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T t( o fi C b tl si o fi si o T 's T ^ d e b ri n n This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce documsnt est film^ au taux de reduction indiquA ci-; A:'McLeMan. ,™;t:' ^^'^■' ^"^P''^*"^ of High Rchoolg. Ontario.' 2nd Edition '^lJ'A%.:&^S?iSSO -^^«^ «• ^^ J. A. McLelian! ^nl^e^lircX'J. '^'JrliS^'^:::.^-''-' ^«^«^e-aticiJ\utt KEY TO HAMBIXN SMITH'S ALGEBRA ^fI1'!^^...????™S ..EXERCISES IN ALciiiii' ALGEBRA.-PART II. By E.' J. GrossrM.'I, Fellow 'oVconl ^Xn^^c1>I,?grCaSS -:^. Mathematical^Srtu°/e?°S HAMBLIN SMITH'S ELEMENTS OP GEOMETRY HAMBLIN SMITH'S GEOMETRY.-BOOKS i and 5 HAMBLIN SMITH'S GEOMETRY.-BOOKS II. and ui' POTTS' iSUCLID-With Appendix h "" M. A., Science Master Normal School. POTTS' EUCLID.-BOOKS I. and IL POTTS' EUCLID.-BOOKS II. and m. ELEMENTARY STATICS,-By Thomas K^Mand m' a" Science Master Normal School. tCoronto. 4th edftion ' ELEMENTARY STATICS.-By J. Hamblin Smith mI' ^^S.^Y^^ HYDROSTATICS.- By " "j^" nambili ^jR?S^TA?^?itJS ?^^'^^i<^"'^^'^ ^^S.^^^?... '^^I^ONOMETRY.-By'j." Hiiiibii;; KEY TO HAMBLIN SMITHS TRIGONOMETRt!! 025 080 45 15 >■ 80, 83. Some persons have the mistaken idea that a preterite like JtU or taught, in which, as compared with the present tense, there is a change of the vowel sound, is a combination of the Strong and the Weak formation and so call such verbs 'mixed.' This is quite wrong. The change of vowel is m^x^\y phonetic, it is v,oK formative. It is a result of the .iddition of the suffix. The shortening of the vowel in/,// is like the change of n'"-'. -'"''^'"e" '.n?"e mo^e'r pSritr '^' °' '''"'"• *"" '" '"'" '""^^ "» '-' To the European division belong— I. The Teutonic f languages, comprising :— "ihe'L-^Tg &"o? »"Gera-;" ?Lts t:' ^tc""l f,oiThVuw°Ge™?nti':""'''""'"" °"'' "'«" °"-" -"f-" ^J""! ??*7'"']° '^Peiages of Russia, Poland, Bohemia Bulffari, .1.eBal?ic*'^;rnce°s."'"'' '"' "'""""" "'"-•» ^PoSiZZ'^f B. have the disadvania|e of exh bitineTpood d«l th,?" ^ i** P"'^"' '*'°^'' Such diagrams " settled fact. The mides and the rela.fve Ites of the ^ZtV^^'TT^J^ "'°"?'^ " -«^« from the parent stem, and from each o hi are v" » Inn^P'^^'^iL^'ti'l* '•'«^^.''«."' f»nguages fromThe paVen^s era'^ndToreVcr.; ^er'^ thit ft^ol -'- "" ''^^ -- ' O^othlJ^ V-eaK ^^^^^ &ont.''a1 the name of •IS aiucK. ■ ■•-" «o, icuiunic, as inc name wl ste^^^^^^^^^ '&t;fortKaSia'firn "Sffi'iir "^^^. ^?-.'.^« d-"»-- Bishop Ulphilas in the fourth century translation of the Bible, made in this dialect by B ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. The Keltic languages, divided into th» Kymrii-. branch ( iv,r.l, - C:-rmsi, and the /Irmmcan of Britlanv) -ind ■L S^il',- ' Oaeho brinch (Erse, Gaelic, and «,""). '^'' '""^ ""= ^^^^''^ <" dialect, of Ital, with ',h?t^a''B«'''ia°„t;^afe: ^^'^^nd'^d' tZ b.th:sralrn,ol,":to'c''k. "^^'''^ ^"^ "^"^ ^'"'-'^ -««-. as and Old Saxon, and to the modem fr^i^n. ° '"™'" '^""""Gothic inJaredt;'tr'L°l?sn.'r:''of'4*'Jt'l;,"''™ *T "","'"- -- co"„.,y, adopted U,e language of IhTpeop e' '^^^'co n'oTeret" •/llus'^: •Romanoe.- f ^ ^ °'^ languages which is called The Keltic inhabitants of Britain did not adnnt n,. i .• . but retain -d their own Keltic dialects One ofTh.S • ^^'.T '*",g"^8«. the Keltic inhabitants of Wales ^"' '^ ^"" ^P"""^" ^y British or Keltic irabtants and dUe ,V''ln\"n,s'^f,b'''''"' '1'" remote mountainous corners of theTstod esn?ri»?ll w 1''^'"^'"'° "'.^ (which was called WVst Wales) and St,5 ?! , >^ *?'^'' Cornwall land, V/estinoreland and thl"4«e™L:S^^ :iHrJ;Tof L\"cf"^Tlrn '"^ ^^^'^^si^^'^t nl s longed at^fct only roTe'^-divTsi^nTtLt^^-ttoE^rde'-^^S l''" m course of time, though long before "he No,^»^r"^ ■- *^"" extended over the rest, Ind the S bodvo^^^T ."''''•"•' !.' T' ants of our countrv rallM Vh.„ri J J ?"^ Teutonic inhab t- allied to them by iheir Wekh neiehbou« ^"H^nr^- 'j^^.r own proper name, out one ^ ''j"^f u^^^^' '^ '■^'»'«r h-^r 1 tAXv^ It wou"d be'^xTrl^H- ^^°PJ"'' .^^ themselves 2s and Welshmen should all have agreedTn cal inT^l^em S.xnnt^f?)?''^ 5-f ^°™*"^> F»^"ks, 'i'- Jo^'^ divisions of the tribes certanly calf d the Jel^^^^^ EastSaxn^, and ^//^o'/^ ^^«-r^«/re9pLtTvelv ;2^ soon ..f"' '^T^^i' •^^"^''' •^«-^''"^. "'h,ch argues that they called themselves w'«l^ a whnfe lJ^^''l^^ '^^'^'^ '" England, Bede enumerates the descendants of the Andes in' E^IanH hi '^""fi "' t""''^ that when he Saxon area. If Bede s authority is invoked to show^th'^L/'^'^^^c '^^ '"habitants of tive names if cK^..i,i V,,. _„„-„u-„ , ., 'T"'\\" i" suow in<:i. Anric and Sam; w»r» ->'t-rrs " "" "" '^'^embcrcd that ir. his Latui iiv,< and vel signify and. " i I f HISTORICAL OUTLI>rE. tS 'sHoJ'L^i^^h^^^^^^^^^^^^ and has J of course, undergonrmaT changes T^^'" ^ '^^ '^'" """" " ^"- words from other languaees and ^^?^' ^^ adopted many new extent ; but it has lasfed^'ur^orokL TnH^>^ ^.''" ^^'''^^ *°^°"^« until now. unoroken contmuity from its introduction N^o-^a;;Iect had become as uninflexionaUsSernEngU. '"'^ °^ '^^ ^^^i'^^nxh century^hi: 4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ('islnmK' ns in LrniKhoIm) ; ness ('headland,' ns in Fun ess) ; ev ('island,* as in Orknoy) ; Ixtk ('brook,' as in Ti«)Utl)eck\ &c. The inlUix of the Scandi- navian clonicnt produced on Ihc northern dialects the same sort of effect that the Norman- French clement did on the southern ilialects ; it accelerated the weakcninjj and disuse of the inflexions, and introduced some fresh elements into the huv^uagc. 3. Words of Latin origin, and Oreek Words Introduced through Latin. —Of these we have now immense numlwrs in linglish, the words of classical orij^in bcinjf considerably more than twice as numerous as those of TcHti)nic origin, there '>eing, according lO sonie authorities, about 29,cxx} of the former, to about 13,000 of the latter. These words came in at various perioils, antl uhder various circumstances. (I. A few Latin wortls connected with names of places, were adopted by the Britons from the Romans, and by the Angles and Saxons from the iiritons,* anil appear, for exan\ple, in Chester {fostra), Gloucester, Stratford [strata), Lincoln [,v/oHia), Fossbury {/ossn). i>, A good many words of classical origin were introduced between the setllement of the Saxons and the Norman C Dnijuest by the ecclesiastics who brought Christianity into England. These wonls are mostly ecclesiastical terms, and n«n>es of social institutions ami natural objects previously unknown to the Knglish. 'Ihese words ciime direct from Latin, or from Greek through Latin. I, A much larger number of words of Latin origin came to us through Norman- French, the acijuired language of the Norman conquerors of England. After the Conqiavst this was of course the language of the Norman nobles and their retainers throughout England. f To a more limited (though still con- siilerable) extent it had been introduced as the language of the court of Edward the Confessor. Most of the words in our language which relate to feudal institutions, to war, law, and the chase, were introduced in this way. The terms employed in science, art, and the higher literary culture are, to a large extent, o\ the same origin. Not that Anglo-Saxon had not such terms, but thoy belonged to the litft\try, and not to the ordinary spoken language. After the Conquest Noi man-French became the literary language, because literature continued to be cultivated only among the dominant class. English thus lost its old literary vocabulary, which became forgotten, and had to be replaced from Norman- French. But the wonls of ordinary life were used as freely and vigorously as ever by the mass of the native jwpulation. An important change, however, in the EngUsh language was at least accelerateil, if not first com- menced, by the influence of the Norman- French, which was established side by side with it. Of the two races which made up the population, Normans and Ejiglishmen, each hail enough to do to learn the vocabulary of the other, without troubling themselves with an alien system of inflexions. Thus the numerous grammatical inflexions of the older English came to be first levelled t in a great many cases to a monotonous and meaningless -e, and finally lost altogether. In the course of the three centuries that followed the Conquest they were reduced to little more than their present numbi?r. ./. The revival of the study of the classical languages in the sixteenth • Rew»re of the mUuke of saying that these words were introduced into Xnglisk by the Rs>miuts. T Though Wiiiiam himself tried to learn English, and sometimes used it iii public documents. X For this couvcuient and expressive term we are indebted to Mr. H, Sweet. ' HISTORICAL OUTLINE. i'"I><>rtati,.ns have sine" en.\£nled I?'"o ''T'"^"'' ^••'"y"'- these cinssioal word has givn, rise to ti^^'w^^^^^^^^^^^^ "r? ^''*''!''-'"-^ ^^'^^ '»'« s^nie Nornmn. French, the c.theMrken i^J ^ .?f"^ .'f'' ""^^T'"^^" "'^ ''''""«h IS the shorter and more cornmtS form r;ln^ 1" such cases, the former /><>SM,^, r^son and rational, pTonJ^^otion'^'' '^"'' """'"J^'"' ^'''^^^ ^^^ 4. Words of ICiacellaneoua orlp-ln tk- ^ . tamed during the last three hundred ye.rs*>^t?aIlmr^?n7M'"'"'?^'^^^ '^«'"- led to the introduction of words froin imL Hn „, P«rts of the world naturally '^^ c^K :^i?' ■-»-«? Suiteir^^^^^ also came i„ „Uh ,he D?nes .u,d To s^l" (fo °?h. S ^"''.'' ""!">■ races are of the Teutonic slorki ^Ia^c ' "* Scandinavian Norsemen into ^or^^^^^rX^i^^t l^^^ J^fl"^Z^ K:,:rif.p\,^sx^2i^^^^^^^ and war, to the less obvious processes of the n nrl '^^''f'f"' ^*W' government, with art, science, and philosophy are coi^^nioTAf"^ '° '"'^"ers connected I-itin origin. Most words of EVmoresvIlS f/^^^^^^ ^"^ mostly of of two, are of classical origin lVeiWo,f/ri^i' ^ '"^ ^''*T ""'"^^•' ^^ those from exclusively) in woril" of on" orlw "V, S ^^T It' f^^'lt^^^' '^^ forcible and expressive. Hence it nrpd.^nMn^YJ! • li i^ ''^ ^^^ ^^^ most impossible to write a single sentetfcewtK^J" ''" °7 '^""'^ P^^''^'- ^^ is after sentrnce may he found h Shiri ^j" tome elements but sentence pure English, in tL strS seise of tS^term"' ^'*^ ^"^"^'^ ^"^''^ -»^-h is Ti^:^at=g:;::i^^s^::tS^^ The changed by whicrAnHo-Wn (or h. nt'f T'lr^"*^.'!^" ""'^^^ I^^^^^h.* English were gradual, and no exact date ran hf '• ^^"^'''''^i ^^'=''^'"*^ «'°^«'-n this or that particular altera?roni, 11 the nro.«c ^''''" ^^ '*^" ^"troduction of at certain points by political events The Norn nT •"^"«"*=«'' or accelerated relations between the conquerine ind fh. .T ^""^"^^'^ ^"^1 the political Norman- French the language of^hecot and T/'^ /,'"'' T'^'^^^y "^^^^ justice, of the episcopal sees and of em ison.H n """^^ ?''' °/ ^^« «^°"'-t« of mandy in I2o6,'the inactmen s of liem-^ Tr o St"'- T^i"^ ^^" '«^^ "^ Nor- of the one crown shoul 1 ^lo^ hold 3 n h \^'^"'- ^^•' *^^' ^'^^ ^"bjects the political movements under ?ohn and Henry lU^Z "' '^ ^^'^^'^"^ lf,r";l,?.^/-"\- element. At thelame'dL'"'; T^.Vll^^^'l-^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. of the nation; and the French wars of Edward III. roused an anti-French feeling among all classes, which extended itself even to the language insomuch tliat we learn from Chaucer, that in his time French was spoken in England but rarely, and in a corrupted form'. In 1362 appeared the edict of Edward III. that legal proceedings in the royal courts should be conducted in English, though French continued for sixty years longer to be the language of 1 arliament, and for yet another sixty years to be the language of the laws/* Koch divides the historical development of English into five periods in the following manner : — ' First Period, that of old Ang-lo-Saxon.* This period extends from the i-"''^ J . °'^^^^ literary monuments to about a.d. uoo. The language was divided into two groups of dialects, the Northern or A,/g^ian, and the Southern or Saxon. The Northern speech (that of Northumbria) was the first to become a cultivated literary language, but there are few remains of it in its earliest form. Under the ravages of the Danes the literature perished. On the rise of the kingdom of Wessex to supremacy the Southern, or (more strictly) the West-Saxon dialect became the standard literary language It is in this that th^ bulk of the works usually called Anglo-Saxon are written It was not an imported form of speech, but simply the cultivated form of the dialect of the district. f It did not oust the other dialects from use in oral speed), even when used for literary purposes beyond the Saxon area. In the latter part of the period the levelling (see/. 4) of the inflexions had already commenced. •' Second Period, that of late Anglo-Saxon. This period extends over about 150 years, to the middle of the thirteenth century, and shows marks of the influence of the Danish and Norman settlements in disturbing the older system of inflexions, obliterating many of its distinctions, and so preparing the way for the still greater simplification which followed. In the latter part of the period Norman-French words begin to be incorporated in the language. ^ Third Period, termed by Koch Old English. This period, which extends over some 100 years, from about 1250 till about 1350, exhibits a continued weakening of the old forms, spoken sounds and their written representatives beiig both in an unsettled state, and the influence of Norman-French being distinctly traceable. ^ The Norman Conquest displaced the Southern dialect from its literary supremacy. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries three dialect^ or groups of dialects, held equal rank. These were — ' 1. The Northern dialect, which prevailed on the East of the Pennine range from the Humber to the Firth of Forth. In the course of time this dialect received a somewhat special development in Lowland Scotch. It was by much the earliest to exhibit the levelling and loss of its inflexions. 2. The Southern dialect, spoken south of the Thames and in Gloucester- shire and parts of Herefordshire and Worcestershire. • Our forefathers (or some of them) called themselves for a time Anglo-Saxom. It is disputed whether this term denoted a people made up of the Angles and the Saxons, or the i,axons of England, as contrasted with the Old Saxons of the Continent. There is a similar ambiguity m the term 3S applied by modern writers to the language. It mav be held to include the scanty remains that wc have of the old Northumbrian dialect, *\^r.^^A r.r->'-*\f~^\\v what IS called Anglo-Saxon is the old South Saxon speech. ° '' t It was called ^«^/wf by those who wrote it, perhaps (as Mr. Earle suggests) because the first cultivated book-speech was Englisc, i.e. Anglian. uc..»usc h HISTORICAL OUTLINE. j i The "Idtand dialect,- which prevailed in the intervening dislricts.t estaM,hn,e„. of the S^J SSd ^Mec?',t JS^ "ILlrnc^eT^^clll^: and Chancer, as the standard literary language of England e°neralv™« rra'ste^Vrr^hl s'^nSn^re^t'"""'"^' °' =°'"™" ^^^^^^ Fifth Period, that of Modern Eng-lish.§ vSs the a ic e nPT'''' '" "°»ns and pronouns; the conjugation of its Sff sSriF' =:^c^?- --"---'- daveros , ine Hexibility and vanetji which it has in the formation of rnm- pounds; the most important part'^of the suffixes and prefixes bvwhTh derivatives are formed ; the predominant principles of accentuation -an^h^ compactness and straightfor'wardness of ?he s^ntactLlarr^^^^^^^^ periods. To French we owe a considerable modification of the sounds of the / Tf S 't 'TrT "^ '^' T""" °^ ' '^^f^- °^her consonams su h as •{'/k' u ' 9t '°f'«'^'"g or disuse of the hard, guttural sounds of /i and ^^, the change of hard c into cA, and the use of . mufe at the end of wordsl preferred to sA {sal, suid ior s/uil, 3^^) \\^ find Tfor ^A 7/S?,^ ^Tl 'T*l\^" § The above subQ. vision ,s. perhaps, more elaborate than ,snec«sarvTCre U n« break of any consequence between the ThirH anH ir^,.,f», d • j "^*^Xt ' ' ^.^. '^ "^ ESS!H?^H ™S^I? ^^f 1^ 8 ENGLISH GRANfMAR. number of ,he suffixes anr prefixe; l.T wV f ""' ''^''' "^« ^ considerable probably indebted for our deC ^ce from t < ''''^''''- ''"" ^''''''''^^ ""^' ^""^ of sentences under which modern^G^nt^^stiiriab^^^^^^^ Kw.r"'^"""' ff Hi '*" i e letter usion in as the derable and are gem en t ENGLISH GRAMMAR. INTRODUCTION. wor*ds^^^^°^ °'' language is the expression of thought by thai tSltJTZi^T '^f ^''^^^^^^^"^^ 'letter') is the science orM-nn r ./ ^ '^''^ ""'. ^"g^^S^. EngUsh Grammar is that pomon of the science which treats of the speech of the English 3 Words are significant combinations of sounds These ounds are represented to the eye by marks or^symbols illed letters (Latin /^.era), the whole collecdon of whichTs ca led he ^e'^Gnet Sabflf ' tIT' ^'^, "^"^^^. '' ^^^ '^^ t^otlte'rs of K . 1 ^'P^^t)et). The right mode of uttering the sounds hat make up a word is called Orthoepy (from the Greek J^M^/ in? th ?^ T' I'P'^? "^^^ '^' '^^^ ^'g^t "^o^- of represen : griphv Crnth r"^f^ ^^^^"^^^ i« called So. graphy (from the Greek or^/ios, ' right,' and ^rapAo, < I write ') wotis of su^chTrfdi"^'!;" "'^'^'^f •' ' ^'""^^^ > ^^ ^ --"^cdon' of words ot such kinds and arranged m such a manner as to exnress ome complete thought. Words are of different sorts accord^ to the purpose which they serve in a sentence. according ^J!""'^" ^}^ sentence " The little bird flies swiftly through the air/' bird is the name of something that we speak about th« JO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1^ 'IT mS i/;h.f ^ ? /^'^^^ '-^'^ * together,' and /«.m 'arrange- ment ) IS that part of grammar which treats of the wav in which words are combined in sentences. ^ ^^ ,^^ THE ALPHABET. «f ?:k^u^-^"^^-'^ alphabet consists now of twenty-six letters each U,u: V,v: W, w : X, x : Y, y : Z^ z ^ ' ' ''' i VOWELS. can'bl^sou^d^H'-f' %l; °' " ''I? '^^"^'' ^"""^^ (Latin ™«&,-that bre?th^''bv"whrrh°'' "TP'^'^'y). "■■,<^I3<= set free If 'pasIagY ^ Ae eSMr^'-Sfafte^Them"' """''^''- ^"^^ therefore" havl a void of a iJ'l'? '^/*j"'l/. 'V7!V""'' T"t '" '^"S"^'- • «he sounds 1 €♦ 111 y««, jainer, jate, fat; the sounds of e n w^/ and n>pf^ • tv,« speak ng of the Divine Being. Thefmav afsob? ncT.?T' ^''j-"'-^^' ""^ P*-""""". "^id in when it IS used in a special or techmraTsLse ar>l/W ^ ^^ beg.nn.ng of a common noun. 'the Lord Chief Justice.' and at he be^inninfff 1. "' ^'''""'' 'i^* Solicitor-General,' denoting something specially imnortant^ AH ^^fr' J""- "' ,""■. ^" adjective and a noun, written with capitals. We aUoTr^t" His M^K'' H ^^T,^^ ^'"""l P'^Bf """'^^ are also "rTh\^ee"^°n'^me"or'^T^ f^^^^^^^ ^.ii^'c^^^^. '''^''''' ^^- ^^^ «"' -"'^ ^f a + P^fk 1^ Tk* °^^ >s French, -5^«f«^ = • the tat/ed letter ' .ikX\\td^^o7h^wtf ^InThtoll »^- ^^^ the back- •fc^S:^:rjfent^dFHSL^r ^^ b S( b( bi INTRODUCTION. jj IS-fi'*^" °'^'" are lengthenings, combinations, or modifications 3- eu, as m eulogy also expressed in writing by u (mutA «« csr ^.. Ihat of a consonant, as in ^„Xt TJ^ r7j^i'' T^" ?"""^ W°»*es link between vowell ami r^„^,!Z,.' ''^,')""^"^- Tliey form a connecting assume different sLpes C'.Cl^d'^A ^l ^otiol fctot'ue^'S.heTpt ''^ H CONSONANTS. cla?ses^°''r''?on^ °' 7°i°«-«l^«°ks are divisible into two chief The continuous consonants are subdivided into— 'na^sal ^oJ^n'^if M°'f "^T '°""^') ^' '"• ^' '• ^^ these m and n are ToTit thTdtin^e't^L^:? t?d^r ^ ^''^"^'^ ^^« --• ^'-^X ^"^d 2. The Sibilants (or hissing sounds). These are— a. Simple '.~j', z (as xn zeal) ; sh ; z (in aw^). b. Compound .--ch (in r/i^j/). equivalent to tsh; j (in ;V,/) or soft «r --i:^"i^"^'!*iZ^h wholly stop the passage ofthe breath. These'^ sound of ^ intervenes : if it \i rnnA'Jto^t ■^^F^''^^ '^^ ^. V, and M are sometimes ds^^^eA^Z^Z" ,v. '?""° 5' "* (M,/aU\ intervenes. ' be better to discard the name. The sounds afe llZc!w • "*^ I'^l'^^ '"^'''•'" '^ ^« '' ^o^'d blending the sound of A with those of /"^ /and'!/ '^ '""P'*' '^''^ ^'* "°' '''^"y -""de by 13 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. are commonly called Mutes/ They are d b t d k (ar h^.A ^\ They are sometimes described as Ij^ZZ'ry.ortpi^Jv}"^ °^' *' Labials, Dentals, and Gutturals. mem'a^" ',!i^.v°hf "''"'' ^°h ^"'^^-^h^^ks), whether continuous or mo- mentary may be arranged in groups according; to the ortran of g?oSps are- '' "^' ^'""^^^ ^"^" "^^'"^ ^" ^"""^"^^ them The"e I. I-abials (Latin labium Mip') formed with the lips :-p. b f v m. With these may be classed the semi-vowel w *-. . . v, ^fnJJf.^H***^'' ^A^f^- "''"' ' ^°"^^'^' °'' ^^l^t'*!^ (Lat.' /aA;^«,« « palate ') • palate t^ dtht '?''.! "/ T^'^'^V^^'"^^" ^h« ^""g"^ -"d thi palate —t d, th, the trills 1 and r, the nasa n, and all the sibilants ^or?he?'*''r ^\^'' r^'"" ' ^^^"^' '^ f"^'"^^ ^' ^he root o the tongue i wL ? '^f/he throat :-k (or hard o), hard g and the nasal ng H was a guttural letter m Anglo-Saxon, something hke ch in the Scotch ioch.X It now forms a division by itself, being a shn nle impulse of the breath, and yet not a vowel, ^t is cdled^? LS: semi'-vowel y. '^'^''''' '^"^ breathe'). To the gutturals is allied the Hard (or Sharp) Consonants and Soft (or Flat) Consonants. aHin^f ^" P''^"^""^^"! P' t' or k, it will be felt that the muscles which adjust the organs of speech are in a state of sharper tension than or ^r..^ ^' Z V\ '^^^^^^' The former consonants have a hZ or sharp sound, the latter a so/i or dull sound. To the class of Hard § or Sharp Consonants (or Hard Checks) belong p, t, k (or hard c), f. th (in thin), s, ah, ch. ^ i ^^^u I °f Soft § or Hat ConsonantB (or Soft Checks) belong b, d, hard gr, V, th (m //iij), z (in «^a/), z (m aa«r^), j or soft g 16. Ass i milation. -When a hard anrl a soft cons onant come together, • Do not confound the Mijies with muie Utters such as e in fate, or p in i>salm asV'id'jJI^rsi^rnror slndedt5f '° "' "'" '^'""^ '° '^"^"^'^ ' ^'' (^^^'^^ '^ ^^""^^'^ (csUcia?lv'*tW fo??«fi'„''.1,H'r'"' ^r^^'^^ -y". °r 'S-'^^^ =»nd ^^'^A the older grammars beml re,tL,W J 1^ Tf ^ Greek) give us the terms thin and middle (the soft consonants r.,n5 r^arded as half-way between the thin and the aspirate n.utes). Later writers use lie !onanT-V^''."'""*'^' "'^T^i"^ ^"'^ ^"'^"^ (which^mean much the .amras Wand ^R fh' u ^ terms WM^^rf and voiced Ax« o'-Sa"s of speech for one of the soft consonants (say b), it is poss™;^ make a sort 0/ sound m ihe mouth without opening the lips; but if we adjiirthe orea s of ?T)'Ju^''^'^^:^ consonant (as/), it is impossible to concert the XL/A n the mouth huo ou Hence JT, ^."Jl h' "T'^'^ ^J ^'*''^^ '''^ consonant is formed, and lett.ngThc brea h h^L-„. ^ '^^"l'* * 'i.'-MMf'ar rt>«w«a«^ and ^ a t/fl/f^a? c^«f^«a«/ These terms S^nn^'/'*' ."P^"} '° '^'^ objection that they ' put the cart before the horse.' A consonTni like /.does not get its pecuhar quality as contrasted with / by forming voi'e n the mouth t ThT/r."t,;tP^^;";'^^_'^"^Jj'y>y '»>« adjustment of the ofgan's before^J'^can be pToduced li,,Jj^~ "1/7/ co..:,Y"""\* "ould be Det.er described as tense and lax If the term?' Senc^fof ;Lr ''"'''°^''^* " ""'' •'^ '''P' '" """'' ''^"^ '^'^y ^"^«'^<' "« reference to a SO INTRODUCTION. (Greek «. J,t™Te'o ^h !-;s"^m: ]5 1,?"^" " «--y"ab,e .Uar(^- ^°i^{i^ v'?;^^^^^^ consonant preceded by a w/vo^vd^^^ '"^'"8 '" ^ ^'V'' As ./«, sifm^r; sif, j/W SrS// ll/w ^^""^O"^"^ is doubled, the accent does no fa on ihe fast Z^lUt' T^'^' {"ufervfd. But if doubled ; as offer, offerj ^.'1 Vj»-^^' •''•! ^ • ^' consonant is not {and ., however afe eener^v S^h "!' ""'f'"^- ^he letters hocmsiug. There ^re ikn 7 ''"""'i^^' ^^ ^''^^'^^ /^a^W/^r; yj^r«j violatedf as -.'S,^ ./'^"xh^Tal'^fort? !," T1"^' ^^^ ^'^ ^^ sonant is that the quantity or length of tL "^^"''''"8 ""^ '^« ^o"" preserved A HnnulJ^ ^ 'ength of the precedinp vowel mav hp vowel islhorr Slte'SS "an^d".^ ^'^""^ ^.^^' ^'^^ P-"^'"^ -f . .^..//, ^i'"./^/./? ^.;;f;^i'''S;,^^' '^^"^^ '^ --^ -ften Jong, as fn TpTec^edtl byVcoLS"\lr;!^ ^^'^ ^'^^ ^° ^ word ending in (sappier; pitj, /S° When fhe finT'^-'"'° '' "f ^'^^^>'' ^«A, IS not changed, as buv W w^ "^ ''• P^'^^eded by a vowel i is changed into>; as "f; S • /l^ A ? "'"^ /' ^^^^^ ^^'^' ^'' ^he / tion dye makes ?j/W«l LoCf is n^/^^^^^^^ J k ^^^ ^"^^ ^'^ ^^^^i^C" (dryness. ^ ^ ^^ '^ "°' changed before a consonant, as -Teltsl'g:%ot^l:eX°an5^""''^'i^^'°T '''^' '^^ P^eding omitted when a syHibl^ ttt i '^'"'^ ^" ^"^ '^''«^- ^^ is general!? MaVe, and "oml^ime ^ j^h^^.^^J":,-? .^.Se' ,- ^d^ed ; i /.jJ!^ sonant as in /ru/y, dulv • hui if i« 1, • i^. J^*"^ '^^g'ns with a con- the pronunciation Sthe con oiant "If^ "^u " '^"^T^^ ^« P'^^^'-ve always put after final v *'°"'°"^"^' ^« '" ^'^^".f^, changeable. It is ^^Se^or;Len^t'Sa?J^.^^^^^^^^^^ T^^'"8 ^° ^he way in we must writeVa-r/„V w /■ S'°"Ped together m speaking. Thus is possible. KylTaSW 1^;;[7'-^' '^""'''^ ""^ '^^^•^«^- B"^ when i which the 'word if ^^adi^ u^t' inT!;:]:;^;^,;:,:?;^^^^ p-^^ or 20. A "^Thf ?am! ""w^^ ^""^'"^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^M' sounds. ^"^^ ^^"^^« ^^« ^«ed to represent different ^^^falXnL ''^'■"'"^^ ^^^ ^^'"P^^ -°-«l -unds, as in/a/., fall. 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. B The letter E represents five simple vowel sounds, as in mete, 0t, herd, clerk, pretty. The letter I represents two simple vowel sounds, as in ptt (long in marine) andyfr; and one diphthongal sound as in bite. The letter O represents three simple vowel sounds, as in poke, pot, for. The letter U represents four simple vowel sounds, as m riide, pilii fun, fur. ' Compare also au in aunt, saunter ; ai in /aid, said, aisle ; ea in great, beat, breast, heart, tarth ; ei in neig/i, sleight, receive ; ey in prey, eye ; le in belief, friend ; oa in coat, broad ; oe in shoe, doe ; oo in tool, door, flood , ou in scour, pour, journal, through ; ow in totv, cow. O is hard (= k) before a, o, and u [can, cob, cut) ; but soft (= a) before e, 1, and y (cell, city, Cyprus). OH is hard (== k) in ache, mechanics, but generally soft (= toh), as in much, child, &c. Like ah in a few words taken from French, as machine. The soft sound oi ch is due to the influence of Norman-French, ©•is hard before a, o, and u (gave, go, gun), soft before e (gem), and before i and y in words not of Teutonic origin (gin, gypsy) ; but hard in ^7/ (of a fish), give, gilt, &c., and in Gertrude, Geddes. The hard sound of g is often maintained by putting u after it, as guile, guild, guest. TH has both a hard and a soft sound (thin, this). O-H is sometimes mute (as in though), sometimes sounded like / (laugh). ■* The same sounds are represented in different ways. I. Compare the following words in sound and spelling : — Fate, bra«d, %ay, gxeaX., n^»gh, ^xey, %ao\, gauge. Fall, for, fraud, daw, broad, ought. Far, derk, aunt, heart. Mrte, m«ftft, mn.> .n words derived from the Latin ca/to as deceii (decioio) receipt (rcnpio), coftr/'tt :r,r,..^r,o). &.C. '- v^^^> .u"*" /n''*'?''' '^' *"** ^ tei^reV in the same syllable are often inserted merely to show that the following consonant is lo be sounded as a sibilant. I INTRODUCTION. /est, ^ntle, ada^, hrii(ij'e, jur^Tnent. Aeep, tat, rot, rut, mor/t, ifuench, luAf, mer/ianics. Crave, ^//t nounced like Ara, and is not a separate simple !ou.fd ' P'"" ci 'LsTatXtteVt'rnti L^tfiSS tlf^^ "'^" ^^'^^^ ^^^ ^^^ while the changesfn the wriSn iTg ^ ha e "not ktr^'nUhThe'cr'^' in pronunciatbn. In its AnglcSaxon stage ou? kn^ was^ ee from t^ anomalies. The mixture of Norman-Ffench with P^nJfK ... ^i^^'l'^ pronunciation greatly. We owe to it the sound of / tt? a disturbed the 22. In Anglo-Saxon long i was sounded like « in sien nevpr « ^ ;„ v^ • e was sounded like a in /a/f, never like ^^ • i /« in ??a ^ m /m^; the sound of a in iai being denoted bv« • ii n^H « "^ '^'''' "f f ' *' '"/^^''' and>//, the sound ofTin LTnot bdnJ^used ThellT"^'"^ ^' '" ''''^'^ either .. as in ..„, or . as in .«. n" ver':7sound as fn'L T ^ ° "^""^"'^^ As regards the consonants, c and g were always hard. The sbilants ah « ?han rr^otrVngth"" T^' we^kLrnro/ll.^^ ^ T^ ^^"-"^ influence of Norma^/rth.^an^l it^'e to^'Zir^lVl '^l preserve the guttural pronunciation (as ntP-Ai for ni/i/ niiirht Ln,Z\ p ? the guttural sound died out all the same, a^nd ^^cameSrbfree^^^^^^ more than a sign that the preceding / must be sounded Ion p-H I. V .nserted even in words thSt had n^o claim to a guttu al o?^any"S V as"?n fZ'iZl'^^r'l?^^- ^''' P"""S °' ^^^ ^"--J ^h into'the old Lf n.. owing . the ,ength/^i„, ofX%i^re::^xvS;«r'iL^^^^^^^ French A«;/^«,«.' ^ '^ ^" '^'°''' " ^^''>'«' >4'»«.f^4a«,/«r. It is from the i6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ACCENT. fn,?p't?n??i^^^'l^ ^^^ utterance of one word in a sentence with more toice than tlie rest to give prominence to the idea which it conveys Accent is a stress laid upon one syllable of a word of cv.o or more syllables, as //m/,r, misery, indc'cenL Words of several syllables may tZindZn"!' ^"^"^ "" '"'""'"'^ ^yW^hX^^, as democrdtical, Idtl In English two systems of accentuation have been at work, the Teutonic or geniane Inghsh. and the French. The characterisfic tend;ncy of Son°c accentuation .s to throw the stress upon the root-syllable of a wo^rd and eave n F.ln'ilT)! """^ ^?'''"''"' '^^"^l^'^'^ unaccented,* as ISve, I6ver IMness. T «ffn ? , • ^'^'=«"'»^''0" naturally, in the first instance, followed that of \^Z\x t - '' ""\ etymological but rhythmical, so that the accent often shifted Us position with an alteration in the number of the syllables fallinLxon he penulMor last syllable but one) if it was long, or on tK!^pe3(or became p&tre, pastdrem became pasteUr. The omission of final syllables of inflexion mPrench often left the accent on (he last syllable even when ^^^1 was not the root-syllable. Thus vimUem became vrriliTMdtem dt^^ When such words first passed from French into English they naturally had tht. A FT^' ^\'^'" ^"^ /"'o^r^ss,succorir, usdgc, bonddge, &c. Most o wh .h'^''.'^''T'^'' *'T""'''' ^""" •^^^^ ^ff^^t^d l^y'he English accenSon winch tends to keep the accent away from the last syllable. In words of 1 rench or Latin origin, and of more than two syllables, there is a tendency to tlirow the accent back on to the ante-penult, as in moJpoly, M"4m7 Thus we novv s.y advMhemmt (not advertisement), thhtre (not ihelrX &c French thTTarsXb^" VA ""r^T ■"• -«..■----. kee,!'the accenr'n tne Jast syllable. So also do adjectives which are {.eemindv taken from ^!u "The n^r^ ' rejection of the final syllable, as benign jluXunS, accLt rn^nrrT r'^ ' °^, '^^ 'y"^'^'" ^^' «f ^°"'^« to be laken into account. Compare, for example, concentrate and remSnstrate : cosmdgonv and WoiX wS L K "^""^ T^'"^,*" ^ compound, as d//.gory, mHancholy. vZ..\. • ,^ ^''^" ^''^P^'^'^ '''"''^"t alteration from foreign languages keep their original accent, as torpSdo, cordna, octdvo. languages The influence of accent upon the etymological chan-es of words has been very important. When one syllable is made promhent hose adjacent to it, especially if short and unimportant^'in them- f. hi; ^!^\P^o"°""^ed carelessly, and frequently get dropped alto- from L.ISr ""l^V'^i'^ ^ror^ episcopusyecveiror^ gerefa, sample from example. English has thus lost most of its syllabic suffixes. When this loss takes place at the beginning of a word, it is called bv stcny from histotre ; stranger from estrangier (Stranger); Spain from Bispnnta or Espagne ; va^Jromava nt ; when it occurs at the end of a word In COmpitmds in whirli th<" comnonfnt narf- ->-» • • i i '■ '- ETYMOLO'^ Y. 17 An unaccented long syllable is apt to get shortened Thi,<; ih^ .a- f nnnute become, the noun minuU. c'ompar^e JXar^housl^e, &c. ^ ' il ETYMOLOGY. separate words. It treats of their classification irto the erouDs ^00 ^nM^P''"*^' .^^ *^" "^^"g^-^ °f ^^'^ >^hich they undii go to mark differences m their signification or in their grammatical relations, and of the mode in which they are formed out of their constituent elements. This involves a reference To the connection which exists between words and forms in different Cuag^ which are related to each other. 'anguages PARTS OF SPEECH. Parts ^fSpeec\1-"^"''^ ^'^'^ the following eight * classes, called 1. Woun-Substantxve t (usually called Woun). 2. Noun-Adjective t (usually called Adjective). 3. Pronoun. 4. Verb. 5. Adverb. Preposition. Conj auction. Interjection. 6 7 8 PredIoat?«rn^«""f,'*/'T'' P««f of Speech. Wouna (including Adjectives). V»-rbg for IVmNoun^ot. to inc^X ".hi \'^- '^ '*'*" %' ^"Mivisions of one. The extension of 7he i8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, The definitions of these several Parts of Speech will be found in the sections which treat of them respectively. These parts of speech have not at all times been equally essential elements ot language. They do not stand upon the same level, some being primary, others secondary. -^ The cardinal elements of every sentence * are the Subject and the Predicate (see §§ 344, 376). For the expression of these we get the primary Parts of Speech, namely, the Substantive (Noun and Pronoun) and the Verb. In the next rank come the Adjective, which limits or modifies the Sub- stantive, and the Adverb, which limits or modifies the Verb. The adverb, in course of time, was developed into the Preposition and the Conjunction. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions were originally for the most part nothing more than Cases of Nouns and Pronouns, which being restricted in practice to particular uses, hardened into separate Parts of Speech. NOTIONAL AND RELATIONAL WORDS. 26. Words are divisible into Notional Words and Relational words. Notional Words are those which present to the mind a distinct conception of some thing, or of some action or attribute of a thing. To this class belone Nouns, aualitative Adjectives, and Verbs. Relational Words bring things before our minds, not by naming or describing them, but by indicating their relations to other things. The most important words of this class are the Substantive Pronouns, and the Quantitative and Pronominal Adjectives. Thus Thou or He brings a person before the mind by indicating his relation to Me. Adverbs are partly notional (as ivisely, brightly), partly relational (as now, thus, whence). Prepositions and Conjunctions are only relational, the former with respect to things, the latter with respect to thoughts. It thus appears that Substantives and Adjectives admit of the following classification : — Substantives I i' Motional (Nouns). ( Z. Relational (Substantive Pronoun8).t j 1. Notional (aualitative Adjectives). Adjectives j 2. Relational (Quantitative and Pronominal ( Adjectives). Both Verbs and Adjectives express notions of the actions and attributes of things. Verbs assert the connection of the thing and its action or attribute ; Adjectives assiane this connection. To borrow a metaphor from Mechanics, the Verb is a Dynamic Attributive, the Adjective is a Static Attributive IMPERFECT SEPARATION OF THE IN ENGLISH. PARTS OF SPEECH 27. In English the same word (that is to say, the same combination Tnere are fouas of I * "^^^^ 11.^? reg.-irds languages of so advanced a type as the Aryan, languaj^e (tolyncsian) which have not advanced so i'ar as to have a verb ulchlfhTZJ^^fi. ^.^^''1 °^ 'he mistake of supposing than any and every substantive word j,sucn as fie, who, that, &c.) may be called a noun. \ ETYMOLOGY. a verb in 'The laundresses Wth. 1 ^f"'"'^ '", '^" ''■'"' '™l.' ^nd 'The ..riy rose,' an acfvlrb ^^''l^^J^^^lj/^^' ^ » -"J-.ive in oo , » INFLEXION. J8. Innexion (Latin inHed/'r^ < t^ k*>« ^ »\ • ^ the form of a word either to «!;■, "^ ^}t * ''''^"«<= ■"'«Je in which the word stands for or t„cl,°"!.'"°'',"^'?"'°" <"'"'« "°"o" some other word fn the °e«encr" '^^ '''"""" "' "'^ "''^'' '° Inflexion is now of two kinds. sufSxaatin»7«';4xed™n Th.^'''''«!' thus added is called a words, bu, gradllly'losTrherfiil fl^m L^'S'eanrnr """ ''^""^^^"' blending the t™ sounds ^^ether ts,"';^!/,? /r'/^''^"'?'/"" then syllJe'^to t'Te^LVef (comoarr'-f. '"^^ ^^^^ »' a preceding ^unity). This change oftl'SnedX^'n T'' "f ■"""'' ■""'" a"d is called Compa^sln ' '""'"=" '° "'="■'' '*»«'"• ™s inflexion 'Th*^„T;i*r^a.;:rc*,f;°t1-„.'»-' '"™''". -^ ^«-n. ?rarpror^f?:ir:rK',ts ir'""°"\-^ -• '-"-«'■ rebte'to the same nclitn, is caliedThe b'ooT"" "'* """=' ""'"^ 'hat This is mainly due to the fart fVi^f :„ -c i- > -^ ■ _____^ either. But the same freedom does not List nVf, ''T' *"■ ^^'^^< ^nd may be used as J. A), .i,- 1 , JlrfgS** ^ "* Ui*ormative ± TK I' oy ouro^JSrfi ^eBtfeence as guided bv the .™. „„„„,„ „r ,„„„„,,,, ,„„. hi„ ^ j;^;-^ "f»" o™ .ha';".;; rte;^^^^^^ St»«!5*- 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Some writers of authority restrict the term Inflexion to those changes which constitute Declension and Conjugation. I H NOUN.* 29. The word Noun means name (Latin nomen). A noun is a word used as the name of something CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 30. Nouns are divided into two principal classes : — 1. Common Nouns. 2. Proper Nouns. {.-COMMON NOUNS. 31. A common noun (Latin communis, ' shared by several ') is a word that is the name of each thing out of a class of things of the same kind, as Aorse, stone, city, or of any portion of a quantity of stuff of the same sort, as wheat, iron, mater. A common noun is so called because the name belongs in common to all the individual things in the class, or to all the portions into which the whole quantity of stuff may be divided. A common noun distinguishes what belongs to some class or sort from everything which does not belong to it. Thus the name horse distmguishes that animal from all other sorts of things, but does not distinguish one horse from another. 32. Common Nouns are subdivided into : — 1. Ordinary Class Names. 2. Collective Nouns. 3. Abstract Nouns. An Ordinary Class Name is one that belongs to each individual of a class, or to each portion of some novt of material, as horse, tree, water, marble. Names of materials are used in the plural when different sorts of the material are spoken of, as 'teas,' 'sugars,' &c. A Collective Noun is one which in the singular stands for one collection of several individual things, as herd, multitude. In the plural it stands for several such collections. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, action, or state, as hardness, running, growth, sleep. As Arts and Sciences are in fact processes of thought and action, their names are Abstract Nouns, as astronomy, logic, grammar. 33. Abstract nouns are derived from adjectives (as hardness from hard). i I 4, • See Note on ? 25, p. 17 NOUN. 31 .^^Cta^^^^^^ denote a Thar :ais7:;Lrecrt -4r'^---^^^^ "^"^ "'^^• off (Latm «^j/rar/«j) in thought from fKl'/^S^^^'fy ^^'ng 'drawn An abstract noun is a common nounT.'*' '° '"^''^'^ " '^^'^"gs- of the quality or action that i" SenSe^ "'' '' ''""^' ^°' ^^'^ ""^^^^'^ ^u^*^-^°'"'"°" "ouns are si^ni/irn*,t tu 3K A T> "--PROPER NOUNS. particular '^^:fs:;'?n^ar plaT^rfn'^^ ^'^ ^'^^ ^' ^^m. Bucephalus, Excalibur ^T^'^.^ ^L wT\ "' ^'^""^ ^^^<^on, ^-n^^ proper na.neis a V^rsl^^s^^^^^ft^^^^^^^^^ -ans name, considered" rn^reTy ^f 'vv'o'rd "hi TJ^^^'^''^'. Even if the to the object which it denotes in .'« ""^^"'"^^ '^ '^ not applied ^^argarei means /.^^/, but t is notT,^nT!f 't °^ '^^^ "^^^"ing ^/^r^ar./ has pearly qualities Many Z^nL '''"' "" .P"^^°" ^^"^^ as ^«^^^<,«, Blackwater, Newca^fu^ J'7 ' ^^"^l^^ however, such in fact also the case with names of ZT ^' ^''^l .descriptive, as was ^ descnptive, had a propheticTop^tafeSj^ '^^' '^ '^^^ -^-"^ ■ ^•-Tecr^^oTcoSt^^r-^^ --T" "--' -'^^ they resemble each other i„ certain aStes^^T'^ 'Z^^'' ^^^^^^ ^he^ as if we say of a po.c, ' He was fh^H ^^ ?f ''^'^ ^°"^e individual, man, that he is 'a Herculel' or "T^'r^^ ^'^ ^g^'' O'" of a strong philanthropists like Howard °' 'P""'' °^ ' ^^e Howards.' mean?n| P^uTaC ffirstira^^rtTnat^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^-^ '^ "-' '" ^^e ^ V Ffname, ab the GV(7r^,.j,' « the C^^jarj.' 38 NTn "^PLEXIONS OF NOUNS. though t^se'dSL^for^l^^^ ^r^^^' -^ ^-e. e „„, ^uvays marked by inflexion. '""' w 23 ENGLISH GKAMiMAK. i^ GENDER. 39. Living boings are divided into two classes or sm^s, the male sex and the. female* sex, the individuals in the one sex correspondnig to those in the other. Things without life are not of either sex. Thus all things are arranged in three classes- things of the male sex, things of the female sex, and things of neither sex. 40. In like manner, nouns are divided into three t classes or sorts called Genders, which correspond to the three classes of things just mentioned. These are the Masculine Gender, the Feminine Gender, and the Neuter Gender. Gemfer comes from the Latin ge;ius, ' a kind or sort.' The name of anything of the male sex is called a masculine noun, or a noun of the masculine gender (Latin masciilhius, ' be- longing to a male ')• The name of anything of the female sex is called a feminine noun, or a noun of the feminine gender il^dXmfeminimis, ' belontrin? to a female ')• ^ ■/ » 6 s The name of anything of neither sex is called a neuter noun, or a noun of the neuter gender | (Latin neuter, 'neither'). Man, kbii^, father, horse, cock, bull, James, are masculine nouns. Woman, mother, mare, hen, cow, Mary, Jane, are feminine nouns. 6 tone, tree, house, London, are neuter nouns. In the case of animals and young children we often take no account of the .sex, but refer to them by means o{ neuter pronouns. 41. The names of animals sometimes do not indicate their sex,§ as sheep, bird, hawk, bear, mouse, raven, swan, dove. Also various names^of persons, as parent, spouse, servant, &c. Such nouns are said • The word female is not connected etymological ly with male. Male is a contwction of masculia. female IS a. corruption o{ femel/n, a diminutive offewtmi, assimilated in form to wa/e through confusion. t Noihu.g is gained either in convenience or in philosophy by the attempt to restrict the term ^en.ler to the masculiw and lh« '»^«^«f°re wrong to speak of the w«j«^ " '" ^''^'l "^ //'["/being of tlfe mascuHne o" lemmnic gender, //^^w^^j may be of the male or female sex but onlv words can be of the masculine, feminine, or neuter ^S/X' ^ 44. The sex First Mode. < Masculine Bachelor Boar Boy Broth Buck Bull Bullock * A. Different .affixes are „sed for the masculine and .he feminine. Murderer Feminine. Caterer murderess <:iovernor ^'^^^''^^^ Emperor governess now used as masculine or common^ n "^''" ^'''">' ^'°^^'^ '" -^^''■ occupations carried on l,y women \f '' ?'T' """^«^' ""^^ <'enofed /i'^Jc^cr (from /.r;Xr) mZrZ^^'. n '""{^^"-^ ^^P'^^>- (' ^«^-«/a,V/ '), and songstress are'honl^tr^^^^^^^^^ &c. .•..,.. J] be exclusively mascuiine. ^ "^ '""ffix -^^ has now ceased to weaver). "^ ' ""'• ^'''''"' ("'"'e weaver), webbe (female B. The feminine is formed from .he maseuHne by feminine suffixes. XI • * . . ®®®' '^^ ^^^'^A countess; mayor, mayoress 'IZ. Xr;- Sr"^-° and t^t '''-'' '^ ^'^ ^^^^^^ masculines a/Xr^lS^r^V/r^'^^'T' ^"'^^'^''' ^'««''-^-^- The The.of«.^..and\reTohC"A:redmnn^^^^ "° ''^'^b^^^'^tion. Abbess (from a6l>of) is a shortened form o 'i^ f"^''";' "''"^''^^• from Y«'.... z>«.^,,, follows the Fench t^fl /''' ''^ P'^^'^'^'y -<^f-^^is modified thro^hth^Tfl'^^^^^^^^^^ ^ -uliPe beinff modified r^Swrir^ '/'''^' ^^^ ''^"^ ^°^el ^f the »S:4tnT(a^Ifl^^'^)/^„';'^^)- ^^^^^^ (- i" /T'"')- -» (as in are foreign importations. ^ '" ^"«''"'' grammar, but ..iS^ls tSS ?i!;..tP^' '" "^"^ °''^- " »f'" i'- So cart.urAe ha. become c...,.;.^., 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 46. Third Mode. — Masculine and feminine nouns or nouns are i)refixed or affixed to nouns of common gender. pio Masculine. f.!an-s2rv,'int Man-singer He-devil Boar-pig Buck-rabbit Bull-calf Feminine. maid-servant woman-singer she-devil sow-pig doe-rabbit cow-calf Masculine. Dog-fox He-goat Pea-cock Guinea-cock Turkey-cock Roebuck Feminine bitch-fox she-goat ewe-lamb pea-hen guinea-hen turkey-hen Cock-sparrow hen-sparrow Sometimes proper names are used to answer this purpose, as in Jack-ass^ jenny-ass J torn-cat^ lib-cat; billy-goat., nanny-goat ; jackdaw. In Anglo-Saxon, carl and cwen were used, as carl- fugel {cock-fowl\ cwen-fugel {hen-fowl). NUMBER. 47. Number is a variation in form which shows whether we are speaking of one thing or of more than one. 48. There are now* two numbers in English, the Singular and the Plural. The Singular Number of a noun is that form of it which is used when we speak of one of the things for which the noun stands, as ship, horse, herd. The Plural Number of a noun is that form of it which is used when we speak of more than one of that for which the noun stands, as ships, horses, herds. As it is simpler to think and speak of one thing than of several things at once, the singular is the original form of the noun. MODES or FORMING THE PLURAL. 49. First Mode. — By adding the syllable es shortened to s when- ever the pronunciation admits of it. The full syllabb es is now added only when the singular ends in a sibilant {s, sh, soft ch, x or z), ks gas, gases; lash, lashes; witch, witches; box, boxes; topaz, topazes, \ Words like horse, horses really come under this rule. The letters es are also added (but without being sounded as a separate syllable) after several J words ending in o, as hero, heroes; potato, potatoes ; in the word alkalies ; after y when it is preceded by a con- * b onnerly our language had a dual number, in the personal pronouns used in speaking of two persons. Tht tiiial is probably older than the plural, and took its rise at a time when cur primitive forefathers could not count beyond two. t Though we write -es, it is sounded like -ts or -ys, which we find in W^ycliffe and in the Scotch dialect, and sometimes m Chaucer. Plurals like woimdes, handes, are not uncommon in Spenser. I The usage in the case of words ending in o is arbitrary, and" by no means uniform, « being commonly added. But s only is ?dded to words ending in io and oo, and to the fol- lowmg words :— domino, virtuoso, tyro, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, mosquito, canto, grotto, solo, rondo. pio as in we NOUN. » a; in es affects fhp nr«Vl r '^ '''^^ ^"""'' ^'^'ch j a ways has l,tl' ,lu- '7 P'^^"'''"K consonant, and f is changed to v. i ^/> also n,/,/i/A:,Z;i}S%f',^^^^^^^^ M,fi. S„ lions in modern En,.li4 M.' ,' "-^ "'"'"' "'''= "^"''P- olcler wriTm "" '^'»<"^", fms, smrvts are found in tfe When V It the enH n?T ^a '^^^•^'/<%''-^. A"^ rrt,w,yfmj)^ pis '^^SBiSP.i?-?^-- spt French caused the general adoSion nf .? ^^ influence of Norman- Mnd. of nouns The^sa,:' atCrJp-irinnh^NSrn^tU^ "" . "^;Ie^7S :I SKvr ■ :?e' J^rr/d ^""'""^"^ ^i?^.^ea;^ofS^f5^S?iiHH '««< (see § 28). ' ^ ■^'^'''' ■^''"' ^"o^'i g"se : man, no^oTAt-istontigif ^ °^ '°™»« "■= P'-' - restricted .0 a few in.o2;Tl°„', j''LSh'UronpS?','i,rw^,''a*?; t"- »- changed i„.W,i„^,„ JroMr name. so„„„rit=„r«ainfhs"*i„, he Plan "» ""Salar «•>! W,>, thru. Ii^. have a plural i„ ,, as l„„u^ (^„ jn. ,j^,)^ orren (= or.) in Scott and Byron Ass^,y^VjIl^ '^^^ eyne "rf{!: .^f « S-thern dialect waTmortf^n^in^fr^V fe -1". ^1= /"''V "'^° occur'V-'oM It -Aisiimny there Wi.s nothing distinctivelv nI.Tr=.?':n »1 'i."""'''^ ^'i^'* '''*= ^^'orthern. /^/, 3.W/..r were used in the dafive s.ngularin A S ^^ '^"«" °^^°^«'- ^he forms mm. 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 54. Fourth Mode. -By leaving the singular unchanged, as shrh iinr, grouse Jish: head (as in " ten head of cattle '\yokc, year, pound Most of these words were neuter in A.S. and had no plural suttix. 56. 'J-he plural is often the same as the singular in nouns oxpressinc f quantity or number as "The stone weighs ten humirMvei^hr ] He shot five brace of birds " ; " Ten ,^v„„ „f buttons " ; " He weighs eleven ./.«." ; " Three ./.s.,, knives " ; " Two /«,> of boots " j Four .rr^r. years ' ; 'Thirty /aM^w " ; '^Ttn mile^' {S/iakspX Monf/i winter ws;ht, shtlling, mark formerly had the plural like the sincular' Westil. s.iy "atwelve/z/^z/M," "a fort«/^r^/." Compare "a three. Joot rule ; a fwQ-pouttd note " ; "a three-/> If (2.) US (neuter) urn ix or ex ,, ies In Greek words >» 11 11 >» era, as ,i;enus, genera. a, as datum, data. % 8B, a.^ formula, formulae. ices, as radix, radices, ies, as seriis. Nouns in on form the plural in a, as phenomenon, phenomena. SIS ma 11 II , , ses, as crisis, crises ; basis, bases. , , ^, , , -' II ''^^^'^i B.si miasma, miasm. i/a. {3.) Cherub ^nd sef-aph (Heb.) make cherubim and seraphim ; bandit makes bandtttt ; to (Fr ). beaux; madame, mesdames; mister {i.e., master), mess: urs- 7'rrtuoso (Ital.), virtuosi. " '"""'-'""' 56. If a foreign word has passed into common use, the plural may be formed m the English fashion, as cherubs, bandits, dogmas. 57. Double Plurals.— Some nouns have two plurals, which differ m meanmg, as : — ' Sintiidar. Plural. Plural j;f°*i'^'" brothers (^j/^/rM).. brethren ififacommuniti^ Cloth cloths {kinds of cloth) clothes {^^arments) ^ ' ?^®^ (}ies {for coinino) dice (>• //«,-) ^^^^ fishes {regarded separately^ .... fish {collective) J^®"^^^' geniuses {men of talent) genii {spirits) J^**®j^ nidexes {tables of contents) .... indices {in Algebra) 5®* V peas {regarded separately) pease {collective) „ ®"f y pennies (separate coins) ...... pence {sum of money) ^^Q^ shots {discharges) &ho{ {balls) * Also the names of several sorts of fish, as cod, salmon, trout, 6ike, &c Other-; ^ shark, zv/tatc, herring, eel, turbot, &c., form plurals as usual. ' '^^ t Shots means discharges, not missiles. crraftrslZa"^""''^^' """"''^'"^'' ' effluvium, effluvia: arcanum, areaua ; addenda; } rhe singular /M has been made out of the collective word i>casc, mfhtaken for ninrol and then the plural /^af has been made horn pea. ^ ' '""''^'*^" '°»^ P'u>"a' i , as sheep, iir, pound. suffix. xjjressing r ' He weighs :»ts"j Four ). Month, be singular, "a three- xnnon, like their ■a. nl2r; /f \, ^™'^'''' compounds of two nouns' which thTfuS 'ofthr^ff n^?;^^^'''' ''^^T-^^'T'"''^- Compounds in as /laud/u/s, rose/rL Ic ^ ''' '' '°"^P^"^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ' ^' the end, use of the singular is, of course, correct but as Sied I'^'-'h. T'l""-- 7^'/ explanation of the ^ary. It ,s doubtful whether the Lt man who snol. nf K • ^^"'u " )' f^^-fetched and unnecos- representing the plural t« ^e.MaT.K, When nHW,. '''''"^ '^^ '-/'«^«'««//« thought he was •he tendency of our language^o use the nlnrnl ^'^ "^^' ^'^ converted into substantives, it is ,..st as in country districts ^h%t^^o(hllfZ/AjlA •"^"/^"j? °f h^^^i"? ^^'e rheumatics, ase and .///^;;, have." (Shakspeare /? // f r\ V^v l'/'^,'^''^"^^, "Let them die tha as substantives, provided the Xal h; .iV2/!!?''''?/''ff '^ ^''°^^'!'« '^^e of adjectives . ^"^f'aKspcaic "These ill news" (^«c/;SiXli 7 '"J'{'"{'i%^''''""'^^!''^- Srtens, sweets. at once were spread " (Dryden). ^ ''" "' '» ^^o) ; " 1 he amazing news of Charles 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. It is usual to say 'The Miss Smiths,' not 'The Misses Smith, latter is correct, but is considered pedantic. The CASE. 64. Things stand in various relations to other things and to their actions and attributes. Nouns have corresponding relations to nouns, verbs, and adjectives. I'hese relations are marked by making nouns assume different forms, called Cases. 65. Definition. — Case is the form t in which a noun (or pro- noun) is used, in order to show the relation in which it stands to some other word in the sentence. 66. The relations of things which were first marked in language were probably their simple relations in space— wi?//tf«/;w//, motion to, and rest in. These were the ideas originally expressed by the grenitive, the accusative, and the dative respectively. % By analogy these cases were extended in meaning, so as to include other less obvious relations, and when they were found insufficient, additional forms (or cases) were invented. In the Indo-European languages we lind at various stages seven cases (excluding the Vocative, which is not properly a case at all,§ since it does not bring the noun into grammatical relation to any other word), the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Locative, Accu- sative, Ablative, and Instrumental. The somewhat vague import of the different cases, arising out of their wide application, led to the use of prepositions, by which definiteness was given to the vague sense con- veyed by the case itself (see the section on ' Prepositions ' further on), and the use of prepositions in its turn rendered some of the cases ISS If • So in Shakspeare 'Three Doctor Faiistuses' {Merry iV. IV. 5, 71). ' One of the Mi V\Axa!ooxQ\x^^' {Goldsmith). " Miss-Smith" must be regarded as a compound name. x. there is no definite article, we must have the plural Misses, as " Misses Jane and Mary Smith.' So also we say " The Mr. Smiths," but " Messieurs John and George Smith." ^ t Some writers have misunderstood the term 'Case' (Latin raywjl as meaning 'state' or condition.' This is quite wrong. Casus was the Latin translation of the Greek word itTioaiv, which means ' falling.' This word was first used by Aristotle to denote a modification 0/ form either in nouns or in verbs. Even the formation of an adverb from an adjective was called //i>«f by him. In nouns he used the term tivo/uu (onoma), i.e. noun or name, for what we call the nominative, and applied the term 'fallings ' to the other cases, which he did not distinguish from each other by special names. The word 'ptosis' had nothing to do with the ' falling or resting of one word on amother "; it denoted the ' fall ' of a word ' from a certain standard form.' The Stoics called this standard form the 'straight' or 'upright ' and called the other cases (to which they gave the separate names yennij, donKij, and antariKri) the slanting or ol>litftte falls.' Some reckoned the Vocative as an ' upright,' others as a slanting fall.' Of course the term ' upright fall ' (casus rectus) was sharply criticised a-; self-contradictoiy : it was defended on the rather shuffling pretext that it denoted a ' fall ' from the-£c//eral conception in the mind to the particular. (" Quod a generali nomine in speciaha cadit." Priscian V. 13.) A collection of these ' falls ' was called the ' declension ' or Sloping down ' of the noun. X There is good reason for oeaeving tnat the Nominative was not the primary case, but was of later origin than some of the rest. It will be shown hereafter that the earliest forms of predication sprang out of the use of an oblique case, not of the nominative. I'he nominative was probably based upon the subjective conception involved in the use of the pronoun ' I ' Which (as we see in the case of children) is of late growth (Set Sayce, 'Principles of Comp. I htl. p. 286). Language, in the case of children, continually ' harks back ' to primitive methods. § In Latin and Greek the Vocative is only a weakened form of the stem or crude form, it n.is no case-ending of its own. Very commonly the Nominative does duty for it. I NOUN. The 31 SL™e'Hiv?H H''f '^' ^T^T' °^ ^^' L°^^''^« ^"d Instrumental cases were divided between the Dative and the Ablative ; in Greek the cS'aiS^Dltir^"^ ^"' ^'^ ^'^^^^^^ -- merge^/ttt leaTt in D^nounO th.^-A/ " •'' ^"^l?;Saxon stage it had fi?e cases (at IwSrdfsHnrt f '.I'^x't "^'^PP^^ '" "°""s- There was no ^ocaiive distinct from the Nominat ve. There were also several t'llTTLtr^"'- ""''r^'fy ^he/^-//^^. came to beusettododuTy anyone So rmoH^/' for itself, and was called the O^jea^vl, We have now nnlv^S^ °^ ""^'^'."^ ^^'^ ^^' ^^opt^d for all nouns caTe^a^e all^ff;';m!*'^"'- '"^ "°""^ the nominative and objective NOMINATIVE CASE. 68. The nominative case is that form in which a noun ^or TsS^oXt'";' V\' ^"bject of a verb t; that is wht verb as ^^ K^?^"^^^'^^ something is said by means of a bmher' jfZ ^""'^^^r''^' 'The boy was struck by his .,,1-; . , ^^^ ''f ^ ''^ ^^^ sentence be in the active voice the bv^he verb 'k Jk ^^^"^^^^^^^e doer of the action deSbed by the verb. If the verb be in the passive voice the subieet o the verb stands for the object of the a^tior^scrL by the «n^- .V, ^' ''^' ^^'^ *^^ «^^J««t Stands for that about which something is said by means of the verb. X the®v;rb as"' Whn h^Tf ''°" ?,^^^ ^^ P""'"& ^^^-^ ^' ^h^^f before tiieverb,as Who build houses.?' * Men.' 'Who was struck?' 'The boy' ^°' ^ilrl^'ZT^"^^ ^^f"" nominativus, « naming ') is the Naming Form and names either the person or thing spoken of , or the person or use?if^f^/f; "' ^" \^. solitude, where%fe thy charms ? ^ When - ^yZS;\^:To.:S.l '^ ""^' '^^ ^ominatL of Address, :" out was long ago po nte'd out that fl nL?.'^ v'''"' ^'1^ '^' '" <^^''"> ^'''l "">'' ''"" (German), h as man/cases^L here a e preposSs T^^^^^^^ """", together make a .«.., there must be grammar is futile. There is no normal or n^^ ""P' '"^i '""''r ^'^^"^ '° '^« *'"'' "^ '^^^ i^^^n not follow, because a certain reEno?;rf^^''^ T"^^^' °^ """^^^ '" language. It does different ways should bear ?heLme name """^ •"" "''P'""'"'^ '" '^° ^^y^' ^'^'^^ "^«^^« A;.t1s"Trir/lf„;;?AS/i'^-% .-- ^^ ^^>« verb- ..« incorrect. 3* ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I POSSESSIVE CASE. , 71. The possessive case * is that form of a noun (or pronoun) which shows that something belongs to or is connected with the person or thing for which it stands. Thus in ' I saw John's book,' the possessive ca.sQ John's shows that something (namely a book) belongs to John. 72. In Anglo-Saxon the Genitive Case had a very wide range of meaning, including the ideas of separation, partition, size, age, material, time when, means, manner, ikz. The general sense of 'connected with' appears in such phrases as a stone s throw,' ' a day's journey,' 'my uncle's death,' &c. In the Lnghsh Bible 'Thy fear' means 'the fear of thee.' So in Shakspeaie . o"e nian s awe (/. Caes.) means ' awe of one man ' ; ' his taking off' means the taking off of him. Here the possessive answers to the Latin objective genitive, as in amor pecuniae, ' the love of money. ' 73. With the exception of a few phrases, such as 'the earth's axis,' 'the moons orbit,' the possessive inflexion is not now used (except in poetry) unless the noun denotes a person or animal, or something persoiuhed. ^ 74. The meaning of the possessive case may be expressed by means ot the preposition ^y with the objective case after it. Thus, for * My father s house,' we may say, ' The house of my father.' Bu l the posses- sive case must not be substituted for the preposition oj unless the of comes after a noun. J -^ 75. The possessive case in the singular number, and in those plurals which end m any other letter than s, is formed by adding the letters with an apostrophe before it (thus, 's) to the nominative case ; as, /o/iu s, men's, geese's. In those plurals which end in s the possessive case is indicated in writing by placing the apostrophe after the s, as, ' the dirc/s' feathers.' r b f t> 76. The Genitive or Possessive suffix in Anglo-Saxon was -es (still pre- ^n/f v" ^"" m writing, though no longer pronounced as a syllable, in ^Vednesdaj^ i.e. Wodenes-day). It was used only in masculine and neuter nouns of the Strong Declension, and in the singular number. f After a I !• ^^^ Possessive Case answers to the Genitive in Latin, &c. The name comes from the \^l^:^'^£^:r'^ ' *° P°^-' -""^^ '^'^--'-^ ^--•^ '-- K^ZTi^Tne' of The Latin grammarians have been much abused for using the term gemtivus as the trans- nt.on of 76..K,,. Max Miiller says that the latter means ^ casus genera is^\l. ^the c^se of w"fnrHr:at"at''trnhn'"T'"'r','^" ^^'^ f -'«-- birth/ The Roman gramSans oMnmitfln^ir^ the philosophy of language, but it seems unlikely that they should have ^ZTlrtZfr lu^r^^\T^^' the guidance of the Greek grammarians from whom they learnt grammar and it should be noted that one of the names given to this case bv the Stoics Tr 7tZ'''): ""^''^ ""P''^^ '^"' '' ^""^ '^' ' ^^^ °^ P^'«^^""y ' (S«« Lersch • 5m.KL%"" t It was the Northern dialect in which f was first adopted as the Possessive suffix in all .louns, and in both numbers. In. Anglo-Saxon and Transition English ifwas often om.tted after words denoting family relations, r.nd a few others. Thus Chaucer uses fader b^th!r heven &c., as possess.ves This omission was common in the Northern dialect The term not'thu1'4x'° S^rh. ^^^''' f;''7 has come down from the time when feminine nouns h^d not tnis suffix, bo Chaucer Wrol. oqO savs 'oure InHv vpvJ ' A<: -.^ ^d-erb'a' fnmatinn the iumx -es was added to feminines m Anglo-Saxon, as in w/L^," by night.' fo'^"^^"^" NOUN. 33 vowel of the suffix has been drlonecT T?^-^' ^^T ?" "^ i '^ '^'''^' ^hat the and sometimes after a 5ng^,arnoun ending In l^ihlT: '-'"I''^ '"^''"^ in ., that we have a possessive cise wifhn ^^J a sibilant to nidicate to the eye 'Aeneas' son ' Tl^t ,, r fu ^'"^^"t a suffix, as 'for conscience' sake ' stili more rec^nLt The nlu'ral i^^L, J^ ' °/ " ■'".*' P'"'"' "f" ' '" . .epcsessive «.!lfe"^:lS ^K^oL? SS^ ^ 'r.^^rfi ' "■ 'u o„vr,^;ed''.„Tets.T,ttVe:™r.^"„,°^ "John Thomas Smith's father ''^fj^ "^ "1 Caesar's death ; " wST ^MV Thht^rf C "■•^' '' "■' -* of John! gramma ical DrindDle. li^ 1 ' 'T'''"' ':?™''t be defended on general-'' but^noM FnVr ^ l^ P easure, our noble and valiant 78. The Possessrve y is the only case suffix of nouns that has come down or;renI?=X"A?;a':iat;Se:'*"' '"''"''"'"'■ '' °^ « ^^ »' OBJECTIVE CASE. 79. The objective case is that form in which a noun or pro But the word Ats is itself the possessive case nfLJ^^l "°^", - ^.he king his crown ') = Ae + he + his = he + he 4-X li/f 11a Ji " ""3 V'V-' P^ *»»« Pnnciple his =. he + his must be Mary histoZ.el It is nu t; tr.l ho" "'^ "'f'"^-"'^- Moreover Marys l,o,n,:) time to use such expressions ,s' Iohn%r^?t1; h°^''f'.'''^l-" ^^'^ »^« Practice for a lone the pronoun for the purpose of shoiS thTsvn.L^?^K ^^'' ^""^l" ^'J'"' ^ pleonastic use f^ was commonly thus used in early SshaS^he Lt y^Z' T^e demonstrative pronoun c»ses (e.g •• A semely man Jreh^fhelZ •' Chaurer"'p' /"'^'T ^/'^<' ?"'' '" °'h. , found in Low German dialects MStzner 7i n „eN /' f^?^' ^S' • A similar idiom is Aouse), 'Mutter er d6k ' (= Maker her Ith) ^' ^ ^^ ^ °'" ^^"^^ '"" ^''^ ' ^= f'^t^^r hn Y..f the -^rrpo^eS X7K';i'!?;jV^.'°:?^^-.^'- -y P""-^ the apostrophe ^r^^h^i^^^tatS^iSf^^-^^'-f^^ ^^ ''°"^'^^^ declined; an inflert.H inSni^^ ..'.^J '^'7^''^^ ^""^ "■f-'^'^d --^^ pronominal adjectivesTd and even such a compound ^ .W^^jl^ ^iX. -L^V'J.i!'^ ?^™".^. (;^ee G>.«„^ § xpr,) an ordinary adjective, «., ,„ „,o.seie nathwi Murray gives as good Lowland Scotch ''Th ,t' ..land ScS.-rte' ff' .. ■."l-kl'—'M-wha, dwelling.' V, r ,, • ■• ""-iiui-wimi uweiling. J s the-man-that-you-met-yesterday's daughtei D *4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. noun is used when it stands for the object of the action spoken of in some verb, or when it comes after a preposition. In the sentence, ' The stone struck the boy/ the word boy, which stands for the object of the action, is called the object of the verb, and is in the objective case. In Latin, Greek, German or Anglo- Saxon it would be in the accusative case. In the sentence, * John was riding in a coach,' the noun coach, which comes after the preposition in, is in the objective case. 80. The objective case is also used, like the Latin dative, to denote the indirect object of a verb, that is to say, it stands for some person or thing indirectly affected by the action, but not the direct object of it ; as, ' I gave the man a shilling,' ' Tell me a tale.' In old English the dative differed in form from the accusative. The objective case in English therefore does duty both for the Accusative and for the Dative of other languages. * The direct object is the answer to the question formed by putting ' whom or what^ before the verb and its subject. Thus (in the example given above) * Whom or what did the stone strike ?' Ans. ' The boy.' The indirect object is the answer to the question formed by putting ' To or for .whom or to or for what ' before the verb, subject ind direct object. * Thus in ' I gave him a book,' the indirect object him ' answers the question ' To whom did I give a book .? ' 81. In nouns the objective case is the same in form as the nominative. They can only be distinguished by their use. In an ordinary de- clarative sentence the nominative case precedes the verb and the objective case comes after the verb. 82. The following are examples of the declension of nouns : — Singular. Plural. | Singular. Plural, yominative Case ... Man Possessive Case Man's Objective Case Man * The endeavour to distinguish a dative and an accusative case in modern English is at variance with the genius and history of the language. We see from the pronouns that the form which maintained its ground was the dative, which first ousted the instrumental and usurped its functions, and then did the same with the accusative. It is unphilcsophical to re-introduce grammatical distinctions which a language has ceased to recognize. One might as well attempt to restore the Locative Case to Latin, or the Ablative to Greek. As there is but ont/orin {hiiHy her, them, &c ) to den' e both the direct and the indirect object, not only is nothing gained, but an important piece of linguistic history is obscured by having two names for it. It is much better to use the common name objective. It is true that there are two u'tes of the objective case, but that is another matter. A case is not the same thing as the relation that it expresses, any more than a noun is the sanie as the thinff which it names. Moreover, the absorption of the accusative by the dative is intimately con- nected with the peculiar English idiom, that the word which stands for eitJter kind of object with an active verb, may usually be made the subject of a Passive verb. " I was struck " and " I was told the story " are equally good English. Nothing of this sort is possible in German or Latin. To say that English has only one case—\.\ic Possessive — is palpably wrong. It has only one infiecied case (at least in nouns); \>\\i father and _/rtr«<:;'i make i\uo ffli^its of the noun. Tlie fact that pronouns still distinguish the Objective from the Nominative, so as to have three distinct forms, compels us to recognize three cases in English even in nouns. Men. Father Fathers. Men's. Father's Fathers'. Men. Father Fathers. NOUN. 35 ANCIENT ENGLISH DECLENSIONS. ANGLO-SAXON FORMS. 83. Gen. Dat. Abl. Ace. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Nom. Gen. Dat, Ace. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Sing. hund (iiog) hund-es I hund-e hund Sing. mann (man) mannes menn mann Sing. gifu {gift) gife gife gife Sing. word (word) wordes worde word STRONG DECLENSIONS. A. Masculine Nouns. Plur. Sing. Phtr. -as ende (end) endas -a endes enda -um -as Plur. menn manna mannum menn j B. Plur. gifa (-e) gifena (-a) gifum gifa (-e) Plur. word worda wordum word ende endum ende endas Sing. Plur. bro^or (brother) broSru broSor breSer broSor broSra broSiuin broSru -^ing. djEg {day) dasges dDege daeg Sing. sunu (son) suna suna sunu Plur. dagas daga dagum dagas Plur. suna suna sunum suna Feminine Nouns. Sing. dted (deea) djede deede deede Plur. dseda (-e) dseda dsedum dseda (-e) C. Neuter Nouns. Sing. Plur. baec (back) bacu baeces baca baece bacum baec bacu Sing. boc (book) bee bee boc Plur. Uc boca bocum bee Sing. cild (child) cildes cilde cild Plur, cildru cildra cildrum cildru WEAK DECLENSIONS.. Sing. Masculine. Plur. Nom. nainu (name) naman Gen. naniau namena Dat, naman namum Ace. na,nan naman Feminine. Sing. tunge (tongue) tungan tungan tungan Plur. tungan tungena tungum tungan Neuter. Sing. Plur. cage (eye) eagan eagan eagena eagan eagum cage eagan 84. FORMS OF THE TIME OF CHAUCER. By this time most of the inflexions had disappeared. Except a few traces of a dative singular in -e, inflexions in nouns had been re- duced to the formation of the plural number and the genitive case. I. The common plural inflexion was -ea* (Chaucer) or -is (Wycliffe), shortened sometimes to -s, for which z is now and then found in words of Romance origin, as instrumentz (Chaacer, Squieres Tale, 270 ed. Skeat), paramentz (Kn. T. 1643), olifatintz (Maundeville). *vLwI'"^^" 'i ^')'' "'"\'" »J"^^?^- "^^ •■'"'^^ ■'' *as sounded as a syllable after mono- syllables (see Prol. 1-14). Words of more than one syllable usually have -/ If -« is written, 11 IS S0lltlCi6C/ clS "J. I! t 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Plurals in -en or -n were rather more common than now, as hteen, Aosen, as/ien, eyen, susttrn, doughterm, lambrcn^ * cS:c. 3. Some old neuter words continued without plural suffix (see \ 83), as hors, lions, thing. 4. The genitive or possessive singular was formed by adding -es (Chaucer), -is, or -ys (Wycliffe), or -s. Feminine nouns occasionally have not -s, but -e, as ' heorte\ blood'' (heart's blood). See note on ^ 76. In the plural the genitive was usually not distinguished from the nomi- native, when the latter ended m -s. Otherwise -es was added, as mennes. Traces of the old ending -ena a---: .>r -times ui^t with. J « 11. ADJECTIVE. 85. When we speak of a thing we often require to mention some quality or. state of the thing, or its number or quantity, or some relation in which it stands to ourselves or to other things. The words that do this are called Adjectives. § In the phrase ' a white horse,' the word white is an adjective. It denotes a certain quality of the horse. In the phrase ' a book lying on the table,' the word lyinp- is an adjective. It denotes a state of the book. " In the phrase 'two men,' the word two is an adjective. It points out the quantity or number of that for which the noun stands. In the phrase ' this child,' the word this is an adjective. It points out that the child statids in a certain relation (of nearness) to me. 86. Definition.— An Adjective is a word used with a noun to describe, to measure or count, or to indicate that for which the noun stands. This may also be expressed by saying that an Adjective is a word used with a noun or pronoun to denote some attribute of quaUty, quantity, or relation which marks that for which the noun or pronoun stands. || • Those with r before -en are usually from A.S. plurals in -ni. + So also mone (—moons) occurs once as a possessive {Sir Thopas 160). The genitive in AS. was mona^i. \Ve still say Monday {Monan dcFg) ^x^A Sunday\sunnanda>g), not Moonsday and Sunsday (Skeat, Int. to Chaucer's Pr. Tale. p. xlix ) \ T .• " ^'/■''^ ^'^'««« <« , 105). " Criste Kingene Kynge " = ' Christ King of Kings.' S l.atm adjectivus^ 'capable of being attached to,' from adjecius, ' added to.' The older and fuller term for this Part of Speech is • Noun Adjective ' (nomen adjectivum). See g 25. 1 he term Adjective differentiates this class of words not from nouns (for it is, strictly speaking, one of the two divisions of nouns), but from Substantives (which may be either nouns or pronouns). j .» v. II Beware of the absurdity of saving that "an adjective d«"notes the qualit" of a noun " VVhen we speak of a red rose, the adjective red does not denote a quality of the name rose, but of the thwgiot which the name stands. The blunder is very obvious, but is committed in most ii.nglish Grammars, ADJECTIVE. ^ An adjective answers the questions (i) 'Of what sort?' nr « t„ u . state ?'(2)' How much ?^ or ' How many 7 (3) ° Which ? ' ' 87. When it is attached directly to the noun to which it refers in adjective is said to be used attributively; as ' a red ball • " i /iw% ' through the air;' ^ which hand will you have^' The J\t^fJ^"'^A noun together form a compound description of\hat whicJwe have"n our thoughts. When an adjective is connected with a noun by means of some part of the verb be (or some oth^r vprh r.f i ."." „ L"'?.''"^ joit/t^:Si;f^3?^X5:S\r tS^-^ i:^ ^? ^^^-r things that may be named by thf same noun. ^"^ ^'■"'" "'^" 88. The class-name « horse' stands for that aggregate of resem blances by virtue of which one horse is like anothin The comnound name whte horse means all that horse means, and '^e//«i bes^e^s It adds something to the meaning of horse. But thrmL mlS group together to distinguish a^lass, the snfaller muTt he dS "e The class denoted by white horse is smaller than the clas denoted bv horse. Hence we may also have the following "enoiea Dy Deflnition.— An Adjective is a word which may limit the application of a noun to that which has the quality, the quantity, or the relation, which the adjective denotes.* To be an adjective, a word must do this by virtue of its own ^rn^,r meamng Certain forms and uses of othe? parts of speech L^dso have a defimt.ve or limiting force. Thus in John's Wk^ th^ possessive case >/i«V has t^his force, but '/i'/' i s ill at«„' in the possessive case, and not an adjective -mii like ' Cae^ariJ ZVZ Latm ' Caesaris uxor ' (Caesar's w4). Clhe posseSve case is so inadrec'l^i: "' ^''^ " -me pronouns it was fo'rmerly declined lik" ^LTn^adiect"ve"'''l/Tf '''' f^^"''''' '''""''' ^^^^' '^' ^^st word is not an adjective. It does not express an attributive idea it merelv suggests one. It has ^limiting but not an attributi, forS! Thettl coZ tZ^'JT""'^ "'"'"'■ Hence those most commonly used h^ve rn^t^teTl^a^-rS^^^^^^^^^^ '^ — ^Mfk?/ '''''^' '^^ ^''^- ^^' ^'''"^''S) member of the compound may be Se placebo? ZZ^Z^T^ ^"""^^"^ ^"^^'" which /Xs^ie AT.*!"'' Wrel^'ciLes • mmetalfrf t '-^^'T °' "^J'^"'^"" ' ^^crates ' names a single cation of the name. ^"*^ '^^'"'^" "^'^ '^'^'^ P"^o»' but does not limit the ap|lU 38 F.NdLISH GRAMMAR. CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 89. Adjectives may be arranged in the following classes :— 1. Qualitative * Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quality. 2. Quantitative t Adjectives, or Adjectives of Quantity. 3. Demonstrative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Relation (Latin demonstro, ' 1 point out '). Respecting' the division of Adjectives into Notional and Relational see § 26. ^ 90. 1. Qualitative Adjectives (or Adjectives of Quality) denote some quality or attribute, as virtuous, white, lar^i\% small, great, little (in the sense of ' small '), sueh. They may also be called Descriptive Adjectives. The verbal adjectives called Participles belong to this class. 91. II. Quantitative Adjectives (or Adjectives of Quantity) denote hovsr much or how many of that for which the noun stands we have in our thoughts. This class includes— a. The Cardinal Numeral Adjectives, one, two, three, &c. (The words hundred, thousand, million, like pair and dozen, are nouns.§ They may be used in the pkiral, as hundreds.) b. The words all, any,|| some, half, many, few, much, more, most, little, less, least, both, several, none, or no (= not any), enough. 92. All, any, some, enough, more, most, none or no, relate to quantity wlicn used with a noun in the singular, and \o number when used with a noun in the plural. Examples. 'All men are mortal.' 'He sleeps all night.' ' I have some pens.' 'Give me some wine.' 'Wait half jvn hour.'' 'Few persons will believe that' ' I have much pleasure in doing this.' 'He has more sense than his neighbour.' ' Most persons admire valour.' ' He had both 'eyes put out.' 'Make no noise.' 'Give none offence.' This use oi none is now obsolete 93. Most of these words may be used as substantives, as 'All is lost'; • Much has been said, but tnore remains to be told ' ; 'He lost less than I did ' ; ' Enough has been said. ' 94. The words all, half, little, less, least, much, more, most, enough, none, no, are also used as adverbs ; as " «// round the world ; " ''half afraid ; " " I am \ * From the Latin qunli'i ' of what sort.' \ From the Latin qiiautn)>i ' how much.' t LafXf. siiial/, g-n-at. describe the magnitude of the thing referred to, but do not tell us Afl7i> much of It we are speaking about. § In A..*? they '■^■^x^ followed by tiie gcnilivc ca^c, asthough we said 'A hundred of sheep,' &c. In such phrases as A hundred sheep,' 'A dozen books,' the noun sheei or books is u apposition to the noun /ttntctred or dozen. II Any and some are discussed under tlie head of 'Pronouns.' in I ADJECTIVE. 39 hilt hHi encouraged l)y that ; " " he is less careful than his brother : " " h" is the /J^/^ is a descriptive adjective. It properly means ' unbroken ' am thence undiminished ' ' A whole holiday ' means = an unbroken holiday ' • 1 he whole distance is ' the tmdivided or undiminished distance.' ' Many is a substantive t in 'A great many men' (the noun that follows It bemg in apposition to it). It is an adjective in ' Manv years have passed.' It may be used with a noun m the singular when the indefinite article t inter- venes, as ' Many a man. ■•■ Fnv (A.S. si»g-§ >/ plural /'rfze/^) is probably always an adjective. 11 Such a phrase as A few books may be treated as on a par with " A twenty bokes " ^t haucer, ProL), where a numerically defined collection is taken as a whole. Few (without the article) denies that there are many ; a fenv denies that there are none. There is a similar distinction between little z.n({ a little. Afore formerly meant greater, as in ' The more part ' (Acts xix 12) even in A.S. mdra meant both 'greater' and ' additional. 'f It has latter sense m such phrases as ' There is some more wine in the bottle ' ' 1 have more money than you ' it measures the 7vhole quantity of money. Little, less', and least, when they denote size, are qualitative or descriptive adjectives, as a Itttle boy,' ' The /mevil of the two,' • Not in the least degree ' 1 hey are quantitative adjectives** in such phrases as ' I have but little money lelt, Less rain fell to-day,' ' He showed the least courage of all.' Both, from the stem bd (A.S. masc. begen, fe rn, ba, neut. ba e^;- bu), and a ■ f C f •Hl^i'^rK "I'"^ ^^ ^''^ ' ^" '^'h ^^'( '■^'' "'^^ ' = ' °" 'f''^ '^''1= the sea ' ; in the Ormulum O Codes halfe = ' on the part of,' or ' by order of God* (Stratmann s v Koch it ^i,T In modern Enghsh ' On behalf of ' .s the result of a confusion. There were two equivalent phrases .n A.S. ' on healfe ' = on side, and ' be healfe ' = by side or beside (^n-°„ iv p c,) K^^dTcTI rr ^^ ' '"'° " '^^^^^ ^^'""^ " ^ '^ ^'^ said 'on by side^dicS; ■vL \?=^^f .'k ^""^ ^'^''- ^°''' * r°""- '"^'"^'' =,' multitude,' and an adjective tnanig = ' many.' .^iSst."ntivl '''^•''"'P"^^ adjective great before mxny shows that the latterfs a geiiuine But this In A/, /^ \ c /■ > (^ "..".-... ..^^ .... U.V.CI c^uis rtrgoh \norace). ine o d line ish word dats' (c/ri« r^Jl?). "^^^ " ^ ^'^ ^^ ^""^ Chaucer, as "daiesfel;"' = "many § Fed was an adjective eciuivalent to the Latin pnucus rr- 'rarely occurrine ' 'met with rice" ^n ' The int f "^ "^? :f ""l"^ K?"""^. .^'^'^^^ "«^ ^"' h'^re anS thf« one of thS raLc of men The singular was indeclinable, and followed by ihe genitive In the Scotch lisTeclinedTn'k's! ^'' ■^"'' '"'"' to have the sense ' a small quantity.' The plural feiwe (lifflA Tl,» Vh ;„.,/;,«/•/// • J !'■ ^'i<»uucr;. rrom lyt was torined the adject ve lytel u! i/tl. The adjective /«///<. ,s used substantively in ' A little wine,' 7.;/«^ being in apposition ^JiJL ^?'^'n ^'■'"" ^ '■°°' /"' yeaning ' to deceive ' {Skeat, s. v.) ifesMctfng /w and /e■■* nof^:Si'wHh ^trce"';f lr;,r'='",?r''ciT'". '",""" '"'" "»"• -" »- thnn one (".\W, holy min " & ,,8^7 '!"" « "r "»"' °f """"^ .-ul,»lanlive y with referenrebolh io nLll '' j V ™°''"." "''"B"* i' '" "sc'' l>ens (or some moneyH rav°t»°" '"'' '" ''"""'''''• "' '"'^' "'<= »''"•'= confusion between • All we ' and ■ s"me !f us/^i'c ^^ ^"^ "'■'"'" '""^ " M^'«i'ih?rXch';faTe sISTf-r ^?«°«™» of Relation, which it bears to oursllvef „?^„ ^ ^ "^ '"<^'cating some re/„tio» class includes :- ""''''"' "' "> ^°™ <"h" Person or thing. This I' It ?1"°1" *i''''' *■" »"<" '•'= Indefinite Article an or a f ■ Jt Adjective Pronouns. (See Table of Pronouns Ti Z T" 3. The Ordtnal Numerals, first, .ocond, thirt, &c ' ^ ' i|«^r:^i^L'^.s-s-r's^-- 'ioIe'eSeS ''1^. '° 'T' substantive notion which is too vague ra^d^T'fn fiture" '.^''or^TertwSse'? L^ !?r°" ' ' V-*' used may be termed J/^^.w'StoLS,' .^A.ftXTSJ'"^ fhufZ-^'A , '3">"'i'»«™ »-!'' demonstrative ad^c.fvt a e "ftS, IS thus, as r/,a, was agreed to ' ; ■ M„ci tf has fceen accomp" shed ■ the beginning represents the ^e oi genSh (Germ™^^ ^* '*7°^- ^'"^ ^' ' °'' -^ a' .ubii™;i. ,hv in whS,tSi..o't/fe'.rS »f,;.t''.™;'^.' 'i5«".y.' 'Th. Tt But 7;/«tV<, when so used m\\i.\ a\\\ K» "' v"c j"""' '^ '= tftcrciorc ^concrete idea ADJECTIVE. 41 con- ^nlurT.n^'f'r''"^' "^ V/:f' ' completely as substantives, and form plurals and possessives. '1 he adjectives which admit of this are- I. National names, such a^ Genua,,, Italian, Koman. We say, "A Romans rights"; "The Germans crossed the Rhine." Name1 2 N^e" '" r "^i'"' <^"f ^'' ^^"■«^^^' ^'-) have no inflexbn ^u'fS.ISr^'cobirt^^^ °' ^ -^' - ^-'^^ - ^"^-'-". 'AS^x;:n'S^Z?Sr' " -'"^^>«-'^ ^>^-^ &-, with the "^.Tf,?""' adjectives denoting persons, and of French or Latin origin J with . ' '"'T^' "ft' T"' ''""'*'''^> '""''"'' '"'''^^^«. reo; (4) feower ; (5)fff ; (6) six; (7) seofon • (S^Tahti ' ?l/."^'??'.^?i tyn or tin; (11) enWon endC' ir end hf ' i) twelf; (13 l^reotyne; (14) feowertyne, &c. ; (20) tUnti/ Ao) ^T^}f'V^^"i hundseofomig ; (80) hindeahta i^jS (90) Sniion- t.^j (100) hundteomi^.rhund; (no) hundendlufonti^/ (T20) hunS- to* ^°^' Trofh^"^/-^' "l'^ -^'^^l*' '"""y ^ «"bstantn-e, meaning ' a lot of ten' bJ h?'...n?;- ^"g^«-Saxon were sometimes substantives followed be nodcfd ^ • ^^' '""°"' ' '^^^<^ ' ^"^ ' ^^^^^<>' ' ^^hould ^on'^e ""fnd UfT.T.lT'^f ?^^+*l^ V«^ W ^^ ^ variety of the word Shnihr^v tw«^ • ^ ''^^"''"^^ ^^'^ 'h^ '"^^ °f dec-em and «e«-«.t SHTiilarly twelf is a compound of twa a nd lif (two + ten). compared with A.S. /i///w« arH oLrm^t^^!^? ''^ so«?ned intoy-or », as we see in /a;" 'f ' ^^- '^"^ g"""ral Vhich liothic ordinal .'a//»W = l"?// L \^.„/^Jf u ^^^ P^ f"*'''^ ''"'"^ '« a remnant of the //„.,v_.^: ^ /'/"'' Aas c.'w/w/;/ ,s oi decentum, a neuter ordinal of rf*c««) "P;"", °- - ° ' ''Vl^'^ed was tathun-tathund, i.e. 'tenth ten ' R^rt^n- i."^^hv^ienX'°^^4"' :°-'"-'°' '.^ ''^"-^"■^^' *^-^ tnihun.tatk,:»^, i.e. 'tenth ten '-V.TAn. (Skeat. ^IWC^/i^^S'andl'^^^^^^^ ^/ "^^"" !? ^-S. for « k^nd;id Tn^nlrtt^ '^r^- w.^ ^'Ira^el^Ue of So 'pVopTs!''""'''""'- ^'^°-'' ' -"^"^ t n and /are frequently interchanged, as in ot-eo and ^Zr. i«Kpu and /«.«>,,«. 4« ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The forms ft)r <>«<•, hot; and Mnv were always tlcclincd, as were those for /ouf, five, six, snien, nine, ten, eleven, and twelve when used without a .suhstantivu following. The cunijiounds of -tij^ were some- times svd)sl.inlives, soinrlinjes atljectives. 'Avef^fn tivain. First is a sii|)erhilivo u( /ore. The A.S. /orrna is also a superlative of /ore, as f>ritnus in I-alin is of pro. Second is the Latin seeumius (following). The old word for second was ' other.' We still say 'every oPienXny,' /. ., 'every second day.' Third was in A.S. ))ridda, where «/ riding (— thridin):;, 'a third part'). The AS. form tio^a 'tenth,' without //, appears in tilhe. The fornjs which ictain the // {seventh, ninth, tenth, &c.) were adopted from the Northern dialect. INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES. 102. Adjectives, in modern Knjjlish, arc not declinable words, with the exception of the words this and ///^ COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 106. Adjectives have three forms called Degrees of Com- parison. These are— 1. The Positive Degree. 2. The Com- parative Degree. 3. The Superlative Degree. • Shakspeare has preserved a solitary specimen of the old genitive plural suffix rf (A.S. •n») in the word alderlie/est (for allerliefest, d being an offgrowth of / before r\ meaninir •dearest of ail' (//. Kins H. f'J-. «• »)■ Compare the German alicrttehst. In Chaucer we find alJerlex'tst, alderfirst\x!. well ^^ you re alter = * of you all.' In olden, en is perhaps a relic of the ancient inflexion. ADJECTIVE. 43 100. 'ilie Positive Degree of an adjective is the adjective in its simple lorm, used to point out some (|ualityor attribute of tluU which we speak about, as ' A black cat,' ' kjine day.' 107. The Comparative Degree of an adjective is that foruj of it by means of which we show that one thing,* or set of things, l)ossesses a certain (|uahly or attribute in a greater degree than another thing, or set of things. 108. The Comparative Degree (Latin coinparativus, from compare, ' I put together ') is formed from tlie I'ositivc by adding to it the syllable -erf before which mule -e is drop[)e{l, and 7 is dealt with in the same way as before the plural suftix -es (§ 49), as ' My knife is sharptr \\xAr\ yours;' 'John's book is pretty, but mine \'i preltier:' 'Your clothes -axq Juier than mine.' One thing may be compared either with one other, or with a \^-oup of several ; and a group ol things may be compared either with another group or with a single thing. Also a thing m.»y be compared with itself under other cir- cumstances^ as * John is stouter than he was la5t year.' — 109. It must not be imagined that the comparative degree always expresses the existence of more of a certain ciuulily in an ol)Ject than the positive degree does. If we say, "William is a ek^er boy," and "John is cleverer than Thomas," we are not to infer that cleverer m the second case implies more cleverness in John than clever implies in the case ol William. The fact may be that William is cleverer than John. 110. Some .idjectives in the compar.itive degree are now used merely to mark . relations in space or time, x\.^ former, Jatter^ eltlcr, upper, inner, &c. HI. The Superlative % Degree of an adjective is that form of it which shows that a certain thing, or group of things, possesses the attribute denoted by the adjective in a greater degree than any other among sci'eral, of which it is one. 4 It is formed by adding st or est § to the adjective in the positive degree ; as, greatest, largest. ' IMius, of several boys in a group, we may say, * John is the tallest: 112. If we say " John is taller than all the other boys in the class," we express the same relation as to height between John and the rest as if • The word thing means generally whatever we can think about, i.r , make a distinct object of thought, including pt-rsons, as well as what we commonly denominate things. t in Anglo-Saxon the suffix was -er or -or, in declension dropping the vowel, and inrtected according to the weak declension. The letter r is the softened form of a sibilant. In C.othic the sutfix is -/'za. With this we may compare the Latin comparative suffix -«V>* (Key Lnt. Gr. { 241), the j of which is softened to r in declension. It is an ancient Aryan suffix. (Sansc, iyns.) Another Aryan comparative suffix, tar or ter, which we get iu the Orcek -t«j)uv, appe.Vrs also in the Latm -ter and the English -ther, to indicate that one thing is viewed in Us relation to some other, as «//«'r ' one of two'; uttr 'which of two'; ut'iiter ; other, either, neither, whether. t Superlative (Lat. snperlativus. from superlattts) means Miftrng up above. Ihe super- lative degree Itt'ts the thing that it is applied to above ail ihc rest ol the group. \ In AnRlo-Saxon the termination was -tst or -ost. In early English writers we still find coinparaiives in -or and superlatives in -est, and sometimes in -uit and -yst. ]f ii ^^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. we say, -John is ^Ae tallest boy in the class " R„. • iu c John IS considered apart fro»I xhe of h^r i r"^ *" ^''^^ '^^""^^ case, two objects which we have in mind a' //^' / ^" ''^'''' ■'*" '^'-^^ ''^^ 113. Many adjectives f'-om fh#> express, cannot have comparative an^H^"^ f -^^ J"^^^" ^^^^^ they adjectives, and all the demonstmdve .H I . ^ ""i ^^^ l^'-^ntitaJive ever, adjectives are used in a ense wS^'V^f^- Sometimes, how- "leaning, and then they admit of ^^^^1 of rn '^^'' °^ '^^'' ^t"^* not otherwise be tolerable. For exfmrW^ comparison which would when we say, " This soecim^n ,c ^"^'^"^Pj^' extreme, perfect, chief. As in the exlJnesl m^Ly^" - The .W f ^^''' ^^"" '^^' " " He died 114. The superlative de^r'ee is s f ^ ^""^"^ '^" thousand." thing ^Men^n^SVom S^Xe " ?" ?'^t^^ ^'^"-' ^^en the as possessing a certain qua h^in a verv hi.'h^"'^'' ''"''^' ^""^ ''' "-^Sarded Melancholy ' (A/ilton) A/Z k n ^ ^^ ''''S:ree, as ' Hail, Iwim'st to express thi^ sense * Sptn ser eve'n -"'^ '^ ^''^'"'^ '" the positTve as 'Help thy «..«,.. (= /"fLr^" s'^^r;?:;:^^ 115 [ M IRREGULAR COMPARISON •lenved from totally different roots ' ^'"^ '" '°"^ "^'''ses are Positive. n Good b^t^^^'^'"^' /«A^/«//... ^^^ Wors<-f ''^^t Little J J^^f^^ worst Much^ more '^^^^ most IS as .-< superlative. I es^p^'(~" "% '"""ea either /Ipw^ or l^esra -irr^'".C"' ''"•'"' "^""^ ''' '"»' /m which wou d be fnr^ V/'"'*' *=■■> '"''y be the modern form '^> ') '^""'P-'^'-ativa, and /,...«^ light, and how the le^s'^rSh^T'";^"' T^""^ ' ^-naUer,' "as i ' -'how rr""' '^^^' ''''"?'■ "s § ^'W. is the ,noder„ fSm oFthfT^'^- -^5^ '^ '"--^d dlrect^yTom th^eToo^I.^^'^*^^'' and inagHHs. More (A "^ ..V- ■'^■^- '""^'''^ great,' which hi rnl ' '''■^• .'.tnnb.r .1/„J.'„;, , ''°"^ ''i'^ comparative suffix, i^ fn,,nd ;,, ol f P '""^7^'^),'iave lost the .o-. former case, , so that the •" I'oys in the ered as one usual and s the longer hich they as, right, lantitative les, how- leir strict ich would hief. As ' He died when the i regarded 1, divinest 2 positive bsolutely, by what ises are )0t bat = f, and the he phrase t lie good. ^ •er beiiie I " Bet is d). )8, not,-). m. 4898), ' worst ' ni a njot id ttisest ier than 'esser as e bigger 'as. : the if. ■ring Vo ft,' and ly. Positive, Many Late Night ar/7/.] ^Fore advA Old [Forth adv.l Far f: ADJECTIVE. Comparative. [more] later* t?/- latter nigher former older or elder 9 further (| farther If 45 Superlative, [most] latest or last -a nighest or next first X or foremost oldest or eldest furthest farthest If :^(;o.^pa^^:;5S'.:i:nr::!^,r ^^l^^r^-^ :../or-..an.. ^«//./«., &c.) There are a fcnv sifpe^Ss ?n Enldkh " "r""''" """^^^-''"'-^^ most, m„wst, foremost, utmost, or /Sw^ir*" M? nu'^'"^ '" "''"'^ ' ^""^• adverbs. They are not compoundrnf fvi. .A f '''^''"^'^ "^ ^"'^'^'^ '>">" latives,tt form^ed by the ^^^T^^t ^IJt^^^lZ^^k ^ '^"'^^^ ^"^^^'- tw"'ylllS:?dTnot X: oJrheTormSS' ^"' "^°^-^ ^^^-^-^ ^^ ative degrees by means of suffixes R.th "P^!?'"^^ ^"^ ^"P^-- by prefixing the adverbs mo^^nluioffi .) ^T^ '-^^'"^ ""'^ ^^"«ted degree. Thus we siv F/t/t . *^ ^^'^. ^^Jective in the positive which do admit of suffixes of rn.^n • ^^^ dissyllabic adjectives (/wrry, .«^rm'r merT^ // ''T^?^'''so» are those ending in -y a conin-fction"of K. "'■•^'- '"^ '''"'^ ' '«''- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ;-^ Sha^speare uses _ as a co-np^^J^; '^t:^?-^;^^:?^^^^; fo/JrA.^^ wYj^Si^ ' Ch::r l'ptk/5' '. rr '-•^-?«) -^ /ore. Another superlative -^^Fro. this was .nade the ^^^ ^^^^^Z^/^t^-^^^ \ ^- 'W'l?*- and /; '«.n. ToM^ost and .«rf,«.,, are formed by a fie analog" fmm nou^I'"'"^"-''''^'*^''-'^-- 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^; n ii ^nos^^ monosynabic ^^^^y^^t^f^n^^ -^^i oVToX^irn;t:^h^„tltr/ 7^T l>ecal,ed degrees futuretenseof theveVb"?o' Thf '-""f /"' '^''" ^o ' is called the comn^on in the olde^writ^rs^s « w^rr' '"" ""^ «"Pe'Iatives are unkindestcntofall V^^^Sr 'th. '. . '""'"^ '"■''''^'■' '^^e most no c««,> . \^"(^'^^P) , the most straitest sect ' *r ARTICLE. ThL are two Arfc r 7lnd?C rA'^^"^"°^^^^^ « 97>' Deflnite Article the iMeAnite Article an or a, and the onMiIll"1f tii4tLt » '^ ^""'"-.fo"" of the numeral or o(any one ofCMnTtjwTT''^'''^ t\lhtr oi some m,, saw an old man ' ^A ff ^ ■I-.'i ^^^ ""^ *^ ^ "^"'e. as, ' I 122 Th. T ' ' •' ""^^ "'"''^ '''""•'^ ol^ey its parents.- ^"X''7 ~' - - ^^T"^ of Alexandria sepa^'rated^'t'li^e as a nu Jri"^'^S Si sT' Th^eVrret^jfor/J^.^T ^^^T^^^^^^ ^^ -->' -" ^^en used /J'« was sometimes emn'ov^H ;„ a., i c ' ;^' of one size. •,f^^^ .VJ" P^'sherd.' ^,.//: Ar^,«.). i^, regular use in tit P^"* ^'^'^ '^o^ruption off his diL!prKrttea'v-;u^»i £jnfe'T„i,,e »,. „„„ „„,„,, , ,s^' ■fH feasant est : more and led degrees ' called the 'arison is of latives are 'the most lenote the ch; they ' (§ 97)- and the numeral 'iome one, h as, ' I snts.' a vowel g with a f is put ^, a use- it is not ndefinite _( = in).§ employed in Bacon, nd est are i. to denote language, Definite pronouns, irated the 'hen used ^^., " Job 3n off his lished till )f border d with a I?. It is ruledj a ADJECTIVE. Thus * Twice a week ' was ' tuwa on wucan Koch. ii. p. 85 ; Morris, Hist. Outl.) 47 {Luke xviii. 12. See 124. The Definite Article the is used to designate among all the things denoted by a noun that one, or those, that we are speaking of. 125. The definite article tke is a weakened form of the neuter of the old demonstrative se, sed, that, which in Anglo-Saxon, besides its ordinary force, had the weaker force of the article.* 126. (A) The is used to mark out in a class the particular thing or things that we are speaking of. It does this (i) by directing attention to some previous mention of the thing, as "He was armed with a rapier and a dagger ; ike rapier he held in his right hand, and the dagger in his left " ; (2) by pointing to a proper (or individual) name by which a common or general name is particularized, as " The Emperor Augustus " ; (3) by directirig attention to some attributive adjunct by which the individual is distinguished. Thus when we say 'the black horse,' the points attention to the adjective black. When we say 'the Queen of England,' the points to the adjunct 'of England ; ' (4) The also indicates that particular thing with which we have some obvious connection or concern, or which has some obvious claim to precedence in our thoughts, as when we say the sun, the moon, the Queen, the City, the street, the Church, &.c. The definite article does for objects in the sphere of conception what the demon- strative that does for visible objects within our view. (B) The word the is used to show that one individual is taken as the representative of its class, as when we talk of the lion, the eagle, or to show that we are speaking of the whole of the class to which the name belongs, as when we speak of the stars, the English, the good, the Alps, or before an abstract noun used in the concrete sense, to show that the noun is taken in its whole significance, as 'the nobiHty,' 'the aristocracy. ' There is a corresponding use of the when it occurs before an adjective, when the two together form a universal concrete name, as * the sublime,' 'the ridiculous.' Respecting the word the (the old instrumental case of that) in such phrases as " the sooner the better " {=' by hmv much the sooner, by so mttch the better '), see under the head of Pronominal Adverbs. The nei'ter that was early employed in the Northern dialect as a demonstrative for all genders and was ere long supplanted (when used as an article) by the uninflected form the Later this torm was adopted in .he Southern dialect, which retained the inflected demonstra- ir '"'J'T^!' '""/•'" '^•''".t'le Northern. In 'Cursor Mundt' and Hampole we find /-A^ ft'^LliJ^f }'r -""'V?, '•" """^^fr" J^"gl"•^. ^J^'le the contemporary Southern dialect had SclYtanT ^tiT""^ °'' (Murray, Dial, of S. Counties of In early writers of the Northern dialect are found the curious forms the tone and the totlter Ihese were no doubt nothing more than that one and that other divided wronely Similarly amtHef--Nm duided a-naiher, and fioiher became an Independsnt word (Murn-Tyi /. c p 176) li i :• ( 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PRONOUN. himself, or the personTo or nfK ''-^^^'^ '"'^^^^ ^^ "'-^"^ing rich ' ; '« You said so ' 'He ^T' ^''^ '' 'P'"'^^"^' ^^^^^ ' ^ ^^ Demonstrative Pronouns elble us to '^^'^Vr^ ^''' "° f^"' noun that has alreadrbeen used as « John'h '^' ''P^^^'"" ^^ ^ very tired,' instead o? 'JohnTvery tirtd ' "' ''"'' '°"^^' ^^ ^^ exp?eUd%t":Vo[i:>wf^; °' ''^^"^""^ ^-^^' h-ever, be better thi?g''^y1t";7e!^^^^^^^ "^^^^ ^«-«--te persons or 6 y relation to other persons or things. (See § 26 ) -^^-^.^^^:^;.J^S^^ by-ans of their something by its relafion ofli'earnesslo or'disStl^""^ '"^^^ designate designates a thing by its ^^//..«S V^a^tio^t^s" ^^^^ CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS 129. Pronouns are divided into two cla«P.: «aiiKo*„ *• ^ nouns and Adjective Pronouns. ' ®''^«**^*^"^ ^ Pro- 130. ' TABLE OF THE PEONOUNS. I. Personal Substantive. { I, thou, we, TT i-k . ^ you or ye in KeZre'""*''^ tit"- "■ '"'^ IV. Interrogative ) and Relative 1 ^''^°' ^hat one, aught, naught Adjective, this, that; these, those which, what, whether any, other, some (each, every, either, \ neitlier nnine and my, thine I and thy, his, her / and hers, its, our Iand ours, your and yours, their and ■ theirs IS only one of the purposes served ev^?bvd«mnnS^' Pronou.,s). Avoidance of^epetidon 0/ the Personal Pronouns. ^^ '*'''"''"'""*'^« Pi-onouns, and .•> «^z,^,.«y«,J;-^" Words like horse, red, &c., are limited in ,h.w -^rnlir,-;- i, ^ • d"i'Vo'' ""eiaiioii to something else, be SDoJcen of K '""/ ^^^ ^^^''^ '* nothing that may Part of Speech in Sanskrit signified ' Na^for everything' °^* ^'■°"°""' ^'^^ "^'"« «f '^is V. Indefinite VI. Distributive VII. Possessive IS a word of naming lys, * I am \ no fall' ition of a 3me, he is be better persons or See § 26.) IS of their designate '• Either thing. ivG Pro- ve. ese, those whether ome , either, ly, thine his, her its, our ^our and ^i^• and > including I definition great deal repetition ^/unction that may me of this PRONOUN. 4^ Substantive. Adjective. TTTTT -r, ^ .. ( ^*^" ^^^ selves in ir y i • , • VHI. Keflective | myself, ourselves ^^^ selves m him- I &c. ' ' s^^^j themselves, &c. The Nominative Case / is always written with a Capital letter. I.— PEBSONAI FBONOUNS. 131. The Personal Pronoun of the First Person is the pronoun which is used when a person speaks of himself singly, or ot himself in conjunction with one or more others, without using any names. It is made up of the following forms :— ,r . ,. ^ Singular. Plural. ,■ Nominative Case I Wg III {Possessive Casel [Mine t?r My] fOurl Objective Case Me Us 132. The Personal Pronoun of the Second Person is the pronoun which is used when we speak of the person or persons spoken to. It is declinable, and has the following forms :— ., . ,. ^ Singular. Plural. Nominative Case ... Thou Ye or You [Possessive Case] ... [Thine ^r Thy] [Your] Objective Case Thee You or Ye 133. Ye was once exclusively nominative, and you objective {ye from A.S gi you from eow), but even the best writers sometimes used ye as the objective, and no^ you is indifferently nominative and objective. ^^*' •^" -^"glo-Saxon only the singular forms of this pronoun were used in addressing a single person. In ordinary usage the singular is now restricted to solemn addresses, as in prayer to the Deity and in poetry. In Shakspeare s time the singular was also used as the pronoun of affection towards children t or friends, of good-natured superiority to servants, and of contempt or anger to strangers, i (Abbott, Sh. Gr p. 153.) At a very early period the plural came to be used in speaking to a single person. It was at first employed as a mark of special respect (as when a subject speaks to a king, or a son to his father), as though the person addressed were as good as two or more ordinary people § You and your are now the ordinary pronouns of address, whether we are speaking to one person, or to more than one. 135. The Personal Pronouns have, properly speaking, no Possessive Lase, that IS to say, no Possessive Case with the force of a substantive. in Anglo-Saxon, when the geni tives of these pronouns were used in • As ' His wrath, which one day will destroy ye both' iMiltoftS 'The more shamp. fnr obiecSe'""fn S ''°"^^' '' ' (-^^-^^Z--)- \- '^i English^ Bible j; is nomSve and^S f rl CK I ^P"l?^r J""*, as a normative, is emphatic, ye is unemphatic. T fnanakspears fathers address their sons with //mu- snne th^ir fath-rc --'K ,,-,,. / -^z.^^v don't ,h ^^"""Ji?"''^ him some thrice, it shall not be amiss' (Twe'm ^. iVi: 2P'' PHthee S 1 he US2 of the first person piural by royal personages has a similar origin. £ 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Icc^frSf ' T.?h '^'^ ^"'^ ''^S^'"^."^ ''^^ adjectives and inflected accordmgiy. As the possessive sense is the only one in which we have and ?lv ire fhn°J?'' ^»^^y/hould now be regarded as adjectives My and t/iy are short forms of mine and thine. -^ ^^'Z'2 ?''.•?• '^' ?'^'""y ''"^^' ^h« P'"r^l «f ^/ it does not imply a Sl^oTS;?:^^'''-^^^'^^- ^"'^-^' ^^^ -^- --^ed in /do/s Lt 136. The pronouns of the first and second persons do not mark distinctions of gender, because when a person speaks of himself or Jo and ?he'E\nf '"'' being evident/does no? need to be marked' and the plural forms may include persons of different sexes. 137. ANGLO-SAXON FORMS. First Person. J Nam Gen. Dat. Ace. Sing. ic mfn m^ (mec) Dual. wit uncer line unc (uncit) Plural. we lire (user) us lis (lisic) Sing, Norn. J)u Gen. J)in Dat. ])e Ace. \i (f)ec) Second Person. Dual. git incer inc inc (incit) Plural. ge eower eow e6w(e6wic) First Person. Singular. Norn. Ich, Ik, I Gen. min (myn) mi (my) Obj. me . Plural. we our, oure us FORMS OF THE TIME OF CHAUCER. Second Person. Singular. Plural. thou, thow ye thin (thyn), thi (thy) your, youre the, thee yow ^fwht'Llnf^A"! F"^*!!'"^^] ^^[or^ged to the Nortliern dialect, Ich (with the soft .v4) to the Southen. dialect. In early English it was S™?wa" '^' "''•' following I as .vi^. I ♦ I have ' ; DEMONSTEATIVE PRONOUNS. A.-THE PERSONAL PRONOUN OF THE THIRD PERSON. 138. What is commonly called the Personal Pronoun of the o™'d'JA"^nrr°,".'''*'* 8«n">ves, when used as substantives, were governed by verbs &c ThrsJbstamivru fof 'r/«''and f/? h"h''" T^ ' " &^- ThI fot"^^T'"ot^ onTriare'tPrfif ^ ''^^ '"1^^''°" ^'^ -«» ^''<^ German «>. dropped in the 4Lsste°"'^ in 'ft tffj'^ '°^'" ' ''^'^ "^"'" ^"'^'^ ' «»>-''d ''-ve been no! unfom'rntTaHV Eng1s'{:"a"s ''GVt'SrL^^^^^^^ ""V^^ ''x ^" ""'"«-'«^ P— -e Plnrn" (Shaksp. A-. /if iT See note on § 76^ ^'"' '^''''' *"'' " «^"^*'" ^'" ^'^« '' » junctTou' joined KthS"" "'^ ''^^ '"^^^ Subjunctive Mood hath commonly some con- ;;^M^S ?t^S ^^;;bs^!;i;ij??s'rr^;v^!^'^i^ ^.r^^^- still a provzncia miom. It is even used as ^ plural (/C„cA i '^6^) ' * ' ■''^- " '^ ^^t^r ^'af^r'""' '^^^"^^'' ^PP*=" '-'^' - - the^'o^Sm (A-.... i. p. ,73, ii. p. .34. 52 FNOT.ISH GRAMMAR, possessivcs had hcconic pronominal adjectives. Traces of their sub- stantive force still exist in their use as antecedents to relatives ; as, •• whose hatred is covered hy deceit, hh wickedness shall he showed before the whole congrcfjation." " Thar sorrows shall be multiplied that hasten after another (led." They may now, however, be classed with the other jiossessives. 143. Norn. Gen. Dat. Ace. Afnsc. u his him hinc ANGLO-SAXON FORMS Sint^ular. ; Fern. heo hire hire h( (hig) Nent. hit . his him hit Plural. hi (hig) hi'ra (heora) him (hcom) hi (hig) FORMS OF THE TIME OF CHAUCER. Nam Gen. Obj. Masc. he his him Singular. Fern. Nfut. she, sche hit, it hire, hir his hire, hir, here hit, it Plural. Of all Gfn,le>,. thei, they here (her, hire) hem B.-POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. > 144. Besides the simple possessives her, our, your, their, we use the secondary or double possessive forms, //<'n, ours, yours, theirs.* These are only used when the noun to which they relate is not expressed, as, " My pen is a bad one, give me yours.'' In modern l^nglish prose mine and thine follow the same rule. In poetry mine and thine are often used for my and thy before a vowel or mute //. In the iihrases/Rome,' 'A brute of a Icl.ow. in a book of yours, wc have a triple expression of the possessive idea, in of r. ana s. «- > / > 1 of ihcir sul)- datives ; as, 11 l)e showod e multiplied r, be classed !ora) .. ;<)in) 'tniL lenih'i .. . hire) vr, we use r.v, theirs * ate is not In modern oetry mine Kite //. ammarianst I. THAT. e) may be to pasons itives (to rophc in these >r not putting he others, are ks" (Latham, J ' this sweet janiy. Koch il in sense, so s that the of A brute of a idea, in c/, r, PRONOUN. tfj point to things themselves). In this case This points to what is ' near me,' That points to what is ' at a distance from me ' as ' This book,' ' Tliat chair.' This and That may nlso be used as logical demonstratives (to refer to some description or n.une), as 'The general was in conimand of a large force. This force consisted of infantry and artillery. I hey often refer to whole sentences or to the [general idea . nnvcycd by a precedmg phrase, as, " I know that he is innocent, and this IS my chief consolation"; "Lend me a shilling, thafs a good Idlow. Here that = 'a person who will lend a shilling.' When two things which have been already mentioned are referred to, th/s refers to what has been mentioned last, that refers to what was mentioned before it ; as " Virtue and vice offer themselves for your choice • this leads to misery, that to happiness." 147 The adverbs there and here, combined with another adverb form compounds which are often substituted (or that and this preceded by prepositions ; thus therein — in that; hereby = by this, 148. . Nom. Gen. Dai. Ace. Instr. . Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Instr. ANGLO-SAXON FORMS. Sin^ilar. Fern. iJeos l^isse, I^issere l>isse, |)issere |)as Neut. pis I>ises )>isum |)is |)ys Plural. M. F. ^ N. l»as ]>issa, Jjissera )>isuin J>as Plural. M. F. ^ N. M J>ara (Jijera) fani (jjaein) >4 Masc l)es |>ises ))isum ))isne |>ys Singular. Masc. Fern. Neut. se (be) SCO (|)e6) ])£et l>a-"s |)£gre Jjaes l)ani (|)c6in) \xxq \km (J>a'm) J>one (])a;ne) |>a faet \y, ]'e >j? >^ 149. It will be seen from the above table that this and that are neuier ((.rms, whieh have come to be used for all genders.* This simplification was hrst uitroduced in the Morthern dialect. When l^acame to be used as the plural o{ he, she, it, two forms of it were adopted, that, thei, or tliey for the Personal Pronoun, tho or tha for the demonstrative adjective. Thei and tho are thus used in Chaucer, &c Apparently from confusion with the plural of this, the Northern and Midland dialects adopted a form thas or those for the plural of that, as well as tha or tio, and then thts received a new plural thir (a Scandinavian form), thise, or these. Ultimately thas {those) was discarded from the Northern dialect, and tha ox tho from the Midland dialect ; but the latter retained thas [those), which passed into modern English. In vulgar and provincial English they and them are still used as plural forms of that. The instrumental case py appears in the form the in «' the sooner the better,' &c. " L'^-fimSfb"'l''-^' '^5,f"^ M«/ were formerly used with reference to either number, as \\^ sindon pa Uon.as \,thts are the decrees) ; '• pat were Brut and hys » {Rob. Gt.). , 54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. If li ill D.-THE DEMONSTRATIVES SO, SUCH, mND YON. 150. So (A.S. sx'a) still exists as a pronoun * (not a(hferb) ; as in " I ilrank a pint or w (i e. or about that quantity) of beer " ; « I told you so ^ = t/iat) ' ; " Is that man your friend ? He is so " Such {A.^. swilr or swyk) is a compound oi swy or swL the instru- menta cas. o{ swa'so) and //r {like). It appears in early English in a great variety of forms, sivulc, swulch, suich, swuch, switch, swidi. con'siS"vulgar.?' '' '""''^^ ' ^^' ^°"^ '''^' (answering to ^./u■cA) is SurA is commonly the equivalent of the Latin ta/is (' of that sort ') • hut It sometimes drops its reference to >/ua//(y, and is a mere demonstrati've, I 'idIrt?:P^'*T l!?^^^• ^''''''^ {^-be-yond) is now a demonstrative adjective. It has the same root as the German ye'^-tr. EELATIVE PBONOUNS. 151. A Relative § Pronoun is a word which refers to some noun or pronoun already used to denote the person or thin.^ spoken about, and called the antecedent of tlie relative, and which joins the clause in which it stands to that which precedes it Thus in the sentence ' He is reading about the battle that was foughJ at Hastings, that refers to the noun battle, which is called the fought at Hasings' to the word 'battle' in the precedinir clause. In This is the man whose house we saw,' udiose refers to man, ard tnan is the antecedent to whose. adverbial ioxz^ in srwa or so\n7wa-hZ'fZ ^'XhoT tT'if =^,P'-°"°""- /^'here is nu (= whoso), made with the pronoun sun (^rt ^ tpier]pfl»,^^^^ '^"'* ^hasn,n,„ " by so = provided that) ye hadde my silver " uJJZfrl^fZ ^^^'l ''"'I''' ^^^ P'^''"^^ pronoun fnold-fashion^i German JwasTsed a^a rel^ti^x p onoun"'"'' ""' ' demonstrative poLl°d':>7r(e;^^:„^iJe.'yi,^rTh^^ made with / or y, the instrumental form of the rl*^ ^"' ^{^^ or »/-*.(stih used in Scotch), compounded of pj and //" S^ or X/fe f - mI?^ tu' ' ^'" ^'\.S<>,' ^."-^ ^^'^* °r ''''>''' is usied by Chaucer {ProlrB^) ^~ ^^'"^^ '" '"" "* "^"^ »" Wiltshire, &c. T/tiike geLd?ed^ne'ssr4/rn: gtv^LTdJ^'^^ •fu'h'tHLulad'^'"""^^ <.= I'^^^)' ^ " ^wylce (Mark xiii. 19). gewuraon, _ buch tribulations suck (= w/4/cA or as) were not " § Relative is a bad nam*., because it is insufficient N^ th, it *l ^ \ antecedent substantive, and therefore have ^n in 'oil ' 5 '• u' ''*'*? '^'^^ '''^'^'^ '<> an /V.«.««,. /,, ,>,,, &'.. wereTntct caC .^l.M?'iL.!?°i^L?'^L'«' b«. ""^d Relative {Frisctan xii. PRONOUN. 55 YON. ) ; as in " I I told you the instru- English in V//, swicli. > which) is sort ') ; but )nstrative,]: uch sum 01 onstrative 1 to some or thing nd which :. Thus, IS fought ?.lled the tliat was 'receding ose refers always have There is iiu I wkasttmiii s the phrase monstrative nouns coni- in Scotch), 'Ik or thyL-, :c. Thiike IS " Swylce ) were not ' 7 late to an d Relative ammarians 'ronouns is, Hon. The e a revival 162. The Relative Pronouns in English are the following :— iJ- (1.) THE RELATIVE PRONOUN THAT. thJAnli'%^^^ '''t'^ °^ °"''- '■"^'^^''^'^ pronouns.' It is the neuter of the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative se, seo, ihcet, used now for all genders Ah relative pronouns were once demonstrative or interrogative In old . .nghsh the relative or connective force was given to the demon- oanicie ^IT?Z^ ^ '^y^r^^'"^ the demonstrative w^ord. an indechnatJe particle J>e {the\ which was, in fact, only a weakened forn- .e could even give a co"L^f\^,^ -.- -.i-.:..! r _ - '«* tne^D"ae, &c. as " Fa;der I'lre |»u pe eart on heofenum," Ic eom Gabriel, ic pe stande beforan Compare der ich, der dn, &c , in German. well-known vulgar use o{7vAic/t :-' Let h^r take ffollvn^^.TT !^/l It answers to a sctrrsr A"i"'"«' ^'""'■- '■ '' "^ '■>-'» Sp'oi: S .zt' 2?i. a 56 ENOMSH GRAMMAR. II « ' 1 ! !i 1^ ' limits the noun to which it refers, and is therefore improper when thnt nmin Hoes not admit of further limitati.m. Ihucc we cannot say Ilmn.as /A.U (IjcmI yesterday.' or 'My father M,// is in America/ u ^'f'\ f'j;-""-''- y used like what, with its antecedent undersKH,.!.* as //la/ thou doest, do quickly" (/oAm xiii. 27). (a.)-THE INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS WHO, WHAT, WHICH, WHETHER. J^^: I^''^ ^/:""°"" w,^°' "eutcr what (A.S. /nva,f neuter //w^-/) was in Angl()-S;ixon an Interrogative Pronoun. Modern Formi. ATom. VVhoJ /'<7JJ. Whose %. Whom An^lo-Saxon Forms. A/asc. Fern. Neut, Notn. Gen. Dat. Ace. Inst. hwa hwa's hwam (hwiem) hwone (hwu;ne) hwoet hw.nes hwam (hw£<5in) hwa't hwi (hwy) 154. What has the neuter suffix /. It is the neuter of who. It is now inclechnab e, and is used not only as a substantive, but also as an ad)ective.§ When used as a substantive it is neuter. ,.}^^\^^'^^^ ^^•^; ^'^y^'^ "'■ ^^'^^^<^\ is a compound of Invi or Jnvv (the old instrumental case of hwa), and lie {like). In Scotch it is still qu/ulk. It was equivalent to the Latin qualis, « of what sort? 'II It IS properly an adjective, as " Which dress do you prefer ? " but is also used substantively, as - Here are port and sherry, which will you ^^7^.- J i' r f' -'^sks for one out of a definite number ;1I who and what ask mdennitely. relative si !//,/' ^T,^"""'^ ^« ""K^t regard that as the antecedent of a suppressed relative f,^^^ Adjective Clauses m the Syntax . This is actually the constructiun nf Gebyrgde faes on J>*m beume gewe,5x," 'Tasted 0/ that [whchlfircw^ the tree ' (Laedmon, 0.« 483 . Kut .t is the antecedent which is omitted in ''ffonne Abi st i' t «Is «e C-«m K") '"° '''' "'"" ''"''"' °"' ^'^""'^ ''^'"" '"^"'^ ^'^ should be silent "(kif. rr««I®) pJ.nSce'te Jbefcrelhet i^ ^^ '"" '"'' '''' " ^^' ^"""^1 '" ^.S. We still wh^eX'clat^'r.ro:e'ihS;e'^ '"'"" '° '" ^^"" '^' ^'"■' "^'^- -gular>.,;.. even § Like the neuters M^. and M«/ it was t.sed predicatively in Anglo-Saxon as a substantive .eci^ ?«'"■.' f .."''^' i^yiJ'i"" e« V (,vhat are ye ?). It was often without regard to gender ^, , ^, „„^, „„ -, 'hwa;t weorces?" ^'"'"^ <.'XtP r^" ^'«^"-- -«--« t^'rdroiS'^^^eptXn Hc^ed possession, L .. 1 ■ — "•■■"•."..., 5.1,^ iiac: lu ail apuareniiy aaiectival use q\ luhat wh w-h »v-i< subsequently admitted before masculine and femuAne as well as befo eLuter no u'ns AF^? 'W,nfCn^''"?K'' wuh an mtensiye force in exclamations, as '' Wh at a foo he was '" th^gft wa^- (cta^cYrTc/?-. i)"^''^^ ""'''' -^ -"'-'>' "-'^. ^ " O- whicha^itous sL th|rrn t:::^ ^'il.^^;^L^h^L:LT^^^^^^^^ -^-'^ ^-^ ^-- -'-^- -'> '^-^- •( Ihis restriction is, however, purely arbitrary. PRONOUN. 57 «f!?®' ^^®.*/^®'i^^-5- '''^^^''^^'•) 's derived from who ihwa) by means of the sullix t/wr* and means ' which of tlic two ? ' WHO, WHAT, and WHICH as RELATIVES. 157. From beinj? simply Interro^irativcs the above Pronouns Hike qtns and ru') acquired the force of Indejinie Pronouns t menn n J . .;^ (or any) one or //./;;.,. especially after if (r//) We frh-nvV s sT'Vr^arri?l''''' " As ^^. should sayVt/^ as .«! some one Iv'hat Ice Thi ""*" "r^ ''^""^^ '•">'/' '"^"^ '" '^^ compounds .w;,.- :Sific;:;ofu!^-^^-^^^^^^ ^fxxU?a;ro?::;r "°" '"'•"'' »-^-— yi>e..ided to o^Zt a^ppen'drcf.§' ''^''''^' '"^ ''^'"' "^''^ "^^^ '-^^ '•^^''^^'^^^ -'^hout .. ^Whr/7f'L?"'^ *" ^^'''""''•, ^*' ^"tecedent is sometimes omitted, as Who steals my purse, steals trash." on^oVronT'*'''"/"^ 'u^ "^"*^'' "^^^'''' •'^"^' '-^5 '-^ substantive, refers ad ectrvet Tfu?^""* !*^^^ 'l"^"*7 ^"^ singular. It is als^ used aajectively as 'I gave hmi what help I could:" "What time I im S' s"s iir' " ''"r-" 7^^ p°^^ '^^'- ^-^ «^ 't («.w rLl'o - The nlc '" f ^' *''?"?'' '■^'■^^y employed except in poetry : as When 7^//<7 ^ isused as a relative in modern English, the antecedent is from'ffel^gn^^r'r^it;"'' -«'-. f-- ^«") is precisely analogous to -rvl^ither, as is ,6r.po. Wrl^, ^c ""'"^^^^''/^rr, /*.<,,^,«,z,^r, &c, sometimes turned into ivhatsomel nfvid did ■ f7«£ vf'o'r rr"' •"* restive in A.S., as " p^t hwst David dyde " = ' that what hr, ominat ive ;r/;A ,^'' ^''""r'^- '''"'^ ''•\"^^ °''^*'^"' ^^^« ''^'^ ^^ '"elatives earlier Than (//qP SerM."/r5tfcj'^^^^^^^ '" '''^ "ominative is first f.,nnd in the Ormulum II in Wycliffe we find " The fyge tree'w,^,;, thou cursedist " {Mark xi. 21). I 18 ill 58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. suppressed.* In poetry it is sometimes followed by that, as " Wlnt he hath won, that hath he fortified " {King J. iii 4). 159. Instead of what, the ordinary relative relating to animals ( r things is which. (§ 155.) 160. It is, however, .juite a mistake to call 'which ' the neuter of ' 7vho ' It was formerly used like ' who,' as " Our Father which art in heaven." In Chaucer it is followed by that (* which that,' or ' the which that '), and long after was preceded by the, as in the English Bible and Shakspeare. (Compare the French Ic quel.) 161. The proper correlative of which is such {\ 150), as " Such which must go before " {Bacon). Such — luhich — talis — qualis. 162. Which preceded by a preposition is often replaced by where, as wherein — in which ; whereto — to 7vhich, &c. 163. Who and which can always be used where that t can be used. They have also a continuative force, which that never has. (See § 152O 164. The relative pronoun is frequently understood, as, "That is the person I spoke of," " for the person ivhom I spoke of." But it is not now omitted unless, if expressed, it would be in the objective case. (3.)-THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AS. 165. The word as (A.S. ealswa = also, i.e. all so, German als) is often used as a relative pronoun, especially after same and suc/ty as, " This is not the same as that ; " " His character is not such as I admire." So also in the phrases as to and as for, as is a relative pronoun, the subject of a verb understood. In "As to that, I have nothing to say," 'as to i^^^iV =^'^ quod ad hoc [attinet']^ = * what [relates] to that.' So in French 'quant k vous '= quantum advos attinet. As is a strengthened form of so, which, as we have seen (§ 150), is sometimes a pronoun, and, like that, might have a relative force.:f INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 166. The numeral one is also an Indefinite Pronoun. The numeral one is an indefinite demonstrative when used as the * In the older writers we find all what, that what, &c. in some grammars 7vhat is called a compound relative. This is wrong and misleading. The name is absurd, because what is not a compound word at all, though large numbers of unfortunate learners are actually led to believe that 7vhat is made up of the beginning of which and the end of that. U'hat is not even equivalent to that rvhich : it is nothing more than a relative with its antecedent suppressed, like 7vho in the sentence quoted .above. Those who make what contain its own antecedent, should equally make the antecedent contain its own relative in "That is the man I spoke of," and call ' man 'a compound antecedent . t Some grammarians assert that who and which are not properly used to introduce a liiiititig or defining clause, and that in such sentences as " That is the man who spoke to us yesterday," "The house which he built still remains," the word that is preferable. The best writers of English prose do not countenance this view. X As is clearly an ordinary Relative Pronoun in Chaucer (Kn. T. looo), " his hundred as I spak of now." So in M.-xundeville (quoted by Skeat), " Zaracon as wasfadre to Salahadyn." Mr. Skeat (Et. Diet. s. ?'.) consider? as to be identical with the old Scandinavian relative es. This is an interesting view of the matter, but the analogy of the relative so used in old- fashioned German seems to show that the relative as may be treated as a compound o( so. PRONOUN. 59 Such which must ■where, as whe7-ein article an. It has long been used in the sense of ' some— or other,' a certain.' Thus (as an adjective) " His wrath which one day will destroy ye both » {Milton) ; " One Titus Gates had drawn on himself censure, &c." {Macaulay). As a substantive it was used to denote some one, or more, of a class already named, as " Get me some better pens, this is a bad one" {or these are bad ones) ; and then came to be used as a general indefinite demonstrative, as " One in a certain place testified " {Heb. ii. 6). It is very common after some, each, and every, and IS used in the plural, as " That the poor may fall by his strong ones " T? "^' \^^^'/ ^^ ^" indefinite substantive it assumed the sense of the French ^« {—homme), as, "A quiet conscience makes one so serene" {Byron) ; « A sonnet to one's mistress " {Shakspeare). In this sense it at last ousted the old Anglo-Saxon word man (= German man), which we still find in Chaucer as men * or me, and which was also in part replaced by the indefinite they. None (= ne an) as a substantive in the singularf is now obsolete, having been replaced by no one. In everybody, somebody, Sec, 'body' is used as a kind of indefinite pronoun. 167. Aught (A.S. dw/ht) is derived from the Anglo-Saxon substantive mitt, a ' thing,' or ' creature ' (used as a masculine | in wight) and d = ever. The negative of aught is naught oi nought. Not is the same word, used as an adverb. 168. Any {&nig) is a derivative from an, ' one,' just as ullus in Latin is a diminutive of unus (Key, Lat. Gr. § 334). It is properly an indefinite demonstrative adjective; as in "Did you see any person ? " but it is also used as an indefinite quantitative adjective, referring either to number or to quantity, as * I did not take any apples'; 'Will you have any bread?' 169. Other implies 'not this one' (out of some two) (like the Latin alter). It is formed from the root an,% a variation of the al of aXXof and alter, by means of the comparative suffix ther (see § 155, note). As a substantive it has the ordinary inflexions of a noun. 170. Some (A.S. sum) originally meant 'a certain '|| (Lat. quidam). It still has this force in somebody, sometimes, something. * '^' M ^ ,J''f " J^ "°! ^i'!"''?'' ^^^ ^-S- "I'hat blisful yok which that men clepeth (««p-.) spousail (C/. /. 115), Ihe fact that man or men maintained its ground during the period when the influence of Norman- French was strongest, and only disappeared after that influence had ceased IS opposed to the idea that the indefinite te is identical with the French on = liovime. 1 his view, however, is held by Latham and other good authorities. t E.g. None better knows than you " {M./or M. I. 3, 7) X "He was a wight of high renown " {Otkello II. i, 159). ' We also employ it in the form «'/'// ( not a whit ) as a neuter. § Not the a« that means ' one' In Moeso-Gothic ' one ' is ' ««'«,' but ' other ' is ' anthar • (not ainthar), kLw'"* ''sum man haefde twegen suna,'' ' a. certain man had two sons' (Luie xv. 11) • His feonda sum, one of his enemies ' (Mati. xiii. 25). m 6o ENGLISH GRAMMAR. some eight year „^r ninryc """(l^t'' It ,".h:'" '^^' ^°" indefiniteness with resnect eifhor f^ V. '^ ^"^ pronoun of ''I have some money '''tos is LV"'"'"^ °' '^ '"^"^^«"' ^« i» vjiicy , inis IS j^;/^^ monster of the isle." t money THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. 171. Each (A.S. r^/, ^^-^.^ ^'"^"^y ^o^ce old-fashioned English we hnd ' each tn o?^ "^^^J ^''^'^'^ ^''^'^'^•" So in and so on. Nowad-xvs L/T 1- ^ other/ • one from another ' as ''They did nr^^af ^^^^h^ot^^^^^ from one another daUv" Th? °*^^'^ ^°'" ^ ^^^^^^ ?" "They hear regarded as fornLgasol-rofiJi;^^^^^^^^ out of tho meaning of the words 'his distinction does not spring ~/&<°';!ouWa^-^,-^-. » -'^.-. '"at is, all of a series talcen one by one. ' ^^^'^^> ^nd denotes r£:Lfti:£i iL"z:: '° ""°" *^» -^ ^ -':' « -» t used o„iy wuh eve; ■'^Xr, pT;ro/57' '^ -^ - ^ substantive. Wo .,i„ say • each and lent ^'Cach'SoS'i.r;i„r.^°'"« "^ «'''- ""' '" ^ ^'-nger f„„n, equiva- wor^t fr„;at^e•^crf?;>:s^^teH""•!,'^™ -^^^^^^ XIX. 1 8). In this sense it ^. ^u J ^" either side one" ( /o/m ' -g«e/' (a^gtheJ = "1 L^.Se" ' iTn '"^ 1 ^I^^ Angloi^o;^ ^./m/^//... :^ .- both,' vvhtre ^e svilabl. P?""^ ^^ ^' = ^^^^' ^"^ (see § 171, note). 2. It melns W "ff ^^? "' "^llective force this sense it represents 'dSer(' ever To' ''"' "°V ^°^^-' ^^ IS, m fact, the modern form of l/irwh ch h^' ' 1^" ' ^' ^"^ . Lj1__ ' "^^ supplanted the £nU-/rc-(-^U ]\C{ 1 .^"'-^'■^">«'*-?''--/'"'>'/c = Wc -x-Ja ^ , ^ ^'^'''^ strengthened by PRONOUN. and is used 'ill last you pronoun of lation, as in isle." y one of a yo pronouns 'hey foynen reedy force '^'^." So in I another,' ^reposition, ' They hear re now be loi. one another s not spring \ that is, d denotes i only with * each and m, equiva- separate " {John lo-Saxon ver, and ive force th.' In 3 ' ), but ited the 6i e the idea ^er=doth. thened by '■ — eitker. len other ' ^oxvn mvther other or outher* Neither (A.S. timer) is a com- pound of the latter and the negative m) and used to be spSt 7iother or nouther, but has got assimilated to either. ^^^' -^wJ' "'^y H*"'^f.'='!^ ^-^ * "'uhstantive of i he singular number is "Where either's fall determines both their fat-s " ""'"f'^'^' ^^ Each, every, either, and neither are always singular, t EEFLECTI7E PHONOUNS. 176. The objective case of the Personal Pronouns, and of the demons rative he, she, it, maybe used in a reflective e^nse a.a tin rfcto,^ bend back '), when an action directly or indirect y affects the doer of it Thus— '"unccu) " I'll disrobe mc " (Shakspeare, Cymh. v. i, 22). I can buy me twenty " {Macb. iv. 2, 40) ^*; Prepare thee" (^Sh. M. Ven. iv. i, 324). « Get thee wood enough " {Tempest, ii. 2, 165). Signor Antonio commends him to you " (M. V. m 2 ■ 27.'^\ Let every soMier hew him down a bough " {Macb v! 44). 177. In Anglo-Saxon the personal pronouns, ii whatever case thev were used, were strengthened by having the' adjective TilTtl s7f {=6ame \) agreeing with them, as me silfum, his silfes, &c. But even in A.S. we find the curious idiom, that strengthened ^eflcctives in Ihe dative case (;;..-./// us-silf, &c, made with an uninflected .1^) were placed in apposition to pronouns in the nominative, in place of the inflected adjective silf ox self {^ I me sil/,' ' " .?"S!'^^ ^"^^""^ we find am or one (= A. S. ana, ' alone ') used hkt se/f. Thus "All himm ane" = all by himself [Orm, 1025) ; '• Him ane bi himra sellfenn = him alone by himself {Onn , 822) ; " Walkyng myn one " == walking by myself {Piers PL 5023). The word lane (= alo,te)\ still used thus in Scotch, as 'my lane' (by myself), 'him lane' (by himself). The pronoun appears to vary between the possessive and the objective, as it does Willi SCij* VERB. 180. Definition. A verbt is a word by means of which we can say something about some person or thing. The word which stands for what is spoken about is called the subject of the verb, and is in the nominative case. In relation to the Subject, the verb is called the Predicate. A verb telis us with regard to what is spoken about that it does something, or that it is in some state, or that it has somethinc done to it. ^ Verbs as vyell as adjectives stand for attributes ; but when we attach an adjective to a noun, as in 'a flying eagle/ the phrase denotes two notions which are regarded as already united into one compound whole ; when we attach a verb to a noun, as in ' the eagle flies ' the use of the verb effects the union of the two notions. (See \ 26.) CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 181. Verbs are divided into two classes— 1. Transitive! Verbs. 2. Intransitive Verbs. A Transitive Verb is one which denotes an action or feeling which IS directed towards some object, § as, strike, '-' He strikes the * When owr and your x&\&\.q to a single person, ourself and yourself are used as " We will ourself in person to the war " ; " You must do it yourself." ' imLrfi^fi ^^"" ^ T°^^ \ '^1 ''"^ ^'''"S emphatically the word of the sentence. Verbum imperfectly represents the Greek term p^;ua, which meaiis ' predicate.' object^ '^"W"^*^. to go across' ; the action goe^. over, as it were, from the doer to the expr^«?;^ tn'? ^.°ir.^r i°Jk ^"''ki'' "^''•"•' '^''°^^''' t^ '*^^^'='•°" '^,'°° ^^^"^ "^ ^^ win ,^f'^;^,',..<=„ k '""i I ■P'^'-> ire, kill (pnuKsp. J. L.; the verbs are alt transitive. It SLvL S Ft "^,^r'^'°°^ 'hat a transitive verb is still transitive when it is used in the ^''Zlul^lct ot'the'lServe'b."'"" ''"^^^' '' =^" <^''^^^'' ^''■'^""^^ '^^' "'^J^' '^ '^^-"^'^ ourselves,* fjitimately) tory of all adjective or 3ve you for ;ther to the ilone') used '• Him ane ; myn one " is still used jelf). The as it does which we ailed the I relation t it does mething we attach snotes two compound flies,' the 26.) 3. r feeling nkes the d, as "We :. Verbum ioer to the ifague to be iisiiive. It used in the . is denoted VERB. 6^ ball;" /^z;^, "He loves his father." The word which stands for the object of the action described by the verb is called the object of the verb. It is put in the objective case. The ^am- mattcal oDject of a verb must not be confounded with the real object of the action. An Intransitive Verb is one which denotes a state or condition, or an action or feeling which is not directed towards an object as, to be, to dwell, to sit, to rejoice, to run. Verbs of this kind are sometimes called Neuter Verbs. 182. Mary verbs are used, with a difference of meaning, sometimes as transitive verbs, sometimes as intransitive verbs; as, "He ran away ; He ran ^ thorn into his finger." "The child speaks already," '.nnnyo ^'-f'"^^'^ sounds ' ; "He speaks several languages," U. n^frJl^^^ anguages to express his thoughts.' A tran^tive v^rb is used reflectively when the action which it denotes is done by the doer nronn'IJn ' TV ^^ ^^'^ u^ consequently followed by a reflective IZT>\ 7J^^ pronoun, however, is often omitted, as "The sea breaks (Itself) on the rocks;" "The earth moves (Uself);" "The S?!;. '^ T^^^^*^^"''^^T) °^^' ^^^ ^^y-'" ^'The boats di^w (them- selves) clear of one another;" "The needle turns (itself) towards the v^rh. Yn ?^ i"' v^^^- "^"st."ot be confounded with intransitive IZn^ f I-""^^'^^ intransitive verbs were often followed by a pionoun used reflectively, as " Hie thee * home ; " " Fare thee well ; » wJv Jc « T^"^"" ?°"^^ compound verbs are used curiously in this Si. ' To over-sleep oneself;" " He over-ate himself ;" "Vaulting and n'^rl^^^'^K °''^'T "^^Y/-"-' '^^^P^ farther than it intended/ mLuZJ ' u ¥?P^Tfi'^^'^ ^y ^" adjective, as " I have talked myself /toarse;" "The child screamed itself black in the face."t ^verbf iTseZ^' Tr °*i^ P^'"'"^^' ^^'^ °^ ^^•■^' ^"^ '^i^^V transitive verbs used m a particular manner. tion® as " Thf !^Lr'^^ T ^^^^^^imes used with a sort of passive significa- tion as The meat cuts tough," ?.^., ' is tough when it is cut ' : "The cakes eat short and cnsp, "...., «are short and crisp when they are kten ' • "The when it ^ fd '.< ;?^ '"' ^'^'^1^ " ' " T^^ ^^^ ^-^^ hard,'' .• : ?' it' is hl^d wnenitibfelt ; ' The rose smells sweet " ; "The wine tastes sour." accusal ve for obier.iv<>'i r,f ^r.crr,ofn • ^ ^ ' ' ^r , Sometimes what looks like an cate. S '• It raVned firf nnH K^ \"'"^..'"^y< ^^ regarded as a complement of the predi- the useof what iscXd the .^^JjT'T r .^S'-^'"^^, and the rain was fire, &c/^ For 64 :! » ENGLISH GRAMMAR. INFLEXIONS OF VERBS AND SUBSTITUTES FOR INFLEXION. ^z, i7t:tL^i.x::^r' -'■'«--— voice, anliulr/ verbr^''' """'' "' '''*''^'°°' P^^"^ "^^ *e use of AuxUiary Verbs ^ * ^ '"*'""°" """^ P^^'^ ^y t^e use of Notional and AuxUiary Verbs. »w play in Iht A,dL"li ? . v ' ' ""■ ''«<''''«'' lo go ' ; " You M^/'^not steal " ff ■ tL 'J?" "'f P"™"^'* "; .P'-y ') ! " Thou not come when I called him " (?, ° h1 h°1 "."'f' * ' " "= '-"""''' exposed b7L"aerveTT,,"'"'' f,°2^ modification of the notion imply that 7e U ™o vlnt J'^f. '" .l^?'"/""-." '-?■ does no. been ill " Tr -i """J^'^^^ve mood ot the verb ' gain,' In " I Aav^ b^'c^'i'a m^:',]',:;4L°?'*- ■-' *^ "i- of/.„4ran'd';;:: trverbt;t?oS^eJtf- ""^t "°V"° "'?«-' ='-- > «>« may DC sometimes notional and sometimes auxiliary! VOICE. two voices -1. The Active Voice 2 Thl^I I^^'^ ^'^ The Active Voice is made nn % ,1 ^ ^^^T® ^°^°®- " The cat iiUed the mousi " ' ' ''"'^ "'"^"^ *« '^»"- at. Tl^ir origin is illustrated bv the -' "? /fw tneir original meanin- can be onlv m>P«pd /o^e bo in French >•.>«,• is madl up' of'/^^lv'ie' ..'''' • ''/ 'r""* -'°^ (-^'^■^t::u:sn.^.S^^^^ P 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. £ht^wifh'^h\?-^''^V'"°''^ ^y *^^ ^^^b ^' connected in our tnought with the thing that is spoken of.* There are four moods f :— A. Three Finite Moods. 1. The Indicative Mood 2 The Imperative Mood. 3. The Subjunctive Mood a. The Infinitive Mood. I.-THE FINITE MOODS. 1.— THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 190. The Indicative Mood comprises those forms of a verh TdidonT) s"ome "''". ' ^^^^^"^"^' '"^^^-"' ^ sup^osidon hfs relation to some event or state of things which is treated bv the «— THE IMPEBATIVE MOOD. Which w^uttlT^f""'"' '^T'' '' ^ ^°"" "f *^ ^fb ty means of methaTbonk" ,?"^"^"<^' f^'^f'. o' exhortation f as, " &e„ :e™n^'per3or° "'^™^-" ^'= ^"''J- -t^oA^uTStre When we express our will in connection with the first or third n^r.nn marians about the Moods S "Ton uufmLlysS dail" ^'^'«-«"'« ?f the anc.ent gram- to the recognition of five Moods thnS/.W/ir f^°"^?i '*'^. ^°"^^^^ /«>///«.^. The separation of the t . "t?('! 5' I'ltTi''''' '^^^''^T' i^»''J'''^'=tive, and forms were identically the same it wa<; nnlv, ViT ^"''J""ctive was perfectly needless. The differed. It would have been^ r'easonahl. /^ ■ *" u'?r '°. '^''"-''' ^^^ f^^s ^^re put that according to the uses to whkhlt was put ^"" "^ '^"'"" "^""^^ '° ''^^ ^blati^e Ca^? certain ctbinTtiotoTr fo'cTed^^u^illf ^ 'Jl^rbf ''' ' ''"^ '^"''^ '"^-'"^ '^V '^at mood .nfinitive mood. This is objectionable /'.a'^ l^^'te^^A Tf^f'T'' ""'^'^^ """■^' ^^'^ the the verbs wriie ^ndgo, than fiossum scribftTL ^^/'a r T'-^ f' .'^''^ "° "^0''e ""'^"'•^ of /r/i /&a«« scArdden Ld /cTSlt« moods oT.bl Y'^? '" ^""'^ = °'"' ■^''^'"'-^ ''^'''>'. French and German. Moreover thkTote^tKln?!. m ' '^T^' ichrciben, and ,^ " *« '"" the 'Shorter English Grammar,' or his' 'Remarks on the 4nh- ^^\-^^ Appendix to the author's Mood," published separately.) -Kemarks on the Subjunctive and the so-called Potential A verb is not in the Subjunctive Vooi'&ule'ir^'us^d'irr'^^fe^^^^ ^^'^ '« '^-' cted in our >d. 2. The of a verb )sition has ted by the out it; as, "; "If he means of as, " Give ■b in the ressed, as, be in the lird person, le that first imperative {P^sa'an). incient gram- grammarians 'UHctiiie, and :edless. The ere put that blative Case, y that mood ust, with the ore moods of ^ puis ecrire, \r\A s:ehen in )divided into e time, but I : parts of the 1, it is in the the author's ed Potential he SubJuHc- said to this. VERB. g. id (which is of the second person, with its subject omitted), followed byanmfinuive complement, as. "Let us pray" "Let him behearT" 1 hese are not imperative forms oi pray and i-ar.* ,8.— THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 192. The Subjunctive Mood comprises those forms f of a verb which are used when a statement, question, or supposition has relation to an event or state of things which is only thoTJl) and whch IS not treated by the speaker as matter of fact 'mZ'- pendent of his thought about it. J "^ ' If we use the term Objective for what is regarded as having an existence of its own independent of the thoughf of the spS^nd fj^^jcci^^ve for what exists (or is dealt with as existing) Snly in 'Ihe thought of the speaker, we may say that the Indicative is ?he Mood fact external to our thought about it does not admit of be ng shaped m our thought as we please. But when an act or state is connected with something that we speak about cn/y in our thought, the relation of ^JrA^^^^J ^'f"" ^^"'^"^ ^°™«- Consequenti; the Subjunctive Mood admits of a great variety of uses, especially in languages in which Its forms are fully preserved. In modern English thesf uses havebecome very much restricted. § »csc uses or^^,?/'^L'"«Thf t^ '^f Subjunctive is employed to express a ^.7/ or wzsh.^s Thy kingdom come"-, in cla uses denoting purpose, as • It may be said that it is much easier to call ' Let us eo ' the fir<:^ „ ^Tli T of the verb go, and so on. So it is. It is alwavs easiJr^o .hU ^Hi;' T P'^'''' 'mperative The objection' to the easier course is that iVTs false L cannot hfh''""V''^" '? ''^'P "• verb, and let is not of the first person (Compa;e the Gerr^L ^I^!c?^-'^''k°'^ ^ -^'"'^^ compkx grammatical phrase has Lt been ex^l^fned when Us na«rhave"Len^ '°f ther into one lot, and ticketed with a wrong name ^ ^ ''^^" jumbled GraJf 8 .iei «v. •' ' °& n^- ^^ °?^' ^"l ?^ ^. conception of the mind." Madvig (Lat tive Mood in cases where he sSS^^u I' "'°''' """"^ "^"'^ common to use the Indica- ;« . „j- " ^"iscs wiiere me auDjunctive would be more correct THuk fnr " s:^- fU„t „ii t. d» ENGLISH GRAMMAR, I! ,ti reported statements for which the reporter does not vouch as v'rv ?.fi"l',^"'^ "'^ ^^^^'^ ^-S nor»^'= .he said that Ihat l^nd surVti^^^' ■ '"/^^d'"f«"; "Govern well thy appetite, -test sin Z^^T\J ! . ' '" "^ -^"'P denoting the purport of a wish or command, as iJie sentence is that the prisoner /^^- imprisoned for life"- to broutht^to "iSff *r r '"'''? .'^°"^'"^'y ^° ^^^ ^^^t' o'- "ot regarded as the ?.,l h' ^^f ?u ^'^"^' ^^^"'- ^^ " ^^ ^^ ^^^^ i^ere (which is not In thisl^t ^^"1^^'"'^' f;i;t.re.uly"; « Oh ! that it «/m. possible." In this last case the p-r^ibiluv of the thing is treated purely as a matter that is merely thought of. ^ ^ Of course these varieties of signification are not actually ^^/rm^«' by the Subjunctive Mood. That Mood merely supplies us whh a forrJ of predication which can be shaped by our intelligence, according t^ circumstances, so as to suit the meaning to b^ conveyed ^ \Li;f"^i? '^ y^^ functions of t',o ouojuncrive Mood were much wider than ,n modern English. It was used wherever we now uTe i t and It was also employed— ' worlhy"^''""^ questions, as "dcsia» hwa sy wyr«e " .. ' ask who ,s [be) 2, In "He is (<^^) very far north.' \ l" ''""L"^^!' S^"^""^^ case, or describing a type of a class as " Hwaet bitfer f ' 'L Kbt ' 1= ' ^y tV'^"^'^^ [thereYwhiS /."""' (W) ears t^ L'tt^tmTea^ ^^'^"""^ ^'""^'^ "^ ' "^ '^^^ ^^'^ '^or^ ,W^""''^!^^ ^^^"^ ^^""°^ ^^ "^^•i ^'^ a .m//^ declarative onlvt ,S!?'^' sentence. A predication mfde in thongit dStion Heir! .f ' '^''5' •"' ^^^^^^^ t° ^°"^^ other pre- mmng-on mood, because except when expressine a wish^ It IS only employed in complex sentences.* ^^^'^"^"^ ^ ^'^^^ preceded bv o^n^A"?^^ ^°°^ '^ ^^"^''^"^ ^^ut not always) S^r&c . h,?rfl.. Vt^ conjunctions ^^ //,«/, lest, though, unteis, &c., but the Subjunctive Mood is not always used after these conjunctions, nor is the conjunction a part of the mood h,;r.^ '' "a/"! ^^'^ i^" '^"^P^^ P'-^^^"* or past tense of thT Sub- junctive Mood is often repla(^^d by phrases comoounded nf hV. verbs ;..a,, m^ght, and .^L/^ which for tLt Sn I'e cal ed auxthary or helping verbs. Thus for « lest sin /JSr/S See " we now say « Lest sin should sur/>nse thee ^ fo/^ Sve me ^}^^^^^r^iZiU^rst not ^ we say « that I may t not thir ?" degree the real function of the mood a^d botK SL i^^' ''""J^" ^^P^-es^^^ '" the slightest name. The learner must beware^f 'the bad lot^P ?n T'^!^^' ^"''"A^"''' ^on\d be a better m th.s mood is usually conjoined or lubhtnedfa.^^^l^ '" supposmg that because a verb IS subjoined to anothe? confai^a v«b in tK, Ki f- °'^k^/ verb therefore every clause that to the ' Shorter English Grammar ') Subjunctive Mood. (See further in the Appendix tion in t'rmLrn^atiotVrsofdrbecle't^^^^^^^^^ "°' >y t'"- ^' ^^^ -g-^ca- Iheirw^j/r^wa/meanin,. l^as ».^tL„fh?Vf ^'^f y ^--f themselves in the Subjunctive MnnH modality to the compounds. ^Th\s wrs"lmJ''fL"" •'^!''-|^ '''''V"'i°^'P,°'^^'" ''emains to give Grammar. . ^ ^ *"'^ ^*^ "^"S ^go pointed out by Dr. Lowth iu his English ;tite,«e5t sin >r command, or life " ; to regarded as which is not ^e possible." purely as a f expressed by s with a form according to were much i now use it, ik who is {be) lot vouch, as hat that land i, as " Hwaet hich be more He that hath declarative in thought other pre- '/nciive' or ng a wish) lot always) i/, thou^hj used after :he mood. )f the Sub- ided of the are called Ttse thee," '' Give me lot thirst." )n fined to use I the slightest Id be a better ecause a verb y clause that he Appendix leir significa- ictive Mnod, tiains to give his English VERB. 6^ 193. The three finite moods of verbs may be described as the Mood of Pact (-Indicative), the Mood of Conception (Subjunc- tive), and the Mood of VoUtion (Imperative). THE VERB AS A SUBSTANTIVE. 1.—THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 194. The luflnitiv© Mood expresses the action or state denoted by the verb without reference to person, number, or time It cannot be attached to a subject to make an assertion, but it mav An^uff ^""A '"^J'r^^, ^" dependent phrases, as -I saw /Ji rmte Chaucer Prol. 503 . This use justifies us in calling it a Mo^,d (see definition). It commonly has the force of a sub- stantive and may be used either as the subject or as the object of another verb, or after certain prepositions (namely to and but) as I cannot but admre his courage." When thus used it is not properly a mood at all. 195. The preposition to is not an essential part of the infinitive mood, nor an invariable sign of it. Many verbs (as may canshaU If.nmst, let.dare^ do, bid make, see, hear, feel, W ire followed by the simple mhnitivr without to* as « You may speak " ; -Bid me discourse- ; " He made me laugh- ; « I had rather not tell youT The simple infinitive (without to) used as the subject of another verb is ^;&"Ti'.'-"'^"g^ somewhat archaic, as "Better be with the dead '' {MaM m. 2 20) ; ' ' Will't please your highness z.a/r ' (Lear iv! 7) • "Better .W/m the midst of alarms thanm^^^in this ho rible pkce "' (Cowper) ; <' H n luste ryde soo» = 'it pleased him [to] ride so ' (Chaucer, J^ro . 102) So in Anglo-Saxon : "Leofre is us i fisc '' • nnnJlT'^ agreeable to us to catch fish." This infinitive denoted purpose after verbs of motion, as " I will go seek the king » {HamZ 199. In Anglo-Saxon, the infinitive mood ended in -an, and when used as such, had no to before it. A verb in the infinitive miX be the "^h^Z "v tf^^"^ ""°^^^^ "^^^- The infinitive wS Wvfr, trea ed as a declinable abstract noun, and a dative form (called the AS) ^^t^f 'J" "''' 'f'°' -''''''^ ^"^ preceded by the prepositbn^X was used to deno purpose. Thus in « He that hath ea?s to hear?' to^Aear the didve inflL,vfn ^"^^ P^?'"^ '"^^ "'^^^'^ E"^"^h with the loss of Sa>?>1^'' A Z > •^A-'' ^u'^^.^ ^^ ^'^^ y°^" 5 "The water is ^ood t^drtnk, t.e.,for drinking ; - This house is to let."i Here the to has ; !t'!S^^t^4Se1l! ff" '^^ corresponding verbs in German. is A. despise " J'it is to'led^siZIl'^^ V 1 ""'m' ''u'^ u''"^'' *?'''"- ^" <-'f»aucer we find " it " What fs to be done? " '^''^""'i' I" the North they still say ' What i^ io doV for IP" m 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, J^calTo^!;::^.^;^^^^^^^^^^ ^^e purpose of an action, the indicate the »Jrof^t .X^.f"/''''^" T'^ generally, and so may ^i-e. on hearht^^^l^L^^JT^ But this gerund vvUh /, r.m^ T k '"P^'^ ^^ ^^« "^'-^^ter here." inrtnitive,LthesuCct^rohT/.. °f T^ '". P'^"^ '^^ ^'^^ ^i^^Ple ^'rr is human /'aS ''^",^' «° ^vesay. 4^ utterly witho'ut mef n ng We ive, 3 ^no^hr ' ""'•'• ^^^ '^ '^ before it, as " I was abolt /..Xrr^^' • " Tht^ i P r P''"P°^'i'«" "^^^d Sa^^^rl^ll- ?^£f:^^;r.L^^.^.- -- ^^e Anglo. 2.— THE GERUND. suffi7'il^.tTt'l '' ?^^«ta^ti^e formed from a verb by the is tea,,, ...i'cTroii.'il;;;^„Tn^drs.s;oT' '" ^°™' "-' desirous of aS^ Sm?."*^ """"S'^ ''"^'"^ '"^^ '"= fortune » ; "'ke is aftefpreSns''as'''Lo,t'''v''/"''J"'l''-- ^= *J^«' <>' v^^bs, or par..c,p,e, a ' walking.'Jick • L.d onty meaT-a s.ilk SUS/*' ent^^oV IpfniT" °' '"' ^"""^ '^ ' P°'"* ''">'" ""ich ,h=re is some differ- a JoJrerd'e/:^ ^^''^J K •^ig^l",h'at a^mL^'f ^"'^' ^^''^'^F' of another verb, as '< Unto J!'^ cr/t' {C/imtcer). ^ ^' ' "" ^ subject, This prison caused we not /or the phrase ' Much ado ' ai. is^;/i;. 'fch^ado^f- L3',7i,; ^'^^ ^'"P'^>-'=^ ^^ ^'^^ .^" VERB. 7« 1 action, the ind so may )rry to hear vjr him talk aster here." the simple vesay, ""To !ie the to is sition used ch was for the Anglo- rb by the verb, has osswg the form, but compound " ; '' He is verbs, or ; " I like subjects or ;d too that , it is the ! with the walks.' me differ- ern repr«- nouns in 4s: "For I; "Thei t is allowed interesting , &c.), and n abstract , as " Unto 216); "Ye me not for mh the'* ; or to. In wcren at rohbinge," 'they were a robbing' {Layamon)\ "On hunting ben they ridden," 'a huntin); are they ridden'; "I fare to gon a begging" {Chaucef) ; " I go a fishing" {John xxi. 3) ; "Forty and six years was this temple in building " ; " While the ark was a preparing " (a~on or in). Such phrases as "I am a doing of it," though now considered vulgar, are perfectly grammatical. It may have been the mere omission of the preposition which looks like* a passive use of the participle in -ing, as 'the produced what house is building.' Compare "Ge beoS on hatunge "—"' ye shall be hated " {Matt. X. 22). The difficulty about this view is, that it furnishes no explanation of the origin of the compounrl gerunds (as 'he was punished for having broken the window'), and that the nouns in -tmg never had the power of governing an objective case, as gerunds have. When we say " He was hanged for killing a man," the ol)jective relation of 'man' to 'killing' is fnow at any rate) as distinctly in our thoughts, as that of ' man ' to ' killed when we say " He killed a man." Consequently, even if it could be shown that the formation in ■ung was the parent of all verbal nouns in -ing, a large class of these would still be entitled to be classed by themselves under a distinct name, just as adverbs that have acquired the force of prepositions require to be classed and named as such. 2. Koch (ii. § 98) regards the gerund in •««? as being descended from the old Anglo-Saxon gerund in -anne or -enne, which passed through such forms as 'to rixiende,' 'for to brennyng,' 'I am to accusinge you' (Wycliffe, John V. 45) ; and as having got confused with the descendants of the nouns in -ung, and so used without the preposition to. The objection to this is that the Anglo-Saxon gerund has its unquestionable representative in the modern gerundial infinitive ({ 196), and that throughout its hist( -y ihe 'to' stuck to it with great tenacity. 3. Matzner's view is that the verbal noun in -ung, on getting assimilated in form to the participles in -ing^ got so far confused with them as to assume their power of forming compounds (see above) and governing the objective case, being aided in this by the confusion in French between the gerund in -ant (Lat. -andum or -endmti) and the participle in -ant (I,at. -an tern or •entem). This is probably the correct view of the matter.f It is at least curious that the verbal noun in -ing occurs in the early writers (as Chaucer) most commonly after in, as the French gerund does after en. Some grammars set down an infinitive in -ing, as a modification of the old infinitive in -an or -en. This is a perfectly needless invention, and is quite unwarranted by the history of the forms. (See Dr. Morris, Hist. Oiitl.) In "Seeing is believing" we have merely two verbal nouns in -ing, descendants of the older formation in -ung. * According to Dr. Murray, however {Dial, of S. Counties, &c., p. 225), we really have the participle in these phrases. In Scotch the phrase is " the hoose is btiildan' " i.e., buildand.' He considers this to be a relic of the Middle voice = buildan itset'. In colloquial Engjish we often meet with such expressions as " I want a button sejving on," where the participle has a passive sense. (Comp. J 183.) t It is a great mistake to speak of the gerund, or verbal substantive in -ing. as being ' the imperfect participle used as a noun.' The participle is an adjective, and though an adjective may be used as a concrete noun, it cannot possibly pass into an abstract noun without having the definite article before it. The grossness of the mistake which is involved in confounding the gerund with the participle is seen when beginners, who have been led astray by their English grammars, render ' He talks about fighting, by ' loquitur de pugnante.' i I 72 ENGLISH r.RAM^rAR. prope luin ,.e?iv Zf^Jl {'r"^ "f''^ ''^'"■f'-""^ '^^ "^'1 formation in -unjr should (No l^)yJ\ rt .. ; "'"''*'^. ''^^ P'-^opI^ from making of league" s tclo^f "h^ /i .n ^ fi'""^' '" ''" '^'' construction when the verbal bet vcon he two vtlv,1 .. ' '^' '''T';' ''''^' ' ''"^ ("^'"^ '« * <^«"f««ion •XTvs ic here . T T^' * """".'-^"^.l 1,'^' P.-^rticipIe) the older writers did not ^^^•^r nn-^l^M -n"'" ""• ^ ^ ^^'''"-"^' '» ^'^ '''"'^ l^'^^^"^^ him like Mc- uacfifi^ li [Macbeth) ; 1 he seemg these effects " {Cymb,). THE VERB AS AN ADJECTIVE. PARTICIPLES. 201. Participles are verbal adjectives. They are so called because they partake of the nature both of a verb and of an adjective {I Aim pa r/ia'pa re, * to partake'). There are two participles formed by inflexion, the Imperfect Pai-riciple and the Perfect Participle, The imperfect participle always ends m t;;g* When formed from a transitive verb, it may have an object, as ^^ Hearing the noise, 1 went to the window'' I he perfect participle in verbs of tlic Strong Conjugation formerly always ended in -en, and still does so in many verbs ; in verbs of the Weak Conjugation it ends in -d, -ed, or -/.t The Imperfect I articiple IS always active, the Perfect Participle {^passive, provided the verb be a transitive verb ; as, " I saw a boy bcati,w :, dog.", J^rig/itened by the noise he ran away." In '* Pie has come " come is perfect, but not passive.:}: ' Even in the perfect- tenses, as *' I have written a letter," the oriirin of the construction is, " I have a letter written, ^^ where written is an adjective agreeing with tetter; in Latin, Habeo epistolam scriMam In Hencn the participle agrees with the object in some constructions • as Les lettres que j a. dcrites. ' I n Anglo-Saxon the perfect participle was inflected, and made to agree with the object.§ P^uic.pie 202. The participles are often used as mere adjectives of quality, as "A striking remark " ; " The dreaded hour has come " ^ have lunv t),r,.,. r,^,Vil„ vS ''^ '^'i'" ''■' "^ ^^^r^^'" """^ Of ■«/ and the Greek u\,r or tvr We na\e now tliree totally different formations in -/«.-. i. The abstract noun i^ "«;»„;.,„ • (an <]!}j^cuve attached to a substantive), as " I saw a boy striking a do|" P^^'-'Ple .fit./ 1 1 -''' ^^''."^'^ '? f'^'^'J as a prefix in one or two old forms (as it/.-// ' cilled 't inH affected by some writers in others, is derived from the A S nref.v Jl At filf/ r ' ^ { As Ha hasfO man gcweorhtne/^ ' he has created man. " VERtJ. utig should \ as "The of league " the verbal I confusion ters did not lim like the 73 ;o called id of an aperfect jarticiple b, it may vindovv." formerly verbs of mjjorfect provided a dog.", ! come," he origin 'I'n is an criptam. notions ; >articiple ■, as "A bsequeiitly le termina- il letters of r «KT. We ' Seeing is capable of participle illed ') and il for some en. The ' significa- ^ are you TENSE. 203. Tenses (Latin tmptis, * time ') are varieties of form in verbs, or compound verbal phrases made with the help of au.xihary verbs, which indicate partly the time to which an action or event is referred * and partly the completeness or incompleteness o^i the event at the time referred to. 204. There are three divisions of time— the Present, the Past and the Future. There are also three ways in which an action or event may be viewed : — 1. It may be spoken of as Incomplete, or still going on. A tense which indicates this is called an imperfect tense. 2. It may be spoken of as complete. A tense which indicates this IS called a perfect tense. 3- It may be spoken of as one whole, without describing it as com- plete or incomplete in relation to other actions. A cense which does this IS called an indefinite tense. 205. An action nay be viewed in these three ways with reference to past, to present, or to future time. We thus get NINE PRIMARY TENSES. 1. The Past Imperfect (or Progressive), showing that at a certain past time an action was going on, as, /7e/^w writhu ■ I was bciui^ taug/it. 2. The Past Perfect, showing that at a certain past time an action was complete ; as, / had written ; I had been taui^ht. 3- The Past Indefinite (or Preterite), speaking of the action as one whole referred to past time ; SiS, I wrote ; I was taught. I. The Present Imperfect (or Progressive), shovvin<'- that an action is going on at the present time ; as, / am writing • I am being- taught. "^ 13 / 2. fhe Present Perfect, showing that at the present time a ce/tain action is complete ; as, / have written: I have been taught. 3. The Present Indefinite, speaking of the action as one \whole, referred to present time ; as, / write; I am taught. r I. The Future Imperfect (or Progressive), showin' that at a certain future time an action will be going on ; as, /shall be writimr; I shall be being taught. C.sf ^- ^}^^ Future Perfect, showing that at a certain future time an action will be complete ; as, I shall have written; I shall have been taught. 3. The Future Indefinite, speaking of an action as one whole, referred to fut u re time ; as, I shall write ; I shall be taught. mnJllM""'"''''"^ of time is so essential a characteri^^of vcrbs.TlTatT.^ grammarians ^ni vJo^^.'"''""*^ "^ "'" acfinuion of a verb. In German the verb is called ' i'eitwo^u' i!e! A. i I 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. """• sir ' whef ;;U''^!?i^; °"^?. ^^^^rf ^^ -^ ^-^ - -t the took place in plst uL Ji% '^"'"Z' ^'^''^"/^ '^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ting whatfhp.Lnc/- V T'v^^* ^^^ <:ompleteness of the action f which is thin£ brought about bv f hi K ^-"'^ '""P''^' ^''^^ ^^^^ state of may say ° EnXrl L^f /^''°" •^'L''^' ^* ^^^ Present time. We "m^ ad,y XLngiand has founded a m^htv emnirp m the T?ocf «»v. the empire still lasfs • h,if ,.r^ ""^my empire m the Hast, " because was happy." The verbs in ^nrO.^, Wh^e he /ew^ at home he the V^^^Perj:T.:^T4::i^.^ZZ:^^:i^l^.r^^^ '"'° SECONDARY TENSES. 208. Besides the primary tenses, we have the following * — writing '^^®''* °^ continued action-I shall have been COMPLEX FQEMS OF INDEFINITE TENSES interrogative sentences ""«»°"'> employed in negative and o,« J"""**™" OF MHSES n. THE ACTIVE VOICE Ine Perfect tenses are formed bv mpan«! nf fi,^ • ^ c •. the very act of writing." * ^"^ °" '"« Pomt of wnting," or, " He is in gan Sn&e"'^™;^;.::,^; ff ^ ^ "'«- tense-auxiliary, equivalent to d^a. Thus " He J wridn^^^^^'dtToSroirof .'l'1m'"a tit^" '"^ *^^ ^^^''^' «^1'" '" ^V, so that " I -a«rf, -j-*^, or -iHg- with the verb X it fr,n„H "^"""^i '^ 'nforrect. The participle in -ende are not the t of writing ti (which is ce the tense he state of time. We St, " because founded a 1, "I stood at home he idered into i6). writing, •ing. ave been replaced as : — 20). pon the ive and B in the nses of definite e. (See ■ to write.' " He is in 'hus"He o that "I in -ende, ; with the they were ["her hope ' Skulans fERB. 75 The Future tenses are formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will, followed by the infinitive mood ; shall being used for the first person, will for the second and third in affirmative principal sentences ; but in subordinate clauses, after a relative, or such words as if, when, as, though, unless, until, &c., the verb shall is used for all three persons; as, " If it .y/sa// be proved " ; *' When He shall appear we shall be like Him." 211. When the verb will is used in the first person and the verb shall in the second and third, it is implied that the action spoken of depends upon the will of the speaker. Shall (like sollen in German) implies an obli- gation to do something. Hence shall is appropriately used in com- mands (as •' Thou shalt not kill "), in promises or threats (as " You shall have a holiday "), and in the language of prophecy, which is an utterance of the Divine will or purpose. Shall is used in the first person, as a simple auxiliary of a future tense, on much the same prin- ciple as that on which a person subscribes himself at the end of a letter, "Your obedient humble servant." It implies a sort of polite acknowledgment of being bound by the will of others, or at least by the force of circumstances. By a converse application of the same prmciple, the verb ^uill is used in the second and third persons to imply that the action referred to depends upon the volition of the person to or of whom we speak. In questions, however, and in reported speeches the force of the verb shall is the same in the second and third persons as it would be in the answer, or as it was in the direct speech : " Shall yovL be present ?" " I shall.'' " I shall not set out to-morrow " ; "John said that he should not set out to-morrow." The verb to be us«d in a question depends upon the verb expected in the reply. We say, " Will you go?" if we expect the answer, "I will." 212. When shall and will are used as mere tense-signs, their notional force disappears. (See § 185.) When they are used with their full notional power (as m Thou shalt not kill ' ; ' I wf'll have -obedience,' i.e., 'I am resolved on havmg obedience ') we no longer get a future tense, but a combination of a verb of incomplete predication and its complement, (See Syntax, Complex Pre- dicate.) All depends upon whether the verb 'shall' or 'will' is used to predict or not. If it is, we get a future tense, but not otherwise. Thus, Thou shalt not steal " involves no prediction ; we may speak thus to one ^yhom we know to be about to commit a theft. We assert a present obliga- tion, we do not piedict a future act. Consequently in this sentence we have not got a future tense. 213. There are sentences, however, in which ' shall ' and ' will,' while used to predict, and therefore forming future tenses, retain something of their notional force, as '' I will call upon you to-morrow " ; " You shall have an answer on Monday, In all such instances the action referred to depends upon the will of the speaker. The two sorts of future have been conveniently distinguished (by Dr. Latham) as the Predictive Future and the Promissive Future. In the Promissive Future ' will ' is used for the Fitst Person, and * shall ' for the Second and Third. - W. "II 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. FORMATION OF TENSES IN THE PASSIVE VOICE mf.n; ^f , ^""^ u"'^' '" ^^^ P^^^^^^ Voice are made by means of auxiliary verbs, the Passive Voice of a verb con sisting of Its pertect participle, preceded by the various moods and tenses of the verb l>e. (See § i88 and the note.) 815. Com/>araf^^eTal>/eo/ Tenses i„£„^m,La^in, Greek, French and German. ACTIVE VOICE.-INDICATIVE mood. Present. hide/. Imperf. Perfect. Past. Indef. Imperf. Perfect. Future. Indef. Imperf. English. Latin. He writes He is writing He has written He wro* t He was writing He had written He will write He will be writ- ing Perfect. He will have written Perfect (f \ tt , , continued ^^ .".^ I'een action. writing, &c. a ' I scribit I scribit scripsit scrips! t scribebat scripserat scribet scribet scripserit Greek. rpd0ei typa^e ^'fpa,h . f tJ r '"'"^' consonant is repeated, but with the vowel sound weakened to e Cas c^PI^'S^te^Sl^ai^-^^^ ^^« .edu^^='^ hlhmhaUd IoTm '\' ^TT^ 1'°"' 'K'°°.^ >^«^«P^-^sed'through the stages Aa-^iaM, i^-£i to feei' thetoi Jw:^^"" '^V°°' I'^S''' ^So) passed through the stiges le-leg-, %7tclifg.lc.i, lo/eT ^ "'"'"^ °"^^ '"'"''"'' "''''■'' '° ^^■'"■'- 'he root>. through so;nJti^t"viwef oHhetor' ^""'"'^"^ ''"""'^ '° •■""" '" «'^'"g ^ f""^'- ^"^ '""^^der tiol ^esSciailv wh^nT"""^ '' i^'^T^ ^ '■'^^ °'h^' Anglo-Saxon preterites show reduplica- f om V^ofr^d (GoMc r^^Tt ^*"i G^'^.c. Thus >-^^..« (to advise), pret. reord, shortened ieoT^r^GothCciltn Z,Z\.T^^^r' ^"/'^^C'^ 'eO, pret. ieori (for ieo/i), shortened from S« Si/lT:/^/ ^'/'y''''. ''' '"P)= P'*^'- ^^^''^' shortened from ieo-i^ic (Gothic ^/*««, /atiati) , on-dradan (to dread), pret. on-d^ ,ord, shortened from cn-dreo-drad. 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE WEAK CONJUGATION. form?;, T!"® preterite Of verbs of the Weak Conjugation is formed by adding -ed or -t to the stem, e final (if there is one) being omitted, as wait-ed, lov-ed, deal-t. ^ denta? ^^^l '.f ■ '" P''°"°"""d ^^ a separate syllable only after a dental mute, as m need-ed, pat-t-ed, mend-ed The vowel y after a consonant is changed into i before it, as AO^, ^V/.^. Aftef-^a sharp sSmes seen' f.H^^-^nr '^°"S^ ^'^ P^^^^i^"^ ^'^i^tence is nfe Xanfe of fin ?'^'" he weakening of the vowel of the stem, or m tne change of final d mto /, as meet, met; bend, bent. 223. This suffix is in reality a preterite form * of the verb do, which was o the'r'oo/bvlhf^^''^." ^"^° ■''. "^ ■''' 'The suffix ./. ^araUachec to the root by the connecting vowel ^or e, which, however, disappeared rnnLT' ^°"^°?^"^«- I" "modern English -./. has become /'and he connecting vowel is always -e, as in mend-e-d. This vowel is omit ed before -t, as it was m A.S. before -te "miuea It thus appears that in origin as well as in meaning, I loved is equiva- lent to / /.z.. ^^, oxididlove; so that this preterif; tenS^ in reality formed by means of an auxiliary verb.f ^ i. ?i?.^:J''^P?^^''' participle of most verbs of the weak conjugation IS the same in form as the preterite. It had its origin in an adSive suffix -.^or -A akin to -tus in Latin. The prefix ^/has been droppS " This conjugation contains many verbs of the old Teutonic sto?k of No£' Y^Lxr^'T' °^ '^' S^^°"^ Conjugation; aS verbs of JNorman, French, or foreign origm ; and all fresh formations. 225.— A. VERBS OF THE STRONG CONJUGATION. [Words in italics are obsolete forms.] Pres. blow crow grow know throw mow draw "w/fr«; f:j:'!::t't'""' "^ ™«"'-^*"'^'. ■"'" "-P'rf" Fret. blew crew grew knew threw mowed [inew\ mown drew drawn P. Pari. blown crowed \_crozvn'] grown known thrown Pres. hold lall lie slay see . eat+ beat Pret. held fell lay slew saw ate beat 5 P. Part. holdeu, held fallen lien, lain slain seen eaten beaten X The \cth/ret is a compound of eat (for -eat ^ ' eat awnw • r«,rr, ,. § A weak preterite b,tte or bet is found in oWwritcrl! ^ ' °*'™- ^'''"^^«.^''^"«0. VERB. 8z Pns. Pret. P. Part. Pres. P>^ A Part. drive drove, dravc driven stride strode stridden ride rode ridden strive strove striven rise rose nsen thrive throve thriven smite smote smitten write wrote written, writ chide chid [chodef chidden, chid bite bit bitten, bit slide slid \slode\ slidden, slid bid bade, bid bidden, bid spit spat, spit spit \spitten\ give gave given forsake forsook forsakent stave stove, staved (staved) shake shook shakenf come came come [comen take took takent 2. In most of the folloiving verbs there is a tendency to assimilate the vowel-sound of the preterite to that of the perfect particitle. Pres. Pret. P. Part. Pres. Pret. P. Part. bear bare, bore borne, J born tear tare, tore torn brnak brake, broke brokenf wear wore worn shear § shore shorn weave wove woven speak spake, spoke spoken t climb § clomb {clomhen^ steal stole stolen fight fought fought swear sware, swore sworn hang II hung \}ieng\ hung 3. Verbs in which the vowel of the perfect participle has been assimilated to that of the preterite, or the preterite has been adopted as a participle. Pres. Pret. P. Part. Pres. Pret. P. Part. abidelT abode abode tread trod trodden, trod shine shone shone sit sate, sat sat [seteni awake** awoke awoke get got, gat gotten, got stand stood stood 4. In most of the following verbs the preterite in A.S. had a in the singular and yx in the ph. il. Hence probably came the twofold forms of the preterite. The perfect participle has usually lost its suffix. In these vei-bs the i of the present tense, and the \x of the perfect participle are weakenings of the root vowel a. • " Jacob chode with Laban " {Gen. xxxi. 36). Chtd{= chidde) is of the weak form. t Took, forsook, shook, rode, broke, spoke, are used as participles by Shakspeare. J Born is now used only with reference to birth. Borne means carried. § Also of the Weak Conjugation. Jl There is also a transitive verb hang of the Weak Conjugation, which has got mixed up with the Strong intransitive verb. Chaucer uses heng as transitive. ^ In the phrase " Some shall dear abitie it " (Sh. Jitl. Caes. ii. 2, 119), ' abide ' is probably a mistake for the old verb abie or abye (in old English abiggen, pret. abought), derived from bycgan = ' to buy,' and means " Some shall pay dear for it. _ *• Also weak, awake, awaked. This verb (A.S. aweccan) is properly intransitive ; the transi- tive verb ought to be yeak (A.S. awacian). The forms have got mixed. Ml 'Ii I 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Pt^s. Prrr. />. Part. begin began, begun* begun drink drank, drunk* drunkenf drunk ring rang, rung * rung sing sang, sung * sung Sink sank, sunk * sunken,t sunk spin span, spun spun y^tes. Pret. p. Part. shrink shrank, shrunk shrunkenf shrxink spring sprang, sprung*sprung stink stank, stunk stunk strike strake, struck stricken,! struck swim swam, swum* swum Pres. bind find grind cling fling hide sling slink Pret. bountl found ground clung flung hid slung slunk P. Part. bound found ground clung flung hidden, hid slung slunk Pres. stick string swing win wind wring run } burst \ Pret. P. Part. stuck stuck strung strung swung swung won \;ivan\ won wound I wound wrung wrung ran run bur St burst Prei. freeze choose cleavell fly These verbs in A.S. had the following vowels :- Pres.eo ; Pret. Sing, ea ; /V. u ; />. Part. o. Pra. froze chose clave flew P. Part. frozen chosen cloven flown Pres. heave || seethe shoot 6. Verbs not inchided in the preceding classes, Pres. Pret dig II dug ■ (be)queath f quoth Pret. hove sod shot P. Part. dug P. Part. hoven sodden, sod shot [shotten] B.-VERBS OP THE WEAK CONa^GATION. Ve^;bS^£U^e?eHte^ are frequently called Regular by the simple 2.dd\i\LTo{e72trl'^ P^'I^'^'P f ^'^ ""iformly made 1 'S'""^ cmlury. ("mraples dnv, ,m,l, „d, nril were used as preiWileTin J It ff S SiSlf,"; "°»','»«<1 only " adjeclives. p|.Sp,^!n7:|;i''/^„7',t;iLS"LiS~^^^^^^^ III Also weak, cleave cleft rhft . i-ZV l "^^"f^'*- Compare the Scotch rin 1^ The simp e veX^S r^^^rt.l^^^' 'H'*''^'^' >'"^«^'^'^/ '%, di^^ed, /i^?J peaking/ iS Al^ir^^S.^llt^Z^'^^^'i'- ^o w15a /s ' Sot a thing by form quod, used by Chaucer. *^ ^'""^ ^""^ '^ '"^'^^(1 of 8 in the plural ; hence the •l! VERB. I. y^rfis in which the addition of the suffix d shortening 0/ the vowel-sound of the root. 83 or t I'j accompanied by a Pres. Pret. P. Part. trt-reave bereft bereft, bereaved crept* crept ■ dealt dealt dreamt, dreamed >«^«-luron, loren, of the Sg ConfugXn I From L A^^i / T/'^"'' r^lf P'-^^entes */.rfrf^, brcdde,fedde, ladde, ^eUe,&c. ■'"^"'°"- (/Li German ^S/f'^'lhe^fJ'''^ Y"^' ''^'^''K' '"^ ^^^^ '^^^^ ^^""V- ^^ '"r°'" ^'^'"^ ^^LaTdTlre'Slnditeremry" ' ""' ' '"" confounded, and the forms IT \'h7'iV'no^°I^frT'^u- '''\ •' ^' 'I'' ^^^^^ ^'^ °"'y ^^'«t!«s of the guttural sound, uses rI^«iA//nnH / • aV 'f °"'^ "'f'^i" '"''"=^''= '^^^ ^^ ^""^ '^e sibilant sound. Chaucer }etcA^r& =*"d f m«^^/^ for reac/ied and stretc/ifd (A«. T. 20.8). So also /a«X - \l f^wlr"''"'""^ ^'f' '^"^^^^^ '" Chaucer standetk becomes stant ; rydeth, ryt, &c \X 6heHd (German sc/icUuten) is used by Shakspeare. It means ' put to the bliish.' rii I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) // fe .^ A m I/., 1.0 l.i 1.25 1.4 6" 2.5 2.2 18 Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WiiBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 ;716) 87i2-4503 '^1 f^V ^.- ^ ^1 c^ 1.^ 6^ >^<^ '^i to 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Pres. cast cost cut hit hurt knit lett put rid Pres. go grave help hew lade melt mow rive saw shape Pres. clothe freight work 5. Verbs in whkh the suffix has disappeared * without further change. Pret. cast cost cut hit hurt knit let put rid P. Part. cast cost cut hit hurt knJt let put rid Pres. set shed shred shut slit split spread thrust Pret. set shed shred shut slit split spread thrust P. set shed shred shut slit split spread thrust Part. 6. Verbs with the -en of the strong conjugation in the perfect participle. Pret graved helped hewed laded melted mowed rived sa^ved P. Part. gone graven, graved holpen, helped hewn, hewed laden molten, melted mown, mowed riven, rived' sawn, sawed shapen, shaped Pres. Pret. P. Part. shave shaved shaven, shaved shew, show shewed, showed shewn, shown, shewed, showed shrive sow strew swell wash wax shrived sowed strewed swelled washed waxed shaped 7. Verbs not included in the preceding classes. Pret. P. Part. Pres. Pret. shriven sown, sowed strewn, strown, strewed swollen, swelled washen, washed waxen, waxed cladj clad freighted fraught, freighted wrought, worked wrought, worked P. Parr. lay§ Lid laid say§ said said have had (i.e. haved) had make made {i.e. maked) made 8. Tight is a participle of tie (A.S. tigan). Distraught \s an excep- tional form from the verb distract. Straight is for stretched. Dight (shortened from dighted) is from A.S. dihtan = 'to adorn.' Yclept is from the old verb clypian = to call. Go borrows a preterite from the verb wend, properly to wend (or turn) one's way.\\ Went was formerly a participle as well as a preterite tense. (" Is went" occurs in Chaucer, Pr. T. 1730.) The form yede (A.S. code) = 'went ' used by Chaucer, is from the root i = 'go.' • In these verbs, however, the second person singular of the preterite is made in full. castedst, thmstedst^ &c. t In old English the verb let ('allow' or ' leave alone') was a Strong Verb (A.S. IcEtaii) The strong preterite leet is used by Chaucer. Ihe past participle was laten, leten, or leie. From this came the adjective late (A.S. lat), meaning ' left alone ' or ' left behind,' ' coming after the rest. From this was made the causatiis verb let (A.S. let tan) = ' to make latef' to hinder. Of this Chaucer usvs the (weak) preterite letled. The two verbs were distinct enough in Chaucer s time (as "Sche leet no morsel from her Hppes falle,'' Prol. 128; "He letted nathis felawe for to see," :.e. 'he hindered not his companion from seeing," Kn. T. 1034), but are confounded in modern English. The meaning '^leave ' which the strong verb had {e.g. ' He leet (= le/t) his scheep encombred in the myre/" Frol. 508) is still seen it Zf/ me alone,' &c. Let had also the stronger meaning of 'make' or 'cause,' as "This proude king leet make a statue of gold " (Monies T. 3349). X Clad is a shortened form of cladde, A.S, claHode. \ The ji/ in these verbs is a weakened form of the double guttural eg. II Ago is a shortened form of agone. VERA 85 From the old verb won *=. ' to abide' t?;- 'be accustomed ' comes the preterite " I wont " == /was accustomed, and the present perfect "I am wont " (made like ' I am come '). The participle luont was turned into a noun (= ciistom), and from this noun is formed the adjective (not participle) wonted. F,aughth a shortened form oi fraughted from fraught (Dutch vrachten) a variety oijreight. " If i\iOM fraught " is found in Shakspeare {Cymb.). The following Weak Verbs were once of the Strong Conjugation: — Infinitive. Preterite in A.S. sleep sl^p {.sleep in Ch.) starve stearf-sturfon (j/'a;^^ in Ch. ) stop {slope '\vi Ch.) sweall-swuUon {swal'ia. Ch.) Infinitive. Preterite in A.S. carve cearf-curfon {carfva Ch.) cleaf-clufon {cleef'm. Piers PI.) creap-crupon {crop in Piers PI.) dealf-dulfon {dalfxxv Rob. 01.) healp-hulpon {halp in Ch. ) hleop {leep in Ch.) mealt-multon {mdlt in Piers PI.) cleave creep delve help leap melt step swell throng wash weep thrang {throng in Ch.) w6sc {wesh in Ch.) we6p {wep in Ch. ) PERSONAL INFLEXIONS OF AN ENGLISH VERB. 227. The following table exhibits the personal inflexions of a verb. Let a single stroke ( ) stand for the infinitive mood (without td)^ and a double stroke ( - ^==) for the first person singular of the past indefinite tense. I. 2. 3- I. 2. 3- I. 2. 3- Singular. Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Plural, t Singular. est «;,,. _j„f,,„de (lufigende). /Vr/ /'arA— {ge)lufod. Indicative Mood. Preterite Tense. Sing. lufode lufodest lufode Present Tense. Sing. Plural. 1. uje (lufige) lufjaS (lufigeaS) 2. ufast lufjaS (lufigeaS) 3. lufa« lu^aS (lufiieaS) Present Tense. ^'"'''^''t' ''''^'' Prete V , Sing. Plural. Sinf ' '. 2. ana 3. lufje luQen l5je (lufige) (lufigen) | /!!^t!:^!!^:fc:^!!^i2}^^^ iufja». Plural. lufodon lufodon lufodon Jense. Plural, lufoden l^^h'tV^.T!^'!^ English. The~;;;r^r;;7^7:77iirih77^^^^ — ^ — ? — . . .... '? earlier stages of the LnV.n J''°"'^ J^"''"" ^'"g"'^^ of the hynge." subjunctive does not belnnl^^V^'ft,^*""!-"''' "' ■«"" or -w m these VERB. Jjy VERBAL INFLEXIONS IN CHAUCER. ^t-^Ar'^inl"'^' Th"" p"'l',>'" "*'',^' ;^- '^^*^ Imperfect Participle ends in n^W..Vl^^ ■ ^\^^'^ Participle of Strong Verbs ends in -en ir -e ; that of Weak Verbs in -ed or -d (sometimes in -et or -t), and often has the prefix ge-, or its weakened form i-. ^' The inflected gerund is occasionally found (as ' to scene,' ATn. T. 177) The Present Indicative ha. in the Singula the suffixes (1) e, often e°rS,'ns °' ^ ^^*' ^^^ ®*^' """"^ '" ^^^ ^''"''''^ ■®'' ''' "^ ^'"' ^" When a verb ends in -d or ^t, -deth, or -teth is replaced by -t. as stant^s/andeth, yyt=^rydeth, brest^bresteth (bursts). The san^ inflexions occur in the Preterite Indicative of Weak Verbs. naii (A.b. sceal) is (m form) a nreterif#> + wv,«„ •* . , a present tense, anfither oreterS^ S!'/^^ V^ '* ^""^ *° ^« "^^^ as formed to supplyTp ace Thi ffl? °/''}5 '^'^'^ conjugation was ut:. ^" f ^•o^SaSlTnthe ve'r^m^eattotwrr '"" ^'^ " °' 'fro'm^thrwTl ?sotetuy„raSuf " T ^''^^^^'^^ ^-^ ^^^^- Hence it is used in direct or rennrf/n;. ''"? ^"^^ ^""^^"^^^ «°"rce. steal" ; .'Ye shail nrsu?ely d^e ' W ^-X'^e ii f 7'°" ^i'-^^^ "°^ ye shall die' ; " The tyrant shaH perish If'^'^r^""'^^^ ""^ ^'^^ ''^^^ will of others demand that the Untsh'al/"^^^^^^ °^^^' ttrL^^totetr!;^. "^-^^^^ ?t wS fated^r%topS ^>- 'It is your duty t^ ^ ^^^ I^o^nTon^--^: (< What 833. In,Sc«c^^ and in .he NonLTdir a' , .Slffl' ,,,,„,,, ,„ WILL. /«;f«;V'- '"' ^ thousand pounds?" Though the dative is essential to the meaning, the verb came to have ts modern sense independently of the dative.* p;rom the A.S. r/i'-a^ was formed a passive participle ^^Vy'hmg that pretty bin " {ShaksP^ bin is probably //«r«/, everyl nZ^n^^r ^ M"°^"x'"'"'y .. ^"1 "°.'*= ''" ' ^'a^. In the Northern dialect (t.g. in Ham- ihaksnir^"ff '„ ^""'*' ^' " """^^ T ^=; " t"'^ "^'l ""'^ alternative plural forms for 111 persons. M?fflv^;? "1f\" *1 * ?'"•■*'•• ^^ '^" *°'''^ ^ovi^y^l^ of the mere root (w = «i) without o~ k'.u T^ ^* *l" xf P "^*' *^ singular. Similar remarks apply to m/« and wtr. which are l^thplura in the Northern dialect. ('They was' in T. aJtoI, iv. i, 38.) ' \ for me full forms of these compound tenses see the paradigm of the verb smite. '!' i 9« ENGLISH GRAMMAR. , rrn ^*** I«deflnltn Tense. ^>iH>rnir£TJwere. Stromiary or Compouud Form. (When not preceded by Conjunctions. t) I. [II should be ; 2. [Thou] wouldsl be ; ^ [riel would be I. l^^e].houKi be; 2. [Youj would be ; 3: [TheV] Zli bo Past Pe.ffot Tense. fUsed mostly after //, that, though, uu'm, &c.) The same in form as the Indicative. Serondr.ry or Coh •>ound Form. (When not preceded by Conjunctions.t) I. [I] ^^Hould ha.-e been; 2. [Thou] wonldst have been; TWT 1 3- iHeJ would have l)een. ' I. t^^^'J.-'^^J";^^^^^^^ 2. [You] would have been; 3. 1 They] 'vould have been, ' Singular. Plural. Singular. ^ Utral. flft^r the analogy of tviit .md .//"// The fo m ILTa'a ^'"*'''"'' '"■""'^- "''•'•' '« f°™ed fourieenth cePturj', and w.,s preceded by «"] ffi/^lr T^T ■ " ^^'^'i^'h before -'<^"^ '"'J third persons aW /brnied by J/4^«/V/./ VERB. 97 2B1. ANQLC-SAXON FORMS. Inf.— beon, wesan. Imp. Part.— wesendc. Perf. Part.— (ge)wcscn. Indicative Mood. Present Tenae. 3 by« is (^ys) beoO sindon (sind) aron wses Wiicron Plural. i beoin (beo) 1 eom I -sindon (sind) (aron bist (byst) eart beo'S sindon (sind) aron Preterite Tense. Smi,-. Plural. waes wyeron WiLTC Wiuron Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense. Plural. I 1 beo < sie (si, seo) I wese ' beon ' sien (sin) 2 beo sie (si, sco) M'Cse beon sien (bin) \ wesen wesen Preterite Tense. Plural. wtSre WEercn Wicre waeren Imperative. Sing. Plural. I beo bcotJ 2 wes wesaS beo sie (si, seoj wese beon sien (sin) wesen wfare w^ren FORMS IN CHAUCER. Inflnitivo — ben, been, or he. Past P. — b^n, been. Indicative. Present Tense. Singular. I. am; 2. art; 3. htXh. or is. Plural, ben, am, or are. Preterite Tense. Singular, i. was ; 2. were ; 3. was. Plural. weren or were. Imperative. .^ingft/ar. be. PIuniL beth. 252. Inspection of the preceding forms will show that the con- jugation of this verb is made up from three different roots. H « 9^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^JhloM f^'^"^*^"'^ "^^'^^ indicative mooQ is formed f, ,m softened to r in «r;^and .r!. ' '^"^^^'^ '" ''"^ = '<^>^'' ^"^^ •in : " .e^"^''^^'' ''f «"«^^ *' l^as distinct The verb /v, therefor^ is W " ve^b S 'kTV' «."^'J""^''ive moods, in place of any other verb in . ! . ^ '''"^^t'^^fng it (if possible) '') an^l ^u («<.'w) in Greek and \ ine root «<« is sniH fr. rr.„..„ <_i -j^ ' VERB. 99 tive, and the Singular, Plural. Singular. Plural. i.n I. h Indicative Mood. Preaent Indefinite Tense. I. [I] do ; 2. [tHduJ dost ; 3. [He] doth or does. I. [We] do; 2. [You] do; 3. [They] do. Fast Indefinite Tense. ;i] .lid ; 2. [Thou] didst ; 3. [He] did. [We] did ; 2. [You] did ; 3. [They] did. 264/;. Do (when used as a notional verb) is not defective in Voice, Mood, or Tense. /^/V/ is a reduplicated Preterite. (See § 221.) The forni.s dofslandiloeth do' not belong to the verb when it is a mere .auxiliary, nor do the infinitive mood and the participles. Do requires the simple infmitive (§ 195) after it ('do love,' ike), except in the phrase "1 (we) do you to wit." 266. This verb do (A.S. tlchi) must not be confounded with ,lo from A. S. (lugau, ' to avail, to be strong, to jMofit,' which is used in the phrases • That will do,' ' Mow do you do ? '* &c. (In Scotch dozv, pret. dorA/, dozvcht oxdou^ht, from which we get doughty.) Through confusion the preterite did is now used for both verljs. ^ Do is used as an ordinary transitive verb, as ' He did the deed '; ' Do justice.' Formerly, also, when followed by the simple infinitive it had the sense of 'make or 'cause,' as :— " Schedoth me al this wo endure " (Chaucer, An. T. 1538 = 'She causes me to endure'; "They have done her understonde" {G<-nvfr) = 'They have made her understand ' ; " We do t you to wit." Do had also the .sense of ' put.' as don - ' put on ' ; dup -- ' put up ' (i e ' open ' • compare the German au/tAun) ; doj = ' put ofT ' ; dou/ or douse ^ ' put out ' Do IS also used as an intransitive notional verb, as " I shall not do so " i e * acf so. ' » • • 256. Do as an auxiliary verb, followed by the simple infinitive of a verb, constitutes .1 compound equivalent of the simple present or past indehnite tense of that verb. Thus " I do see " = ' I see' • " He did fall '' - 'he fell' When an emphasis is laid upon the auxiliary verb his form becomes the emphatic form J of the verb, as « I do love you " : Ihat aoes astonish me." This compoioui form is used in ordinary § speech Instead of the simple present and past indefinite tenses of verbs in negative and interrogative sentences, as :— " I do not hear you " = « I hear you not ; We did not speak" = 'we spoke not ' ; "Do you hear?" =r Hear you ? ' ; " Did he not say so ? » = ' said he not so ? ' But the verb do xs never employed when the subject of the sentence IS .in interrogative pronoun, or when an interrogative word qualifies the subject or an adjective attached to the subject, as " Who broke the w mdow?" "W hich boy did this ? " " How many persons voted ? " v™i.'.^\i'"f"=5,^"d functions of hfe]?" .tnd Compares the old French "Comment le fpLs \oiis r ho m German we have " Was machen .Sie ? " ^ ,;,, ' ""^ mc;t:! Vt c put ynu to the knowing Ol It ■ T PvL\. f •'"'r'*"9 ''«"»« 's 'lue entirely to the stress laid ufxm the auxiliary. It does not exist when there is no stress on the verb do. But then any verb becomes emphatic when a stress »o i.iiti upon It. § In poetry the simple forms are frequently retain«d. ■f^i I J lOO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [spend] *^; " We we/away Ke you did rll" *™'' '° """* "^ ^' ''«' nor is do used with the verbs Aale ^rLv ra J ifl/ ,A // ^ •F,^'''''^ ""^'^^ ' it may form an empAa^i, im/X'S/T'Ce'^^^^^^^ patience"; "Do be quiet." ^^' ^^ ^° ^^ave 257. Complete Conjugation of a Verb.* SMITE. ACTIVE VOICE. Infinitive Mood. P«r?fS'*?T'^T°J ''"'^^•' ^"^Perfect, [To] be smiting. Perfect, [To] have smitten. ^ Perfect of Continued Action, [To] have been smiting. Participles. Perfect of Continued Action, Havini been smiting. Indicative Mood. _. Present Indefinite Tense. Singular, i. [I] smite ; 2. [Thou] smitest : 3. f He! smites Plural. I. tWe] smite ; t [Y.^ smite ;' |. tThey] smite. Present Imperfect Tense. Pi.T r^*' ".^ ' ""• '^'^te"^ r '""^^^"S: J 3. [He] is smiting. [We] are smitmg ; 2. [You] are smiting ; 3. [They] are smiting. Sing. Plur. I. I. I. I. Present Perfect Tense. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. [1] have smitten ; 2. [Thou] hast smitten ; '3. [He] has smitten. LWej have smitten ; 2. [You] have smitten ; 3. [They] have smitten. Present Perfect of Continued Action. Stng. [I] I avftbeen smiting, &c. Plur. [We] have been smiting, &c. Past Indefinite Tense. Sing. I. [1] smote ; 2. [Thou] smotest ; 3. [He] smote. ' Plur. I. [We] smote ; 2. [You] smote ; 3. [They] smote. Past Imperfect Tense. I. [I] was smiting ; 2. [Thou] wast smiting ; 3. [He] was smiting. I. [WeJ were smiting; 2. [You] were smiting; 3. [They] were smiting. Past Perfect Tense. '■ f Hr \^^ ^,""'".^" ' ^- f^.^^"] ^^'^st smitten ; 3. [He] had smitten. I. [We] had smitten; 2. [You] had smitten ; 3. [They] had smitten. fnlI«L^^i" "°' be easy to make mistakes in the verb which is here given. Most grammars ana.ys;•sucta;;e;CtK^ihrofthe:rwoLIdTob^ VERB. lOI Past Perfect of Continued Action. Sing. [I] had been smiting, &c. Plur. [We] had been smiting, &c. Future Indefinite Tense. Sing. I. ri] shall smite; 2. [Thou] wilt smite; 3. [He] will smite. Plur. r. [We] shall smite ; 2. [You] will smite ; 3. [They] will smite. Future Imperfect Tense. Sing. [1] shall be smiting, &c. Plur. [We] shall be smiting, &c. Future Perfect Tense. • Sing. [I] shall have smitten, &c. Plur. [We] shall have smitten, &c. Future Perfect of Continued Action. [I] shall have been smiting, &c. Imperative Mood. Singular. Smite [thou]. Plural. Smite [you or ye]. Subjunctive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. (After if, that, though, lest, &c.) Singular, i. [I] smite ;* 2. [Thou] smite ; 3. [He] smite. Plural. I. [We] smite ; 2. [You] smite ; 3. [They] smite. Present Imperfect Tense. (After if, that, though, lest, &c.) Sing. I. [I] be smiting ; 2. [Thou] be smiting; 3. [He] be smiting. Plur. I. [We] be smiting; 2. [You] be smiting; 3. [They] be smiting. Present Perfect Tense. Sing. I. [I] have smitten ; 2. [Thou] have smitten ; 3. [He] have smitten. Plur. I. [We] have smitten ; 2. [You] have smitten ; 3. [They] have smitten. Present Perfect of Continued Action. [I] have been smiting, &c. Past Indefinite Tense. Identical in form with the Indicative. Secondary or Compound Form. (■When not preceded by Conjunctions.) Sing. I. [1] should smite ; 2. [Thou] wouldst smite ; 3. [He] would smite. Plur. I . [We] should smite ; 2. [You] would smite ; 3. [They] would smite. (After if, that, lest, &c. , the second and third persons are formed with shouldst and should.) Past Imperfect Tense. (Used mostly after if, that, though, &c.) Sing. I. [I] were smiting; 2. [Thou] wert smii ng ; 3. [He] were smiting. rlur, I. l\\ ej were smiting ; 2. ^i ou] were smiting ; 3- [They] were smiting. • After that the present and past indefinite tenses of the subjunctive are expressed by compounds of »K»y,— • That I may smite,' ' That I might smite,' &c. < \ I -1, if 'Sf Mi '1, ■■■t.'i X02 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Pli '■■ 1^' Plur. I [I] [We] have smitten ; have smitten ; I' ■!♦■ ir; J^^'ondary or Conditional Form (When not preceded by Conjunctions.) Stng. I. [IJshould besmitine- 2 rxh^ n ,> /V/^n ,. [WeJ should b^fSJ^: 2 ^71"^°^^^^^ Past Perfect Tense. Used mostly after .>^ though, unless, 8cc,) [IJ had smitten, &c. (Like the Indicative ) n.rf'"'"'^'*''-^ ""^ ^^''^'ditional Form. When not preceded by Conjunctions.) should have smitten; 2. rThn„l . u . ■\ THf-l wn„u iT '■ . "J wouldst shonlH ho -• • "'^ ^^^« smitten, snould have smitten: 2 rVn„i u ,,, ., 3. [They] would ha;e smktL '^"^ - ' (After If, though, lest, &c., the second and th r^ sAouldst and rLS^)'^ ^"^"""^ ^'' ^^^med with I in ZT ^^"^^^"^ °^ Continued Action. I. LU had been sm.tmg ; 2. [Thou] hadst been sm'ing. &c. I. [I]shouldhavebeef:St;.;' ^Thtr' ^^^^ ng , 2. LThouJ wouldst have been smiting, &c. PASSIVE VOICE. Infinitive Mood Indefinite. [Tol be smitten. Perfect. [ToJ have been smitten. Participles. Indefinite. Being smitten. I-erfect. Smitten, or Having been smitten. Indicative Mood. Sin^ T n^ ^"".^^^^^ Indefinite Tense. ^. !: ^^%TarrsSe;"2^|yru^^ ^'"'"^"^ 3- [He] is smitten. J e smitten , 2. [You] are smitten ; 3. [They] are smitten. T rn ,. -Present Imperfect Tense. I. [IJ am being smitten ; 2. [Thou] art being smitten, &c. rn u •^^®®®^* Perfect Tense. Past Indefinite Tense. I. [I] was smitten; 2. [Thou] wast smitten; 3. [He] was , r„. T smitten. ' ^ '•"cj was Sing. Plur. Sing. Phjy ! Il M VERB. 103 Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Plur. Past Imperfect Tense. Sing. [I] was being smitten, &c. Plur. [We] were being smitten, &c. Past Perfect Tense. [I] had been smitten ; 2. [Thou] hadst been smitten, Ac. . [We] had been smitten, &c. Future Indefinite Tense. [I] shall be smitten ; 2. [Thou] wilt be smitten j 3. [He] will be smitten. [We] shall be smitten ; 2. [You] will be smitten : 3. [They] will be smitten. Future Imperfect Tense. [I] -shall be being smitten, &c. Future Perfect Tense. Sing. I. [I] shall have been smitten ; 2. [Thou] wilt have been smitten ; 3. [He] will have been smitten. I. [We] shall have been smitten ; 2. [You] will have been smitten ; 3. [They] will have been smitten. Imperative Mood. Sing. Be [thou] smitten. Plur. Be [ye] smitten. Subjunctive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. (After if, that, though, &c.) I. ri] be smitten ; 2. [Thou] be smitten; 3. [He] be smitten. I. [We] be smitten ; 2. [You] be smitten ; 3. [They] be smitten. (After that the present and past indefinite tenses are replaced by compounds of may, ' That I may be smitten,' * That I might be smitten,' &c.) Present Imperfect Tense. (After if, that, though, lest, &c.) Sing. [I] be being smitten, &c. Plur. [We] be being smitten, &c. Present Perfect Tense. (After if, that, though, &c.) Sing. I. [I] have been smitten ; 2. [Thou] have been smitten ; 3. [He] have been smitten. Plur. I. [We] have been smitten, &c. Past Indefinite Tense. (After if, that, though, &c.) [I] were smitten; 2. [Thou] wert smitten; 3. [He] were smitten. [We] were smitten, &c. Secondary or Conditional Form. (When not preceded by Conjunctions.) Sing. I. [I] should be smitten ; 2. [Thou] wouldst be smitten ; 3. [Me] would be smitten. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. '% I'S 104 i I |i ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Plur, Sing. Plur. Past Imperfect Tense. (After //, that, though. Sic.) [I] were beine smitten ; 2. [Thou] wert being smitten • , rw 1 ^' H '^J ^^'*^ ^^*"K smitten. ^ ' I. LWeJ were bemg smitten, &c. Past Perfect Tense. Identical in form with the Past Perfect Indicative. Secondary or Conditional Form. (When not preceded by Conjunctions.) '■ ^^^Sn•^''TH.'^ Ti'l'"' I t'^^°"^ ^°"Wst have been I. [WeTshoid 'half Lr Ir^Srn 1" fSTwould h H . --tten, 3. [They] would ha^Vb^en^mSen"^"''''^^ (After Conjunctions the second a^d tM^^^ persons are for.ed with ...... J^^^^l^^^ pt^pTi s^!!^°" ^' ^" ^"^^'^^ -b auxiliaries ^^^^^;^^i^^^^ or eUher both a Voice-sign and a Tense siTtT tk u ^" ■ Passive it is •forms of tlie present anrSensrnf.t.^'r''™?"^ or periphrastic verbs^ WheS thus used .^^^^1 t'^l^o'odS™ "ii^f.^^'" 5- Do IS used as an auxiliary to form Present and P«?lJ^?''-. Tenses, under the restrictions stated in §256 Past Indefinite ADVERB.* attributes which Ire denoted by S^/^I "^ ^""""' " juncuom are S,cm4ar, P^rU of S^uT^ S« 1 al' Adv5rl>!, Prepositions, and Con- ADVERB 105 In like manner different instances of an action or attribute arc distinguished from eacii other as regards the Time, the Place, the Manner, the Degree, or the Attendant Circumstances in which each occurs or is found. These constitute the * Condi- tions ' which limit an action or attribute, or distinguish it from other instances of the same sort. 250. Definition.— Adverbs are words which denote the con- ditions which limit or distinguish an action or attribute. This is what is meant by saying that an adverb is a word which modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb, as "He writes badly "; " The book is too long " ; '' He reads very badly." 260. An adverb adds something to the meaning of a verb or adjec- tive, but does not alter the meaning of the word itself 'Writes badly," means all that ' writes ' means, and ' badly ' besides. But this word ' badly ' restricts the application of the verb ' writes ' to a certain class of the actions described by it. Therefore we may also have the Definition. — An Adverb is a word which adds to the meaning, and limits the application, of a verb,* adjective, or other adverb. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 261. Adverbs may be classified in two ways, (i) according to their syntactical force, (2) according to their meaning. 262. As regards their syntactical force adverbs are of two kinds:— I. Simple Adverbs ; 2. Conjunctive Adverbs. A simple adverb is one which does nothing more than modify the word with which it is used, as ** \Vc arrived yesterday " ; " He is coming hither." Interrogative adverbs come under this head, as " Whither has he gone ? " (where whither modi- fies has gone)] "How many were present?" (where ho7v modifies many). A conjunctive adverb is one which not only modifies some verb, adjective, or other adverb in its own clause, but connects the clause in which it occurs with the rest of the sentence ; as when ("Come when you are ready") ; whither (" Whither I go, ye cannot come"). Here when modifies the verb are, and whither modifies go. 263. A relative adverb always refers to some demonstrative word, expressed or understood, which stands to it in the same sort of relation that the antecedent stands in to a relative i>ronoun, as, " Come {then) iu\cn you are ready ;" " There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose." %^. ,• An Adverb maybe attached to an Infinitive Mood or a Gerund, as " To rise early fc;r rising early) is a wholesome practice." }: i ■ 1^ i' '! il ''■ i' !; : !'■ 1 ^ io6 ENGLISH r.RAAfMAR. verb Mia,,., ,„ „,„ .^^ ^, ,t 7 ' Z T' ''', "'''"' ""«"'')' "•'"I'" <"■ ace' rS;„g ^;^,t'';!,;;:■„'/:r "^'^ '"'^^^"■^^ -""^ "e clarified t /s in such a sentence as • '. Thi • w ^ . ^""^'"''^'^ '"•■ ""= me how you did it "A «,:; • " '"* ^-"is how he did it " In " H «.. i- 1 .J^.(.a early En^^^iish f,A, "l .^^r- A s'^;; "'^^^''^^^" -''-'' ^ 'H^ it." --two n..S;.a,ur)^sn,::L=:./J'' -- -•0'/«".v«fe^:^.,ff'^-"-_''-y could • nc leof also mi /ader ' V'h^l'l'r '^'^'='- ^ ' /«"' dives removed fro ..-iC^^^ ^n me leof also mi /X ^'^L^.t';'-^ f^'^''^'" =' '«''' dives -— "!nsolchern;/,.er.- '■- — t„i (icrcnce, /'/,<;,•,«. m. a/'^ajfg^T* ADVERB. ZO7 8. Adverbs of Repetition : Ome, twice ^ &c. 4. Adverbs of Manner : Wcll^ ill^ badly, how, however , so, as. To lliis cliiss belong the mimerous adverbs formed from adjec- tives by the sullix ly, as rightly, badly, &C. 5. Adverbs of Quantity or Degree : Very^ nearly^ almost^ OMces, ' by the will of God ' ; ivordes and dy is sometimes placed before these words, as "By inchmeal." § F.7iey\^ somefimes wrono'Iy substituted for nevey in sufh expressions , is " He told never So many lies," " Be they never so many," i.e., 'be they many, so that they were never so many.' In like manner people commonly say, ' Don't do more than you can help,' instead of ' Don't do more than you can't help ' {De Morgan). liil 'I m 108 ENGLISH GRAMMA. . qu^llfyinTadlectit' a^^' W^i '"" '"•7.'"= "f','^ ^' "''^"bs without a I lyi ij, .itijccuve, as We journeyed Aome' (or Nor//i South ^r \ rf..r,'n^rl„ "/■ """^ •■"■''. <'"'>*'' from nouns by the suffix -lonr SaS. Adverbs derived from Adjectives. ^r!l^,^!?'"™ f'*" -'.appears in rf.r<. (i.e. elUs, the genitive of a we^e i^tiyJt^lZw" •fZ"'": = '■"''•'"'•'• ''^ "«"^*) and /,W/i -Lftr'ors^-,,S::-as?tL:^^^^^^^ ^"^ °"« 'inSn^M n . ',^''-' ^^ ''^''^ ^'^^ adjective 7<.W( = Lat. ver^Tns ^^^' lion of whTrh """^r'^" ' '"^'^ '" Anglo-Saxon was -e, the omis- adlectl from lr.h T"^ -^verbs to the same form asX — -— IZZ^ ^''^y "^^'^ derived.|| Thus, " He smot evidence of this i.s forth omi£" S'cXon 7A,'*^'"°"f »''-« ro/^.lL^rLt, but no I'.ssum • So "to )'5ma:rd«ge^ at daybreak V^?^^' 1^?^ ??'=»'-%.»f>« f"" Phrase " [o d^ge (•f v.) both treat the to a.s a Dreoosition T^.^f "^ • ^^' , 9''**" ('^- P- 54o) and Stratmann mistaken for a participle and th^ i adverb by Spen.ser , formerly ^rojlyn^es was Chaucer CA'.. r.^„.) w^Tekd '« Thei illen^ur' iTth"^''^? .^T ". (Skeatf S// i>S In «^/««^also gave Sirth to a verb 'to s ''«" .?^k ' ^ ''" downw.-jrds. ^/^^//«^ or ..'/?. °Jd F-jench there was an adv.^'f.i;; ,. ... ^ -'-l-?: l^^\ c .■ - li. \oiipiay m^/a/se,- ' I scarce ^■^cil'^^hlm^^-^^"'^ S'""'^ "f .^^V '"t° English, and preaous promises." 'Less «./« W s^f ' fe 2 i '' I'sT'" Tr\^-^-*''-^^'^"'^ K^"^'''' .. "»i \rar. /,. n. 478), Ihou did.st it excellent.* ADVERB. 109 without a ^uth, &c.). prooeded d together bed, asUep. &c. With by twain). ' itself an adverb, as in " Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth th ir that fear Him." Here like is repeated in so. In "He talks like a fool," ///t^ is an adverb, and is itself qualified adverbially (} 372, 4) by ' [to] a fool.' (Compare the dative after similiter in Latin.) When adverbs are formed from adjectives in -/* preceded by a consonant, e is cut oflf and y only is added, as able, ably. Ly is not added to adjectives ending in ly. Y is changed to i before ly, as in bodily, merrily, daily. Before -ly It is reduced to /, a.s/Mll,/ul-ly. The e of ue is elided, as in truly, + This suffix appears in the Latm ci-tra, >4nd in trans and tra. It comes from an Aryan root meaning ' go beyond.' The comparative -ther, in fact comes from the same root. t These forms are often replaced by here, their, and where even in the best writers. S Then and when are varieties of the forms than and whan, which are usual in Chaucer. it 1 lie 1-L.j. r:c:,-ntc7t pAssrzu i;i:uUg:: iiic suriiK; nconcnc, ncnne ('-uauccr, tara. i .), ncn?tes {Piers PI.), and hens {Lidgate). Similarly thenze and whence, come from thanon and hwanon {whenne - whence in Chaucer^C/.. T. 588). An or on was a suffix denoting ' from.' Thus notiSan = ■* from the north.' Compare the n in the Latin hi-n-c, i-n-dt, u-n-tu. . { ^^B ^■ j^^k \ i\ ,*•■ U I no ENOLISH GRAMMAR. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation. =^.:''^^?:^:^^^:;:^ r: s r '%""= ^^^^ - '"e a.s. . subjunctive verb « or «,. ' be It ■ M/„yTP 'Vf ■^''^ "■'-'''■•'"d the oW a conc»ponciin,. ne^.-uive „tL V|fe1t no, 'z '*'"'^- '" ^'^^ ">"e was put a?.:;"' t's ,;?rc Tr,irte'""^)',f "^^ "j'^, ^''■■•'- "^"^ -^ 's sl.oncned form of «„„^v,/ or ;Lrf/ r/. ; . T ""■'■" '" '='•»"«'■) '» '-^ and consequently is a slren.Xned ,,„,•""'''*' = ''t'''''' '' "■"'".'). or ■ in no respect ' It was «^^!^ "T'"'" ' ""'■"""IS ' '" no decree,' tive,§ just nsf^Chaucir and „',: ":?f ';r:'™«";r! ■•' I«vious n'eg.al knew he that it was Arcite/' c",™,) """""■'' < Nothing ne T^o ami }i(tv are only vaii.-ties of »w /: „ /» in one wt^ni. ""' '^" '^'^^'^'"^^ but an adverb and verb • Ay is in Gothic ahv, from aiws ^ an atre If h, .. ^~" — fi 1. . / «■ • ""- '^•^"■' •'*'"'-' *"ii"(i separate n« " fl " . "" "'^ ''•■^"" >W. fight {Jit-invH/n. in 'A-,)/ « /„V ■ a J ■ .^ "*^ mealite w ht cefeohtiii " ' H„ ^ i i gc.seah„^fre;ufnma>?S'K';i ''8)""^^^"^' ""' .""""■•''''■=^«''' f'V repetition- ,- ,. - M. ^. g.ish w-«,- - «,vy/,<-r-«,,n ' ' '"•• b^'-'""": 'They had not," ^:c J,, oM ir ^^ o. .,. was wruten , .n th. older writers. (See Ro„,. an, J. iii. ,.) ADVFRR III Adverbs are sometimes used after prepositions, so as to serve as compendious expressions for a qualified substantive, as " 1 have heard that before fimv ; '^ " He has chan^jed since ///«•«," No7v is equivalent to " the time ww being ; " MfcV/ to " the time //it'n l)eiiig." 273. It has been seen that adverbs are for the most part cases or inodilications of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, or combinations of these with prepositions, which through being restricted to some (Iclinite use have ' hardened' into a separate group or ' i'art of Speech.' While the case retains its ordinary functions in full, or the preposition is distinct from the word governed by it, we get what may be termed an 'adverbial adjunct' ; but if the meaning of the case is restricted or lost,* or the prc<|)osition or adjective has been welded into one word with the noiii that follows it, the result is an adverb. COMFABISON OF ADVERBS. 274. Some adverbs admit of degrees of comparison. The comparative degree of an adverb is that form of it which indicates that of two actions or qualities which are compared together, one surpasses the other with respect to some condition of manner or degree by which they arc both marked, but in different degrees. Thus, " John reads ///, but Thomas reads worse" ; " I was but Z^'///*? prepared, but he was /ess prepared." The superlative degree of an adverb is that form of it which indicates that out of several actions or qualities which are compared together, one surpasses all the resi with respect to some condition of manner or degree by which they are all marked, but in different de"[rees ; as, " t)f all these boys, William writes de<^" ; **John was less cautious than I, but Thomas was the /eas^ cautious of the three." 276. The suffixes for comparison are now -er and -w/. In Anglo-Saxon they were -or and -ost, which were appended to adverbs in -' "Mageable proportions ,H w i.h f '"'' 'I ""'" "»'"' 1»« » The preposition doe, not ««f the m. rf .h^ „»; i",f''"''°"- J" '!'«"«■» " « i-^orrect. mncfon was to modify or define the JS^,,. .; .,,1S ™ f,,'"' "'?' {»"<"•? 1; Its oH.inal Tnis 15 easil) seen in Greeli, where severarnf th. ■ ■ "'° "««,•»: l"ie wludi it is plied, .laced before, different casis. ^rS:gV'S^S^rS:X.t:\:t'Zf^lLt\st4;:. PREPOSITION. "3 Superlative. farthest erst last er, or utter, g the super- or pro- :h things, \ In "I larks the n "Tom ation (of igto the lation of ti follows governed <^r was an «i5)- The terra (adj.) form of ere 's xxiii. 15). ler," rather say "That se is " One laucer. ;s "placed 'tion in the »m nomini are placed mplies the 'hether we ig ' to ' the i therefore be relation difficulty oportions. one noun ? incorrect, s original is placed, rather are ses reprc' 278. Things and their actions and attributes can only bear relation to other things. Therefore a preposition can only be placed before a word that stands for a things that is, a substantive. It connects the noun or pronoun which follows it with a preceding substantive, verb, or adjective. ORIGIN OF PREPOSITIONS. 279. The original function of prepositions was to give definiteness to the somewhat vague ideas of the relations of actions to things, which were expressed by the case-endings of nouns. They exhibit three stages of construction. (l.) They were prefixed to the verb, which they qualified adverbially, forming in fact a compound with it, (2.) They were detached from the verb, but not prefixed to the noun. At this stage it is often difficult to tell whether we are dealing with a preposition or an adverb. (3.) They acquired the force of prepositions, and were placed before the nouns. The first stage is represented by such a sen- tence as " BigstandaS me strange geneatas " {Caedmon) -'Stout vassals bystand me ' ; the second stage by " Again the false paiens the Christen stode he by" {P. Langtoft) =' Against the false pagans the Christians he stood by' ; the third by " He stood by the Christians." * 280. From this it is obvious that the Preposition has been developed out of the Adverb, and that its original function was to show the relation between an action or attribute and a thing, by modifying a verb or adjective. The forms of many (such as between, about, behind, amid, &c.) show conclusively that they were originally adverbs or adverbial phrases. It is only through the intervention of an attributive word, which was afterwards dropped, that Prepositions came to show the relation of one thing to another, "The book on the table" =:: " The book lying (or being) on the table," and so on. CLASSIFICATION OF PREPOSITIONS. 281. Prepositions may be arranged in the following classes : — sented respectively (in a somewhat vague form) the ideas of motion from, position at, and motion to. Take the preposition Trapci as an example. It denoted the idea oi'' alongside of.' Put it before the above three cases in turn, and we get the more definite ideas— i. 'from alongside of ' ; 2. ' in a position alongside of; 3. ' to a position alongside of.' A moment's reflection is enough to snow that ira/jd could not of itself convey such opposite meanings as ' from ' and ' to,' and so cause different cases to be used after it. It does no more than define the 'from' and the ' to ' which are denoted by the case-endings. Similarly n-por indicated front of .' Accordingly with the same three cases we get the meanmgs— i. 'from the front of ; 1. 'in front of ; 3. 'to the front of.' The Latin apud is the same word as the Greek uird, and ab is a shortened form of it. The difference of meaning does not really reside in the preposition itself, but has sprung out of the different cases before which it is placed. From the kind of notion that they express, some prepositions (as ex, de, per, &c.) could only define some one case. It will easily be seen how, as case-endings dropped out of use, prepositions became more and more imnortant, and more definite in their signification. In English the primary space- relations of ' motion from,' 'rest at,' and ' motion to ' have ceased to be marked at all by case- endings ; they are expressed by prepositions and verbs. Some prepositions are used with relation to hi&vement only, as into, through, toivards ; the greater number arc used wilh reference to »w//o« or rest indifferently. Compare "He sticks to his work," "He ran to the door," " He works at home," " The dog flew at him," &c. • The student of Greek will have no difficulty in tracing these three stages, ti Ir J f ii I L i» 114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (I.) Simple Prepositions, at * forth by from J fort in of or off on through § (2.) Prepositions derived from Adverbs. a. By a comparative suffix. till II to up with afterIF over- u^derft '^. By preflxinR a preposition to an adverb abaft (A.S. a-be-seftan) above (A.S. a-be-ufan) about (A.S. a-be-utan) afore (A.S. on-foran or setforan) before (A.S. bi-foran) behind (A.S. be-hindan) beneath (A.S. be-neoSan) adown tt or down (A. S. of diine) astride beyond (A.S. be-geondan) but (A. S. biitan = be-iitan) throughout underneath (A.S. under-neoffan) within (A.S. wi».innan) without (A.S. wi»-utcn) against J $ (A.S. on-gegn, ongean) along (A.S. andlang ||||) ^ amid or amidst (A. S. on middum) beside or besides f- « hv . among ..amongst (A.S. on-gemangf ir)betweer*- (= ' L7tw^ betwixt athwart (AS. on >weorh crookecf) below beside or besides (= ' by side ') • ^/ and the Latin a4. The ^^^'P^ti^'^\^^^^^ ^'-' (equivalent to the Intil = ,.m^-///, ««^^ = u>,d.to,U. ' aU the waTto ■ ^""'^^ ^"'^ appeared as oV. ani "rregltT^e'Tft i^' "^Lftr;^!^'^ ' ^^^^ ^^P^''^ ^^ t''- - >— '^ (= /...«-«..^. § Phrases lip-p 'on thic -;H" fKc r; ' ' i. j i ■ i ,. . ac,>.i,i„g ,h. rorceof "o^ion"'"' °° '"'""' =''*■ '''»"""y *»»' "« adv.rbiai phrase iifi ii'i I If) ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I rrcpositions were fust used to express relation in .sA/.r, then ihcv were anphccl i.) .elation in //w, and lastly were used metaphorically to mark reUiticMis o{ causulity or modal ityr 884. At, with roIatU)n to space, marks (i) the point to which a move- mn> .s dn-ecto.l (as ' Th. d.,, sprang „/ hhn ' / • llv at this ') ur the olnl tiof- ;i\Z'l rTr'r'' ""•■^''"^""' ^^^ '^S.\^^.. arrive:;, our dos'ina. • Th.. ;Jf? 1 fV ^J^ «" r"«" '^f t'""B ("'^ in * Wo din.,! at tho hotel ' ; wh .,. ' ''''''" )•,. '>^'"^-'-' " ^'*"»^'^ <" ^lenote th. ,7V, «„/,/<,«, r.. in ht battle ; ,// onmity ; S,/ leisure ' ; ',// full speed ' ; * to play „/• cards ) o. he .vv..,..« or ././,•„„,„/«,. ./;■,„,;/./„,;... of an action (as •Ile\-unie /n ; call; We rejo.ce at your success'; 'I am at your meuv,' vS:c ) At >s • /^th. ..;/•. *^i? ''"'''v' '>■ "•^''''"■''■^ '-^ estimated .// thre? .nillions ' ; -•v//* me' (OV//. xlii U>) Vestiges of tins use are still found in - To receive at the hands of;''.^'. ^ rr«f nr'"'T ('!.'''^>^"^tJ^i''e of,' or 'close to,' in connection either with rest or w.th motion as 'Sit /.j- me ' ; 'The path runs hv the river' 'We Shltr^'Cn't^ ;/'^";"^ '' In-self, •';>., ' with' himself as hi. oni; neghhour lo put a thing by is to put it somewhere mar, or /y/ our mil ot /.i/n>«/ ; hence, out of the way, just as we say, ' to put asidj A thine appens by the way when it happens beside the Jv, tha is. not as a pa t of the mam proceeding. If a man swears by an altar or a relic he nhicS 1 s hand on „. or goes close up to it. To come by a thin^ is to ge c osJ u p to so as to he able to get possession of it. ( •) rf I arrivt by ten^'clo k S e tin ' a^ri^^icl r^^ ^^\ I' ^r^"!"'-'^' '^'"^^'^ the doer or instrument of an inote the 3rr'"'^-'^1 '" ''^''* ^^^'^'^'''y ''^ ^'^^^ ^^^•''»»- 'I'-'^^^ ^;)' came lo Tx^ess o le-'is c^r'f 'A /'"''' '^ "'^'^'^ ''^' ^^^'« y--." implies that th^ ^::i^^Z.:^:i^l.r^'''-' 3^>-^..- P"t ^-.^/V another to n^asure or ™re it ; hence such piii^seTa^ ' loll V e ;^'^Tdd 2 ^.K the gallon,' ' by (= m accordance with) your advice.' ^ '' '" *'""»' In a more general sense by marks any concomitant circumstance, as in ' hy nyiliHSl. as in l kur^w iii\»if iixY- A..™, .wi) /T ^> • .. • , .. -?» tut thr jou^^s K;e;;ch io.^T''(;;?^?^t" ^'- ''''''^- '^" ^^ ^ " "^'^ ^^^ o bot) IS a compound of be, bi or /y. and ;L« ' outside ' ( n-^,./) It means htenUly 'on the outside of,' and thence 'without' or 'except ' It is ouite Se'"i?!^L«Li^,_P':^o-tion in A^S. and in early English and Scottish mitirsj yelr*^;^^?^:^,^^;^'^^;; »j,r^/i--'>-«h t.. heart-- ; .^77 b.o^u;ih;;;;;^irVhc n.«g^t ••! canton 'wuln;r'nl,'w"w/'^'Si'r' ^^•''"'- ^^'s) ; " Hutan nettu.n huntian ic rKKPllSITION. I', then ihcy tiiphorically licli a move- or the point ' our (lostina- /• tiR' hotel ' ; urnsttitttes ill rt' present y our sidt; e. A thinji; as a part of e places his osc up to it, u'k, the tinjc erly dent)tes i next ti' the nnent of an /'y came to r'\* They es that the another to ' 'to drink ?, as in ' by ' twos and thinjf adout " How say , fioute, but It means It is quite ih writers.^ tlirougli the ide.' a huntian ic 0- "Touch 117 Sec Sirntmann (*■.:',) and Miitrnrr (Worfs.7'). It is still used as n prepo. sit.on (moauiiij; 'except' or ' leaviny out '), as in • All /vut that." It is «)f(en followed by the simple inlinitive, as "lie did nothing; l>i,t { except) laujjh." In the older writers the {^enmd was used after it, as " Hut beinj,' eiiar|^M«(l, we will be stdl by land ' {.hit. ami VI. iv. 2, l), i.e. 'leaviiij; out the case of beinj; attacked, we will make no movement by laud.* l'"or the way in which the proposition but developed into the conjunction, see § 203. In lormation and meaniiifr but {-by out) is closely analojjous \o ivith-out, which also was by turns adverb, preposition and conjunction. {.S,y (\>ii junction.) Ill course of time the pre|)ositional functions were chiclly monopolized by -u'lt/iout, the conjunctive functions by but.* About (A...S .ibiltatt, i.e. d-br-Jtan ou-by-out) means 'just on the outside of,' and licii't- 7v, J near to either in space or in time, without any idea o( ruroffi- /'assiui;: Thus "Have you any money (//'c/// you ?" ; "It is rt/w// (i.e. very near to) four o'clock." ' To set r?/',-/// a business ' is • to set [oneself] f/f'.ir to it, so that there may be no delay m bejjinnintj '^' '^ was about t«) Observe ' means *Iwas (Amv to obscrvinj;.' Wdug lixvpicntly coupled with rouu(/ (* louuii about') it aocpiired the secondary sense of 'on all sides of,' as "Set lunmds ,;/><>«/• the mount" ; and with a figurative extension ' He told me all about it,' * I will see about that.' For in Anglo-.Saxim means ' in /rout of 'before,'' with refere. -c both to place and to time. (Compare the Latin /;■,».) I-'rom the idea of standin^^ in Jrofit ly came lirst that of tiefauiin^i:;, as when we say ' To fight/;/- one's king,' This easily p.isses into the idea of'oM behalf of, or to the advantai^e of, as "1 jileadedy.^;- him in vain " ; "All this was done/'/- you." For tlien came to denote reprexentiui;, or takint^ the place oj (compare A»t1 and fro). Thus an ativocate appears /v his client, or one jierson is 'taken for another'; oris ' responsible for another.' This idea of substitution «)r e.\chan):;c often occurs, as in 'To diey^;-'; 'To exchange, barter, or sell for' ; 'Mya for eye.' /•'.xchaui^e passes into the sense of recjuital, as 'He was j)unished for the crime,' and by a further extension into that of the ground, cause, ^n purpose of an action. This itlea underlies such j^hrascs as ' grateful /'r,' 'sorry f)r,' 'to .sceky;»/-,' 'to waity Thopas.) In anil on are varieties of the same root. (See Skeat, lit. Diet.) From marking the locality of what is contained in something else, in came to be used with reference to surrounding circumstances, as ' in diflficulties,' ' in hope,' '/« liquor,' 'in motion.' The iphere of a movement or activity suggests the idea of the material or the means enqiloyed ; thus we get 'wrought;;/ silver,' 'written in blood,' 'to pay /;/ coin.' In is often used in the sense of into, as " He put his han.l/// his pocket " ; " He dipped his pen in the ink." On nmon in A.S. in the sense of /;/, as "on heofenum " = ' in heaven'; 'his pr.aise shall be in my mouth.' We IS comm "HislofbySon minum mii»e " .-Ml' M * It is nccess.-»ry to warn the unwary that the be with which this word is compounded has notluinj whatever to do with the verb ' be.' H n i^ ..I: ii8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. distanceof "yard" 'To,to,sUr?Vf '=,^^^^^ ""= «"=»■!'«■> the m^XVtht . 2- f/ denotes /mm/^«, as in 'The house e/ my father^ or of a .hi„,, as ■„ . A «a„ ./hig"S„^ f" Tp eC/g": ? S,£ ""'"''"' A man\ works or productions come^,, hTm. Hin^e we sn«k of ' a „T,« a^wig^^fpK^^s^^^jT^!" ^^ in •'''^''^"« '"'s sort nad the jjemtive atici them. ' ' ompare ';« lay on the lition,' * on ised in this ouncing the : commonly It indicates is the start- '; 'Along ioing came 0/ a good Ihood/ A ood within within the rt distance /^«.' The eanse of ; i ' keeping ell or taste t of it, or is used in ' To par- "ather,' or ess 0/ the issive. e we say, ide a fool From racteristic f * a play he source neans, as ed ^all :rly from tie action •m) him ' td of an of one's e love of it.' So amotions [It of the 'cting in speak of it be done 's senses.' PREPOSITION. 119 Cicero,' Cicero is the starting-point of our speech .copy taken/,.,,, it, •„, ,L, there „p:S=S'> a VearTmL" 'Z^g': >a 01 the vf!ir ' " A co^y of a thin^ ' is ce^n pericxl reckonedy>^\h; e^d of! j;^ ' ^^^^{^^^^ -A.S. day /day"), ir the jJ^^iS, whfch" f th^ tluK tL ^°" °" '^""^ 'close to,' or (of time) ' to-da/' « /n niX ' c i r the movement, as in mark the direction of an acS or f i^ . ^^' ^^7, 4- To then came to /^"; "inclined /",''&cj t also nSs"^. """"'t "" ""^^J^' ^^' ^^^ "T« ^ell standard (as in ^ ^ equT ^ " ^^^Z^^^^ or conformity to a certain liking?") It denotes the'^nr 1 '•.br-'ive /^ excess " ; " Is that /^ your One thing is put /^ancitr Tor Z'^^fJ '°'"' ''"'"^e, as 'turned /. stone.' as "They^. hfm a^^ angei;'' ' trrone"' °'m " ''^^'' ^^"'^^ '^'^ P^^^^^^ To also marks the S or%«X°f a^ ?J7 ^^^^^e /. your ring." gerundial infinitive, "He Ccame^^ee me '' &c I^inS '" ^'"""^^ "f ^ ^^ '^^ as "They came //dinner"; '' To haveTVil '"' ^J '^^^J '"^, '" '"'> ^^'^'""^^^ what is in any way a/f.aed bv in artinn !,„ iT ' ^^: • ^' '' ^''° "^^^ ^o mark ;• a friend /. (he p'^of "f" a p^ey Tanx^ief! ■^'' °' h' 'm"/ '^ ^"„" ^appen .. " ; largely replaced the old dative ^ ' ^^^^^"^ ^^ '"«' "^^^ ^^ has shimnVar;'atV^.i^''raL"°;^^ 'in addition.' "Givehima " That is /.. bad" means^ that i/hlH ^™ ^ v°f/.'" ^^'^^'^"^ *« ^he shilling.' is bad in a usual degree.' ' ^^"^ ''^ '^'^ addtttonal degree, or beyond wifat In the Northern dialect til or //// was used for to (« 281) So in rv,„ Td a grove than stalketh Palamon " (Kn V 620^ tJ ' , • Chaucer, a conjunction. /„,./( = ,«,,) ^as vanishl^' In^r.^^^:]^^ ^"'^ ./. V The anS^;fanir;tf S('^^^^^^^ '^.T""^ serve m withhoa, and 'tvithdraw anrl in fhT^iT ^ is/;m, which we stdl pre- ze/^V/J,' 'to m^i^Mith' T^t..^^^^ 'to part ze^/M," to dispense opp^ition, fro" wtch "Sith deriveT^ orLtririoT' ' "^° ^"'^ °J 'against,' -^=" rnaintained in ' w/IcX, J v » . - f^ Anglo-Saxon meanmg of implies /;-^;r ^LLk r^.^""^^ ^^''■"'^ °^^'''' '^^- ^/A-^^>^"^« its modern sen<- ' " " ' ComfJ/F"''' r^'l^'^''^' ^"^ «° "^'^^ ^^^^ by «>r«;«. J^^^Was xl come JS nl "'' f '^f '""^^ '^ ^^"°^«^ '^^^^"^^"^ stances of an action is the TstrZif V '.k ^^ u-A!"^"^ the attendant circum- J'ins'; 'whfc7u 'S riat'fSr" "fl^™ adopted wUht ^V„... cent . &c; It was'!„''pf;o!rL^s;L tfroT;;ir ''^^' ' '™- f" by) cursed Jewes '' {^Pr. T. 1875). + T„^".Seda:]de]if wis lice " ' He separated life from f + In Chaucer with marks tke «^^«^'as " sleyn with (1 11 ■'■ i\ m i ■ (' w 130 RNOUSH ORAMNfAR. Siwt nntl f>taff:;'rf are now obsolete There is no sufficient reason for ^iviiifj flip mme ' comnouml prepositions' to such phniscs as 'by means of/ ' in addition to," &c. A clear account can he Riven of the syntax of each memlter of the plirasc. Hut in some instances (as * despite,'' 'spite'}/,' &c,) the loss of an essential preposition ctmipels us to treat the resuluum as a phrase equivalent to i reposition. CONJUNCTION. 286. Conjunotions are so called because they join wo'ds and sentences together (Lat. con = ' together,' juni:;o =. ' I join ') ; hilt a word is not necessarily a conjunction because it does this. If^/to, which, and that arc connective words which arc pronouns. IVhcn, where, as, &c., are connective words which are adverbs. Daflnition. -Co'ijunctions arc connective words, which have neither a pronominal nor an adverbial signification. Prepositions show the relation of one notion to another. Con- junctions show the relation of one thouirht to another. Hence con- junctions for the most part* join" one sentence to another. CLASSIFICATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 386. Conjunctions are of two kinds - 1. Co-ordinativo Con- junotions ; 2. Subordinative ConjunotionB. 287. Co-ordinative Conjuaotlons are those which unite cither co-ordinate clauses {i.e. clauses of which neither is dependent on the other, or enters into its construction), or words which stand in the sauie relation to some other word in the sentence. They may be sub- divided according^ to their meaning into — 1. Simple Conjunotions :—rtwr/, both. 2. The Adversative t or exceptive conjunction:—/^///. 8. Alternative Conjunctions:— ^////'-and were used for both-and. § Jn early English we find notker—ne, or m-ne for neither— nor. ifii B .: 139 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. Hypothetical or Conditional Conjunctions:—//; (i;/, ufi/t'.\s, t'xrepty buty whether^ &c. 6. Conoessivo Conjunctions : -thoun^/t, although^ albeit. 6. Alternative Conjunctions '.-whether—or. 7. The Conjunction of Comparison : — than, 390. That was orijjiiially simply the neuter demonstrative pronoun used as the representative of a sentence t(^ show its ^jr;nnmatical relation to some other sentence. Thus "I know that he said so" is virtually " lie said so, I know that,'''' or "I know that, namely 'he said so ' ; "That he did it is certain," is virtuuflly " Ho did it, that is certain," or " 'that, namely 'he clitl it,' is certain. ' .Suhseciuently the word lost its demonstrative and representative character, and became a mere sign of k^rammatical snlK>ntination, the wlu)le clause, inchulinj; the that, beinj^ treated as the eciuivalent of a substantive. Such a clause may be the sulnect or object of a verb, as in the precedinj; examples, t)r be in apposition to a substantive, as " The notion that such a plan is ])()s- sible is absurd," or come after a preposition, as "///that he himself hath suffered" {fM. ii. i8) ; " For that it is not nij^ht " (.S7/,//(-,r/. ) ; "It is gO(Ml for naught hut that it should be cast out " {Matt. v. 1 3). , Th** conjunction th,:t is closely connected with the transformation of the prepositions after, before, ere, since, till, until, for, but, without, into conjunctions. These prepositions were first used as such, rollowee* (and similar combinations) became a sort of complex conjunction, as " i'er-J>.im-)>e cocc cr.'iwe " = 'before that [thel cock crow' {Matt. x.wi. ^). The )>e was sometimes omitted, as "For J>4m heora ys heofena rice" = 'for that theirs is the kingdom of heaven.' t In early English th-it, so, and as were used after who, which, when, where, as marks of syiit-.xotical subordin^ition. (See Ch:iucer ^dssi^f!.") IVhe^'^us T^ror»er!v referrcl to '^lace, as in '* There whereas all the pl.-ignes and harms abound '' (Spenser, F. Q. iv. i, 20). " I held my tongue whereas the rest kept talking," means properly '' I held my tongue tin circumstances] in which the rest kept talkmg. " ii' ofena rice " = ' for CONJUNCTION. 123 801. attendant circumstances ; but its atlverl)inl force has Income forentten •nd It now counts as a conjunction. It is curious that the »ot,o,t„i part lA wHffias Ana whereas cxxmv to In- .Iroppcl, and the mcrely>/7//,f/or relational part ' as' assumed the meaning' of the whole word ; thus " [ • met James as ( 7ohen-as) I was coming liilher ; " " As ( .= ivhere-a^\ vou say so, I must believe it." ' ' " Beoau«e is mertly the compound phrase l>y cause. It was formerly followed by (/, as " Because of the waters of the flood " (Cen vii 7 • compare "by reason of the lire." Deuf. v. 5). In Shakspeare. Ac.,' M(//w is oiten followed by that, which in fact introduces a substantive clause in apposition lo the noun causr. On the omission of the con- nective t/iiit, Otcausf hardened into a conjunction.* 'f. (fV'"^- f/) '•'^ VK"''t« with the Norse e/, German od, Dutch 0/, and Gothic i/uu and jafuu, and is connected with an old noun i/vi or €dn f= conditum or 'stipulation ' (/vW- iii. p. 20). It thus answers exactly to the phrase "on condition that." The conditional particle an,t has already been treated of (^ 287). A (piestion is one way of putlii.K a hypothesis, as "Is any afflicted? I.et him pray. In this way whdhcr-or came to be used as e.iuivalcnt io either tr or [tf] as •* I will go whether you will or not,'' t\e. " I will go either i/you will 0^ //you will not." Lest c(mies from the Anj^do-Saxon expression "W \m K" Lat ,/No„imus = '[that;] by so much less' or 'that the less,' where the indeclinable • ))e is the mark of syntactical subordination, and so converts the phrase into a subordiiiative ccmjunction.t Although in reality essential to the construction, ' Pf ' (the instrumental case of iJa't ) came to be omitted, and lu-s pe or Ices became /«/", either by the blendmfr o{pe with lies, or by the phonetic offgrowth of / $ (Skeat, s.v.). 292. Unless is a compound of <;« and the comparative less. In early English we hnd the fuller expression 'upon lesse than.'|| The phrase is an imitation of the French ,) moins que. " He will be ruined unless you help him ' means " He will be ruined if matters stop at less than your helping him," z>. "stop short of your helping him." 293. But — The idea involved in the word unless was expresseil in A.S. by butan (see but), which was developed from a preposition into a con- junction (like after, without, &c.) in the way already described (} 290). The omission of the that which made what followed into a substantive clause governed by a preposition, left such constructions as "Naebbe ge lif on eow butan ge etan mfn flsesc " - ' ye have not * The old ^oxA fonvhy (= ' for the reason that ') is now obsolete. It was not interroga- iive its Lowper (John Giipin) mistakenly makes it. t Many have attempted to connect g,/ (;/) with the verb give, as though it were an im- peruiive mood of it. the Scotch^//* (=^tVu = given) being the passive participle. But the orcl must not be separated from the related forms in cognate languages, and none of these nave trie slightest connection with any verb meaning ' give.' t Thus '; [God commanded us that we should not eatj Jiy laes be we swulton " = 'that the less (quommus) we should die.* r.L^°/'' /''■ P" ''^''- ;!»"«'"K • >e laste fe" (from the .9^:^. Ckro^. 694, F) seems inclined to ret;ar(J lest as a superlative. II Upon lesse than wee mowe falle toward hevene from the erthe " = ' unless we can fall.' &c K'lawuieville, p. 184). .;'l:| MH ' f ■ ;j 1 'I'l III •1 1 1 !^ h ■ h I h < t34 ENOLISH CJRAMMAU. lift- in you /'///( unless) ye oiil my Hosli,' i.e. 'leaving out* your «ulii)(j my llcsli, yi- h;ivc iki liCc in you.' So in < liiiurcr '"' IliK it vvcic any |)cr:,onol.stinal " (/'/<'/. 521), i.e. * /f(ivint> out tlur case of its Iniiii', (i.e. ' uu/iss it were') an ohstin.ilr person.' We have ii similar use ol hut as a ronjunt'lion ( -uh/css or f.\,Y/>t that) \w " Hut he is soMl<•tllin^,' slaincd wiili j'.ricl, llioii mij;lilsl call liim a goodly person " (.Sii. Iniif^. I. 2) ; " Ne'er may I look on day, l>ul slie (ells lo your hinlmcss simple irulli " {Com. h'.rr. V. 2ir) ; " ll shall j^o hard l.ul I will piDve it"; "'I'hieve.s are not judj^ed hut they are hy iut has neaily superseded its (>lder menninj,' ' uu/,ss,' and /mt in this sense has ousted 1;. ,t which is the common adversative conjunction in A..S. • The cn.10 excepted is. of coiirne, virtuully u ntgativr kv/^i>fh*sh. In the oliier writers ^ii:l firiler rtnu w.il." ' Imt that my l'";Ulur only knows"; " Nf ins nit Kod Imltrn lie," ' dieir is no (Itid lint he |is (mhIj. This shows that l>i)t may ht^ tollown! l>y a noimnalivr case |)rovnl«:d the clliiisp c:«n he tilled up ho as lo allow oi^ its ocnnirnif ni tho lomplftc sriUt-ncp. " Nuhody knows it hut he " . ' Nohody knows it hnt he Ikiiows it|.' ll is fiiually corrcit to say " Noluuly knows it l.ul him," only /-/tiieiit. In lalpr l'',nij(lish the nenalive tame to be omillcd, and so <*/// .i|.|.cars id he an rtdvtil) meamiijs' r>«/i'. Thus we read in Mainulcvillc " 'I'hei eten not hnt oius a day," i.e. ' riiey eat not hut ( - except) that ihey eat once a day.' We now say " They cat hut once a d.iy " ' t'h,n- ins hut a K'»l " (/^-rC- ''■• (''"•*• iHj) - ' There is not but one God," is now 1 here is Imt one dod.' There are other iiiMaiKesi in whi. h negatives arc improucrly omitted in modern KiikIIsIi. Ihus "Do iioi s|i.ntl more than yon can help," onuht to he " iJo not spend more ilian yon caniiiii help. '^ ' lie has h)st ever so much money, should he " He has lost never so much money," I (. "lie has lost a (|iianlily of money, and never hclore lost so much." t tint is a diHicnll wonl lo ileal wilh ; il is so often attended hy the ellipse of some im- pori.iiii word The omission of the ncRative has already been noticetl (Xott *). One cla.ss of sememes has been much misnndt rstood In "There's ne'er a villain dwelling in all hemnark but At- s an arrani knave," everybody admits that hut is a conjunction. In modern hn.nhsh, however, it is very common in such sentences 10 have either the subject or the object if the verb thai follows ihe 'but' omiiled, as ' There's not a man 1 meet but doih saline ine " ; " Not a holiday fool there but would jjivc a ujei e of silver" {I'emp. II. j, ju); "Nojutiy . . hnt this bml h.tth made his pendent bed (.l/.ic/' ). Many grammarians s.iy th.il ii> siuh sentem es • but ' has bccoino a fflattvf protiouii involvinii; a nr^ative^ and is npiivaleni to whhk not, or w'lo >i>>t. This is pnttiiiK an extremely violent strain upon the torce of words. One ca.. understand how the inielhueiice of the speaker or hearer can alt.ich a lOHHf.tive force to a word that iloes not strictly tJt/iress it, that is oidy a i|uestion of Kramnsalual form ; but the conversion of a mere conjimction into a word that stoints /'or a />t>s,toocl I here are abundant examples of this kind of omi.ssion in the ca.se both of relative pionouiis .nid ol their antece.lenis. The analoj-y of the Latin niiit; with hut that, where it does not matter whether we treat i*.'<^ as a preposi ion fo!!;.....,-,! !iy ;i ■.;„bm;imivr- cl.utst', or take .'•;// ihnt a.s a compound coniunctioii like it that. n>h,>i rh.if, &c Thus "The sky would pour down stinking pitch but thai the sea dashes the lire out" (J'fm/). i, j, 4). In other cases we mu.st regard iu/ I CONJUNCTDN. ^25 294. While islljcA.li. Iiwil — 'lime,' wliidi was iisfd in llic i.lnasi: ^/ ///.'//,■ Iv 'ilic wliui- ih.ii. " l.iii hy iiscK, whil' harial suffix a and its offj^^iowlli / (wliiirs, whiLsl). Thoua-h is the A.S. \eah r-. •ncvcrtliclcss ' It is still ttscd ns anadvcrh, as III " You are still in lime, make liasic .''//<;//i,7/." In AS. the {■on- nective particle J>e was appended to it, to (.onveit it inhj a conjtinctioii, as tluU was in early J-jijjiisli. When tlic Hint was droj.ped its ani- jiinctive force was iiiei|;ed in the thouyjt. Than is aiiotlier form of the word lh,n (sec Cliaucer, passim), in A.S. \H>ntif in \(inuf. In A.S. this was a relative or conjunctive advcnh, eqiiivaleiil to our when. In this sense it was used after coinparalivcs to introduce the slnndanl of ,onipatisoii.\ "John is taller than Ciiarles" meant originally "When Charles is tall [i.f. when the lallness of Charles is regarded) John is taller." "lie came sooner than I expected " is " When I (expected |him to come soon], he came sooner." '* I have no other home than this " is " When I have this, 1 have no other home." Hut the ori^{inal sense of Mvjm has hecome so completely foi|;otten, that the word must now he rej^Mrdod as a mere conjuiulion. Clauses heniimiiif; with than arc usually elliptical. Albeit, i.e. all-be-it, is merely a short concessive sentence. In (Jhaucer we find " AI he that he was a philosophic " ; also (without be) "All were they sore hurt" (///. '/'. 1S51) where al = althout^h. 295. :r^^\\r(^ all (iciiionstiativcs involve reference., they always cause a rcitaiii commiion \\\ thought between two "ideas ; hut for all that, they an; not, j,naiuiiiati( ally speaking, connective words. Sue!) words as /hrrejore, hence, still, consequently, accordin^^ly, yet, likewise, also, iVc, arc only simple adverbs,\ not even connectii/e admcrhs j still less are they mere conjunctions.^ Willi ihc siilisliinlivc clause that follows as funiiiiig together a litnitinK :iUnntive, and the adverbial suffix is improper t III .Scotch l>e (= by) is used for the same purpose. " He's yiiiiKer be oiiie o' thaiiii " =. Me s younger t^y the si.le of (i.e. when fotnfiareit wiih) any of them.' 'Ihc provincial idiom ., W'^ isoljrr nor John," may possibly mean " He is older, and not John,' .Some explain , ■' ',^'=''l»-|' .<•'•■>'> John " as being ' He is taller, ttien (i e. in the next lower degree) John is Mil. 1 he objections to this are that it will not explain the Anglo-Saxon usaKc, that it is quite iM.ippIicahlc to saich sentences as some of fho.se given in the text, a' d that it inverts the logical order of the ideas, making the comparative degree itself the manttaxt of comparison. V"'»"' in Latin does not strictly correspond in force to than. It is the coi relative of /aw/. and always marks def^ree. I lake "He was idle .for that reason he did not succeed " We have obviously two "iiiiplete and independent .sentences ; hut substitute for ' lor that reason ' its exact granimati- ';>l eqiuvak-iit shrn-forr,' and half the wnicr*. of grammar:, wli tell us tl,.nt therefore is a conjunction, and that we have one (compound) sentence, not two si p;ir;iie ones \ A grrnt mistake is made when qnum and ;// in Latin are calietl conjuucaons. They are 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. '11 I INTERJECTION. 296. Interjections are words which are used to express some emotion of the mmd, but do not enter into the construction of sentences ; as, Oh ! O ! Ah ! Ha ! Alas ! Fie ! Pshaw / Hurrah / In written language interjections are usually followed by what is called a mark of admiration (!). ^ The interjection is a nondescript kind of word. It is scarcely notional and IS certamly not relational. ^ ^nunui, COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION. 297. Words may be divided into two classes— //-/w^rv words and secondary or derivative words. ' A word is a primary word when it does not admit of being resolved into simpler elements ; as 7nan, horse, run. A word is a secondary word when it is made up of signihcant parts, which exist either separately or in other combinations DerMT ^ ^'^ ^""'""^^ ^^"^^ ^^ Composition, partly by COMPOSITION. 298. A word is a compound word when it is made up of two or more parts, each of which is a significant word by itself ; as appie-tree tea-spoon, spend-thrift. ^^ ' All compounds admit of being divided primarily into two words : but ^v 1 !'T '"'^. T^^ ^' t '^^'"P"""^ ^°'-d''° that the entire 'wo d 72a}L 'T'""'^^ \T '}'^\ ""' '■°"'' ^^'-^^ ' ^' handicraftsman (madeupofwa;,and W;mz//, //«m//Vra// being itself made up of hand ^r.A craft*) ; nudshipman (made up oiman and midship, midship bemg Itself made up of mid and ship, ^' ^ 299. In most compound worcls it is the first word which modifies the mean- Se JheT"^'! i^*^; ^^'^"'^ '^""^"^ ^'^^ ^-^«^' the first Sn- guishe. the species. ) Rosebush means a particular kind of bush, namely ___oneaiat bears roses A haycart is a certain kind of cart, nar^elyTone 'tamvahdus est ut nemo eum superare Dossit ' is virt,,all„ ' K« t u /"^sen'ence degree of strength, and so no one «n overcome him ' ^ ^' ^^^ '"''' '" ^""^ * ""^'"> and ]J; w;L'r.f '■"■^'' "^' '""'''''""' '^ ^^ ^^"''- ^' ">« ^y"-'''- ^^ - the A S. hand,ecraeft ,^^X^^^S:^;X^, tl «- ^^--^ - - verb or preposition u t 'i COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION. 127 for carrying hay. The accent is placed upon the modifying word when the amalgamation is complete. When the two elements of the ' compound are only partially blended, a hyphen is put between them, and the accent falls equally on both parts of the compound, as in knee- deep. We do not get a true compound so long as ihe separate elements both retain their natural and full significance, and their ordinary syntactical relation. Composition is accompanied by limita- tion of significance. Compare blue bell and bluebell, red breast and redbreast, monk's hood and monkshood. A.-COMPOUND NOUNS. 800. Compound Nouns exhibit the following combinations :— 1. A noun preceded by a noun, of which the first (i) denotes what the second consists of, is characterized by, or attached to, as haystack, cornfield oaktree, wineshop, churchyard; (2) denotes the purpose for which the thing denoted by the second is used,t as teaspoon, milking;, stool (see \ 202), inkstand; or with which its activity is connected, as man-killer, bush-ranger, sun-shade; (3) is a defining genitive, or the equivalent of one, as swordsman, kinsman, Wednesday [ Woden's dav) sun-beam, noon-tide, day-star. 2. A noun preceded and modified by an adjective, as roundhead, black- bird, gutrksilver, Northampton, midday, midriff {k.^. //;7/= bowels) Twilight {twi —two), fortnight {i.e., fourteen -vig/it), sennight (i.e.! sei'en night) are from numerals. s \ > 3. A noun preceded by a verb of which it is the object, as stopgap pick- pocket, makeweight, turncock, ivagtail, spitfire. 4- A noun denoting an agent preceded by what would be the object of the corresponding verb, as man-slayer, peace-maker. 5- A gerund preceded by a governed noun, as wire-pulling. o. A verb preceded by a noun, as godsend (very rare). 7. A noun preceded by an adverb, which modifies (adverbially) the noun, when that denotes an action, z.% forethought, neighbour (A.S ff c J7 '°"^ who dwells near'), off-shoot, aftertaste, by-path, anvil (A..^.anfilt or onfilt,hom fillian 'io^ixWe'). 8. A noun preceded and governed by a preposition, a?, forenoon. ^ 9. A verb preceded or followed by an adverl) which modifies it, the compound constituting a noun, as inlet, welfare, onset, ^o-between, standstill, income. ' 301. The following compounds, in which one or both of the elements have been changed or become obsolete, are given by Koch (iii. p. 98). bandog bam bridal brimstone distaff garlic, hemlock = bond -dog = bere-aem = br^dealu = bryn-stan = dise-stoef from leac {a dog chained up) [barley house) (bridt-alc) [bui-nin^- stone) {flax-staff) (leek) 'The use of the hyphen* is very much a matter of usage or fancv Footsore and h,arf. and /Lt'^^f^f ""'^ r.'"./-.....-./..-.^-.,; are formed 'ilfe. SiSly ^S.^;.';///^';.^; l^i^ A \t" T r'l"^ 'y <=?["P°""'l ^o'-'is. If two words are sounded togefher as a compound, the mode of writing them matters but Utt' ""-nueu logemer as a t The modifying word may be a verb used su.stantively as in wasktub prindini>i, or God's mi'ssa^^<'] {f^roini i-sill, threshold) [a sor^ itndt-r the naif) {houst'-wifc) (provincial, ice-shoggk) (loaf-mass) [limed or dear person) (hired ivovtan) [mouid-throrui'r) [Mosc-holi-. Coinp. drill) {7vort- or root-garden) {troop-shield) [sty- or stall-warden) [mounting- 1 ope) [pledge-gift) [man-age, a generation) B-COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 302. Compound Adjectives exhibit the following combinations :— 1. An adjective preceded by a noun, which qualities it adverbially (conip §267), as sky. blue, fire-nnv, pitch-dark, blood- red, anktc-deeL breast-high head-strong, childlike, hopeful (and other compounds of full, once formed with the noun in the genitive, as 7villesful:=. wilful) shamejaced [ox\^\\\z.\\y shamefast, h.)^. sceamf'-st). steadfaU 2. 1 he adjective in these compounds is often a participle, as in seafarine, Oed-ridden, heart-broken, tempest -tossed, sea-i^irt, &c. 3. An imperfect participle preceded by its object, as tale-bear/nir heart-rendtng, ttme-seniing, &c. 4- An adjective or participle preceded by a simple adverb, as ufirijnht, (toicnrtj^ht, under-done, out-spoken, inborn, almighty. 5. A noun preceded by an adjective, as barefoot, two-fold, manifold, a three-bottle man, a twopenny cake, a three-foot rule. (Compare the nick-names Hotspur, Longshanks, Roundhead, &c ) In modern Fne- lish these compounds have taken the participial ending, bare-leLved one eyed, &c. 5^5 > C- -COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 303. See the section on Pronouns. D-COMPOUND VERBS. 304. These present the following combinations :— 1. A verb preceded by a separable adverb, as 07>e do, understand, fulfil, undergo, cross-ijuestion. Twit is a corruption of cpt-7c:ftfrL^:r'p^^ -:i7o^t.' 313^ 2. Suffixes usually denoting an instru^.ont. Si. \ ^^'^', '"Jj '''',-''l)^~shovel, girdle, shuttle, brindle, sickle "Ic'ch-'^iTir'^ L^Sowr^' '°°' ^'' = --'•"■ -^*^ -«- 314. 3. Suffixes forming Abstract ITouns -?;/;S!' "/ ?, '"^""""S ''"•f'./-M"; from ,?i>»„ =^„ ,^.1 /,-«/A o\, J/ compare Ur. Hapn-os), mtrth (merry), /f^,^,^', ruth (rue\ 815. 4. Suffixes forming Diminutives. -en ;— maiden, kitten, % chicken I (cock). Ik!n~7''^Tf? «''^«^7/,§^««^r^/(az.a^«^^«^, wastrel. ^yt'~('^"^('ktn, ptpkin, mannikin, Ptrkin i —- P^u^hi^\ -r ,.■ II f f Look at § 28, 3. ' t Sec § 23, 3. § From the root mofig- ^ mix. Compare mingle. I iHl COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION. »3I 5. Patronymics. .hoa..afh, fro. A.S.C; =It;„r£,t S^&l^^ "^' e. other Suffixes, -el, -le \-~apple, riddle. -en, -on or -n •,~garden, kitchen (from r^^/t see S ^S ,\ /.a. * '•«/«, brain, loan. ' ^ ^°> 3)> foken, beacon, -er j-^a^,^^;. hunger, summer, water. V— A.s. -uj ',-^hadow, meadow, shallow {shoal). DERIVED ADJECTIVES. Adjective Prefixes of Teutonic Origin. 317. I. 2. 3- B.,— alive, t aweary. A thirst in A. S . of-\>vrst t ^^^f^orrxxY>iionoige,- alike =gelic. "^ "^ who^^akes .he .wo sides un^en ^i„ oTl^^.) t? jSg' r "of Adjective Suffixes (Teutonic). -er or -r ;-bitter, lither, fair. '' ^ ' ^'''"' ^''■ ~To}"-le7lT^J^ 'K'Z'' ^f^l '-r-'^^*^' southern, &c. atrt «r oTV ~?^^ '>-Mle, little,.brittle, idle. wfiesr is^ ^ eta? -f r^'^Xhi^ s-£:r„ Jl!i!!?!Lji!!^!!!l^!Z^^^ (skeat, e. ^!) ; loperff k'^ldt'Ci^f ;^?at^^^^^^^ ^"^ '""^ '- -^^^ -' (see S^^^^^;."-^ Si- a ^ 132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR i ft I !, i- -l«h, -■h, ~ch, added to nouns to denote ' belonging to,' ' having the qualities of,' as swinish, slavish, foolish, Romish, Turkish, IVelsh, French. Comp. Germ. -sch. Added to adjectives it naturally gives a diminutive force, as blackish, dullish. less (A S. leas -c hose, free from, without). Heedless, senseless. -ly (a corruption oi like), added (of course) to nouns. Godly, heavenly, ghastly (from ghost), manly. -ow (A.S. -u) ; — narrviv, callow, &c. -some, added to verbs and adjectives to denote the presence of the quality that they indicate. Winsome, buxom (from hugati = to yield), tiresome, quarrelsome, wholesome, blithesome, fulsome. -th or d (originally a superlative suffix), in numerals. Third, fourth, &c. -y = A.S. -iar, added usually to nouns to indicate the presence of that for which the noun stands. Greedy, bloody, needy, thirsty, moody, sorry {sore), «&c. Added to verbs, in sticky, sundry {sunder), w.'ary. -ward, denoting 'becoming' or 'inclining to' from A.vS. weorKan (see § 268). Northward, froward { from), toward {to), awkward (from the old adjective auk or awk, ' contrary, wrong '), meanmg originally ' back-handedly, transversely. * 810. For Derived Pronouns, see %S 154—175. DERfVED VE-^BS. Verb-Preflxes (Teuton io). 820. I. a- meaning formerly out, away, oj^ {A.S. aceorfan 'to cutoff'), afterwards back or again, now an intensive particle, prefixed to verbs : — afise, abide, awake. be ( = by) denotes the application of an action to an object, and so {a) makes intransitive verbs transitive, as bemoan, bespeak, bestride, befall, or {b) forms transitive verbs out of adjectives or nouns, as bedim, begrime {grim), benumb, becloud, befriend, bedew, or {c) strengthens the meaning of transitive verbs, as betake, bestow, bedazzle. Believe is a corruption of A.S. gelyfan (Germ, glauben). for ( = German ver) usually implies that the action indicated by the simple verb is negatived, or done in a bad sense, as forbid, forsake, forget {= 'undo the getting'). Forgive meant originally 'to aban- don by giving.' (Compare Lat. condonare.) ijiis, denoting error or defect, as in misspell, misbelieve, mislike, misgive. Before Romance words, misadvise, misdirect. vin {Gothic and =z against, back, German ent), implies the reversal of the action indicated by ^le simple verb : — unbind, undo, untie. Unbosom, unkennel, &c., are made from nouns. Answer (A.S. andswarian) has the prefix in the oldef form ; also ambcusador (Gothic andbahtsz=. servant). erain (root of against, German gegen) ; gainsay, gainstrive. with (see \ 284 ' with ') ; withdraw, withstand, withhold. to ( = Germ, zer ; not the preposition to) ; to brake (* broke to pieces ') is still found 'm Judges ix. 53. Verb -Suffixes (Teutonic). .821. -el or -le, added to the roots of verbs and nouns gives a combined frequentative and diminutive force : dazzle {daze), straddle {stride), COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION. 133 thovel (sAove), sv addle {swathe), dribble {drop), gamble {game), waddle {jvade), snivel {sniff), grapple {grab): from nouns — kneel {knee), nestle {nest), sparkle {spark), throttle {throat), nibble {nib or neb), curdle, scribble {scribe). -er (giving much the same force as the last), glimmer {gleam), wander {wend), fritter ( fret), flitter and flutter {flit). -k (frequentative) ; hark {hear), talk {tell). -en forming causative or factitive verbs from nouns and adjectives ; as strengthen, lengthen, frighten, fatten, sweeten, slacken. -se, forming verbs from adjectives ; cleanse, rinse (comp. Germ, rein). Derivatives formed by Modifications of Sound. 322. Verbs are often formed from nouns by a modification or weak- ening of the vowel sound, or of the final consonant, or of both. Thus hind (from bond), sing (from song), breed {brood), feed {food), hut {knot), drip {drop), heal {whole), calve (calf), halve {half), breathe {breath), bathe {bath), shelve {shelf), graze {grass), glaze {j^lass\ hitch {hook). The same process is seen in Romance words, as prize from pricCf advise {advice), &.c. The weakening was occasioned by verbal suffixes, which have since disappeared. 323. Transitive (causative) verbs are often formed by a slight modification or weakening of the root vowel from intransitive verbs denoting the act or state which the former produce. Thus fe/l (from /all), set (from sit), raise (from rise), lay {lie), drench {drink), wend {wind), quell {quail, A.S. cwelan ' to die ')• 324. A k or g sound at the end of words in old English tends to become softened in modern English. Compare dike and ditch, stink and stench, wring and wrench, mark and jnarch (= boundary), lurk, and lurch, bank and bench, stark and starch, seek and beseech, bark and barge, bake and batch, stick and stitch, wake and watch, tweak and twitch. Also sc tends to become sh, as A.S. scacan = shake, A.S, scddu = shadow, A.S. sceal=^ shall, A.S. scedp=sheep, A.S. scapan = shape, A.S. scip = ship, &c„ scuffle = shuffle, screech = shriek, scabby = shabby, skirt = shirt, &c. 325. Other collateral forms involve the retention or omission of an initial s. Compare smash, mash; splash, plash ; smelt, melt; squash, quas/i; squench, quench; swag, wag. 328. For Derived Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions see §§ 267 — 291. DERIVED WORDS CONTAINING PREFIXES AND OF LATIN ORIGIN. SUFFIXES 327, Prefixes of Latin Origin. a, ab, abs (from or away). Avert, abdtution, abstract. The d in advance is an error ; Fr. avancer from ab and ante. ad (to) found also in the forms ac, al, an, ap, as, at, a, according to the consonant that follows it. Adore, accede, allude, announce, appear, assent, attend, aspire. 'T: H ' I ! f 1 134 ' 1 .t ENGLISH GRAMMAR. m Amputate, ambiguous. Antediluviqn, antecessor (or ancestor), anti' amb- or am- (round). ante or anti (before). cipati: ciroum or cirou (round). Circumlocution, circuit. con (with), also com-, col-, cor-, co-, according to the following consonant. Conduct, compact, collision, correct, coheir. ^ contra, contro (against), often Anglicized into counter. Contravene controvert, counteract, country. -^^ - --*^'y - --"Ption of mis, as and verbs. J^^-uvcs ana participles often make their appearance as nouns 1^. COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION. '35 s(or}, anti' e following Contravene, lu.'e, deluge I used as a in astonish (, &c. ', illusion, 5ed before ■unctus). mechant)^ le. don {per' >situs. 'ray, pur- >ed before i, suffuse, refixed to feit. having of mii, as have got as nouns tor, -Bor, -or, -our, -er (= Latin -tor, -■or, -ator) ;— doctor, m successor, empfror{imperator). Saviour {salvator), founder {fundator), enchanter (incantator). Sometimes confused with the A.S. -ere. -ant, -ent (participles) \- attendant, tenant, agent. -er, -eer, -ier, -or, -ary (Lat. -arius, denoting usually ' one whose functions are connected with ' that for which the primitive noun stands) ;— usher {ostiarius), archer (arcuarius), farrier {ferrarius), brigadier, chancellor, lapidary, engineer (Fr. ing^nteur) from ingeniator. -ate (Latin -atus) ; — legate, advocate. Weakened to -ee, -ey or y in nominee, committee, attorney, jury (Juratus), deputy (deputatus), journey (diurnata), party from partita. -esB, ese (Lat. -ensis) ;— burgess, Chinese. -ess (Lat. -issa, fern, suffix) ;— countess, traitress. 329. Suffixes forming Abstract Nouns. -ion, -tion, -sion, -son, -som ; — opinion, action, ttnsion, poison [potion-), ransom [redemption-), reason [ration-), season [sation-, ' sowing time'). -ance, - ancy, -enoe, -ency (Lat. -antia, -entia); — distance, infancy, continence, decency, chance [cadentia), protiince (provincia = provi' dentia) ; imitated in grievance, &c. -age (Lat. -agium = -aticum) ',— age, voyage [viaticum), savage [silva- ticus), personage, homage, marriage [maritagium). Natui-alized and added to Teutonic words, as in tillage, windage, wharfage, bondage. This suffix denotes (i) the condition or occupation of the person indicated by the primary noun, as vassalage, pilotage ; (2) a collection, quantity, or summing-up, ^l'a poundage, mileage, herbage; (3)aslite or process in which something is concerned, as wharfage, bondage^ windage ; (4) when added to verbs, the result of an act, or the sum total of separate acts indicated by the verb, as breakage, leakage, pillage [pil or peel =^ strip), coinage, &c. -ty, -ity (Lat. -tat, -itat-) ;■— vanity, cruelty, city [civitat-). -tude ; -fortitude, magnitude. -o^xr (Lat. -ov) ;— labour, ardour, honour. Imitated in behaviour. -y (Lat. -ia) ; - misery, memory. Preceded by t or s, -tia or -sia = -cy or -ce, aristocracy, fancy, grace. Also in abstract nouns of late formation, as bastardy, glutiony, beggary, simony. -ice, -ess (Lat. -itia or -itium) ; — avarice, justice, duress [duritia], largess [laigitia), service, exercise ; -ice = ex m pumice. Latin -ia, or Greek -eio preceded by t or s gave rise to -cy or -sy in aristocracy, abbacy, Jancy or phantasy {(pavrcuria), gyace. Imitated in intimacy, obstinacy, bankruptcy, &c. -ure ;— verdure, culture, picture, censure. -e (Lat. -ium) ;— exile, homicide. -se, -ce, -s (Lat. -sua) -f—case, advice, process. Suffixes denoting the Instrument or Place of some Action. 830. -ble (Lat. -bulus, -a, -um) ; — stable, vestibule. -cle, -ere (Lat. -cuius, a, -um j -crum) ;— obstacle, receptacle, cuticle, tabernacle, sepulchre, lucre. 4(1 51 in r^ll i ■ i K ! J :| 136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. -tre, -ter (Lat. -truxn) ; — cloister {tlaustrum), theatre. -tory, -•ory, -ser, -or, -our, -er (I -at. -tonum, -•orium) ; — au^fitory {auditorium = 'place for hearing'), accessory, censer {incensorium), mirror [miratorium), parlour {parlatorium), manger {mantlucatoria). -me, -m, -u (Lat. -men) ; — volume, charm [carmen), leaven {Icvameti), noun (nomcn). -ment (Lat. -mentum) ;— ornament, pigment ; or denoting the action itself, as discernment, payment. Naturalized in beT.vitchment, fulfil- ment, &c. 331. Suffixes forming Diminutives. -ule ; — globule, pillule. -el, -le, -1 (Lat. -tilua, -a, -um ; alius, -ellus, -illus) ; — chapel, chancel [cancclli), libel, table, fable (Jabula = famula from fama), circle, castle, sam{p)le {cxemplum), veal {vitulus), buckle (buccula, from the face with which it was commonly adorned). 'Participle {participium), principle {principium), and chronicle {chronica) are anomalous. -ole, -eel, -ael (Lat. cuius, &c., oellus, &c.) ;— carbuncle, article, particle {particula), parcel {particella), damsel {dominuella). -et, -let (Romance, but of obscure origin) ;— owlet, ballet, pocket, armlet, cutlet, streamlet. 832. Suffixes forming Augmentatives. -oon, -one, -on ; — balloon, trombone, million, flagon. Compare the Latin nicknames Naso{n-) — Big-nose, Capito{n-) — Big-head. 833. Suffixes having a Collective or Generio Sense. -6ry, -ry, -er (Lat. -aria or -eria) ;- nunnery, carpentry, chivalry, cavalry, river {riparia), gutter (channel for gultae, 'drops')- The suffix -ry was naturalized and used in modern formations, a.?, poetry, jewelry, spicery, pea mtry, and added to Teutonic stems, as in knavery, thievery, cookery. Fairy {faerie) is properly a collective noun, based on fay { = fata). Other Suffixes. -ade (-atus, through Spanish and Italian) ; — cascade, lemonade, brigade. -ue, -n (Lat. -num) -,— plane, plfin, fane, reign, sign, &c. -el, -le (Lat. -ela) ; — sequel, quarrel {querela), candle. -ster ; — master {magtster horn mag-nus), minister (from min-or). -y (Lat. -ium) ;— remedy, study. * -J, -ee (Lat. -aeus) ;— pigmy, Fharisee. 334. Suffixes forming Adjectives. (Many of these adjectives have become substantives in English.) al (Latin -alls, added to nouns, and denoting 'possessing the qualities of,' 'belonging to,' 'connected with') ;— legal, regal, general, comical, canal; passing into -el in channel, hotel, /e-ivel, or -le m cat/le {capitalia). Cruel = crudelts. Modem imitations in trial, denial, proposal, &c. Whimsical (from whimsy) is an imitation of corniced. w m) ; — au^fitory [inceusortum), lamiucatoria), ven {Icvamett), ing the action chmeitt, fulfil' us) \— chapel, from fama), ckle [buccula, ). -Participle 'chronica) are mcky article, la). ballet, pocket, Compare the 'g-head. ise. try, chivalry, rops'). The )ns, &% poetry, stems, as in ollectivc noun, nade, brigade. \in-or). English.) ; the qualities gal, general, vel, or -le tn ions in trial, an imitation COMPOSITIOW ATTTJ DERIVATION. X37 -an, -ane, -ain, en, - on (Latin anus, 'connected wifh M ;- pagan, Mundane, certain, mizzcn {>fit'dianus\ surg.vn uhirurgianus), sexton (= sacristan), parishion-cr {parochianus). Alien from ali.nus. -ain, aiirn, -eifrn, -anfi-e (Lat. -aneus) ;— mountain, champaign, foreign [for aneus), strange {extraneus^ -ar (Lat. -aris) ;— regular, singular. -ary, -arious (Lat. -arlus) ;— necessary, gregarious. Honns— salary, granary, Hcc. -ian ;— Christian. Combined with the last in librarian, nntiquarian. -ine, -im (Latni -inus, a, urn) ; feminine, fline, divine, rapine, doitrtne, pilgrim {l{d\. pellegrino, from petrg; inus). -ant, -ent (participles) ;— volant, fluent, patent. -ate, -ete, -eet, -ite, -ute, -te, -t (from Latin participles and adjectives) ;—j««a/^, concrete, discreet, hirsute, statut,, polite, chaste, honest. Mandate, minute, fact, efiect, &c., ha^e become nouns -86, -ce (Lat. -SUB) -immense, intense. sp0Msa), sauce [salsus). -Ue, -11, -eel, -le, -el (Lat. -ilis and -HIb) i-/7 agile, senile, civil, frad (Lat.fragdts), genteel, gentle, able {habdis). kennel (canile). -able, -ible, -ble -,- culpable, edible, f.ble (fiMlis), uld French foible (compare German wenig from weinen). So many of these words ended m able, that this was regarded as the standard formation. It was naturalized and added to Teutonic roots, as in teachable, eatable. -Ic, -ique ;— civic, public, uniqve. -ous, -ose (-OSUS, full of, abounding in) \— copious, verbose, grandiose, jocose, famous, perilous and parlous {periculosus). Added to modem words, as dangerous {danger 7= doptigetium * lordship '), and to Teutonic stems, as in wondrous, mutderous, &c. Piteous is a variety of the older form piltous {pietosus). Righteous is a corruption of rihtwis. -ous (Lat. -us) ; — anxious, omnivorous. -acious (made up of-ius combinea with ao- and co-) \— mendacious ^ loquacious, vivacious, ferocious. -ious or -y (Lat. -ius) ',- censorious, amatory, illusory. -id \— fervid, timid, hurried. -iye, -iffs (-Ivus, commonly added to the stem of the passive participle in -tus or -SUB, and denoting 'inclined to,' o'r 'apt for' the action denoted by the verb) ;— captive, caitiff {captivus), plaintive, plaintiff, bailiff {bajulivus), indicative, adoptive, restive. Naturalized in the form -ative (compare -able) and added to a Teutonic stem in talkative. Hasty, jolly, testy have lost an/.- in old French they are hastif, jolif testif(=. heady). See Koch iii. 2, /. 48. -estrial, -estrian (Lat. -estrls, anus or alls) ',— terrestrial, equestrian. Words in -ave, -tic, -atic, -aceous, -id, -lent, -lence, -mony, -esque {-jscus from icus), -tude, -bund, or -bofid, -und, -umn, &c., will be readily recognized as of Latin origin. 335. Verb- Suffixes. ~f^w?*' "*^*'®' forming compounds rather than derivatives) -,— terrify. -isn (Lat, -esco, through the French inrhnativ*. ,«r.r.;iirTof;r,r. in ->>, -issant); — banish, punish, 8cc. - -js" 386. There are two principal modes in which verbs are formed ' 1 ^ i t X38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^ ! J ! II i form S f^ ? ■^'''^"' ''^'^'- ^"^ "^"de is to take simply the crude tTJ J/ T""'"'"^ "'°°'^,°'' P''^^^"^ tense, without any suffix ; as ihirf'f^''''^' ^^/««//. 7/, tnchne, optne. The second mode is to turn fror^jS' P^''"'PJ' P')f '^^ ('^'S^t'y "^°dified) into a verb, ^scrZl \l^TJf i'*'^' '"''"^fj ^^'■°"' ^^«^«^/«.),^r^./// (from ere cittu), expedite bh mlThL'f ''''' ^^'^^^ (f""'^^''^^- ^'^^" derivatives are formed by na verb ?h^' ""r!^^ ^'""'^u'^ '^^-^'"' °"" «^ '^^ meanings of the origi^ and conduct; construe and construct; revert and r^wr-j^. 837. Nouns (or adjectives) and verbs of Latin origin are of^.^n the same in orm, but are distinguished by the accent, the'noun or adjecdve h^Mne the accent on the first syllable, the verb on the second. ^ Noun. Accent Affix collect c6ncert convert Extract insult Verb. accent affix collect concdrt convert extract insult Noun or Adjective, 6bject produce frequent absent compound present rebel Verb. object produce frequent absent compound present rebel GREEK PREFIXES. 338. The following prefixes are found in words of Greek origin •- a or an (not). Anarchy. ' ani'^un^r ^f}t^^^' '" T""^^- ^'"Phibiou^, amphitheatre. ana (up). Anabasis, anatomy, analogy^ anti (against). Antithesis, antipathy. apo (from). Apogee, apology. cata (down). Catalepsy, catastrophe. di (two, or in two). Dissyllable, diphthong. dia (through, among). Diameter, diaphanous. ec or ex (out of). Exodus, ecstatic. en or em (in or on). Emphasis, enema. endo (within). . Endostnose. epi (upon). Epilogue, epitaph. eu (well). Euphony, eulogy. exo (outside). Exosmose. -yper (over). Hyperbolical. hypo (under). Hypotenuse, hypothesis meta (nnplying change). Metamorphosis. para (beside). Parabola, paraphrase peri (round). Peristyle, perimeter pro (before), Program. pros (to). Prosody. ^^^^^^"Vi^: -^'^'^^-^^^osymorsyl. Syndic, synta., symbol, GREEK SUFFIXES. ^39. The following suffixes mark words of Greek origin ;- -6 : catastrophe. -y ( = ia) : anatomy, monarchy. COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION. 139 340 -ad or -id : fliad, .Kneid, 7 road. -ic, -tic : lojiiic, cynic, ethics, arithmetic. -ac : maniac, Syriac, -sis, -sy, -se {~ai%) -. crisis, emphasis, palsy {paralysis), hypocrisy, phrcnsy, eclipse. -' 1 ^r ^> ma : diorama, enema. tre, -ter {-^f.ov) : centre, meter. -St : iconoclast, sophist, baptist. -te, -t ( := TTjj) : apostate, comet, patriot. -sm : sophism, spasm, aneurism. -isk ; asterisk, obelisk. -iz8 (in verbs) : baptize, criticize. This termination and its derivatives Have been imitated m modern formations, as minimize, theorize, deism egotism (or egoism)., egotist (or egoist), annalist, papist. Hybrid Forms. When a compound or derived word is made up of elements derive! from different languages, it is called a hybrui {hybrid:^ = mongrel, from Greek vfipis), ^% falsehood, politely. Some writers speak as if all such formations were faulty, and lay down as a rule that " in derived words ail the parts must belong to one and the same language." This is quite a mistake. When a word of foreign origin has been thorouchly naturalized in English, it is capable of receiving all the inflexions, nre- hxes, and affixes which are employed in English. If this were not the case we could not decline such words when they are nouns or coniueate them when they are verbs. Such words ^s, falsehood, grateful, unjust, rudeness, doubtless, useless, artful, accuser, seducer, politeness, irrand. father, conceited, readable, martyrdom, ivondrous are all hybrids the stem and the prefix or suffix being the one of English, the other of classical origin ; but any rule which would condemn such formations should be rejected as arbitrary and groundless. The following principle however, IS observed m the formation of derivatives :— If a derived word has been formed by means of an English suffix, and a secondary Fn"r.r^ Tfti!° ^i'^'T'i \ ""T' °^^ P'"^^''' 'he prefix should be English If the suffix of the first derivative is of classical origin, the prefix should be classical. Thus we say undecided and indecisive, un- and -ed being both English, ;«- and -ive both Lp^in. So ungrateful ingratitude; unjustly, injustice. But one or two suffixes of Latin origin (like -able) are treated as if of English origin, as in unspeakable. Disguised and Mutilated Forms. Words compounded of Latin elements have often undergone consider- al)ie mutilation, so that they are not easy to recognize. Thus ostrich -avis struthio;' constable ^ comes stabuli ; parsley =. petroselinum ; bittern comes from mugi-taurus, corrupted into bugi-taurus ; meprim (tr migraine) =hemi-cranium, 'a pain affecting half the he^id' ; bus- tard = avis tardus; jeopardy = jocus partitus (a sportive venture, consisting in a choice between two alternatives) ; copperas ^cuprirosa • porpotse ■ porcuspiscts ; porcupine -pore us spinosus ; vinegar = vinum acre {alegar is \ager' or sour ale) ; verdict = vere dictum ; verjuice = viridumjus; viscount = vice-comes ; grandam, granny (through Fiencli ■>• f ' " Iff '1 ■ I HO ENGLISH GRAMMAK. grande (Iat„e)=grandis domina ■ gramercy ^ grand merci ; rosntmrv -ros mannus ; maugre = male gratutn ; van{avant) = ab ante- rear T^'TtI'^'' ''^'''"^ 'hantkleer=chante Clair ; summons = submoncas' • ke-chtef =couvre chtif; cutfeiv = couvn--/eu ; tennis = tenez 'catch'' latnpny^lambe petram, 'lickstone,' from its habit of adhering to rocks by suction; agree (originally an adverb a gri) = ad ^rallm • .tandenm = dentdelion; a/.;V=ltal. all'erta {erta (torn erectus) ; alarm = Ital allarme "to arms (from arma). Verbs in-y^. usually represent compounds of -^rar^, as edi/y, mortify, deify. Cry {¥x. crier from Froven9al m./a,-) is from rei{nable {prendre), spright {spiritus). -^ ^ ' & > J^ s handtrMef^'L f™/'^'"^^ so completely disappeared, that the secondary compound word*S/^Jw/,/ /- • '" ^^'"^ l^""^.^^^ meaning of //«W was disregarded, so that the tTe wfrj/±'/;(^^^^ literally ought to mean ' a /i^^i-covering used for wiL^^e?0DT'''merv'^f"'''rr^'^^ ^/""^^ ^ofti^orX imo which the , before the vowel was aeveioped, When this took pl.ice the b, p, or -j disappeared. SYNTAX. 141 It Others of sudden and 12. d and / appear after «, as in gender, tyrant, ancient, sound. 1 3. Initial syllables sometimes disappear, as ticket {^tiquftte), sterling {Easter ling), mend {amend), pert {apertus), censer {incenser), (rin {engine), sport {disport), fender {defender), &c. 14. / replaces r, as in marble, purple. A Latin word adopted in old English or brought in through French has sometimes been re-introduced at a later period directly from the Latin. In that case the older word shows a more mutilated form than the later. Compare bishop and episcopal; minster and monastery ; priest ixvA presbytfr ; pistol and epistle ; balm, balsam; sure, secure. Sometimes the older form has kept its ground with a different shade of meaning. Compare penance and penitence; blame and blasphemy : chalice and calix ; forge and fabric; countenance axA continence ; feat and fact ; defeat and defect ; poor and pauper ; ray and radius ; treason and tradition ; frail a.n<\ fragile ; loyal ^.nd legal; couch a.nd collocate. There has also been a tendency to reject corruptions, and bring words back again to their original form. Compare aferme and affirm ; auter and altar; coltr and collar; scaler and scholar; noterer and notary; doty r and doctor; parfyt and perfect ; sotil and subtile : dortoure and dormitory; caitiff and captive ; aunterous and adventurous. Proper names are often curiously disguised in common words. Thus dunce is merely the name of the celebrated schoolman Z?««j ^r^/^j; tawdry is a corruption of SL Audrey (Bthelrida), afair at which gaudy wares were sold having been held on her feast-day; g7-og is so called after Admiral Vernon, who first served out to his sailors rum mixed with water, and was nicknamed Old Grog from a cloak of grogram which he was in the habit of wearing ; tram-zvays are named after their inventor Outram ; cordwainers dealt in Cordovan leather ; a lumber-room was a room in which Lombard pawnbrokers kept the goods pledged with them ; sarcenet was made by the Saracens ; cam- bric was made at Cambray ; cherries came from Cerasus ; damsons from Damascus ; shalloon was made at Chalons ; copper was named from Cyprus ; muslin Came from Mossul on the Tigris. f w SYNTAX. fore fhe vowel 342. The word syntax means arrangement (Greek syn, together, taxis, arrangenrient). The rules of syntax are statements of the ways in which the words of a sentence are related to each other. 343. A sentence is a collection of words of such kinds, and arranged in such a manner, as to make some complete sense. By " making some complete sense " is meant, that something is said about something. It is plain, therefore, that every ordinary sentence must consist of two essential parts : — i i t- I '1 u ! I 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. That which denotes what we speak about. This is called the Subject.* 2. That which denotes what is said a^^out that of which we speak. This is called the Predicate. 344. The functions of the different Parts of Speech and of their grammatical forms are based upon this primary relation 345. It is the essential function of a Substantive (Noun or Pronoun) denote some tlnngf about which we speak. It is the essemia ZtT. r ," '"'■'" ^" '^^"?^.^ '"^'''' '' ^^id for predfca ed) respec ;J that of which we are speakmg. The fact that a substantive is he T I'fT- ct rh.f "^'"'h -^^ '^^''''''? ^^ '''' '^^'"S i" '^^ nomina fve case 1 lie fact that a verb is the predicate of a sentence is indicated hv if < being ,n son.e fmite | form. What we can predTcate o a hing .s tha t does something, or that it is in some state or condition. The func- myX'^^o^^: ^"' '^^"^^ '^^^ ^^-^^ '^^^ ^^^^ 346. The actions or states of things bring them into v,^rinll<; rpin t.ons to other things It was the function of the ^b ^qtVcases ( t ) of substantives to indicate these relations.§ By attaching a substantive in an oblique case to a verb, the a'ction or state described W verb IS limited, or more closely defined. '' John struck "or « lohn 347. A Substantive may, in most cases, stand for any one out nt ^r^ S's'of wh!?h\' °' ^'"^"' t^ 'T'^ '''^' ^"^^ pos^fbk 'nun ber Tf tilings of which a noun may be the name is limited when we soerifv certam marks or qualities of that which we intend ^o speak ET limited by oblique cases of substantives. ^ ttiemselves __34a We_Uius_get the functions of the primary parts of speech the' fep^s^i^trLt^i^^ t 1 u^t IS, a form that marks Number and Person. ^ nl^l!i^l^^l^:^I&'!'^^l^;^t^J^^ Anglo-Saxon) the Genitive Case act.on, or the thing indirectiv aflerred 1- k the Ahkfiv -^- .'"'^''''^'^ r^- '^"'«^''-^ °f '^e what tlie action was performed 'or >.onip ^tt^n.i.n • " ^"^^trumcntal Case marked by original function of ol a^da/l oi ihZ syT^Tn.'^t ^^TT'^^'K''^ the action. But tl,e denoting the actions or sutes of thbgs ''''^"'' *^^ signification of words SYNTAX. 143 (the substantive, the verb, and the adjective), and their inflexions, he substantive indicates by its form the relation in which it stands to the verb. In the nominative case it is the Subject, in any obhque case It liini s the Predicate. The Substantive is hmited by the Adiective and tiie Adjective in its turn is hmited by obhque cases of the Substantive. ' t 349. The further development of language is based upon these relations ot its primary* elements. It has been shown (§ 267 &c.) how .ae Adverb is nothing more than an oblique case of a Noun or Pronoun which has become petrified or hardened into a distinct Part of Speech ; and again (§ 279) how the Preposition was at first nothing more than an Adverb, and {§ 290) how what is a Preposition, when it marks the relation between two no/ums, becomes a Conjunction when it marks the relation between two thohghts. The primary Parts of Speech stand f,)r//.V/V;;/.y these secondary Parts of Speech represent relations. I he limiting functions of the oblique cases of substantives were shared by adverbs, and by combinations of a preposition and a sub- stantive ; and all these limit inir ox '"« " (' The Nether- far as the adjunct llmira noun tTS.SZ'; fT/^^'"''" \^- So limits the notion of some acS, it isVSS ' ''"^ '"'''""'*^ ^^ ^^ palace which belongs to The S ' or ' 'P. '" ,°^ 'H' }'''^' ' "'^ ' ^he king,' &c. An attributive adjunS ^L -^^ P'^'=^ belonging to the expresses a com/i^^on, and mai be r^lTl ^''P^^^^^^Y i» Poetry) Thus, in " Foreknow edge hTd no inT'^ ^K^"^ ''^^"^'b'''^' ^''^"^e no less proved certain unforeknown " fS^.r '^^ ?"'^' ^^"^'^ ^^^^ lent to 'if it had been unforeknown ' ^^'^^''"^' ^^Jorcknown is equiva- '''• ^SS? '^r::%T:ilt S^r: -^^ //) They n,ay be .... men.' \\tx& bhuk ^Z\fn^ T- f- ^P say, 'A ^/ar/^ horse,' or '/i^wr from others com^fehendfd und ["fhT' ''' '^'"^ °^ things' referred To may be u'^^cr/M^ ?/ ^r lin ^ ^^'??^ common name. {2) They -. already defined by its name 1 T"" "^^ "^ "' description ti a thh^g Napoleon, ^wZ^ ^yT AL^^J^T^'^^ -^ in '^ J^i"g» ^^wr." But sometimes one attrZ ! ' u *" .^^-^ house near the substantive has been quahfied b' " !.^ • PP"""^ ""^^ ^^'^'^ the who icn^e virtue]." ^"^^'^^^ by another, as m " I honour a// [men ^«-7 A ^'^^ ADVERBIAL RELATION. t° it (see §§ 347 340) or si AH ' ^l-^" thj A^^^^^^^j ^^^ V yjf J4/, 3 49 A or is an Adverbial Adjunct to it adverbial, since it is ,JSI i t^J InH'nr""" '' '^^^"'''^'' ^^ But th,s parcicular kind of Jianctt'us^XT' "/ ^'^"'fi^tion. 2:!L«-"'^]l!!!if:ilte:elation^^ |eP"a.ely in t 'I'h/ 1, j^ ^fgi^y 's limited when we sav ' H„ .• ^ "'^*' He went to Romf> ' nfL r ^'^'"■P distinction which the usual 0!^^ •« '^ ^"^^ c-t your folly. ^°'"^- other hmuineafliunrts of T vpr" I •^^'''"t'on makes betv-ponfK^ I- have marked it bv prvL^ T I ' u"^^ "^^ ^^'•'*t »" reality Had' ,> K ■ , ''^^"^'^ ^""^ 'he that in infl^ct^d LTuale °iike f'T \'^''^""'=' ^^^^^ o"^ its otn rn"f3nf 'h' ""^""«" ^""'^ -(-din.th.!.«^fe-^u^^^^^^^ %: I' f I t H ! \ Si! 148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE OBJEC"^IVE RELATION. 368. When a verb, participle, or gerund denotes an action which is directed towards some object, the word denoting that object stands in the objective relation to the verb, participle (.r ge und. Thus, in -Fhe dog bites the boy" boy is m the objec ive relation io bites. In, " Seeing the tumult^ I went out, tumul . in the objective relation to sedng. In, "Hating one s nt-iglbou is forbidden by tho Gospel," nei^rhbour is in the objective relation to the gerund //../>/i. The object* of averb is the word phrase^ or clause which stands for the object of the --^'«" ^^^^"»^^^^, '^^ the verb. It must of course be a substantive, or the equivalent of one. 369. The object of a verb may be of two kinds, the Direct Object and the Indirect Object. A. The Direct Object t denotes— (a) Tl,e Passive Object, or that which suffers or receives the action cienoted by the verb, as " He struck the ball^ " heard a fwise ib) Tlie Factitive Object, or that which is the product of the action, as " He wrote a tetter" ; " They made a twtse." mon nenus In " Amo puerum " />uerum would be called he Oijfct of the verb ; in to Ro .am""/e^/«">« would be treated as having an adverdiai relation to fo. Vet there is no c.-H.n;;.! .1 iTerence between the two In each instance the .-iccusalive case marks t/u lt.tr t wlXheacUon is directed. "Mao puerum •means "'My love is directe.! rthfboy- ''VoRomam" means " My going is directed to Rome. (In Spani.sh the el-ationo^f tie direct object is marked by the preposition , J. as though we said J l^ve to vou") Nav this is only one form of a more general idea expressed by the accusative, namely S^thntrauffe within which an action takes place, so that the accusative of the obiec Is brought in^o close relation to other uses referring to space and time which are ■* n., oi...l.rT^>; ^.iverbial In Eukrlish (the syntax of which is of rather a rough "i^d re^uly knd.T^noSSicate shadts of distinction), we find that what we call ti.e r^'i// S.7 of a verb has often replaced a genitive or dative, or some com ..nation with apreuosldon which we shn.ld hivehad no (Tifficulty in classing as an Adverbial Adjunct^ ThusX verbs' m.ss," forget,' 'heed' were followed by the genitive in Anglo-Saxon^ and hter by%/! * foUow,' 'withstand,' 'forgive' were followed by the dative or 'to Many Ssof French origin take a direct object in English which m French were followed by Tor 2 as obey, enjoy, applatid, approach, oppose, renounce, resut, resevdle, pardon ^/^L %«r.'K &c Wfget .-I beautiful and fruitful generalization of the structure of bnguage whe^' we rccognizelhat all the oblique cases of a substantive served one coiiimo purpotf, namely to mark how some thing was brought into relation to something else 1 / means of what it ditl, or what it was. ins of what it dul, or wnai it was. . ... _r l- u ■ BcwaTe of confounding the thing which is the object 0/ an action with the word which is the Krammltic.d object oK» verb. •"" •■- — ....r„,..,.nr. thnt we cannot avoid using the U is most unfortunate that we cannot avoid using the '"riii'imuly'g^rammars the direct object of a transitive verb is called the comfiletin^ object c, the comAletion of the predicate. The term has been borrowed from Becker, but spot n the bor owing It has been pointed out (see note on \ 35;0 that Becker applies the term 'S/' to everything which denotes that to which the action or state of a ih.ng has a datKr If the meaning^f a verb or adjective is such that we necessarily think of some- hine as being in relation to f.e action or state which it denotes, he calls the object a corn- el tmrohiect' but his ' completing object ' would include such instances as h^'g?,/or bread . ^pSedS th^^gfr ; • acqua nted lith the way '; ' stands onth table" ' we.it to London^ •itt^ijusistent ftU rate It is uiireasonable^ -inta.n that^^^^ WVwa^.s to tett« K:tlecr^tShe;^%e^an;;g;^;n v.ry w^ ^^^^ '' gets" confounded with the complement 0/ the p> edicate which will be dealt with presently. !4| SYNTAX. 149 The Direct Ol) the story" may become eithf>r "'fil.V ,il V^' , ^ *o'" '"m* ''Z'::;t::!'''^'^£:^J:'T' ^''^^ ^'",'?^' ^^ "The teacher beam ♦Z, I • ;■ '^" '^•^'^^^ ^'•'^o »" ^'le pass ve constniction one of tin. two ob.ects remains attached to the passive verb as " I wnc ?ci The Direct Object of a verb is not indicated by prepositions.§ ADVERBIAL ADJCNCTS. 371. The basis and type of the Adverbial Adjunct is a sub- /iwj wiTh ^eg-^r o one of t^ •'"^'^.^'' '^ '^■''- '^*"' ""'°" "^'^^ is viewed '>>'t it is perfect!; allowable tf^^^^^^ '''/7vr/,,a/^dj„nJ(tT67) object which .s left with the passive verb as an (?3V)'-an;dv^:r;;Lradj^^^^ an attributive adjunct '^ of a thinff to a thing (l 277) weVet ;n Attrllnf/^ the preposition is user! to denote the reia- ^'n attribute or action of a th nrto snm. n,K T ^^'""""^ ' ^^^" '^ ''^"°'« '^e relation of statement is not invaHdated hv f. t^n. Tk? r' *i""^' 7^ ^'^^ "n adverbial adjunct This \'oi'-e. " I am spl AkS of L " ^^'^'^''''''''''f ^^^^f*"" °f English in the use of \he Passive «So F.Nr.T.ISTT GRAMMAR. « fl I In Anjjlo-Saxon tlu* CJcnitivc, Dativp, and Arcus.itive were all used for this purposL'.* Ill modern lOn^lisli the Genitivi" or J'osscssivc (Jasc is no loii^jor used aay" ; " Wc ret u rH ed /; «) Duration of time or time when, as "We stayed there «// the summer"; " /i //./. of Gl.). The dative was used in defining a comparative. Much (as in much better) or tittle (as in little more) were datives, 'miclum' and ' lytlum.' '■ A foot taller' means 'taller by afoot.' ^ Sometimes cut down to the numeral, as " She is seventeen." *• The cognate objective sometimes appears in a metaphorical shape, as in " To look daggers at a person " ; "To rain fire and brimstone." The vague pronoun it is freely used in this construction, as, " We shall have to rough it " ; "Go it, boys," &c. SYNTAX. all used for in adjective, 151 /^/)- '1i^LZ%?S'lo;^\^ (^^en live M.. accusative was also romln See A'i"'ii^75; '''"' ^''^'''^- ' '* "^U^ •^2i:^;:r;!Sn^l;^;;S;e^;;^^^^ l'^'^ elective case ..sec Adjunct. .Sec note t on J 370 ^"'^ °''J''*'' ^'^ °" Adverbial ^r^/.tr'' ''m 'hltJ?/!'*^^ ^^ f prepoaition; as, " He hones The gerundial inf.niticT§ 9') oVten lit * ""' T^^'?""^''^ a verb or adjective ; e^ « He iniU /? ' /•"• -'^^'verbial adjunct of «/rrm/» ; - We eat /^fe^ " 'M'l'/i"^'''' «//77«^." ; « jle strives /^ food is not fit to ear- -'vh'^ coat i « f ^"""^ ? -^"''^'^ ''"''■ '''^''" J " This house is /. /./t L/orllZe^.'^^iP^r^^^ '"^his f"v this to John ((onW m' ;.m /■ ! ^\^^'["^^'' i "You are /^ " He is a foolish nmn r W ij^/T ''^''"'''-^^ ^'^ request"); ^'«^'(y, &c., is in the adveXLT.l-^/''"'^ ^ '"^rr-" ^^^^^ fo t/Jw adjunct may also coLis? nf . ^ "" ^" -^^''^'•^'''- An adverbial clause (see^ 4o) o, t an Pnfi^fH"'"" ^"^^^^'' ^^ '-^ substantive .^Ar^r^..," or by a substantive with ^ "'r^^' '"^ "' ^^^ '^'^"''^ ^^ wind sits fair V ne^TT^r^ ,:t,^^^^^ as "The A'r ;/.? to sec" (see§ :{07) Buf Z\\T x I ■ "'^^^ '^ too dark clause, often forms an^Lvfrbia^^"^^^^^^^ 1"'"'^'^^ '"^^d "'" ^ >'ni"; "I would buy it but that I 1- ""'' '''""°* ''^''^ ^''^-^ /^./-j«...r forms L ldv':;biradjunS^"LS^g;; ^'^^^ ' ^^^ V^P^:;^:^tr:L^ r^ ^^^ noun ...edcd by the example, after full S«« 3 / ^''^^^^'^'^e or dative case. as. for phrases have sometrrnl 'rSco^ ' if "f^ ^'''^''-^' '^■^- Prepositional in'thf no^nTtii? orSSvi'f 1 '?T -""^-tive adjunct) pica.., bec.„.,e ihe „«/„ iJeVk LoVpJdicS rf";!;:.''' '.fP'"'"'. "S ">">Pl™™l ofthe of thpnH ^^..•.._\ . , '-^ '"^'^t tnat in these construction.; fh» ,,k:^„»:... /.- .1 t Some g;=.. L. ,s n°fs tS ^J}!,^""''"'- -^i-ct of "rouse.' " ' ^*" ^ '^°"^'' ''^ [tv'^^^:^ry^-^^-^^V^ol^^c^^^^^ 'h« objective (as the representatirc ^'ff^^\, Milton uses both consrnSs Thf.l^H-' ''^'''^ ' '"ef**',^*" this will follow soon °(/'T7x,Ji'VT destroyed for whom all other hand we find -.Adam, weYded^'u^'anot^t F.v^^^ nfKo..(, J "^"'.'""°^ soon (/'./, ix ,,„\ . "iTc) — ">ycu lur wnom an this was other hand, we find "Adam, wedded to another' Fv. .t'f]°r "'''^^ i <^- ^- ^»' »4o). Oathe A qh ^^^' "^^''^h ^-hoknowVburt^St as illfe" V'' ^"\^'^'u ^"j°y'"8 >'«""<=' " WK ^^■^''/P^are also uses the noni nS ''t^L ^"^^ '"'PP^"^''- ^^ou being by "(/'. Z. When the forms adm t of a cho «, the . cm n/flv. ; °"r ""^^^^ "-^^ ^''^ ^''^ds^ are mute " abbreviated nartirinl^ ^^..4//. .o'.v •'' "ommative is preferred bv moHprp w^f-rc wu^ ";i\. '"^. The dative w«uTed"in Angl^SaxS' ""' '''''"^' '^"'^ ''^^ °^>«^^«" «^^«^"«« aile^c^pt ' f. i ! n i , 152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. M I r I ^! '4- 1 6. 375. 378. Participles may be used absolutely in this manner without havmg any noun to be attached to (see § 382). In such a sentence as " hpeakmg generally, this is the case," the phrase ' speakmg generally is an adverbial adjunct of the predicate. _. An adverb* (see § 259) ; as, " He fought bravely P " I set 011/ yesterday.'' " He is very industrious." , „ « t 7. An adverbial clause ; as, " I will come when I ajn.ready ; l would tell you if I could:' (See further ' Complex Sentences,' § 401O 373. One kind of Adverbial Adjunct may often be replaced by another Thus for "He suffered patiently,'^ we may say "He suffered with patience," and vice versd ; for "He failed through carelessness, we may say •' He failed because he was careless ; " for " This being gfanteci, the proof is easy,'' we may say " If this be granted, the proof is easy. 874. Adverbs themselves admit of limitation or qualification as regards degree; as, " He writes very badly " ; "He will be here almost imme- diately:' Even a preposition may be modified by an adverb, as '' He went i?// round the town " ; " He has cut half through the beam. When a noun stands in either the predicative or the attributive relation to another substantive, it may have words standing to it in the adverbial relation ; as, "Napoleon, lately Emperor of the French. Adverbial adjuncts of all kinds admit of the same classification as 'simple adverbs. (See § 265 and § 415* &c.) 377. Two or more adverbial adjuncts may be attached to the same verb or adjective. Sometimes they are co-ordinate, as in " He ran to the spot immediately, as fast as he could'' ; «*He spoke calmly 3.r\A 7vithout hesitation:' Sometimes one adjunct can be applied only after the verb or adjective has been modified by the other, as in " I will wt?;' [stand in your way'] " ; " We do not [play at cards every day] " ; " [Scarce were they gone] when he ordered them to be recalled." In some grammars a Predicate to which adverbial adjuncts are attached is said to be extended.^ SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 378. As both the subject and the verb of a sentence are spoken of the same thing, they must agree with each other m those points which they have in common, that is, in number and person. • The learner may be surprised to see that in this arrangement of Adverbial Adjuncts the Adverb itself has not been put first. The purpose of this is to draw attention to the fact that the Adverbial Objective Case (with or without a preposition before it) is not a makeshitt imitation of an independent pan of speech, but is a relic of the primary function of the oblique cases of substantives, namely, tolimit ordefine the signification of v-rbs and adjectives It is to this that the Adverb itself owes its origin, for Adverbs are (certainly in most cases, and possibly in all) nothing more than inflected forms of nouns and pronouns sometimes with, soi>etimes without prepositions before them. (See this set forth at length in {4 266 -273.) . . X I. -T^.jf ug parefuUy borne in mind that -^vhat is predicated by the verb is in tact limtteA by these adjuncts. iving any Speaking ly ' is an I set oil/ dy''\ «I J,' § 401O laced by ered with ," we may anted, the ;asy." IS regards tost itnme- I. as "He sam." attributive g to it in ; French." isification ne verb or to the spot id without ;r the verb not [stand *' \Scarce luncts are ence are other in mber and Adjuncts the the fact that a makeshift f the oblique dves It is to and possibly h, sor.ietimes fact limited SYNTAX. j-« 379. The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 380. A noun in the singular number which denotes a multitude Cas crowa senate, army flock) may have its verb in the plural number when the idea to be kept in view is not the multitude viewed as one whole, but \.\iQ individuals of which the multitude is composed. As The multitude were of one mind." But we should say, '' The armx^ wasted into the defile," because we then speak of the army as a whole. multitude ^''''^'"^^' "" '^^ P^"""^^ "'^g^t be used to qualify a noun of 381. The verb is put in the plural number when it has for its subject two or more nouns in the singular coupled by the conjunction and;t as, John and Thomas were walking together." But when the com- pound subject is considered as forming one whole, the verb is kept in tne singular ; as, "The mmd and spirit remains invinci' 'e ;" "Hill and valley rings'' (Par. Z. ii. 495) ; " Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings " {Shaks^eare, M. of K). 382. Every finite verb must have a subject in the nominative case expressed or understood.! Such a sentence as, "That is the man whom I heard was ill" is taulty, because the verb was is left without a subject ; the relative pronoun, which ought to be the subject, being wrongly put in the objective case § It should be, *' That is the man who, I heard, was ill " 1 will give this to whomsoever wants it " is faulty in a similar way Wants must have whosoever for its subject. " The subject of a verb is sometimes understood, as " I have a mind presages me such thrift," for ' xvhich presages,' &c. ; "So far as fit 1 m him lies"; ''Do [he] what he will, he cannot make matters th,^ L« 'I K K- . ^'•' ""^ 'u*"- s'ovenJy habit of saying that a verb agrees with its nomina- tive case. 1 he subject of a verb is not a form, but a substantive in a certain form J,;cK .1^'"''^°*!."°" ^""''^ sometimes answers the same purpose, as " Gedaliah, who with his brethren and son were twelve " (1 C/i^^«. XXV 9). v, uauaa, wno witn I In A.S. we find passive and other impersonal verbs used absolutely without anv subiert expressed or understood. Thus " Dam yfcan ddme he ge d • ')P^^^ ^% "°' (Hilton) ; ' hem ( = . hem) neOeth ' {Piers PL ); dative of the LU. Tx. T"^ {Chaucer). Conversely several Impersonal expressions with a ' I dease' rf-fr' :? .^ ^''" ^"'■"l'' '"''' ^""f,"^' °"" ^''^» ^ nominative of the person, as detEe totieWrnr'*^ '' T..^ V H^^' '°"? [^°'" ' '"'^^ ^'"^ was •) ; ^ he Were Letter 'his I am hl^. w'/^ fU) )^^;;?,'1'^/J°',']l'"'°'f^¥« death,' T,nvnl.M. p zS;); 'to do what deminc, ." " '^^^ relative or interrogative pronoun may always be tested by that of a turd"betheLLT"n Tt'^it'" ""fl^- The construction of -Ihora I beared was i 1." «ouia oe tne same as that of " I heard him was lU. '^n i \ M i I 154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. worse." The subject of a verb in the imperative mood is usually omitted.* 383. Every noun, pronoun, or substantive phrase used as a subject ought to have a verb attached to it as predicate. But for the sake of giving greater prominence to the subject, it is sometimes mentioned first, and then repeated by means of a demon- strative pronoun, as " The Lord, He is the God." Also in subordinate clauses with t/a.nd when, where a relative pronoun is the subject, there is the difficulty that the relative must come first, and yet the subject must not be separated from the verb by // or wAen.f The older writers in such cases repeated the subject relative in the form of a demonstrative, as " A right noble lord, wAo, had /le not sacrificed his life, &c." {Milton) ; " Lend it rather to thine enemy who if he break, thou mayst with better face exact the penalty " (Merck. VenX SUBJECT. 384. The subject of a sentence may be — 1. Simple. 2. Compound. 3. Complex. 385. The subject of a sentence is simple when it is — 1. A single Substantive (Noun or Pronoun), as '-'■ Men are mortal," " / love truth." 2. An Infinitive Mood or Gerund, as " To err is human ;" " Loving one's enemies is a Christian duty." 3. Any word which is itself made the subject of discourse, every word being a name for itself as " Thou is a personal pronoun." 386. The subject of a sentence is compound when it consists of two or more substantives coupled together by the con- junction and; diS, " Caesar and Pompey were rivals." "You and I will travel together. "J • If the relation of the Subject and the Predicate is not obvious from the form of the words (as it is in ' I am,' ' thou seest,' ' he lives,'), the learner should determine the subject of any given finite verb by the exercise of his intelligence, discarding all mechanical rules and tests. In most cases the subject of a declarative sentence precedes the verb, but sonietimes it does not, especially in poetry, as "There stood a marble wall, wrought cunningly." Somo time ago there was an affected fashion of employing this inversion, which was ridiculed in the following parody : — " So, when ' dogs' meat ' re-echoes through the streets, '' Rush sympathetic curs from their retreats ; " Beam with bright blaze their supplicating eyes, "Sink their hind-legs, ascend their joyful cries ; " Each, wild with hope, and maddening to prevail, " PoHits the pleased ear, and wags the expectant tail." ^ t This difficulty docs not present itself in Latin. In qui si dedisset^^ qw.' is the subject of dedisset. X Many grammarians insist that in cases of this kind we are to regard the sentence as a contraction of two co-ordinate sentences joined by and. This explanation might do very well for such a sentence as, "John and William are eleven years old ' ; that is, ' John is eleven years old, and William is eleven years old " ; but it is simply absurd when applied to such sentences as "Two and three make five," " He and i are of the same age"; "Blue and yellow make green." The conjunction is sometimes omitted, as "Where Nature, Freedom, Art, smile hand in hand " (Campbell). SYNTAX. 155 is the subject The conjunctions either-or, nettker~nor, do not couple substantives 387. The subject of a sentence is complex when it con- sists of an infinitive phrase, of a substantive clause * or of a quoation; as, - Better be with the dead ^^ - " Me chauiced ./ ^ W./ ....««W ^." ^Spenser), ^^ Bow to do it is theque tio^'' ^Iw a\ 'f '"^ ''^\ '''■'^'" " ^ '" ^^"gl^^d expects every man to do his duty,' was Nelson's watchword." ^ theVere?nronm^n'!t ' T-^^ °^t^" anticipated by the pleonastic use of the real «nZT h' ""^''"^ '^'''^' f' ^ ^^^^Porary substitute for inrL^?« subject, the grammatical relation of which to the verb it mdcates more concisely. Thus: "7/ is wicked/^ tell lies ^^^^Itt certain that he said so."\ ^^■' ^' ^^ Enlarged or Expanded Subject. 888. The subject of a sentence may have attached to it anv atfri- butive ad.,unct (§ 362) or any combination of attributive aijunJtsl^; " The man told a lie " {Demonst. Adj ) '! g^^^ men love virtue " {Adj. of Quai'ity). ~ ApMdinf! ^^""'^ ^''"''' "^'^ "°' '"^^'^^'^ ^'' ^^'^''" (^^« l» ''John's ««^ coat, which he was wearing for the first time, was torn " (I. Noun m Poss. Case, 2. Adf of Quality, 3. Adf Clause). If the subject is a verb in the infinitive mood, or a gerund, it may be accompanied by objective or adverbial adjuncts, as, ^ " TJ? rise early is healthful." " To love one's enemies is a Christian duty." " Playing with fire is dangerous." A;y.c-./v ..«/.„.," that is, '7/... . ,r« K:'TA.>./6,'.'^«;;;ri1 a';a?e{K • '*" '" '^ ill: IS6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. i ! PREDICATE. 380. The Predicate of a sentence may be 1. Simple. 2. Complex. SIMPLj: PBEDICATE. . 390. The predicate of a^entence is simple when the notion rL::^™^.1iLX'' ^1 1''^:^''^ «■" ' verb . as'."" ^ COMPLEX PREDICATE, 391. Many verbs do not make complete sense by themselves but reciuire some other word to be used with them to mke th' sense complete. Of this kuid are the intransitive verbs 11' W To say, " The horse is," " The light becomes " « I ran » nr « t i the n,an;' ,nakcs no sense. H is^e„uisite"?o use sonle^othe'r w^S HI -rV ":'"'^'''^- ^^<- i^'dx Uixmea J-ienrv." Verbs nf fhic i-;«, a v„b „f incomplete predicaU„;; 1 1 ' „"?L"l™Snce"''."H?r'', of complete predication in " TT^^, ft- ?''^^^^^' '"'"^'^ '« a veil) ^:i:^f-^effi'3?--'^^^-^^^ 392. Ihe predicate of a sentence is complex when it consists employ it lu a similar sense. ^lumonty ot Matzner anri koch (u. § 245), who both >inK. ^' ^"'^"'"'*'^^J""« of «/*f of his •a going ,^. SYNTAX. 157 1. Subjective Complement. 393. When a verb of incomplete predication is intransitive or passive the Xcr"?s^' H '' P^'^r^.^^at •" '"^^ predicative relEt.: the i>ubject as, He is prudent." fye became rich." " He is called John." "The w,ne tastes sour.''* ^e feels sick." Th^skindof complement may be termed the Su/^jSj/ve Complement^ The Complement may consist of any Attributive Adjunct (5 ^562) is " ]|,e earth ,s the Lonfs^^, «' The coat was of mLyVourf^ hni an adverb, or adverbial phrase, never forms {he c.^n" lement \,f a .cdcae. A substantive clause may be used as a complement, ust It 12T' ' '"^"^^"^'"*^' ^' ^'^y ^'^-'^^- i« that you as the subject, and /as the a^mplemento the predicate ; ',/ (/...,^the person yoi have h/ mmd,' fnr ' if // ^"g "ti'.''"" ^'"' '^'''' '^versed. We find " gyf ki hyt xiv. 27). (So in modern German 'ich bin es.') Afterwards we find he u omitted as "gif thou art " {Matt. xiv. 28) ; -I my sirfam '' (Z«/Yxx,v. 39). In Chaucer we find 'It am I,' where ' I' isThe complement of the predicate, but attracts the' verb hito its own 2. Objective Complement. He arrived jrt/"^' nr ' H^ ---r;,- ) r- J',-°"'" t° much the same thine whether wp "„ W/y-for-^'hereen.s'^W^^^^ woufci say -he sterns /^- 1 158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. to the object of the verb ; as, " He dyed the cloth red." " She called the man a liar." This kind of complement may be termed the Objective Complement.* The following are examples of the Objective Complement :— ' Hold the reins tight ^ ; 'he took the man pmsoucr' ; 'he left his nephew heir to his estate'; 'attention held them mute'\ 'let me alone^ \ 'set the prisoner /nv' ; 'he painted the house 7<'///V^' ; ' they appointed Nelson admiral. When the complement is a noim, we in fact get two objects, of which the second is a factitive object (§ 369 a). It is, however, properly regarded as a Complement of the Predicate. Its meaning is so bound up with that of the verb, that it cannot be sep I rated from it to become the subject in the passive construction. + We can say ' The man was taken prisoner,^ but we cannot make prisoner the subject of was taken. 3. Inflnitive Complement. 398. The third kind of complement is that which follows such verbs as can, will, must, &c., as " I ran xvn'tc," " He must ^0.'' This may be termed the infinitive complement, or complementary infinitive. The objtct of the sentence is often attached to the dependent infinitive. In some gra'nmars an infinitive thus used is called a Prolative Ivfinitive, that is, an Infinitive which carries fonvard ox extends the meaning of the preceding verb. There is no objection to the term. It comes in fact to precisely the same thing. To say that a verb is an extensible verb, and that its meaning is extended or carried forward by the infinitive that follows, is equivalent to saying that it is a verb 0/ incom- plete predication, and that its meaning is completed or filled up by the infinitive. *'■ • This sort of Complement requires to be c;ii fftilly distinguished from the Indirect Predicate (5 397)' At first sight they seem much the same, but a little reflection will show that when we have an indirect predicate attached to a substantive the nieaiiinc; of the preced ng verb is not in any way modified or filled up by what follows it, and what is denoted by the indirect predicate is not in any way the result of the action denoted by the verb. In ' He felt the ground shake,' 'He saw the man hanged,' the verbs 'felt' and ' ?.ii.w ' covwey 0/ themselves thc'r full and usual meaning, and describe completely the action that we intend to predicate ; and ' shake ' and ' hanged ' do not d-note anyth ng which is the result of the ' feeling ' or 'seeing.' But if we say ' He made the man angry, "he struck the man dead,' ' he painted the house white,' the verbs 'mate,' 'struck.' 'painted' do not of thimselves fully describe the action that we intend to predicate, and angry,' ' dead,' and ' white,' denote what is ihe r««// of the 'making,' ' striking,' and 'painting.' In " He found the man dead," rt'fa«>//" ; " He made ^Ae dear trance" • " Let there de light " ; " Let «x pray" ; « He com- manded rAe bridge to be lowered" ;t "He knew the man to have been unjustly accused" ; '« We saw the man hammed" ; | " They found the child dying" -X "He made his power felt'";| " We found the man honest. 'X These substantive phrases may also be used as the subjects of verbs (see § 387 and note), and may come after prepositions, as " The wind sits fair for news to go to Ireland" ; "They set him free without his ransom paid"; "On some brandy being administered, he revived" (compare the Latin post urbem conditarn). The question whether a participle or adjective forms an Indirect Predicate, or is merely an attributive adjunct of the Object, may often be settled by the introduction of an Infinitive Mood, as *' They found the child [to be] dymg," " Hs found the man [to be] honest," or by substitutujg a substantive clause, as " He believed that the man was tnsane" for "He believed the man insane." 808. The neuter 'jV often serves as a temporary or provisional representa- tive of a complex object, showin'^r its grammatical relation to a verb or participle, as " I think it foolish to act so" ; "The burden which they considered it impossible to remove," where 'it' - 'to remove which.' (See § 387.) The object is also sometimes pleonastically repeated, as "All other doubts, by time let them be cleared." .« c '^*' « ^P^^fs to the ordinary Accusative and Infinitive in Latin. In A.S. we find oecgaC hine hbban = ' They say him live.' t The beginner must not confound the indirect predicate with the infinitive denoting /wn^w*- W " u . rf'L/-"^^^!'^ ""/ '"^" '° ^« •" '^« "K'^''" ^e have an indirect predicate, because what he W (i.e. believed or maintained) was ' that the man was in the right.' But K k -J ''^ T ^"' h^"'' ^f be caned, we get an infinitive of purpose. So " He commanded the bridge to be lowered = 'he commanded that the bridge should be lowered'; it is obvious that bridge cannot be the direct object of ' commanded ' ; but in " He urged me to come -Ihey entreated us to remain" "We compelled the man to desist," we have inlimtives denoting purpose (and therefore forming adverbial adjuncts of the verb), denoting tnat to which the urging, 'entreating,' or ' compelling ' was directed. Sometimes the con- struction IS ambiguous, as He caused the troops to press onwards " ; " He oniered the men to aavance Ihis last may mean either " He gave orders to the men to advance," or ' he gave ota^rs that the men should advance. t To see how different this construction is from that of a substantive with an ordinary attributive adjunct, compare ' He saw the man hanged " with " he saw a man clothed in scarlet. The latter means He saw a man in the state described by ' clothed in scarlet." The to.rncr docs not mran that • he saw the man in a hanged condition,' but ' he saw the hanging oj ine man takt place. If ' clothed in scarlet ' were an indirect predicate, the sentence would mean that he saw the man having the scarlet clothes put on him.' '^1' if i6o ■4M ^ W.' a: m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 399. The object of a verb may have any combination of attributive adjuncts attached to it. It is then said to be enlarged or expanded. (See § 388.) If the object be an infinitive mood or a gerund, it may have an object or an adverbial adjunct attached to itself (§ 388). CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 400. Sentences are of three kinds : — A. Simple. B. Complex. C. Compound. When a sentence contains only one subject and one finite verb, it is said to be a simple sentence. When a sentence contains not only a complete subject and its verb, but also other dependent or subordinate clauses which have subjects and verbs of their own, the sentence is said to be complex. When a sentence consists of two or more complete and independent sentences connected by co-ordinative conjunctions, it is said to be compound. Complex Sentences. 401. A Compjlex Sentence * is one which, besides a principal subject and predicate, contains one or more subordinate clauses, which have subjects and predicates of their own. Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds : — 1. Substantive Clauses. 2. Adjective Clauses. 3. Adverbial Clauses. A Substantive Clause is one which, in its relation to the rest of the sentence, is equivalent to a substantive. An Adjective Clause is one which, in its relation to the rest of the sentence, is equivalent to an adjective. An Adverbial Clause is one which, in its relation to the rest of the sentence, is equivalent to an adverb. 402. A complex sentence is produced whenever the place of a substantive, an adjective, or an adverb is supplied bv a substantive clause, an adjective clause, or an adverbial clause.f The prin- cipal sentence is a containing sentence, and the subordinate clause is a contained clause. It will obviate much confusion if the term 'Sentence" be restricted to a combination of words forming rt f^w//^/^ 7uhole, 'Clause' to a subordinate member of a sentence ro«/a/«?>/^ ajinitg verb, and Phrase ' to any combination of words which does fiot contain a finite verb expressed or understood. t Learners are sometimes told that a Substantive Clause is the ' expansion ' of a Substan- tive, an Adjective Clause the ' expansion ' of an Adjective, and so on. This is a misleading view of the matter. One expression is the expansion of another only when the elements of the latter are fi-j/Z/r^-^^rzW- in the former. Thus, " 'J'he lark builds" \i expanded 'mih^ sentence; Ihe lark, which soars so high and sings so sweetly, builds its nest on the dewy ground. But to say that " I saw that he 7vas mufKsed" is an expansion of ' ! saw hi-, con JusioH, is a misuse of terms • ■ ■ a jack-boot. A shoe is not ' expanded ' when it is pulled ofif and replaced by SYNTAX. I6l 3f attributive r expanded. jrund, it may §3B8). S. d. ite verb, it is and its verb, ave subjects X. independent ; said to be a principal ate clauses, auses. ) the rest of ; rest of the i rest of the place of a Libstantive The prin- ; clause is a combination of ince containing ontain a finite ' of a Substan- is a misleading the elements of xpanded in the St on the dewy ' ! saw hix con- ind replaced by Tf we sav, He announced the arrival of Caesar," we get a simple sentence. If we say. -He announced that C.t^sar had arrived,'' Tee' a complex sentence, the substantive clause that C^sar had artk>ed bemg substituted ff)r the arrival of Ccesar. If we say, "He has lost the book given to him by me," we have a * r£ ''"''"''; ^^ ^' f "y* ' ' "^ has lost the book which I had given H.L ; /"^^ f • ^ ''"T'''''^ sentence, the adjective clause which I had gwen to him, bemg substituted for given to him by me. It we say, " The boy went out to play on the completion of his task " we get a simple sentence If we say, " The boy went out to play when he had comp eted his task," we get a complex sentence, the adverbia" p!2Vl}7istask ''"^^'''"^ ^"' "''''' ^"^"""^ substituted for on the col ^LXt?'r'/^%^?P"'" *h^* f dependent or subordinate clause is an ihH-/^ the principal sentence to which it belongs, just as though U were an ordmary substantive, adjective, or adverb SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 403. A Substantive Clause is one which, in its relation to the rest of the sentence, is equivalent to a substantive. It may be either the subject or the object of the verb in the princi- pal clause, or It may be in apposition to some other substantive, or be governed by a preposition. Substantive clauses usually begin either with the conjunction that* or with an mterrogative word. The conjunction ihat, however, s frequently understood ; as " I saw he was tired:^ Sometimes he 'Xj°f ""^T- Xa'^ '° ^akened in meaning as to be equivalent to tnat, as 1 is told how the good squire gives never less than gold." ^•5?f: /" *i^ sentence "I know that he did this," the clause * that he did this is the object of the verb ' know: In « He asked me how old I was," the clause ' how old I was ' is the object of the v^xh'asked:\ Similarly in " He asked me whether I was hungry, ;he clause whether I was hungry is the (second) object ot asked. If IS often used with a similar interrogative force, as He asked me if I was hungry." In "When I set out is uncertain," the clause ' when I set out' is the subject of the verb */j.'t beliele "'^/f' "^'"^ "■' V'' P"'.'"0"ly "sed for ' that,' sometimes along with ' how ' as " I i! '-rhn; .i? ' ""'■ "l""" '^^f '■' '^"^ ''^« ^^^'' " iSmollett). Similarly we find ' /io^ That ' as That thou may'st know ho'u, that the earth is the Lord's " ' ^ iiow and when3.r& here interrogative words. In cases of this <=Qrt we sret what is rallprl M ' 41 m \ i 1 * ""«•« i'l!. i :i :l 1 'i '•■ i i 1 J Vi 1 ! i ■ ^ i h 1 jl V ^ 1 ) i i6a ENGLISH GRAMMAR. In ** The idea that I shall give my consent is ridiculous," the clause ' that I shall gh'e my consent ' is in apposition to the noun ' idea.'' In " Why have we done this, that we have let Israel go," the clause Uhat we huTe let Israel go ' is in apposition to the pronoun * t/ii's.' In "We should have arrived sooaci. '>ut at we met with an accident," the clause ' t/iat we met milk nn accident ' is governed by the preposition U>ut.'* In " Have ihe> any sense of why they sing," the clause ' why they sing' is governed by the preposition ' oj.' 405. When a substantive clause is the subject of a verb, it is usually repre- sented temporarily by the pleonastic cienionstrative ' //,' as " // is not ixwQ that he died yesterday."' This is also the case when the clause is the object of a complex predicate {\ 391), as " lie made tt dear that the plan was itnpossible."\ A substantive clause may also follow a phrase which, taken as a whole, is equivalent to a transitive verb. Thus : " He other means doth make, How he may work unto her further smart," where ' make means' = endeavour, or try. So ' /am afraid that he will not succeed ' is equivalent to ' 1 Jear that he will not succeed. 'J So in " Bid her be judge whether liassanio had not once a friend," ' be judge' = 'judge.* 406. It is to verbs that substantives and substantive clauses most commonly stand in the objective relation. This has nothing to do with the predicative force of the verb, but depends upon the fact that the verb denotes an action or feeling directed towards an object. Participles and gerunds take objects after them, and even some nouns which denote a transitive action or feeling may have a substantive clause as an object. § Thus, ' There is no proof that he did this ' ; ' We have no hope that he will recover.' 407. A quotation is not a substantive or dependent clause. Its form is not affected by its relation to the principal verb, as that of a dependent clause is. Compare *' He said ' / am tired' " with " He said that he was tired." ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 408. An Adjective Clause is one which, in its relation to the rest of the sentence, is equivalent to an adjective. It * In such cases the preposition and the substantive clause governed by it constitute together an adverbial adjunct of the predicate, just like a preposition and noun (§ 372, 2). II hat is sometimes improperly substituted for t/iat, as ' I had no idea but what the story was true ' ; and that is sometimes omitted, as ' It never rains but it pours ' (i.e., ' leaving out the times when it pours, it never rains ') ; ' But I be deceived, our line musician groweth amorous ' (Shaksp. Tarn. iii. 1). In these cases the but acquires the function of a 'Onjunction (§ 291). + This anticipatory ' // ' sometimes brings into prominence some aitjumt of the predicate. Thus, '' It was for you that 1 bought the book," i e. • my^uying the book was for you.' " It was yesterday that this event happened " = ' the happening of this event was {i.e., took place) yesterday. ' t It is also possible to treat the substantive clause in such cases as being analogous to the adverbial accusative, or accusative of closer definition in Latin. Thus, '" 1 am sorry that you are not well "is 'I am sorry as regards the/act that you are not well.' This is sometimes the only mode of dealing with such a clause, as in " He was vexed that you did not come" ; " I am sure that he did it." § Mr. Peile [Primer, p. 127) quotes the remark.tble construction in Plautus, " Quid tibi hanc tactio est'?" 'What right-oj-touching this ivoman have you?' Sometimes a noun. i-.wing to its peculiar meaning, has an should lose his money harassed him." use attached to it, as " Anxiety lest /u as vexed that 409. 410 SYNTAX. l5- Stands In the attributive relation to a substantive, and is attached to the word which it (luaUfies by means of a relative pronoun, or a re ative adverb which is equivalent to a relative pronoun nre- ceeded by a preposition.* In the sentence " i.ook at the exercise which I have written," the clause which I have written > qualirtes the noun ' vxercist;' and is much the same m force as the participial plirase ' written by me.' In "That is the house where I dwell," the clause 'where I dwell' (;uahhes the noun ' house: Where is equivalent to in which. Adjective clauses are usually coordinate with a demonstrative adjec- tive M/j, that, &'c. Thus in the sentence, " I never received those books which you sent," the adjective 'those' and the adjective clause xvhichyou sent ' are both in the attributive relation to ' l>ooh:' The relative is sometimes omitted, as " Wiiere is the book / ^ave you t for which I ^^we you ; " I have a mind presages me such thrift,'^ &c., for which presages, &c. {§ 164). Sometimes adjective clauses are used substantively, i.e., with no antecedent expressed, as " Who steals my purse, steals trash." This omission of the antecedent is usual when the relative 7i'h(7t is used as I heard what he said," "There is no truth in what he said." ' . Care must be used to distinguish iiiose clauses in which an indirect question is involved in the use of 7aho, what, when, where, &c from c auses m which these words are mere relatives. In such sentences as, Tell me what I ought to do," " I asked liim who said so," " I know why he did It," "He asked me when I had arrived," the dependent clauses are indirect questions, and are substantive clauses having no antecedent expressed or understood to which they relate Thev are based upon the direct questions, " What ought I to do V' • " Who said so?" &c. In "That is what I said," "This is where I live." the dependent clauses are adjective clauses. Sometimes there is no anibiguity. In " He asked me where I lived " we clear! have an indirect luestion. In " I believe what you say " we have ar adjective clause (wuh suppressed antecedent), ' that which yousav.' S« metimes a sentence is ambiguous. Thus, " I know what you told him" may ii-ean either "The fact which you told him is one that I know," or I know the answer to the question 'What did you tell him." Ihe distinction isanalop^us to that between clauses beginnirg with pas or ,/utc/ in Latin, and clauses beginning with qui or quotl. In these the distinction is marked also by the mood of the verb. " Nescio quid narraveris" means ' I do not know what story it was that you told. ' Non credo quod narravisti" means 'I do not believe the story which you told.' Clauses beginning with as must be regarded as adjective clauses, when they follow such and same. Thus, in " I do not admire such books as he writes, ' the clause as he writes is an adjective clause qualifying ^''^^ J> and co-ordinate with such, as being a relative nmnou ■ (^ 165). infinJrvrJn'l^H" ^ 'f'uJr ^^'"^''' ^'^''l? ^ '^"''•^ verb) is replaced by a r- h,ive Mrav^ with an Si/7.X .; f y^ ^l""^ '^'^'■^ " '•""" T ST^/"^. «'^"'^^' ^' ^'"^" " ■■ He had not where- witnai to tmy a loaf. Sometimes even the relative is omitted, as " I have not a pen to write 411. I^ll : ( m ^ 764 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. i II I I 41a. An adjective clause (like an ordinary adjective) has usually a ( ehnitive or restrictive force. But it often happens that clauses intro- duced by relatives are, as re-ards their/;/-^^ amf miuimnir co-ordinate vyith the principal clause. Such a clause is contimuUivc rather than r/.y//«//w. Ihus, in « 1 wrote to your brother, who replied that you had not arrived,' the sense of the sentence would be the same \{ and he were substituted for who. So in " He heard that the bank had failed, which was a sad blow to him," which should be treated as equivalent to ana this. ^ The continiiative relative m.iy even belong in reality to an adverbial ,^^^t '^°"^''^,'"«l «'«'^^"« IfK! entire clause which it introduces. Thus :— Which when Beelzebub perceived .... he rose" [Par L "■ ^^>?^:.X'^l'^1' ^" ," ^""^ "'''*^" Beelzebub perceived this. ' he rose. VV hich thuugli I be not wise enough to frame, Yet as I well it rneane, vouchsafe it without blame " {Spenser, vi. 4, 34), /.,.., « Aii,h;i.. <■' ^\ .-.rr, Adverbs sometimes do duty as nouns, as " I have heard that before no7V (= the present tjme> ; J-or e7>eris a long day. Adverbial clauses are sometimes used thus, as "When ye come together into one place, this (i.e. your coming together) is not to eat the Lord's supprj. ' IS usually a auses intro- co-ordinatc rather than hat you had ne if and he : had failed, > equivalent an adverbial es. Thus : — ie " (Far. L. his, he :t as I well it , i.e., ' And xlern writers ective clause = " It (the the relative ly afjrees in in instead of ;" "It is I tion to the t stands in ir adverb.* rrived," the the action le " when I as writing: :le adverb : y where he lay there.'' therefore I classes : — verbs which [= the present us, as " When .ord'ssupprj.'' 418. 419. SYNTAX. |5- TJi ^''' /'• " ?''"y ""^ ''-^'^"^ "'^'•^ ^^ '/>'^^^-" " He punished ^hXZ rt•'"'^^^^^'^"< «'-"«.?••" " He never spoke ,,/"' TjWt/' When relative ^Uver/,s introduce adverbial clauses, thev not on v q:S\hrv:b'^;ft''*]"" ^f t^e pnncipaldause, Ehrmselvt quality tne verb ot the clause which they introduce. 2.- Adverbial Clauses relating to Place. ^^'^' St IS' '''"''/'■' '"'r'"'^!^ by the relative or connective adverbs 7t>' "^^'tV r"''' ^'' """ *' '^'" standing tM.,-.//.// Atm. " ly/iit/hr / go yc cannot come." ^ 3.— Adverbial Clauses relating to Manner. Adverbial clauses relating to manner are commonly introduced by the relative or connective adverb as. E.g., " He did as he was L/.' It turned «"'/" (''^A'/'v/." Clauses beginning with as are generally elliptical. At full length, " He did as he was told to do." ^''"^'^"^ 4* — Adverbial Clauses relating to Degree. Clauses of this kind are introduced by the conjunction than, or the connective adverbs tAe (} 270) and as. Adverbial clauses denoting de^i^ree are always attached to adjectives or adverbs. They are almost always elliptical. jcci.vcs or 420. £.^. '' He is not so {^r as) tall as I thought" (i.e., as I thought /le was tall). Here the c ause " as I thought the was {all J " qualiL (or IS m the adverbial relation to) the adjective tall, and i^. co-ordinate with the demonstrative adverb so; and the relative adverb as at the beginning of the adverbial clause qualifies tall understood, fk Min '' u 1 .^'1 '"■'^thert;" "He is taller than his brother ing 1' « X see §"91! "^ "'"'' ''''" "''' ^^ ^""''^ " '""^h]." Re.pect- "The more I learn, the more I wish to learn." Here the adverbial sentence 'Uhe more I learn" qualifies the comparative more in the main clause, and is co-ordinate with the demonstrative adverb the which precedes it ; the word more in the adverbial clause beinjr it«elf qualified by the relative adverb the. The first the is relative or sub- ordinative, the second the is demonstrative (§§ 126, 270). 5.— Adverbial Clauses relating to Cause. These usually begin with the conjunctions because and for. E .^.. , " I love him because he is good. " Here ' ' because he is ^ocV is an adverbial clause qualifying the verb love. " He could not have seen me, for I was not' there." Here "for I was not the>-e is an adverbial clause qualifying the verb could. 421 * -Adverbial clauses are often co-ordinate with some precedine demonsfrafivp :>H„»rK .t, vague signification of which they determine, as when then is accomoTnTeH hv I.I, ^ '^^ ...ng wi,h .vken, there by a clause beginning with .vherc^ Sec. (ComparL} 408 ) '" '''^'"- T ihat we must understand the adiective tall as, well as thp i^rK ,C ,.,;ii '-i l be considered that every clause or subordinate se^teTce must have a' oredirf/J^.t" ''?)" '^ " su ject. If we ask what is predicated of /»-.W/.., theTnte'r'obviou'sTy' L ^^^ ^.Z ' " ^ . f the Latm qiiam means m what degree, ' bv how murh • n;t,„^ L/ " "^ "'"• in .vriut degree i [am rich; he is richer. Ouam is therefore a rn^..^^t:^. ' j z"'' --—^y- •hough in English than has become a mere conjunction! The LaW oTthf.w^" ^^"■' quite distinct. Than originally meant when. >neamHg of the two words is Jr I i i66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^ i Clauses denoting a cause or reason often begin with ' //ia(,' as "He does hear me, and t/ui/ he docs 1 weep" {Shaksp.). Compare the use of i^uod in Latin. e. — Adverbial Clauses relating to Purpose and Consequence. 422. E.g., " Me ran so fast that he 7vas out of breath." Here tiie adverbial clause " //w/ //e- T.vw tf«/ (yV-Ttv/M " stands in the adverl)ial relation to fasif and is co-ordinate with so, the indefmite meaning of which il amplifies and dcfmes. In these sentences the older writers often have as for tJuit, as " 1 will not open my lips so wide as a bristle may enter "' (Shahs/',). In fact as is the more correct word. 423. Adverbial clauses relating to //e indicative mood ; as, "Though he was there, I did not see him ; " " bad as the accommodation is, we must put up with it." 429. In a hypothesis relating to some definite event still future, the future tense of the indicative mood was formeily sometimes used in the hypo- thetical clause. E.g., "If we shall say ' from heaven,' he will say. ' Why then did ye not believe him ?' " (A/ark i. 31). " If they shall gnter into my rest " (//eb, v. 5). '1 his construction is now obsolete, ami in such cayes we now use the present tense. 430. (B ) Suppositions of the second kind treat an event or a state of things • For a fuller discussion of the use of the Indicative .^nd Subjunctive Moods in cLiuses of this kind, the reader is referred to the Appendix to the author's ' Shorter English Grammar,' or his ' Remarks on the liidijunctive and the so-called Potential Mood ' (published >eparate!y). f Hypothetical clauses sometimes begin with 'though '("He looks \ &c. s called the mence) ; the it or state of 3ur thought employed. erves death. " If he is at it to me." r although, 2 indicative bad as the :, the future n the hypo- le will say. they s/ta// bsclete, and te of things in clauses of .h Gmminar,' i >eparate!y). jjjh lie knew scted, if little 431. 432. as a men- conception of the minJ. In suppositions of this class, the subjunctive mood is employed. A supposition which is contrary to some fact, present or past, is neces- sarily a mere conccinion of the mind, and therefore the subjunctive mood is used, the pa.-! indffmMe tense* of the sul)junctive being used in the hy]ioihelicnl clause with reference to present time, and the past perfect with reference to past time. In the consequent clause the secondary past ir.defmite suhjimctive (or conditional) is used after a supposition referring to present time, and the secondary form of the past perfect subjunctive (or conditional perjcct) after a supposition relating to past time. Examples. — " If he were present (which he /.r not), I would speak to him " •' If our horse had not fallen down (which he did), we should not have missed the train.'' In old-fashioned English and in poetry we also find the past perfect subjunctive used in the consequent clause, instead of the secondary form (or conditional perfect); as, "I had fainted \m\tii?, I had believed to see the goodness of the Lord." 433. Clauses expressing a 7visk contrary to the fact have also the subjunctive mood. Thus, *' I wish that he were here (which he is not)." 434. When we make a supposition with regard to the future, and state its consequence, as a mere conception of the mind, without reference to determination by the actual issue of still future events, the subjunctive mood must be u--cd in both clauses. Examples. — " If he were rewarded he would be encouraged to perse- vere. ' " If he went (or should go, or were to go) away without speaking to me, I should be grieved." " If he lost (r^r should lose, or were to lose) Us money, he would never be happy again. " "He could not {or would not be able to) do it if he tried (^r were to try)." " I would not believe it unless I saw (or should see) it." " If he were to fail, it would be a great disgrace." Tiie use of the indicative in such suppositions (as " If he was to fail," &c.) is a vulgarism. 436. When we make a supposition with regard to the future, there is of course as yet no actual fact to which our supposition can relate. Such a supposition therefore comes naturally to be regarded a"» dealing with what is matter of conception only, and consequently as being appro pviately expressed by the subjunctive mood. Moreover, since the use of the future tense in a hypothesis relating to the future is now- obsolete, the use of the subjunctive enables us to distinguish between a supposition relating to possible future fact, and one relating to actual present fact. Compare "I will come to-morrow if the vveather (9f fine," and "I will speak to him if he is at home now." The use of the subjunctive is still inore desirable if the supposition expresses a ^s^eneral case, as such a supjjosition necessarily refers to * ''. s'^sms anomalous to have .t fia.it tense in any mood refefring to /n'j^'w/' time, but the idiom is found in PVench, German, Latin, .ind Greek. In French and Greek we even have a past ttnse of the indicative mood used in sentences of this kind. It seems to have been felt that the past lense used with reference to present t.me marked better the want of congruity tietweeii the supposition and the fact. Thus to e.vpress m (Jreek " If he were wise he ivnul'd listen to your advice" we shuuU! ha>e to say what is eqtiiv.-ilent tn " !f he ".v.ir. wise^ hs ituir, listening (as a consequence) to your advice." iii 1 1 it i . i68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I Mi I will start to-morrnw K ™^^ .^"^11 not be unpunished"; "We ' the indTcltTv "mXs ''ThtZTi "'''' 7' ^^T "' ' though ' will 436 Tt is .fill > , ' ^'^^^^^"(o'-^^«^) so and so, nevertheless. &c." • o: ^^J^&^::^^^J^^T^-^ooa in hypotheses -- is P»f, because fhej;i^S"Tth^^^ of conception rather than nr ///- v / . ^^P""^ "^^'^'^^ '^ a matter robber, if he W eaten „nnn(f^^' ■^^''•. ^^"'' " ^ut if he he a (v5'..^. xvirn "Off ^hS '1;?.";°""^''^'"'' '^^•' ^hall he live"? Wisdom's gat;." Modern ufa.e,^''^? ''"^'' ?"-^P'^''^" ^^^^P^ -t 437 Th n ^^°''^'^" "^^ge tends to Ignore this distinction. tX':,l:eT:Sate^ ^^^ "- °f ^h« -bjunctive me come to thee" (A/a/t xiv ^X «' (^^^!^isj>.) ; If ,t /;. thou, bid 438 T-" ^''•^- ^•^- ^^'^ i^ - longer llloJS ^^' ' "'^^ ^ ^"^^^"^ afflicted (/. if aV^'r^lffii^Jffi^^^ .«^T& " '%'^"^ but tha , and my firm nerves shall never TreS; " T J fV ^"^ ^"l"' double mterrogatives 7vhether~n>- Jr^lL If^"*'''?- , I" this way the ^^ '/ (See § 290, p. 123 ) ''^"'^ ^° ^^ equivalent to eMer if~ 439. (S&^";2!;:i:'t'H^rr:-^"^^'^^^^^ impounded with ^. the interrUtiveuU^^^l?"'^^l':.^';'^"f•^'"''^y have sprung out of 440. ■•...^. .. .. „.« as vvi^.o ever said so ? It is false." - ilnrcotlrr f;"/'' ^^i" ""'![^> °^^- ^^^^ with s^ have k T't^.r w' 7 if'^-"f 7" t namely, that) tl became the /dative :f J^^.^ .]^^ ^. ^»^-?-trat W>} I I i II tt interrogative"u;e";;?lh;r''Th7s^'' m' '"'^ '^'r '^?'"""^^ "^ "^ much the same as " Who" v.- slld'so ? "^l!? is' fSs^' ' "' '^ " '^'^^ " '^ thou wilt Ihan .h„s), „e sho„l,[ be quhe boisLi^Tx Jre" ^Kn'^'T^ duplicity (- (^.rawx,- I If n^w !ir^\ ,'""'' '^"" e^^pi^e. Knowing his "f -'s '.■Dabi.„?,L<^r;„t'pi.; ;x,T...7 «"""•"* 'c-p-^ / ™V^ be conjunction //is often omitted as " R^w r 1 ( ^^mKvdJcnovni^ not have come '' " ''^'^ ye had n.y silver.' Wr^r^^/' It siSar^ustTv tZ ^^^^ :':'-•.' Provided that (.HO provided it be so.' ^m-iiany iisea by the old writers ; ' with that it be so ' = get SYNTAX. 169 COMPOUND SENTENCES. 443. A compound sentence is one which consists of two or more co-ordinate complete sentences, joined together by co-ordi- native conjunctions, as " He is happy, but I am not" ■ " Thev toil not, neither do they spin." ' ^ Co-ordinate clauses are grammatically independent of each other -.vhereas every subordinate clause is a co?nponent part of some other clause or sentence. ^ 444. We get a compound sentence whenever two or more sentences ^vHich form complete xvholesin themselves are joined together by co-ordina- tive conjunctions. But one or more of these complete sentences which are members of a compound sentence may themselves be complex sentences, as {a) -I will tell your brother when I see him, bu^) I do not thmk that he will arrive this week." ^ ' ^n^'~^^^- *i°"i""^*'0" itself does not enter into the construction of the clause which it introduces. COLLATERAL SENTENCES. 445. We frequently find co-ordinate sentences, which have a connection with each other as regards their sense and use but have no gramniattcal link of connection between them ' For example .•- I came. I saw. I conquered" "Fear God. Honour the king " I was robbed of all my money ; for that reason I was unable to proceed." " I believed, therefore have I spoken " Such sentences as those placed side by side in the above examples may be called collateral or asyndetic sentences. c^^' Y'^ J^'^qu^ntly have a series of sentences which are partly collateral and partly compound. ^ ^ Example : — " He stay'd not for brake, and he stopp'd not for stone ; He swam the Esk river, where ford there was none." win13;.W.P'°P^' .consideration of the nature of collateral sentences wnd i! f materially to thin the usual lists of conjunctions. A Dreredp/^l''' ^T"^^'"" because it refers us to something that cof^^T;.fi ff^ demonstratives do this. Such words as thfrefore, tlleTf^^' ^'f'^''%^^'' (^•^•» ^11 ^= Just in that manner), never'- Xrh. '''!;^,f''^^''dtng are not conjunctions, but demonstrative DroreertH ^^"^ '"^^'^^ ^^ ^'^"^ *^^ ^'"^^ ^""^ '^ P^ris ; t/ience we '' \V? wpn. \l ^r?'I ^'"^ ^^i ^"^^ co"^^^'-^! sentences. When we say we went the first day to Pans, 7vlienee we proceeded to Lyons,'' we {See'u ?f ^"''^' '^^'"''' ^'''''"^' '^ grammatically connective force. ^^^' UeLT^^?u' 'l^^f'^^^of collateral or asyndetic sentences may be tieated as though they formed a compound whole. i I i I 170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ( J. :i I' H CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 449. When co-ordinate sentences conlain either the same sub- ject, the same predicate, the same object, the same complement, or the same adverbial adjunct to the i)redicate, it often happens that the portion which they have in common is exjjresscd only once. In this case the sentence is said to l)e contracted. Examples .-—'' Neither I nor you have seen that," i.e., " Neither I [have seen that) nor you have seen that." " Me loved not wisely, but too well" ; i.e., " He loved not wisely, but [he loved] ^^too well." Here the predicate is expressed only once.* "Religion purities and ennobles the soul"; i.e., "Religion purifies [the soul] and [religion ) ennol)lcs the soul." Here the subject and the object are expressed only onre. "He is either drunk or nuid " ; /.,•.. •' ICii'her lie is drunk or [he isj mad." Here the subject and the verb of incomplete predi- cation is are expressed only once. "He advances slowly but surely " ; i.e.. " He advances slowly, but [he advances] surely." Here t^e common subject and predicate are expressed only once. '•'■ He reads and writes well " ; i.e., " He reads [well] and [he| writes well." Here the common subject and the common adverbial adjunct are expressed only once. 460. Contractoa sontenccs ought .ihvays to he so constructed, that when arranged without conju-ictions, so that what is coniuion to hoth or all IS placed before or after what is not common, the common and separate portions, when read otl' contiiuiouslv, make complete sense. Thus, " Religion purities and ennobles the soul,' may be written— Religion \ I^"'";'^« i the soul • *" ( ennoljles \ "' ' and complete sentences are obtained when the parts that are common, Jind wntteti once, are read with each of the separate portions in suc- cession. So, "lie gave me not only some good advice, but also a sovereign,' may be arrar.t^ed (Iras- He gave me ! "!'^ ""'>' ^'^'"'' «ood advice / also a sovereign. •• He possesses greater talents, Init is less esteemed than his brother," TT I possesses greater talents \ . , . , "^ ) is less esteemed | '"''»" ^is brother. If we take such a sentence as, " Man never is but always to be blest,' and subject it to this test, we see in a moment that it is faulty— M.anJT''''^ , ! blest, ( alwavs to be I '' cannot he road oft both Mays.'f 461. It has l)een already remarked (^^387, note) that a sentence is not Th.I^J? t^""".^- T •"■ '^^''P'-'''^-*^'' "lust, of course, .igree with the nearer of the two subjects. Ihepredi.^atewtnch .snotcxp.esscain.iy have tc he nunlifiod when ....p.,li.d to si.it i.s own ♦^^i'^; f of""*' Neither you no. I am right ■ ; '^ Neither you nor your brother is in fault/ will n on W A''"^ sentettces are faulty tor a siniilar rea.ou :-•' St.eh as none heard before or win afc.uu (byrvn) ; Many have uud others must sit there " {Shaksp.). SYNTAX. 171 ence is not necessarily a contracted sentence because we find co-ordinative con- junctions used in it. "John and Charles aie l>rolhers," is ns much one sentence as "These two txiys are l)rothcrs." One urcdication niny be made of two tilings taken together. **The chihfhas a red am! while l)ill," does not mean "'i'iie ciiild has a red i)idl, an.," than 1 am tall"; "This does not cost so much as that," i.e., "as that costs much."t SUMMARY OF THE lULES OF SYNTAX. 454. [Most of these rules, > ivir.* been already stated in preceding parts of this work, are here only leferred to, that the pupil may have the opportunity of studying them afresh in connection with each other.] • Young letter-writers constantly target this rule at the close of their epistles, where such combinations ;is. '■ I have no i:iorr>. to iay, and bt;lieve mt- yours truly," :ire very frefiu-nr I Ii is not always possible to lill up an elliptical sentence. Some occur of which the original complete form h.is been forgotten. See the examples of Analysis for a fuller discussion of elliptical sentences. 1 ! 172 i il i r ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 11 CONCORD. 455. In inflected languages (like Latin, German, or English in fnr^V ? u^^^^ concord means the use of those grammatical lorms which are congruous with each other. th^J^""^ "'"'l^^''^ J^^* grammatical form which shows that it is of the same number and person as its subject. An adjective must have that grammatical form which shows that it which kbelongf"''"""'^"''^"'^ '^'' ""' '^' "°"" °^ P^°"°"" to th^^ r^lfi^ pronoun must have that grammatical form which shows tnat It IS of the same gender and number as its antecedent. „r?^.®' l^ "modern English, grammatical inflexions have been to a great extent dispensed with. We have therefore very little of the above kinds of concord. But as regards concords expressed by form we still have the rule that a verb must agree with its subject in number ana person, and that the demonstrative pronoun of the Third Person '^^A\^^l''^^ in gender and number with the noun for which it stands, and that the demonstratives ' this' 'j.,xA' thaf assume the plural forms tnese and those' when they quahfy h plural noun. If the term agreement is used for anything beyond this, it can only denote congruity Of use, that is, sameness in the grammatical relations which misfit be represented by form, but are not. To say, for example, that in « The woman who was hurt has recovered," 'who' agrees in gender with woman, means no more than that the pronoun, as used in that sentence, represents a female person. SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 467. For the definition of the Nominative Case see § dZ. A noun in the nominative case may be used— - 1. As the subject of a sentence (§ 348) or of a subordinate clause ot a sentence (§ 401). 2. In apposition to a noun or pronoun in the nominative case • (§ 362, 2). 3. As the complement of an Intransitive or Passive Verb of Incomplete Predication (§ 391). 4. As a Nominative Absolute (§ 372, 5). 5- As a Nominative of Address (§ 70). 458. For the functions of the Possessive Case see §§ 71—73. A noun m the possessive case is usually attached to some other nou n to which it forms an Attributive Adjunct* (§ 362, 3), o„*o^- "'^"" 'u '^^ possessive case, however, does not cease to be a noun. It does not h^^^ f"he1?' ' 'oh,^V^"'" "'■^'' •"' i^^"^" ■' '?''"-'"'^« °f *^« f""'^'i°"« of aradjective L 'John's It^J.W.d " \^'-T }" "^^ possessive case, as in ' Caesaris uxor,' ' Caesaris ' is :. «i«« in too far to say that the noun in The" o-bjecdve,' dau4?L?abIatiie"/ran adverb': ^'^' '' '" '^'^'"^ ■m'^. SYNTAX. '73 and on which it is aometiitifs said to depend. This noun i, some umes omitted when it can readily be supplied in though Church].™'" ""' '' """"'^ [shop]/<"We went to S. Sfs A complex name has the posses.sive inflexion at the end {§ 77) 459. For the functions of the Objective Case see §§ 70 80 A noun in the objective case may be used- ^' \^^rS'^ e'^'^* °^Jf''* "'"^ transitive verb, participle or gerund one of which is sometimes a factitive object (§ s6q a? ^ ''' 2. As the indirect object of a transitive verb, Ihether active or passive (§ 369, B , or as the secondary object after rn-^^t?! Z when the active verb governs two obSs (§ 370^"^''^' (§ 3" 2?^)'''"°" *° ^ "°"" ""' P^^'^^"" '« the objective case 'c.tti^ --P'---t of a transitive verb of incomplete predi- 5; With an infinitive mood or participle attached to it a«; «n indirect predicate, forming a substantive phrase used as the e'tfan "l^^^V f.V^' r ^^''' ^ preposition (§397) "' '^' o. As an Adverbial Adiunct (§ 371) v> Jy/;. 7. As a Cognate Objective (§ 372, i). 8. After Prepositions (§ 277). ^trliald X'r:77"" °' ""= "^J'^'^^ «^^ ™ P™nouns are The Objective Case is used in exclamations, as ' Ah me i' ' nh me unhappy !" Me to be thus jeered at ! • "'' 4fin TK u ^^^'^^^ °'" ADJECTIVES, expfafiiel'fn fg^^Ts rl^ds' F^^'^"' "'% of Adjectives are adjectives whik Lve tec^rtsuSveTserjIs" ™''"'' ^""^ stamiVefST SredTn'^r"''''"'- '°™='™" ^^'^'^ '<> "-e sub- hojetflat dtsVi^.'f.feSt "■""^^'^' "Thus W.4 Z"',:^ ■* (■« M horse, II; ' ■ ; i 1 I, ■j ■ i -, 'i IF " ii Hi 174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. COW, and a pig in the stable," unless the things are so closely connected with each other as to form a sort of compound group ; as " He built a coachhouse and stable ; " " Give me a cup and saucer." " A black and white ball " can only mean ' a ball that is partly black and partly white.' If we mean to speak of /wo balls of different colours, we must say * a black and a white ball.' The singular demonstrative adjectives * each ' and * every ' may be placed once before two or more nouns, as " Every man, woman, and child was slaughtered" ; " Each boy and girl received a present." 463. The definitive adjectives ' the,' ' these,' * those,' ' my,' * our,' &c., need not be repeated before each of several nouns, though of course they may be so repeated. We commonly say " The King and Queen " ; " The tables and chairs were in confusion " ; " He gathered all the apples and pears " ; " My uncle, aunt, and cousin came yesterday." If c plural noun is in sense distributed ^Lvaong several adjectives, so as to stand for a collection of single things, each of which is described by one of the adjectives, it is proper to use the definitive adjective once, as " The third and fourth regiments," " The English, French and German languages." A plural may also be distributed into two or more plurals, provided no ambiguity results, as '* He placed all the gold and silver coins in one bag, and all the bronze and copper ones in another" ; but in such cases it is always safer to repeat the article. The demonstra- tives must be repeated if a plural noun is not thus distributed, and is accompanied by two or mor^ adjectives marking qualities which do not belong in common to all the things named by the noun. Thus, " The clever and industrious boys," means ' the boys who are both clever and industrious,' but we cannot speak of " the idle and indus- trious boys," because the two attributes do not co-exist in the same boys ; we must say ' the idle and the industrious boys.' This principle, however, is often disregarded, as in, "The rich and poor meet together" (/'wz/. xxii. 2); while the article is sometimes repeated when only one thing is referred to, provided it is clear that only one thing is meant; as "He returned a sadder and a v/iser man " ; " You will find this road the shortest and the pleasantest." 464. The ordinary effect of the repetition of the article (or other definitive word) is to make the noun stand for several distinct groups. " The wise, the valiant, and the wealthy citizens " should mean three distinct classes of citizens. " The wise, valiant, and wealthy citizens" would denote one class possessing all three qualities. The article should not be used before a noun used attributively or predicatively witli distinct reference to its signification. Thus, " He became Chancellor of the Exchequer" ; " John Smith, captain of the Petrel, next gave evidence." I SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 465. Pronouns must agree in Gender, Number, and Person with the nouns for which they stand. Their case is determined *' connected " He built " A black and partly s, we must y ' may be Oman, and sent." my,' * our,' h of course d Queen " ; ed all the yesterday." es, so as to bed by one ve once, as id German re plurals, and silver ther" ; but lemonstra- ted, and is 5 which do in. Thus, » are both and indus- 1 the same le rich and i sometimes 5 clear that fiser man " ; (or other ict groups, nean three y citizens " butively or Thus, " He ptain of the id Person etermined SYNTAX. 175 by the construction of the clause in which they occur. Thus : * I do not like John {ohj.) ; ' he {nom.) is an idle boy ' ; ' I know the man {obj.) whose {poss.) portrait hangs there,' &c. Even if the l)ronouns happen to coincide in case with the nouns to which they relate, this is not grammatical agreement, it is a mere accident. 486. The nominative and objective cases are constructed as in nouns. The possessive cases have become adjectives (§ 142). 467. The antecedent of a Relative Pronoun is sometimes disguised in the form of a Possessive (adjective) Pronoun, as " Whose is the crime, the scandal too be theirs." (See § 461.) 468. The relative pronoun is frequendy omitted (§ 164) when, if expressed, it would be in the objective case ; but it is rarely omitted when, if expressed, it would be in the nominadve case. In the older writers, however, we find such expressions, as " I have a mind pre- sages me such thrift ; " " They are envious term thee parasite." The continuative relative (§ 412) can never be omitted. 469. When a relative refers to a noun which is in the predicadve relation to a personal pronoun, the relative is sometimes made to agree in person with that pronoun, rather than with its actual antecedent. Thus : "I am .... a plain blunt man, that love my friend" (Sh. /. C. iii. 2) ; " Thou art the God that doest wonders " \Ps. Ixxvii. 14). This is an instance of grammatical attraction. The strict construc- tion is seen in such sentences as " Art thou he who first broke peace in Heaven .?" {Milton). Milton also uses the other construction, as " If thou beest he who .... didst outshine myriads, &c." [P. L. 1.84). 470. Also when a relative clause explains the anticipatory subject ' it,' to which a personal pronoun is joined predicatively, the relative commonly agrees with the personal pronoun and not with its antece- dent //. Thus we say " It is I who am in fault,' though the sentence really means "// (the person) who is -in fault, is I." This also is a case of attraction. Contrariwise the predicative pronoun is sometimes attracted into the case of the relative. It is usual to say " It is / who did it," but " It IS me whom h.Q/ears.'^ * 471. It is not usual now to employ a relative pronoun in a complex adjec- tive clause which contains an adverbial clause, so that the relative shall belong to the adverbial clause (§ 412). In the older writers such sentences were not uncommon, as "A treasure which if country curates buy, They Junius and Tremellius may defy " ; " Which when Beelzebub perceived ... he rose" {P. L. ii. 299); "He mentions but few books . . . from which if ever he departs, he is in danger of losing himself" {Johnson). Respecting the pleonastic demonstrative used in such cases when the relative is in the nominative case, s ee j 383. ^^^^ * In point of fact it is not necessary to regard ' me ' as the complement of the predicate. The sentence may be treated as one of those n which the pronoun it is employed to bring into prommence some emphatic element of n sentence, as in " It was to you that I addressed myself ' : " It was in Venice that he die.,/' ill ,1; ' ; , f i I 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47a. Respecting the pleonastic ;^e of a demonstrative pronoun is a suhsti- tute for the inflexion of*the relative see § 152, tio/e. Compare w.il," •■ ^/T T ■' '""i'^i^!^ ^'*'^ ^*^f°'« ordained that we should walk /« //lem (= i« which).'' 473. But a relative may be used in a complex adjective clause, so as to belong to a subordinate substantive clause, as " That is a sort of wine which I know that he likes," where 'which' belongs in construction to the clause which begins with ' that. ' wifJfh '^^^ P'"o"0"" ^^'. •f>'^^; it> ought to agree in gender and number with the noun to which it refers. But it often happens that it has to be used with reference to the individuals of a class that may consist of Wh ^''^':i l'^"^"''"^ ^^ ""^i"' °^ ^^^ ^^"g"''-^^ indefinite pronouns Jn^l A ^''^'^' °5 ^? ^'^^^^ ^^ ^^^« singular nouns differing in gender, and connected by the alternative pronouns ' either-or,' ' neither-nor ' The difficulty that thus arises is sometimes < -aded by using the plural, as " Let each esteem other better than themsc.es •" ^^ 1 an ox gore a man or a woman so that they die " {Exod. xxi. 28)'; Not on outward charms alone should man or woman build their pre- ensions to please ' * {Opte), Some insist that in such cases alterna- tive pronouns should be used, ' so that he or she die,' ' his or her pre- tensions, &c. But on the whole, the plural seems preferable, although, of course, it involves a breach of a nile. Such a sentence as " Each '^wkw^rT^"' received his, her, and its share," is intolerably r.rVr.^'J^%^^^ ^^'"^ ^''^ "°' "°^ "'^^ ^^ antecedents to a relative pronoun. They were commonly so used by the older writers, but as the plural antecedent to a relative those is now employed. The sir^ular pronouns he, him, she, her may be used as antecedents, but not tne neuter tt. ' *'^®' P^,!^? f'^^T"' .r- PT°""' ^"^ "^""^' °f different persons are coupled together their relative position varies according to the number In the singular the Second Person comes before the First or Third (F^«a«.//; F<;« W/;^. or, You and John), but the Third comes before the First {He and I). In the plural we has the first place you the second, and they the third. If a pronoun has to represen words of different persons, the Second Person takes precedence of the rhird, and the First of either the Second or the Third, as " You and he must (^o your work " ; "John and I lost our way," The neuter pronoun 'it' is largely employed as the temporary or anticipatory subject or object of a verb (§§ 387, 398, 405 with the note). It IS also used as the formal but superfluous subject of an impersonal verb (§ 382, note) and as the vague representative of a cognate objective (§ 372, 3). ^ '"^ • Similarly " Every one of these letters ar? in mv name" rShaWsn TV., M\- " m^i 1 knows what it is to lose a friend till thev have losf W^^"(p;^^■\^\ t " •' ' ■ Nobody as a sub say " That invention of yours is a useful one " to a man who had never made more than one (§ 144). 480. Pronouns often represent not some particular noun, but the general fact implied in a preceding sentence, as : — " When ye come together, this (i.e., your coming together) is not to eat the Lord's Supper ; " "I did my best, but it (i.e. my doing my best) was of no use ; " " He gained a prize, which (i.e., his gaining a prize) greatly pleased his friends." • Dr. Murray (Z'i'rt/t'c^ of the S. Coitnties of Scotland, p. 187) points out that in Lowland Scotch the Personal Pronouns have not inly a form which is distinctly and always nominative, and a form which is distinctly and always objective, but a separate form, based upon the old English objective, and used in certain circumstances either as a nominative or as an objective, like moi, tot, hii in French It occurs in sentences which may be represented in our ordinary idiom by " Who is there ? Me " ; " That's him " ; "Them that have " j " Me, I cannot go " ; "Them and us did very well together," &c. The use of these objectives is a genuine idiom of our language as it is of French. It is quite a mistake to set it down as bad grammar. At a very early period we find himself :\n& themselves used as nominatives. It is to be observed, however, that the early part of the modern English period was marked by a great deal of irregularity and confusion in the use of the cases of the pronouns. In the time of Elizabeth not only were the objective forms often used as nominatives, but the nomin 'es were sometimes used as objectives. The interrogative who? is usually in the nominative form, even when it is the object of a verb. The confusion between ^t' a.n6i yoti (which are always distinct in Chaucer) has resulted in the general use oi you for both cases. t "Beelzebub . . . than whom, Satan except, none higher sat " (/"an Z. ii.). Theca.se of an interrogative or relative pronoun ought to be the same as that of the demonstrative pro- noun which would answer to it. But "None sat higher than him" -wovtld be bad grammar. At the same time it is to be observed that, as the sentence stands, it would be impossible to fill up the_ ellipsis so as to make who the subject of a finite verb. There is not the slightest necessity for regarding than as a preposition, or as doing duty for one. We simply have another illustration of the idiom noticed above. X E.g,, " A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both " {Prov, xxvii. 3). , * ■: I ' -i-tt !il Ai ^1 %. ^-,.a. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 5 ^ *5S /. 1.0 [SK III I.I 1.25 2.5 - lifi ill 10 18 U "IIIL6 % *^ %. ^/: 0^-^i Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 "^ .^ >^ t% ^%^ m ) ^ J^-> ^ ////, i «■ n I I 178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. SYNTAX OF VERBS. Concord. 481. The general rule respecting the concord of verbs is, that a verb agrees with its subject in number and person (§§ 378—383). 482. Words that are plural in form (as mathematics, politics) are sometimes treated as singular in construction (§ 58), and some singular nouns have been mistaken for plurals (§ 59). A plural used as the title of a book, &c., must be treated as a singular, as " Johnson's Lives of the PoetS ' is a work of great interest ; " and generally when a plural denotes a whole of some kind, the verb may be singular, as " Forty yards is a good distance ; " " Two-thirds of this is mine by right ;" "Twice two is four." For the usage when the subject is a collective noun, see § 380, and for the case of a compound subject, or of a noun in the singular to which other nouns are joined by means of •^ith, §§381, 386. ^ 483. When subjects differing in number, or person, or both, are con- necteo by and, the verb must always be in the plural ; and in the first person, if one of the subjects is of that person ; in the second person, if one of the subjects is of that person, and none of the first, as, * I and he are of the same age,' * You and I shall be too late.' 484- Subjects connected hy either— o.- and neither— nor imply an alternative. Hence a plural verb cannot be attached to two such subjects, if they are in the singular. The sentence is in fact contracted (§ 386), as, "Either John [is mistaken] or Thomas is mistaken": Neither John [is mistaken] nor Thomas is mistaken." This sort of contraction should be avoided if the subjects differ in number or person. Some writers tell us in such cases to make the verb agree with the nearest subject. This is just endurable if the difference is one of number only, and the plural subject comes next the verb, as " Neither the emperor nor his generals were convinced." But such sentences as " Either he or I am to blame," "Neither we nor John is rich "are abominable. It is better to say " Either he is to blame or I am " ; " We are not rich, nor John either." * A singular verb must be used after each, every, either, neither, as "Every method has been tried." " Neither of them was in fault." Use of the Moods. 485. Rules for tie use of the Imperative Mood are superfluous. For its employnnent as the equivalent of a hypothesis see § 438. 486. The Indicative Mood is used in all kinds of declarative and interrogative sentences, whether principal or subordinate, in which * Dr. Latham (//aWiwi; p. i8i) gives as a rule that with a simple disjunctive the verb should apee with the first subject. Thus, " I or he am in the wrong " : " He or I is in the wrong ; Thou or he art in the wrong " ; " He or tViou is in the wrong. SYl^TAX. 179 rbs is, that 378—383). politics) are me singular used as the " Johnson's erally when singular, as is mine by iubject is a subject, or >y means of ;h, are con- in the first 1 person, if i, * I and he r imply an ' two such contracted nistaken " ; ;ts differ in o make the rable if the nes next the need." But ther we nor ther he is to A singular as '* Every perfluous. e § 438. rative and , in which ;tive the verb or I is in the the Subjunctive is not requisite. It is essentially the Mood of Fact, or of Objective Predication (§ 190). 487. The nature and functions of the Subjunctive Mood are explamed in § 192. It is essentially the Mood of Conception, or of Subjective Predication. The Subjunctive Mood is employed — 1. In the direct expression of a wish (§ 192). 2. To express purpose after that and lesV'xn an adverbial clause attached to a verb, or in a substantive clause in apposition to a noun denotmg a wish, intention, or command (§§ 192, 428). 3. In adverbial clauses expressing hypothesis or concession contrary to the actual fact (§§ 430—433). The older writers used the simple subjunctive in the consequent clause in such cases, as ' I hadJaintecF, unless I had believed," &c. ; " Hadst thou but shook thy head . . . deep shame had stmck me dumb" (Sh. K. John iv. 3) ; " Wert thou regent of the world, it were a shame to let this land by lease' {Rich. II. ii. i). The secondary or conditional form is now usual for the consequent clause, • I should have fainted,' ' would have struck,' ' would be, &c. 4. In hypotheses in which a general case is put (§ 436). 5. In hypothetical (or concessive) clauses relating to the future, when the hypothesis is presented as a mere conception of the mind, without regard to its being brought to the test of actual fact (§ 434). 6. In hypotheses with respect to the yet uncertain future, even when determination by actual fact is not excluded (§ 435). The subjunctive occurs also after ////and when with reference to the future, as "Blow till thou burst thy wind" (Sh. Temp.), In these cases the subjunctive has been commonly superseded by the indicative. 7. In concessive clauses relating to the future, or in clauses relating to the present, if a general case be put, or if the con- cessive clause begin with the verb (" Be he ne'er so vile " • " Be the task as hard as it may," &c. ' In poetry and in the older writers we find the simple present subjunc- tive after 'that' and 'lest 'to express purpose, as "Give me leave that I may turn the key, that no man enter " [Rich. II. v. 3) ; " Keep thy heart light, lest it make thee sink " {Shelley). In ordinary prose we now use the compounds of ' may ' and ' might ' after ' that ' (as "He locks the door that no man »iay enter" ; " He locked the door that no man might enter"), and the compound of j//c7«/ , ' It— namely your saying so— is of no use'). In the case of personal and relative pronouns the gerund and possessive should always be used, as in the preceding sentences. With this, that, each, all, either, neither, the participial construction is proper, as "You will oblige me by all leaving the room " ; "I have my doubts as to this being true " ; " You seem to understand me, by each at once her choppy finger laying upon her skinny lips" {Macbeth). The best writers also give sentences like the following: — "The jealousy of his contemporaries }pr*tvenie(\ Justice being Aons to him during his lifetime " ; "I am afraid of mischief resulting Uom this"; "On some brandy being administered to him he revived" ; "There is no record of any /a;'///f«/ having been made"; " There was a story of money havint^ been buried there " ; "I then all sm-xrting with my wounds being cold " (Shaksp.) ; " Upon Nigel insisting," &c. {Scott). These are instances of the use of an Indirect Predicate (§ 397), and are analogous to the Latin post urbem cond tarn, &c. On the other hand, most authorities would prefer " On the boys confessing his fault I forgave him " ; "On my father's hearing of this he was amazed." It will be observed that in such sentences the noun in the possessive case is commonly repeated in the form of a demonstrative pronoun, '1 forgave, -4m,' 'He was amazed.' 495. Respecting the curious passive sense often given to an active verb or participle see § 183, and add to the examples there given such as " The horses are putting to," " I want a button sewing on," &c. 498. The extensive use of the Impersonal Verb in early English is noticed in § 382, as also the change of the impersonal into the personal construction vvhich gives rise to various anomalous phrases, as ' I dislike' for ' it mislikes me ' ; 'I please ' for ' it pleases me ' ; * I were better ' for ' it were better forTue,' &c. 497. Constructions are sometimes adapted to the general ssnse of words and phrases rather than to their strictly grammatical f^rce. Thus : " I am afraid ( = ffear) that he will not come " ; " Bid ' ^ be judge {==■ judge) whether Bassanio had not once a friend." So we say " There are one or two mistakes here," because one or two stands for some small number exceeding one. When a plural denotes a whole of some kind, the verb may be in the singular, as " Forty yards is a good distance " ; " Two-thirds of this is mine by right" ; "Twice two is four."* So "This fourteen years" ; " A tedious twelve years"; " A .welvemonth." 498. Great caution must be used in elliptical sentences (especially with as and than) to see that the right cases are used. The best way is to test the sentence by filling up the ellipsis, as " He loves me • We say ' twice five is ten,' because ' twice five ' is treated as a single sum, though the full phrase of course is " twice five things are ten things." The amotint is considered rather than the mode of its formation. When the latter idea is prominent, the plural is better, as 'twice five make ten ! ' The use of the plural times does not affect the question, becaiise m 'three times ten is thirty,' times is not the subject of the sentence. Three times is an adverbial adjunct of the numeral ten, like twice or thrice. IS a common r ' I heard of >r ' It is of no s of no use ') . ind possessive 'ith this, that, per, as " You doubts as to h at once her t). The best jalousy of his his lifetime " ; somt brandy ecord of any money havin^^ is being cold " : are instances ogous to the jst authorities him"; "On observed that only repeated m,' ' He was to an active e given such on," &c. y English is the personal as 'I dislike' vi'ere better ' 'ral ssnse of atical ff>rce. "Bid' ibe id." So we r two stands erb may be Vo-thirds of his fourteen s (especially [. The best He loves me 1, though the full ered rather than ral is better, as ition, because in ree titnts is an ANALYSIS OF SENTENCEa 183 ^!fvf t^an f he loves] thee " ; " He loves me better than thou [lovest mej ; He knows the man as well as I [know the man!" • " He knows the man as well as [he knows] me " ; « I know no wiser man than he [is wise] is correct ; but " 1 have no other saint than thou to pray to is wrong because the construction springs out of* I have no other saint when [I have] thee. ' *®®- .-^ S°^,'^^^^ °f hypercriticism has been wasted on such phrases as Ihe three first verses of the chapter," &c. We are told that this is mcorrect, because there is only one first verse. On this principle it i'; equally wrong to talk of 'The ficjt hours of infancy,' or ' The last days of I ompeu, for there is only one first hour, and one last day. Surely If there are several last days, their number may be specified. It would be the height of pedantry to alter " His two eldest sms went to sea " mto His eldest two sons went to sea " ; yet strictly there can be only one eldest son. German writers see nothing wrong in such phrases as admit of a httle laxity m their - 'ication, just as chief and extreme admit of the superlatives chie)e.( and extremest. ' The three first verses simply means ' The three verses before which there is no other.' Those who tell us to write ' Th:. first three verses,' and soon, must do so on the hypothesis that the whole number of verses is divided into sets 0/ three of which sets ih^ first is taken. But what if the chapter contains only five altogether ? ^ ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. SEPARATION OF LOGICAL SUBJECT AND LOGICAL PEEDICATE. 500. The first stage in the analysis of a simple sentence is to separate tne grammatical subject with its adjuncts from the predicate verb with Whatever is attached to it as object, complement, or adverbial adjunct, ihe grammatical subject with its attributive adjtmcts forms the logical subject of the sentence ; the predicate verb, with all that is attached 10 It, torms the logical predicate of the sentence (§ 355). Examples. Logical Subject. [Grammatical Subject with Attributive Adjuncts.) Our messenger Logical Predicate. {Predicate Verb, with Objective and Adverbial Adjuncts.) We The village preacher's modest man- sion The wretched prisoner, overwhelmed by his misfortunes, has not arrived. will carry all our property with us. rose there. A bird in the hand was on the point of putting an end to his existence. is worth two in the bush. ^1 Pi mi 184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Analysis of the Logical Subject. 501. The following example illustrates the separation of the logical subject into the grammatical subject and its attributive adjuncts (§ 388). " T/te soldiers of the tenth legion^ wearied by their long march^ and exhausted from want of food, were unabU to resist the onset of the enemy." 1. The 2. of the tenth legion 3. wearied by their long march 4. exhausted from want of food Logical Predicate. -•re unable to resist the onset of the enemy. I I Analysis of the Logical Predicate. In the following examples the logical predicate is separated into its component parts : — Logical Subject. The sight of distress Logical Predicate. Predicate Verb. Object, ■with Adjuncts. We fills a benevolent mind will bend our course Adverbial Ad- juncts. 1, always 2. with com- passion. 1. thither 2. from off the tossing of these fiery waves. Analysis of both Subject and Predicate. 602. In the following example both the subject and the object of the verb are separated into the substantive and the attributive adjuncts of which they are composed : — of the logical itive adjuncts ig march, and i onset of the rated into its AVALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 185 onI^:iuZ:^^:^lJ^,J^;^^ son JHUU the proua heart Attributive Subject. I Adjuncts of Subject. 1. The 2. mournful 3- of the death of his son Predicate. filled Object. heart Attributive Adjuncts 0/ Object. 1. the 2. proud 3- of the old man Adverbial Adjuncts of Predicate. with the keenest anguish Analysis of Complex Predicate. "That^herowa^eservcdly called the saviour 0/ his country." Predicate. Subject with Adjuncts. that hero Verb of Incomplete Predication. Subjective Adverbial Adjuncts of Predicate. Adverbial Ad- was called Complement, junct of Verb. deservedly the saviour of his country Adverbial Adjunct of Complement. " This misfortune will certainly make the poor man miserable for life.^> Subject 7vith Adjuncts. This mis- fortune Adverbial Adjuncts of Predicate. Verb of Incofnplete Predication. Adjunct of \ Adjunct of Verb. Complement. will make miserable [ the poor ; certainly for life ' ! man m \ ■ m 1: i86 I ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Complete Analysis of a Sentence. 004. The thorough analysis of a sentence is to be conducted in the following manner : — i. Set down the subject of the sentence. (See § 384, &c., for a statement of what the subject may consist of.) ii. Set down the words, phrases, or adjective clauses which may form attributive adjuncts of the subject. (See § 388 for a list of what these may consist of.) iii. Set down the predicate verb. If the verb is one of incoTiplete predication, set down the complement of the predicate, and mdicate that the verb and its complement make up the entire predicate (§§ 391 "^gs)- . . , , ,. ,.. r , iv. If the predicate be a transitive verb, set down the object of the verb (see §§ 369, 397). If the predicate be a verb of incomplete pre- dication followed by an infinitive mood, set down the object of the dependent infinitive (§ 396). v. Set down those words, phrases, or adjective clauses which are in the attributive relation to the object of the predicate, or to the object of the complement of the predicate, if the latter be a verb in the infinitive mood (§ 399). vi. Set down those words, phrases, or adverbial clauses which are in the adverbial relation to the predicate, or to the complement of the predicate. (See § 372 for a list of what these may consist of.) 606. These various elements of the sentence may be arranged either in the mDde adopted in the following examples, or in that indicated in the table at the end of the book. EXAMPLES OF THE ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 606. " Having ridden up to the spot, the enraged officer struck the unfortunate ?nan dead with a single blow of his sword.^' Subject, 'officer.' Attributive ad- \ I' \ '^^'^ ^^ff: '^ juncts of subject, \ ^ . ^^Jf g« ^.^']^3 ^^ I ;• ^^^ ^^^^ , ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ I Ferb of incomplete predication, ' struck. ' \ Objective complement {fj 39S), 'dead.* 'man.' 'the.' unfortunate.' Predicate made up of Object, Attributive ad- juncts of object. Adverbial ad- juncts of predi- cate. U.-: 1. ' on the spot ' (§ 372, 4). 2. 'with a single blow of his sword' (§ 372, 4). 607. " Coming home, I saw an officer with a drawn sword riding along the street" Here * with a drawn sword ' is an attributive adjunct of the object ' officer ' (§ 362, 4). lucted in the 84, &c., for a of the object ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 187 608. ^ I asked him his business." Subject, • I. • Preiiicate verb, ' asked. ' Primary object, * him ' ({ 370). Secondary object, ' his business ' (} 370). 609. " Ne was asked his business." Subject, ' he ' ; PreJicate, ' was asked ' ; Object (or Adverbial Adjunct) of the predicate, • his business.' (See j 370.) 610. " They gra 'ted him liberty P Subject, 'they.' Predicate verb, 'granted.' Direct object, ' liberty ' (§ 369). Indirect object, ' him ' ($ 369). 611. '* Help was refused him.'' Here him is the indirect object of the passive verb * was refused * ($ 370). " He was refused help." Here 'help ' may be called either an object or an adverbial adjunct of was refused (§ 370 ; 372, 3), or ' was refused help ' may be taken all together as forming a complex passive phrase. 6ia. " It is /." • It.' \ Verb of incomplete predication, Ms.* ( Subjective complement, 'I ' (§ 393). Subject, Predicate made upcf '''Who are you*?'' Subject, Predicate made up of 618. " You must not speak so fast." Subject, «you,' Predicate, [ ^^>'^' of incomplete predication, 'must.' you. { Verb of incomplete predication, 'tire.' ( Subjective complement, ' who ? ' ( Complement [infinitive). Adverbial adjuncts, \ ^' i%',T!fO ■^ *l2.{of' talk ') •talk' (§ 396). 'not.' •so fast.' 614. " Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, comes dancing from the East. * Subject, Attributive ad- juncts of subject, Predicate, Adverbial adjunct of the predicate. ' star. ' (I. 'the' ($362, I). 2. ' bright ' (§ 362, I). ( 3.^ ' day's harbinger ' (J 362, 2). ( Verb of incomplete predication, 'comes.' I Subjective complement, ' dancing ' (§ 391). I ' from the East ' (§ 372, 4). \\\ Lm,** ''°l"am hi°" °*^ '*'' interrogative sentence is the same as that of the declarative f answer, i88 INOLISH GRAMMAR. !■ 616. " A man of weak health is incapable of the thorough enjoyment iff life" Subject, 'man.' Attributive Oil- / i. 'a' (} 362, l). jumts of subject, (2. 'of weak health ' ($ 362, 4). Predicate [ ^'^^ '>f *"'^'"PJff': Predication, 'is.' ' ' Complement of predicate, 'incapable* (4 393). Advt-rbtal adjunct of the complement of the predicate, 'of the thoroiieh enjoyment of life (} 372, 4). 516. " j/e is believed to have perished.'' Subject, ' he.' Predicate \ ^^''^ *^o'nplete predication, ' is believed. ' ' \ Complement of predicate, ' to have perished ' (} 394). 617. " The bell sounds cracked^ Here 'cracked' is the subjective compL-ment of the verb 'sounds,' which (for the purpose in hand) is a verb of incomplete predication (} 390- 518. " He struck the man dead with a sint^le blow''' Here ' struck is a verb of incomplete predication, and ' dead ' is its (objective) complement. The object of the sentence is not to state that 'a blow was given,' but that 'the blow given was a mortal one' (} 39»)- 619. " They made Claudius emperor'^ Subject, ' they.' Predicate \^frb of incomplete predication,' mzAQ.' ' \ Complement of predicate (factitive object), 'emperor.' Object, 'Claudius/ j 1 v 520. " We felt the ground tremble," Subject, Predicate verb. Object {substantive j with indirect pre- > dicate), ) 621. ''Let us pray." Subject {understood)^ Predicate verb. Object {mbstantlve \ , pronoun with in- > direct predicate), ) 622. " The duke will never grant this forfeiture to hold." The object of the predicate ' will grant ' is the Infinitive Phrase ' this forfeiture to hold,' made up of a noun 'forfeiture' with an indirect predicate ' to hold.' 623. ''How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds makes ill deeds done. We may treat the object of ' makes ' as being the phrase ' ill deeds done,' where 'done' forms an indirect predicate to 'deeds.' It is also ' we.' 'felt.' 'the ground tremble.' * you.' 'let.' * us pray.' 1 ■ I ANALVsrS OF SENTENCES. 189 'es ill deeds 694. possible to make Mone ne complement of 'makes,' treating the latter as a verb of mcomplete piedication. '^ " / must not have you question me.'* Here the predicate is made up of the verb of incomplete predication ^ 'must 'and .1. complement •have.' The object c7 he verb ?, hS phrase you .question me. ' made up of • you ' aid the indirect predicate question me/ attached to • you ' (6 107) I„ e^^ch nf ih« Ln • sentences the predicate is/ollo JdS>fZ.!'ob ^ct^^of tl^^.' ^^^e ki^^^^ JsolP^ ''' """ ^"-^ '' '" "^^^^ '^^ '-'^^ -«i' " ' •• I-t fAe cattle 626. " // is pleasant to feel the sun's warmth." Provisional subject^ « it. ' Real subject, ' to' feel the sun's warmth. ' Predicate, [ ^^''^ <]f incomplete predication, 'is.' \ Complement {subjective), ' pleaaanC 626. " // is time to goV Subject, « it. ' p ,. , 1 ^■^<'>'f' of incomplete predication, 'is.' treatcate. Complement {noun 7vith attributive adjunct See ^ V § 362, 4), ' time to go ' (i.e. ' time for going '). 627. // ts time for the work to be finished:' Here the complement of the predicate is the noun ' time ' acoomnanied hv^ ?h/"r^;"'^' "^'i""*^' "^^^« "P of a preposition ('fooToCed by the substantive phrase ' the work to be finished,' where 'to^ finished IS the indirect predicate of ' the work' (§ 317, J^,) '" ^ 528. '• // is shameful for such waste to be allowed " '^shirn.f"^ t"^S^ T"'^"" •' ' '^^^^ ^"'^'^ '^^''^ should be allowed is shameful In the language of Chaucer's time this would be expressed by 'Such waste to be allowed is shameful,' or ' Such waste forTnS allowed IS shameful.' (See quotation from Wycliffe in §387 L. The Provisional subject, *it.' Real subject {sub- ) , r l stantive phrase ivith \ '°'" ''"^^ ^^^te indirect predicate), ) to be allowed.' Predicate, [^^''^ <'fi»<=omplete predication, '\%: \ Complement of predicate, 'shameful.' 529. '' I had rather* stay at home.'' Subject, < I, ' Predicate, [ ^'^^ of incomplete predication, ' had. _. . • , . ( Complement of predicate. Object {infinitive \ , . ,, , phrase), ] 'stay at home.' ' rather.' co^Jptfon o?'rJr ff Si warTso" tL'diS"' .f '^^ W '^ ''^^^^^il'^y ^^'^ ">=^' ^"'^ ^^ * for believing that AadisauL corre/t ' Th.^f T"'' '''°"'*^ ''*"'?'^ = ^^^ ^^'"^ '^ good reason ably genuine £ / " /Ti^^c a- $■ .a analogous construction with tic/ is unqucstion- i genuine, /i.^. , / >i^^ as l,ef not be, as live to be in awe of such a thing as /myse(P' i i 1 1 r 1 1 ! I I I I n-* 190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 530. ^^ And tiow, their mightiest quelled^ the battle swerved, with tiiny an inroad gored.''' Subject, 'battle.' Attributive ad- {\. Article, 'tlie.' juncts 0/ subject, (2. Participial phrase, 'withmany an inroad gored.' Predicate, ' swe rved. ' Adverbial ad I i. Adverb, 'now.' juncts of ^redi- < 2. Nounxvitli attributive adjunct, in the nominative cate, { absolute, ' their mightiest quelled ' (§ 372, 5). 531. It is often difficult to decide whether an adverbial adjunct should be taken as modifying the predicate, or as modifying some adjective. Thus the sentence " lie is nearly ready " may mean either " He wants but little of being ready " (just as when \vc say " He nearly fainted," i.e., ' was within a littie of fainting'), or. "He is in a state which apprijaches readiness." It matters little which explanation is adopted. In " We were nearly killed, " it is obviously best to take ' nearly ' as modifying the predicate ' wore killed.' In " The work is half finished," the adverb 'half,' had better be taken with the adjective 'finished.' C>82. " All but one were killed:' except one were killed," we see that ' excer*^ one,' i.e., 'one being excepted ' forras a nominative absolute whichcan hardly go with anything but the predicate. Similarly ' but one' might be treated as equivalent to ' leaving out one,' or 'if we leave out one.' It would then be an adverbial adjunct of the verb. Similar remarks apply to such a sent^^nce as "None but the brave deserves the fair." It may mean either (Shakspeare, Julius Casar, i. 2) ; .tj pIso th.it with the conipamtive liefer or liever. Thus we find in Chau er : " .VV never had I tui^ur so Lcf, ne liever" {Frank. Taie). This last example gives us a good clue to the construction. Lie f:\wA lie7'er»Tea!ljectires{not adverbs) agreeing with the objecc of the verb hare, whici^in this construction is'a verb of incomplete predication {Gr. 391, 395), so that lief and liefer, or liever, ar-i its conipleineuts (Compare the phrases lieb haben, and Hcber l:a^ v, in German.) 'it present the use of the phr.ise /c^ .i/iz'^ //Vis restricted to c.ises v.here the objert of the verb have is -. verb in the infinitive mood, and the adjective liej"\% qualified by the adverb as. The use of the comparative liefer or /;W'*r is obsolete. Now, m c'd English, we find rathe {eay-ly or ready): comu. rather, 81 perl, rathest, used as .idjectives Milton speaks of the rathe firivirose, and Spenser of ihe rather {i.e., earlitr) lambs. Thus, by taking rather ^9. an adjective (giving; the idea of preference, which easily springs out of the rad'.carnotion of t'le wore!), we get in the phrase re 'lave rather a construction precisely analogoufi to that in to hare lief (th:it is, to hold or regard as dear ur <,esirable), o. to have \icfer: ha^>e\^^\n■^ a verb of incomplete predication, rather its complement, and the aopentient infinitive ihe object o( ha-ne. Let it he observed that I had sooner do so and s-^ is bad English. Sooner is not an adjective. We must say, / would .w'ler, &c. / would rather is goiul E^uglish. because rath-r is an adverb as well as an adjective. In tlie phr.tse / hui rather, the verb .'tat is in the subjunctive n-ood The phnse _' you had better' cannot be explained in a similar w.iy, because ' had ' does not imply 'regardinf;' or ' considering.' The phras.i has probably b°eii assimilated to hid rath<:r ox hoii //V'f'^r throu:;h a false analogy either fiom 'you woaid bettv.r,' or ' you were better,' t!!!; rcmrknblc personal fcnn \vhii:n replaced rhc impersonal conairuction ' it was belter f^r you '(§332, note). ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 191 swerved, vjith 1 inroad gored.' ler " He wants '' None outside the class imve deserves the fair," or " Leaving out the class brave, none deserves the fair " ^ In such a sentence as "Who but a madman would act thus?" it is Titr^^ take 'but a madman' as mxlifying the subject " who outs.de the class ' madman,' " or " who that is no! a madman." * Here ' but being charged ' is a gerund preceded by the preposition buf and nr.eans leavmg out the case of bein^ charged/ The phrase forms an adverbial adjunct to the predicate verb will be. The sentence means. Unless we are attacked, we will make no movement by ma^fe r'^^''''''' ^^/-^^w the author 0/ all ill, could spring so deep a Here an adverbial phrase instead of a substantive seems to follow the preposition buf. The use of the gerund after but in the last example, however, suggests that the full phrase should be -^«/ sj>rinnin? from the author o/ull til that is, ''Without springing from the auihor of all • 1 "u ^ve leave ouc the case of springing from the author of all J^'rh'^thTAl'°"l. '° ■^^'?.^.'"^[r «P""g?" ^o, "Matchless but Almighty, "t^^''' " ''Matchless but (being matched) with the A similar explanation may be given of such phrases as, " He never comes ^«/7e,/z,« he is not wanted, i.e., ^hxxi {coming) when he is not wanted ; so 'except when he is not wanted,' may be treated as coming when he is not wanted being excepted. ' We do however, find adverbs standing for qualified substantives, and preceded by preposi- tions. Befcre now is equivalent to before the present time. 535. " He does everything but attend to his own business.'' Here the preposition 'but' with the infinitive 'attend' forms a limiting adjunct to 'everything' {^ 362, 4). Compare 'all but one,' ^ 532. 536. " He does nothing but play all day long.'' Here also 'but play' may be taken as a limiting adjunct of 'nothing (?§ 3^2, 4 ; 284). S 537. "- 1 have but one friend in the world." In such sentences 'but' is usually treated as an adverb, meaning 'onlv ' The construction, however, has in fact arisen from the improper omis- sion of a negative (note •/. 124). The sentence at full length would be 'I have not but that I have {or but having, i.e., lelving out ^ having) one friend, a triend m the world." ^ • It i^ also possible (see noteon§-.9t, p. 124), when 'but' comes after a negative or"T question which .oiplies anept.ve answer, to treat bnt with the substantive that foil ,ws it as the residuum of an elliptical adverb al clause, but beini? a conjunction ami th,.chr 'I the s,bject of a verb understood. Such a clause would, ^ofcoure.fom' an IdverbiauS? of the predicate ; " but [that] a madman [would act thus], who would act thus "''We SI bein, killed V^ei:;^d but JS;^th-^ M^iiie^^^^^ --P'> ^^- J 192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 538. " / can but lament the result:' Here also a negative has been improperly omitted. Indeed the sense is much the same if we say 'I cannot but lament the result.' The sentence may be explained in two ways, as being the residuum either of ' I cannot [do anything] but lament the result ' (see § 535), or ' 1 cannot [do anything] but [that I can] lament the result ' (see § 291 and note * p. 124). ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 530. A Substantive Clause (or Noun Sentence, as it is often called *) does the same sort of work in a sentence as a Noun. An Adjective Clause does the same sort of work as an Adjective. An Adverbial Clause does the same sort of work as an Adverb. It follows that every subordinate clause is an integral part of the entire sentence, and has the same relation to some constituent part of the sentence as if it were a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. In the analysis of a complex sentence this relation must be clearly indicated.t 540. When there are subordinate clauses, the analysis of the entire sentence must first be conducted as if for each subordinate clause we had some single word. When the relation of the several clauses to the main sentence and to each other has thus been clearly marked, the subordinate clauses are to be analysed on the same principles as simple sentences. Mere conjuncdons (§ 286) do not enter into the grammatical structure of the clauses which they introduce. No com- bination of words forms a dependent sentence without z. finite verb expressed or understood. 641. It will greatly conduce to the clearnes": of the analysis, if subordinate clauses are underlined in different ways, so as to indicate their nature. A thick line may denote a substantive clause, a thin line an adjective • Respecting the use of the terms Sentence and Clause see § 40T, note. t It is a common practice in treatises on Analysis to ignore this. In dealing with such a sentence as " The manager declared that the alarm which spread through the audience wher. \.\\z noise was heard, was quite groundless," we shall commonly find it split up, to begin with, into seoarate parts, thus : — A. The manager declared. B. That the alarm was quite groundless. C. Which spread through the audience. D. When ihe noise was heard. We shall then be told that ji is "a noun sentence to A; C is an adjective sentence to B ; and D is an adverbial sentence to C. " This is objectionable. To talk of one sentence being 'a noun sentence to another' is simply meaningless. Who ever talks of a noun being 'a noun to a sentence. A noun has some definite function to fulfil in a sentence. It is a subject or an object, or in apposition to another noun, or governed by a preposition. A Substantive Clause (or noun sentence) has exactly the same function as a noun, and any system of . -p.r.lysis which ignores this, and shirks the trouble of explaining what that function is, is faulty and misleading. In the example given above, it is absolutely incorrect to say that the main sentence is ' The manager declared.' We have not got a complete sentence of any kind till the object of the verb 'declared ' has been stated. Moreover, this pr.ictice leads beginners to suppose that a subordinate sentence is something which is tackidon to something else which is complete in itself. It certainly saves trouble ; but if saving trouble is the main thing to be considered, that object will be most completely realized by leavmg Analysis alone altogether. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 193 ideed the sense le result.' The residuum either ee § 535). or ' I iult ' (see § 291 ICES. as it is often ; as a Noun, an Adjective, in Adverb. al part of the itituent part of /erb. lust be clearly s of the entire nate clause we clauses to the Y n-.arked, the principles as enter into the :e. No com- a finite verb i, if subordinate ite their nature. ne an adjective ealin^ with such a the audience when up, to begin with, ive sentence to B ; )ne sentence being f a noun being ' a ze.. It is a subject in. A Substantive nd any system of tat function is, is 'tct to say that the ntence of any kind ce leads beginners Tiethingelse which ! main thing to be alone altogether. clause, and a dotted line an adverbial clause. If a subordinate clause contains others, the line proper to the containing- dame must first be drawn under the whole, including what is contained, and then the con- tained clause must be further underlined in its own way. Then if a number be placed at the beginning of the line by which a subordinate clause is underscored, and the same number be attached by a bracket to the word to which the clause is related, being placed bejore the word (verb) when the clause is a subject, or after in other cases (thus 2. appears, or heard 2>.), the relation of the parts of the sentence will be visible at a glance. Thus : — •'I have heard i.) that my brother has lost at play the money 2.) . (I.) __ which was given 3.) to him that he might pay his debts." (2) ~ (3) This shows at a glance the degree of subordination of the various claiises, and the way in which they are built into the structure of the entire sentence. This method will be adopted in the examples that follow. Each clause, as it is reached in the analysis, may be denoted for subsequent reference by the number placed before the line under it. This underlining and numbering, however, is not essential to the Analysis. SENTENCES CONTAINING SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. I. A Substantive Clause as the Subject of a Verb. 542. " That you have wronged me (i t:ioth appear in this " (I) Subject [substantive clause), * that you have wronged me ' (i). Predicate, 'doth appear.' Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' in this. ' Subject, Predicate, Object, Analysis of {\). ' you. ' * have wronged. ' me. 543. " It (2 is not true that he said that.'' (2) Temporary or provisional subject, ' it. ' Real subj. [substantive clause), ' that he said that.' (■ Vei'b of incomplete predication, Predicate, made up of \ Subjective complement, ' true. ' IS.' Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' not. ' 544. " (i. Methinks the lady doth protest too jnuchy (r) : Subject, [that'] 'the lady doth protest too much ' (i). Predicate, 'thinks' [i.e., 'appears,' see § 244). Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' [to] me. ' m o '94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I|| m. f ii Analysts 0/ {i). Subject, ' lady.' Attributive adjunct of subject, 'the.' Predicate, * doth protest.' Object, 'too much.' 545. " (i. Him thought his sorrowful heart would break.** (I) Here the substantive clause. "[Ma/] his sorrowful heart would break," is the subject of the verb thought. II. A Substantive Clause as the Object of a Verb. 646. " Vott know \)very well that I never said so,** (i) Subject, 'you.' Predicate, ' know . ' Object (substantive clause), 'that I never said so' (l). Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' very well.' Analysis of [i). Subject, 'I.' Predicate, 'said.' Adverbial adjuncts of (I. 'never.' predicate, ( 2. ' so. ' * 547. *' He asked' \) me how old J was*' (See § 404.) (I) Subject, 'he. Predicate, ' asked ►* First object, ' me. ' Second object (substantive ) ,, ,, , ,,. clause). (See §370.) } 'how old I was '(i). Subject, Predicate, Analysis of{i). 'I.' i Verb of incomplete predication, 'was.' Subjective complement, ' old. ' Adverbial adjunct of complement, ' how. ' 1548. " Tell me what you bought at the fair " (§410). Here the direct object of the predicate verb is the substantive clause 'what you bought at the fair,' which should be analysed. Subject, ' you.' Predicate, * bought. ' Object {interrogative pronoun), 'what.' Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' at the fair. ' 549. ( i) " / told him that he was mistaken** (2) " / convinced him that he was mistaken.** In the first sentence him answers to the Latin dative case, and is an adverbial adjunct to the predicate told, the object of which is the sub- ji :b It is also possible to treat 'so' as a demonstrative pronoun, the object of 'said ' (J 150J. rt would break," r a Verb. 'M. ibstantive clause 1. convinced him case, and is an hich is the suh- of 'said' (J ISO). ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 195 stantive clause " that he was mistaken. " In.the second sentence him IS the direct object of the verb, and the substantive clause (Uke the Latin Accusative of Limitation) forms an adverbial adjunct of the pre- dicate ($ 407). The first sentence is equivalent to " He was mistaken. 1 to d him that ; the second to " He was mistaken. I convinced him with respect to that.'' III. A Substantive Clause in Apposition to a Noun. 550. " Who can want the thought 1) how monstrous it was for Malcolm and Donalbain to kilt their gracious father:' Analysis of Substantive Clause. Provisional subject , ' it. ' Peal subject, • to kill their gracious father.' Predicate, \ Verb of incomplete predication, 'was.' ( Subfctive complement, ' monstrous.' Adverbial ad- li. (^/z/^-.^)—* for Malcolm and Donalbain.' juncts, \ 2. (of complement)—* how.' Or the clause may be treated as springing out of the construction of an infinitive clause where Malcolm and Donalbain would be subjects of the indirect predicate ' for to kill ' (§§ 528 and 387, note) -.— Provisional subject, * it. ' Peal subject. ' for M. and D. to kill their gracious father. ' Predicate [Verb of incomplete predication, ' vizs,: ' \ Complement, 'how monstrous.' 651. " The hope i) that I shall be successful sustains me:' (i) '- — The substantive clause 'that I shall be successful,' may be termed vaguely an enlargement of the subject hope, or it may be called (more exactly) an objective adjunct of the noun* Such sentences as " There is no proof 1hat he said so ." " There was a report that you were dead ," should be dealt with in a similar manner. IV. A Substantive Clause after a Preposition. 652. " Spare me not for that I was his father Edward's son:' The construction is of the same type as ' Spare me not, for this reason.' the substantive after the preposition ' for ' being a substantive clause Consequently 'for that— son' forms iv adverbial adjunct (S ^72. 4) to ' spare. j \o j/ > t/ An objective case follows a transitive vorb not hemii"- tfio --=-V> ••- - ^ ! clause afrlrt J ^^^ u-^^"" "0""^ «»«//j/;«^ a transitive action may have a substantiv. f i ■«3 196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 553. "/ have sinned in that I have betrayed the innocent blood'' {Matt, xxvii. 4). The construction is of the type " I have sinned in this" the place of tlie substantive pronoun this being taken by the substantive clause "that I have betrayed," &o. 654. " I should have forgiven him^ but 2) that he repeated the offence.'' (2)« Here we have a substantive clause preceded by the preposition but* the whole phrase forming an adverbial adjunct of the predicate "should have forgiven" (§ 372, 4). 655. " Never dream but that ill must come of ill." The simplest mode of explaining this is to supply the word ' anything ' as the object of ' dream.' "Never dream [anything] but that ill must come of ill," where but with the substantive clause that follows it forms a limiting adjunct of anything conveying the sense " Never dream anything excluding the case that ill must come of ill." Such a sentence as "Who knows but that my father may consent?" may be dealt with in the same way. SENTENCES CONTAINING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. . 556. An Adjective Clause is always in the Attributive Relation to some noun or pronoun in the sentence of which it forms a part (§ 408). 557. " The cohort i) which had already crossed the river, quickly (i) ____ came to blows with the enemy l^ ' cohort. ' Article, ' the.' Adjective clause, * which had already crossed the river ' (l). * came.' ' quickly. ' ' to blows.' * with the enemy.' Analysis of {i). Subject, ' which.' Predicate, 'had crossed.' Object, 'river.' Attributive adjunct to object, 'the.' Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' already.' * When ' that ' is omitted, so that ' but' is left to supply its connective function, it is better to treat l>ut as a conjunction (see § 291). The clause introduced by the ' but ' then becomes adverbial. Subject, Attributive (' = adjuncts of \^- subject. t Predicate, Adverbial (»• adjuncts oj ^• predicate, (3. innocent blood" ated the offence ^^ e river, quickly Iready crossed the ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 658. " Give me that large book 2) that you have in your hand J' (2) 197 Here the adjective clause, ** that you have in your hand," is in the attributive relation to the object 'book.' The relative that is the object of have. 559. " Give 3) me what you have in your hand." (3) Here the adjective clause, " what you have in your hand," is used sub- stantively, that is, without having its antecedent tbat expressed. In the analysis we may either introduce the word t/iat, the object of give, and set down the relative adjective clause as an attributive adjunct to U, or we may at once call the adjective clause the object of the verb 'give,' treating it as an adjective used substantively (§ 98). Care must be taken not to confound adjective clauses like the above with substantive clauses beginning with the interrogative what, as " Tell me what he said" (j 410). (Compare § 548. ) 560. " / return to view where once the cottage stood." Here ' where once the cottage stood ' is an adjective clause qualifying the no\xn place understood, which forms the object o( vietv. 501. " / have not from your eyes that show 4) 0/ love as I was (4) 7uont to have.'" Subject, Predicate, Object, Attributive adjuncts of predicate. Subject, Fi'edtcate, Object, 'I.' 'have.' ' show. ' 'that.' 'of love.' [Adj. clause) ' As I was wont to have.' (4). Analysis 0/ {^). 'I.' I Verb of incomplete predication, 'was.' I Subjective complement, ' wont to have.' {/Relative pj-onoun, see § 165) 'as.' 562. " His conduct is not such as I admire, Here as I admire must be taken as an adjective clause co-ordinate with such, and forming an attributive adjunct to the noun ' conduct ' under- stood, which is the complement of the predicate 'is.' As * h a. relative pronoun (§ 165', and is the object o{ admire (§ 411). The Adjective Clause is sometimes weakened to an Adjective Phrase by the use of an mfinitive mood instead of a finite verb, as " There is no good/or which to strive." nu'-Ji'^-l"* '^ ^'^JJ^'^^ strengthened form oi so is shown by the use of *w., 'pleased.' 'him.' ' When.' 2. 'in Salamanca's cave.' 565. " He ran so fast 3) that I could not overtake him " (3) Subject, «he.' ^ Predicate, 'ran.' Adverbial adjuncts \ ' ia^{,' qualified by~i. 'so' of predicate, \ 2. ' that I could not overtake him Analysis of (2). {Adverbial clause co-ordinate with 'so. ') Subject, < I' ' . Predicate, I ^"'^ ^^ incomplete predication, 'could.' ( Complement, ' overtake ' Ol>jcct, 'him.' Adverbial ad/'unct of predicate, 'not.' [It seems natural at first sight, to regard t/mt in this sentence as the equivalent of the Latin connective adverb ut. But the construction in reality sprang out of the use of a substantive clause used in apposition to a demonstrative pronoun (' to tltat [degree] '), which was afterwards replaced by the adverb ... The word 'that' therefore is a n'ere (3). J.^it?i/s.nc^o^'^:;^-^^-.S^^ •elves any adverbial force. ANA1,YSIS OF SENTENCES. 199 USES, rbial Rela- ice of which junction^ the luse. When nust have its nancHs- (3). ntence as the nstruction in in apposition as afterwards e is a mere when they are have not them- conjanction, and the clause is co-ordinate with * so,' and consequently adverbial in force. 506. '' He spoke 4) loud that I might hear him^ (4) Here also 'that' is a mere conjunction, and the clause, 'that I might hear him,' which was once a substantive clause (as in the last irif-tance), has become adverbial, modifyinji 'spoke.' 537. " Whatever the consequence may be^ I shall speak 5) the tr:>fhr (5) ^ Subject, * I. ' Predicate, 'shall speak.' Object [with adjunct), 'the truth.' ' Adverbial adjunct of predi- \Adveibial clause of ccmeession^ ' what- cate, 1 ever the consequence may be ' ($). Analysis of {$). Subject [with attributive adjunct), ' the consequence.' „ ,. { Verb of incomplete predication,/ mxredicatiOii, 'is.' Predicate, \ Subjective complcmhtt, 'witty.' Adverbial adjunct ojf complement, 'as.' 589. " He is as worthy a man as ever lived." Here 'as' and 'as ever lived ' are co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of ' worthy.' The ' as ' of the adverbial clause is here a relative pronoun (§ 165), forming the subject of ' lived,' and representing in a com- pendious form " a man of which degree of worthiness." 570. " Beware how you meddle with these matters.^' Subject {understood), 'you ' ,. j Verb ofincotfip ete predication, 'be,' Iredicate, \ Complement of predicate, 'ware.' Adverbial adjunct of | [Substantive clause used adverbially, §^ 549), complement, \ ' now you meddle with these matters ' (a). Analysis of {P^, Subject, 'yT3u.' Predicate, ' meddle. ' Adverbial adjuncts of | i • ' how, predicate, "^ \ 2. ' with these matters.* '::! H\ Ill I 900 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ■ ' ■■ 671. " T/iie7>es are not judged, but they arc by to hearr When ' l.ut ' is not followed by the conjunction 'that/ it is better to regard It as being Uself a conjunction ^see k 297), sJ that the clau e but (= unless) they are by to hear ' is an adverbial clause, modi J ng the predicate 'are judged. ' """^uib Deal in a similar way with such sentences as " It shall iro hard ht4t I wUl better thynstruction^^ , "There's ne'er a villain^ living in aU Denmark but h^s an arrant knave ^^ ; "There is no one i [he p J^I.) ■^' '^'- ^^'' '^'^"^ '^'"'""""'^ '^'^^"«^^'i '" 'he note 672. Subordinate Clauses contained within clauses which are themselves subordinate. ^^l^T'' i''?'" "Oder the clauses show at a glance the containing and contained clauses, and indicate to what class they belong. 573. '* He in/erred i)/rom this that the opinion of the jud^e was 2) ('} that the prisoner was guilty y Subject, ' he, ' Predicate, 'inferred.' Object, [ ■Substantive clause, • That the opinion of the judge ( was that the prisoner was guilty' (i). Adverbial adjunct of predicate , ' from this ' (§ 370, 2). Analysis 0/ (l). Subject, 'opinion.' Attributive adjuncts ( i. ' the.' of subject, (2. * of the judge.' I f^^'fb 0/ incomplete predication, * WAS.' / rcdicace, I Complement {substantive clause), ' that the prisoner I was guilty ' {2). Analysis of {2), Subject [rvith attributive adjunct), ' the prisoner.' Predicate, S ^^'b of incomplete predication, ' wzs..' \ Complement, 'guilty.' 674. " Tell\\ me who you think 2) that man is:' ^H^nJ^l'"'— '■''"'f' '^^° you think that man is,' is a substantive clause (beginning with an interrogative word), the object of ' tell ' rST.f i' ""J'^'^'^'y P^''^"'^ '° 'hat of the clause 'you think LthatJ that man is he ; it contains a secondary substantive clause, the object of think,' namely, 'who that man is.' (Compare § 512.) 575. " If it were 3) done when 'tis done, then it ( i were 2) well it tvere (2) , I \ done quickly:' (3) ^ ' Provisional subject. Real subject {substantive Predicate, 'it.' clause), ' [that] it were done quickly ' (i) were. / t*-' ANALYSrS OF SENTENCES. 20I le prisoner ■ / I. 'well.' Adverbial adjuncts of I 2. 'then.' predicate, \ 3. {Adverbial clause co-ordinate with ' then *) ' ' if it were done when 'tis done ' (2). Analysis 0/ (i). Subject, < it/ Predicate, « ^ere done ' (passive verb). Adverbial adjunct of predicate, 'quickly.' Analysis of {2). Subject, « it.' Predicate [^^rb of incomplete predication, 'were.' . , , . ' J. \ Complement, ' done ' (i.e., finished and done with). Adverbial adjunct of comple- \ , ,,.,... ment [adverbial dame), ) when tis done ' (3). Analysis of (3). Subject, «it.' Predicate, '\s Aons' [simple passive). Adverbial adjunct of predicate, 'when.' EXAMPLES OF THE ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. A iP?" ^'■^•"^'■y sentences of this kind require no special discussion. All that has to be done is to analyse each of the co-ordinate clauses separately, omitting the conjunctions by which they are connected but inserting not if the conjunctions are neither— nor. 577. There is, however, one class of co-ordinate classes which require care, namely, those in which the relative pronoun has a con- ttmiahve ioxc^, (See § 412.) 578. " At last it chaunced this proud Sarazin To meete me wandWing ; who perforce me led With him away but never yet could win." This sentence must first be split up into the three co-ordinate sentences. (A). " At last it chaunced this proud Sarazin to meete me wand'ring." (b). " Who perforce me led with him away." (c). " [Who] never yet could win [me]. Analysis of [a). Provisional subject, 'it.' Real subject {infinitive phrase), ( ' this proud Sarazin* to leete me ( wand' ring.' Predicate, ' chaunced. ' Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' at last. ' * It is also possible to take ' this proud Sarazin ' as an indirect object of ' chaunced." Com- pare me chaunced of a knight encountered be " {Spenseri. 202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I ' li. Mf ; IE M -< |; ■ r ? I;:t r^-Zl?^!*"''''^''' °^ !"^ ''^"^ (^) P''«ents no difficulty. They are ^nn ctpal clauses co-orcimate with (a) ; 'who being continuati^XZ fo7cl supreme foe tn time ,nay much remit his anger.'' ' First split this into the following :— (a), " This is now our doom," ^^(o" ^*'''^ 'i'''' "" '"',^^'" ^"^ bear, our supreme foe in time may much remit i) his anger." Analysis of (b). 'our supreme foe.' j i^i-rb of incomplete predication, 'may.' I Infinitive 'iomplement, 'remit.' 'his anger.' 1. {Adverbial clause) * which and bear ' (i). 2. • in time.' Z- 'much.' Analysis of(i). ' we. ' ( Verb of incomplete predication, 'can.' ( Infinitive complement^ ' sustain and bear.' 'which.' Subordinate Compound Clauses. ren^g^h '^Thus -'He'tnTd '^'^'^u' "^", '^^'^ ^^^ ^^Pr^^^^d at full rWefwas flooding ^he cfun^ry '' ^He e w^'' '^' ^"'^ ^"^ ^^^* ^^e object (§ 597). fn an^alyr^should^^^urafj^l^ p^^^cTicL^^^^^"^' Object ^compound), Ui ^^Ij^r^e^^^r^l.^^^, ,,, ( country.' ** CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 688. " fF. ^^.«v, /to / te, M/^^, ^„, ,„^^ ^ .^ „^, ^^^^^_ ^^^ could not have h appene L'' in fu];— — — — — - [(A) • We perceive U ^^rhese things not only did not haonen. ' [(B) • We perceive that these things could not have happened'.' Subject {with adjunct). Predicate, Object {with adjunct). Adverbial adjuncts of predicate^ Subject, Predicate, Object, ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 203 684. ^^ Many instiviccs were related of wise forethought^ or firm action, or acute reply on his part, both in the senate and in the forum." In full- -^ [(A ' Many instances were related of wise forethought on his part in tlic senate.'] [(b) ' Many instances were related of wise forethought on his part in the fonim.'] [(c) ' Many instances were related of firm action on his part in the senate.'] [(u) 'Many instances were related of firm action on his part in the forvim.'l [(e) 'Many instances were related of acute reply on his part in the sena e.'] [(f) 'Many instances were related of acute reply on his part in the forum. '] 585. " Every assertion is either true or false^ either wholly or in part.' In full — (A^ ' Every assertion is true wholly.'] it.'J B) ' Every assertion is true in pari ,,c) ' Every assertion is false wholly.'] [(d) • Every assertion is false in part.'] 686. When co-ordinate sentences or clauses are connected by neither, nor, the simple negative not may be substituted for each con- junction in the analysis, the conjunctive portion of the words beinf, omitted. " The man who neither reverences nobleness nor loves goodness is hate/u/." In full— [(a) ' The man who reverences not nobleness is hateful.'] [(b) • The man who loves not goodness is hateful.'] 587. " Whether he succeed or fail, it will not matter to me." In full— Ra) ♦ If he succeed, it will not matter to me.'] [(b) ' If he fail, it will not matter to me. '] FB8. •' Tell me whether this is true or not.''' In full - [(a) ' Tell me whether this is true.'] [(b) ' Tell me whether this is not true.'] Here whether is interrogative, introducing a substantive clause, the object of 'tell.' ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES. 589. An elliptical sentence is one in which something is omitted which is essential to the compl^'te Cvonstruction of the sentence, but which is readily supplied in thought, without being expressed in words. II 1 1 ll i liStl uT ": 1 i^tli ■ t;, I1 11^ t 204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR In elliptical sentences that which is omitted is not common to two or more clauses. Relative pronouns and relative adverbs are sometimes omitted. 690. " He left the day / arrived" In full-" He left the day fAci (or on which) I arrived." In this sentence the day is m the adverbial relation to left ; that (or on which) IS in the adverbial relation to arrived; and the dependent clause that I arnved is an ;.diective clause qualifying day. .rT^jy^wfT''^''^ ^^l^ *^^ T''} troublesome) elliptical sentences are those which begin with as and than. In analysing them care must be taken to ascertain what the predicate really is in the dependent clause, and what word the adverb as qualifies. 682. " He is as tall as I am." * In full-" He is as tall as I am tall." If we ask what the predicate in the dependent clause is (or what is YafZ:t t7' '^' fT^' '' -beingUr and moreover not being A2// simply but being tall tn a certain degree, which degree is denoted hL H.;T ^ ^^' f^^^'l "''. ^^^'^ ^"^"fi^« '^^^ (understood^ in the adve'? mtin clause.^" ^ demonstrative adverb as quaUfies tall in the The adverbial clause beginning with as is always co-ordinate with the Fec^eding demonstrative as or .., and modifies (adverbially) the same Subject, « He.' Predicate, \ ^^'',^. of in<:omplete predication, * is.' \ Mibjecttve complement, ' tall ' Co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of ( I * as ' complement of predicate, j 2! ♦ as" I am [tall] ' (a). Analysis of {a). Subject, « I ' Predicate, [ ^^^^ of incomplete predication, ' am. A J ,■ , ) Complement of predicate, ' tsll Adverbial adjunct of complement, « as.' 693. We must deal in a similar manner with such sentences as :- He has not written so much i) as I have [written much]." (i) " He has lived as many 2) years as you have lived [many] months." (2) " He does not write so well 3) as you [write well]." (3) " I would as soon 4) die as [I would soon] suffer that." ( a\ _ \-T/ ^i*r^iStl&''^^ll^l)i^}l^V^^ ^^'■''i we must supply a word of the same kind amng as the word qualified by the simple or demonsUative adverb in the main clause. (■■ i s I am /a//." ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 205 " He looks 5) as [he would] look 6) if he knew me." (5) (6) " I cannot give you so much 7) as five pounds [are much]." (7) " He cannot [doj so much 8) as [to] read [js much!" (8) '.. " I saw John as well as [I saw] Thomas [well]." "That is as much as [it would be much] to say." 594. When ' as ' answers to ' such ' (as in ' We are such stuff as dreams are made of) it is not an adverb, but the relative pronoun (§ 165). But in such a sentence as : " I am not such a fool as [I should be a fool] to believe that," the clause beginning with ' as ' is an adverbial clause, modifying such. 595. " He is taller i) than I am:' In full—" He is taller than lam (I) tali:' Here the adverbial clause modifies the predicate in the main sentence. Than has so completely lost its original sense of 'when,' that it may now be treated as a mere conjunction. The clause beginning with than is always an adverbial adjunct of the word in the comparative degree in the main clause. 596. Deal in a simila; manner with such sentences as the following :— " He is more i) industrious than clever." In full- " He is more (I) industrious than he is clever." " He has written more 2) letters than you [have written many letters]." (2) " He is richer 3) than you suppose 4) [that he is rich]." (3) (4)_ " Our habits are costlier than Lucullus wore [costly habits]." That is, •' taking Lucujlus's wearing of costly habits as a standard of comparison, our habits are costlier. " I had rather* die than [I would] suffer that."t 597. '* I agree with you in so far as you adopt his opinion:'' The sense of this is, '/« how far you adopt his opinion, in so far I agree with you.' 'As' (strictly speaking) auahfies /ar understood, but its reference to the manner or circumstances of an action may I I * See \ 529. t It is unnecessary (though not inaccurate) to supply the positive ' soon ' in the adverbial clause. '°^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. be interpreted in such a general sense, that 'as' maybe taken « rcpresenung 'as far.' This will render it unnecessary 'ctnallv fn supply the word 'far.' Take 'in so far' an^ ' as yL X^^^^^^^ opm.on' as co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of 'a-^ree ^ Dell sim Lhv with the sentence 'He knows thai inasmuch "-as have o d 1 frn^ a';Uu:ctsT'"ktwr'' ' -' ' '^^'^ ^^^ ''- ' - ^o.or,iuJti^Z 698. '' I cannot stay longer than a month [is long]r ?c1nnot'SaX'LV'"'^D/f" '""''-^ ^' '^' ^^^"^^"^ ^^ comparison, 1 cannot stay longer. Deal m a s.inlar way with "I cannot eive vou r^y] trelifleST'^ ^^'^ "^"^'^ " ' ''^^ ^^^ twent/^'Jn^lre 699. " //e would have perished out [it had been-\for mer Here hut has the sense of ' unless ' ($ 293). " As {the matter stands'] for me, I care nothing about thatr It is also possible to treat this ' «.' as a relative pronoun, the subject a stmence Ts ' T^o'l'lf' Produced by stopping short in the course of to do ''Sometime. tlT '^ ''■"'^' ^^ "^"'^ ^^^^ ^ ^^"'t ^now what . \?; iiometimes the broken sentence must be left incomDlete as Were he my brother, nay, my kingdom's heir," &c. = "weTe^ he my hS,'''&T "" "°' ^""^^ '^"^ '''''' ' ""^ '^y "Were he my ^ngdom's PUNCTUATION". 601. In speaking, the words of a sentence, especially if it be a complex one, are not uttered consecutively without any break Certain pauses are made to mark more clearly the way in which the words S the sentence are grouped together. In writing, these pauses are represented by marks called sto/>s or ^"CUtZol'nr 1^"'^'^ ''°" '''' L.UnUctum,.pointZaZ tne right mode of putting in points or stops ' The stops niade use of are- 1. The Comma (, ). 2. The Semicolon 1 , }. 3-. ^ he Colon ( : ). 4. The Full Stop or Period ( ) * As It IS impossible to lay down perfectly exact rules for the introduc- tion of pauses in speaking, so it will be found that in many cases the r.'n hrn''' ^-'r^' ^^'"^ ""' ^° '^^ "^^ «f ^tops m wr^ng All that can be done is to lay down the most general principles. A.^?^ T^^ ^f ^'''^ '' "'^^ ^* 'h^ ^"^ of a complete and indepen- dent sentence but not at the end of a sentence which is followed by another collateral sentence |,§ 445). »"iu«eu uy scme^c^rwh'rch 'tht'S orSjf r"'''' not of the .^./,. '^^ the portions of ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 207 603. The Colon and Semicolon are only placed between sentences which are grammatically complete, not between the various portions of either simple or complex sentences § 400). The colon is placed between sentences which are grammatically independent, but suffi- ciently connected m sense to make it undesirable that there should be a complete break between them. Thus : " The Chief must be Colonel : his uncle or his brother must be Major the tacksmen must be the Captains " {Macaulay). " Nothing else could have united her people : nothing else could have endangered or interrupted our commerce " {Landor). But in similar cases many writers only use the semicolon ; no exact rule can be given. A colon (with or without a dash after it) is often put before a quota- tion which is not immediately dependent on a verb ; as : * On his tombstone was this inscription : — " Here lies an honest man."' 604. The semicolon is commonly placed between the co-ordinate members of a compound sentence, when they are connected by and, ('mt, or nor; as : " Time would thus be gained ; and the ruyalists might be able to execute their old project " {Macaulay). It is also inserted when three or more co-ordinate sentences are united collaterally (§ 445), with a conjunction before che last ; as : "A batter- ing-ram was invented, of light construction and powerful effect \ it was transported and worked by the hands of forty soldiers ; and as the stones were loosened by its repeated strokes, they were torn with long iron hooks from the walls " {Gibbon). When the co-ordinate sentences are short and closely connected in meaning, commas are placed between them, or such parts of them as remain after contraction (§449), as: '1 ran after him, but could not catch him.' Sometimes even commas are unnecessary, as : " He reads and writes incessantly." " He learns neither La^in nor Greek." " He struck and killed his brother." " Either you or I must leave the room." 605. In a simple or complex sentence commas should be inserted whenever, in reading or speaking, short pauses would be made to show more clearly the way in which the words are grouped together. It is impossible to lay down hard and fast rules. When no pause is required in reading, no comma is necessary in writing. The follow- ing directions may be of service : — In simple sentences the comma is inserted — 1. Before the main verb, when the subject is accompanied by an attributive adjunct which, with its adjuncts, forms a com- bination of words of considerable length. As, " The injustice of the sentence pronounced upon this wise and virtuous maUy is evident." But if the adjunct is expressed briefly, the comma is not used ; as, " The injustice of the sentence is evident." 2. Before and after any participle (not used as a mere qualita- tive adjective) or participial phrase ; as, " The man, having shpped, fell over the cliff." "The general, having rallied his soldiers, led them forwards." "Undaunted, he still struggled i m I ENGLISH GRAMMAR. on." "All night the dreadless angel, unpursued, through heaven's wide champaign winged his glorious way." ^ ^r^r^lT "V""^ '^^^7- '''"^ attributive adjunct to the subject whicli consists of an adjective or noun in apposition, when there ar- accompanied by other words standing to them in the attrib .I ive, objective, or adverbial relation. F.^., "Bacon the illus trious author of the 'Novum Organum,' cleclared/'&c "The deserted." '^" consequences of his insubordination, 4. Before or after a phrase or quotation which ig either the was, England expects every man to do his duty.'" "He said to His disciples, ' Watch and oray.' " (See ^ 60:1 ) ^h.Yin^".f ""^'^^ substantives, enuinerated successively without having he conjunction a;/ar placed between them, have tl^ eXr'thf •'" '° some other word in the sentence, foniiing either the compound subject or the compound object of a verb or coming after a preposition, they must be separated by com-' together ''"''HVr„'';' ^'f^'^' ^""^^ ^"^ "-'"y '^^^ ^ -"k AH.W jie lost lands, money, reputation and friends." Adjectives and adverbs co-ordinately related to the same noun or to the same verb or adjective, and not connected by and should be separated by commas ; as, " He was a wealthv prudent, active and philanthropic citizen » " He wmte hS exercise neatly, quickly and correctly." ; ^^''"'T-.u '■''^^'^^■'^ ^^^^-^ -'^^ adverbial phrase consisting of a noun (with its adjuncts used absolutely, or an infinifive mood (preceded by /.) implying purpose, when it precedes the verb or its subject. As. "To conclude I will only say,'' &c The man being dead, his heirs took possession of his estate'" 7. Other complex adverbial phrases also are frequentlv followed by commas when they precede the subject of the sentence as ' By studying diligently for five hours a day. he mastei^d'the language in SIX months." Such phrases should be bo h pre- ceded and followed by commas when they come between^^ subject and the verb, and modify not the verb simply but the entire assertion ; as, "The foohsh man, in defiance of all advice, persisted in his project.' " This undertaking, there- fore, was abandoned " But a single adverb or a short adverbial marked off; as, ' The man in vain protested his innocence." //oTaever, when it ,s the representative of an elliptical chuse must be preceded and followed by commas ; as, '' The man' however, escaped. ' ' " John', Shu. thedoor;-" " , sa.d^SiMS l"l,ad"noTre"^at"' eoe. In complex sentences the following rules may be observed i- ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 2C9 1. A substantive clause used as the subject of a verb should be followed by a comma. Thus ; " That the accused is innocent of the crime imputed to him, admits of demonstration." " How we are ever to get there, is the question." If such a clause follow the verb, a comma dees not usually precede the substantive clause. As, "It is of great importance that this should- be rightly understood." A substantive clause which is the object of a verb is not gene- rally preceded by a comma. Thus : "He acknowledged that he had done this." " Tell me how you are." 2. An adjective clause is not separated by a comma from the noun which it qualifies when it is an essential part of the desig- nation of the thing signified ; that is, when the thing or person signified is not sufficiently indicated by the antecedent noun. Thus : " The man who told me this stands here." " I do not see the objects that you are pointing out." But if the designation of the person or thing meant is complete without the relative sentence, so that the latter only extends and defines that designation, being continuative, and not restrictive (§ 412), then a comma must be introduced. Thus : " We are studying the reign of William Rufus, who succeeded his father a.d. 1087. " I will report this to my father, who is waiting to hear the news." Adverbial clauses which precede the verb that they modify should be marked off by commas. Thus : " When you have finished your work, tell me." " Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish." But an adverbial clause need not be pre- ceded by a comma when it comes after the verb that it modifies ; as, " I will wait till I hear from you " ; " I did not see him when he called " ; " He ran away as soon as I saw him." 807. Besides the stops, some other signs are employed in writing. 608. A note of interrogation ( ? ) must be placed at the end of all direct questions, but not after indirect questions. Thus : " Have you written your letter ? " But : " He asked me whether I had written my letter." 609. The note of admiration )r exclamation (!) is placed after inter- jections, exclamations, and after nouns and pronouns used in addresses, when particular stress is to be laid upon them. This maik is also frequently placed at the end of a sentence which contains an invocation. 610. The parenthesis ( ) is used to enclose a clause or part of a clause, which does not enter into the construction of the mam sentence, but is merely introduced by the way. Words enclosed withm a parenthesis do not require to be separated from the rest of the sentence by any other stop. 611. Double or single inverted commas *— ' or "— ", are used to mark quotations. m\ 2IO INGLISH GRAMMAR. APPENDIX. WORDS BELONGING TO^THE^ TEUTONIC STOCK OF A. ANGIO-SAXON CONSTITUENTS OF MODEEN ENGLISH 5. Adject-ves^lf ir^gi^;^-^^^^^^^^^ (H .87, &c.). 7* All ""? ^^'^^ (^^ 231-256). ^' ^^• number of vert 'of tKLr?"^'''°" ^^ "S), together with a large $ 226). ^''^ "^^^^ conjugation (particularly those given in sulixe?(§f 3n~3.'5T '' '"' ""'' ''^^^ '^^ teutonic prefixes and dcf oa?l::t 'T"^,^^"^"^^" natural objects and phenomena :- , oak, acorn (,.,. ac cran ; crane hers; horse corn) aeppel ; apple aesc ; ash bar; boar beofer; beaver beo, bio ; bee birce; birch bite! ; beetle bJKd {branch) ; blade blostma ; blossom b6c ; beech ^^^^ . ^^^ bnd {the young of an Add'; flood claeg; clay "^■^ unor; thunder APPENDIX. 4« Words relating to aecer ; acre aeg (//. aegru); egg, eyry iesce ; ashes aemyrie ; embers ' bacan ; to bake baeS; bath bsest {inner bark) ; bast- mat bere; barley bere-ern (em = place) ; bam besem; besom bin {manger) ; corn-bin boUa ; bowl bolster; bolster bord; board braec ; breeches bread j bread biian {to tilt) ; boor biic; buck-et bula; bull byt {cask) ; butt camb; comb ceaf; chaff cealf; calf case, cyse ; cheese cetel ; kettle the house and farm, clucge (Ml) ; clock cnedan; to knead coc, cue; cook cycene; kitchen cod {dag) ; peascod cot, cyte ; cot, cottage cradol ; cradle craet; cart croc {/>ot) ; crock-ery cii ; cow cweam (mill) ; quem delfan {dig) ; to delve die ; dike, ditch ealo ; ale efese {/em. sing) ; eaves ele ; oil erian {to plough); to ear fearh {little pig) ; farrow feld; field feorme {sustenance) ; farm floe ; flock foda ; food fiirh ; furrow fyr ; fire gad ; goad gaers; grass gat ; goat 5. Words relating to family and kindred, broffor; brother dohtor; daughter 2rT geard {Aedge) ; yard, garden geat ; gate griit {meal) ; groats, grouts haerfest ; harvest heorff ; hearth hlaefdige; lady hiaford ; lord hlaf; loaf hof (house) ; hov hrof; roof hiis ; house hwaete ; wheat hweol ; wheel lam {mud) ; loam mifid ; mead-ow meolc ; milk ofen ; oven ortgc. d {yard for worts or vegetables) ; orchard oxa ; ox r\cg; rick sceap ; sheep wwgen ; wagon, wain J»3ec; thatch J>erscan ; to thresh bryd; bride cild (//. cildra) ; child cnapa, cnafa {boy) ; knave cyn; kin 6. Words relating to ancleow; ankle h?&\g{bag) ; belly, bulge, bellows ban ; bone blod ; blood bodig {stature) ; body bosm (fold) ; bosom braeS; breath breost; breast ceace; cheek ceowan ; to chew cin; chin fseder; father hiisbunda (householder) husband modor; mother nefa ; nephew the parts of the body cneow ; knee eage ; eye ear ; ear earm ; arm elboga; elbow finger; finger fljESc ; flesh fot ; foot fy''t; fist ge-iht ; sight goma; gum ha^r ; hair sunu ; son sweostor ; sister ; widuwa ; widower widuwe ; widow wif {woman) ; wife and natural functions. hand ; hand heafod ; head heals {neck) ; halter hel ; heel heorte ; heart hlyst {the sense of hearing) ; listen hoh (heel) ; hough hric? {back) ; ridge hrif (bo-.vrls) ; rnidrifr lim; limb lippe; lip )* ^^ aia F.Nr.lISn r.RAMMAR. ! Il 1? mafja {stomnr/i) ; maw ineaig ; mai row imi'5 ', mouth iiivgl ; nail nasu ; nose sculder ; shoulder seoii ; lo see l68 ; toolh 7. Words relating to handicrafts, trade, &c. adcsa ; ad/.e antilt ; anvil angel {/too/:) ; to nngle ill ; oar aiuwc ; arrow l)at ; boat bil; bill brics ; l)rass bycgnn ; to buy bytcl ; beetle ccap {dari^niin, sale) ; cheap, chaffer, chap- man ceol (small ship) ; keel luncc ; toni^e |)eoTi ; thigh, thews i>r6te ; throat chiff.; cloth iraelt {strength) ; craft hamor ; hammer mangian {to tiajic) monger 8. Words denoting common attributive ideas. bald ; bold de6p ; deep bittor ; bitter deore ; dear eald ; old efen ; even fa;gr ; fair bla'C ; black blac (pale) ; bleach brail ; broad brun ; brown cealo [halil) ; callow ceald ; cold col ; cool ilearc ; dark fxHt ; fat full; full ful ; foul geolo ; yellow gra'g ; grey 9. Miscellaneous words. hi ac, eac {also) ; eke acsian ; to ask adl {pain, sickness) \ addle refre ; ever aunta {leisure) ; icmtig ; empty •x\c\ [noble) ; Atheling, Ethelred dS ; oath beor ; beer bana {killer) ; bane, rats- bane bealo {7Voe) ; bale-ful beam {tree) ; beam bede (prayer) ; bedesman lieorht ; bright be6dan ; to bid beran ; to bear berstan ; to burst bitan ; to bite bysis, busy ; bysgu, business blawan ; to blow bletsian {front blot, sacrifice) ; to bless bH»e ;" blithe boc r book borgian {from borg- plctige) ; to borrow brecan ; to break brycg ; bridge, brig brydel ; bridle bryne {flame); brimstone brytan {to break) ; brittle bi'igan ; to bow biir {cottage) ; bower burh {fort) ; borough byrig {tomb) ; burg byrSen ; burthen carl {male) ; Charles cearu ; care ceorfan {to cut) ; carve ceorl ; churl ceosan ; to choose cl«nan ; to clean cleolan ; to cleave clipian {to call) ; y-clept gr^ne ; green hedh ; high neard ; hard helig ; heavy hwite ; white rude (red) ; ruddy, ruddle, ruiidock {t/ie robin-red- breast) cndwan ; to know cniht {youth, attendant) ; knight cnucian ; to knock cos, cyss ; kiss crahan ; to crave crawan ; to crow creopan ; to creep eric ; crutch cringan {to be weak, to die), cringe, crank, cranky cwic {alive) ; quick cuman ; to come quellan ; quell, kill cwen (female) ; queen, quean cweSan {to say) ; quoth cyning ; king dal {paj-t) ; deal, dole : or-dcOl (or =: beginnint^). Germ. Urtheil ; ordeal deman {to Jndge) ; dom ; deem, doom dol {foolish) ; dolt APPENDIX. 2T3 dreorit; {Ji/oody, sad) ; make to drink) ; to dicncli drincan ; to drink drigaii Uo dry) ; drug, droiiglit ilwdian {to pine) ; dwitnlle dyne [thunder) ; din dj'sig (/oo.'ish) ; dizzy dynt {a soundmi^ btmo) ; dint cac {(the)) ; okc ea)(Ior ; elder, alderman cog; edge corl {tnan ofiialour) ; earl eornost ; earnest efan ; to eat faegen {glad) ; fain faran [to go) ; fare, ford foallan ; to fall fealo {y.'lliiiv) ; fallow (ground), fallow-deer fooh {cat// ; money) ; fee fec;htan ; to light foor ; far fiScIe; fiddle ne(')gan ; to fly flootan ; to float folc ; folk forhtian ; ♦..> frighten fostor ' t'ood) ; foster free lordly!) \ tree freon {to love) ; friend fretan {to gnuou, ; to fret gaderian ; to gather gal {merry), geola {merry- making) ; Yule galan {to sing) ; nightin- gale gamen {pleasure) ; game gan, gangan {to go) ; go, gang, gangway gar {dart) ; to gore gast ; ghost, gas geap i^diide) ; gape, gap gear ; year gearo {ready) ; yare geldan {to fay), gilt {Jine); guilt, yield geleiifa ; belief geong ; young geogofi ; youth geond ; yonder georn {desirous), geor- nian ; to yearn gerefa {one 7vho makes to obey) ; reeve, sheriff gifan ; to give glitian ; to glitter gnagan ; to gnaw g'ld ; good grapian {to lay hold of) ; grab, grapi)le gr^'tan ; to greet guma {man) \ bride- groom habban {to hold ) ; have, haft hdd {state or condition) ; Godhead, child-hood, &c. hj«lan ; to heal (from hal = whole) i.ilig ; holy ham ; home, Cobham &c. liAs ; hoarse hat ; hot healdan ; to hold hdlan {to hide) ; hell here {army) ; harbour {i.e. refuge for an army, from l)eorga), herring (the army- or shoal- fish) hingrian ; to hunger hiw {form, fashion) ; hue hi ad an (to pump up) ; ladle lilo^ {hand of robbers, booty) ; loot hoc ; hook hr?eS {swift) ; ready, rash hraeSe {quickly, soon) ; rathe, rather hreosan ; to rush hreowan {repent) ; to rue hriddel {sieve) ; to riddle (with holes) hwset {sharp) ; to whet hwytel {a sharp tool) ; whittle hweorfan {to turn) ; warp h^d {covering, skin) ; hide h^dan {to cover) ; to hide hyS (shore, port) ; Grcen- hi/he, &c. hvran ; to hear lar {doctrine) ; lore Iceran (teach) ; learn (still vulgarly used in the sense oj teaching) leds (false) ; leasing leod (pcoplt") ; lewd (be- longing to the common people) \eo{(dear), Icofan ; lief, to love lie (corpse) ; lich-gate Hn (ywjr) ; linen, linnet (the flax finch) lystan (to please) ; ' him listed,' listless mx'gen (strength) ; main mdgan {be able) ; may maoe (worm) ; moth max, masc {noose) ; mesh mersc ; marsh mete; meet metsian (to feed) ; mess, messmate mod (mind) ; mood mor ; moor morS ; murther morgen ; mom, morrow mot ; shire-moot (m^tan, m^tan = to meet) nacod ; naked na:ddre ; adder (an adder = a nadder) nijes ; naze, -ness (in Furness, &c.) neb (beak) ; nib ne6d ; need niht ; night niSer (down) ; nether ost ; east pic, pitch pinewincle, periwinkle pipe : pipe raedan (interpret) ; to read rap ; rope I' i ai4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. fit leAc {s/tioki) ', reek redtiaii {ro^} ; be-reave, reiver t6c {can') ; reckless rice((/o»iitiio/{) ; bishop-ric r6(l {cross) ; rood s^l {ji^ooii luck) ; siJ^lijj {lucky) ; seely (<;/yrel (hole) ; drill, nostril (i.e. nose-hole) pweorh {oblique) ; athwart Jjyrr (dry) ; thirst Jringan (to />ress) ; throng >rt«l ; thrall tid (time) ; tide treowan {to trust) ; to trow treowS ; truth, trust tiin {enclosed ground) ; town wacan, wacian ; to wake, watch wsed (garment) ; widow's weeds wana (lack) ; want wanian ; to wane wealcan (to roll, turn) ; walk weald (/brest) ; Weald, Wold wealdan (to rule) ; wield, Brelwalda {governor 0} the /' itons) wcalh (Joreign) ; Welsh, walnut wed (a pledge) ; to wed wen (hope), wenan {to ex/'cct) \ ween, over- weening weorc ; work weorpan {to thro7v) ; niouldv\arp (i.e., mould throjuer) weorS ; worth Vfic (dwelling); Alnwick, Greenwich wilcuma (om who conies when we wish) ; wel- come wolcen (cloud) ; welkin wop (weeping) ; whoop wrsestan (to twist) ; wrest, wrestle wregan (to accuse) ; bewray wriOian ; to wreathe, writhe. Derivative. wrist wyn (joy) ; wfnsome wyrd (fate) ; weird wyrhta (workman) ; Wright yfel (bad) ; evil, ill yman ; to run Besides words like those in the preceding list, which involve some interest- ing variation in form or meaning, there are very many which have kept their pl.ice in our langiiage without material variation either in form or in meaning. These are generally easy to recognize. No one with any knowledge of Latin would suppose for a moment that such words ns bind, climb, corn, crop, deaf, dim east, end, fall, find, full, grim, grind, heap, help, horse, hunt, land, leaf melt, nest, north, south, oft, ram, sand, send, sing, sit, spill, spring, step, sting, stream, swing, timber, turf web, word, thing, thorn, were of Latin or Greek oriifin. v//) ; widow's ; want wane roll, turn) \ •st)\ Weald, rule) ; wield, I {governor of gn) ; Welsh, e) ; to wed wenan {lo ween, over- {i.e., mould th ') ; Alnwick, I t who coma wish) ; wel- i) ; welkin f) ; whoop vis/) ; wrest, > accuse) ; o wreathe. Derivalivi. 'fnsome weiid workman) ; /il, ill me interest- kept their n meaning, ge of Latin n-o/>, deaf, land, leaf, step, sting, a ur Greek APPENDIX. 91* Ou comparing the earlier forms of English words with those now current, the following changes (among others) present themselves ;— 1. The vowel y of A.S. and early Knglish gives place to i, as dynt dint; hlystan //i/f// ; ]>yrstan ///i>j/; lyrfire; hry d dride. 2. A.S. 8B appears as ea (ridan read) ; as 1 (r«del riddle) ; as e vwaere jvere) ; or as ee and ea (slipan sleej> ; spax s/>eeih ; hselan heal) . 3. Broken vowel sounds in A.S. tend to become homogeneous in modern English. Thus ed appears as i (hcah high) ; as e, ee, or ea (e4c eke, ceace chrek, leaf leaf) ; as e or ea (heafod head, dead dld) : eo or eo appears as e, e&, or a (decjfol de7'il, heofon heavnt, heorot hart, heorte h>art, (tor far), as ie (leof li,f, kotnl fend, ihecif thitf), as ee (treo tree ; heo kv ; deor deer, creopan ink and drench, stink and stench, seek and beseech, pick and- pitch, and the words cyning /frtw^ ; c&o\ keel ; cyssan ^m, &c.). 9. A.S. car appears as d^e (hrycg ridge; brycg bridge ; mycg w/%^ ; ecg edge). This softening of the guttural to ch or soft g is due to Fren'-h influence, but the sounds are not those represented in French by ch and soft g ; hence the frequent insertion of t or d. 10. A. S. gr or cgr often disappears, or is replaced by w or y (l)ycgan buy ; secgan say; Reogan fly ; dteg day; morgen morroxv ; dagan daxon ; lagu law; gnagan gnaw; hagol had; nigon nine; ixgr fair ; mcegen main ; druncenian drown ; isgicel icicle) ; especially at the end of a word (bodig body ; dysig dizzy ; hunig honey, &c.). Also at the beginning (gear ^/tv/r ; gese ;j/t',f ; geond yon ; geong young; gildan yield; geliclike ; genoh enough ; g[( if. Sec). 11. The guttural hgr or g-h be ;ame sounded (and sometimes written) as f Cpweorg dwarf ; \eahtor laughter ; compare cot/gh and cloui;h). In early English we tind doftyr (daughter) ; caufte (caught) ; thof (though) ; thruff {through). 12. Guttural h appears as k, gr, or g-h (cniht knight; Pihtas Picts ; l(»r>lif licrht • anXttn ^.trrUt Srr. \ T«.>;_1 V -r/ .1; /__ i,:^ -^ , --c>-" J -.-.it..- if^^.,,, K.'^^.j. iniilai a. uucu uiaapjpCuib \S,s till U J hmngwing; \intcca. neck ; hlysta.n listen, &c.). m vy- I f r f: « 1 1 III i I, 2t6 englistt orammar. 13. A.S. so appears as sh (scild shitld ; scriid shroua ; sccal shall; seacan shake ; aesc ash ; ^■at'?,c flesh). 14. S has replaced th (as eaSe ease ; has for hath, &c.). 15. D, t, and th are often interchanged. Compare deik and thatch; burthen and burden ; bud and button (Fr. bouton) ; drill, tril (.nostril) and thrill, &c. 16. L sometimes replaces r. Compare /fal and Harry ; Dolly and Dorothy; Sally and .Sffra,4. (See ^341.) Sometimes it replaces n, as in luncheon for numheon. 17. M replaces n final, as in w«ow (r^-wm), ransom {ranfon), &c., or springs out of n when followed by b or f, as Dumbarton (Dun Breton); hamper (hanaper) \ Pomfret {Pontefract), 18. Letters frequently disappear. Thus: L before a guttural or 8 (aelc each ; hwilc which ; als as). N has been lost from the words us (^German uns), :00th {Gothic tunthus, Ijit. dentem), tithe (tenth), elerett (endlufon), goose (gans), other {Goth. anthar), mouth {German mund), could = cufie (cyxnn&n), flve {German fiinf, Gr. irivrt), Thursday (Thunresdjrg), &c. N final has disappeared from my (mine), ago (agone), no (none), &c. Similarly /r<7 = from. R has vanished from several words, as speak (sprecan), pin {A.S. preon, Scotch prin, Old English preen), Fanny (Frances), cockade (cocard), palsy (paralysis). T and d and th have disappeared from amdl (anfilt). Benedick (Benedict), gospel (godspell), answer (andswarian). best (betst), Esse.x (East Saxons), Norman {Northman), worship (worthship), &c. F has disappeared from head (heafod), woman (wi'fman), had (hiefde), lord {h\iiord), &c. , Initial syllables tend to disappear. See § 341 and compare reeiw, gerefa ; lone, alone {all one) ; board, aboard, &c. Internal syllables disappear. Compare lark, laverock ; last, latest; since, sitheties ; Monday, Monandceg ; fortnight^ four teennight ; damsel, demoiselle ; comrade, camarade. 21. The loss of final syllables (especially inflexions) is too common to need special notice. 22. Letters sometimes intrude into words where they are not radical. B or p and d or t appear after m and n respectively, as in thumb, lamb, dumb, limb, number, glimpse (from gleam), sempstress {seam), empty {emtig), embers {cemyrie), &c,, thunder {\unor), kindred {kinred^\ anent {on-efn or on-emn), parchment {parchemin), ancient {ancien from antiquanus), tyrant {tyran), romaunt {roman), fond {fon - a fool), expound {expono), sound {son), lend {lanan), drownded (for droivned), &c. T has also crept into glisten (glisian), tapestry {tapisserie). Sec, and d into alderliefest = allerliefest. In advance {avancer) the d is an error. G has intruded into foreign, sovereign, impregnable {prendre). T is often a phonetic ofTgrowth of s, as in against, betwixt, behest {beh(Ts), &c. S has appeared at the beginning of various words, as smelt, scratch, scrawl, 19 20 If ' APPENDIX. 217 i; sccal shall ; ik and thatch ; Hi, tril {nostril) ry ; Dolly and It replaces n, as 'an(on), &c., or mbarton {Dun \Gothtc tunthus, is), other {Goth. \), Jive {German has disappeared 'fro — from. in {A. S. preon, ckade (cocard), nfilt), Benedick ' (betst), Essex ip), &c. i), had (haefde), compare reeve, k ; last, latest ; might ; damsel, GO common to ; not radical. , as in thumb, pstress {seam), udred [kinredc], *it {ancien from {fon — a fool), (for droiuui'd), 'apisserie). Sec, cer) the d is an 're). betwixt, behest cratch, scrawl, sneeze, smash, &c., and has intruded into island {ealand or igland), aisle {aile), demesne {dominium). N appears at the beginning; of some words, as A^oll {Oliver), Nancy {Anne), Nell {Ellen), nuncle {uncle), mnvche {owche), nexvt {eftte), and has intruded xnio nightingcde {nightegalc), messenger, ensatnple, passenger. (Compare § 341 ) B has intruded in bridegroom {guma), vagrant {vagare), hoarse (A S. hds),&c. (See §341.) 23. Two consonants, or a consonant and a vowel, often change places {metathesis) . Compare bright and beorht ; wright and wyrhta ; brid and bird ; thresh and perscan ; fresh and fersc, &c. 24. Some words of Teutonic origin have assumed an initial g in passing through French. Compare ,^'«//^ and w*'/^/ guard and ward; Guillaume a nd IVilliam. 25. Consonants get assimilated through juxtaposition. Then we get lammas from hldfmesse ; gammer from godmother ; gaffer from god- father. B. SCANDINAVIAN WOBDS AND ELEMENTS IN ENOLISH. Some of the most important of these are found in some geogra- phical names : — ) (temple or { Arkholm ) altar) \ Gi ark argh ] altar) \ Grimsargh beck (brook), Caldbeck by (town), Whitby dal (valley), Dalby ay, a (island) {g;!;;;^ fell (rock hill), Scawfell ford J I Seaford forth [ (inlet) \ Seaforth firth ) I Holmforth force (waterfall), Mickleforce lua^} (enclosure) {Dfj,|-* gill (valley), Ormesgill holm (island), Langholm ness (headland), Skipness scar (steep rock), Scarborough skip (ship), Skipwith i^!"^! (place of meet- \l^^^''f^ V."S i '"^inc) Tingwall ding ) '"*"' ( Dingwall *!^°'Pl fvillaee^ ( Grimsthorpe thropl ^v"^»g<=^ iMilnthrop toft (small field), Lowesfoft with (wood), Langwith A LIST OF SOME CELTIC WORDS PRESERVED IN ENGLISH. rug size smooth soak solder tackle tall tinker trudge welt whip wicket wire bag crag gown lath bard crock-ery griddle mattock barrow crowd (fiddle) gruel mesh basket cudgel grumble mop bog dainty gyve muggy bran darn hawker pail bug-bear flannel hem pan bump flaw hog peck button fleam knell pitcher cabin funnel knock rail clout fur knoll rasher coble glen lad ridge cock- boat goblin lass rim 2l8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ir The following geogra])hical names are of Celtic origin : — Rivers : — Avon, Dee, Don, Ouse, Severn, Stour, Thames, Trent. I/ills: — Cheviot, Chiltern, Grampian, Malvern, Mendip. Islands : — Arran, Bute, Man, Mull, Wight. Counties: — Devon, Dorset, Kent. Toivns : —Liverpool, Penrith, Penzance. The following Celtic elements are found in some geographical names : — .,4 /w (mouth of a river), as, 'Aberdeen, Aber-broihwick, Aberwick (Berwick) ; ' Anchin (field), as, ' Auchindoir, Auchinleck ;' Aniox Aird (high, projecting), as, * Ardnamurchan, Ardrishaig ; ' Bal (village), as, 'Balmoral \ Ben or Pen (mountain), as, 'Ben Nevis, Penmaen- mawr ;' Blair (field clear of wood), as, 'Blair Alhol;' Brae (rough ground), as, ' Braemar ; ' Caer (fort), as, ' Caerleon (Carlisle) ; Combe or Camp (valley), as, ' Compton, Ilfracombe, Appuldurcombe ; ' Dun (hill), as, 'the Downs, Dumbarton;' Inch (island), as, ' Inchkeith, Inchcape ; ' Inver (mouth of a river), as, 'Inverness, Inverary;' Kill (cell, chapel), ' Kilmarnock ;' Ziw (deep pool), 'Linlithgow, King's Lynn;' Z/fl« (church), 'Llandaff, Launceston ; ' Tre (town), ' Coventry (town of the convent), Oswestry ; ' Strath (broad valley), ' Strathfieldsaye.' THE CLASSICAL ELEMENT IN ENGLISH. The greater part of the abstract terms in English, and words relating to religion, law, science, and literature, are of Latin or Greek origin. Most words of three or more syllables are of classical origin, and a very large number of those of two syllables, the exceptions being mostly words formed by English suffixes from monosyllabic roots. Most monosyllabic words in Enghsh are of Teutonic origin, but many are derived from Latin and Greek, the greater part having come to us through French. The following belong to this class : — ace (as) age ^aetaticum), Old Fr. edage aid (adjutum) aim aestimare) alms (cAcTjjUoo'i/i'Tj) arch (arcus) aunt (amita) balm (balsamum) base (bassus) beast (bestia) beef (boves) cape (caput) cash (capsa) chafe (calefacere) chain (catena) chair (cathedra) chalk (calx) chance (cadentia) charm (carmen) chase (captiare) chief (caput) coin (cuneus) cork (cortex) blame (blasphemia) couch (collocate) boil (bullire) count (comes) desk ) /J. \ dish 1 (^'^'="^) dose {hoffis) doubt (dubitare) dress (dirigere) due (debitum) duke (dux) fair (feria) faith (fides) fay (fata) feat (factum) feign (fingere) fierce (ferus) boon (bonus) brace (brachium) brief (brevis) bull (bulla) cage* (cavea) car 1 carry • (carrus) charge ' foil (folium) count (computare) force (fortis) cost (constate) coy (quietus) cue (cauda) cull (colHgere) dame (domina) daunt (domitate) dean (dec.anus) forge (fabrica) found (fundere) fount (fons) frail (fragilis) frown (frons) fruit (fructus) fry ifrigere) glaive (gladius) gourd (cucurbita) grant (credentare) grease (crassus) grief (gravis) host (hospit-) hulk {f)\Ka%) inch (uncia) jaw (gabata) jest (gestum) jet (jactum) join (jungo) joy (gaudium) lace (laqueus) lease (laxare) liege (legius) lounge (longus mace (massa) mail, armour (mac- ula, vtesh) male (masculus) mnimt (mens) • Note the curious change of b, p, or v, between vowels into soft g. (See } 341.) I' ■< ! APPENDIX. /is, Penmaen- 219 niece (neptis) noise (noxia) nurse (nutrix) lunce (uncia) ;)ace (passus) paint (pingere) pair (par) l)ay (pacare) peace (pax) peach (persica) place (platea) plait (plectere) plead ) (Pjacitum) plum (prunum) prey (prneda) priest (presbyter) print (primere) prize ! (Pretium) proof (prol)are) push (pulsare) quire (chorus) quite (quietus) rave ) ^'""^'^^^ ray (radius) rear (retro) rill (rivulus) river (riparius) scarce ^fx-sta}'/>fus) street (strata) scourge(ex-c(>rrigerc)sue, suit (sequor) plunge {plutnl)icaie)ro\\ (rotulus) point (punctum) round (rotundus) poor (pauper) rule (regula) praise (pretiare) safe (salvus) pray (precari) sage (sapiens) preach (praedicare) sauce (salsus) The above list does not include seal (sigillum) search (circare) seat (scdes) short (curtus) siege (assedium) sir (senior) sluice (exclusis) soar {exaiirnre) source (surgere) spice (species) spouse (sponsus) sprain (exprimo) spy (specio) squad, square quadrare) stnge [staticus) strain (stringo) sure (securus) taint (tinctus) task (taxare) taste {taxitare) ' taunt (temptare) tense (tempus) tour ) /, V turn } (^°''"^''^) trace "^ trait ) treat (tractare) vaunt {vanitare) veal (vitulus) [ex -view (videre) void (viduus) vouch (vocare) vow (votuin) waste (vastus) (tractus) strait (strictus) strange (extraneus) a large number of monosyllables, the Latin origin of which is obvious, such as cede {cedo), long (longus). GRIMM'S LAW. Besides words like the foregoing, which with many others have been dis- tinctly imported from the classical languages into English, there are numerous instances in which a word or root is common to several of the Aryan languages, without having been borrowed by any one from another, all having received the word in common from some more primitive source. Tn tracing the variations which such words assume, a very remarkable relation between the consonants is found, which is commonly known as ' Grimm's Lav/.' If the same roots or the same words exist (i) in Sanskrit. Greek, Latin, &c., (2) in Gothic or the Low German dialects,- and (3) in Old High German, then I. When the first class have an aspirate the second have the corresponding soft check {i.e. flat ox middle mute), the third the corresponding hard check {i.e. sharp or thin mute). IL When the first class have a soft check {flat or middli' mute), we find the corresponding hard check {sharp or thin mute) in the second class, and the corresponding aspirate in the third. IIL When the first class have a hard consonant {sharp or thin mute), the second have the aspirate, and the third the soft check {flat or middle mute\ In this third section of the rule, however, the law holds good for Old High German only as regards the dental series of mutes, the middle (or flat) guttural being generally replaced by A, and the middle (or flat) labial by/.* The three branches of the law given above may be easily remembered in the following way : — Take a circular disc of cardboard, and mark on it three radii, inclined each to each at an angle of I20^ Mark these three radii (i), (2), and (3), corresponding respectively tc the three classes of languages above referred to— (i) denoting Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, &c. ; (2) denoting Gothic and Low Gcman dialects (including English) ; and (3) denoting Old High German. Place the disc on a sheet of paper, and write AsMrate ooposite the • The above is the law in its general form. It is subject to special modifications and exceptions. 220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. W U *• end of radius (i), Middle or Flat opposite the end of radius (2), and Thin or Sharp opposite the end of radius (3). The disc may be shifted, so that radius (l), instead of pointing to Aspirate, may point to the other two classes of mutes in succession. In each position of the disc, each radius will point to the class of mutes that may be expected to characterize any word that is com- mon to all three classes of languages, provided that one radius points to the class of mutes which the word in question exhibits in that group of languages which that radius represents. The law may also be easily recollected in the following way. It is obvious that the arrangement of three balls in three holes is settled as soon as two balls have been arranged in two holes. Similarly if we know how two of the three classes of mutes are apportioned to two of the three classes of "Janguages, the assignment of the third follows as a matter of course. If we take Latin as representing the Sanskrit — Greek — Latin group, and English as representing the Low German group, the little formula "duo fratres, two brothers," will give us all that we want. The d of duo and the t of tivo remind us that a flat (or middle) mute in the Latin class corresponds to a sharp (or thin) mute in the English class. The f oi fratres and the b of brothers remiiid us that an aspirate in the Latin class answers to a flat mute in the English class. The t oi fratres and the th of brothers remind us that a sharp (or thin) mute in the Latin class answers to an aspirate in the English class. The remaining class of mutes in each case belongs to Old High German. Practicaiiy our main concern is with the relations between Greek,' Latin, and English roots, and for these the formula is sufficient. The following are a few instances of the application of this law : — I. Greek. Latin. Sanskrit. English. {Ang. Sax.) Gothic. Old High German. I. x0« I X^pTOS (h)anser heri hortus hansa hyas goose gestrandaeg garden gans gistra gards kans kestar karto 1 dvydrr^p \ eipa 2. < Hp 1 Qapfffiv \ fera dhrish daughter door deer dare daughtar daur dius ga-daur- tohtar tor tior tarran medius madhya middle san mitte l gnosco genus genu mag-nus ego jna jati janu mah-at IL know kin knee A.S. micel A.S. ic kan kuni kniu mih-ils ik chan chuni chniu mih-il ih(C. ich) 2), and Thin or d, so that radius • two classes of ius will point to ord that is com- us points to the up of languages \ It is obvious loon as two balls Lwo of the three f "languages, the ve take Latin as as representing ;wo brothers," remind us that p (or thin) mute ;miiid us that an ;h class. The t bin) mute in the jmaining class of icaliy our main sh roots, and for aw : — Old High German. kans kestar karto tohtar tor tior tarran mitte piiu pruoder puocha pirn chan chuni chniu mih-il ih(C. ich) Greek. ^ iroS-6s \ Sena ) Svu ' oS6vr- OS kAvvu^is 7. I KapSia ( {k6s) it ru Tpe'is erepos 1 vnep 9. ) TfAeos Latin. ped-is decern duo dent-is Sanskrit. dasan dant-as Al 'PEN D IX. 22] it. ' Etii^'-lish. {Aug Sax.) Gothic. Old High Germatt. foot vuoz ten taihun zehan two twai zwei tooth tunth help hilfa hilfu hemp hanaf caput cord-is qui-s tu tres alter pater super ple-nus piscis pellis kapala hridaya twam trayas ant-ara pitri upari pArna III. A S. heafod heart A. S. hwa thou three other father over full fish fell haubith hairto hvas thu threis anthar fadar ufar fulls fisks houpit (herza) du dri andar ubar General Table of Grimm's Law. i Sanskrit . Greek ° jl II. Gothic, &c. p- III. O. H. Gor. /WJ iTn^nnT'";- '"'T\ '"'<'S''e;_^cc,; eager; \.on^o, guma ; tonare 'S: ,/,i7"U^ f^)' ^^«i-->- v...re, witan; iox^^xj, throw ; tego rnaun, piaus,, y^jy^ / pccus, /■/a/«) ; camp, encamp, champaign Candeo (1 bum or shine), caiulidus (whin). candid, incendiary, candle, candour. Canis {dog) ; canine. Canna (reect) ; canal, channel. Canto (/ sing) ; chant incantation, Capi^ua (hair) ; capillary. Capio (/ take), captiis (taken) ; captive, capa- city, accept, recipient, anticipate. Caput [lucid) ; cape, capital, captain, chapter, precipitate, decapitate. Carbo (coal) ; carbon, carboniferous. Career {prison) ; incarcerate. Cardo \hinge) ; cardinal. Carmen (song) ; charm. CcL 0, carnis (flesh) ; carnal, incarnate, charnel- house, carnival. Cams (dear) ; charity, cherish. Castigo [restrain^ ; castigate, chastl.se, Castus (pure) ; chaste. Casus (falling) ; case, casual, casuistry. Causa ; cause ; excuse, accuse. Caveo (/ take care) ; caution. Cavus (Itollow) ; cave, excavate. Cedo(/^<;); cede, precede, proceed, cession. Celeber (frequented) ; celebrate. Celer (^«/bi-) ; celerity, accelerate, v-elo (/ hide) ; conceal. Censeo {I judge) ; censor, censure. In most cases only a few samples of the Englisii derivatives are given. \\ LATIN DERIVATIVES. 223 iti\ 38 from omens from birds) ; ry :i avaricious. ber. de. It. rebel. , benefit , benignity itial. y, combine. isect. vity. ) ; cadence, ac-cident, luicide, incision, com- mentuni). c 'heel'), recalcitrant. ite. us ; I Uous. sncanip, champaign r), candidus {w/iiu): andle, candour. iinel. cantation. lien); captive, capa- t, anticipate. ital, captain, chapter, e. boniferoub. ate. lal, incarnate, chariiel- lerish. igate, chastl.se. »sual, casuistry. .ccuse. tion. :cavate. ie, proceed, cession. ilebrate. ccelerate. censure. Oentum (hundred) ; cent, centuiy. Centrum ; centre, concentrate, centrifuftal. Cerno.cretum (/i/wmA;; discern, discreet, secret, concern. Certui [resolveo); certain, certify. Ce«BO (/ loiter); cease, cessation. Charta tfia^er); chiirt, chaiter, cartoon. CingfO [fgtrdi ; cmcture, succinct. Ciroum (round), circus (a circle); circle, circulate, circuit. Cito (I rouse) ; citation, excite. Civii (citizen < ; civil, civic, city (civitas). Clamo i J shout); claim, clamour. Clarui (bright) ; clear, clarify. Claaiis ; class, classic. Claudo (/ shut) ; exclude, include, conclude, close, enclose, cloister. Clemens (mild) ; clemency, inclement. Clino (/ I'end) ; incline, declension. Clivus (sloping ground) ; declivity. Coelebs (bachelor); celibacy. Coelum (hemien) ; celestial. Cogito (/ think) ; cogitate. Cognosoo (/ examine) ; recognize, cognizant. Colo (/ tilt); culture, cultivate, colony. Color; colour. Comes (companion) ; concomitant, count. wxtaaai.\a (convenient) ; commodious, incom mode. Communis ; comtnon, community. Zttnttv. (against); counter, contrary. Copia (plenty); copious, copy (to produce an abundance of ;;peciniens). Copulo (I join together) ; copulative. Coquo (/ boil): cook, decoction. Cor, cordis (heart) ; cordial, concord, record. Corona; crown, coronation. Corpus (body) ; corps, corpse, incorporate corporeal, corpulent. Cras (to-morrow) ; procrastinate. Credo (I believe) ; creed, incredible, credit. Cren; create. Cre8Bo(/^^--) ; inherit, hereilitary. Halo (/ breathe) ; exhale, inhale. Haurio, haustum (/ draw); exhaust. Herba ; herb, herbaceous. Hibemus {wintry) ; hibernate. Histrio {actor) ; histrionic. Homo {man) ; human, homicide. Honestus; honest. Honor; hono'-- "■•" Horreo (/ sh Hortor; exh,„- Hortus {garde. , . ,rticultuie. Hospes {guest) ; ..ospitable, hosi, Hostis {enemy) ; hostile. Humeo {I am wet) ; humid, humour. Humus (ground); exhume, humble. Ignis {flre) ; ignite, igneous. Ignore ; ignore, ignorant. Imago ; image, imagine. Impero (/ command) ; empire, imperious, imperative. Inilco {I point); indicate. Inferus {low) ; inferior, infernal. Ingenium {talent) ; ingenious, engine. Ingenuus {native) ; ingenuity. ■ Insula {island) ; insulate, insular. Integer {whole) ; integral, integrity. Intelligo {/perceive) ; intelligent, intellect. Invito ; invite. ltai{anger); ire, irate, irascible. Irrito (/ provoke) ; irritate. Iterum (again); reiterate. Iter, itineri.s {journey) ; itinerant. Jaceo (/ lie down) ; adjacent. Jaoio, jactum (/ throw); eject, object, ad- jective, conjecture. Jocus ; joke, jocular. Judex ; judge, judicious, prejudice. Jugvaa {yoke) ; ( jugal, conjugate, jugular. Jungo, junctuni , join, joint, juncture, con- junction, injunction. JuTO (I swear) ; conjure, jury, perjury. Jus {justice), Justus {Just); just, injury, jurisdiction. Juvenis {young) ; juvenile, junior. Labor ; labour, laboratory. Labor (/ slide) ; lapse, collapse. Lac {milk) ; lacteal, lactic. Lacrima {tear) ; lacrimose, lacrymal. Laedo, laesum (/ dash or hurt) ; lesion, elide, collision. Langueo, languidus ; languish, languid. Lapis (stone) ; lapidary, dilapidate. Largus ; large. Latus (broe^) ; latitude, dilate. Lahis (side) ; lateral, equilateral. Laus, laudis (praise) ; laud, laudable. Lavo (/wajA); lavatory, lave. "LuLXM {looie) ; lax, teiax. Lego (/ depute) ; legate, legacy. Lego, lectum ((gather); collect, elect, lec- ture, college, legion. LATIN DERIVATIVES. 225 it, prchibit. inhabit, lesitate. ;tiitary. nhale. exhaust. ite. icide. , horrid, abhor. jie. hoi.1. humour, humble. mpire, imperious, mal. js, engine. ty.- isular. [itegrity. igent, intellect. ible. erant. It. eject, object, ad- ejudice. njugate, jugular, int, juncture, con- ry, perjury. St); just, injury, junior. ipse. lacrymal. uri) ; lesion, elide, lish, languid, ipidate. late. iteral. I, laudable. ve. ;acy. collect, elect, lee* lenis {smooth) ; lenity. Levis {light), levo (/ lift); levity, alleviate, relieve, elevate. Lex. legis (law) ; legal, legisLMe, Liber (free) ; liber.tl, deliver. Liber {book) ; library, libel. IVats^ (balance) ; libration, deliberate. Licet {it is lawful) ; licence, illicit. Ligo (/ tie) ; oblige, religion, league, ligament. limfiXi {threshold) ; eliminate l = put outside the threshold). Limes (boundary) ; limit. Linea ; line, lineal. Lingpua (tongue) ; linguist, language. Linquo, lictuin (/ leave) : relinquish, relict. Liquor, liquidus ; liquid, liquefy. Litera; letter, literal, illiterate. Locui {place) ; locate, local, locomotion. Longus ; long, longitude, elongate. Loquor (/ speak), loquax ; elocution, loqua- cious, colloquy, eloquent. Luorum {gain); lucrative, lucre. Ludo, lusum (I play) ; elude, prelude, illusion, ludicrous. Lumen {light) ; luminous, illuminate. Luna [moon) ; lunar, lunatic. lMa{I wash); dilute, ablution, alluvial. iM&teyxrci {purification); lustre, illustrate. Lux {light) ; lucid, elucidate. Maohina ; machine. Macula (j/t?/ ) ; immaculate. Blagister; magistrate, master. Magnus (gre.rt), major (greater); magnitude, majesty, mayor. Me.luB (bad) ; malice, maltreat, malady. Mamma {breast) ; mamma, mammalia. Mando (commit, enjoin) ; mandate, commend. Muneo, mansum (/ remain) ; mansion, remain, ■emnant, permanent. Manas {hand) ; manual, manufactory, manu- script, maintain, manacle, emancipate, manumit. Mare {sea) ; marine, mariner. Mars ; martial. Mater {mother) ; maternal, matricide, matron, matrimony. Materia {timber, stuff) ; niatter, material. Matiirus {ripe) ; mature, premature. Medeor (/ heat) ; remedy, medicine. Medius {middle) ; mediator, immediate. Melior (better) ; ameliorate Membrum {limb) ; member, membrane. Memor (mindful) : memini (/ remember); remember, memory, commemorate. Mendax {lying) ; mendacious. Mendious {beggar) ; mendicant. VLtxidxasi {fault) ; mend, emendation. Mens, mentis {mind) ; mental, vehement. Mereo (/ deserve) ; merit. Hergo (/ plunge) ; immerse, emergency. TH-^rs. {ivares) ; merchant, market, mercer. Metior, mensus sum (/ measure) ; immense, mensuration, measure. Migro ; emigrate. Mifes {soldier) ; military, militate. Mille {thousand) ; mile, million. Minister ' •servant) ; minister, ministry. Minor {less), minuo (/ lessen); diminish, minority, minute. Vxcm {I admire) ; admire, miracle. Misceo, inixtum (/ mi.x) ; miscellany, pro- miscuous. Miser {wretched); miser, misery. Mitto, missiim (/ send); admit, permit, pro- mise, mission, missile. Modus {mtasure) ; mode, niond, model, mode- rate, modest, modulation. Mola ; mill, meal, molar, immolate, emolument {the millers pertjuisite). Mollis {soft) ; emollient, mollify. Moneo (/ warn); admonish, monument, monster, monitor. Mons ; mount, mountain, surmount, promon- tory. Monstro (/ sho^v) ; demonstrate. Morbus {disease) ; n.'^rbific, morbid. Mordeo, morsum (/ bite) ; remorse, morsel. Mors, mortis {death) ; mortal, mortuary. Mos, moris {custom) ; moral. Moveo, motum (/ move), mobilis ; move, motive, moment, mobility, emotion. Multus {many) ; multitude, multiple. Mundus {world) ; mundane. Munio {I fortify) ; munition, muniment. Munus {gift, share) ; remunerate, immunity. MuTUS {wall) ; mural, intramural. Musa {muse) ; music, amuse, museum. Muto (/ change) ; mutable, commute. Narro; narrate, narrative. Nascor, natus sum (/ am bom) ; nascent native, nation, cognate, nature. Nasus {nose) ; nasal. Navis (ship) ; naval, navigate, navy, Nauta {sailor) ; nautical, nautilus. Necesse ; necessary, necessity. Necto, nexum (/ tie) ; connect, annex. Nefas {unspeakable wickedness) ; nefarious. Nego {1 deny) ; negation, renegade, Negotium (business) ; negotiate. Nervus {strine^) ; nerve, enervate. Neuter {not either) ; neuter, neutral. Niger {black) ; negro. Nihil {nothing) ; annihilate * Noceo (/ hurt) ; innocent, noxious. No-SCO, notum (/ knout) ; no-men (name), no- bills {noble) ; noun, name, nominal, noble, ignominy, note, notion. Non (not) ; non-entity, non-age. Norma {rule); normal, Luormous. Novem (nine) ; November Novus («t'w) ; novel, renovate, novice. 1X ox (night); nocturnal, equinox. Nubo (/ marry) ; nuptial, connubial. Nudus (naked) ; nude, denude. 'Nvdlvis (none) ; nullity, annul. Numerus (number) ; numeral, enumerate. Nuntio ; announce, renounce. Nutrio (/ nourish) ; nutritious. Nutrix ; nurse. Obliquus ; oblique. Oblivio (from jiv-idus) ; oblivion. Obscurus (dark) ; obscure. Q 226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^liKll w 11 i Occulo {hide); occult. Oooupo [f i>iy hold of); occupy, occupation. Q^'iti{eight]\ octave, October. Ooulus \eye, bud) ; ocular, oculist. Odium hiitn-d). odious, odium. Odor [smell) ; odour, odorous, redolent. Officium {duly) ; otifice, otficious. Oleum (.m7) ; oleaginous. Omen; (jmiuous. abominate. Omnia a//); omnipotent, omnibus. Onus, oiicris [loud) ; onerous, exonerate. Opinor (/ think) ; opine, opinion. Opto (/ desife) ; option, adopt. Opus, operis {work) ; operate. Orbis {circle) ; orb, orbit, exorbitant, Ordo [order) ; ordain, ordinary, Orior. ortus (/ rise); origin, abortive. Oro (/ speak) ; orator, adore. Os, oris [mntth); oral. Osculor {I kiss); oscillate. Ovum {egg) ; oviparous, oval. Paoiscor, pactus (/ make an a^eement) ; pact, compact Pagus y7'illage) ; pagan, peasant. PalUum Icloak); pall, palliate. ^alpo ( / slroke) ; palpable, palpitate. Palus {slake) ; pale, palisade, impale. Pando, p.insum and passum (/ spread); ex- pand, expanse, compass. Panp, pactum {I fasten) ; impinge, compact. Paius [hrciid) ; companion (one who shares your bread). Par {equal) ; peer, compare. Parco (/ spare) ; parsimony. Pareo (/ appear) ; apparent. Pario(/ bring forth) ; parent, viviparous. Paro (/ pttt, prepare) ; repnir, compare. Pars {part); partition, party, particle, parti- c pie, parse, particular. Pasco, pastum (/ feed) pasture, pastor. Pater {father); paternal, patron, patrimony, patric an. Patria {country) \ patriot, expatriate. Patior, passus (/ suffer) ; patient, passion. Pauper {poor) pauper, poverty. Pax. pacis(/mress) ; express. Primus {first) ; primeval, primrose. Princeps (/rjw^) ; principal. Privo (/ deprive) ; deprive, private. Probo (/ make good); prove, probable, re- probate. Probrum {shameful acts) ; opprobrious. Frobus {honest, good) ; probity. Promo, promptus ; piompt. Prope {near), proximus {nearest) ; propinquity, proximate. PropriuB {ones own) ; proper, property, pro- priety. Fudor {shame\ pudet ; impudent. Puer {boy) ; puerile. Pugii {boxer) ; pugilist. ^raa {I fight); pugnacious, impugn. Fuuno {lungs); pulmonary. Fungo, punctum {I prick) ; pungent, puncture, expunge, point. Fupus, pupillus {a little boy); pupil, puppet. ^ax^ti {I cleanse): purge, purgatory. Punts; pure, purify. 'P\xto{/ cut, calculate, think); amputate, com pute, count, depute. Futns {rotten) ; putrid, putrefy. ftuaero, quaesitum {f seek); question, inquire, query, ex(]uisite. QjMaXii {of which kind)- quality, qualify. Quantus {how great) ; quantity, Uuatio, quassnm, cutio, cu.ssum (/ shake); quash, percussion, discuss, Quartus {fourth), quadra {square); quart, quarter, quadrant, quadratic. LATIN DERIVATIVES. 227 , pleasant. lam. d, plausible. :beiaii. ex, perplex. full) ; plenary, com- y- , comply, dupliciiv, iable, surplice, accom- explore, ler, plummet, ral, surplu.s. nsh); penal, punitive, litent. , ponder, impose, deposit, com. ar, publish. tico, porthole, important. 5, potent. stulate. «k tory, prey, ve, depravity, ite, precarious, irehend, comprehend. ) ; express. 1, primrose, ipal. k'e, private, prove, probable, re- ) ; opprobrious. irobity. pt. nearest) ; propinquity, proper, property, pro- npudent. lous, impugn. iry. r) ; pungent, puncture, boy); pupil, puppet. :, purgatory. link); amputate, com jutrefy. k)\ question, inquire, quality, qualify, lantity, cussum (/ shake) \ scuss. Ira {square) ; quart, ladratic. Queror (/ complain) ; querulous. Quies {rest) ; quiet, acquiesce. Quinque, quintua ; quintessence. Radius (r^ij) ; radius, radia'^e. Radix {root) ; radical, eradicate. Rado, rasum (/ scrape) ; erase, razor. Ramus {branch) ; ramify. Rapio {I snatch); rapid, rapture, rapine, rapa- cious, ravish, ravage. Rarus {thin) ; rare, rarefy. Ratio [reckoning); reason, rational. Ratus {reckofiea) ; ratify, rate, Rego (/ make straight) ; regular direct, regent, regimtnt, rector, rectify. Rex {king) ; regal, regicide. Regnum ; reign, regnant. Repo {/f>v/7-;«<7«); senile, senate. Sentio 1 / feel, think), sensus {feeling) ; scent, sentence, assent, sense. Sepelio {/ bury) ; sepulture, sepulchre. Septem (.f<7r«) ; .September, septennial. Sequor, secutus {I /olitr:v), secundus (folloiv- ing) ; setiuence, sequel, conseciuent, perse- cute, second. Sere, sertum ij set in a ro-iv) ; insert, exert, desert, series, sermon. Servus {slave), servio (/ seri'e), servo (/ watch or preserve) ; serf, servile, servant, pre- serve, deserve. Sidus {star) ; sidereal, consider. Bignum; sign, signal, resign. Sileo (/ am silent) : silent, silence. Silva {wood ) . sylvan. Similis (like); similar, assimilate, re.semble, simulate. Simui {together) ; assemble, simultaneous. Singuli {one by one) ; single, singular. Sinus {cur7/e, lap] ; sine, sinuous. Sisto (/ stop, I stand) ; consist, insist. ^Vtvx*> {companion^ ; social, society. Sol {sun) ; solar, sol<>tice. Solidua; solid, solder. Solor ; con sole, solace. Solum; soil. Solus {alone) ; solitude, desolate. Solvo, solutiim (/ loosen) ; solve, solution. Somnus {sleep) ; somnolent, somnambulist. Sonus ; sound, sonorous, consonant. Sopor {sleep) ; soporific. Spar^o, sparsum (/ streiv) ; sparse, disperse. Spatium; space, spacious, expatiate. Specio, spectum (/ look) species {appearance, kind) ; special, respect, spectator, despise, suspicion. Spero (/ hope) ; despair, desperate. Spiro (/ breathe), spiritus {breath) ; spirit, aspire, consp re. Splendeo (/ shine) . splendour, splendid. Spolium ; spoil, spoliation. Spondeo, sponsum (/ promise) ; sponsor, re- spond, despond. Stella {star) ; stellar, constellation. Sttnio, stratum (/ throw down); prostrate, consternation. Stilus (pen ; style. Stimulus {good) ; stimulate. Stirps {root) ; extirpate. Sto, statum (/ stand) ; station, stature, stable, distant, obstacle, armistice, substance. Statuo (/ set up) ; statue, statute. Stringo, striotum (/ tighten) ; stringent, strain, strict, strait. Struo, structum {I pile up) ; consiruct, destroy, construe. Studium {zeaP) ; study. Stupeo (/ am amazed) ; stupid. Suadeo (/ advise) ; suasion, persuade. ^vAia{I sweat), sudor; sudorific, exude. Sum (/ am), root es, ens {being) ; entity, pre- sent. Futurus [about to be) ; future. Summus {highest) ; sum, summit. Sumo, sumptuin (/ take) ; assume, consume consumption. Super {above) ; suparior, supreme. 228 ENGLISH (.RAMMAR. i i. I I Surgo ( / rise) ; surge, resurrection. Taoeo (/ aw silent) ; tacit, taciturn. Tango, tactuin (/ touch) ; tact, contact, con- tagion, contiguous, attain, attach. Tardus (sloun) ; trite, contrition. Terra (eart/i) ; terrestrial, terrene, inter, terner, terrace. Terreo ■. I frighten) ; terrify, terror, deter. Testis (witness) ; testify, testimony, attest, detest, protest. Texo, textum (/ weave) ', text, context, texture, textile. Timeo (1/ear) ; timid. Torqueo, tortum (/ twist) ; torsion, contort, torture, tonneiit. Torreo, tostum (//a/-u>ccupied)\ vacant, vacation, vacate, vacuum, evacuate. Vagor (/ wander), vaKus (wandering) ; vague, vagrant, vagabond. Valeo (/ am. strong); valid, valour, value, avail, prevail. ^aXiM* (stake), vallum (rampart); circumval- lation. Vanus (empty) ; vain, vanity. Vapor (steam) ; vapour, evaporate. Yarius; various, variety, variegate. Vastus ; vast, waste, devastate. Veho, vectum (/ carry) ; convey, convex, inveigh, vehicle. Velio, vuTsum (/ pluck) ; convulse, revulsion. Velum (covering) ; veil, reveal, develop. Vendo (/ sell) ; vend, venal. y^nmam (poison] ; venom. Veneror (/ worship) ; venerate, revere. Venio, ventum (/ come) ; convene, venture, convent, prevent, revenue, convenient, covenant. Venter (belly) ; ventriloquist. Ventus (wind) ; ventilate. Verbum (word) ; verb, verbal, proverb. Verto, versum (/ turn) ; verse, version, con- vert, divorce, adverse, advertise, universe, vortex, vertical. Verus (true) ; verity, verify, aver. Vestis (garment) ; vest, vesture, vestry, VetuB (old) ; inveterate, veteran. VitL_(road) ; deviate, pervious, trivial. Vioinus (neighbouring) ; vicinity. Viols (change) ; vicissitude, vicar. Video, visum (/ see) ; visible, vision, provide, revise, visage, prudence, providence, sur- vey, envy. Vilis (cheap) ; vile, vilify. Vinoo, victum (/ conquer) ; victor, vanquish, victim, convince, convict. Vir (wrt«), virtus [^manliness); virtue, virago, triumvir, virile. Vis (force) ; violent. Vita(///,f); vital. Vititun (/a«//) ; vice, vicious, vitiate. Vivo, victum (/ live) ; revive, vivify, vivacious, victuals. Vooo (/ call), vox (voice) ; voice, vocal, voca- tion, invocate, convoke, vowel. Volo (/ will) ; voluntary, benevolent, volition. Volvo, volutum (/ rolC) ; revolve, volume, re- volution, voluble. Voro (/ devour) \ voracious, devour. Voveo, votum (/ vow) ; vote, votive, votarj', devote, devout. Vulgus (common people) ; vulgar, divulge. Vulnua (wound) \ vulnerable. GREEK DERIVATIVES. 229 , vaccine. ); vacant, vacation, uatc. (wandering) ; vague, valid, valour, value, ampart); circumval- lity. :vaporale. varisgate. astate. v) ; convey, convex, convulse, revulsion, eveal, develop, lal. m. lerate, rever'!. ; convene, venture. evenue, convenient, list. :rbal, proverb. ; verse, version, con- , advertise, universe, fy, aver. vesture, vestry. 'eteran. 'ious, trivial. vicinity. le, vicar. >ible, vision, provide, nee, providence, sur- r) ; victor, vanquish, vict. tuss) ; virtue, virago, :ious, vitiate. ive, vivify, vivacious, I ; voice, vocal, voca- ce, vowel. benevolent, volition. revolve, volume, re- is, devour. vote, votive, votar)', vulgar, divulge, ible. Liflt of the principal Oreek Words Derivatives from which have been adopted into English. or hyytKos (angclos, messenger) ; angel, ^ evangelist. Ayiof {sacred) ; hagiology, 'hyupf^ {Uadine) ; .synagogue. 'K')fwv {strtt^i^gle) ; agony, antagonist. 'ASd/Mxs (s/eeJ) ; adamant, diamond. 'A-fip {air) ; aeronaut, aero.stalion. *Ae\oi> {conies/) ; athlete, athletic. Aidvp {s/;y) ; ether, ethereal. Alfxa {bloocC) ; haemorrhage. A^«7/xa {riddle) ; enigma. A'lpfffii {choice) ; heresy, heretic. AU0ji(ris {perception) ; aesthetics. ' AKaS-fifXfta ; academy, 'Ak/xi/i ( />oin/) ; acme. 'AKoKovdfu (/ follow) ; acolyte acolyth. *A»co«}« (/ hear) ; acoustics. 'AKpoiouM (I listen) ; acroamatic. 'AKpos {top) ; acropolis. ''AA.Aoj {other) ; allopathy. '^A\xi]\ovs {one another) ; parallel. "AKtpa {a) ; alphabet. 'Afxipl {on both sides) ; amphibious, am- phitheatre. 'Airfnos {wind) ; anemometer. "Ayfoj {flower) ; anthology. "AvtpaJ^ {coat) ; anthracite. "AvQ^wKiii {man) ; anthropology, phil- anthropy. 'A^ico/xa {claim, demand) ; axiom. "ApKTOs {dear) ; .'trctic. 'Api$iJL6s {number) ; arithmetic. ApiffTos (best) ; aristocracy. 'Apfiopia; harmony. 'Aprrjpia ; artery. 'Apx^ {rule, beginning) ; monarch, arch- angel, architect. *Atr»c6a> (/ exercise) ; ascetic. 'A(rT7]p {star) ; astral, asteroid, astro- nomy. "Au (/ breathe) ; asthma^ atmosphere. Avt6s {self) ', autograph, autocrat. BaAA« (/ throw), $oK-fi, M^/ua ; hyper- bole, parable, emblem, symbol. BsTTTCP. B^'^'ri^d^ X baptize hdp^apos {not Greek) ; barbarous. Bdpot (weight) ; barometer. Bdiris (treading, support) ; base, basis. Bi0\loy {booh) ; Bible, bibliopole. Btos {life) ; biography, amphii)ious B\aa(priixia ; blasphemy. B6fi$u^ {silk-worm) ; bombazine. BordvTf {grass) ; botany. Bp6yxos (windpipe) ; bronchitis. r^ (earth) ; apogee, geography, geol(igy, rd\a {milh) ; galaxy. rdfios {marnaj^e) ; bigamy. raorr-fip {belly) ; gastric, gastronomy. Vivos {race) ; genealogy. rf^oi ; giant, gigantic. rAw(r/ij (pity) ; eleemosynary. 2.^0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. V. :i n ! If:' h > I 'EWifP (GnyJh) ; Hellenic. Ef (on/') ; hyphen. "Eyiov {within) ; endogenous. . 't.iT*i)a {entrails) ; dysentery, *£( (j/.r) ; hexagon. "E^w {outside) ; exoteric. "Eirra {seven) ; heptarchy. 'Ep7<"' {work) ; energy, metallurgy. 'Epij/uoj {soht(uy) ; eremite, hermit. "Erepoj {ot/ier) ; heterodox, hetero- gentous. "Vtufios {true) ; etymology. E5 {well) ; eulogy, euphony. "Ex* (/ hohl) ; epoch. Z&jfTj {j; in fie) ; zone. Zwo*', ^OiSjor {animal) ; zoology, zoo- pli* tc, zodiac. *H77;(T,s yleailinjr) j exegesis. 'HAt/crpoi/ {amber) ; electricity. "nAo (^/(/v) ; ephemeral. 'H;u» (//«//') ; heiui.spliere. *H^a»j ; hero. 'Hx^. ^X<^ (j^'rtwr/) ; echo, catechize. efdofMai {/ behold) ; theatre, theory, theorem. 9avna {7vouder) ; thaumatrope. &t6s {God) ; theology, theism, enthu- siast, e^pfiSs {heat) ; thermometer, isothermal. Qtpairdw {/ hral) ; therapeutics. ee'.uy, ei^a {placing) ; anathema, anti- thesis, epithet, theme 075X7; {box) ; hypothecate, apothecary. fivjjLds {mind) ; enthymenie. 'iSf'a {form) ; idea. "iSios {peculiar)}) liidoTrjs, lUvfia ; idiom, idiot, idiosyncrasy. 'Up6s {sacred) ; hierarch j hierogly- phic. '\\ap6t {cheerful) ; hilarity. "Ittttos {horsi) ; Philip, hippopotamus. "^Ipii ; iris, iridescent. 'Iffos {equal) ; isomorphous, isochro- nous, isosceles {(TKtKos = leg). 'IffTopta {investigation) ; history, story. 'IX^uj {fsh) ; ichthyology. KaAew {/call); tKK^ffia ; ecclesiastic. KaAv (pure) ; calharlic. KoAfrff (/^rt,/) ; cacophonouB. Kavvy {rule) ; canon, canonical. KauvTiKus {burning) ; caustic, Kivrpov {point) ; centre. KA/^a {slope) ; clim.ite. KAr/uo^ {ladder) ; climax, climacteric. KA/fw {I bend) ; incline, eiKlitic. Koiv«f» {common) ; epicene. K<<>XTj {cockle) ; conchology. K^tr/uot {world) ; cosmical, microccom. Kom^tt;* {long-haired) ; comet. Kptu'/oj' (jX-w//) ; cranium. K/>(tTof {strength) ; autocrat, demo- crat. Kp«Vw {I judge) ; irpfaij, KgirtHdt ; critij, crisis, hypocrisy. KpiJffToAAos (/ff) ; crystal. Kpun-rw {I hide) ; apocrypha, ciypt. Ki^kAoi {circle) ; cycle, cycloid, cycli,)- pctidia. IkiiKivlpot {roller) ; cylinder. Ki;/3os ; cube. Kuwj/ (rt'r;^'-) ; cynic. Ku/>ia>t(Jj (belonging to the Lord); church. Ki)^^.o% {festivity) ; encomium. Kuvor ; cone. A<7« (joy, choose) ; eclectic. A«^ii {speech) ; lexicon, dialect. fian&im {I take) ; epilepsy, syllable. A«/irw {I leave) ; ellipse, eclipse. Aeix^" ; lichen. AtlToj {belonging to the people) ; liturgy. AfOor (j/i^Wif) ; lithography, lithic. AJ70J {speechf reason) ; logic, dialogue, syllogism. Svpok; lyre, lyric. Auw {loosen) ; paralysis. Mdyos ; Magian, magic. MaKp6s {long) ; macrocosm. ^lddr](ia {learning) ; mathematics. Mdprv^ {witness) ; martyr. Mf'Aos {black) ; melancholy. Mt'Aos {tune) ; melody. MtVoAAoi' ; metal. MfTpov (measure) ; meter, barometer. M-fiTT]p {mother) ; metropolis. Mtjx«»^ {contrivance) ; mechanics. Miaipoo (^/pollute) ; miasma. MtKp6s (small) ; microscope. MPmoj {imitator) ; mimic. Miaoflv {strinj,^, nerve) ; neuralgia. N^iroi {is/and) ; Polynesia. No^«rfj {/azv) ; antinomian, astronomy, gastronomy. Ndffoj {disease) ; nosology. 'OBt^drKot ; obelisk. 'o5((j (rwjy) ; exodus, method, period. OIkos {House) ; economy. Oticnaii {dwelling) ; oUim (/ inhabit) ; diocese, oecumenical. '0\o» {whole) ; catholic, holocaust. O/uowj (//>*<') ; homoeopathy. 'On6s {same) ; homogeneous. 'OKo/xa, oKi/.ua {name) ; synonymous, patronymic. '0{i}» (jAar/) ; oxygen, paroxysm. 'OmiK6s {belonging to sight) j optics, synopsis. 'Opitt {/ see) ; panorama. "Oityavoy {instrument) ; organ. 'Upe6s {straight) ; orthodox, ortho- graphy. 'OptC« (^ j»cooT^» (fiftieth) ; pentecost. n#TaAoi/ (/m/) ; petal. n'T^a (;v.^') ; peiiily, Peter. n«ira» {difi^'it) \ dyspeptic. nAc<')(ra» (/ mould, daub), w\a (/ /<7^^), atiOTfii ; episcopal, bishop, scope, telescope, micro- scope. Sircfw (/ draw) ; spasm. 27r*>|ua (j^rz-rfO. ^ritopi ; spermatic, spora- die. 1-Kitpa. {coil) ; spire, spiral. -irjffis {standing) ; apostasy, ecstasy, system. 2t«xa« {l despatch) ; epistle, apostle. ^T(v6f {narrow) ; stenography. l,Ttpf6s {solia) ; stereoscope, stereotype. XriyfjLa {brand) ; stigma. 2t(x''S {^i»f) ; distich, acrostic. irparos {arfny) ', strategy. li I '\ 232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. III 11 i! tonic, Irpoip^l (turning); catastrophe, apos trophe. XvKov {/ig) ; sycophant. Sa//) ; sphere. ^(pvCu {f throb); asphyxia. 2xj)Ma [form, make) ; scheme. ^xK^ {I dhidel; schism. 2xoAi7 [leisure) ; school, scholar. Tau.iJ [the same) ; tautology. T«f«^oj (/ow^^) ; epitaph. T«£f«y [arrangement) ; syntax. TJyo* [stretching, pitch); tone, monotony. T<»M {'utting); atom, epitome, ento mi lo.jy. TtiJxos [implement, book) ; pentateuch. T17A6 ( far off) ; telescope, telegraph. Tdn-or [place) ; topography, topic. Tpdiroi (turning) ; tropic, trope. Txmos (shape) ; type. Tipavvos; tyrant. 'Xypos (moist) ; hygrometer. tiup (water) ; dropsy, hydrate, hydro- ^ statics, hydrogen, hydrophobia. r^vos; hymn, anthem. r-irvoi (sleep) ; hypnotic. 'Taripa (womb) ; liysteria, hysterical. *iiya> (I eat) ; sarcophagus. *alv(» (/ shoiv) ; phenomenon, phan- tom, phase. *d.pnaKOv (drug) ; pharmacy. *fpa> [/ bear) ; phosphorus, metaphor. *vut (/say) ; emphasis, prophecy. *eayyl) [voice, vowel) ; diphthong. *Blr>is (wasting) ; phthisic. *i\os ( fond oj) ; philosophy, Philip. The above list does not include in botany, medicine, zoology, &c. *Af/3$ (vein) ; phlebotomy. *f^fyixa (inflammation, slimy humour)' \ih\cgm. * *60os (fear) hydrophobia. ^pi-ifko. [fence) ; diaphragm. */jei*■ & EXERCISES. 249 Analyse the following sentences, in which the subjective comole- ^^;^Vn.^ f; in the infinitive mood (§ 394). Show where the com- p emen ary infinitive has itself a complement. These secondary com- plements, as well as the primary ones, are in the predicati e relation to the subject. Do not confound the object oi 2, verb with its complement He IS believed to have perished. They are supposed to have lost their wav He IS thought to have poisoned the man. He is believed to be mad! S step was considered to be very imprudent. He was ordered to sit down. He was bidden to stand aside. This kind of life is not to be endured Analyse the following sentences containing Infinitive Complements ^fr I f^\^. ^^""^ ".^'"^""y ^^"^^^^- ^dvtrbial adjuncts are ^o be ^SeTfsoIV "'''"'^ predication, or to its complement. Theycan write well. We can sing. They may depart. We must make hasce. You shall be rewarded. I will be answered! I must go home I can! not hear you. They may take the money. I will return shortly. They sha"l have a good scolding That cannot be allowed. Nothing could be Se un ??TT^y°".'"'^*'' harve found an easier way. I do^so long toTee him Indeed I did not say so. He ought to pay me.' He ought nof to do thS' You ought to be more cautious. That may perhaps be true. XLIII. Complex Objective Phrases.— Study § ri? and the note to § 395 ; §§ 520—528. ^ . / Analyse the following sentences containing indirect predicates :— He heard the wind roar through the trees. We saw the thief trying to pick a gentleman s pocket. I wish you to come to-morrow. I believe the man to be innocent. I felt the air fan my cheek. Have you ever known the man confess being in fault? I like a knave to meet with his deserts. I expected the travellers to be here by this time. It is too late for the travellers to arrive to-night. The task was too difficuK for him to hope to succeed. Analyse the following sentences, carefully distinguishing those cases m which a verb is followed by a complement or an indirect predicate from those in which it is followed by an adverbial adjunct. See whether the word in question denotes the condition of that which is spoken about, or the manner in which an action is done. That looks pretty. The bell sounds cracked. He spoke loud. The cry sounded clear and shrill. His voice sounded feebly. Her voice sounded feeble He has travelled far and wide. They have not made the street wide enough, the people wept sore. It grieved me sore. The stones have made my feet T^" ^it"*^^^^^^^^*^^^^'"^- He rubbed his face sore. Her voice sounds Clear. The ship passed clear of the rock. The trees whispered soft and low. Ihe whisper came soft and low to our ears. He made his horse canter. He bade the man wait. He ordered the man to wait. He asked me to come. Ihey urged us to come. He saw the deed done. He heard the bone snap, Ihey may depart. You shall be rewarded. You might have found an easier way. We must go home. He was ordered to sit down. XLIV. Complex Sentences. Substantive Clauses.— Nature, -orm, and structure of substantive clauses (§§ 403 — 407, 539 — sst?). Analyse the following sentences in the mode indicated in § 539, &c. as© ENGLISH GRAMMAR. '' ^ia i When ' it ' is employed as a temporary, or provisional subject, set it down as such, and place after it the substantive clause as the real subject. Analyse the substantive clauses separately :— A. (See §§ 542—545.) That he did the deed is quite certain. Who can have told you that, puzzles me. How long I shall stay here is uncertain. What we are to do next is the question. How I found the matter out is no concern of yours. What signifies what weather we have ? It is very probable that he will not arrive to-day. It does not matter what he thinks. It is uncertain how long I shall stay. It is uncertain what the result will be. It is not true that he said so. , , • ■ -r Thence it is that I to your assistance do make love. What does it signify how lich he is ? It is a question how far he was justified in that proceeding. Methinks I know that handwriting. Anon methought the wood began to move. Methinks he hath no drowning mark upon him. It was only yesterday that I saw him. Was it on Tuesday that he went away ? ... ^ , B (See §§ 546—549.) I knew that he would come. I think I have the honour of addressing Mr. Smith ? Tell me how old you are. I want to know when this happened. I thought it* strange that he should leave wuhout calline for the ' it \ ' W has here the force of ' whether.' EXERCISES. bject, set it as the real . Who can is uncertain, er out is no matter what lin what the oes it signify )roceeding. )od began to ily yesterday k I have the i^ant to know ;ave without ht. Tel) me »ting. I am lall succeed, lyment. He irho told you. etter. 1 fear ill not occur me. He did isiness in the 1, bring him There was nt me*of my advance the d not believe an, but more his report be i would come jgarded. In at he knows at spring was There is no itive Clause e the Latin IS in tHc racp of e, and then sub- 251 I am sorry that you are not well.* We are glad that you have come at last. I am certain that he never said so. He is de-irous that I should return. I am persuaded that that is ihe wiser course. We are disappointed that you have not brought your brotlier. XLV. Adjective Clauses. — Nature, form, and construction of Adjective Clauses (§§ 408 — 413 ; 556-562). Underline the adjective clauses in each of the following sentences then analyse the entire sentence, and lastly, analyse the adjective clause separately : — The serpent that did sting thy father's life, now wears his crown. I could a tale unfold whose lightest word woulu harrow up thy soul. The rest lie ' repose ) is labour which is not used for you. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. Infected be the air where(«n they ride. Thy lood shall be husks wherein the acorn cradled. What sad talk was thai wherewith my brother held you in the cloister ? I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. Thou speak'st to such a man that is no fleering tell-tale. Unto bad causes swear such creatures ast men doubt. You will soon find such peace which It IS not in the power of the world to give. You are W( Icome to my he'p, such as t it is. I have not from your eyes that gentleness and show of love as t I was wont to have. In me thou seest the twilight of such day as t after sunset fadeth in the west. ' I will show you the shop where I bought these apples. The reason why you cannot succeed is evident. I can remember the time when there were no houses here. The fortress whither the defeated troops had fled was soon captured. It was John who said so. J It was the owl that shrieked. § Who was it that thus cried ? Is this a dagger which || I see before me, the handle towards my hand ? Was that your brother who knocked at the door? Analyse the following sentences (see § 410) : — You have only told me what I know already. I know what you said about me. Go, and find out what is the matter. Do what you can in this business. He soon repented of what he had done. He knows well enough what he ought to do. That is precisely what he ought to have done. I cannot make out what you are saying. I do not understand what you are saying. Whom we raise we will make fast. I could not make out whom he was alluding to. That is where H I live. Tell me where you live. Tell me why you are so angry. That is why 11 I am angry. I do not know when they will arrive. I knew when f seven justices could not take up a quarrel. I have seen when, If after execution, judgment haih repented o'er his doom See where H he looks out of the window. That is how ** he always treats me That is why I did it. • See § 549, 2. t See § 165. t That is, " It ('he person) who said so, was John." § That is. " It (the creature) tha.^ sirrieked, was the owl." ii The adjcciiye clause 'which hand' is ait-icheu 10 ' this.' 'The handle towards my , nana is a nominative absolute belonging to the adjective clause. H In the analysis supply an anteceuent noun •• ' How,' as a relative, never has an antecedent expressed. M M h ■ i 252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Analyse the following sentences, treating the clauses containing a relative as independent sentences (see § 412) : — I the matter will re-word, which madness would gambol from. We travelled together as far as Paris, where we parted company. This modest stone, what few vain marliles can, May truly say, ' Here lies an honest man.' By this time we had traversed half the distance, wiien a loud clap of thunder warned us to quicken our steps. Honourable ladies sought my love, which I denying,* they fell sick and died. XL VI. Adverbial Sentences. — Nature, form, and structure of Adverbial Clauses (§§ 414 — 442, 563 — 571). Analyse (and parse) the following sentences, after first underlining the Adverbial Clauses, and then analyse these clauses separatelyt : — A. (See $ 416.) I viM tell you the secret J when I see you. When you durst do it, then you were a man. I did not know that till you told me. What signifies a-k.ng. wiien there's not a soul to give you an answer? I'll charm the air to give a sound while you perform your antic round. He arrived after we had left. I shall be ^ ane before you are up. You may come when- ever you please. B (See § 417.) Where thou dwellest, I will dwell. Wherever you go, I will follow you. There, § where a few lorn shrubs the place disclose, the village preachei's modest mansion rose. _ C. (See ^ 418 420.) As the tree falls, so || it will lie. He is as 51 avari- cious as his broihei is generous. The ** higher you climb, the wider will be the prospect. The more he h;is, the more he wants. How++ far the substance of my praise doili wronir this shadow, so far this shadow doth limp behind the substance. Hmw a bright star shooteth from the sky, so glides he in the night from Venus eye. D. (See )J 421 423 ) I cannot tell you his age for I do not know it. Because Tli u liast l)eeii m\' help, therefore in the shadow of Thy wings will I rejoice. Since you say so, I must believe it. When I am determined I always listen to reason, because then it can do no harm. He toils hard 'hit he may git rich. I called on him that I might tell him about that matter Take care that all be ready. Take heed lest ye fall into temptaiion. • We have here a nominative absolute, forming an adverbial adjunct to/ei/. 'Which is the object of ' denying.' t Reniember that the conjunction or pronominal adverb.s 7vien, where, whither, &c., have an adverbial cQn%u\xcvon in their own clauses, but that the Conjunctions after, before, till, while, &c., hive no such force. % In parsing a sentence of this kind, 'when' should be described as a connective adverb, modifying the verb 'see,' and joining the clause 'when I see you ' to the predicate 'will tell.' } 'There ' and the clause ' where — disclose ' are co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of ' rose.' 11 ' So ' and the clause ' as the tree falls ' are co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of s iii He.' •[f The first ' as ' is demonstrative, the second relative. Each modifies the Drljective in its clause. •* Here the main clause is the .second one. The first 'the' is relative tb" sjcond demon- strative. (See \ 420.) The first modifies ' higher,' the second modifies ' v. xier The second the" and the adverbial clause are co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of ' wider," the clause ex- plaining the indefinite meaning of ' the ' tt 'How 'is a relative or connective adverb modifying; 'far,' and join« "°^ contented' You will see him though I shall not [see him]. An ( = iQ I have not ballads made on you all, and sung to hlthy tunes, let a cup of sack be my poison. Sot I lose no. honour m seek mg to augment it, I shall be counselled. I doubt not but to Che a fair death for all this, if I escape han>jing for killing % that rogue. Whatever may be the consequence, I will do what I have said. Whatever he may say,§ I shall not believe him. Say [he] what he will fsayl he will never convmce me. Do [he] what he can [do], he never pleases the man. Whencesoever the money comes it is welcome. However great his abilities may be, he cannot succeed without industry. Be he ne er so vile, this day shall gentle his condition. The lady's fortune must not go out of the amily ; one may find comfort in the money, whatever one does [find! in of^?;;; h^ t \ ^' '^ *^'' l ^Yi ^?.°."'- ^'^ ^^ ^e is, I am not alraid ot him. Had I known I1 this I should have acted differently. Were you my brother I could not do it for you. I would have finished the work had it been possible. XLVII. Complex Subordinate Clauses. — In the following sentences a substantive clause contains a subordinate clause within it Analyse the sentences, first treating the substantive as a whole, and afterwards analysing it separately (§§ 572—574). Underline the clauses in the way shown m § 541 :— Who told you that I built the house which you see? He fears that his father will ask him where he has been. But that I told him who did it, he would never have known. Nor failed they to express how much they praised that for the general safety he despised his own. I think he will soon retrieve his misfortunes if he sets to work with good-will. I should like to know how your friend found out where I live. Now methinks you teach me how a beggar should be answered. I'll see if I can get my husband's ring, which I did make him swear to keep for ever. Analyse on similar principles the following sentences, which contain complex adjective clauses :-.- The house where I lived when I was in town has been pulled down. I have on y done what I told you I would do. They fear what ** yet they know must follow. I have secret reasons which I forbear to mention because you are not 'ti*red.'^'''^^'"°"'"'^''''^ '^"'^'^ '''* adverbial clause are co-ordinate adverbial adjuncts of t See § 440. of Ih^ilLfnVu" hangfng'- (^36t^^ "^ ^'^""'^^ °' ' ^"^P^' ^"^ ^" ^""^^''^ ^^-^' saJs^°AnIl*^se dlis*^ '^'^ construction with that of such a sentence as ' I believe whatever he II The construction in this and the following sentences is very peculiar. ' Cold ' is in realitv thejomplement of the predicate. The construction is the same'as if wc had 'however coS IT '^If is omitted (? 442). Jl K,y^l' ! '^ '" '"^t nominative case, the subject of 'must.' The construction will be best seen by substituting the demonstrative : -' they know [that] that must follow.' tt ii: y-. 254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. able to answer thos^ of which I make no secret. The time has been that when the brains were out the m.xn would die. The right valiant Bauquo walked too late, whom you may say, if it pleases you, Fleance killed. The eighth appears, who bears a glass which shows me many more. Analyse the following sentences which contain complex adverbial clauses: — He soon left the house when he heard that I was coming. You will be punished if you do not come when you are called. Don t let us make imaginary evils, when we know we have so many real ones to encounter. He seldom drinks wine because he finds that it disagrees with him. Analyse the following sentences, each of which contains a siibordi- nate clause containing a second, which in its turn contains a third :— I was grieved when I heard how he had obtained the character which he bore among his neighbours. I know that he would never have spread such a report, if he had not believed what your brother told him. Men who see clearly how they ought to act when they meet with obstacles, are invaluable helpers. It would be well if all men felt how surely ruin awaits those who abuse their gifts and powers. It was so hot in the valley that we could not endure the garments which we had found too thin when we were higher up among tlie mists. I will give you no more money till I see how you use what you have. XliVIII. Compound Sentences. — These present no new features. The two or more co-ordinate sentences which make up the compound sentence simply have to be analysed separately (S 443). XLIX. Contracted Sentences.— Study carefully §§ 449—452, 582-588. Test the accuracy of the following contracted sentences in the manner shown in § 450 ; then fill them up * and analyse them separately : — You must either be quiet or [yoi 1 must] leave the room. Our purer essence then will overcome the noxious vapour oi the raging fires, or [our purer essence,] inured, [will] not feel [the noxious vapour of these raging fires]. Our greatness will appear then most conspicuous whengreat things of small [things we can create, when] useful [things] of hu .ml [tilings we can create, when] pro>perous [things] of adverse [things] we can create. My day or night myself I make, whene'er I sleep or play. He yields neither t to force nor t to persuasion. I have not decided whether I will go or not. He allowed no day to pass without either writing or declaiming aloud. •' Bad men boast their specious deeds on earth, which glory excites, or close ambition varnished o'er with zeal." " Two principles in human nature reign, self-love to urge, and reason to restrain." " Nor this a good, nor that a bad we call." "Who wickedly is wise or madly brave, Is but the more a fool, the more a knave " " See the sole bliss Heaven could on all b2stow, which % who but feels can taste, but thinks can know." Would you rather drink wine or beer? * Iwo or three are filled up by way of example t Suppress the conjuncth'e portion of neither -nor by substituting not— not. ^ X ' Whah' object of the verb ' aste'; to be repeated tu the object of the verb 'know. ' Feels ' and ' thinks ' are intransitive. EXERCISES. 355 him you le verb ' know.' " Nor steel nor poison, malice domestic, foreign levy, nothing can touch further." "Freely they stood who stood, and fell who fell." When return come and tell me the news. Unless you alter your conduct you will ofiend your friends and bring disgrace upon yourself. "Wilts let them con- trive who need, or when they need, not now." " Why should I play the Roman lool, and die on mine own sword?" "Swords 1 smile at, weapons laugh to scorn, brandished by man that's of a woman born." "What's Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba ?" L. Sentences containing Elliptical Clauses.— Study §§ 453, 589 — 600. Analyse the following sentences, having first supplied the words that are understood, in the way indicated in the first few examples :— He looks as stupid as an owl [looks stupid]. He is not so clever as his brother [is clever j. I had rather die than [I would soon] endure such a dis- grace. He is better to-day than [he was well] yesterday. It is better to die than [it is good] to live in such misery. 1 have as gcod a right to the money as you [have a good right to the money]. Old * as he is [old] he is hale and hearty. He was so kind aS [a man would be kind] to give me this book. The boy played truant as [it is] usual. He stood aside so as [a man would stand aside] to let me pass. He looked as [he would look] if he could kill me. I'd lather be a dog and bay the moon than [1 would soon be] such a Roman. He told me that wisdom is better than wealth [is good] as [he would tell me] if I did not know that before. I'll shed my dear blood drop by drop in the dust, but t I will raise the down-trod Mortimer as high in the air as this unthankful king [is high in the air]. An 'twere not as good a deed as [to] drink [is a good deed] to turn true man and leave these rogues, I am the veriest vailet that ever chewed with a tooth. If I were as tedious as a king [is tedious], I c&uld find it X hi y heart to bestow it all on yrmr worship. He has no redeeming qualities v tever [re- deeming qualities there are]. How could you make such a blunder as § [you made J to suppose (i.e., in .supposing) I did it. What [will happen] if I don't tell you? His wages as || [he is] a labourer amount to twenty shillings a week. Analyse the following sentences, having first filled up the ellipses : — I speak not as in absolute fear of you. Rather than be less, he cared not to be at all. What can be worse than to dwell here ? Present fears are less than horrible imaginings. He died as one that had been studied in his death to throw away the dearest thing he owed ( = owned), as 'iwere a cartless trifle. More is due than mf)re than all can pay. Art thou not sensible to feeling as to sight? How could you make such a blunder as to suppose I did it. None could be found so bold as to oppose him. They dreaded not more the adven- • The logical intention of an attributive adiunct is often greater than its mere grammatical force. The full me.Tning here is : — " [Although he is soj old as he is [oldl." t The phrase, ' but I will King ' is an adverbial adjunct of * will shed ' See } 571. t Provisional object, >.howing the con^^truction of the real object ' to 1 estow,' &c. } Take ' as ' as doing duty for a relative pronoun (= ' wtiich blunder '). See } 165. tl This construction is the counterpart (with a connective instead of a demonstrative adverb) of the use of * so ' followed by a substp.ntive clause to denote a condition or hypothesis. {See Exercise 13'^.) The full phrase is such as the following : — " / as lo lend me that knife ? He was wiser than to risk his money in that undertaking. I am not such a fool as to do that. As to your proposal, I cannot assent to it. As^to wha you tell me, it passes belief. This is better thaa if we had lost everything. It is not so bad to suffer misfortune as to deserve it. He is better to-day than yesterday. He looked as if he could kill me. He spoke to me as if I were at thief. He told me that wisdom was better than wealth ; as if 1 did not know that before. With other notes than to the Orphean lyre I sang of chaos and eternal nielf much better. He accompanied me as far as to the end ot the street When he is best, he is a little worse than a man ; and when he is worst, he is little better than a beast. Wisdom is ofttimes nearer when we stoop than when we soar. If time improve our wit as well as wine, say at what age a poet grows divine. EXERCISES. «S7 FAULTY SENTENCES FOR CORRECTION. Correct the following sentences, giving reasons for each correc tion : — 1. You and me will take a walk (§§ 287, 345). 2. Let you and I take a walk (§{ 191, ftvSe 521). 3. The effluvia was disgusting (§ 55). 4. The intention of these persons are uncertain (§ 378). 5. Six months' interest are due (§ 378). 6. Neither John nor Henry were at church (§ 484). 7. Either he or I are in fault (§ 484K 8. Neither of them are better than they ought to be (^ 175). 9. Our own conscience, and not other men's opinions, constitute our respon- sibility (§378). 10. John is a better writer than me (^ 596). 11. Is he older than her ? (§596)- 12. Where was you all last night? (§ 378). 13. What signifies promises without performance? (§ 378). 14. " How pale each worshipful and reverend guest Rise from a clergy or a city feast ! " (§ 175). 15. Every man and boy showed their joy by clapping their hands {\\ 175, 474)- 16. No sound but their own voices were heard ($ 378). 17. Good order and not mean savings produce great profit (§ 378). 18. Are cither of those pens yours ? (\ 175). 19. Let each esteem other better than themselves (§ 175). 20. Johnson's ' Lives of the Poets ' are reprinting (§ 482). 21. Nor want nor cold his course delay (§ 386). 22. There are many wa}- of dressing a calves' head. 23. You did not ought to do that {} 2$^h). 24. He was one of the wisest men that has ever lived (§§ 456, 465). 25. In modern English two negatives destroy one another. 26. Everybody has their faults (§ 175). 27. Having finished the chapter the volume was shut. 28. He is not one of those who interferes in matters that do not concern him {kh 456, 465)- 29. I do not like those kind of things. 30. What sort of a man is he? 31. This is the greatest error of all the rest (§ III). K I ■ ; ' ' 32- 33- 34- 35- 36. 37- 38. 39- 40. 41. 42. 43- 44. 45- 46. 47. 48. 49- 50. 51- 52. 53- 54- 55- 56. 57- 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63- 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71- 72. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. " Twos Love's mistake, who fancied what it feared " (^ 474)- Homer as well as Viigil were studied on the banks of the Rhine ($§ 450, 593)- ., , ,. ., There is sometimes more than one auxihary to a verb (} 370). Nothing but grave and serious studies delight him (§ 376). Who flo you think I met this morning? (§ 368). Whom do you think called on me yesterday? (§ 382). He is a man whom I think deserves encouragement (^ 382). Such a man as him would never say that (§ 594). The fleet are under orders to sail (^ 380). The peasantry wears blouses (} 380). I have read the second and third chapter ($ 463). Nor eye nor listening ear an object find (} 484). I, whom nor avarice nor pleasure move (§ 386). Not you but John are in fault (§ 449). Parliament have been prorogued (§ 3?o). A numerous party were assembled (§ 380). Shakspeare is greater t^an any dramatist. He is the most admired of all the other dramatists ($ ill). These kind of people are my abhorrence. He wore a large and a very shabby hat (§ 463). Can you see a red and white flag ? I can see neither (§ 463). A hot and cold spring were found near each other {§ 463). The love of drink is of all other follies the most pernicious (§ ill). Call at Smith's the bookseller's (§ 458). My friend, him whom I had treated like a brother, has turned against me (§ 457. 2). , X ^ ,., This injury has been done me by my friend, he whom I treated like a brother ($ 459, 3). He told John and I to come with him"<§ 287). Between you and I, he is a great fool (§ 287). Who can this letl°r be from ? (§ 459, 8). M-n are put in the plural because they are many (§ 482). His father's and his brother's lives were spared (§ 463). He was angry at me asking him the question (^ 494). What is the use of you talking like that (§ 494)- Somebody told me, I forget whom (§$ 382, 589). I heard that from somebody or other, I forget who (§§ 382, 589). Divide that cake between you four. There is nothing to show who that belongs to (§ 277). A versifier and poet are two different things (§ 463). I cannot tell you how much pains have been spent on him. I wish to cultivate a further acquaintance with you. I do not know who to send v§ 36S). EXERCISES. 859 73. Whom do men say that he is ? (§ 383). 74. Who do men declare him to be ? (§ 397). 75 I little thought it was him (§i 457, 3 ; 466). 76. I (eel coldly this morning (§393, note). TJ, She looked cold on her lover (j 393, note). 78. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike 79. He is not only famous for his riches, but for his wisdom (} 450). 80. A nation has no right to violate the treaties they have made (} 465). 81. A mm miy see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read them in a book (§ 593). 82. Nobody in their senses would have done that (} 465). 83. She sings better than me {^ 596). 84. I have my aunt, my uncle, and my father's leave (§ 458). 85. lie did no more than it was his duty to have done. 86. The fact of your having said so, is enough for me (^ 494)- 87. \'ou have weakened instead of strengthened your case (§ 189). 88. He raved like one out ot their mind (^ 465). 89. The Atlantic sejjarates the Old and New World (§ 463). 90. Here lies John Brown, born Jan. I, 1824, died Sept. 5, 1874 (§ 382). 91. When will we get there? (§ 21 1). 92. He has not yet began his exercise (k 225). 93. These flowers smell very sweetly ($ 393, note). 94. This is the greatest misfortune that ever has or could happen to me (^ 450). 95. Each strives to cheat the other in their own way (§ 474). 96. It is me that say so (j§ 394, 470). ^ 97. It is I that he fears (j 470). 98. I would like to see him (§211). 99. I think I will be gone by the time you come {ib.), 100. Nobody gives so much trouble as he does. loi. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, as knowledge. . 102. He was as rich or even richer than his father (§ 450). 103. I hoped to immediately succeed. 104. I expected to have been at home when you called. 105. He not only ought but shall do it (§ 450). 106. While walking in my garden, an idea suddenly occurred to me. 107. Let us not increase our hardships by dissensions among each other. 108. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published (§ 450). 109. Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the wilderness and seekelh that which is gone astray ? (§ 450), no. The centres of each compartment are ornamented with a star (§ I75)' 111. Valerie's was one of those impulsive, eager natures that longs for a con» tidante (§§ 456, 465). 112. The service was impressive, but it lacked either grandeur or beauty. ■MW^W^BWWSS mmrnifrf^ivf-. a6o ENGLISH GRAMMAR. mi w 11*. More than one ernperor prided himself upon his skill as a swordsman (^ 465). 114. His younger days were spent in England, waiting for an opportunity to get to France. 115. Hoping to hear from you soon, believe me yours truly, J. B. (§ 460). 116. No civil broils have since his death arose (§ 225). 117. We trust that by supplying a genuine and most superior class of article, to increase the confidence so many years bestowed on Mr. M. 118. When I get home I see the being than whom nobody in the world loves another as I love her (§ 589). 119. O Thou my voice inspire. Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire (§§ 456, 465). 120. For ever in this humble cell, Let ihee and I, my fair one, dwell (§§ 191 noh; 521). 121. These plantations are lain out by rule and line (J 225). 122. Severe the doom that length of days impose (§§ 456, 465). 123. Profusion as well as parsimony are to be avoided. 124. Let the same be she that thou has appointed (§ 397). 125. Of all men else I have avoided thee. 1 26. It is no use talking so. 127. He wrote a moderately sized volume. 128. He drew a line of about six inches long. 129. I was going to have written him a letter 130. Regard is to be had to every one's circumstances, healths and abilities. 131. The Thames is derived from the Latin TAamais. 132. He is a boy of nine years old. 133. In reading you should sit as uprightly as possible. 134. He made another joke which she did not hear, and had better be suppressed (§§ 287, 450). 135. I can tell you this much. 136. He has only done that much of his task. '|i) INDEX. The references {except in a feiu instances where the page is indicated) are to the paragraphs of the Grammar. ad better be A, various sounds of, 20 feminine suffix, 45 masculine suffix, 45 weakened form of on, 1 23 note, 267, 268 adverlual prefix, 267, 268 short form of an, t22 for he, 141 note About, 284,/. 117 Absolute nominative and objective, 272, 5 Accent, 23 Teutonic, 23 PVench, 23 influence of, 23 distinguishes verbs from nouns, /. Accusative, se.: Objective Accusative case replaced by dative, 80 note, 370 Active voice, 186. 187 conjugation of, /. 100 Active verbs vi'ith passive signification, 183, 495 „ „„ Adjective, definition of, 85, 86, 88 identical with noun, 25 note syntax of, 458 used attributively, 87, 361, 450 used predicatively, 87, 393 test, 87, 88 limiting function, 88, 347 qualitative, 90 quantitative, 91 demonstrative or definitive, 97 pronominal, 97 used substantively, 98 become substantive, 58 note, 98 inflected, 103 uninflected, 102 comparison of, see Positive, Com- parative, Superlative compound, /. 128 derived, 317, 318, 334 Adjective clause, 362, 5, 408- 4I 3, 556-562 contmuative, 412 Adverbs, definition, 259, 260 limiting function of, 259, 260 classification of, 261 265 simple, 262 conjunctive or relative, 262, 263, 264 differ from conjunctions, 263, 288 Adverbs, derived from nouns, 267 derived' from adjectives, 268 derived from pronouns, 270 with suffix omitted, 269 note identical in form with prepositions, 271 of affirmation and negafion, 272 after prepositions, 272,/. in used attributively, 362, 4 used for relative pronoun, 408 comparison of, 274-276 j'vdverbial relation, 367 adjuncts, 349, 370 note, 371-377. 531 clauses, 414-442, 563, &c. suffixes, 267-270 After, 281, 290 All, 92, 93 Aller, 135 note, p. 42 note Alms, 59 Alphabet, 6-15 Alphabetic anomalies, 20-21 Am,/>. 98 An, see Indefinite Article Analysis of sentences, 500-504 examples of, 506, &c And, 287 joining the members of a com- pound subject, 386 note Ane (alone), 179 Angles, p. 2 Anglo-Saxon, pp. 2-6 characteristics of, p. 3 alphabet, 7, 22 words and forms, 83, 103, 137- 147, 228-229, 232, &c. Anomalous verbs, 231, &c. Antecedent to relative, 151, 408, 465 omitted, 158 disguised, 465 Any, 91, 92, 168 Apostrophe in possessive case, 76 Apposition, 362, 455, 457 Articles, 25. 120, see Indefinite Article and Definite Article repetition of, 460-462 Aryan languages, /. i As, adverb, 264 note relative pronoun, 165, 561, 569 Aspirate, 14 At, A 114 note. 284 Ax for to, 196 nott' Attributive gelation, 25, 361, 362-366 262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 'it II' Attributive adjuncts, 362, 366, 370 »ofe, 501, 502, 500. cVo. adjuncts, deiinitive and descrip- tive, 365 Aught, 167 Auxiliary verb, 184, 185, /. 104 Ay, Aye, 272 Be, conjugation of, 250-253 in Anglo-Saxon: 251 a test verb, />. 98 verb of incomplete predication, 39'. 393 Because, 290 Before, 281, 290 Better, best, 115, 276 Both, 95, 287 Biiuegroom, derivation of, 45 Britons, language of,/. 2 B. others, bicth en» 57 But,/. 116, 291, 532-538 By, 284 Can, could, 143, 242 Case, definition, 64, 65, 66 meaning of the word, 66 no^e number of cases in English, 67, 81, 82 number of cases in Anglo-Saxon, /• 3. 67, 83 functions of, 345, 346 nominative, sc-e Nominative posse sive, sc'e Possessive case objective, jw Oi)jective case endim^s, 82, 83, "84, 103, 136-148 Celtic, se-d Keltic Chaucer, forms of the time of, 84, 104, 230 Children, 52 tiof^ Classical element in English, App. Cogna e objective, 372 Collateral sentences, 445-448 Comma, use of, 605 Comparative degree, 107, 108, 109 suffixes, 108 nofc', \\2 double comparatives, 117 Comparatives become positive, 119 Comparison of Adjectives, 105 degrees of, 105, se- Positive, Com- parative, Superlative irregular, 115 expressed by more and most, 1 1 7 when r\ct\ nllnwnKl»> th Comparison of Adverbs, 274-276 Complement of predicate. 391-396 Complement, subjective, 393 subjective complement in the ob- jective case, 476 objective, 395 inlinitive, 395 Complex sentences, see Sentence object, see Object subject, see Subject predicate, see Pretlicate Comiiositiuu of words, 297 Compound nouns, /. 127 adjectives, /. 128 prunuuns, /> 128 vei bs, /. 1 28 ailverbs, p. 128 sentences, 443 Con, 242 Concessive clauses, 424, 428, 435, 436 Concord of verb and subject, 378-383, 475. 479-482 of adjective and noun, 458 of pronoun and noun, 463-473 Conditional clauses, 424-442 Conjugation of verbs, 28, 220-257 strong conjugation, 221, 225 weak conjugal ion^ 222, 224, 226 Conjunctions, delinition of, 285, 286 ditferent from conjunctive adverbs, 263 contrasted with prepositions, 290 co-ordinative, 287 subordinative, 288 developed out of prepositions, 290 wrongly so called, 447 Consequence, clauses denoting, 442 Consonants, 13-15 doubled, 17 sounds of in Anglo-Saxon, 22 Constructions adapted to the general sense, 497 Continuaiive use of relative., 412 Contracted sentences, 449 Co-ordinate clauses, 443 Copuln, 356 Crude form, 28 Cunning, 243 Danish element in English, /. 3 Dnre, durst, 246 Dative case replaces accusative, note Daughter, derivation of, 44 Declension. 82, 83, 84, 103 Defective Verbs, 23 1 254 Definite article, 97, 124, 125, 126 30 IKDEX. 263 Definite article, inflected, 126, 148 Ihet or that, 125 when repeated, 461 Demonstrative pronouns, 97, 130, 138- 150 Dental mutes, 14, 15 Derivation ul words, /. 129, &c. Did, 221, 223 Dies, dice, 57 Dight, p. 93 Digraphs, 10 Diphthongs, 10 Distributive pronouns, 97, 130, 171- 175 Dissyllal)le, 17 Do, conjugation of, 254 preterire formed by reduplication, 221, 251^ auxiliary of preterite in the weak conjugation, 223 in interiogative and negative sen- tences, 255 used to give emphasis, 255, note p. 99 used to repeat preceding verb, /. 100 = put, 255 Do = make, 255 Do (=dngan), 255 Diake, derivation of, 44 Dual number, 48, 137 Duck, derivation of, 44 E, sounds of in English, 20 Each, 171 Eaves, 59 Either, 174, 287 El ler, eldest 115 note Elliptical sentences, 453, 49^ Else, 268 En, feminine suffix, 45 ; plural suffix, 52; adjective suffix, p. 131 ; verb suffix, p. 133 suffix of perfect participle, 221 English, the language of the Angles and Saxons, /. 2 alow German language./. 2 constituents of modeirn English, pp. 3-6 development of, //. 6-8 dialects of English, //. 6, 7 Enough, 95 Er, comparative -^v.ffix- 108 masculine suffix, 45 plural suffix, 52 note Ere, erst, 276, 290 Es, plural suffix, 49 suffix of third person singular, 227 Ess, feminine suffix, 45 Est, bt, suffix of second person singular, 227 . , Eth, suffix of third person smgular, 227, 228 Etymology, 5, 24, &c. Every, 173 Except, 282, 291 Far. 115 note Farther, farthest, 1 15 note, 276 Father, derivation of, 44 Feminine gender, 39, 44-46 Few, 95 Fmal consonant doubled, 18 First, loi, 115 For, meanings traced, 284 conjunction, 290 prefix, 320 Foreign words adopted in English, A pp. Former, 116 Fro, 271 Further, furthest, 115 note, 276 Future tenses, 204, 205, 208, 210-213, 2'5 , . . predictive and proniissive, 213 Gander, 44 Ge, prefix in Anglo-Saxon, 171 note in perfect participles, 221, 224 Gender, definition of, 39, 40 natural and grammatical, 40 note^ 44 distinguished from sex, 39, 43 how denoted, 44-46 masculine, 40, 44, 45' 4^ feminine, 40, 44-46 feminine suffixes, 45 neuter, 40 common, 41 of animals, 41 note in pronouns, 1 37 Anglo-Saxcn suffixes for, 45 Genitive, see Possessive in Anglo-Saxon, 83 after numerals, 91, 362, 2 adverbial, 267, 268 Gerund, 197-200, 368, 493 Ge\-undial infinitive, see Infinitive Goose, 44 Go, went, /. 84. 264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. i^' '% Grammar, definition of, 2 Greek words in English, />. 4, Ann, suffixes, / 138 Grimm s law, App. Guttural mutes, 14, 15 Half, 95 Have, conjugation of, 248 auxiliary of peifect tenses, 210 He, she, it, demonstrative pronoun, 138, 143 syntax of, 473 Hence, here, hither, 270 Here /or ' this ' with preposition, 147 Hight, 221, 247,/. 93 His, 138, 140 Husband, derivation of, 44 Hvva, hwast, 153 Hwylc, 155 HweeSer, 156 Hybrids, /. 139 Hypothetical sentences, 424, &c. I, sounds of, 20 I, personal pronoun, 131, 135, 136, 137 Ichabbe, 137 Ichill, 137 If, 290 Imperative mood, igi nofg Imperfect participle, 201 in Anglo-Saxon. 201 note seemingly passive, 200 note Imperfect tenses. 204, 205, 208, 210 215 Impersonal verbs, 382 m/e, 247, 496 In, on,/. 117 Indefinite article, 121, 122, 122 note when repeated, 460 Indefinite pronouns, 97, 130, 166-170 who, what, which, 157 one, 166 auf'ht, 167 any, 168 other, 169 some, 170 man, men, 166 Indefinite tenses, 204, 205, 210, 215, 216 ambiguous in the passive, 216 Indicative mood, 190, 484 Indirect object, 369 Indirect questions, 404 410 Ine, feminine suffix. 45 infinitive mod, 191-106, 491 without 'to' 195, 396 397 Infinitive with 'to '(gerundial infinitive) 196, 372, 4, 397 with 'for to,' 49ir object or subject, 194, 196 syntax of, 491 Inflexion, 28 Inflexion of complex phrases, 77 noie Inflexion, substitute for, 152 note once significant words, /, 64 noU' Ing, suffix 01 participle, 201 suffix of gerund, 197 suffix of verbal nouns, /. 71 Innermost, 116 Interjection.s, 293 Interrogative pronouns, 130, 153, &c. Interrogative .sentences. 358 Intransitive verbs, 181, 182 followed by a preposition, 370 nofi y., pronoun, 140, 143 anticipatory subject, 387, 405 anticipatory object, 398 with adjective clause, 413 cognate object, 372, 3 I wis, 245 note Keltic languages, /. 2 words in English, /. 3, App. Labials, 13 Lane, 179 Last, latest, 115 note, 276 Latin words in English, />. 4, App. prefixes,/. 133 suffixes, /). 134 Lesser, 115 note' Lest, 290^5 Let, 191 note,/). Bd note Like, adjective and adverb, 269 note Liquids, 13 Lisping sounds, 13 Me-Lists, 247, />. 93 Little, less, least, 94, 115 Lord, Lidy, derivation of, 44 Ly, adjective and adverbial suffix, 269 Maid, 44 Man, 44' Many, 95 Masculine, distingui.shed from male, 43 Masculine gender, 38, 44-46 May, 234-237, /. 104 Melhinks, fi. 93 Middle voice, 188 n>yte INDEX. 265 130, 1 358 82 t53, &c. sition 370 note 387, 398 1413 3 405 Monosyllable, 17 Moods, 189-192 Mood of fact, 193 Mood of conception, 1 93 Mood of volition, 193 More, 95 Motan, mote, 239 Mother, derivation of, 44 Mow, mowe, mought, 236 Much, 91, 115 note, 276 Must, 238 Mute e, 17 Mutes, 13 breathed and voiced, 14 note sharp and flat, 13 Nam, nart, nis, nas, 252 Nat, niste, 245 Near, a comparative, 115 note, 276 Need, /. 93 Negative particles, 272 Negative sentences, 255 Neither, 174, 287 Nephew, niece, derivation of, 44 Neuter gender, 4.0, 42 suffix 't,' 143, 148, 152, 153, 158 Nill, 233 No, see None No, nay, 272 Nominative case, definition of, 68 not the primary case, 66 note derivation of, 70 how ascertained, 69 absolute, 372, 5, note, 530 syntax of, 455 None, no, 95, 166 Norman -French, introductiori and effects of,//. 4, 7' 15 Not, 272 Notional words, 25 Notional verbs, 185 Nouns, definition of, 29 noun-substantive, 25 note noun-adjective, 25 note common, 30, 31 proper, 35 collective, 32, 38 abstract, 32 concrete, 33 gender of, 38 Nouns, general names, 33 derived, /. 129 inflexion-. 'i8 syntax cJ, 455 Number, definition of, 47 Number, how denoted, 47, 48-56 singular, 48 plural, 49-63 plural suffixes, 49-54 dual, 48 note, 137 in verbs, 218 Numeral nouns, 91, lOI adjectives, 91, 97, lOO adjectives used as nouns, 93, 94 O, sounds of, 20 Object of verb, 79, 80, 186 direct object, 80, 369 indirect object, 80, 369 use of term, /. 144 note simple, 397 compound, 397 complex, 397 completing, 369 note enlarged, 399 an adverbial adjunct, 367 Objective case, definition of, 79, 368 how determined, 80 functions of, 457 form in nouns, 8r denoting indirect object, 80, 369 fusion of dative and accusative, 370 absolute, 372, 5 position of, 81 governed by prepositions, 79 objective for nominative, 177, 467 cognate objective, 372, 3 adverbial relation 01, 372 syntax of, 457 Objective relation. 30^^-370 Oblique cases, fuiiciion^ o , 346 note Of, off, A 118 Older, oldest, 115 note One, 166, 179 Or, 287 Or = ere, A 112 note Orthography, 3 Orthographical system, English, imperfections of. 20 Other, 169. 174 note Ought, 244 Owe, 244 Own, 244 Participles, qo. 201 202 used ab^ohitely, 282, 372, 5 niiscalled prepositions, 282 Parts of speech, 25 prmiary and secondary, 24, 348, 349 366 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. S|| w k ^ m hi Parts of speech, same word belonging to more than one part of speech, ZJ Passive voice, i8j-i88 conjugation of, p. 102 of in rails tive verbs, 187, ^"jo note in Anglo-Saxon, 188 note Pea, pease, 57 Pennies, pencj, 57 Perfect participle, 201, 202, 221, 224 in the stroig conjugation, 221 in the w.-ak coiiju^a ion, 24 used with an active signification, 201 naie Perfect tense, active, 70i, 204. 205, 208, 210. 215, 221 note in l.itiii, 22 ( HJte in Greek, 221 no'e Periods of the Enj;lish language, t>. 6 Person, in pronouns. 13J, «j3 in verb., 2^19, 227, 22S, 229 origin of personal iull.x' )as, 219 note Persona! proiiouns, sfe Pronoun Personirkation, its influence on gender, 4* Plural, definition, 48 suffixes of, 49-57 formed by vow>il-change, 53 plurals in appearance, 59 same as singu ar, 55 of proper mines, 51 of foreign words, 55 of abstract nouns, 62 used as singular, 58, 480 diiferent in meaning from singular, 57, 61 of comp mnd names, 63 double forms, 57 words only used in. 60 in Anglo-Saxon, 83, 103 in -ics, 58 of address, 134 in pronouns, 139 suffix of, jn present tense of verbs, p 78 note Positive de^'ree, 106, 108 Possessive case, definition of, 71 functions of, 456 formation, 75, 76. 78 supposed derivation from * his ' 76 note ' in feminine nouns, 76 note, 83 of omplex names '''» replaced by 'of,' 74" used objectively, 73 Possessive case in names of things, 72 use in Anglo-Saxon, 72 relation to the Genitive, 71 note omission of the possessive suffix. 76 note Possessive case of personal pronouns, 135. i42, 144 Potential mood, /. 66 note Predicate 313, 355, 356, 338, 360, . 378-382, 389-396 simple, 390 complex, 391-396, 503, 512. &c. mduect, 37 note, 397, 550 complement of, 391-3^5 logical and grammatical, 356, 501 Predicative relation, 354 Prefixes, Latin, />. 133 Greek,/ 138 Teutonic, p. 129, &c. Prspositions, definition of, 277 origin of, 279 primary function of, 279, 280 supersede case-endings, /.in note simple, 2S1 derived, 281, 282 same in form as adverbs, 271, 279 relations indicated by, 283 passing into conjunctions, 290 Preserit used for future, 216 hi;toric. 216 Preterite or past indefinite tense, in the strong conjugation, 221 m the weak conjugation, 222, 223 used as a present, 231 final ' d ' of, sounded like ' t,' 222 Pronominal adjectives, 178 Pronominal adverbs. 270 Pronouns. 25, ^jfinition of, 97, 127, 128 subdivision and classification oli 129 130 adjective, 129, 135, 144 personal, 131-137 demonstrative, 145-150 rf^laiive, r5X-i65 interrogntive, 153-156 distributive, 171-175 reflective, 176, 177 possessive, 97, 135, 144 compound, 157 syntax of, 463, &c. confusion of cases, 467 note Punctuation, rules for, 6or Purpose, clauses denoting, 433 Qualitative adjectives, 90 INDEX. 267 Quantitative adjectives, 91-97 Queen, 44 Quoth, /. 82 Rather, 529, 597 Reduplication in the preterite tense, Reflective pronouns, 176, 177 Reflective verbs, 183 Relational words, 25 Relative pronouns, 97, 130, 151-165 that, 152 substitute for inflexion, 152 no/e who, 153, 157 what, 154, 158, 159 which, 155, 158, 160, 162 whether, 156 whoso, &c., 157 as, 165 understood, 409, 467 used continuatively, 412 syntax of, 463, 408, 469 Riches, 59 Root, 28 S, plural suffix, 49, 50 'S, suffix of possessive case, 75 adverbial suffix, 267, 268 Saxons invade Britain, / 2, Saxon dialect becomes piedominant, /. 6 Scandinavian element in English, p. 3 Se. seo, theet, 148 Second person sing, of verbs without suffix, /. 87 noh' Se.f, 176, 177 Semi-vowt Is, II Sentence definition of, 4, 343 simple, 400, 506-538 complex, 401-442, 539, <&c. compound, 443, 444 contracted, 449-452 collateral, 445 elliptical, 453, 544-572 declarative, 358 imperative, 358 optative, 358 iiiterro^tive, 358 Sequence ol tenses, 48" Shall, no. 211-213, 215 conjugation of, 232 originally a preterite, 232 She, 140-143 Sibilants, 13 Since, ?>. 115 rwfe Singular number, 48 like plural, 55 Singular number used as plural, 55 used in multiplication, 480 So, 150 Some, 91, 170 Stem, 28 Ster, feminine suffix, 45 Strong verbs, 221 become weak, />. 85 Subject of verb, 343, 355, 378—386 understood, 382 simple, 385 compound, 381, 386, 475 complex, 387 enlarged, 388 provisional, 387 note logical and grammatical, 355, 500 subjects differing in number and person, 481, 482 Subjunctive mood, 192, 430—440, 485—487 conjugation of, //. loi, 103 Subordinate clauses, 401 Substantive clauses, 401, 403-407, 542, &c. Such, 150 Suffixes, once independent words, /. 129 in nouns, see Declension in veibs, see Conjugation in adverbs, see Adverb in derivatives, /, 130, &c. Latin, /. 134 Greek, A 138 Summon^-, 50 Superlative degree, definition of, iii, 114 how formed, ill, 115, ii6, 117 formed from comparatives, 116 Syllables, 17 Syntax, definition of, 342 T, suffix of second person singular, 219, 232 offgrowth of ^s,' J>. 114 noU Tenses, 203-217 present, past, and future, 205-2 1 5 imperfect, 204, 205, 208 perfect, 204, 205, 2c6, 209 indefinite, 204, 205, 207, 210, 2l6, 217 formed by inflexion, 210, 221, 222 auxiliaries, 210-213, 215, /. 104 comparative table of, 215 268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ih ,.1 it' and Tenses, use of, 216 in Anglo-Saxon, 217 Teutonic languugos, /. I Than, 291 than whom, 477 That, those, 145, 146, 148, 149 That, rel. pron. 152 difference between ' that ' 'who,' 152, 163 sign of grammatical subordination, 157 fio/,; conjunction, 290, 403 The, defmite article, 124-126 before ' which,' 160 adverb, ]>y, 126, 149, 270, 5 Ther, comparative suffix, loS uoh; 156, 169, 174 There, thence, thither, 270 There ^r 'that' with preposition, 147 They," 138-143, 149 Thilk, 150 Me-Thinks, 247 This, these, 145, 146, 147, 149 Thou, 132, 136, 137 use of singular and plural forms, 134 Though, 291 Thus, 270 To, too, meaning of, traced, 284, /. 119 .. . before infinitive, sec' Infinitive To-day, to-morrow, 267, 4 Transitive verbs, 181, 182, 183 Trix, feminine suffix, 45 Twelvemonth, 55, 480 U, sounds of, 20 Un (prefix), 281, 4 ; 311 Uncouth, 243 Unless, 291 Verbs, definition of, 180, 345, 354 transitive and intransitive, 181-183 reflective, 182 impersonal, 382 nofe, 247 active voice and passive voice of, 186-188 moods, 189-194 participles, 201-202, 221, 224 gerund, 197-200 tenses, 203. see Tenses number, 218 Verbs, person, 219, 227-229 conjugation, 220, 256 defective verbs, 231-248 compound verbs, 304 derived verbs, 320-335 verbs of incomplete predication, 391, 512, .Itc. auxiliary, 185, 205, " or expressions: — "Children," "alms," "gander," "songstress," " 'He is gone a-hunting, "The "The more the merrier, house is building." Give as fully as you can the syntax of the subjunctive mood. Give some examples of families of words from a common root. To what great family of languages does the English belong T Under what subdivision is it properly classed ? Mention the languages of the same subdivision. Give instances of Celtic, Latin, and Danish remains in the Eng- lish language, and state for what classes of words we have adopted chiefly Greek, Latin, and French derivatives. Give specimens of spondee, dactyl, and anapest, and describe the Spenserian stanza. 8 Explain the figures Syncope, Paralepsis, and Pleonasm, indicating the class to which each belongs, and distinguish between Barbarism and Solecism, Simile and Metaphor. II. 1. When may proper noons be regarded us common, and when are common nouns equivalent to proper ? 2. Indicate the various uses of the pronoun "it," and account for the curious change of gender in the following sentence : — " Death hath not only lost the sting, but it bringeth a coronet in her hand." — Jeremy Taylor. 3. (o) What may be regarded as the characteristic property of the verb ? Does it ever include, besides, the property of the ad- jective? (6) Exhibit the origin of the termination "d" or , " ed " in the past tense, (c) What value do you attach to in« flection as a mode of indicating number and person in P'^nglish rerbs ? I ; ^ lit h ■a.'i t I* I ¥ ^ I* 6. 1. 6. 6 7. %. BXAUINATION QUESTIONS. Emimerat© the vannus vnfn of *• bnt." Is such a oonntrTjctfon m " I'riiK'es aro hut men " incuusistetit with the gruiiimatical diih.iitiuu of tlie adverb? (a) Illu3tr;ite the priiiuiry ami secntnlary use of the prepoRition. (I>) Draw up a table exhibiting the relutiuua exprosHud by pie- ]M)aiti(>ii8. Lathn'u sfieaU" "f Etymology in the wide and in the limited sense |)Luii of tlio \vor«l ; exp 7. vrt) What proportion (b) words of Anglo-Saxon origin bear to those* from uluMsiciil soiirt-ua? (b) Show that this projin tiuu is not maintained in the language uf urdiuary iuturcuuitie. 8. Soau the following lines : — The proper study of mankind is man. !N'ut a drum won heard, uut a funeral note. III. "Orthncjraphical expedients are resorted to on acconnt of the im« perfections of the Knj,'liNh al[)hal>ut, which may be char- acterized as deliciunt, redundant, and ambiguous" — Atdhorised Sjtcllhiy Hook. Explain clearly the meaning of the term "Orthographical Ex- jiedient," and show in what respects the English alphabet ia dehcit-nt, redundant, and ambiguous. 2. Explain the meaning of Orthttepy, Idiom, Dialect, and Metaphor, and give the best deHnition you cau of "letter," "syllable," and " word." 3. Define A<1jective and Pronoun ; state how you classify adjectivei and pronouns ; show where you draw the line between these jiarts of spoccli ; and explain your views with rei'ard to the parsingof "his "' each," "this," "all," "another"" "what," and "some," in the various constructions. 4. Explain with the aid of examples the meaning of Grammatical K()uivalent and Conjunctive Ailverb. What argument does Max Midler rega d as establishing conclu- sively that the Knglish language is a branch of the gieat Teutonic stem of tlie Aryan form of 8})eech ? (a) Mention some of the Celtic elements of the English langurtge. (It) Name the two branches of the Celtic stock of languages, ((•) Which of tliese was most probal)ly the language of ancient Cuul ? Continn your answer by pointing out aliiiiities. Point out the difference between Barbarism and Solecism, and ex- plain the figures I'leonasm, Metonymy, f'aragoge, and Synec- docie, giving examples and indicating the class to which each belongs. Give specimens of Iambus, Trochee, and Amphibrach. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. Ill IV. 1. Ci' t''n orlrfin of the torminatioa "ess" as a motle of expreflsing I iiiiniiio gi;ii(li!r. 2. The tuiDiiiiation "<'r " is common to adjectives of the comparative (1 ;'rec ; to some other adjoctivun, as '* upper," " umler," Ac. ; anil to certain pronouns, r iomiuative Case, " la tliis correct? luvestij^ate tiie rule. 6. " Conjunctions connect not words hut propositions." Show that thiH a-sHcrtion can l)e ni;r ♦^uined even with sentenies like these : " .loim and ThoniUb ourry a sack to market ; " " Three and three make six." 7. Wliat is meant by Service Metre and Alexandrines f Give speci- nicjis of each. 8. Compare worda of Ani^lo Saxon and Anglo-Norman origin for the |)nrpose of explaining the preference given to either element lu the choice of words. V. Jt 1. Do yon consider "chicken," "riches," "alms," nnd "summons" to have becn> originally singular or plural ? Give the grounds for your opinion. 2. Give exani])lea of the indefinite relative. To what restrictions is it subject ? 3. To what parts of 8Y)eech is the termination "ing" common? Show fully how tiiey are to be distinguished. 4. Give Latham's oi)inion in regard to the ouestiou of concord when two or more [tronouns of ditlerent persons and of the singular nund)er follow each other disjunctively. 5. Thougli all Knglish conijjarativea end in " r," no superlative ends in "rt." How has this hapjiened ? 6. Illustrate the iuJluence of Onomatopoeia in the formal i«)n of worda. 7. Givt the derivation of the following word-i, tracing the history of the meaning whereveryou can : — Muslin, currant, hymeneal, bursur, coercion, rill, priest, deed, bishopric, urbanity, universe, here, inoculate, religion, gentry, chestnut, vulgate, preposterous, rival, romance, health, legend, fancy. 8. When and under what circumstances did the principal elements which enter into the comjjosition of the English iaugua^^t severally«take their places in it ? IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) % z/.. {./ o y4e^ V t 1.0 I.I S 1^ |j|||20 !L25 iiiii u u 1.6 V] . %/ A ■> Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WiST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.y. 14580 (716) 87L'-4503 W^ << V \\ '^ ^ 't^^ ;\ ^ o ^ ^ -^ ^ If EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. m: VI. 1. Name the inflected parts of speech ; state the inflections to trhich they are subject ; and give an example of every inflectional form in the language. Give all the inflectional forms of "abbot," "me," "was." Are "fatherly," " happen," and " acknowledgment " inflectional forms ? Explain the forms "his" and "whose." 2. Some grammarians consider the article and participle distinct parts of speech. State your own views, with reasons. 8. Give examples of sentences in which it is more appropriate to use "that" than "who" or "which." Explain the reason in each case. 4. Show to what extent we are to receive the statement that " the passive voice expresses passively the same thing that the active voice does actively." 5. Give as fully as you can the syntax of the Possessive Case. 6. Of words which have disappeared from our literary dialect men- tion (1) some which modern authors of note have endeavoured to revive ; (2) others which survive only as provincialisms ; and (?) others which pass for Americanisms, but which are really Old English. 7. Explain the figures Hyperbaton, Apocope, and Apostrophe, indicating the class to which each belongs, 8. What is meant by Historical Etymology T VII. 1. Mention the causes of diversity in Orthography, and state in what respects the English alphabet is deficient, redundant, and inconsistent. 2. Give the best definition of Gender you know. State why you consider it the best, and point out its defects- 3. "The constniction of English Infinitives is two-fold : (1) objective ; (2) gerundial."— Xa^/mm, Explain fully and exemplify this statement. 4. Name the verbs which specially belong to the class called "copulative," and explain their office in analysis. How would you deal in analysis with the Imperative and the Absolute ? 5. Illustrate fully the adjective in predicate, _ 6. Derive the following words : — Mechanics, politics, cambric. meander, tantalize, April, Thursday, furlong, fathom, pilgrim, vintage, sarcasm, gazette, scarlet, tulip, toliacco, almanac, jubilee, caravan, sonnet, skate, ballast, calico, caricature, alli- gator. 7. Give the force of each of the affixes: Hood, ling, some, ric. aye, and less ; illustrate by exami)les. 8. Give examiiies of Synaerisis, Syncope, Paralepsis, Hyperbole EXAMINATION QUESTIONS VITI. 1. Define Logical Subject, Grammatical Subject, Caie, Mood, Middle Voice, Predicate, Copulative Conjunction, and Dis- junctive Conjunction. 2. Give a list of defective verbs. 3. "Substantives signifying the same thing agree in case." Point out the defects of this rule for apposition, and define " Apposi- tion." 4 Give an etymological analysis of the following words, mentioning in each case prefix or aflix, root, literal meaning, and ordinary signification: — Discussion, expressed, adventure, condolence, hypocrite, expedite, atonement, accuracy, cemetery, extra- vagant, trespass, dilapidation, advocate, adherent, disparity, colloquial, ambitious, transgression, degeneracy, declension (connect grammatical sense with root), dissection, pilgrimage, inarticulate, compunction. 5. Mention English words related in derivation to "speak," "sorrow," "choose," "what," "bequeath," "death," and "barren," 6. Which parts of speech are all of Saxon growth ? 7. What traces of Danish occupancy do we find in local English names ? 8. Write half a dozen lines on any subject you choose, using only words of Anglo-Saxon origin. IX. 1. (a) Explain "strong" and " weak " preterites. (6) Cite instances to show that the tendency has been for some time to exclude the "strong" forms, quoting also some of the very few instances in which the reverse has taken place. 2. Define Middle Voice, Copulative and Disjunctive Co-ordina- tion, and explain Dativus Ethicua, Adve.bs of Deflection, and Equivocal Rettective. 3. Specify and exemplify the various constructions in which the sign of the possessive case is omitted. 4 Give examples of difi"erent cases which may arise in the applica- tion of the principle : " A verb must agree with its nominative in number and person," and state the special rule applicable to each case. 6. Distinguish between "common "and "mutual;" "stationery" and " stationary ;"" feminine " and " efi'eminate ;" "sani- tary" and "sanatory;" " persecute " and "torment;" "loiter" and "linger." d. What information about the following articles may be obtained from the names they bear -—Port (wine), sherry, nankeen, ammonia, bayonet, cherry, curr; nts? T. Give the derivation of :— Blame, metaphysics, peripatetics, synod, lord, ma'am, fee, villain, anathema, premature, retrograde, extravagant, rather, treacle, lass, comfort, epitaph, paper, executor, save, depose, mode, serve, paste, cover, le«sou, meaning, fui:, impostor, insolent. I n BZAMINATION QUEBTIONfll 8. Write etymnlogical notes on : (a) in like manner also that women adorn themselves In modest apparel with sluiine/acednesa and sobriety : — I. Tim. ii. 9. (h) Woe worth the chose woe worth the day. — Scolt. ([,£) Come Fate into the list And champion me to the utterance. — Shakespears, seco:n^d CLASa 1. In what wonis is the aspirate rightly dropped when it stands as their first letter ? 2. State the various uses of the pronoun " it." 3. Show that the perfect is a present tense, and writ** sentences to exhibit the viul.'vtiou of the " sequence of tenses" in connec- tion with that tense. 4. Explain the construction of the objective case in eaoh of the fol- lowing sentences : — (a) He waited all night ; (b) The book is worth a shilling ; (c) KuU many a league they rode ; (d) They dreamt the future flight. 5. Give the dilferent powers of the prefixes "be" and "en" or "em." 6. Make a list of live words from each of the Latin verbs ago, curro, jacio, fero, video, and rego. 7. Give words -two in eauh case— derived from these Greek roots; Charifl, cratos, metruu, phone, pathos. IL 1. Investigate the statement that "mine" and *' thine" are the pos- sessive case of the personal pronoun, whilst "my" and "thy" are the possessive adjective. 2. "A verb is a word that makes an assertion." Discuss the defects of this definition. 3. "What prepositions should follow "glad," "true," "insinuate," and " intervene" ? 4. What are the Latin and Greek prefixes meaning "from," "beyond," " without "T 5. Derive the following words, giving the etjrmolngical analysis where you can: — VVhero, ephemeral, alone, before, river, rap- turous, current, month, pain, blood, generally, nun.ber, agency, vicious, diabolical, wrote, stenogra)»hy, pagoda. 6. Make a list of words derived from "lego," including four from the Latin and four from the Greek verb. 7. In the following groups of verbs of similar signification, indicate the appropriate use of each verb : — Esteem, estimate, appreci- ate ; grant, allow, bestow, concede ; build, erect, construct ; •sorpy arrogate, assume. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS, YIl III. 1. Give examples of verbs of strong and of weak conjugation. 2. State the rule relating to "sequence of tenses" in connection with the conjunction "that," and quote Latham's reasou to show that the rule must necessarily be absolute. 3. Illustrate the use of the adjective in predicate, and state clearly its force and relation. 4. Define and give examples of adverbial sentence and complex sentence, and form or quote a sentence containing a dependent proposition which is the subject of a verb. 5. Enumerate the aflixes denoting state, condition, or quality, and give examples of each in combination. 6. Convert, by the help of prefixes oi- suffixes, the following adjec- tives into verbs : — Large, just, humble, strong ; and convert the following verbs into nouns : — Weave, compel, receive, dig think. Explain the law which governs each change. 7. Trace the following to Latin or Greek roots : — Venison, sample, maintain, livery, human, hermit, sarcophagus, volume, tau- tology, technical, phylactery, blasphemy. IV. 1. What are the principal parts of "travel," "smell," "benefit" ? 2. Give examples of the different uses (a) of words ending in " ing," and (6) of "but." 3. Give instances of infinitives and infinitive phrases used as the objects of a verb. 4. Give a detailed analysis of the following passage and the full syn- tactical parsing of all the italicised words : " Strange as it may Beem to Jind a song-writer put forward as an active inatru- went of union among his fellow-Hellens, it is not the less true that those poets whom we have briefly passed in review, bij en- riching the common !nngunije and by circulating from town to town either in person or in their compositions, contrihuted to fan the flame of pan-Hellenic patriotism at a time tvhen th-rt were few circumstances to co-operate w\t\\. them, and when the causes tending to perpetuate isolation seemed in the ascen- dant. " — Crote. 6. (a) Expliiin tiie term "Hybridism," and illustrate by examples. {h) Show that " icicle" is hybrid in appearance only. 6. Give examples of (a) Derivatives formed by merely changing the radical vowel ; (/>) Primitive words formed on the principle of imitation ; and (c) Derivatives from dotos, luxlns, laos, pingo, olo or oiesco, linquo, tliijo, at ceo, tero, an of writiii- (•\tihf> Analvsia of Snutences which i« M<1ny>t«1 m the Orammnr. « - S72, w perhapt theloast. Inml.lesome ; but if it be i)retW. ivd. the \nimym may U con.lu-tod bv vriitm".' i.-wu at a-„ >. in hom/)iital luies. and ft the top of paralle: cohimns. all the possible .;oTni.onent8 of the 8ent«i..(|s thai iin.vA^Ttj o b;. aiialyw-l, and then tabulating the results of the analysis, m in the followii><; examples. Whou the subject i - object o» the vek'.. i(» compound, with adjunota attanhwl to the sepanitr ii.omboi-s o*' it {e.g., ' A white naa a i a black man were walVing other, ba.'ing ' of two or moi uidicated in o homoutaily, ii <^:, ^< Sfmteaoe to b« AnalyMd. A. '*A reader nnacqnainted with the real nature of a claHaicai educa- tion, will prob.ibly undervalnd it when he sees that so Urge » i>ortioD of iime is devoted to the study of a few ancient aiitl;»i> vhnne works seeuj to ha'-e ». lirect bearing on the HtudMta ^Mi dutiea of our own gene- Kind of Ss-ntonoe. SUBJKCT. Coiniileta senteuoe. B. "When he sees thnt so Urge • |)ortion of time is devotetl to ■ generation." Readsr C. " [Th.ati en laru'e a pr>rtii»n <»f time is dtk'oted to tli« iitudx ot' a frw ani.'ient authors, wh().>»i work* genenti<»u " i>. " WTiose works seem to have ao ji!; the pre- dicate ' wiJJ uuditr- valusk' Substantive oliiuse. object of verb 'aeea' he ponion Adjective clause, qualifyiut the noun < &iit.1ifirs ' authors. rorks §' A. •* Blest he, though unnistin- Complete sentence. ;ttis,Sed from the irowd Ijy wealto or inty, who dwells ^pcure, where I, by nature tierce, has laid aside P-jrceness, having learnt, though r to learn the luoniiers and the arts of eivil lif j,' B. '- Who dwells ?HJOure where man, by nature tierce, lias laid asule his tierceness, having learnt, though slow to learn, the oianneni iind the arts of mvdUfe^l] C. " [Though) ha be nndiatinguisheound oon from ihe crowd by wealth or dignity." i tracted - ^-- -' Adjective qvilifying clause, he who I c'ause, I». " Where man, by natnre f.erce, has laid asidr his fidrceness, having \iK '••nt, though slow to learn, the man- ners and the^artft of civil lifa^" E. " [Thoughl he la sluw to learn.' adverbial qnalifyrig the predicate verb Adverbial clause, qualifying the prt« dicats dwtUt. 1. ha Attributive Ad- juncts of Subject. 12. he Kllii.tical adverbial clause, qiuilif<. ing havmy leut-nt. ha 1. a 2. unacqnainted with the real na- ture of a clasaica education 1. so large :;. a 3. -^f time vkhoae Adj. r/au.« — [who dwells secure where man civil lif« 'B;.; 1. by nature fierce 2. having learnt, [thoujih hf in slow t«> leart: {'£),] the nianuers anil tht arts of civvj life It UM moue of deneung eubordinato ciaus-s which is f '^^";" L „,^^, In the second suntence ri nitt> a bove ") tor 1 rn^^'". m the . , (/-'■) for O \ P P E N i> i A is perbapt hnhx/)iital ect of the iluck man I WOT* waiving tnp»»fli«r'V tin* mhstantivefl forming the omnponnd robjecto nay be written oae oadernaath the other, ba.'ing thimd sentence, oonsiatuig ol two or moiv w-onlmute cIuujmjb, may b*' 8i»lit up into its uompouiid olauseh by maitiifi of biacketa, in ch« way uiiiicateii in one oi tb*; oxumi.i«» below The columiia may of course be lillad v.p by writing vertically iuate*d of horizontally, if it be touud mora oouvenient. ''X ,,, I Contplemetii OB.(K<"r. •L Ol '■ ->lu;»te h. Ol t'.im Verb, jilpniHiit, wlii'i 'tb.ttuta Veil' A ttnliiitive Ailjiiiic-ta of Objoot Attributive Adjuncts of the <.;nnii>lein«"iit of the rnidicat*. SuhMt. rlnii/f- [That 80 large a portion ot time ia devoted to genera- tion (C).] seem to llMV«> befttiug I. no direct 3. onthettiK^H* a.,.t diih' < of I our owii pine- ! ration. [i«J hi'JH dwell* ■ecure be be I ondiHtiMi^uish- I e lHr<:e a |Hirtion of timt- i« devoted to tliK study of a (ew ancient autl>or , wiios-f wnika setm t*i liave no direct ln-iirmi: •■I. the Stu- die? itiit'. ie tirat ■^fiueinr we i.n.y subsritute (a) lor C ; auu {a"bt!i for i>. ibatitutc (<«") tor 1 , i/'') for . (u'e \ tbr D ; and .-t>".i"l for K. ll 1 H "" 1 i ^^B 1 1 KTf EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. ;* % ' 'f » ' M / » , (i, if f ■ I 'dly '%--LAU^4^, W. J. GAGE & Go's Educational Series. I OAGB ft CO'S SERIES OF WRITING BOOKS AND BLANKS. __ PRICK BLANKS FOR BE ATTY & CL ABE'S BOOK-KEEPING. -_Uay Book, .l(>urnttl, ahd Lodger, in separate booKs. Invoice Book, Sales Bo*, Cash Book and Bill Book, bound tocether — complete set BEATTY'S SYSTEM OF PBACTICAL PENMANSHIP. In eleven numbers each CANADIAN SERIES OP SPELLING B.LANKS.-In three numbers. No. l.-Words. Wo. 2.-Word8 and Defl- nitions. No. 3.— Words, Definitions and Sentences each COMPLETE COMPOSITION EXERCISE BOOKS.- in three numbers, for j unior and senior classes. Nos. 1 and 2. 10 cents each. No. 3 . 40 1 00 07 15 EXERCISE BLANKS FOR GRAMMATICAL ANALY- • •7"C<°"^1"?*'* 1 • tour numbers. i>y H. W. I)avies,D.D., Prin- cipal Normal School Toronto. Nos. 1 and 2 adapted to •''i"^°5 i''x^ intermediate classes; 10 cents each. Nos 3 and 4 adapted to advanced classes ; each , o 15 A Journal for Teachers, Trustees and. Students. THE CANADA SCHOOL JOURNAL —HAS BECEIYBB — An Honorable ^fention at Paris Exhibition, 1878. Recommended by the Minister of Education for Ontario. Becommended by the Gouncil of Public Instruction, Quebec. Recommenced by Chief Supt. of Education New Brunswick. Recommend^dby Chief Supt. of Education, Nova Scotia. Recommetidedby Chief Supt. of Education, Brit. Colu7nbia. Recommended by Chief Supt. of Education, Manitoba. IS EDITED BY A Committee of some of the Leading Educationists in Ontario. Assisted by able Provincial Editors in the Provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia New Brunswick, Prince Edivard Island, Manitoba, and British Colum- bia, thus having each section of the Dominion fully represented. Contains Twenty-four Pages of Reading Matter. Each number has live Editorials: Contributions on important Snii^^'Tir *°PV^= Selections-Readings for the School Eoom; and Notes and News from each Province. ' PliACTICAI. DEPARTMENT will always have useful hints on methods of teaching different subjects. MATHEMATICAL DEPARTMENT gives solutions to difficult pro- blems also Examination Papers. "^^'U^^ i»ru • <^Ff If^I^. DEPARTMENT contains snch regulations as may be issued from time to time. ' Address— ADAM MILLER & CO., TORONTO. Subscription, $1.00 per annum, strictly in advance. In January, 1879, a Club of 1100 Subscribers v/as receif ed from Nova Scotia, In February, a Club of 600 from New Brunswick, naking the circulation nearly 6,000. I ►' li l: 76 501000352406 ENGLISH ^^§9^^n¥^Y^]^<^^?r.^;BAMMAR.--Ry G. P. Mason, edition ^eUow of University Collej^e, London, ma ^diti?n?wiS?,9^'^^^r^^AM^^ emtion) with copious and caremlly graded exercises, 243 pages 80 '^^SSZ%?S^^^SSn°'' EN°I-ISH OEAMMAB. for ^^ MILLER'S SWINTON'S LANGUAGE T,FC!qr»>Tq' &«^? 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