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By JBA.N TECOlVCSOlSr SCOOPT, B. -A.., Uiiiro'sitii Cutliiji, Toronto. I PRINTED BY WARWICK & SONS, 68 & 70 FRONT STREET WEST. 1892. « I. ■ p I T Copies of this Essay may be obtained on appliration to the Edwation DepaHment for Oatdi'.n, Toronto. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I' I n *•.(-, Preface . Introducti n Paob. .. 5 Thb Conditions or Femalk Labdir in Ontario— Chapter I.— Labour undir thk Factory and Shops' RBorLATioN Acts 9 Section 1 — LetjislatioH inOiUmiriit II,— Effects of Legidation ■ nd Iitupection 1. LimitHtiona of Iiispectio'i 2. Chilli Lal>our 3. Hdufh of Labour 4. Hours of Labour in Toronto Stores ^'* 5. San'tary ronditions r>. Need fur Further Inspection 10 11 13 17 17 18 Chapter II. -Waiies Section I. — Wmjfi in Empl<>ym«nt-< Exoh'itivehi Feviale 1. Donies ic Servants 2. Api'renticus ti> 1 ressniakins^, etc 3. Miscellancf us Employments II,— Effect on Wages of Competition icith Men 1. Cigarmakins 2. Tailoring 3. Employment in Stores 4. Office Work 5. Telegraphy «). Teaching Chapter IIL— Emi-loymbnt ok Married Women »• IV.— HoME.S FOR WoRKINtl WoMBN , . . . V. Trades' Union* and Women's Sooietikm 1. Trades Unions 2. W< rkin,' Wome-i's Societies ; " VI. Bibliography . . . -Thb FrxuBB 19 20 20 22 23 23 23 24 24 24 25 25 27 27 27 28 30 '■:i I il . s [i illl l» 'r ' PREFACE. It'is appropriate that ^the first contril»ution to the University of Toronto Studies in Political Science from a lady j^raduate should concern itsell with the lal)oiir of women and children in Ontario. It i.s to such careful examination by C()m|)etent observers of the actual facts of industrial life, rather than to ha.sty and .sentimental ajjitation, that we mu.st look for permanent reform The existing Factory Acts of Ontario are in some respects more stringent, in others more lax, than those of Kngland, the parent of factory legislation. Taking the two essential points, the (nic of permissible child labour and the hours of employment for women and childivn, the conipariscm niiiy be stated as follows : — 1. In Ontario the age of legal employment is for hoys twelve and for girls fourteen. In England it has hitherto been for hoth sexes as low as ten; but by the recent Act, — which will not, it is tr :«, come into complete operation till the end of 1893, — the limit has heen raisecl to eleven. The Berlin Lab(mr Conference of 1890 recommended twelve. I>ut while in Ontario lioys over twelve are permitted to work as long honis us adult women, in England ehildren between teii and thirteen (the age at whicli the school authority practically ceases) are only per- mitted to woi'k "half-time," (and that only on passing a certain school standard, which however the gi-eat majoiity of tlicm have no ditliculty in doing at about the ag« of ten). The English ))iiictice is in substantial agreement with the recom- mendation of the Berlin Conference, that children .should not be employed for a longer period than six hours daily, with a mininmm interval of half an hour, (though this recommendation applies to children under fourteen, while the English half-time rule only applies to th<).se under thirteen). An Ontario Statute of 1S91 does, indeed, enact that all children between eight and fourteen years of age shall attend school; but until the local authorities make a serious attempt to enforce the Act, it cannot be regarded as substantially affecting the situation 2. With I'egard t') the hours of laboui- of women and young persons the general result of the English legislation is a working week of fifty-six and a half hours in textile factories, and sixty hours in non-textile factories and workshops, while in Ontario the limit of hours is sixty. Two minor points of contrast are also of interest : 3. Night labour for women and children lias for some years been expressly prohibited in England, and the Berlin Conference recomn»ended that this example I P T [Ss should be generally followed. It is not yet piohihited in Ontario. Of course tlu' cases in which night work is attempted are at present very rare. 4. The legislation of Oennany, Hungary and Switzerland imposes restrictions on the employment of women for a certain period after cliild-beariiig, and the Berlin Conference recommended their exclusion for four weeks. The recent En cxiiinpli' of oldi-r eountrioH. l''Ki'tory Icyislation in (ircut I5ril«in liaH \h en in cxiHtciK i' for nioic tlnin half ii ci-ntury, and iiHH I'l't-n codiliiMl liy tin- Factory and Workshojis Act of ISls^ witii .sii''«i' jucnt aim-nd- iiicnls. Till' »'Xiiin]ilf of (ircat I'liitain lias hccn lillowcd liy otlii'r counlrii-H ; in EnrofK'tiy Austrf) Hungaiy, iit It^f)'.) ; liy Fraim', in lf<7t ; liy Switx-i-rlaiul, in 1.S77 ; and by (Jt-rmany, in lcS7S. In America factory l<';;islation has hccn of very recent {irowth, hut, ultliouyh rcceni. it has Ijeen rapid. Massachusetts was th(! pioneer stale in this resp(M;t, havin;; passed a Factory Act providing for inspei-tion in IHS'J. ( )hio f()liloyment of biys uad 'r fourteen and girls under sixteen for « longer period than twelve hours a day including meal hoars, or than fourteen tiours a day on Saturday also including meal hours. Such mi enactment maken no regulations whatever for yirln over sixteen as far (is the houri ,tf work are concernedy and as the majority of girls employed in shops are over that age the Act is not very far-reaching. As has been already stated there is no system of inspection under this Act. In some towns the shopdealers have combined under the early closing by-law and close their shops at seven in the evening ; but this is not as general as could be wished. 4. Hours of Labour in Toronto Stores. It will, perhaps, be well to describe the conditions under which girls are actually employed in shops in Toronto. f ' 97] 16 In Toronto the retail stores employing girls and women are the dry-goods, millinery fancy goods and confectionary stores; and many are also employed in restaurants and coffee houses. Occasionally women may be found in small numbers in other stores, but they are then generally members of the family engaged in the business. Taking the dry-goods business as the one in which the majority of girls are employed in Toronto, a distinction must be drawn between the large and small stores in the hours of employment and in the kind of work done. To begin with the large stores ; girls rarely start work before eight in the morning, and in some cases as late as nine, especially in the winter. One hour is alloweer might not be so at other times. The extremes of heat and cold in Canada cause continual fluctuation in the tem- perature of workrooms, and those that might appear comfortable at one season o.' the year would be quite the opposite at another. Under the Factory Acts of some countries thermometers are reijuired to be placed in the workrooms, and the temperature must be regulated accordingly. In the matter of cleanliness, Hlthough much may be done V)y the employers, those employed are often to blame for not maintaining the good conditions. On the whole there is every reason to hope for great improvements under this section of the Act, but like all the other provisions it only applies to man -.facturing establishuT^nt^. En the Report rl the r»ureau of Industries for 1889, the collectors for Toronto state that " iJoth men and women in store.s and small workshops suffer more from lack of accommodation and proper ventilation than the workers in larger establishments. One or more of the larite stores in Toronto employ more hands than any save the largest factories They certainly employ more children under fourteeti ami more girls from fourteen to twenty." In view of the above facts the collectors submit as a .subject for enquiry " the propriety of extending the operations of the Factory Act so as to bring all or some of these establishments under its beneficent inlluences." The " Shops' Regulation Act " provides that every one employing women in stores shall provide suitable seats and permit their use when the women ar>^ not especially engaged in work ; but, as there is no system of inspection under the Act, this provision is, to a large extent, a dead letter. In Toronto occasionally some attempt is made at enforcement, but it is neither general nor continuous. One great objection employers seem to have to allowing girls in stores to sit down when they are not actively engaged is, that it gives an appearance of dullness of trade ; and many will give a girl work to do to keep her employed when she is not serving. Some system of inspection for the whole province is necessary in this matter. This could be accomplished by including mercantile establishments under the Factories Act. Under the laws of INIassachusetts and Ohio seats are to be provided for women in manufacturing and mechanical establishments as well as mercantile ones ; and it would be well if similar legislation could be enforced in Ontario, for standing in one position for any length of time is just as fatiguing as moving about, if not more so. In the States before mentioned no girl under sixteen is allowed to work at any employment whatever which compels her to remain standing. G. Need for Further Inspection. With the present staff of three officials much has been done for the im|)rove- ment of the condition of those employed in factories, But factories are not the only places in need of inspection ; and any extension of the Act wovdd no doubt increase the labours of the inspectors to such an extent that the present staff would have to be augmented. Even without any extension of the Act it does not 2 (P,s.) I !^- 18 [luo I Hoem that the statT is sutHcient for persistent and froqurnt inspection. The Held covered hy eacli inspector is vtjry extensive. One inspector alone includes in liis district nil the west side of Toronto and all western Ontario, including eighteen counties with numerous towns and cities ; while for in.spectin;; its saloons Toronto alone has three inspectors, and the Eihication Department appoints a school inspector for every county or electoral division of a county in the province. Whether male inspector.s are sutlicient for cirryinr; out all the provisions of the Act effectively is a (|ue^tioll which his raised C')nsideral)le discu.ssion There is not tlie sli,i,'htest doubt that in matters wh(!re women and children aie concerned, a woman will i^'aiu the contldeace of iier sex far sooner than a mun, (sven in .seeking general information. In glancing over tlio annual reports of the Hiir(;au nf Itidustries for Ontario one meets many sentences like the foil )wing :^"C ilhictors compl lin of the increasing desire exhibit(!d l»y wage-earner.s, particularly by woni"n, to absr.vin from furnishing matter for statistics." And ag.iin, " Women, as you are a...„;:, are averse to giving such information, and in some cases are not ajiproachabie." As a contrast to this, it may be mentioned that in the |)ursuit of this incpiiry in no singiis c\s(^ was information refused i>y any of the many women and girls who were .spoken to ; indeed in most case- it was given willingly and even gladly. AVomen factory inspectors have recently been appointed in several States in the Union, and so far witli uncpialitied success. Pennsylvania was tlie pioneer State in this respect. Under its Factory Act one-halt of the inspectors appointed are to b<» women. New York possesses eight female deputy inspectors. M issachuseiis has tliis year appointed two women ; and Chicago has three for that city ah)ne. Several otlwr States are contemplating following the.-e examph-s ; and th?. Stites which now have women inspector.s are asking for more. Chief Wade, of Massachusetts, in his Address to tlie Convention of Factory Inspectors at New York in 1S90, declarer that " the wommi appointed possess peculiar qualifications for certain duties of factory inspection in which the comfort and health of their own sex are concerned. Many of the women appointed have long been i(hnilificd with the study of industrial (|uestions, and tliey may lie reganhid as well (pialitied l)y experience and sympathy for tlie faithful discharge of their duties." And Mr.s. Alex. Bremer, one of the deputies for New York at the same convention, justly remark(!d that "as long as society permits the hibour of women and chihlren in factories and workshops, either to assist their husbands and parents to eke out an exi.itence or to earn their own livelihood, as long as this deplorable state of things lasts, women as factory inspectors are a necessity." CHAPTFH ir.— WAOES. Siction I. — \\'iii/ps in Einiiln^nii nt.< >'Kclus!vehj Fi'.mnlr. it may not be possil)le to draw an absolute line between what is skilled and wiiat is unskilled labour, since all lal)0ur requires if not training at least aptitude; still it is evident that some employnu'nts are more easily entered than others becau.se it is not necessary to have special training for tlnnn. As might be expected the employments requiring nomparati^ely unskilled labour cannot command such high wages In tlip lomj run as those demanding skilled labour, otlier things being rrpial. The wages of .'^killed labour are subject to greater variation owing to the various degrees of proficiency from the apprentice to the finished workwoman ; while the wages of unskilled labour are more uniform and do not ri.se much above what they were at starting, ))ecause such labour can easily be supplied when needed. 1. 1 [100 101] 10 Evon in difierent luanuhcs of the saiiio employment some parts will rcfiuiro more special training than others, The very fact of tlicre being a numher of t'iii|)!oyments rt'(|uiring unskilled lahour has led, no (loiil)t, to the increased employment of yoiinL; girls aiul women. We .shall first take up those employments demanding only unskilled labour mul then consider those retjuiring more or less tiaining. The position of domestic servant.s, however, seems to fall under both heads and it will lie considered first. 1. DoiiK'sfic Sfirvanln. In Canada tiie class of domestic servant most universally in demand is the gi'ueral' Owing to the fact tliat there are but few wealthy people, in the vast majority of cases where servants are kept only one is employed : and the supply of specially trained servants is as limited as the demand for them. Girls who are able to live at liome and earn enough to partially sujiport themselves have no inducement to go into domestic service ; and in cities the .supply of domestics is kept up only l)y draining the surround- ing country of girhs who come t'j tlie cities for tiie higher wages and other advantages. In some cases too they are imported from Great Britain and Ireland. Of lute ytsars so many employments have opened up for women that the supply of domestic siTvants is rather short of the demand ; and, as a conse(juence, tlieir wages have rison considerably, so that many mistres.ses of households are obliged to do without or take incompcitent ser- vants. An ine.xperienced girl who goes " to a.ssist in li^ht housework," as the advertise- ments put it, will earn from ."?() to 87 a month in a city. A good general servant can command from 88 to 811 a month, according to her work — "with or without wash- ing." In some cases it really amounts to a cook's ])o.sition, only it seems to be the custom to call it that of a •' geniral '" to avoid such disputes as might arise over ipiestiona of work. Cooks are rewarded with frosii 81 "2 to 820 a mouth, according to the amount and kind of work to be done. Cooks for hotels and restaurants are paid higher than those in private families; because as a ruh^ the work is heavier ami many girls object to lh(; position. Housemaids are paid from §8 to 812 per month ; and parlour- maids from 810 to 81 I. In many casfs one girl does the work of both, as liou.se and parlourmaid, where it is not convenient to keep the two. Nurses get from 88 to 812. Uniler nur.ses .8:"). Kitchen maids fioiii SS to 812. I/iimdresses get as high as SIG a month. Seamstresses ? 14. Another cla.ss of servant is called "lady's help" — whose duties seem to b(! rather indefinite. The wom<'n who seek such po.sitions are those who from adverse circumstances arc in neeil of a home ami the remuneration is not the lirst consideration. 'I'he demand is perhaps le.ss than the supply. The general reluctance of girls to go into service in Canadi has been much discussed. Many point out tiiat they are really lietter off than girls working in factories or shops so far as wages and comfort are concerned. On the other hand tlie factory or shop girl has certain hours ; and when lier work is over her time is her own. Then too, many prefer to work wliere there are a number of other girls employed ; and as has been already ■itated. as long as a girl can live at home and earn a Uttle money at some light employ- ment there is no need for her to go into service. ^Moreover, there can bo no doubt that the social barrier which exists between mistress and maid deters many from service in a new country where class distinctions an; not as fixed and definite as in older countries. The work of a girl in a factory or shop is definite and soon learned, while the work of a domestic, especially of a "general," is more indelinite and varied. This indefiniteness with regard to what a girl is expected to do, and what ,she is not expected to do, is one of the c luses of disputes which often end in a notice to leave or a dismissal. Tlie fact that some mistresses retjuire their servants to do too nnich leads servants very often to try to do as little as possible. On the other hand mistresses who treat their servants kindly are sometimes taken advantage of. Girls are expectfd, in Toronto, to give at least two weeks notice to leave. Each girl expects one evening a week for herself at least, and often more are given, i'art o£ ■; ! ;>t;i I 20 [\yr2 ! : .i 1 Sunday also is given. Some mistresses only ask thiit a girl should get throut^h h(!r work, and impose no restrictions. It is next to impossible to generalize on the vaiifuis privileges and requirements of general servants. F^ach household seems to l.c a lii« to itself. The majority of servants do not stop long in one place. Of course there uic niiiny excejitions, but the fact that a girl knows that she can get a place at any tinut imikcs her more independent. In citie.s many families who go away for the summer dismiss thi' servants ; and in the autumn there is a general readjusting of service everywhere. Many girls work in summer hotels for tlie season and return when it is over. At jtresent there does not seem to be any expectation of the supply of doincstics being increased. Wages have risen, so that many families who formerly were al.l.' u, keep a servant now do without, and those who kept two or three can only keep one w two. In Canada the majority of housekeepers are able to do tiieir own work in an emergency ; so that the interval l)etween the leaving of one servant and the advent ot another does not mean a complete interregnum in the work of the liousehold. Owing to the invention of many modern conveniences it i.s possiljlo to reduce the work t ) a minimum ; and by getting partial assistance for the very heavy work many are able to do without house servants altogether. 2. Apjyrentices. Apprentices in dressmaking, tailoring and millinery are not re(]uired to pay any premium, but are not, as a rule, paid for the first .six months, At the end of that time they receive some small remuneration as improvers and assistants. Much depends on thi- special talent and adaptability of the worker. As improvers and assistants they may rtceivt; $1 or $2 a week. In stores, girls sometimes serve as saleswomen for a .short tinie for nothing; but more of ten they are paid from the start, especially if it is known to tlic employer that they are dependent on themselves. Sometimes thoy start as check and parcel hands at 81. >"'0 and §2 no a week. In the large majority of employmentH tin n- seems to be no definite regulations in regard to fixed increase of wages. Many eniployi rs, of course, try to keep them as low as possible, and this they can do when they know thai there are always many who are willing to work for what they can get. 3. Misci'llanemis Employments. In canning factories young girls are employed in ])reparing the fruit and vegetables for canning in the summer months for 81 and $2 a week. In cigar and tobacco factories girls do the stripping, i.e., taking out the midril>of the leaf, receiving on an average about §2.50 a week. In soap factories girls are employed in wrapping up toilet soap and packing it in boxes for $2 and $3 a week. In seed factories girls empty and fill the seed packets. Those emptying recei\( i cent per hundred and those filling get 1 ^ cents per hundred. At this they make from $2 to $3 a week, and when particularly expert, even more. In cotton, woollen and knitting mills there are various occupations, which arc suitrd for girls, only requiring dexterity and nimbleness, such as tending the bobbins, for whicii they earn an average of .$2 a week. In biscuit factories girls sort and pack the biscuits in boxes and label them, starting at 82.50 a week. Those who are particularly skilful pack special grades, receiving as high as 85 a week. Girls employed in colouring bamboo work with gas jets and pokers receive 1^2.50 a week. In windovv shade factories girls tack on rollers, assist in decorating and sew on fringes and ornaments, starting on 82 and $3 a week. Women employed in sorting rags for shoddy mills are paid by the bale. The work is not enticing, and young girls do not take it up. The only experience necessary is to i lo;! be al niixt "ivf rec'i to bi for rfi'i' |(;2 ; ]o;]] 21 thoic; wliiL'h are l,e (ililc to toll tho di(Vnreiice botwtion woollen, cotton and silk gooJii a id niixtnies. Women g(?t from 8- to .*5 at it. As wiiitifsscs in restaurants and cofl'ce houses fi;irls receive .•^2 and 815, and are (fiviMi tiii'ir meals Kesides, except on Sunday. Those employed from 11 a.m. to ."5 p.m. receive .*1..''>0 and their dinner. No wpecial trainin.L; is necessary, Imt a !,'irl is reipiired to l»e neat, fpiiek and alile to write a j,'oud hand to take down orders. ill l)Ookl)in(leries <;irl.s do the fyldinj,' and stit('hin£;. The wai,'eH run from .91..")0 for liri,'inner.s to .■?.">. In one lijndi ry the wai^e.s for one week were a-! follows: —One <,'irl rccciviMJ .><.">, lour i;irl.s received .■^1, .sixtetin receivod .$.'5, and ii few reji'ived le.ss. In a iiumlier of employments women are paid liy the piece, an! th'n of cour.so the wai,'cs vary con.sideralily. In .some cases (juite liii,'h washes are pail, hut thoy must lie re;,'ai'de(i as exceptional. \Vai,'es in lar^'e towns and eiti"s seem lo averai,'e more than those in siiiiill towns, whrie the cost of liviiii,' is not so hi;^'li ami rents ai'c lower. In kiiiitini; factories where woni'ii t-ii I the mi chines, nuieh d ■]) mhIs ou the kin I of ■jariiient that is imide, out .S"" a weeV seems tlui limil, a foi'ewomui Ljetiim,' a'>oul ??»'). In woolhn mills (lie \va:,'es also vary, the weavers j,'ettin;^ the liesr, piy, luit at most •'?'i, the iiver.i.;,'e lii'inL,' ^'i.''*'). In cotton mills the w.ii.,'e:s scf-m to li • si iijhtly higher on the iver.ige, weavers and weK-drawers getting over .to and .-^(J. In l)oot and shoe factories, on piece work, the women do the stitchin;', gettino; as iMiiclr !is >'7. Th(! men do the heaviest slitchim,' ami the soleing. (iirls employed in the liiiishiiig room in jmtting in laces an>l Kiittons are paid iihoiit i^'A a ueel: In '.") .seems a good average. In lanndriis, wash house women get from A;! to $'>. Starchers get from -''1.75 to 8o.o(), and ii oners get from .-: 1 to .-'>< a w(n'k. In tohacco factories women do tht; {).ii.kin'^ and men do the weighing and pressing' The women receive as high as ?rl a day if good workers. I II .">. Capmakers empioyed in stitching suft caj)s together make on piece work fi'om 8t lo -SS. In candy works those packing and tinishing start on --^^ .oQ a week. Those working it chocolate c.mdies and lo:--. 'iiges, paid by piece work get .■?.") and 8'J a week. Saleswomen in dry-goods stores get about 83 and 8t on the averago. The heads of departments get from .8 to i:'20, the a\erage perhaps being about .8 10. Tailoresses doing wholesale work in shops are not often [tiid by the piece, and earn between 83 and $1 a week. Thos(i working at hoimi average about the same, but of coiu-se all depends on steady work. Those who do custom tailoring arc paid better especially in busy seasons. Pant and vestniakers can make from $") to ."57 and coatmakers as high as .811 and 813 a wetk. Bagmakers on piece work make from .^G to 89 during the busy season from October to March — these for special ordeis only ; for the ordinary sizes of paper bags are made wholly by machinery. » 22 I 104 m I In Jt'wellcry nmmifactnrieH girls) employed at burnishing Htftrt at 81.50 and t :irii us niui'h as .94 and 8.'>. EngravcrH and cliainninkers get liitter wagcH on tlio average, Imt >,% gienis the liniit. in tin and stamping works girlH do the japanning and Holdering. !'_' aO a week ; iind when (•ap.ilpl(( they are put on piece work. At soldi ring they can earn ."-l and iji."!, Special hands earn as much ;is .■-'l,.'(lt a day. In dyeing and cleaning works, feather curjer.s gj^t ."^."i if expert. Ironers range IVoin $'.] for plain ironers to .'?7.r)0 and -"fS for fancy ironers. In pi.jieriio.x lactories wnges run from $'\ to ."rt!. Machine uperatnrs on women's and chililren's iindi rwear are generally on pieco Wdik'. The cutters get >:(> and .':=.''>. ."tU, and the machini' workers get from }<'2S>0 to i^ii. ( Jirls (Mnpluyed as bookdcpepers, assistant cashiers and in other otiice work grl from .*.'? to !^10 ; a good average being .*<"). As type-setters girls begin at •■^'J and get about .■? I wnen i'\i)erit!nced ; but there ari' not many wonu;n employed us compositors i" Toronto. tliils employed as telephone clerks in Toron'og. t nothing for the first few weeks till they are able to manage a switch ali)ne. Then they get .SI .') a month ; after tin; lirst thn e months they get S-0 a month. The head operators get i^'l't ami ^'M) a mouMi. Kor earji Sunday's work Ti'yc. is paid, and :.'.">c. for a dinner iiour if a girl iss then employed ; Inc. an hour Ijeing paid for work done after hours in the evening. The free library assistants receive .^.'SOO for the first year and $400 for the second. The head assistant gets .*4r)0 a year. Professional nurses with liospital training can command .'?14 a week for ordinary cases and )?1G for infectious ca.ses. Xouprofi^ssional nurses ask from !?.") to .*10 a week. TelegrHpJiers generally start in large olllces in Toronto as check girls getting .$11' and .?].") a month. As operators they get from .S-") to .'-<40 a month. In some ollices, especially expert operators get .^4.') and ."^i");") a niontli. Typewriters and stenographers start at S3 and •* I when they have not much e\p"ri ence, and average from §G to .'i?8 as expert workers. Public .school teadurs in towns and cities receive higher pay tli.in those in village-- and country districts. In Toronto the minimum salary for a pul)lio school teacher is ^'.','2 I a year J which is raised annually, iriespective of the grades taught, by S'l\ a year till a lUMximum of !EG30 is rcathed. jhad nu'stresses recei\-e as much as Sl,()0(t ; and in soii.e cases increafccs are made cjn account of length of service. The average salary for a wonmn teaclier for the whole province is s-JOd a year. In the High Schools and Collegiate Iiistitut(s the aveiage salary of a W(uiian assistai.t in general work is .9.''7.") ; and for those who act as specialists in any depaitment, a position fcr which a university degree is necessary, the average salary is ^^IC) ; the highest being .S1,.'J00 for a woman. ^^'omen in thc^ civil service, employed as clerks, avi rage §.">3G a year. The lowest is S 100, the highest .~?60U. AVoinen in Ontario have entered at least one of the learned prol'f ssions, naniely, medicine ; tlie nundier of lady doctors is rai.idly increasing. Some go away as imdical missionaries, others n main as local practitioners. Sectio)!- 11. — Ej)iict on Wiujcs of Compntltioii irilli mrn. " It is dilHcult,' as was recently jiointcd out at the meeting of the I'riti.sh Association, "to Iind cas(s in wliich men and women are employed at precisely similar work. In the great majority of ea?es in which tht; hiring takes place by time the inferior physical strength of women of necessity almost. always tells against them." In a number of employments, however, where tho work is not too ditlicult for women they are gradually displacing men. 10 ■ obi sti an< wa cai ev( th til Oi m. he lOf , ''lit >•;» ■started •iii^ t|l,.y i,Mit time '''irciicli I "(.Mill ' I 10.-.] ■2:\ 1. Ci'Jitriiiiiftin;/. In tliu cii^iir niiiiiufacturi' iti Ontario, in wlii.ii fornx liy men witc lur-ily cnijilnyt d, tlir work is now iiiniost cntirclv donf liy wonn'ii und ihildri'ii. In one factory of onc! liundn'd iind lilty rnipiMxi^s only tliirtctn wcri' men. Tin' olpji'it of tills ia of courst! to clicaiiiii tlio uOht of production. Tin- prdimiiiary puits of sfiippiii^ till- Iraf and liri'aliiii;,' tln^ lnuicli can lie dotic hy children with little practiif ; and ill the pust it was ilie cusiijiii to ei)i|]ioy tlieni until liiey learnnl imw {<> do it, and wanted higher waives, ami tlieii a fresh snpiiiy was ohtaiin d. Wunieii who make the cis^arH Clin L^ener.il' i :irn i^uod wau'e:-, Imt they {\o not tfel on an ave^a^e as hi^h wau'es as men even where . ley are | uid the same rate for piet e work. In Tnrontii;,'( r in tiie business. One woman who was paid tlie same, waj^eH as men on jiiec.' work siat'd that she did not make as niiicli on an nv('ra;,'e as tlie men, heeanse she did not care to risk the is8 of her healtli 'ly too close ap[)lication to woik. In the tobacco trach' wonn'ii and cliiidreii are alo largely employed. The tjirls do the strip]iiiif]j and the women make the plui^s, the men now only .; and pressing,'. Sonn.' attempt lias been made to supersede the work even of womi ii in cii,'ar- making by the ii.se of machines for that purpose; but as yet machiueinaiie cigars are not in universal favour. There is no doubt that if women were paid the same tatfs as the men they would not lie so Iai|;ely employed. m Tail, ring. In tailorin<^ women and girls work largi^Iy for the wholesale trade in leady-nuide clothing ; and the majority of the pant and vest makers doing custom wo.k are women also. Ooat-making for custom trade is doni^ by lioth men and women, but women cannot command such high wagis as men for the sanie' woi'k. For making a coit a woman will ask only two-thirds of what a man will : the probability i.eing that if she asked the same she would not gel tlie oriler. Thcf c|uestion as to whether their work is as good i.-* one on which a dili'erence of :)pinion seems to exist. In some cases the men tak'; the orders for custom work and employ girls to do the sewing oii week work, which has the advant.ige of securing steady empioyniiMit for them. Cutliiig the garments is seldom done by women, except in a small way for custom- work in boy's (lothiiig. { 'oiiiparis'iiis are ofteji drawn lietween the wai.'es woinen receive lor wholesale work and tho.-e they rcitise for custom work. A wc^maii niay receive only twenty-five cents for niakiiig a vest lor the wliolisale trade in ready-made clothing, while shi will receive S»l and more for an ordered vest, l>iit it must le remembeied iKal tie- garments are made (piite dillriently and four vehts of thi' first kind might be made duriiig the time occupied in making; one of the si eond kind. Those \\\w aif paid liy week worl not of course I'eceivi; as uood wag. is us tlios" on [dece woik. ik do 3. Siili'f is a commercial course in the high scho'ils for which certificates are granted, but the instruc- tion does not include all branches of a biisinijss education. [f a check is to be plieed on this overcrowding, the business colleges will hive to insist on some standard ot' excellence in the branch(!s of an ordinary I'^u^dtsh education l)efore accepting a p ipil, and positions should only be given to thos" who are known to 1)3 competent. Woiumi seem as fitted for this work ,is mi'n, and have p:'ove I as co npjtent where the work was not too severe. 6. Tehgrcnlii/. Jn telegraphy it is gcni'ially beli(!ved that women d) not receive as good piy as the nten. In Ontario nii'ii d) all the night work; and where men Piid women aiv' employed in the .same oflice tin; ni'Mi work the heavi(!r lines. In this employment, as i;i others, oni^ result of fhi- compi'titinn of women is the loweiing of salariiM. In a h'\ cases, it is true, women do as good work and receivt^ as gooil pay as tfonv men. In so ni' cases girls, after learning the business in Canada, have found more lucrative p )sitii) is in the States, where the salaries are as a rule much higher than h"re. That these high t salaries ave to a lai'gH extent counti'rbalanced by the higher cost of li\ing is usually n a realized before miiiratin!,'. G. TriichliKj in Public Scliools. That the number of ukmi in t!ie te.i'liing prot'>'ssio:i in Ontario is decreasing, an 1 tie- number of wumen increasing is shown from the i'jllowing lignraching in the public schools in (Jntat-io w.is .'5, 020, and the number of wone'ii 3,118. In 1S8U the number of men was 2,774, and of women r),l!)V Although ill" wlinle number of ti'aclu'rs had increas(>d liy l,l',lli in t,w(!lv(! years, the luriiber of m"ii had decreased "Jl'iI, and the number of women had increased l,."5t."). In 18^1) Mn average salary for a inalr- public school teacher was Sl'il, the high'jst l)eing ■"? I ,.")'):), ami the average .salary for a woin in was >*2',";, This diirerenci; is partially expl.iined by the fact that men hold the positions of head misters ((specially in the grad-d schools of the towns and cities, and as a onsequence receive larger silaries. Still, in the smill ungraded schools, where women have frei|uently clurge of a whole s;hr> )1, tlnnr s ilarie-i are uii- doubte lly smaller than those of in Ml in similar po^ition^. The large increase of women teachers at low salaries has led to the abandonment of the profe.ssion by men in nnst case.s, except as a stepping stone to some other work. The objection generally urgeil that women do not take up work with the intention of remaining at it for any length of time applies equally to men as far as public school teaching is concerned, especially in the smaller schools. Women remiinin this proft^ssion fully as long as, if not longc'r than, men do, and in some cases teacii equally well if not better; 106 ^ 107 25 so that there seems to be no reason why they should not be paid as well. Except in cases where the duties of a head master entail more labour there is no difference in the kind of work. In the High Schools and Collegiate Institutes until within the last few years women only occupied the lower positions, at, of course, lower salaries ; but since the advent of higlK.T education for women they have been able to take their places bf^sido the men in tcacliinj,' the same work, and the tendency at present is to pay tli(!in as well. Ho far only on. CJirls who get 'heir i.i.als at their places of business, as in restaur- ants, can get room and Sunday beard fo; 81. HO. At the Voting Women's Christian Asso- ciation rooms girls may get bi>ard ir,v ,^2.2') and ^-.TiO, and are allowe cents a week, so that tlie total cost of board tor the two girls was 5:2.75 a week, or $1. 00 The item for insurance seems large ; but as saving was impossible they felt saf(>r in knowing that in case of accident or sickness money would be forthcoming. It was also felt that the best food was really the most economical in the end, so that cheapness was not attempted. Girls who are out of work may obtain board at the rooms of tlx' Y. W, C. Association, and als(j at the Woman's Night Shelter at 40 Centre Ave. It has long been felt that some place was needed where girls without n' .ney could go in cas(> of emergencies ; and at the last place mentioned an attempt has been inaile to supply this need. It is to bf hop* d that its ellbrts may be as successful in the future as they are at present. The Y. W. 0. (luild in Toronto have liecn instrumental in providing a " Fust ' on Toronto I.sland during the summer months for girls who wish to board tlnio wliile tlif\ have their holidays, or even while continuing their employment in tlie city. TliicnL;!! th(! kindness of well-wishers lious(>s liavii been obtained I'cnt free, and the other expensrs have been met by charging the nominal chargi^of ^^I and 81.50 a week to: boaid. Uurini.; the summer of 1890 one hundred and iifteen girls in all took advantage of this opportun ity for getting a rest and change of air. In 1S91 only one house was used, but it was full to ON'ei (lowing. Oiu! large dry goods firm in Toronto, uhirb employs manygiils, established a summer homt! in Muskoka dining (he summer of l^;'.!! for sub'swomen in their holidays. This is an example wliich ought to be imitated. Lies 109] '27 I. } OUAPTKR Y.-TRADES UNIONS AND WOMEN'S SOCIKTIES. 1. 'frodtis ('ii!uti<. Trades unions of women in Ontario have not liocn nu norcus nor rrniaikably puccpss- fiil ; l>ut still tlicy havo \u en lornictl at various times. In a nnniher of cases, also, woniou have joined the men's unions. In llnniiiton, Kini;ston and ioronto, Assemhlii s of the Knights of Labour liave at various times been forn\ed ut' women alone : but at present none .*eeni to be aetivf!. In Toronto as far back hh It's;; a union wns fornud anions teleifraphers : and women were asked to Join as well as men. A .strike or-anized by tlnni having failed, the union was for the time dissolved. About 188.5 an Assembly of tlie Knights of Labour was organized of women in various oecu pat ions. It was called "Hope Asseinljly," and lasted for some time, but finally succuml)ed. About ISSSO the •' Silver Fleece" Assembly was formed, composed of women in the tailoring business. Jt is not now active. In 1881) the corset-makers organized an Assembly to carry on a strike to resist a reduction of wages. A C()mpromise is said to have been ellccted ; and the assembly has ceased to exist. Women belong at present to the cigar-makers and typographical unions, but their nundn'rs are so few that practically women are not a factor in trades unions or Knights of Labour assemblies at present in Toronto at all. Tlu' nonsiu;cess of trades unions among women is partly attributable to the same causes as the but limited success of such movements among men in Canada and America generally. Doth men and women in various trades in Canada are always looking for- ward to liettering their condition in some way, and do not expect thtMr connection with a trade to l)e permanent. This is pn.ticularly the case among those who are apt to be the leading spirits in tln^ movemer.ts. Wonu'n, moreover, have in the past lacked the training necessary to cany on such unions, and were often altogether ignorant of the nature of labour condiinations. And again, since women on the whole do not remain long ifi employmeni, benelit and superannuation schemes in connection with the unions wert; not much aii|ireciat((l. .Moreo\er there does nut exist that " class spirit " among women in employnu'nts tliat is necessary to organized progress ; and men with reason complain that it is dillicuit to operate i)lans of any sort which require unselfish action among large bodies of womc^n. There is no . In fact the forir ution of women's clubs for various objects seeirs lo lie one of the nmst noticea'nle movements of the present day. About se\-en years ago a movement was s.et on foot in New York to establish a working i;irls' society governed by the working girls themselves, for social, intellectual and moral pniposts. .V working girl's society as ch'tined by its members is, "an organization formed among liusy women and girl's to secure by co-operation means of self impro\(Mnent, opportunities for social intercourse, and the de\-elo|iment of higher nolile aims. It is go\erned by the inendters for the mendiers. and strives to be self-supporting. ' In Toronto some years ago it became evident to tho.se who had at heart tlm welfare of girls, particularly those in business positions, that associ- ations, however gocd, i'oimed on a charitable basis, were not far-reaching enough in their I 28 [liO aims to moot the needs of tlinse girls who were anxious for self-iniprovciiient. And in 188G a Young Women's Christian Guild was organized which aims at promoting tli.- spiritual, moral, intellectual, social and physical welfare of young women. Those who organized it were anxious to work ii'ilh not for the memliers. All yonng women of g.iod character iU'e eligible for membership na payment of a fee of 61 {it annum, uaid annually or in quarterly instalments After four years successful work the prrsent parlours of the guild have become inad.Hjuate ; and a large new luiililing has been erected by the aid of .subscriptions, on Me(iill Street, which is to bt- occupied in 1s9l>. At present the active membership is nearly three Imndrtd. A most imiiortant fralure ut the work, besides the regular meetings in which all the members tukejpart, is the pro\ision of a number of classes for instruction. IJotli li achers and taught are guild memb(-.\s, so that no fees are asked e.\c(^pt for the gymnasium class, whicli is obliged to ask a fee of fifty cents. Classes (>xi:st in music, vocal and iustrumenial, in book-keepintr, shorthand, dressmaking, drawing, iiainting, fancy work, luid the various liranches of an English education. The dressmaking elass is jiarticul.irly helpful to tliose \\'\\o liiul it nicessary to make tlicir own dresses. There art; several teaclers in each departniei.t ; and, as the work progresses. thos(i who startetl as pupils a.^sist as teachers. Tlie only salaried yllice is tli.it of the secntary, who tiikes eharg'' of the parlours and attends to the business generally. (!irls are assisted in finding employment and in obtaining boarding houses. The re;.,'uiar meutings have always .s inie spe;'i:d featun^ of inNir.'.-t prepiuvd for them — lectures, essays, mission:ir\' addresses, medieal tdks, s icials, etc. Tiie pirlonrs are used by the members at all times of the day ; mem ers who cannot go home at imou from ilieir places of business b-ing their lunch : and on .Monday e\-enim,' •liosis who have not lime to go honu' beloie tlu^ meeting have a te.i in tlie jiariours, Tlie .Silv(T th'o.^s CJircle of King's I),iuglit<'rs are all guild numbers it is to them tlnst tlu^ siircess of the lioardiug h ui>e has been due : and they also publish in connei'tioa with the (Juiltl a monthh nivgi/.ine called TJn- (js should foian not the le.ist important part of the work of the uuilds. CHAl'TKR VI.— Til K I'M 'TURK. it is to such organizations us these ;,'uilds that those who are looking forward to an amel'oration of the present condition of working women, turn for help. It is evident that much can be done by women themselves among thenisel v(!s towards this end. If women are to improve their condition they must know what that condition is and why it needs improv- ing ; they must realise the position they occupy as wage earncTs, in the complicated and intricate structure of modern civilized society; they must a.scertain what tendencies are i 2!» at work in their particular employment ; they must feel that it is tiieir iluty to strive to prevent such tetul-m-ifs as aie inimical to their welfare and coriscijuently to the welfare of the human race ; and tiiey must seek to discover what are the host means of hringing this about. To the attainment of such knowledge much education is yet necessary ; and in the giving and gaining of this education, much individual yelf-sacrific.^ may ho needcl. " Looking not each of you on liis own tilings, hut each of you also on the things of others.' In the struggle for existence^ women must recognize that, whatever they are or m ly become intellectually, physically they are not and never will he men ; and in seeking occupations, unlimited com- petition with men is not desirable. Tliis fact is often lost sight of by those who, regardless^ of results, urge the indiscriminate opening of all employments to women. It is often, disregarded by the women themselves, who seek ami submit to employment for which they are or evidently become physically inca|)able. True, restrictivi; measures of any kind are not apt to be popular, but they may nevertheless be expedient. To debar women from particular employments or to place certain restrictions on them seems to be a step backwards instead of in advance ; but it may be so only in seeming. A girl who had lost her health, and finally was obliged to give up her situation on account of continuous application to work, which, after some yearsexperience, proved beyond lier strength, said t) me, '• We do not know at the time and do not beli(;ve that we are over-exerting ourselves." Isolated cases of womea having shown themselves able to stand a severe pliysical strain cannot refute the fact that a vast majority of women are of w^eaker mould than men, and that o 'work has in many cases been the cause of a lite ot semi-inv.i.lidism. It is nothing short of criminal to permit, let alone to exact, an undue exertion of physical strength from women ; and it is the duty of the (lovernment to pre- vent it That women are willing, nay, even anxious sometimes, to attempt hard physical labour, is no reason for their being permitted to do so. Another result of the indiscriminate and extensive employment of women is- increasing danger to the life of the home. It is generally conceded that the family is the great safe guard of a nation's pro.sperity, and anything which would endanger it cannot but lie looked (jn with disfavour and even alarm. What does the displacing of men by the competition of women at lower wages mean if not that the former often find employment more ditticult to obtain or less ]>rotitable than formerly, and are less able to provide means of maintenance for a family 1 ^Man was intended by nature to be the broad-winner of the family ; and if family life is to be maintained such he must remain : si that the persistent usurpation of his place by unfair competition mu.st mean eventually a danger to the continuance of the home. Let women, when they wi.sh to compete with men, meet them on fair ground hy demanding equal remuneration. It is true that under the present condition of things many women find employment of some kind necessary for their support, and for such let the field of labour be as wide as is consistent with their |)hysical ability. But it is the duty of those who accept low wages because tlicy are not entirely dependent on themselves, to remember that in so doing they are making it more difficult for those who really are obliged to sup- port themselves to obtain remunerative employment. In discussing the occupations of women in this paper no reference has been made to certain learnc^d professions or other like careers which of late years have been entered by women along with men. Such occupations hare not been considered as coming within the scope of the present empury, since they are independent of any legislative control, and questions regarding competitive wages or low wages do not arise with regard to them. Whether they ought to be included within woman's sphere of labour or not seems largely a matter of custom and prejudice. If the entering of such proft^ssions or the holding of such positions can tend in any way to aid in the general improvement of the women wage-earners as a whole, that of itself is a su:ficient reason why women should do so. Whatever hopes for the future exist among the well-wishers for women wa^eearners in Ontario, much can be done in the immediate present for their benefit in the way of I .so [112 11 If'^islation. For this onil tho following; amendments and extensions of the Factory and Shops' Regulation Acts have been suggested in this paper :— 1. Tlie cliiust! limiting the places included in the Factory Act to those employing at least six persons should lie struck out. 2. Mercantile and mechanical estiiblishments where women are employed should be included in the provisions of the Factory Act. 3. The employment of boys under fourteen should be jirohibited ; and that of all l)oys and girls under sixteen in those factories which are considered dangerous. 4 The number of hours per week should be reduced from sixty to tifty-five, so that nint! hours a day shall bo the maximum, or else that there shall be a halt' lioliday on some day of the week, 5. The period of one hour for a noon-day meal should be compulsory for employe's. 6. Night work for women should be definitely prohibited. 7. Tho sectioi. of the Shops' Regulation Act, regarding seats for feuiales, should be extended to tho.se in factories and oliiees, and no girl under sixteen should be allowed to oni;age in any employment which mcessitates her standing. S. Inspection .should be provided so as to make the Shops' Regulation Act efl'ictive. Re lill'.LTOGRAPIlY. W^ i % i ■^'' ! .V, The following is a li.st of some of the works referred to in the preparation of this paper : A. — LliCilSLATION'. An Act for the protection of persons employed in factories in Ontario. 17 N'ic, cap. 39. Amendments to Factories Act in Ontario, 18811. L'Aote des manufactures de Quebec, 1885. L'Acte amendant la loi conceriiiiut la protection des ompljvi's dan.s les iuanufac- Lures. Quebec, 18!l0. Liste des etablissement.s consideres insa'.u'ores et dangereux. Quebec, 1891. ^lassiichusetts District Police, Department of In-'8."), 188(3, 1887, 1888, 1889. The Civil Service List of Canada. Ottawa, 1891. Report of Minister of Education of Ontario for 1890. Toronto, 1891. v' Report of Inspectors of Factories of Ontario. 1888, 1889, IS'.JO. Rejiort of Annual Coir-entions of Factory inspectors of North America. 1887f 1888, 1889, 1890, Report of the Chief of the Massachusetts District Police. IJoston, 1890. Ueport of the Convention of the Associations of Working Cirls' Societies. New York, 1890. « 113] 31 R EPORTS. — Continued, Report of Compulsory Education in Canada, Great Dritain, Germany and the United States. Toronto, 1891. j^ Eighteenth Annual Report of Young Women'.s Christian Association. Toronto, 1891. Third Annual Report of Massachusetts Association of Working Girls' Clubs. Boston, 1891. Seventh Annual Report of New York Association of Working Girls' Societies. New York, 1891. Rapport Annuel des Inspecteura des Manufactures pour 1890. Quebec, 1891. I- Fourth Annual R'^port of the Young Women's Christian (Juild. Toronto, 1891. Riports of Factory InspecCion in Great Britain. 1888-9-90. I