that if they should 
 go about to kill me, if I had so much breath as to speak, I 
 would command my people not to revenge my death, for I know 
 that they would do no such a thing, except it were through my 
 own fault." 
 
 " There is not one white man who loves an Indian," said 
 Sitting Bull, the warlike Ogallala, in 1876, "and not a true 
 Indian but hates a white man." 
 
 And this " change of heart " which less than three centu- 
 ries have witnessed, is the sole result of the contact between 
 Christian civilization and progressive barbarism. To this end 
 has come the friendship that saw in the earliest discoverers the 
 messengers from the gods, and met them with open-handed 
 hospitality and signs of friendliest welcome. It is logical, per- 
 haps ; it was, possibly, inevitable ; but yet a lover of justice 
 might exclaim with Cassio, " The pity of it, lago ! O, lago, the 
 pity of it, lago ! " 
 
 \ 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 PUSHED TO THE WALL. 
 
 ED into almost immediate antaQ:onism 
 the relations between the red-man 
 and the white were from the 
 very first strained and hostile. 
 The tyrannous selfishness of 
 Spain, the ill-concealed greed 
 of France, the needless stern- 
 ness of Eno^land and the offen- 
 sive assumption of personal 
 superiority by settlers of every 
 European nation that sent its 
 swarms of good and bad alike 
 to this possible El Dorado of the West, could not 
 but have a disastrous effect upon the Indian nature. 
 
 In defence of this European aggression it must be said that 
 desire is seldom far-seeing. Present benefit is the main end in 
 view, and not one of the early colonists but felt that he was 
 doing at once the Lord's will and his own in thus occupying 
 the heritage of the heathen. " The Lord God of our fathers 
 hath given to us the land of the heathen people amongst whom 
 we live for a rightful possession,'' said the Reverend Increase 
 Mather ; and the twenty-four dollars for which the Dutch pur- 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 ?j 
 
232 
 
 PUSHED TO THE WALL 
 
 I 
 
 \ : 
 
 \ \ 
 
 ^ I 
 
 chased New York, the one hundred and forty-fuur fatlioms of 
 \vanij)uni for which the English obtained Boston, the tricky 
 "walking purchase " by which the Quakers pocketed Pennsyl- 
 vania, the trifling bit of copper for which the Virginia colony 
 secured Richmond, were deemed by the purchasers as full and 
 honest settlement for what the red people, from whom the pur- 
 chases were made, could never care to use. 
 
 Hut he who has always been free illy brooks dictation and 
 gratuitous authority. The Indian, as has been shown, was 
 totally unable to comprehend the peculiar and unjust claims to 
 possession set up by the different and rival governments beyond 
 the Great Salt Water. He had no idea of absolutely parting 
 with his land, but supposed that he had merely admitted his 
 white "brother" to a share in his benefits. 
 
 When, therefore, he once understood that a community of 
 interest was impossible, and that his lands had actually been 
 parted with for trifles that soon disappeared, he began, naturally, 
 to resent the white men's methods of land absorption, as well as 
 their domiiatic and unelastic reliu;ions, their antaijonistic cus- 
 toms, their hollow proffers of friendship, their arrogant claims 
 to a personal superiority, their tricks of trade, of wisdom and of 
 law. 
 
 " Fear nothing, friend," said Oglethorpe, when one of the 
 Cherokee chiefs met him in conference. "Fear nothing; speak 
 freely." 
 
 The savaore chief of the free mountain tribes of Georma 
 looked proudly at the Englishman. " I always speak freely," he 
 replied. " Why should I fear } Ami not now among friends } 
 I never feared, even among my enemies." 
 
 But the time came when the Indian learned to fear, not the 
 might but the wiles of his new neighbors. Acknowledging 
 
Mm 
 
 I 
 
 AN KI'ISODK OK lUK SKMINCil.E WAR. 
 
,;: i 
 
 ';■ i 
 
 Ut 
 
 
•r 
 
 PUSHED TO Till'. U'AI.r. 
 
 235 
 
 their mental superiority, he came at last to fear their methods 
 which always resulted in his discomfiture and in their benefit. 
 " The natural character of the Indian, so far as I have had 
 ojjportunity for observing it," says Mr. J. H. Harrison, " has too 
 much of the moral element in it for him to be able long to 
 maintain his <jround in the state of war which in so ^reat 
 degree constitutes the substance and current practical experi- 
 ence of our civilization. He is too receptive, for his own inter- 
 est in this world, to the simple, practical teaching of the New 
 Testament. He does not understand injustice on the part of 
 those whom he regards as his superiors, and his faculties are 
 depressed and benumbed by it." 
 
 If the " simple, practical teaching of the New Testament" 
 had been ijiven him at the outset the Indian would have been 
 more receptive of the "black robe's" message. But Jesuit and 
 Protestant, Lutheran and Moravian began and persevered in a 
 doctrinal and dogmatic interpretation of the Gospel that excited 
 both derision and scorn in their hearers — themselves not alto- 
 gether deficient in a rude philosophy, which even the absurdities 
 of superstition and sorcery could not destroy. Membertou's 
 desire to include "moose meat and fish " in the immortal petition 
 for "our daily bread " was but the Indian's understanding of a 
 proper request to a manitou, and there was certainly an ajiparent 
 logic in the rejoinder of the chief who laid a hypothetical case 
 before the missionary. "S'pose have bad squaw," he said; "two 
 children; one ((f 'em squaw love; other she hate and kill. 
 What do.''" "She must be hung," replied the law-abiding 
 missionary. " Ugh," said the chief, "go, then, and hang your 
 god. You make 'im just like squaw." 
 
 The chiefs and medicine men, loyal to the teachings and 
 traditions of their fathers, saw in the abstruse religion of the 
 
^ 
 
 236 
 
 rUSlIF.D TO HIE WALL. 
 
 white men only contradiction, controversy and a means of 
 disturbance. Wedded to the old forms, which, before they had 
 become overlaid with mystery, absurdity and superstition, did 
 contain some rude and axiomatic })hilosophy, the more thought- 
 ful among the leading Indians could see no benefit in a creed 
 that seemed to teach the very intolerance they despised. Even 
 those therefore who were disposed to be friendly to the white 
 man — chiefs like Mass .oit and Pow-ha-tan* drew the line at 
 religious interference. JVIassasoit sought promises from the 
 Pilgrims that no effort should be made to proselyte his tribes- 
 men. Uncas, sachem of the Mohegans, forbade the conversion 
 of his warriors, and the " Mico," or chieftain of the Yamicraws, 
 though friendly to Oglethorpe and the English, objected to 
 the teachintis of the white missionaries among his tribesmen. 
 Eliot's two hundred "praying Indians," even more than the 
 land greediness of the Pilgrims, were the cause of " King 
 Philip's War." 
 
 It must be added that the conduct of the missionaries 
 themselves did not wholly remove this constitutional objection 
 to conversion. They were, as has been said, too often dog- 
 matic, opinionated, relentless, and inconsid'M^ate, and very few 
 among either the French or the English preachers were en- 
 tirely free from the influences engendered by the hostile 
 rivalries of their respective governments. 
 
 In 1696 an Indian chief told a Boston minister that a 
 French "black robe," while instructing the Indians in the 
 Christian religion, had assured them that the Saviour was a 
 Frenchman ; that he had been murdered by Englishmen, and 
 
 *Tliis is but another indicaliuii of tlie cnnfusioii as to the leal names of lustoric Intlians -Iready referred to. 
 " Powlia'an's" name wa's VVa-bun-so-iia-cook, but as tlie cliief nf the warlike Virginian confederacy in wbicli the 
 tribe of the Pow-ha-tans was the leading element be received from his white neighbors the name of his tribe rather 
 than his own personal appellation — doubtless because of the superstition of the Indian which studiously concealed 
 his proper name. 
 
 ! 
 
PUSHED TO THE WALL. 
 
 237 
 
 that, further, wlien he arose from the dead and went up into 
 heaven, he had prepared the "hippy hunting grounds" alone 
 for the allies of France. Therefore, the "black robe" declared, 
 all who desired his saving grace must recommend them- 
 selves to his favor by siding with France in its hostility to 
 England — for this was Christ's quarrel. 
 
 Red Jacket, the Sjjneca, the last of the Indian philosophers, 
 on being asked why he was opposed to the work of the mis- 
 sionaries said : " Because they do no good. If they are not 
 useful to the white people, why do they send them among the 
 Indians? If they are useful to the white people and do them 
 good, why do they not keep them at home ? The white men 
 are surely bad enough to need the labor of every one who can 
 make them better. These men know that we do not under- 
 stand their religion. We cannot read their book. They tell us 
 different stories about wdiat it contains, and we believe they 
 make the book talk to suit themselves. The Great Spirit will 
 not punish us for what we do not know. He will do justice to 
 his red children. These black coats talk to the Great, Spirit 
 and ask for light that we may see as they do, when they are 
 blind themselves and quarrel about the light which guides 
 them." 
 
 Of similar tenor is a story that Mr. Drake tells of a 
 Swedish minister who recounted to some Indian chiefs the 
 principal biblical facts uj^on which his religion rested — such 
 as the fall of our first parents in Eden, etc. When he 
 had finished an Indian orator rose to thank him. " What 
 you have told us," said the orator, " is all very good. It 
 is indeed bad to eat apples. It is better to make them all 
 into cider. We are much obliged by your kindness in coming 
 so far to <"ell us those things which you have heard from your 
 
 
 M 
 
 
■mnmiPSBSs 
 
 Si 
 
 ^38 
 
 PC/SflED TO THE IVALL. 
 
 i 
 
 
 mothers." Then the speaker proceeded to tell the missionary 
 one of the Indian legends, but the minister interrupted him, 
 saying that Ihe legend was all falsehood, while the story he 
 had told was sacred truth. " My brother," said the Indian, 
 indignantly, " it seems to me that your friends have not done 
 you justice in your education. They have not well instructed 
 you in the rules of common civility. You see that we, who 
 understand and practice these rules, believe all your stories ; 
 why do you refuse to believe ours ? " 
 
 This toleration on tlie part of the Indian met only with 
 intolerance on the part of his teachers. To intolerance was 
 added that haughty and foolish pi de of blood that saw in the 
 Indians an inferior race and alienated friends while it angered 
 foes. "Nothing," says Mr. Hutchinson, "has more effectually 
 defeated the endeavors for Christianizinq; the Indians." 
 
 So the first much-vaunted measure, which every government 
 that sent its explorers and colonists into the Western wilderness 
 advanced as their reason for occupation — the conversion of 
 the barbarians — failed of success, as false methods always fail. 
 " Under this forced training," says Dr. Ellis, " the Indian lost 
 whatever of spontaneous or inherent simplicity or dignity he 
 might have caught as he roamed the woods, a child of nature. 
 The virility of his manhood yielded to a humiliated sense of 
 inferiority. His former attitude of spirit which stood for self- 
 respect was bowed into conscious dread, though not always 
 deference, for the white race." 
 
 Hand in hand with the unsuccessful attempts at conversion 
 went the more successful effort at colonization. Here was no 
 abstruse theory. The white man wanted the land ; he was 
 determined to have it ; he did have it. 
 
 The communistic principles of the Indian prevented him 
 
n 
 
 PUSHED TO THE WALL. 
 
 239 
 
 fiom understanding the theory of absolute purchase or absoUite 
 possession. The childlike nature of the red-man at once de- 
 sired what attracted it. " You shall have this or these for so 
 much, or for such a tract of land," said the colonist. To the 
 Indian the land was but a vague quantity ; the trinkets or 
 implements of the white man 
 seemed a very tangible one. The 
 bargain was made, the land was 
 occupied, and only when he was 
 excluded therefrom did the Indian 
 realize what he had done. No 
 Indian could dispose of land as 
 an individual. It was not his to 
 •dispose of. The whole tribe was 
 concerned in the doings of each 
 of its members. An infraction 
 of the hereditary communistic 
 principle led therefore to tribal 
 quarrels as well as to troubles with 
 the new^ occupants of the tribal 
 lands, and the foolish bargain uf 
 an individual Indian often brought 
 upon the settlers the fury and 
 vengeance of an entire clan. 
 
 All through the colonial times the policy of purchasing 
 lands was pursued by the colonists, and with each purchase the 
 Indian was crowded westward. The actual area of occupation 
 was so small, little real trouble fjrew from this cause. Had 
 the personal bearing of the white settlers toward their red 
 neighbors been less arrogant, the era of colonization would have 
 been one of peace, rather than of disturbance and of blood. 
 
 "THK WHITE MAN WANTKl) THK 
 LAND." 
 
 A ;l 
 
 -1 
 
— — ■'^-*^-rVM> 
 
 ' T ' . ' .'.^Tu. ^ 
 
 240 
 
 PUSHED TO THE WALL. 
 
 But with the increase of iminio-ration that followed the 
 Revolution, more and more land was needed, and to the 
 policy of purchase succeeded that of treaty. The State and 
 National q;ovcrnments souq;ht to obtain the land and avoid 
 disputes by treaties of peace and possession with the border 
 
 KKJlllING THE INDIANS ON THE VIRGINA FRONTIER. 
 
 tribes, and in 1804 it was agreed by the United States govern- 
 ment that the Indians were to retain possession even of lands 
 acquired by treaty until such lands were sold to actual settlers. 
 This policy however led only to confusion and trouble. 
 Certain white families who, says Mr. Wilkie, " probably con- 
 sidered an Indian's title to life, land and liberty as merely 
 nominal and of no account when measured against the ' rights ' 
 
 . 
 
rUSJIED TO THE WALL. 
 
 .'41 
 
 . 
 
 of the white man nioxecl on to land which was actually occu- 
 pied by the Indians." Trouble of course ensued, the govern- 
 ment came to the aid of the white " squatters " and finally, 
 contrary to treaty stipulations, dispossessed the Indians. 
 
 Thus to solemn treaty succeeded the era of expatriation 
 and the Indians were crowded still further westward. 
 
 In 1S33, after repeated reasons of troublesome and disas- 
 trous wars, and after the treaty plan had been proved impracti- 
 cable, the United States attempted the Reservation plan — the 
 practical imprisonment of the Indians upon tracts of lands 
 which, it was supposed, would never be needed for settlement. 
 These Reservations were placed under the charge and control 
 of agents ap})ointed by the government and would, it was 
 hoped, prepare the Indian for self-support and gradual civiliza- 
 tion. The largest of these arbitrary land prisons was the tract 
 to the southwest, known as the Indian territory. It possessed 
 an area of nearly seventy thousand square miles, and com- 
 prised rolling prairies, rich river land, and noble forests. Other 
 Reservations were established at various points in the West 
 and, gradually, most of the Indian tribes were exiled to these 
 extensive and un walled prison-spots. 
 
 But governments are changeable and asfents are human. 
 Unlike the British system in Canada, which makes the superin- 
 tendence of these Indian reservations life positions, the change 
 of parties in i)ower resulted, in the United States, in a fre- 
 quent change of agents. The men occupying this official and 
 often autocratic position in too many instances used their 
 offices for their personal profit rather than for that of their 
 charges; the Indians again and again protested against the 
 treatment accorded them, and the secret of many of the Indian 
 outbreaks of the last half-century may be found in the dissat- 
 
 1,^ 
 
242 
 
 rUSIIKD TO THF. WALL. 
 
 isfaction of the nation's " wards "' with the ne<>lect or indif- 
 ference with which their necessities were met. Again and 
 again have they broken tlu'ir Ijounds and tiiis bulky and 
 expensive system has at last proved itself at once impracti- 
 cable and inexpedient. 
 
 "It is not more natural for acid to react upon alkali," says 
 Dr. Eggleston, " than for civilization — esjjecially a half-civiliza- 
 tion — to fall out with savagery." The raj)acity of the border 
 settlements, the envious looks which men cast upon the goodly 
 and extensive lands given up to the despised red-man for 
 hunting and roving led to encroachments. Little by little the 
 reservations were contracted, tribes were removed from one 
 section to another and the ill-effects of " dole and subsidy " 
 grew more and more apparent. 
 
 The discovery of gold and the vast natural wealth that 
 was found to lie in whac were originally esteemed waste lands 
 made the white man more impatient of this system of "savage 
 monopoly." A "restless, enterprising, adventurous and rapidly 
 thickening white population," as Dr. Ellis characterizes the 
 American pioneer element, would not be kept out of the 
 reserved lands. Despite the efforts of government to ])ro- 
 tect its "wards " the preeminence of possession asserted itself 
 and the Indians were still further crowded out of their homes. 
 
 " We are driven back," said an old warrior, after one of 
 these periodical dispossessings, " until we can retreat no 
 further. Our hatchets arc broken, our bows ai'e snapped, our 
 fires are nearlv extinouished. :\ little lon<>er and the white 
 man will cease to persecute us — for we will cease to exist." 
 
 The tribes within the borders of the United States now 
 on reservations are divided substantially as follows: In Maine, 
 there are 410, all that are left of the original Penobscot stock; 
 
 ) 
 
THE HOME OF IHE INIJIAN. 
 
I 
 
 ; I 
 
 I 
 
 ii » 
 
 B 
 
 
I 
 
 PUSHED TO THE IVAr.L. 
 
 245 
 
 i 
 
 in New York, 4,963, remnants of thu once powerful Iroquois 
 confederacy; in North Carolina, 3000, of the Cherokee nation. 
 In Florida and Indiana, 892 — the last of the restless Scminoles 
 and Aliamis; in Wisconsin, 8,006; in Michigan, 7,313; in 
 Minnesota, 6,038; in Iowa, 380 — all that remains of Black 
 Hawk's once warlike race; in Kansas, 1,007; ^^ Nebraska, 
 3,694; in Colorado, 978; in Nevada, 8,238; in Montana, 
 12,904; in Wyoming, i,Soo; in Utah, 2,698; in Idaho, 4,061; 
 in Washington, 10,289; in Oregon, 4,627; in Arizona, 19,468; 
 in Dakota, 30,271; in California, 11,506; in Texas, 290; in 
 New Mexico, 2,824; ^•''cl in the Indian Territory 75,799. 
 
 This total of nearly 250,000 American Indians represents 
 the factors in the perplexed Indian problem. And wnat is this 
 problem? Set forth plainly, says Mr. J. B. Harrison, one of 
 its latest and most experienced students, " it is the question 
 how the Indian shall be brought to a condition o': self-support, 
 and of equal rights before the law, in which they will no longer 
 require the special protection and control of the Government." 
 
 To this complexion has it come at last. " The Indian can 
 no longer be removed," says another recent student of the 
 problem, " he must make his stand where he is." 
 
 Inch by inch he has been crowded back from the heritage 
 of his fathers into a cramped and limited area in which the 
 champed condition of his life from the old times when he 
 was a hunter, a producer and a free man is fast making him 
 a vagrant and a pauper. 
 
 It is a sad commentary on civilization that it has but 
 desfraded where it should have exalted. The Indian has been 
 the white man's foil where he should have proved his friend. 
 Christianity failed to christianize him not because of any in- 
 herent weakness in the grandest of religious faiths, but because 
 
 i 
 
 
246 
 
 PUSHED TO THE WALL, 
 
 II! \ 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 of the lack of real Christianity itself in the exponents of that 
 faith. Appetite which should have been cultivated into gentle 
 living was used to make him a brute; association which should 
 have ui)lifted him made him an outcast and a vagrant; states- 
 manship which should have constituted him the peer of his 
 white brethren has alternately persecuted and petted, domi- 
 neered over and de- 
 graded him. And the 
 race that took from 
 him his land has taken 
 from him also his am- 
 bition, his manhood 
 and his life. 
 
 The American In- 
 dian has reason to be 
 proud of his race. His 
 has been a record 
 which even dead civili- 
 zations miq-ht well 
 have envied. Evolved 
 from savagery through 
 years of partial prog- 
 ress, he became as 
 bole a warrior as ever 
 Homer sung, as elo- 
 quent an orator as 
 Greek or Roman knew. 
 His barbaric virtues could shame the sloth and license of 
 Tiberius' day, his simple manliness could put to blush the ser- 
 vile manners of Justinian's court. His rude manufactures 
 and yet ruder art have, rude as they were, still furnished 
 
 TYPES OF A "FADINr, RACK" — INDIAN PUPILS AT 
 HAMITdN SCHOOI,. 
 
 ] 
 
 I 
 
1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 rUSHHD TO Till. WALL. 
 
 247 
 
 suggestions upon which modern invention can scarcely im- 
 prove, and his governmental policy of a league of freemen 
 is that toward which all the world is tending. 
 
 His manners and his methods will compare favorably with 
 those of any barbaric people. With no more brutality than the 
 Huns of Attila, no greater ferocity than the sea-wolves of Olaf 
 the Viking, and no deeper strain of vindictiveness than the 
 Goths of Alaric, the American Indian has been eliminated as 
 a factor in a fusing civilization where these bloodier compeers 
 have been accepted as the bases of refined nationalities. 
 
 The Indian knew no law but that of simple justice, no 
 dealings other than those of simple honesty, no order more 
 binding than that of simple equality. His mind, hampered 
 by the superstition that always inheres in an out-of-door race, 
 was still no greater slave to the supernatural than is that of the 
 agricultural peasantry of any land, and the spell of the scalp- 
 lock, or the magic of the " fetich " was not so very far removed 
 from the slavish manipulation of the myriad gods ot Rome, 
 the mystic "unicorn-horn" of the bloody Torqumada, the 
 dread of the " evil eye " among the peasantry of England, or 
 the fancied " overlooking " which led to such a trairic farce 
 upon the slope of Witches' Hill. 
 
 All this may appear to practical folk as an heroic and over- 
 drawn estimate of a very ordinary and limited intelligence. 
 But it is an estimate that is borne out by facts, and is one, 
 moreover, that the justice of the conquerors should allow to 
 the conquered. The shame of it all lies in the knowledge that 
 a civilization which might have moulded has only marred, and 
 that a promi>..iig barbarism that in time might have developed 
 into a completed native civilization has been smothered and 
 contemptuously blotted out by the followers of a Master whose 
 
!48 
 
 PUSHED TO TIIK WALL. 
 
 greatest precept was: Love one another. But it is never too 
 late to Idc just. 
 
 " The popular creed on the subject," says Mr. J. 13. Har- 
 rison, in a recent presentation of the " Latest Studies in Indian 
 Reservations," " which clotiies itself with the solemn sanctions 
 and imperial authority of science, is that the Indian is doomed 
 and fated to fade away, by reason of his inherent inferiority to 
 the white man. Well, let him fade. Nobody need mourn if 
 any race, justly treated, and with reasonable opportunity for 
 self-perpetuation, comes to an end because its vitality is ex- 
 hausted and its puny and vanishing representatives no longer 
 reproduce their kind. When a race perishes thus it is time 
 for it to go. But when people numbering hundreds of thou- 
 sands are destroyed on their own soil by the richest and 
 strongest nation under the sun — crushed and exterminated by 
 means of falsehood and theft, of mountainous fraud and fero- 
 cious murder, I do not call that fading out. It is altogether 
 a different matter." 
 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 f 
 
 " I WISH to say emphatically," says Gen- 
 eral (ieorge Crook — an Indian fighter of 
 valor and renovvMi but, not less, a just and 
 clear-headed student of Indian character — 
 "that the American Indian is the intel- 
 lectual peer of most, if not all, the various 
 nationalities we have assimilated to our 
 laws, customs and language." 
 
 "Give the Indians the right of sending 
 a delegate to Congress," said General James 
 Wadsworth — a soldier, a statesman and a 
 careful observer of Indian nature fifty years 
 ago. " I beg you not to be startled," he 
 continued, in reply to an expression of dis- 
 sent; "there are many Indian chiefs who 
 would not disgrace the floor of Congress." 
 
 Every friend of the Indian, from the Clcrigo Las Casas 
 to Era Junipero, " H. H." and Bishop Hare — as, through the 
 four centuries of intercourse between the white race and the 
 red, the still unsettled Indian problem has been studied and 
 experimented upon — agrees in conceding to the native Ameri- 
 can the attributes that go toward the making of a manly man. 
 
 249 
 
 wm 
 
ssmmm 
 
 250 
 
 INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 And the testimony of his foes is not less emphatic. Dc 
 Soto, prince of Indian butchers, found among the chieftains 
 of the Southern tribes foemen worthy of his steel, warriors 
 who, despite the vSpaniard's coat of mail, his bloodhounds and 
 his arms, were his conqueror and his scourge. " Thus has 
 
 terminated," wrote 
 General Sherman, 
 after the conclu- 
 sion of the Nez 
 Perce outbreak of 
 1877, " one of the 
 most extraordinary 
 Indian wars of 
 which there is any 
 record. The In- 
 dians throus^hout 
 displayed a cour- 
 age and skill that 
 
 elicited universal 
 praise ; they ab- 
 stained from scalp- 
 ing, let captive 
 women go free, did 
 not commit indiscriminate murder of peaceful families, and 
 fought with almost scientific skill, using advance and rear 
 guards, skirmish lines and field fortifications." 
 
 The story of the decline and fall of any nation is full of 
 sad interest. The decay of a race, even though a stouter and 
 stronger one succeeds it, elicits sympathy — as failure always 
 should. No matter how barbaric, no matter how savage, even, 
 is the race or the people conquered, its attempts as well as its 
 
 FRA JUNIPKRO SKRRO, KRIKNI) OK THE CALIFORNIA INDIANS. 
 
[NDJAN TYPES. 
 
 !5i 
 
 desires toward independence and self-preservation develop 
 resources of latent patriotism and personal ability. There 
 were great men in Rome's decadence as well as in her days of 
 glory. Scanderbeg, the Albanian, has made the death of his 
 country historic, and Kosciusko's patriotic endeavor glorified 
 the fall of Poland. 
 
 Civilization does not hold a monopoly of all life's nobilities. 
 There have been patriots and heroes in all ages and among all 
 peoples, and the American Indian is by no means a laggard in 
 the ranks of heroism. 
 
 " From Massachusetts Bay back to their own hunting 
 grounds," said Wendell Phillips, champion of the world's 
 oppressed whatever their color or their homeland, " every few 
 miles is written down in imperishable record cm a spot where 
 the scanty, scattered tribes made a stand for justice and their 
 own rights. Neither Greece, nor Germany, nor the French, 
 nor the Scotch, can show a prouder record. And instead of 
 searing it over with infamy and illustrated epuhets the future 
 will recognize it as a glorious ricord of a race that never 
 melted out and never died away, but stood up manfully, man by 
 man, foot by foot, and fought it out for the land God gave him, 
 against the world, which seemed to be poured out over him." 
 
 Without idealizing the red-man's good qualities nor over- 
 looking his bad ones, without disjHiting the fact that civilization 
 with all its vices is preferable to barbarism with all its virtues, 
 we can still have courtesy and courage enough to concede to 
 the American Indian very much of that inherent nobility that 
 knc no distinctions of race or rank, of color or creed, of 
 mind or manners. 
 
 We need no mythical Hiawatha, no fictitious Uncas, no 
 imaginary Pocahontas to prove the existence of real and vital 
 

 "Vfifainm 
 
 pg^arflga^-. 
 
 25- 
 
 INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 i 
 
 humanity in the Indian nature. " There are," says Mr. Dunn, 
 " plenty of well-authenticated instances of Indian chivalry. 
 The romance of war and the chase has always been theirs. 
 If you want the romance of love, a thousand elopements in the 
 face of deadly peril will supply you with Lochinvars. If you 
 want the romance of friendship, you may find, in the 'com- 
 panion warriors ' of the prairie tribes, rivals for Damon and 
 Pythias. If you want the romance of grief, take that mag- 
 nificent Mandan, Mah-to-ti-pa, who starved himself to death 
 because of the ravages of small-pox in his tribe, or Ha-won-je- 
 tah, the Minneconjon chief, who was so maddened by the death 
 of his son that he swore to kill the first living thing that 
 crossed his path ; armed only with a knife he attacked a buffalo 
 bull, and perished on the horns of the furious animal. If you 
 seek knight-errantry, I commend y<,-u to the young Pawnee- 
 Loup brave, Pe-ta-lc-shar-ro, who at the risk of his life freed 
 a Comanche sjirl from the stake and returned her unharmed to 
 her people. If you desire the grander chivalry of strength of 
 mind and nobility of soul, I will pit Chief Joseph, the Nez 
 Perce, against any barbarian that ever lived." 
 
 " Tell your countrymen that you have been pursued by 
 Quigualtanqui alone,'' said the intrepid Chickasaw chief as he 
 drove the last remnant of De Soto's defeated invaders down 
 the Mississippi and out into the great Gulf; "if he had been 
 better assisted by his brother warriors not one of you would 
 have lived to tell the tale." 
 
 As this fiery Southern chief was the Agamemnon of his 
 race so, too, did it have its Regulus. During certain border 
 disturbances in the early part of the present century, so runs 
 the story, the British soldiers captureJi a hostile Indian against 
 whom they laid the charge of murder and notified him that he 
 
 i 
 
■ 
 
^j„^^,j,^^.,^..- .^.,^.J^;W^.. .■..■■I^'-- 
 

 INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 255 
 
 was to be shot the next day. He made no plea for his life, but 
 simply asked permission to say good-by to his family, who were 
 encamped with his tribe a few miles away. He promised to 
 return by sunrise the next morning. Permission was granted; 
 the Indian left the camp, bade his family adieu and promptly 
 at sunrise, next day, returned to his captors who with the 
 customary border magnanimity led him out and shot him. 
 
 Nanuntenoo, son of Miantonomah, chief of the Narragan- 
 setts, falling captive to the Plymouth colonists during the 
 bloody time of King Philip s war, was tried and condemned to 
 death. " After the verdict," says Mr. Hollister, " his life was 
 tendered to him if he would consent to make peace with the 
 English. He spurned the offer with the bitterest scorn, and 
 was sentenced to be shot. When the result of the trial was 
 niade known to him, he said calmly : ' Nanuntenoo likes it 
 well. He will die before his heart is soft, and he has said any 
 thing unworthy of himself.' " 
 
 " My son," said the dying chief of the Lower Nez Perces, 
 as he took the hand of his oldest son, " my body is returning 
 to my mother earth, and my spirit is going very soon to see the 
 Great Spirit Chief. When I am gone, think of your country. 
 You are the chief of these people. They look to you to guide 
 them. Always remember that your father never sold his 
 country. You must stop your ears whenever you are asked to 
 sign a treaty selling your home. A few years more, and white 
 men will be all annmd you. They have their eyes on this land. 
 My son, never forget my dying words. This country holds 
 your father's body. Never sell the bones of your father and 
 your mother." And because this loyal son, In-mut-too-yah-lat- 
 yat (whom we know as the brave Chief Joseph, the Nez Perce) 
 sought to carry out his father's dying injunction, the United 
 
 
 i 1 
 
 ll 
 
n 
 
 i 
 
 256 
 
 INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 States Government wa'^ecl at^ainst him a bitter and relentless 
 war. " I love that land more than all the rest of the world, ' 
 said Joseph. " A man who would not love his father's grave 
 is worse than a wild animal." 
 
 No doubt the disbeliever in Indian virtue could cap these 
 positive types of Indian manliness with certain and well as- 
 sured negative ones. No doubt the Indian of to-day is lazy 
 and vicious, drunken and dirty, crafty and deceitful, and no 
 doubt, even in his palmiest days of freedom and of power the 
 Indian himself nurtured the seeds of his downfall and decline. 
 But the like comparisons could be made in every land and 
 with every race. Ephialtes and Leonidas, Judas and John, 
 Arnold and Washington are but types of mankind the world 
 over, and the soil of America has reared alike the ignoble 
 barbarian and the "noble red-man" — this last by no means 
 a fiction of the romancer or the creation of the visionary poet. 
 
 Professor Huxley has said that if he was compelled to 
 choose between life in the worst quarter of a great city and 
 life with the most barbarous tribe known to exist, he would 
 choose the latter without hesitation. The savage has, at least, 
 he declares, the sunlight, fresh air and freedom of movement. 
 
 Contact, after all, is one of the chief tests of character. 
 Civilization conquered America rather by force of numbers 
 than by force of precept, and where the growth of settlement 
 was slow, as on the farthest borders, it was the savage rather 
 than the frontiersman who was the doniinatino; influence. 
 
 " At first," says Mr. Parkman, " great hopes were enter- 
 tained that, by the mingling of French and Indians, the latter 
 would be won over to civilization and the Church; but the 
 effect was precisely the reverse ; for, as Charlevoix observes, 
 the savages did not become French, but the French became 
 
E 
 
 l« 
 
 7. 
 
 C 
 
 y. 
 
lit 
 
 4* 
 
JUp|fc a3SM)g^I^-J !.\JLS._ 
 
 /.Vn/.LV TYJ'ES. 
 
 259 
 
 savages 
 
 <> « 
 
 f 
 
 The rcM-ici;acl(' of civilization caut^ht the hal^its and 
 imbibed the prejudices of his chosen associates. He loved to 
 decorate his long hair with eagle feathers, to make his face 
 hideous with vermilion, 
 ochre, and soot, and to adorn 
 his greasy hunting frock 
 with horsehair fringes He 
 lounged on a bearskin while 
 his squaw boiled his venison 
 and lighted his pipe. In 
 hunting, in dancing, in sing- 
 ing, in taking a scalp, he 
 rivalled the genuine Indian." 
 Vitiated by centuries of 
 
 temi)tation, of evil iniiuences 
 
 and of contact with the 
 
 worst phases of a conquer- 
 ing civilization the Indian 
 
 blood no longer runs pure 
 
 and strong. But it is safe 
 
 to assert that the unbridled 
 
 ferocity which has so long 
 
 been a synonym of Indian 
 
 warfare is an outgrowth of 
 
 the later ages of the Indian 
 
 race, and it is equally true 
 
 that the less pure the Indian 
 
 blood the more brutal and 
 
 savage was the Indian nature. 
 
 The ferocity of the Indian wars of the West and Southwest 
 
 has always been aggravated when Spanish, Mexican or negro 
 
 rllK KI'.NIM. ADl-; <)1' < IVIl.l/ A I luN. 
 
 I 
 
26o 
 
 JADLiy TVrES. 
 
 blood lias run in the veins of the " hostiles," The renet^ade 
 of civilization and the brutal and parasitical half-breed were 
 more fruitful of barbarities and less capable of lunnanitv 
 than were the Indians whom they aroused and instigated. It 
 was Hi-aus-wah the Ojibway who jnit an cw<\ l)\' intluence and 
 treaty to the torture of capti\es among the Northwestern 
 tribes; it was Te-cum-tlu' the Sba.";a:i:)e who treated his ])rison- 
 ers with uniform kindness and denounced torture at the stake 
 as unbecoming the character of a warrior and a man; it was 
 vSpotted Tail the Sioux (Sin-ta-gal-les-ca), wJiose kindness and 
 affection for the wife whom he had won by a romantic braverv 
 not exceeded by the knights of Arthur's day, were noted 
 throughout his tribe, and it was Red Jacket the Seneca who 
 thouiih his whole life was devoted to securing and maintain- 
 ing the independence of his race, despised war and abhorred 
 bloodshed. 
 
 While the study of a people is most satisfactorily pursued 
 by the study and obser\-ation of the people themselves, the 
 personal characteristics or public acts of those who have been 
 most prominent in the history of such a peoi)le may make them 
 valuable as types ot the race or the time to which they belong. 
 Pericles and Elizabeth, as they have given their names to the 
 aofcs in which thev lived, are regarded as reijresentative of 
 their times quite as much as leaders in them. And Indian 
 character, from the days of the ''Welcome, Englishmen!" of 
 Samoset the Abneki, to those of Red Cloud and of Geronimo, 
 of the Lava Beds and of Hampton Scl.ool, has expressed itself 
 in the lives of certain men and women who may be regarded 
 as typical and representative. 
 
 IMassasoit and I\Ietacomet, father and son, are typical 
 Americans of the early days. Massasoit embodied that spirit 
 
 ■V. 
 
 f 
 
1 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 l>OCAH()Nl'AS AND HER SUN, i'llOMAS KULIK. 
 (From the original f^aiutiiisi in H.-.uluim H.ill, EngUiut, the home of the Rvlje family.) 
 
 w 
 
I 
 
MiliHIii 
 
 JiVniAX TYPES. 
 
 263 
 
 J: 
 
 of h()s|)it;ility, of respect for hii^lur iiiti'llit;ence and of the 
 desire for jieace that marked the first contact of American 
 and Iuiroi)ean. ''Nun wcrmasu sagimus! Nuu wermasu sagi- 
 miis! Mv loving sachem; tnv h)vin<': sachem," said I lohba- 
 mok the Wampanoag to \\'insk)\v the Puritan, as he told of his 
 loved chieftain's illness. " Many have 1 known, hut never an\' 
 like thee.' And Mr. Fessenden, in his historv of the town of 
 Warren, says: " In all the memorials which have come down to 
 us, Ma.ssasoit's character stands above reproach. No one has 
 ever charged him with evil." Indeed, from the good chief's 
 first overture of friendshiji to the Pilgrims to the time of his 
 death, so Mr. Fessenden declares, Massasoit was " not only 
 their uniform friend, l^ut their protector at times when his pro- 
 tection \/as equivalent to their preservation." He was " no 
 liar," said Hobbamok ; " not bloody or cruel ; in anger and 
 passion he was soon reclaimed ; easy to be reconciled toward 
 such as had offended him ; trulv loving where he loved, he 
 governed his tribesmen better with few strokes than others did 
 with many." (^f similar strain was Anilco the Chickasaw; 
 and Tomo-chi-chi the Cherokee, the friend of Oglethorpe and 
 the preventer of hostilities between the red-man and the white in 
 the early days of Georgia; such was Granganimeo of Ohanok 
 (Roanoke), welcomer and friend to Grenville and to Lane. Of 
 the same kindly nature, too, were the courteous and betrayed 
 squaw sachem, or " princess " of Cofitachiqui among the tribes 
 on the Altamaha, and that gentle daughter of Ucita, sachem of 
 Harrihigua, whose pity and compassion saved Juan Ortiz 
 from the sacrificial fire, and antedated by almost a century the 
 now familiar romance of Pocahontas and Captain John Smith. 
 As to that romance itself, it is one of those debatable stories 
 that, lacking absolute proof, are relegated by the doubters to 
 
?.6^ 
 
 INDIAN lYPES. 
 
 the domain of myths or arc believed in, imhesitatinL^ly, by the 
 lovers of sentiment. It is wisest perhaps to agree wiih Pro- 
 fessor Arber, who has carefully looked into the details of tlic 
 story, and admit that " to deny the truth of the Pocahontas 
 incident is to create more difficulties than are involved in its 
 acceptance." 
 
 But whether or not the " kino's dearest dauohter " — Ma-ta- 
 oka, the Algonquin maiden, sometimes called Pocahontas — did 
 interi)ose her head between that of the doughty little Vir- 
 ginia Captain and the club of her kinsman there is no reason 
 to doubt her friendship toward the white colonists on her triiial 
 lands. " Shee, next under God," says the old chronicle, "was 
 still the instrument to preserve this Colonic from death, famine, 
 and utter confusi(>n." Her frc nt visits of friendship and of 
 peace, her vigilant guardianship over her white friends even 
 when her barbaric, but shrewd and clear-headed old father saw 
 that their destruction wns his only safe policy, and her final 
 marriage to the '• noble, simple and upright Master John Rolfe " 
 (as the chronicle sees fit to call her rather fussy and self-right- 
 eous English husband) are sufficiently authent' ated to place 
 this duskv voung maiden of the Virginia woods as " the bright 
 consummate flower " of tliat early Indian hospitality and courtesy 
 of which good old Massasoit was the manly type. 
 
 The fiery Metacomet, known to us as " King Philip,"' is a 
 fitting typj of that first uncertain, unreasoning and startled 
 hostility th.vt everywhere followed the unwise prc;"*ess of 
 P2uropean occupation. A patriot and a partisa* Philips states- 
 manshii) has been as largely overrated as his nature has beci 
 m ligned. lL;norant of the white man's reserve powders, care- 
 less as to his aggressive and, from an Indian standard, his 
 meaningless religion, Philip of Pokanoket gradually awoke to 
 
ioamam 
 
 INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 26' 
 
 ^ 
 
 the fact that the growth of the white man's power was a 
 menace and a bar to Indian prosperity. With noi of the 
 traits of leadershijD that marked the Ottawa chieftain, Pontiac. 
 and with little of the ability in statecraft that appear in the 
 career of Red Jacket the Seneca, Philip could not command the 
 storm he raised, and the outbreak that he hoped to see grow 
 into a widesj^read and successful revolt against Euroi)ean aggres- 
 sion found only a spasmodic and nerveless success. The Ne^v 
 England Indians, tributaries of the Western Iroquois, had 
 neither the wisdom to confederate, nor the independence to 
 resist. Philip's unsupported conspiracy fell because of its 
 inherent weakness, and only the personal bravery of the 
 valiant and patriotic chief gave it form or force. Pliilip of 
 Pokanoket is the American Rob Roy; his personal bravery 
 and his pride of blood were the only things to lighten a hope- 
 less cause, while his unconquerable opposition to tyranny 
 seemed only increased by misfortune, and ended only with death. 
 " Defeated, but not dismayed — crushed to the earth, but not 
 humiliated," so says one of his biographers, " he sec'med to 
 grow more haughty beneath disaster, and to receive a fierce 
 satisfaction in draining the last dregs of bitterness." The son 
 of Massasoit died a victim to the false security which his father 
 had too unquestioningly fostered, and the certain end of which 
 he alone of all his tribesmen foresaw and vainly struggled 
 against. 
 
 The century that followed his downfall, however, produced 
 many acceptors of his theory and many imitators of his 
 methods. The growth of border settlements was everywhere 
 marked by the twang of the bowstring and the gleam of the 
 tomahawk, as in their own barbaric fashion the earliest Amer- 
 ican patriots sought to defend their home-land from invaders 
 
268 
 
 INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 and usurpers. And the outcome of that century of bloody pro- 
 test was the typical red-man of the new order of things — the 
 apostle of extermination, Pontiac the chieftain of the Ottawas. 
 A fierce and relentless liater of the white man, but a statesman 
 and a general of no mean ability, Pontiac united with excep- 
 tional mental qualities the fearlessness of the warrior and the 
 craftiness of the politician. " Courage, resolution, wisdom, 
 address and eloquence," says Mr. Parkman. " are, among the 
 Indians, sure passports to distinction. With all these Pontiac 
 was preeminently endowed, and it was chiefly to them, urged to 
 their highest activity by a vehement ambition, that he owed his 
 greatness. The American forest never produced a man more 
 shrewd, politic, and amiiitious." 
 
 No one Indian in all the history of the native American race 
 ever possessed so much personal power and mastership as did 
 Pontiac. The intolerance of disci j)line and the love of absolute 
 independence that are so pronounced in Indian nature render 
 such concentrated direction next to impossible, and it is a proof 
 at once of Pontiac's ability and of his commanding energy 
 that he was able to unite hostile and rival tribes in a bond of 
 war that extended from Lake Eric to the farthest shores of 
 Superior — "a plot such as was never before nor since concei\ed 
 or executed by a North American Indian." Pontiac the 
 Ottawa marks the highest point of Indian ability, and his 
 defeat was the deathblow to Indian supremacy, as it was also 
 the severest wound to Indian manliness and jjatriotism. 
 
 Tha-yen-da-ne-gea ("the brant"), most widely known under 
 his anglicized name of Joseph Brant, was a remarkable ty]:)e of 
 that transitory stage of progress in which intellec. struggles 
 with barbarism, and loyalty with pride. Horn a full-blooded 
 Mohawk — the fiercest of the Iroquois race — he had received 
 
rr 
 
 
 rE-CUM-Tllli, ClllhK Ol- Till SllAUANUE. 
 
I 
 
 m**wn-*«>>«< 
 
INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 271 
 
 an excellent English education, had embraced Christianity and 
 adopted the manner and customs of civilization. Hound thus 
 to the English by ties of affection and long association, reared 
 in the knowledtje that for over a century the Endish kinir 
 and the tribesmen of the Six Nations had been allies and 
 friends, the clannishness of his Indian nature made him an 
 ardent loyalist when colonists and king fell out. What has 
 been judged his treachery was in reality his barbaric faith in 
 kinship and allegiance, and the ferocity that has been laid 
 to his charge when once he had put on the war-j^aint and 
 lifted the tomahawk was but the self-assertion of the barbaric 
 nature that education could not eradicate nor Christianity 
 modify. Regarded from the Indian's standpoint Tha-yen-da- 
 ne-gea the INIohawk was not " the brute and monster " that 
 jal orators and biased historians have termed him, but a cool, 
 sagacious and able warrior, and a loyal and patriotic ally of the 
 government that had helped and honored him. 
 
 Te-cum-the (or Tecumseh) the Shawanoe was one of the 
 most notable of the students and imitators of the <j:reater Pon- 
 tiac. Unlike Pontiac, however, his sagacity was free from sav- 
 agery and his fearlessness was tempered by humanity. With 
 less genius and less personal magnetism than Pontiac he was 
 fully as patriotic and even more far-seeing than th.: Ottawa 
 chieftain, while his love for the land of his people ar..ounted 
 to a passion that absorbed all other considerations. Opposed 
 to warfare, and honoring the intellectual triumphs of civiliza- 
 tion, with no complaint against the white men except for their 
 aggressive and ceaseless absorption of the Indian's land, faith- 
 ful where he pledged his faith, humane and compassionate, 
 forgiving even in the face of bitterest provocation, Te-cum-the 
 the Shawanoe had still " the genius to conceive and the per- 
 
 
272 
 
 INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 
 
 severance to attempt " the most extended scheme of union 
 against the white race ever attempted in America — the con- 
 spiracy of Pontiac alone excepted. 
 
 Red Jacket the Seneca — known first as O-te-ti-ani (" Always 
 Ready "), and after his rise to chieftainship as Sa-go-ye-wat-ha 
 ("the Keeper Awake "), is reco nized as the typical Indian states- 
 man of the era of transition. Never a warrior, as were Philip 
 and Pontiac and Black Hawk, Red Jacket was a patriotic 
 politician in the b .st sense of that questionable designation. 
 His eloquence was remarkable, and as it gained him fame 
 and ascendency in his younger days, it kept him the foremost 
 man among the Iroquois until his death. "A warrior!" he 
 exclaimed, when some one spoke of him as such, " I am no 
 warrior. I am an orator. I was born an orator!" Utterly 
 repudiating all the arts and advantages of civilization he lived 
 and died a true barbarian, disdaining alike the religion and 
 the language of his white foemen and spending his whole life 
 in "vain endeavors to preserve the independence of his tribe 
 and in active opposition as well to the plans of civilization 
 proposed by the beneficent as to the attempts at encroachment 
 on the part of the mercenary." 
 
 Black Hawk, or Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiah, the warlike chief 
 of the Sacs, or Sauks, was one of the last cf the warriors of 
 what might be called the earlier Indian school. As fiery as 
 Philip of Pokonoket and as ambitious as Pontiac, he had, 
 however, neither the restless energy of the one nor the masterly 
 ability of the other. Ranked among the braves of his tribe 
 when but a boy of fifteen, he declared himself when scarce 
 twenty-one chief of the Sac nation, and, starting upon a career 
 of conquest, in less than five years he subdued and made 
 tributaries all the neighboring tribes. The outrageous and 
 
 t ■ 
 
SA-GU-VE-WAT-llA IIIK SKNIiCA. (KKl) JACKKT.) 
 
' I 
 
 '^nRi 
 
 ■■■ 
 
 fi^ ! 
 
 i' . ' 
 i 
 
 
 f ■ ' 
 
 h. 
 
 Il 
 
 
INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 275 
 
 lawless actions of the frontiersmen made him an ardent hater 
 of the white men and their inveterate and relentless foeman. 
 Fully recognizing the hopelessness of resistance, he yet man- 
 fully battled against tyranny and oppression and proved himself 
 as true a patriot as Scanderbeg or Winkelried or any historic 
 leader of a forlorn hope. " We did not expect to conquer the 
 whites," he said. " No, they have too many houses, too many 
 men. I took up the tomahawk, for my part, to revenge injuries 
 which my people could no longer endure. Had I borne them 
 longer without striking, my people would have said : ' lilack 
 Hawk is a woman ; he is too old to be a chief ; he is no Sauk.' " 
 Asscola, the Scotch half-breed, wrongfully called CJsceola,* 
 may be regarded as a fitting representative of the un- Indian 
 qualities which have so often marked the mingling of the blood 
 of such diverse races as the red and the white. A Seminole who 
 was no Seminole — his father being a Scotch trader and his 
 mother a squaw of the Creeks — he played from the outset the 
 part of a demagogue. As it suited his purpose, he favored 
 alternately the white man and the red, and with a cunning 
 that showed both the shrewdness of the Scotchman and the 
 craft of the Indian, he added treachery to duplicity, broke alike 
 his pledges and his faith, and, inciting the rabble of the Florida 
 tribes against their own chieftains as well as the United States 
 ofificials, he ran a career of boldness, insolence, ferocity and crime 
 that brought untold suffering upon the misguided people who 
 followed his feather; being neither Indian nor white man, he 
 used both sides to serve his own purposes and to gratify his 
 personal ambitions. Asseola is as far removed from Philip, 
 
 * Asseola signifies a plentiful partaker of the black drink. Osceoli means the rising sun. Romance, as it has 
 ascribed to the mixed Scotch-Creek leader abilities he did not possess, has also adopted as typical of his character 
 the name of Osceola; his real characteristic seems instead to have been the spirit of unbridled license representee 
 by the real name Asseola. 
 

 
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 % 
 
 
 
 <*>.' ^^ 
 
 

 w 
 
 <? 
 
 C-P. 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 \ 
 
276 
 
 INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 \ 
 
 ' i 
 
 ;i! 
 
 I 5 
 
 .1 
 
 Pontiac and Tecumthe as was Marlborough from Wellington, 
 or Lee from Washington. 
 
 There are still other types of Indian character that might 
 supplement the more prominent ones here portrayed as repre- 
 sentatives of their race in its different stages of contact with 
 white civilization. 
 
 Such was Chickataubut the Massachusett, and Mianto- 
 nomah the Narragansett, friend and foeman of the early settlers 
 of Boston ; Actahachi, the gigantic chieftain of the Creeks 
 who led the Indian attack against Ue Soto in the bloody battle 
 of Mauvila; Wa-bun-so-na-cook. erroneously called Pow-ha-tan, 
 head chief of tlie confederated tribes of Vinjinia ; and Weta- 
 moo, " squaw sachem " of the Narragansetts at the time of 
 Philip's bloody outbreak. Such, too, was Katonah the politic 
 sasamore of the Westchester Indians, and Osjanasdoda the 
 Cherokee, who sought to lead his tribesmen into the white 
 man's civilization. Such was Mah-to-ton-ka the Oufillalah, tht- 
 tyrant of his tribe ; Ke-o-kuk, (" the watchful F'ox,") rival and 
 enemy of Black Hawk ; and Corn-planter the crafty Iroquois 
 statesman. Such was the eloquent " war woman of Chata," 
 among the Cherokees ; Sequoyah, the painstaking inventor of 
 the Cherokee alphabet ; and Lau-le-wa-si-kan, the " prophet," 
 brother and helper of Tecumthe ; and such, later, were Red 
 Cloud and Spotted Tail, rival chiefs of the warlike Sioux, Sit- 
 ting Bull the half-breed Oncpapa, Captain Jack, or Kient-poos 
 the Modoc, Joseph the Nez Perce patriot and Geronimo the 
 relentless Apache. 
 
 These and many others of equal prominence represent 
 every phase and every side of Indian character — the savage, 
 the barbaric, the progressive. For there are Indians, and 
 Indians ; and there is as much difference, as Mr. Dunn well 
 
 ww\ 
 
; 
 
 I '! 
 
 
 
 
 IA-KA-T\I MI-.Slir.KIA-KIAH THE SM'K. (ULACK HWVK.V 
 
INDIAN TYPES. 
 
 279 
 
 says, " between a Pueblo and an Apache, or a Nez Perce and an 
 Arapahoe, as there is between a Broadway merchant and a 
 Bowery rough." 
 
 But, for all practical purposes of illustration and of type, 
 the Indian leaders whose characters have been outlined in this 
 chapter may stand 
 as representatives of 
 their race and their 
 times. They will 
 stand, also, as ample 
 assurance that the 
 native American 
 whose blood ran pure 
 and who sout^ht to 
 be loyal to the tra- 
 ditions of his people 
 and the integrity of 
 his home-land, was 
 as worthy the name 
 of patriot as have ever been those of more civilized and there- 
 fore of more favored lands whose names have emblazoned the 
 pages of history and led the rolls of heroism. 
 
 SI'OTIKl) lAII. WIIH HIS WII'K A N 1 1 DAlMiUTER. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 TIIK INDIANS OUTLOOK. 
 
 li^i 
 
 It is not tlie dcsitrn 
 nor the purpose of this 
 volume to enter into any 
 discussion of the Indian 
 problem. It is offered 
 merely as a contribution 
 toward a clearer under- 
 standing of the character of the 
 original possessors of American soil 
 and seeks to place in consecutive 
 and logical form the story of the 
 .American Indian. The truth of his- 
 tory and the dictates of simple 
 justice demand that Americans of 
 to-day should have something more 
 than a misty or distorted knowledge of a people who have been 
 at once the victims and the tools of a conquering civilization. 
 
 The Indian problem has existed since the very first days 
 of discovery and exploration. Priest and soldier, missionary 
 and explorer, colonist and pioneer, king and counselor, monar- 
 chist and republican, philanthropist and politician, reformer 
 
 and statesman, friend and foe have alike grappled with its 
 
 2H0 
 
THE INDIAX'S Oi'TLOOK. 
 
 281 
 
 intricacies, suggested plans of treatment and settlement, and 
 have all alike failed of satisfactory results. 
 
 Meantime the Indian, though he knew it not, has liimself 
 been working out his problem in an involuntary and round- 
 about way. Drifting 
 this way and that, as 
 the tide of immigra- 
 tion has now floated 
 and now stranded it, 
 the frail canoe of bar- 
 barism has but illy sus- 
 tained the shocks of 
 the armored vessel of 
 civilization. The In- 
 dian paddle has been 
 able to maintain only 
 a weak and gradually 
 lessening struggle 
 against the incoming 
 billows of white settle- 
 ment, and the Indian, 
 at last, after many a 
 manly struggle and 
 many a cruel rebuff 
 has allowed his canoe 
 to drift with the tide, 
 while he from a patriot 
 and a protestant has become both a fatalist and a pensionary. 
 
 His story is, indeed, but that of similar subject races who 
 have been antagonized and absorbed by the resistless and 
 more vigorous civilizations that have conquered them. 
 
 ills STOKV lb A .SlMl'LL ONE. 
 
aSa 
 
 THE INDIAN'S OUTLOOK. 
 
 The story is a simple one. Evolved from brutish savagery 
 through stages of slow and fluctuating development the native 
 Americans first essayed a pseudo-civilization that fell because 
 of its ov/n inherent unworthiness. Relapsing into savagery 
 — though of a higher grade than that of their primitive 
 ancestors — these native Americans emerged again, as the self- 
 raised vi^aves of progress floated them along, into a diverse but 
 more coherent form of barbarism, which contained within itself 
 the elements but not the energies of a possible civilization. 
 
 Brought into contact with a higher and hitherto unsuspected 
 intelligence, the red natives of America struggled vainly against 
 the new order of things in which the mind rather than the 
 senses was the dominating force. Through years of protest, 
 aggression and defiance they strove for their inherited per- 
 sonality ; but recognizing finally the uselessness of ceaseless 
 endeavor they dropped their weapons as they sunk their manly 
 pride, and fell at last into a condition of vassalage, pupilage, 
 and involuntary concession, in which it became the duty of the 
 civilization that had forced them there to protect, educate and 
 develop them. 
 
 How imperfectly civilization met this duty is but too well 
 known. Religion wrongly directed, power selfishly used, policy 
 totally misapplied have wrought their logical results, and the 
 white race must now acknowledge its failure where it might 
 liave achieved success. " Had every white inhabitant who sat 
 himself down by the side of an Indian been kind and generous," 
 says a recent writer, " had he discovered less of avarice, and 
 not taken pains to make himself offensive by his unmistakable 
 hauj^htiness, few cases of contention would have arisen." 
 
 But human nature, in civilization quite as much as in bar- 
 barism, is weak, selfish and rovident, and the first white 
 
 I 
 
THE INDIAN'S OUTIOOK. 
 
 583 
 
 / k.,.j.^a.v. 
 
 '■• ■'•'') >.J^.i I*; ™' ■'-4' .'<-,-^ -X ' ' I ■■'^ !^t \ r ; V \ ',■> 1 ^ 
 
 settlers did precisely what they should not have done. Their 
 successors followed in their footstei)s until now under the con- 
 fused and loosely-framed laws of the conquerors of his home- 
 land the Indian is more of an anomaly than ever. Indeed, as 
 Mr. Byam very concisely states it, "The Indian is not a citizen 
 and he is not a foreigner. He is a nondescript. At different 
 
 periods he has received 
 
 different designations. 
 Years ago he was a 
 'domestic subject'; 
 then, ' a perpetual in- 
 habitant with diminu- 
 tive rights'; now he is 
 the Government's 
 'ward.' This latter," 
 adds Mr. Byam, "is 
 manifestly a misno- 
 mer, for the ' ward ', 
 in this case, in order 
 to bring a suit against 
 his guardian, must first 
 obtain his fjuardian's 
 
 "^ CONTACT WITH A IIIGIIKK INIKI.I.ICKNCK. 
 
 permission. 
 
 It is this vague and indefinable position before the law 
 that has been, from » beginning, the main source of trouble 
 with the Indians." 
 
 That the "protecting" government has been largely respon- 
 sible for this false position — ignorantly, perhaps, but still 
 responsible — the ofiicial records of the Indian Bureau and the 
 contradictory legislation of the National Congress afford ample 
 proof. This latter has given us the treaty system, the separate 
 
L:f 
 
 q 
 
 i. ^ 
 
 • 1 
 
 'A 
 
 1 
 
 284 
 
 y///; INDIAN'S OUTLOOK. 
 
 sovereignty system, the reservation system, the agency system, 
 the religious espionage system, the philanthropic manipulation 
 system, the military system, the political patronage system, the 
 ration and pensionary systen, and countless other systems which 
 
 — foi innately for the Indian — have failed of Congressional 
 sanction. And still the question is unsolved. 
 
 Said a clever young Indian woman — Insh-ta The-am-ba, 
 known to us as " Bright I£yes " — "the white people have tried 
 to solve the Indian question by commencing with the proposi- 
 tion that the Indian is different from all other human beings. 
 Allow an Indian,' she adds, " to suggest that the solution of 
 this vexed question is citizenship." 
 
 To this conclusion, too, all thoughtful students of the ques- 
 tion are rapidly tending. The Indian problem as it stands 
 to-dav is of our own makinij. Its solution must also be our 
 own. But the Indian himself — the chief factor in the problem 
 
 — must be made the means by which a final solution is reached. 
 Education and severalty seem to be the only paths which lead 
 to Indian manhood. 
 
 The first of these is already being successfully traversed. 
 The possibility, of which the one Indian alumnus of Harvard, 
 two hundred years ago — " Caleb Cheeshabteaumuck, Indus " — 
 was the prophecy, is fast becoming the reality, and Hampton and 
 Carlisle, Salem and Albuquerque, Chilocco and Genoa, Law- 
 rence and Philadelphia, and the other points at which have 
 been or<>anized advanced schools for the industrial education 
 and improvement of the Indian, already prove by the success 
 attained the wisdom of this tardy but practical awakening of 
 our conscience and our justice. 
 
 Not less promising, as proof of the aroused sense of justice 
 that even a laggard legislation has at last displayed, is the offi- 
 
 : 
 
TJIE INDIAN'S OUTLOOK. 
 
 285 
 
 cial record of the sums annually appropriated for Indian edu- 
 cation and improvement. These, from $i6iS,(:^4 in 1877, have 
 steadily increased to #1,211,415 in 1S86. 
 
 Progress is slow, but sure. Relapses into barbarism, even 
 among those most carefully trained to civilized ways, have been 
 reported and may be rei:)eated ; but it is no easy task to re-mold 
 
 A CANIMD.VIK KOK IIAMI'TON SCHOOL. 
 
 a nature which has in it the hereditary taint of four centuries 
 of criminal neglect. Even failure does not disprove justice, 
 and it is a blessed thins: that in this selfish world of ours there 
 are still so many large and generous souls in which lives and 
 flames the same spirit of yearning toward the unfortunate and 
 the ignorant that sent the missionaries of old into forest and 
 fen-land, into danger and death, for the intangible reward of 
 
: 
 
 a86 
 
 THE INDIAN'S OUTLOOK, 
 
 
 
 winning souls from fancied heresy and error. Those unselfish 
 old fathers were, to be sure, supremely selfish, so far as their 
 church and their order were concerned ; but despite their limited 
 intelligences and their sadly warped conceptions of the infi- 
 nite justice and the eternal love of Hie God they so narrowly 
 preached, they were still royal souls, orious in intention, act 
 and will, and were more supremely heroic than any one of the 
 bloody Indian fighters of all that long line which stretches from 
 De Soto to Daniel Hoone. 
 
 So, even the worst and most deplorable elements of the 
 Indian life of to-day — lazy, dirty, improvident and brutish 
 though this may be — shall in time, through ceaseless effort 
 and kindly ways, be brought into the light. Education and 
 citizenship shall give back to the Indian the manliness he has 
 lost, while the refining association of the hi<>her elements of 
 civilization so long denied him shall make his restored manli- 
 ness even more manly, progressive and permanent than was the 
 barbaric vifjor of his noble old ancestors. 
 
 "Civilization makes slow progress," says Mr. Thwing, "yet 
 progress is made, and before the last of the race disappears 
 from the continent over which he once roamed as master, there 
 is reason to hope he may become the equal in all the arts of 
 living of his white conqueror." 
 
 But is he disappearing? Apparendy he is, but the undue 
 proportion between the white race and the red, and the shifting 
 and shiftless ways of at least one half the Indian population of 
 to-day makes absolute proof impossible. Opinions differ as to 
 the actual decrease or increase — for there are those who hold 
 to the theory of increase. But it is certain that the total 
 Indian population of to-day is not very far below that which 
 was so sparsely scattered over the vast North American area 
 
 Ml 
 
THE h\D JAN'S OUTLOOK. 
 
 287 
 
 ^ 
 
 when Columbus and his companions saw the Soutlicrn islands 
 four hundred years ago. 
 
 The latest statistics give a total Indian population in the 
 United States, exclusive of Alaska, as 247,761. Add to this 
 the two hundred thousand Indians in Alaska, and the British 
 Possessions, and the total is not far below the estimated half- 
 million Indian inhabitants that occupied the North /\merican 
 continent at the time of discovery. 
 
 But liow shrunken are their possessions. The absolute 
 lords by right of inheritance and occupation, four centuries 
 ago, of more than seventy-five hundred thousand square miles, 
 they can now legally claim by the right of their reservation 
 limits, so far as those within the United States are concerned, a 
 territory of less than two hundred and fifty thousand square 
 miles. 
 
 And a comparison of the standing of the aboriginal inhabi- 
 tants and their descendants of to-day reveal some singular facts. 
 The Indians of the South have, after all, been most progressive 
 and most susceptible of civilization. The descendants of those 
 patriotic Americans who first felt the white man's tyranny — 
 the Creeks, the Choctaws and the Cherokees — have shown the 
 most advance in education and the methods of their conquerors. 
 The free Cherokees who dogged De Soto's bloody steps and 
 who welcomed Oglethorpe's peaceful nV/;«r, as they desired 
 even in the 2;ood Governor's dav the advantages of the English- 
 man's schools for their own children, now spend annually nearly 
 two hundred thousand dollars for educational purposes. 
 
 The Navajos — denizens of those mythical "seven cities of 
 Cibola," that lured so many gold-seeking Spaniards to privation 
 and death, descendants of the very men who made the story of 
 Cabeca de Vaca so wildly romantic — are now comparatively 
 
Y 
 
 388 
 
 THE JXniAX'S OUTLOOK. 
 
 'm 
 
 ^.l 
 
 III 
 
 independent and self-suj)portin<;. They are owners by their 
 own efforts of <Soo,ooo sheep, 250,000 horses and 300,000 i;()ats. 
 Their wool clip for 1SS6 exceeded 850,000 pounds, and they 
 have under cultivation 12,500 acre.-» of productive land. The 
 Mo([uis, relics of the attempted civilization that lined the 
 "mesas" of the dry Southwest with populous "pueblos" and 
 fertile farm-lands, now possess over 10,000 head of st ::k and 
 made of their last wool clip over 3000 pounds of their marvellous 
 blankets. The Comanches, once the most blood-thirsty of the 
 Western tribes, are clamorous for schools for their children, 
 and the Indians of Wisconsin in 1886, banked nearly sixty-four 
 million feet of timber, and are living the lives of contented 
 lumbermen. 
 
 A studv of life amons: the "Five Civilized Tribes" who 
 are located in the Indian Territory ( the Cherokees, Choctaws, 
 Chickasaws, Creeks and Seminoles ) would cause surprise 
 amonii' those who still hold vaijue notions of the " wildness " of 
 the Indians. These people, so says Mr. Atkins, the C'jmmis- 
 sioner of Indian Affairs in his latest report, "have in great 
 measure passed from a state of barbarism. Many of them are 
 educated people. They have fine schools and churches. They 
 are enuafjed in lucrative business of various kinds. In fact, so 
 far as outward appearances go, there would seem to be \ery 
 little difference between their civilization and that of the 
 States." 
 
 The Iroquois — most fearless and ferocious of the old 
 barbarians — have, many of them, accepted the ways of the 
 white man with almost as much intelliu,ence as their confeder- 
 ated brethren of the South, and 'he exhibits at an agricultural 
 fair held by the " Iroquois Agricultural Society," some years 
 ago (in 1S65), were a revelation to many who knew the Indian by 
 
 i» 
 
THE INDIAN'S OUTIOOK. 
 
 291 
 
 4> 
 
 hearsay only as a desperado and a savage. The fair was open 
 to competition to all of Iroquois lineage and their descendants, 
 and Mr. L. L. Doty who visited it states that the samples of 
 corn, beans, squashes and potatoes there displayed were supe- 
 rior to any he had ever seen. " Wheat and other grains," he 
 says, " hogs, a few sheep, horses and horned cattle were like- 
 wise embraced in the display, as were also specimens of bead 
 and needlework and other articles of female handicraft." 
 
 And the latest reports show no retreat from this advanced 
 position. " The different tribes," according to the latest report 
 of the New York agent, "are making slow but sure advance- 
 ment in civilization, are making good progress in agricultural 
 pursuits, and are rapidly improving their breeds of horses, cattle 
 and swine, while quite a number of the young men, especially 
 among the Senecas, are learning the different mechanical 
 pursuits." 
 
 The Indians of the West, made up, to-day, of the scattered 
 
 tribes of the plains, the receding ones of the prairie States and 
 those of the East forcibly removed from their earlier homes 
 are, within their now restricted limits, alike on New Mexican 
 plains and on their prescribed reservations, so declares a recent 
 official authority, Hon. Charles S. Young, of Nevada, " tilling 
 the soil, building homes, honoring the country of their birth 
 and at the feet of our civilization are learning lessons of polit- 
 ical science and personal liberty." 
 
 How correct as to actual fact this last assertion may be it is 
 certainly true in possibility. The iniquitous system of Indian 
 management that for centuries held sway, is at last giving place 
 to something like wisdom, justice and equity, and both the 
 prophecy of Mr. Thwing, quoted above, and the words of Mr. 
 Young, may in time prove true. 
 
 i 
 
292 
 
 THE INDIAN'S OUTLOOK. 
 
 There is, undoubtedly, still room for improvement in 
 governmental policy. The reports of the Interior Department 
 still tell of injustice and tyranny. Even within the last two 
 years a reader of these o'" 'al records, according to a writer in 
 
 .^Sk^ 
 
 PACK TRAIN I.KAVINC A I'UKHI.O. 
 
 the Nation, "would learn of the Utes compelled to go to the 
 mountains for game (because their agent had not rations enough 
 for them to keep them alive, and their reservation had been 
 denuded of wild animals), and of their being attacked there 
 without provocation by the w^hites, and their m(;n, women and 
 children being remorselessly shot down. He would learn of 
 
 . 
 
 Iliii 
 
THE INDIAN'S OUTLOOK'. 
 
 293 
 
 the pitiable condition of the Pueblos under white men's legisla- 
 tion ; of the manner in which Indian tribes, nominally under 
 the care of the Government, are left to the mercy of rapacious 
 cattle-men in making pretended leases of their lands — the very 
 agents of the Government, who are supposed to be the Indians 
 guardians, sharing in the profits of these speculative transac- 
 tions ; and of railroads running through lands to which the 
 Indians have exclusive rights, without having paid a penny to 
 the Indians as compensation therefor." 
 
 The Indian would have been more than human had he not 
 resented the tyranny of his " absorbers," especially when he 
 began to realize that, as one writer puts it, " he was giving the 
 white man what was imperishable in return for the perishable." 
 And when even this "perishable" was tampered with, stolen or 
 delayed, no wonder that he sought redress. 
 
 " The red man is not slow to observe," says Mr. 
 McNaughton, "that the bellicose tribes are the favored ones — 
 obtaining their pensions more promptly and securing rations of 
 better quality. I was struck," he adds, " with the pointed and 
 really graphic way in which a good-natured Sioux put the case: 
 * Bad Injun shake tomahawk, raise shoot-gun, get pay quick ! 
 ]\Ie peace Injun — good, stay in tepee. Pappoose hungry. 
 Bimeby bread come 'long — sour! bimeby meat come 'long — 
 stink ! Me shake tomahawk too, guess, bimeby! 
 
 The Mission Indians of California in whose behalf the late 
 Mrs. Jackson (" H. H.") so eloquently plead in her charming 
 story " Ramona " are still the victims of jealous neighbors and 
 hostile courts ; the Mo-ko-ho-ko branch of Black Hawk's once 
 powc'ful tribe of the Sauks, or Sacs, have been forced into 
 vagal)ondage, and, without rights either of citizenship or prop- 
 erty in the wealthy State of Kansas, which is their home, are 
 
294 
 
 THE INDIAN'S OUTLOOK. 
 
 % 
 
 still neglected by the Government which should p -otect them, 
 and are slowly degenerating into a roving band of starving 
 trespassers — a sad fall from their once proud position ; and the 
 Yakama Indians of Washington Territory still plead for relief 
 from the encroachments of their white neighbors, and make inef- 
 
 I.N I'KuCL.iM (Jl' CIVll.l/.AllU.N. 
 
 fectual protests against the violation of their fishing privileges. 
 The story of Me-tia-kah-tla, that remarkable Indian colony 
 which the self-sacrifice and persistence of William Duncan 
 evolved from the most unpromising elements in the wilds of 
 British Columbia, is but a sorry commentary on the "methods " 
 of a boasted civilization. The Dominion Government has 
 treated Mr, Duncan and his civilized Tsimsheans with stuched 
 brutality while even the petition of the persecuted Tsimsheans 
 for permission to settle upon United States lands in Alaska 
 
THE INDIAN'S OUTLOOK. 
 
 295 
 
 I 
 
 \ 
 
 seems, as one writer declares, " only an attempt to fly !"rom one 
 persecutor to another." " No doubt," says this same newspaper 
 critic, " they will be allowed to change masters and tyrants, 
 though it is unhappily not possible to look forward with much 
 confidence to their future under the stars and stripes." 
 
 And even as I write there comes from the West the latest 
 story of the white man's duplicity and crime, as if the les- 
 son of four centuries of injustice had gone for naught. Colo- 
 row and his Utes, resenting the white borderer's theft and arro- 
 gance, have dared ])rotest, and at once cowboy and militiaman 
 ape De Soto's bloody ways and join in " the sport of killing 
 Indians," while the "paternal government " that should protect 
 its " wards " stands idly by. All this does but emphasize the 
 statement of one of our great newspapers, that " the piaciice of 
 keeping no faith with the Indians has been followed almost as 
 persistently upon the frontier as the practice of keeping no 
 faith with heretics was practised by Alva in the Netherlands." 
 
 But even these governmental shortcomings will, in time, 
 give place to something like public conscience. The unselfish la- 
 bors of the modern friends of the Indians are certain to foster in 
 the hearts of that generous majority of the people without whom 
 neither Government nor State can stand, a growing sense of 
 justice and an increasing desire for national honor. Public 
 opinion which has negligently permitted will in time absolutly 
 prevent all violations of the nation's faith, and the rapacity of 
 the borderer will at last give place to the kindliness of the 
 neighbor and the helpfulness of the friend. The paui:erizing 
 system of reservation and ration will die with the red man's 
 advance toward citizenship, and the agent and trader will be 
 as thoroughly relics of barbarism as are the primitive weapons 
 of the old-time Indians themselves. 
 
 
i 
 
 996 
 
 THE INDIAN'S OUTIOOK. 
 
 \ 
 
 So, even as lie reads tlie record of present Indian griev- 
 ances, the student of Indian j^rogress to-day, cannot but be 
 iri ijssed with the changed relations between the red-man and 
 the white as compared with those of a generation ago. " It 
 speaks well for the great heart of the people which lies back of 
 and behind this Government," says Mr. Atkins, "that they order 
 and command their representatives to foster a policy which 
 alone can save the aborigines from destruction — from beinij 
 worn away by the attrition of the conflicting elements of Anglo- 
 Saxon civilization." And, on the other hand, the indications 
 point to an improved condition of affairs among the Indians 
 themselves. " The active inquiry among many of the tribes for 
 further knowledge of the arts of agriculture," says Mr. Atkins 
 in his latest report; "the growing desire to take lands in sever- 
 alty ; the urgent demand for agricultural implements with 
 modern improvements ; the largely increased acreage which the 
 Indians have put to tillage, exceeding that of any preceding 
 year; the unprecedented increase in the number of Indian 
 children who have been enrolled in the schools — these and 
 many other facts fully establish the claim that during the past 
 year (1886) the Indian race has taken a firmer step and a 
 grander stride in the great march toward civilization than ever 
 before in the same length of time." 
 
 Clan and tribe, totem and medicine, peace-pipe and toma- 
 hawk, the dances, the ceremonies and the mysteries of barbar- 
 ism gradually give '^'^ace to the methods and manners of 
 civilization. The advcdiced condition that some tribes have 
 already attained will in time be reached by all, and Cherokee 
 and Creek, Iroquois and Sioux will be needless distinctions, for 
 where all are citizens there will be neither race discriminations 
 nor tribal comparisons. 
 
THE IND JAN'S OUTLOOK. 
 
 !97 
 
 
 The Indian shows more capacity for instruction than the 
 net^ro, is more thoroughly American than the Chinese, and 
 exhibits more natural ability than do many of the European 
 immigrants that come to us from across the sea. Where the 
 incentive to ad > ncement exists the result is sure to follow. 
 
 " My whole heart is shaking hands with you," wrote a grate- 
 ful Hampton student to his teacher, and Whittier's recent verses 
 are eloquently indicative of the changing nature of the Indian. 
 
 In the old time, says a Micmac legend, Glooskap the Mas- 
 ter made himself a canoe and went upon a mighty river. At 
 first it was broad and beautiful, but after a while great cliffs 
 were passed which gathered around and closed over the canoe 
 in a dark cavern. But the river ran on beneath and ever on fat- 
 underground, deeper and deeper in the earth, till it dashed 
 headlong into rapids, among rocks and ravines, and under cata- 
 racts which were so horrible that death seemed to come and no 
 with every plunge of the canoe. And the water grew narrower 
 and the current more dreadful and fear came upon the com- 
 panions of Glooskap, so that they died. But the Master sat 
 with silent soul, though he sang the songs of life and so passed 
 into the ni^ht, but came forth asjain into the sunliijht. And 
 there stood a wigwam on the bank into which he bore his com- 
 panions ; and lo ! they arose, and deemed they had only slept. 
 And ever after the Master had the greatest power. 
 
 Even thus to-day is the modern Glooskap — the renewed 
 Indian — emerging from the darkness of centuries into the new 
 day, wherein too his race shall be aw^akened and disenthralled. 
 It should be the duty, now, as well as the pleasure of his white 
 brethren to help him on his forward way by the proffer of citizen- 
 ship, friendship and fellowship until that denationalizing pro- 
 cess is complete which is to amalgamate him into the real 
 
298 
 
 y •///'; /x/y/AN's olti.ook. 
 
 American of the future — the citizen who shall know no dis- 
 tinction of biood or birth, of color or of creed, but who shall be 
 simply and everywhere the American. 
 
 The Indian of that future day will be as far removed from 
 the Indian of the past as is Mr. Gladstone the statesman from 
 
 
 DARKNKSS. 
 
 Hereward the Wake, or Victoria the EmiDress from Boadicea 
 the Briton. 
 
 But, in the story of the Indian's past, romance and poetry 
 niay, if they will but study and investigate, find ever new and 
 inspiring thtmies ; history may discover new facts that will be 
 shown to have had a wonderful bearing upon the growth and 
 destiny of the American Republic ; theology may find new in- 
 dications of man's inherent excellence ; and philosophy new 
 data in explanation of heretofore unexplainable ethnic peculi- 
 arities. 
 
 From field and forest, from river, lake and hunting-ground 
 has the Indian been gradually thrust backward into a vassal 
 and servile state only to again emerge, but upon a higher plane 
 
 a-i 
 
mmmmm 
 
 THE INDIAN'S OITLOOK. 
 
 2y. 
 
 of civilization. The old story is retold, and again the fall and 
 rise of his race results in absolute advancement. And so out 
 of primeval savagery, by rise and fall, and nsv ind fall and still 
 by rise again, standing with each rise upon a higher, a more 
 manly and a nobler plane, shall the American Indian, after many 
 ages, find permanent civilization. 
 
 Thus the old order changes; thus again is the Divine plan 
 of progress vindicated 
 and the poet's words 
 made fact : 
 
 I hold it truth with him who 
 
 sings, 
 That men may rise on step- 
 ping-stones 
 0£ their dead selves to higher 
 things. 
 
 But the story of the 
 American Indian — his 
 manners and cusU)ms, 
 his struggles, his phil- 
 osophy, his home-life, 
 his patriotism and his 
 manliness in days of 
 barbarism when, amid 
 the forests of a vast 
 continent, he sought to 
 work out the problem 
 of the destiny of his 
 
 race — will have a new and never-failing interest if, as we read, 
 we will but allow to him the manhood that a selfish arrogance 
 of intelligence has so long denied. 
 
 DAYLIGHT. 
 
300 
 
 THE INDIAN'S OITI.OOK. 
 
 The American Indian tried the experiment of race advance- 
 ment on an imperfect basis — tried and failed, because a greater 
 civilization was to follow and make the trial, upon a higher and 
 still more intellectual plane. We too may fail — and yet there 
 is no failure where progress is eternnl. 
 
 So as we read the story of the American Indian, seeking to 
 put ourselves in his place, amid his surroundings and with his 
 aspirations and limitations, we may, if we but read aright, hear 
 from him the same words of noble warning that Carlyle j)uts 
 into the mouth of another race, as childlike, as rude, as fearless, 
 as robust as was the Indian race of North America: "This, 
 then, is what we made of the world; this is all the image and 
 notion we could form to ourselves of this great mystery of a 
 Life and Universe. Despise it not. You are raised high above 
 it, to large free scope of vision ; but you too are not yet at the 
 top. No, your notion, too, so much enlarged, is but a partial, 
 imperfect one ; that matter is a thing no man will ever in time 
 or out of time compreiiend; after thousands of years of ever 
 new expansion, man will find himself but struggling to com- 
 prehend again a part of it ; the thing is larger than man, not 
 to be comprehended by him; an Infinite thing!" 
 
 i 
 
 
 K:tll 
 
 ill i ' 
 
 i|: 
 
 ■■ 
 
 ■HHI 
 
TH1-: Hi<:sT MiJNi):ii':n books on 
 
 AMERICAN INDIAN. 
 
 THE 
 
 i 
 
 This list of one hundred hooks rehiting to the history, manners and cusloms 
 of the NortI) American Indian does not purport to be eitlier a complete or an 
 exhaustive one. It merely selects from the abundant material on the subject 
 those books best calculated to jiresent the details of the Indian's slorv. 'I'he 
 transactions of (lie Historical Societies of the several States, tliouij;!! full of ma- 
 terial, are not eiuuuerated here, and the list of {government publications is 
 intentionally incomplete. The list is more a su-;gestive than a comprehensive 
 one, hut it does give the leading books devoted to the study of the American 
 Indian, Acknowledgment is due to the very thorough Indian bibliography 
 of the late 'I'homas Field, which has furnished suggestions and notes for this 
 list. The luost of the books enumerated may be found at the public libraries. 
 
 Abbott (John S. C). 
 
 Histoiv of KiiiK I'hilip (Sovereign Cliief of the Wainpnnoags). Incliuling the early history 
 of the Settlers of N'cw Mnglaiul. (With engravings.) i2nio, 410 pp. Xew York, 1S57. 
 
 Ballantyne (Kohert Michael). 
 
 Hudson's liav; or Kverv-I)ay Life in the Wilds of North America during Six Years' Resi. 
 dence in the Territories of tiie Hudson's Bay Company. i2mo, i)p. 29S. Hoston, 1859. 
 
 Bancroft (Hubert Howe). 
 Tlu' \ative Races of the Pacific States of North America. 5 vols. 8vo. New York, 1876. 
 
 Barber (John Warner). 
 
 The History and Anti(iuitics of New England, New York, Few Jersey j.nd Pennsylvania, 
 embracing Discoveries, Settlements, Indian History, etc., etc. 8vo., pp. 624. Hartfcrd, 
 i,Ss6. 
 
 Benson (Henry C). 
 
 Life among the Choctaw IiHi.ans, and Sketches of the Southwest. i2mo, pp. 314. Cincin- 
 nati, i860. 
 " An every rf ly story of incidents and characters, grave or ludicrnus ; — a veritable relation of personal experiences 
 
 during three viMis' service among the Clioctaws." — Field. 
 
 Black Hawk, 
 
 Life of Ulack Hawk. Dictated by himself. J. B. Patterson, Editor. i6mo, pp. 155. 
 Boston, 1845. 
 
 Blake (Alexander V.). 
 
 .Anecdotes of the .American Indians. i6mo, pp. 252. Hartford, 1850. 
 
 Boiler (Henry A.). 
 
 .Among the Indians. Eight Years in the Far West, 1858 -1866. i2ino, pp. 428. Phila- 
 delphia, 1868. 
 An endeavor to faithfully portray Indian lift in its home aspect. 
 
 301 
 
3oa 
 
 THE BEST HUNDRED /WOKS O.V TIJE AMEKJCAX IXDIAN. 
 
 Brinton (n.-iniel ("■.). 
 
 The l.cnape aiul their Legends, with the Complete Text and Symbols of the Walam Olum. 
 [Hrinton's Library of Aboriginal Literature, No. 5.] Philadelphia, 1885. 
 
 Brinton (Daniel (J.)- 
 
 The Myths of the New World. .\ Treatise or. the .Symbolism and Mythology of the Red 
 Race of America. lamo, pp. 337. New Vork, 1876. 
 
 Brownell (Charles de Wolf). 
 
 Tiie Indian Races of North and South America. Svo, pp. 720 -f- 40 full-page plates. New 
 York, 1857. 
 
 Bryant (Charles S.). 
 
 A History of the Creat Mas.sacre by the Sioux Lulians in Minnesota, including the personal 
 narratives of many who escaped. By Charles S. Bryant and Abel B. Murch. i2mo, 
 ])p. 504. Cincinnati, 1S64. 
 
 Buchanan (James). 
 
 Sketches of the History, Manners and Customs of the North American Indian with a Plan 
 for their Melioration. Two vols. i2mo. New York, 1S24. 
 
 Cabeca de Vaca (Mvarez Nunez). 
 
 Relation of Alvarez Nunez Cabeca de Vaca. Translated from the Spanish by Buckingham 
 Smith. Svo, pp. 300. N. Y., 1871. 
 The enrliest historic menuiii' o[ tlie Indian races of the Southern States frcin Florida to Texas. 
 
 Catlin (Ceorge). 
 
 Letters and Notes of the ^Llnners, Customs and Condition of the North American Lulians, 
 written during eight years' travel amongst the wildest tribes of Lidians in North America. 
 Two vols. Svo. With one hundred and fifty ill. on steel and wood. pp. 792 -)- 41 plates. 
 Philadelphia, 1857. 
 
 Catlin (George). 
 
 Last Rambles among the Indians of the Rocky Mountains and Andes. 121110, pp. 371 ; 8 
 jilates and 16 wood cuts of Indian portraits, life and scenery. New Vork, 1867. 
 
 Charlevoix (P. F. X. de). 
 
 History and General Description of New France. Translated with Notes by John Gilmary 
 Shea. 6 vols. Imp. Svo. Illustrated with plates, portraits and maps. New York, 1872. 
 " Tlie most authentic accounts of the Indians of Canada ever given. . . . The work teems with vivid rela- 
 tions of tlieir customs, religious rites, and other peculiarities." — Field. 
 
 Cherokee. 
 
 A Faithfid History of the C... rokee Tribe of Indians, from the ])eriod of our iirst inter- 
 course with them down to the present time ; . . . . with a full exjiosition of . . . 
 . their .... division into three parties .... and of the nature and extent 
 of their present claims. (The Commissioner's report) Washington, 1846. Svo. 
 
 Church (Thomas). 
 
 The History of Philip's War, commonly called The Great Indian War of 1675 and 1676. 
 Also of the French and Indian Wars at the I'^astward, 1689- 1704. With Notes and Ap- 
 pendix Ijy Samuel G. Drake. i2mo, pp. 360 -|- 2 plates. Boston, 1827. Hartford, 1S52. 
 
 Clark'). V. IL). 
 
 Lights and Lines of Indian Character and Scenes of Pioneer Life. i2mo, pj). 375. .Syra- 
 cuse, 1S54. 
 
 Clark (J. V. H.). 
 
 Onondaga; or, Reminiscencet; of Earlier and Later Times. . . . 2 vols. Svo. .Syra- 
 cuse, 1S49. 
 
 \ valuable and important work. 
 Clark (j. V. IL). 
 
 Tradition of Ili-.vwat-ha. Origin of the Narrative of the Onondaga Tradition of Hia-wat-ha, 
 and Correspondence relative thereto. .Syracuse, 1856. Svo. 
 
 •Wl 
 
 . 
 
THE BEST IIUXDRED BOOKS ON THE AMERICAN INDIAN. 
 
 303 
 
 Colden (Cadwallader). 
 The History of the Five Indian Nations Depending on the Province of New York. Re- 
 printed exactly from Bradford's New York Edition (1727). With an Introduction and Notes 
 by John Gilmary Shea. Svo, portrait, and pp. 199. New York, 1S66. 
 Colton (C). 
 Tour of the American Lakes, and among the Indians of the Northwest Territory in 1830 : 
 Disclosing the Character and Prospects of the Indian Race. 2 vols. London, 1833. 
 Copway (tleorge). 
 The Traditional History and Characteristic Sketches of the Ojibway Nation, l)y G. Copway 
 (Kah-ge-ga-gah-bouh, Chief of the Ojibway Nation). 111. by Darley. i2mo, pp. 266, 2 
 plates. ISoston, 1S51. 
 Cremony (John C). 
 Life among the Apaches, by John C. Cremony, Interpreter to the U. S. Boundary Commis- 
 sion, in 1S49, '50 and '51. i2mo, pp. 322. San Francisco, 1868. 
 Custer (G. A.). 
 
 Mv Life on the Plains. 111. Svo. New York, 1874. 
 Davis (A. C). 
 Frauds of the Indian Office. Argument of A. C. Davis before the Committee of Indian 
 Affairs of the Mouse of Representatives, Jan. 12, 1867. . . . Washington, 1867. 
 Davis (W. W. IL). 
 The Spanish Conquest of New Mexico. Svo, pp. 438, map and portrait. Doyleston, Pa., 
 1869. 
 
 " His narrative of tlie prolonged hostilities between the Spaniards and the Indians and of the religious rites, meth- 
 ods of warfare and peculiar ceremonies of the latter is fresh, vigorous and entertaining." — Field. 
 Dawson (Moses). 
 A Historical Narrative of the Civil and Military Services of Major General Harrison. 
 . . . . With a Detail of his Negotiations and Wars with the Indians, until the final 
 overthrow of the celebrated Chief, Tecunisch, and his Brother, the Prophet. Written and 
 compiled from original and authentic Documents. ... .... By Moses Daw- 
 son. Svo, j3p. 464. Cincinnati, 1S14. 
 
 One of the most thorough, complete and authentic treatises on the Border Wars of the West. 
 Dodge (J. R.). 
 
 Red Men of the Ohio Valley, an Aboriginal History of the period commencing A. D., 1650, 
 and ending at the treaty of Greenville, a. D., 1795, embracing notable facts and thrilling 
 incidents in the settlement by the Whites of the States of Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana and 
 Illinois. i2mo, pp. 435. Springfield, O., 1S60. 
 Dodge (R. I.). 
 Our Wild Indians: with an introduction by General W. T Sherman. 111. Svo. Hartford, 
 Ct., 1HS2. 
 Dodge (R. I.). 
 
 I'.ains of the great West, and their inhabitants. 111. Svo. New York 1S77. 
 Drake (Benjamin). 
 Life of Tecumseh, and of his Brother, the Prophet ; with a Historical Sketch of the Shaw- 
 anoe Indians. By Benjamin Drake. 121110, pp. 235. Cincinnati, 1S41. 
 Drake (S. G.). 
 Biography and History of the Indians of North America, from its first Discovery. Svo, pp. 
 720 4- 8 plates. Boston, 1S57. 
 A stand.ird and valuable work. 
 Drake fS. G.). 
 The Old Indian Chronicle; being a Collection of exceeding rare Tracts, Written and Pub- 
 lished in the Time of King Philip's War, by persons residing in the country. To which are 
 now added an Introduction and Notes, by Samuel G. Drake, pp. 333. Boston, 1867, 
 
304 
 
 THE BEST HUNDRED BOOKS ON THE AMERICAN INDIAN. 
 
 Drake (S. C). 
 The History of King Philip's War. By the Rev. Increase Mather, ]). D. Also a Historv 
 of the same War, by the Rev. Cotton Mather, 1). D., to which arc added, an Introduction 
 and Notes, by Samuel G. Drake. . . . 4to, pp. 281. 
 
 Dunn (/ohn). 
 History of the Oregon Territory and British North-American Fur Trade; with an Account 
 of the habits and custor.s of the principal native tribes on the Northern Continent. By 
 John Dunn, late of the Hudson's Bay Co. 8vo, pp. 359 ■\- map. Philadelphia, 1845. 
 
 Dunn (J. P. Jr.). 
 Massacres of the Mountains ; a history of the Indian wars of the Far West. pp. 784. ill. 
 and maps. New York, 1886. 
 
 " A graphic account of the Indian wars of the past fifty years. Written with unusual earnestness and a full appre- 
 ciation of the injustice done the Indians." — American Catalogue. 
 
 Dorman (Rushton M.). 
 The Origin of Primitive Superstitions and their Development into the Worship of Spirits 
 and the Doctrine of Spiritual Agency among the Aborigines of America. 8vo, pp. 398. 
 ill. Philadelphia, 188 1. 
 
 Doty (Lock wood L.). 
 History of Livingston Co., New York .... with an Account of the Seneca Nation 
 of Indians, etc. 8vo, pp. 685. Geneseo, 1876. 
 118 pages of this volume treat very fully of the Seneca Indians. 
 
 Eastman (Mrs. Mary). 
 
 Dah-co-tah, or Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling, by Mrs. Mary Eastman, 
 with Preface by Mrs. C. M. Kirkland. 111. from drawings by Captain Eastman. 121110, 
 pp. xi4-268. New York, 1849. 
 
 Eggleston (Edward) {txnd otlicrs\. 
 (Famous American Indians.) 5 v., ill., i2mo. New York, 1878-80. 
 
 [Contain : Tecumseh and the Shawnee Prophet ; by E. P^ggleston and Mrs. L. E. Seelye. — 
 Red Eagle ; by G. C. Eggleston. — Pocahontas ; by E. Eggleston and Mrs. L. E. Seelye. — 
 Brant and Red Jacket ; by E. Eggleston and Mrs. L. E. Seelye. — Montezuma ; by E. 
 Eggleston and Mrs. L. E. Seelye. 
 
 Ellis (G. E.). 
 The red man and the white man in North America. 8vo. Boston, 1882. 
 
 Emerson (Ellen Russell). 
 Indian Myths; or Legends, Traditions and Symbols of the Aborigines of .\merica. Plates 
 and diagrams. 8vo. Boston, 1884. 
 
 Events in Indian History. 
 Beginning with an Account of the Origin of the American Indians and Early Settlements in 
 North America, and embracing concise Biogra])hies of the principal Chiefs and head Sa- 
 chems of the different Indian Tribes, with Narratives and Captivities. 111. with 8 fine 
 engravings. 8vo, pp. 633. Lancaster, 1841. 
 
 Finley(J. B.). 
 Life among the Indians ; or. Personal Reminiscences and Historical Incidents illustrative of 
 Indian Life and Character. By Rev. James B. Finley. 121110, pp. 548. Cincinnati, 1868. 
 
 Flint (Timothy). 
 Indian Wars of the West, containing Biographical Sketches of the Pioneers, together 
 with a View of the Character, Manners, Monuments and Antiquities of the Western In- 
 dians. i2mo, pp. 240. Cincinnati, 1833. 
 
 Goodrich (S. G.). 
 History of the Indians of North and South America. By the author of Peter Parley's Tales. 
 l6mo, pp. 320. Boston, 1855. 
 
 Manners and Customs of American Indians. 111. i6mo. Boston. 
 [These are volumes in Peter Parley's " Youth's Library of History."] 
 
 WP^ 
 
 i 
 
THE BEST HUNDRED BOOKS OX THE AMERICAiV IXDJAN. 
 
 305 
 
 •?& 
 
 1 
 
 Hall (James). 
 Sketches of History, Life and Manners in the West. 2 vols. i2mo. Philadelphia, 1835. 
 
 Halkett (John). 
 
 Historical Notes respecting the Indians of North America, with remarks on the attempts 
 made to convert and civilize them. 8vo, pp. 408. London, 1825. 
 
 Harrison (J. \\.). 
 The latest Studies of Indian Reservations. A pamphlet issued by the Indian Rights Asso- 
 ciation. Philadelphia, 1887. 
 A valuable and careful study of the latest phases of Reservation life. 
 
 Harvey (Henry). 
 
 History of the Shawnee Indians, from the year 1681 to 1854 inclusive, by Henry Harvey, a 
 member of the Society of Friends. i2mo, pp. 316. Cincinnati, 1855. 
 
 Hawkins (ISenjamin). 
 
 Sketch of the Creek CoinUry with a Description of the Tribes, Government and Customs 
 of the Creek Indians, by Col. lienjamin Hawkins, for 20 years Resident Agent of that Nation. 
 Preceded by a Memoir of the Author and a history of the Creek Confederacy. Svo, pp. 88. 
 Savannah, 1848. 
 
 Heard (Isaac V. D.). 
 
 History of the Sioux War and Massacres of 1862 and 1863. i2mo, pp. 354 with 33 plates. 
 New York, 1865. 
 
 Heckewelder (J.). 
 
 History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and 
 the neighboring States. New revised edition, introduction and notes by W C. Reichel. 
 8vo. Philadelphia, 1876. 
 
 Helps (.V'-thur). 
 The Life of Las Casas, " The Apostle of the Indies." i2mo, pp. 292. Philadelphia, 1868. 
 
 Helps (Arthur). 
 
 The Spanish Conquest in America, and its relation to the History of Slavery and to the 
 
 Government of the Colonies. Four vols. 8vo. London, 1861. 
 
 " A noble work devoted to the history of the relations of the Indians of America to its .Spanish invaders and the 
 
 effect of their occupation and conquest upon the population, religion ard manners of the aborigines." — Fiblu. 
 
 Hubbard (William). 
 The History of the Indian Wars \\\ New England, from the First Settlement to the Termina- 
 tion of the War with King Philip in 1677. From the Original Work by Rev. Wm. Hubbard. 
 Carefully revised, and accompanied with an Historical Preface, Life and Pedigree of the 
 Author, and extensive Notes. By Samuel G. Drake. 2 vols. Large Svo. Roxbury, 
 Mass., 1865. 
 
 Indian Laws. 
 
 Laws of the Colonial and State Governments, relating to Indians and Indian Affairs from 
 1633 to 1831 inclusive; with an Appendix containing the Proceedings of the Congress of 
 the Confederation ; and the Laws of Congress from 1800 to 1830 on the same subject. Svo, 
 pp. 250 and Appendix pp. 72. Washington, 1832. 
 
 Indian Treaties. 
 
 And Laws and Regulations relating to Indian Affairs, to which is added, an Appendix con- 
 taining the ])roceedings of the Old Congress, and other important State papers in relation to 
 Indian Affairs. 8vo, pp. 661. Washington, 1826. 
 Contains an abstract < f treaty stipulations with the Indians, a statement of the obligations by which the savage 
 
 tribes and the United States authoritiei mutually bound themselves, Sequoyah's Cherokee Alphabet and a mass of 
 
 historic and personal data. 
 
 Irving (John T.). 
 
 Indian Sketches taken during an Expedition to the Pawnee Tribes. 2 vols. \2m.Q. Phila- 
 delphia. 1835. 
 
IL 
 
 306 
 
 THE BEST HUNDRED BOOKS ON THE AMERICAN INDIAN. 
 
 V t 
 
 i 
 
 Jackson (Mrs. Helen). 
 
 A ('eiitiiiy of Di.slionor : Sketch of the United S ;S Government's dealings with some of 
 
 the Indian tril)es. i2mo. New York, 1881. 
 
 All eloquent r.:-.'l ciithiisiastic plea for justice to the Indian by a writer of ability and considerable dramatic force. 
 Hur story of " Kainona " which is based upon the wrongs suffered by the Indians of Southern California has, 
 also, been the means of awakening public sympathy in behalf of a persecuted race. Both books, however, are 
 written in a spirit of indignant and unqualified censure and should be read rather with caution than absolute accep- 
 tance. 
 Jones (Charles C, Jr.). 
 
 Antiquities of the Southern Indians, particularly of the Georgia Tribes. 8vo, ])p. 352. 
 
 New York, 1873. 
 Jones (Charles C, Jr.). 
 
 Historical Sketch of Tomo-chi-chi, Mico of the Yamacraws. Svo, pp. 133. Albany, N. Y. 
 
 1 868. 
 
 Kohl (Johann). 
 Kitchi Garni. Wanderings around Lake Superior. London, i860. 
 " One of the most exhaustive and valuable treatises on Indian life ever written." — Field. 
 
 Leland (Charles G.). 
 Tiie Algonquin Legends of New England, or Myths and Folk lore of the Micmac, Passama- 
 (juoddy and Penobscot Tribes. 121110, pp., 379. III. Uoston, 1884. 
 Lewis and Clark. 
 
 History of the E,\pcdition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark, to the Sources 
 of the Missouri, thence across the Rocky Mountains and down the River Columbia to the 
 Pacific Ocean. Performed during the years 1S04-5-6. I5y order of the Government of the 
 United States. Prepared for the press by Paul Allen. T'vo vols., Svo. Maps, plans 
 and copious tables. New ^'ork, 1868. 
 
 " An interesting work whose value to the historian, the student or the reader for amusement has not been super- 
 seded by the relations 01 expeditions which have succeeded it." — Field. 
 
 McKenney and Hall. 
 
 History of the Indian tribes of North America, with Biographical Sketches and Anecdotes 
 of the Principal Chiefs. E^mbellished with 120 jjortraits, from the Indian Gallery in the 
 Department of War at Washington. By Thos. L. McKenney and James Hall. Philadelphia, 
 
 1837- 
 One of the most costly and important works upon the American Indian ever published. 
 
 McKenney (Thomas L,). 
 Memoirs, Official and Personal, with Sketches of Travels among the Northern and Southern 
 Indians; embracing a War excursion and descriptions of scenes along the Western border 
 Svo, pp. 476, and twelve plates. New York, 1846. 
 
 McKenney (Thomas L.). 
 
 Sketches of a Tour to the Lakes, of the Character and Customs of the Chippeway Indians. 
 And of incidents connected with the Treaty of Fond du Lac. Also, a Vocabulary of the 
 Algic, or Chippeway Language. . . . Ornamented with 29 engravings of Lake Superior 
 and other scenery, Indian likenesses, Costumes, etc. Svo, 29 plates and pp. 493. Balti- 
 moie, 1827. 
 
 Morgan (Lewis IL). 
 
 Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines. Vol. IV. of Contributions to North 
 American Ethnology, pp. xiv-f 28f. 111. 4to. Published by the United States Geograph- 
 ical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region. Washington, 1881. 
 
 Morgan (Lewis II. ). 
 League of the Ilode-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois. Svo, pp. 477+23 maps, plates, and plans. 
 Rochester, 185 1. 
 
 i-sawg; 
 
THE BEST HUNDRED BOOKS ON THE AMERICAN INDIAN. 
 
 307 
 
 ^ 
 
 Morse (Rev. Jedediah). 
 A Report to the Secretary of War of the United States on Indian Affairs, comprising a 
 narrative of a tour performed in the summer of 1820, under a commission from the Presi- 
 dent of the United States, for the purpose of ascertaining, for the use of the government, 
 the actual state of the Indian tribes in our country. 8vo, pp. 500. New Haven, 1S22. 
 " Certainly the most complete and exhaustive report of the condition, numbers, names, territory, and general 
 
 affairs of the Indians (as they existed in ilie year 1S20) ever made." — Fibld. 
 
 Parkman (Francis). 
 The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian War after the Conquest of Canada. 2 voIs.» 
 8vo. Boston, 1880. 
 
 Parkman (Francis). 
 The Jesuits in North America in the 17th Century. Svo, pp. 463. lioston, 18S0. 
 
 Parkman (Francis). 
 
 \a\ Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. 8vo, pp. 483. Boston, 1879. 
 
 Parkman (Francis.) 
 The Oregon Trail. Sketches of Prairie and Rocky Mountain Life. Svo, pp. 381. Boston, 
 1880. 
 
 Parkman (Francis). 
 
 Pioneers of France in the New World. Svo, pp. 427. Boston, 1879. 
 
 Parry (Capt. W. E.). 
 Journal of a Second Voyage for the Discovery of a Northwest passage from the Atlantic to 
 the Pacific; performed in the years 1S21-22-23 in His Majesty's Ships Fury and /A'c/i?, under 
 the orders of Captain Wm. Edward Parry, R. N., F. R. .S., and Connnander of the E.xpedi- 
 tion. 111., with numerous Plates. Published by authority of the Lords Commissioners of 
 the Admiralty. 4to. London, 1S24. 
 " A splendid treatise on aboriginal life." — Field. 
 
 Powell (J. W.). 
 
 Annual Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology (devoted to practical researches among the 
 North American Indians) issued under the supervision of Major J. W. Powell, director of 
 the Bureau (with Illustrations). 4to. Government Printing Office, Washington. 
 
 Rultenber (E. M.). 
 
 History of the Indian Tribes of Hudson's River; their Origin, Manners and Customs; 
 Tribal and sub-tribal Organizations; Wars, Treaties, etc., etc. Svo, pp. 415 + 5 plates. 
 Albany, N. Y., 1872. 
 
 Swrn (James G. ). 
 The Northwest Coast ; or Three Years' Residence in Washington Territory. With numer- 
 ous Illustrations. i2ino, p[). 445. Map and 27 plates. New York, 1S57. 
 A minute record of the life, habits, ceremonies and conditions of the Indian of the Northwest. 
 
 Stone (William L.). 
 The Life and Times of Red-Jacket, or Sa-go-ye-wat-ha, chief of the Senecas. Svo, pp. 484 
 ■\- portrait. New York and London, i84r. 
 Contains also a biography of Farmar's Brother and one of Cornplanter — two celebrated chiefs of the Senecas. 
 
 Stone (Williatn L.). 
 
 Life of Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), including the Border Wars of the American Rev- 
 olution and Sketches of the Indian Campaigns of Generals Harmar, St. Clair and Wayne, 
 and other matters connected with the Indian Relations of the United States and Great 
 Britain, from the peace of 1783 to the Indian peace of 1795. - vols. Albany, 1864. 
 
 Sprague (John T.). 
 The Origin, Progress, and Conclusion of the Florida War, etc. Svo, pp. 557. New York, 
 1848. 
 "The story cf the wonderful contests of a savage tribe of less than 4000 in 1822 and less than 1000 in 1845 with 
 
 the disciplined forces of the United States." — Field. 
 
3oR 
 
 THE BEST HUNDRED BOOKS ON THE AMERICAN INDIAN. 
 
 Sproat (G. M.). Scenes and Studies of Savage Life. i2mo, pp. 317. London, 1868. 
 A record of seven years' experience among the savages of Vancouver. 
 
 Smith (John). 
 A True Relation of Virginia by Captain John Smith, with an introduction and notes by 
 Charles Dcane. 4to, pp. 88. Boston, i886. 
 
 Simpson (James IL). 
 Journal of a Military Reconnoissance from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Navajo Country 
 in 1849. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1852. 
 A complete and accurate account of life among the Zufli and Pueblo Indians. 
 
 Shea (John Gilniary). 
 
 History of the Catholic Missions among the Indian Tribes of the United States. 1529-1854. 
 i2mo, pp. 508+ 5 portraits. New York, 1855. 
 
 Shea (John Gilniary.) 
 
 Early voyages up and down the Mississijjpi, by Cavalier, St. Ccsme, Le Suer, (iravier, and 
 Guignas. With an Introduction, Notes, and an Index. 4to. Albany, 1861. 
 Filled with interesting details of the peculiarities of the Indians of the Mississippi Valley at discovery. 
 
 Statistical Report 
 of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. 8vo. Washington, 1835 to 1887. 
 *' A body of material relating to the Indians almost unrivalled for its minuteness in any department of history.'' — 
 
 Field. 
 
 Shea (John Gilmary). 
 
 Discovery and E.xploration of the Mississippi Valley : with the original narratives of Mar- 
 quette, Allouez, Membre, Hennepin and Anastase Douay. Hy John Gilmary Shea, with a 
 fac-simile of the newly-discovered map of Marquette. 8vo, pp. 26S. New York, 1853. 
 
 Schoolcraft (Henry R.). 
 
 Information respecting the History. Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the 
 United States. Collected and prepared under the direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs 
 per Act of Congress March 3, 1847. Published by authority of Congress. 6 vols., 4to. 
 Philadelphia, 1857. 
 " With great earnestness, some fitness for research and a good deal of experience of Indian life, Mr. Schoolcraft 
 
 had but little learning and no scientific training. His six volumes are badly arranged and selected, but contain a vast 
 
 mass of really valuable material." — Field. 
 
 Transactions 
 
 Of the American Ethnological Society. New York, 1845-1848. 
 
 A large and valuable collection of material descriptive of the history, antiquities, language and origin of the 
 American Indian. 
 
 ; 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ACTAHACHI the Creek 276 
 
 Agriculture |6o 
 
 Algonquin family, the 67 
 
 Appalachian races 71 
 
 America, Pre-Columbian discoverers of 58 
 
 America, Primeval, Possibilities of 37 
 
 America, Savage 16-20 
 
 Americans, Preliistoric 12-16 
 
 American race, Origin of 12-16 
 
 Anilco the Chickasaw 263 
 
 Arapalio War (of 1864) 226 
 
 Apache War (of 1S61) 226 
 
 Arber, Professor (as to the Pocahontas story) 264 
 
 Archeiy ,(,1 
 
 Archilies, the Maryland sagamore 212 
 Asseola (Osceola) the Seminole, 71 
 Atkins, Commissioner 
 Atotarho, Myth of 45 
 Athabascan family, the 
 Aztec civilization 
 Aztec Confederacy 
 
 220, 225, 260, 275 
 
 2,S8, 295 
 
 as a personification, 50 
 
 67 
 
 a6, loS 
 
 104 
 
 BACHOFEN, Prof, (on gyneocrncy) 
 
 Balboa (on Spanish ill-treatment) 
 
 Bancroft, H. H. (on the oppression of Indian 
 
 women) 
 Bi-aus-wah the Ojibway, Anecdote of 
 Blackfeet war (of 1869) 
 Black Hawk (see Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiah) 
 Black Hawk's War (of 1832) 
 Brant, Joseph (see Tha-yen-da-ne-gea) 
 Books on American Indian, Best hundred 
 Border life. Demoralizing effects of 
 Brice, John (description of Indian council) 
 Brinton, Dr. D. G. (on primitive superstition) 
 Burke, Kdmund (definition of government) 
 Byam, Mr. (on the status of the Indian) 
 
 "23 
 
 (>o 
 
 159 
 
 76 
 
 226 
 
 224 
 
 300 
 210, 224 
 
 166 
 87 
 72 
 
 283 
 
 178, 
 
 "Si 
 
 CABOTS, the 
 
 Californij Massacres (of 1851) 
 
 C'alifornian races 
 
 Capafi the Creek 
 
 Captain Jack (see Kient-poos) 
 
 Cartier, Jacques 
 
 Cayugas 
 
 Cayuse Massacres (of 1847) 
 
 Cave-dwellers 
 
 Charleviox, P. V. X. de (on Indian intelligence) 
 
 Chata, " War Woman " of 
 
 Cheeshabteaiimuck Caleb, Harvard graduate 
 
 Cherokees 185,276; Present condition of, 287, 
 
 Chickataubut the Massachusett 
 
 '93 
 
 225 
 
 68 
 
 196 
 
 1S4 
 
 99 
 
 225 
 
 18 
 
 •45 
 276 
 284 
 288 
 376 
 
 Choclaws, Present condition of 287, 
 
 Clan and tribe, Difference between 
 
 Cliff-dwellers 
 
 Cofitachiqui, the Chieftainess of 115, 196, 
 
 Colorow the Ute 
 
 Columbian races 
 
 Columbus ,,, 59. 60, ,76, 177, ,83, 193, 
 
 Comanches, Present condition of 
 
 Commercial intercourse between tribes 
 
 Consanguinity, Law of 
 
 Controversy, Law of 
 
 Cooke, John Esten (on women chiefs) 
 
 Coolidge, A. J. (on Colonial treatment) 
 
 Corn-planter the Iroquois 
 
 Cortcreal 
 
 Cradle, the Indian 
 
 Creation, Iroquois account of 
 
 Creeks 104 ; Present condition of 
 
 Creek War (1813) 
 
 Crook, General George (on Indian intelligence) 
 
 287, 
 163, 
 
 '78, 183, 
 
 287, 
 
 67, 98, 
 
 DAKOTA family, the 
 
 Dances 
 
 De Ayllon 
 
 De Cordova 
 
 De Leon, Ponce 
 
 De Quexos 
 
 De Soto, Hernando 115. 183, 185, 295, 197, 252, 276, 
 
 De Vaca, Cabeca ,^5^ 
 
 Diaz, Bernal ; his story of the Conquest of Mexico 
 
 discredited, 
 DiggarWar(of 1858) 
 
 Divorce ,24 
 
 Donnacona the Algonquin ,,5. 
 
 Dorman (on Indian superstitions) 147, 
 
 Dorsey, Rev. J. Owen 75, 142, 
 
 Doty, Lockwood L. (on Indians during Am. 
 
 Revolution) 217; (on Iroquois intelligence) 
 Drake, S. G. (Indian anecdotes) 
 Dreams 
 Drunkenness 
 
 Duncan, William (Indian benefactor) 
 Dunn, Jr., J. P. 
 Dunraven, Earl of (on Indian's inner life) 
 
 208, 
 186, 
 
 229, 252, 
 
 , 288 
 
 97 
 
 34 
 
 263 
 
 295 
 
 68 
 
 ig<j 
 
 288 
 
 '74 
 
 '7' 
 
 170 
 
 '59 
 201 
 276 
 '93 
 >3S 
 II 
 288 
 234 
 249 
 
 to4 
 148 
 
 '94 
 '94 
 194 
 
 '94 
 
 287 
 287 
 
 26 
 226 
 126 
 185 
 '52 
 
 e6i 
 
 291 
 
 237 
 '98 
 189 
 294 
 276 
 '53 
 
 EGGLESTON, Rev. Edward 129, 16., 192, 213, 242 
 Eliot (apostle to the Indians) 208, 236 
 
 " Elk Nation," the 44 
 
 Elliott, H. W. (on Indian children) 141, ,46 
 
 Ellis, Rev. Geo. E. 59, 60, iSi, 209, 238 
 
 Emerson, Mrs. Ellen Russell (Navajo legend) 97 
 
 Endicott, Governor 202 
 
 European duplicity 63, 193, 208, 215, 229 
 
 European vs Indian faiths 88, 235 
 
 309 
 
1 
 
 n_. 
 
 310 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 FESSENDEN, Mr. (on Massasoit) 
 
 Fetich (see Totem) 
 
 Fires, Hoiiselioici, Importance of 
 
 " Fire Water " (see Drunkenness) 
 
 Frdmont, Gen. J. C. (on Columbia River Indians) i6i 
 
 " French and Indian " War 205 
 
 263 
 
 '23 
 
 GAMES, Children's 
 
 Garay 
 
 Geroniino tlie Apache 
 
 Glooskap the Micinac, Legend of 
 
 Gj-anj;anitiieo of Ghanok 
 
 " (ireat Spirit," the 
 
 Gomez, Estavan 
 
 (Jovernmeiit, United States, Responsibility of 
 
 Gyneocracy among Indians (see " Mother right ") 
 
 146 
 194 
 276 
 
 2Q7 
 
 263 
 
 84 
 
 104 
 
 aS3 
 
 45 
 
 84 
 240 
 202 
 
 24S 
 1S4 
 252 
 If/> 
 
 HANGA (Omaha benefactor) 
 
 " Ha|.,-y H.|,uing Ground," the 
 
 Hare, Uishop 
 
 Harlow, Captain 
 
 Hariison, J. 15. (on Indian character) 235 ; (on the 
 
 Indian Problem) 245 ; (on white treatment) 
 Hawkins, Captain John 
 Ha-won-je-tah the Minneconjou 
 Hirihigua the Seminole 
 " H. H." (see Jackson, Mrs.) 
 Hiawatha, Myth of 45; as a personification 50; 
 
 Longfellow's poem of 49 
 
 Hobbamok tlie Wampanonj; 26? 
 
 Hoddnosaunee (see Iroquois) 
 
 Hollister, Mr. (anecdote of Nanuntenoo) 255 
 
 Holmes, William H. (on art in shells) 165 
 
 Hostilities, Indian, Causes of 21s, 220 
 
 Howlai:d, Edward (on influence of the soldiers) 223 
 Hunt, Captain 202 
 
 Hunting 161 
 
 Hutchinson, Thomas (on white intolerance) 23S 
 
 Hypoborean race 6S 
 
 INDIAN, North American, the: — 
 
 At discovery 175 
 
 Area of possession at close of Revolution 218 
 
 Babies 13S 
 
 Barbarities, Reasons for, 147, 217 
 
 Beliefs 83, 87, 90 
 
 Best books on, 301; status of, 283 
 
 Character, Types of 279 
 Colonial treatment of 202, 207, 216, 23S 
 
 A democrat 214 
 
 Development, Stages of lof, 
 
 Endurance of ' 136 
 
 Enslrvement of 60, 193, 202 
 
 Equal, y 79, 156 
 
 Estimate of 246 
 
 European contact with 200,214,231 
 
 Government, a "kinship state" 75 
 
 Government autonomic 75 
 
 Hatred of Spaniards 184 
 
 INDIAN, North American, \\\ii{cnntinued) 
 Hospitality 113; law of 
 Hostility, Causes of 
 
 Houses ,jQ 
 
 Inde))endence 
 Knowledge of white man 
 Life comnuniistic 
 Love of family 
 Love of home- land 
 Loyalty to England 
 
 Migrations ,, 
 
 Myths 
 
 Patriotism ,q6, 197, 229, 251, 
 
 Population at discovery 63 ; race division at 
 
 discovery f,. 
 
 Present population, Statistics of 
 Property in land 
 
 Rece|)tion of white man 115, 18,, 
 
 Schools 
 
 Spain's treatment of (see Spain) 
 Supremacy, Probable duration of 
 
 136, 141, 142, 144, 
 
 Youth 
 Indian problem, the 
 Iroquois race (.see Wyandot) 
 Iroquois Agricultural Society 
 Irociuois, Present condition of 
 Insh-taXhe-am-ba (" Bright Eyes ") 
 Industries ,63, ,67, 
 
 ''■°'l""'s. 98, lOI, 103, 104, no, 
 
 Im-mut-too-yah-lat-yat (Joseph) the Nez Perce 
 
 220, 252, 25s, 
 
 "4 
 2'3 
 127 
 220 
 
 '77 
 III 
 76 
 So 
 
 2ir) 
 
 .5''> 
 
 03 
 
 267 
 
 . 71 
 287 
 21 1 
 212 
 284 
 
 40 
 
 '52 
 2 So 
 
 288 
 2^8 
 2»4 
 168 
 123 
 
 276 
 
 JESUIT conversion, the igg, 200 
 
 Junipero Seno, Kra 249 
 
 Joseph the Nez Perce (see Im-nnit-too-yah-lat-yat) 
 Jackson, Mrs. Helen Hunt (" H. H. ") 205, 249, 293 
 
 KATONAH the Westchester Sagamore 
 Keokuk the Fox 
 
 Kient-poos (Captain Jack) ihe Modoc 
 " King Philip's War," causes of 
 
 
 276 
 
 
 276 
 
 223, 
 
 276 
 
 220, 
 
 236 
 
 781 >24, 
 
 127 
 
 172, 
 
 lyS 
 
 Kinship bond, the 
 
 Kohl, Johann (anecdotes) 
 
 LAFITAU, Mons. (on wampun) 166 
 
 Land, Indian property in 211 
 
 Land, Purchase of, by Colonists 239 
 
 Las Casas the Clerigo 59, 20S, 249 
 
 Lau-le-wa-si-kan the Prophet 276 
 
 Lawson, John (on Indian greed for wampum) 165 
 
 Le Jeune, Father (on Indian intelligence) 145 
 
 Lewi,-, and Clark (on Columbia River Indians) ift; 
 
 Liquor, Influence of on Indian nature 186 
 
 " Long House '' of Ihe Iroquois loi, 127 
 
 MAHTO-TATONKA the Ogallalla 109, 276 
 
 Mah-to-ti-pa the Mandan 252 
 
 Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiah (Black Hawk) 220, 272, 275 
 
 Man, Antiquity of in America 15 
 
 ^9 
 
 % ' 
 
mmmummmmm 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 3'i 
 
 5> 
 
 2.V> 
 202, 236, j6o, 2')3, 267 
 
 172, 203, 264 
 
 23' 
 185, 276 
 
 293 
 I2S, 134 
 
 ■43. '47 
 235 
 
 "97 
 
 Manabozo, Myth of 49 ; as a personification 
 Maiiua-comon, the I'awtuxeiit 
 Ma-se-wa-pe-Ra the Ojiljway 
 
 I'.^assdU ihe VVampaiiog 
 Ma-ta-oka (P()c;i!ioiitas) 
 Mather, Rev Increase 
 Mauvila, Itattle of 
 McNaughton, Mr. (anecdote) 
 Meals 
 
 "Medicnie" 
 
 Membertou tlie Algonqnin 
 Meiuldza (on Indian patriotism) 
 Metacomet (" King Philip ") 105, aoj, 211, 260, 
 
 2C4, 267 
 Me-tla-kah-tlia (Indian colony) 294 
 
 Miantononiah the Narragansett 27^) 
 
 Migrations of Indian races (see Indian inigrations) 
 Miruelo 
 
 Missionaries, conduct of 236; heroism of 
 Moc-peah-lii-tah (Red Cloud) the Sioux 
 Modoc War (of 1872) 
 Mohawks 
 Moki Confederacy 
 Mo-ko-ho-ko Sacs 
 Montezuma (see Moteuczoma) 
 Moquis (or Mokis) 
 Morgan, Lewis H. loi, 103, 106, iit, 114, 
 
 104 
 
 2 86 
 
 223, 276 
 
 226 
 
 99 
 104 
 
 293 
 
 zn 
 
 Moteuczoma (Aztec benefactor) 
 " Mother right," the (see Woman) 
 Mound-builders 
 
 NADAII.LAC, Marquis de 
 
 Nanuntenoo tlie Narragansett 
 
 Narvaez 
 
 Natchez 
 
 Navajos 
 
 Navajo War (of 1858) 
 
 Nez Perce War (of 1876) 
 
 OGANASDODA the Cherokee 
 
 Oglethorpe, James E. 
 
 Ojibways 
 
 Ojeda 
 
 Oinahas 
 
 Oneiclas 
 
 Oiiondagas 
 
 Oregon massacres (of 1855) 
 
 Osceola (see Asseola) 
 
 Ortiz, Juan 
 
 PARKMAN, Francis A. 
 
 .28, 
 «6Si '73. 
 
 .89 
 45 
 
 22, 26 
 
 
 
 255 
 
 
 
 '94 
 
 142 
 
 '5° 
 
 '63 
 287 
 226 
 
 
 229 
 
 250 
 
 
 7'. 
 
 276 
 
 a32. 
 
 ZS*"'. 
 
 287 
 
 
 187, 
 
 198 
 .78 
 
 
 153. 
 
 171 
 99 
 99 
 
 225 
 
 2'3 
 
 84, 89, 95, 98, 100, 
 
 109, 113, 194, 200, 22U, 223, 256, 268 
 
 Pawnee race (see Shoshone) 
 
 Pequots 197; war with, 
 
 Pe-ta-le-shar-ro the Pawnee 
 
 " Philip, King " (see Metacomet) 
 
 Philhps, Wendell (on Indian patriotism) 
 
 Pidgeon, William (Story of " Elk Nation ") 
 
 Pocahontas (see Ma-ta-oka) 
 
 202 
 252 
 
 251 
 44 
 
 Polygamy ,35 
 
 Pontiac the Ottawa 105, 219, 223, 267, 268; con- 
 spiracy of, 219,220,224 
 Popham's t'dlony 202 
 Po-shai-an-kia (Zurti benefactor) 45 
 Powell, Maj. J. W. ;j, 134, ,6g, 1S8 
 Powers, .Stephen (on equality of Indian women) 15^ 
 Powhatan (see Wa-bun-so-na-cook) 
 Pueblo-dwellers 
 Pueblo race 
 Pueblo War (of 1S47) 
 
 30 
 
 225 
 
 QUIGUALTANQUI the Chickasaw 
 
 197, 252 
 
 RAMIREZ (on the war spirit) 
 
 Red Cloud (see Moc-peah-lu-tah) 
 
 Red Jacket (see Sa-go-ye-\vat-lia) 
 
 Religion (see Indian beliefs) 
 
 Reservation, Indian, Plan of 241 ; statistics of 
 
 Reticence as to name 
 
 Rolfe, John 
 
 130 
 
 242 
 
 '72 
 264 
 
 SA-GO-YE-WAT-HA (Red Jacket) 
 
 '59. 
 Scalp-taking, Significance ot 
 Schoolcraft, Henry R. 
 Schools (see Indian schools) 
 Seminole War (of 1835) 
 Seiiecas 
 
 Sequoyah, the Cherokee 
 Shell money (see Wampum) 
 Sherman, Cenl. \. . T. (on Nez Perce 
 Shoshone race 
 Sioux wars (of 1854) 225 ; (of 1862)226 
 
 226; (of 1S76) 
 Sitting RiiU the Ogallalla 
 " Six Nations," Ihe (^ee Iroquois) 
 Smith, Krniinie A. 
 Smi;h, Captain John 
 Spain's treatment of the Indian 
 Spotted Tail the Sioux 
 Sprague, Charles (ode) 
 Stoddard, Rev. Samuel (on the need 
 
 lion) 
 Sully, General (on Blackfeet war) 
 
 the Seneca 
 gi, 237, 267, 272 
 '5° 
 49. 76. '30, 173 
 
 99. '35. '37. '7' 
 276 
 
 war) 250 
 
 71 
 ; (of 1866) 
 
 229 
 230, 2/6 
 
 45. 84 
 
 12, 20J, 263 
 
 60, 194, 207 
 
 2;'> 
 
 209 
 
 of retalia- 
 
 226 
 
 TA-RHU-HIA-WA-KU the sky-holder, Legend 
 
 of 
 Tomahawk a white man's creation 
 Tomo-chi-chi the Cherokee 
 Totem, the 93, 96 j Zuni legend of 
 Tecumseh (see Te-cum-the) 
 Te-cum-the the Shawanoe ti2, 220, 271; war 
 
 with, 
 
 Tha-yen-da-ne-gea (Brant) loi, 217, 268, 271 
 
 Thegiha Union, the 104 
 
 Thlinkeet race 68 
 
 Thwing, Charles F. (on Indian progress) 286 
 
 Tiele, Prof. C. P. (on primitive worship) 38 
 
 II 
 161 
 263 
 
 92 
 
 224 
 
312 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 T 
 
 Treaty of Fort Stanwln 
 
 Tribal divisions 
 
 Tsimsheans, Canadian trsatmerit of 
 
 Turner, Mr. 
 
 TuKaloosa the ('liickoMw 
 
 Tutcarorai 
 
 VAN TWILLER, Womer 
 
 Velasquez 
 
 Verrazano 
 
 Vespucci 
 
 Village Indians 
 
 UCITA the Sachem, Daughter of 
 
 Uncas the Mohican 
 
 Utes 
 
 VVA-BUN-SO-NA-COOK (Powhatan) 
 Wadsworth, Gen. James (on Indian citizenship) 
 
 
 ai8 
 
 
 78 
 
 
 a04 
 
 I3i, 188, 
 
 189 
 
 - 
 
 196 
 
 
 99 
 
 
 206 
 
 183 
 
 '94 
 
 
 • 83 
 
 
 .78 
 
 3°! 
 
 122 
 
 
 263 
 
 
 136 
 
 192, 
 
 »9S 
 
 136, 
 
 276 
 
 )ship) 
 
 349 1 
 
 Waldron, Major (anecdote) 
 
 Wampum ,(^, 
 
 Warfare 129, 147, 149, ,5,, jjg; Philosophy of, 
 
 Washington, George, Foresight of 
 
 We-ta-mooof PiKasset ijq 
 
 Weymouth, Captain 
 
 Whittle»ey, Charles (on Treaty of Fort Stanwix) 
 
 Wilkie, F. B. (on Colonial aggression) 
 
 Wilson, Robert A., denies story of the Conquest 
 
 of Mexico 
 Winslow, John 
 Wollaston 
 
 Woman, Importance of 123, 129, 156 
 
 Wood, William (on influence of liquor) 
 Worship (see Indian beliefs) 
 Wright, Rev. Ashur (on woman's supremacy) 
 Wyandot- Iroquois race 
 
 59, 
 
 108 
 167 
 
 ■30 
 219 
 
 a?" 
 202 
 
 2l8 
 
 240 
 
 29 
 263 
 202 
 160 
 187 
 
 124 
 
 67 
 
 VAKAMAS 
 
 VounK, Charles S. (on Indian progress) 
 Yuma race 
 
 V • 
 
 294 
 
 291 
 
 7' 
 
 ^ 
 
 W^ 
 
v» 
 
 4 
 
 ^