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Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-Atre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mithode normale de filmage sont indiquds ci-dessous. □ Colours J pages/ Pages wii iii .. i .j ii i. i > " v .■n w wu i i> n i >, ' ii iii M ii w k-wph ' : I /^ rtt.' //,f ^ AN HISTORICAL AND DB8CRIPT1YB ACCOUNT OP BRITISH AMERICA; COMPREHaNDINO CANADA, UPPER AND LOWER, NOVA SCOTIA, NEW- ' BRUNSWICK, NEWFOUNDLAND, PRINCE ED- WARD ISLAND, THE BERMUDAS AND THE FUR COUNTRIES; ■»: THKIR HISTORY FROM THE EARLIEST SETTLEMENT; TRBIK STATISTICS, TOPOORAPHV, COMHBRCBt FISHERIES, kC. ; AND THEIR SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITION ; AS ALSO AN AC* COUNT OF THE MANNERS AND PRESENT STATE OF TUB « ABORIGINAL TRIBES. : BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.B. 'i , , , - • * ;' ,. . .. - . . •' r, •_;:\ IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. V NEW-YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, 82 CLIFP-STREET. 1841. >.>ub>.' . .miih:-. *.J SPECIAL GOUXCniD!! 1 Entered, according to Act of Congrese, in the year 1640, Iqr Habpbr & Bbotbbbsi In the Clerk's Office of the Southern Disbict of New-York. // ^>/;; •■• v-M- A. *^i il;^; ^- ,t #^ : 6.. W If 1":'f^H\';i, :. :■ .'t :,ii w f\ -V '■■ . " // f '*■•:- ;-.'''■ -^ ^ {',;;:,:■;:■ ■>i J* ■- , i ^k i ■a v;;f^ ' '' . 1 ^^ '' t .A.'^y « ADVERTISEMENT BT THB AMT^SICAN PUBLISHEKS. The subject to which these volumes relate is otie |>osses8iQg great ioteinest to the American reader. The history of the .present British possessions on this continent is, in the different periods of their discovery settlement, and growth, intimately con- nected with our own. Bordering, too, upon our whole northern and eastern frontier, they are, throughout this vast extent of nearly four thousand miles, brought into immediate contact with us. Whether, therefore, these countries continue in a state of colonial dependance, or at some future 4&y successfully assert their claim to self-government, it is manifest that, in either case, there must be re- lations of the highest importance between them and the United States. Recent occurrences also, both in the provinces and within our own borders, and the very unsatisfactory condition of our relations with Great Britain, arising out of conflicting claims, involving great national considerations, with regard to our extreme northeastern and northwestern 87338 -^*w« | |a■ l ■l u .^ w ^w^^ '-'t^immmrrnvfir^tmrm. - Vlll ADTERTI88MINT. > boundaries, give to the subjects treated of in this work peculiar interest at the present moment. From the high reputation of their author, and the care which has been employed by the American ed- itor in preparing these volumes, the publishers feel great confidence in offering them to the public. In the English edition there were found to be great minuteness and prolixity of detail in relation to statistics, ^c, and several subjects treated of at large which could only be considered as of local in- terest. It has been the aim of the American edi- tor so to condense the work as to retain all that was most valuable, and, at the same time, to disen. cumber it of those parts which were of inferior im- portance, and which would have rendered it, as a whole, less entertaining, without being more useful, to the general reader. Notes have been added wherever it was thought necessary to observe and correct what was believed to be erroneous in the statements of the author. H. \ ' >"*• \ \ , ^^l* ; #*■ \ CONTENTS TO THE FIRST VOLUME. CHAPTER I. Oeneral View of Canada. Canada, Iti Boundaries and general Features* — Lakes— Sa* B)rior~Huron— St. Clair — ^£rie->-Niagara Channel— i^ake ntario.— Islands and Rapids of the St. Lawrence.— The Ot* tawa.— The St. Lawrence from Montreal to Quebec.— Ita lower Course.— This Region remarkable for its Waterfalls.— Niagara.— Its Description.- Supposed Clianges in its Poaition. — Lower Canada, its Boundanes.- Surface.— Dinaions.— District of. Quebec— Cit)r of that Name.— Situation ; Umwr «nd Lowor Town; Vicinity.— Fall of MontmorencL— The Bagiienay.— Lower Coast.— Shores above Quebec.— Trois Rivieres, Tpwn and District.— Montreal District.— City.— Catholic Cathedral.— Rural Districts.— Ottawa Province.— Country south of the St. Lawrence.— Settlements on the Richelieu.— Southern part of Trois Rivieres District.— South- ern part of Quebec- Lower Shores of the St. Lawrence.— Oasp^.— Ui^r Canada, its Boundaries.— Surface and £xtent. —Progress of Settlement and Cultivation.— Climate and Soil. —Divisions— Eastern Division—^Central Division.— Town of Kingston.— Citv of Toronto.— Western Section— Its early Settlement.-HuronTract.— Amherstburg.— Climate.— How it differs from that of Europe.- Gfiects on Agriculture.— Boundary Question with the United States.— Reference to the King of Holland.— Its Issue ..... P«gel7 CHAPTER n. The Native Indians inhabiting Canada and its Bor* ders. Peculiar Condition of those Tribes.— Their Physical Character. —Form-Colour— Hair «nd Beard— Bodily Strength.— Dresi. Vqu I.— B Xl¥ CONTENTS. // u —Ornaments.— Painting and Tattooing of the Skin.— Modow of Subsistence. — Hunting.— Cultivation.— Food.— Houses.— Canoes.— Spirit of Independence. — Internal Order.— Marria- ges. — Rearing of Children.— Intellectual Character.— Orato- ry. — Style of Composition. — Religious Ideas.— Importance at- tached to Dreams.— The Manitou.— Ideas of a Future State. — Reverence for the Dead.— Ceremonies of Interment.— Sa- Serstitious Modes of curing the Sick.— Indian Wars.- Their [otives.- Preparations. — March. — Modes of attacking and surprisii^ the Enemy.— Return. — Treatment of Prisoners ; Tortures ; Adoption. — Treaties. — Indian Amusements— Mu- sic— Dancing— Smoking— Games.— Diflferent Tribes inhabit- ing Canada and its Borders Page 73 CHAPTER III. I History of Canada under the French. Earliest Discoveries of the English and French. — De la Roche. — Chauvin and Pontgrav6. — De Monts.— Champlain, em- ployed by him, ascends the St. Lawrence. — Founds Quebec. —Dealings with a Party of Natives. — Joins a warlike Expe- dition. — Victory. — Torture. — Transactions in France. — Fresh military Encounter. — Foundation of Montreal. — Various Transactions. — Voyage up the Ottawa.— Great Expedition against the Iroquois. — Unsuccessful.-Difficultiesin France. — Appointment of De Caen. — Peace among the Indian Tribes. I — Duke de Ventadour Viceroy. — Rupture of* the Treaty.— Quebec taken by the English. — Restored.— Large Supplies sent out. — Death of Champlain. — Great Power of the Five • Nations. — Treaty with them. — War renewed.— Destruction of the French Indian Allies.— A Remnant flee to Quebec. — Iroquois Masters of Canada. — Louis XIV. determines to re- enforce the Colony. — Eicpedition under De Tracy.— Govern- ment of De Courcelles.- Frontenac— De la Barre. — His fruit- less Expedition. — Denonville.— His violent Proceedings.— Critical state of the Colony. — Second Government of Fron- tenac. — Capture of Corlaer or Schenectady.— The English under Phipps attack Quebec— Repulsed.— Negotiations with the Indians. — Invasion of their Territory. — Death of Ftoh- tenac. — De Calli^res.— Peace, and speedy Renewal of War. — Attempts by the English to conquer Canada. — Treaty oi Utrecht. — Charlevoix's Account of the State of the Colony. —Its prosperity. — AiVninistration of Du Quesne . . 128 it'. ! ^'' "-c:^. •^*f' *.% •****« ttf" ' ' -v" ,5. CONTENTS. XT CHAPTER IV. History of Canada under the British, War between Great Britain and France.— Advanta^ as gained by the latter.— Expedition against Canada under Woife. — His first Repulse.— Lands a second Time. — Victory. — Death. —Conquest of Canada.— State of the Population.— Their ffood Treatment. — Refuse to join the Rebellion by the United Colonies.— The latter invade Canada. — Siege of Quebec- Repulse and Death of Montgomery. — Americans driven out of Canada. — A Constitution granted.— Division into Upper and Lower. — Rise of Internal Dissension. — War with the United States. — Advantages gained by Britain on the west- em Frontier.— Or- the Niagara, &c. — The Americans take York (Toronto) and iport Geor^.— Obliged to Retreat.— Their Successes iii the West.- Fruitless Attempt on Montreal. — Events on the Niagara Frontier. — Large Re>enforcement8 firom England. — Fauure of Sir George Prevost. — Peace.— Discontents of the Assembly. — Administration of the Duke of Richmond. — Earl of Dalhousie. — Sir James Kempt. — Lord Aylmer. — Increased Discontent.— Commission of inquiry.— Earl of Gosford. — Assembly still refuse Supplies. — Resold- tions of the Britisb Parliament.— Disturbances in Canada.— Insurrection. — Suppressed.— Political Movements in Upper Canada.— Sir Francis Head Governor.— Rising and Defeat of Mackenzie.— Aggressions from the United States.— Conduct of their Government. — Mission of the Earl of Durham.— Re< cent Events Page 210 CHAPTER V. Social and Political State of Canada. Different Classes of People.— French Habitans. — Their Ten- ures.— Outward Appearance.— Mode of Living.— Religious and moral Character. — Manners in Upper Canada. — Mcrae of Living.— Native Indians. — Their Number.— Catholic Indians. — Harons of Loretto.— Different Tribes.— Effects of Protes- tant Conversion.— Government Expenditure on them.— Pres- ent Dress and Mode of living. — Religious Instruction in Lower and Upper Canada.— Education.— Political State.— Govem- xnent under the French.— British Arrangements.— Constitu- tion granted to the Canadas. — Division into Upper and Lower. -^■Revenue,— Military Force.=Justic8 ... .288 I // ^# »» *».}.. HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTI ACCOUNT|- WiT- or '■^ BRITISH AMERICA. % CHAPTER I. ;■ ey General View of Canada. Canada, its Boundaries and general Features. — Li^kes— So* perior — Huron—St. Clair — Erie— Niagara Channel— Lak« Ontario.— Islands and Rapids of the St. Lawrence.-^The 6t- tawa.— The St Lawrence from Montreal to Quebec.— Its lower Course.— This Region remarkable for its Waterfalls.-* Niagara.— Its Description.- Supposed Changes in its Position. — Lower Canada, its Boundaries.— Surface. — Divisions.— District of Quebec— City of that Name. — Situation ; Upper and Lower Town; Vicinity.— Fall of Montmorenci.— The Saguenay.— Lower Coast.— Shores above Quebec.— Trois Rivieres, Town and District. — Montreal District.— City. — Catholic Cathedral.— Rural Districts.— Ottawa Frovince.-r Country south of the St. Lawrence. — Settlements on the Richelieu.— Southern part of Trois Rivieres District.— Souti^* em part of Quebec— Lower Shores of the St. Lawrence.— Gasp^. — Upper Canada, its Boundaries.— Surface and Extent. — Progress of Settlement and Cultivation. — CUmate and Soil. — Divisions— Eastern Division— Central Division. — Town of Kingston.- City of Toronto.— "Western Section — Its early Settlement.-HuronTract.— Amherstburg.— Climate.— How it dififers froih that of Europe. — Rffects on Agricalture.— Boundary Question with the United States. — Reference to the King of HoUand.— Its Issue. Canada is bounded on the north by a range of hills seDaratinir it from the territory of the w»- *--'=---"'= WA »uo AJiuuauii 9 Bl» -^.; •<# ,im 18 '■V* GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. Bay Company ; on the east by Labrador, the €fulf of St. Lawrence, and New-Brunswick; and on the south; by the United States. The western limit is very vague ; but usage does not seem to extend it farther than Lake Superior. Canada may therefore be described as lying between the meridians of 57<> 60' and 90^ W., and the parallels of 42o and 62° N. ; being about 1300 miles from east to west, and 700 from north to south. The area is estimated at f 48,000 square miles.* Canada, in a general view, consists of a very ex- tensive plain, situated between two ranges of high land ; one on the north, separating it from the Hud'- son^s Bay territory, another on the south, dividing it from New-Brunswick and the United States. The grounds which stretch along the borders of the St. Lawrence and the lakes are esteemed the most valuable portion of it. Neither of the ranges now mentioned aspires to an alpine character; nor, if we except Mars Hill in the disputed territory,! does any part of them appear to reach 2000 feet. But they extend over a vast surface, are very broken and rugged, covered with den^e forests, while tor- rents dash down their sides, filling the valleys with numerous lakes. Both on the north, in the upper part of Quebec district, and on the south, in that of Gasp^, the hills press on the banks of the river, giv- ing to it an air of much grandeur. Higher up they recede, and form on either side a gradually-widen- ing and beautiful plain, susceptible of the most per- fect cultivation. In Upper Canada this level tract attains a very great breadth, and partly includes the basin of the noble stream of the Ottawa. On the west it appears to terminate with Lake Huron ; for the northern coast of that fine sheet of water, as well as of Lake Superior, is flanked by the mountains ; a circumstance which renders their shores rough * Bouchettc, vol. i., p. 63, 64, 173-182. «,.^,,v t The ncrthaasters poftion of Maine. ' •%» y .;^'- OBNERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 19 he Gulf on the limit is :tend it erefore 5 of 670 520 N. ; Bind 700 ated at ery ex- of high le Hud- lividing States. s of the le most es now nor, if St does ' t. But broken ile tor- Ts with i upper that of >| er, giv- 1 P they 1 widen- | St pei> % 1 tract les the ^ )n the 3 n; for i Eis well 1 itains ; J rough J and craggy. It is said that behind this tocky screen there is much valuable land still uncultivated.* But the characteristic feature of this region lil its waters, more particularly its immense lakes, l^tiich, in respect to depth and extent of surface, have no equal on the face of the earth. The Caspian cer- tainly exceeds the largest of them, separately con- sidered ; but that great body' of salt water, besides being comparatively very shallow, has no outlet: whereas the Canadian lakes supply, without appa- rent diminution, the vast stream of the St. Law- rence. The smallest of them is tossed by tempests like the ocean, and on its surface war was recently waged in ships of the first magnitude. Lake Superior is the largest of these inland seas, and indeed the most extensive body of fresh water in the world. Its form is an irregular crescent, having the convex side towards Canada ; it is very broad in the centre ; but the southeastern and south- western extremities terminate almost in points. Its length, following the line of the curve, is estimated by Captain Bayfield at 360 geographical miles, the greatest breadth at 140, and the circumference about 1500. Its surface appears to be 627 feet above the level of the Atlantic, and the shores afford indica- tions of its having once been 40 or 50 feet higher. The soundings have been given variously from 480 to 900 feet ; and the greatest depth is beheved to be about 1200. The transparency of the water is com- pletely crystalline, rendering rocks, even at extra- ordinary depths, distinctly visible.f The bottom ♦ BoQchette, vol. i., p. 185, 186, 283-294, 297, 298. t The remarkable transparency of the waters of this lake has been attributed to the rocky nature of its shores, and the small quantity of earthy matter brought down by the streams flowing into it. But the phenomenon here alluded to is not peculiar to this lake. The waters of the other great lakes are scarcely less clear, though their shores are of a quite different character, and abundance of earthy matter is mingled with the streams which Ire their iribuiaries. Is it not probable that die great purity of W '.'•.m'v 20 GBNJSRAL VIEW OP CANADA; // w\ consists chiefly- of a very adhesive clay, which speedily indurates on exposure to the atmosphere. In violent gales, the waves rise nearly as high as those on the ocean ; and though there are, of course, no tides, the wind, when it blows strongly from any one point, throws the water with cons' 'derable force on the opposite shore. In spring, too, it is some- times greatly swelled by the melting of the snows. This lake, as formerly observed, is bordered by hills, which in some places rise precipitously from the shore, and in others leave intervals of various breadth, amounting occasionally to fifty or seventy miles. It is remarkable, that while every othisr large lake is fed by rivers of the first order, this, the most capacious on the surface of the globe, does not receive a third or even fourth rate stream ; the St. Louis, the most considerable, not having a course of more than 150 miles. But whatever de- ficiency there may be in point of magnitude, it is compensated by the vast number which pour in their copious floods from the surrounding heights. The dense covering of wood, and the long contin- uance of frost, must also, in this region, greatly di- minish the quantity drawn off by evaporation.* The surplus waters of Lake Superior enter near its southeastern extremity into St. Mary's Channel, from one to two miles in breadth, by which they are transmitted into Lake Huron, nearly forty miles distant. About midway are St. Mary's Falls, scarce- ly entitled to this appellation, being merely a con- tinued cataract, in which the current forces its way through broken rocks with tremendous noise and amid clouds of foam. These rapids cannot be as- their waters is owing principally to the extraordinary depth and extent of these inland seas, the peculiar nature of their bottom, and the geological character of the region in which they areut- uated '{—Am. Ed. * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 127, 128. Darby s View of the Uni- ted States (18ino, Philadelphia. 1828), p. 200, ' OBNXRAL TIBW OF CANADA. 21 cf nded ; but canoes, though with great danger, some- times shoot downward. The more prudent avoid them by a portage of two miles. The Huron, into which this channel expand^) is the second in succession, as well as in magnitude, of this great chain. Its outline is very irregular, but may, in a general view, be said to have three sides, two facing the north and east, and belonging to Canada, while the third looks to the southwest, and forms part of the United States. Its extreme length, from the entry to the outlet, is about 240 miles ; its breadth is not less than 220 ; and the circumference is supposed to be nearly 1000. Its surface is only thirty-two feet lower than that of Superior ; and it is equally distinguished by its extraordinary depth, estimated at 900 or 1000 feet, and by the brilliant transparency of its waters. A range of islands runs parallel to its northern shore, and, with the peninsula of Cabot, separates almost com{)letely the upper part from the main body, so that it was considered by the earliest discoverers as a distinct basin. Among these islands the chief is the Great Manitoulin, seventy-five miles long, viewed by the Indians with superstitious awe as the chosen abode of their Great Spirit. At the outlet of the St. Mary the two islets of St. Joseph and Drummond are for- tified as frontier stations, the former by Britain and the latter by the United States. The coast is gen- erally rugged, broken into heights of from 30 to 100 feet, formed of clay, rolled stones, precipitous rocks, and woody steeps. Towards the north the bold ridge of the Cloche mountains exhibits several lofty sum- mits ; but the eastern territory is wholly dissimilar, and forms one of the finest portions of the great plain of Upper Canada. This lake receives the Maitland, Severn, Moon, and French rivers — broad streams, though not of long course— but its chief supply is from the St. Mary. Near its northwest- em point a strait about four mil 22 OBNERAL VtEW OP CANADA. // I. it with Lake Michigan, entirely included within the boundary of the United States. It is equ&lly deep and clear with Huron, and, though nearly on a level with that lake, is not completely so, as a constant current sets from the former into the latter. Lake Michigan is 260 miles by 55, and has a circuit of 900 miles. The whole superficies of these three lakes is computed at 72,930 square miles; the altitude of their general surface is 640 feet above the sea, while their depth shows that their bottoms are con- siderably below that level. This immense collec- tion of water is on a higher level by 300 feet tfa^n the basin of the Upper Mississippi, and might create some idea of danger to the fertile territory watered by its streams, were that country subject to earth- quakes. The Huron pours out the surplus of its waters at its southern extremity, thus carrying in that direc- tion the great chain of communication. A channel called the River St. Clair; after a course of about thirty miles, expands into the comparatively small lake of the same name. Thence issues the Detroit, a spacious stream, celebrated for the beauty and fer- tility of the adjacent country. Both it and the lake, however, are so shallow as not to admit vessels which draw more than seven or eight feet of wa- ter.* . After running twenty-nine miles, the Detroit opens into the grand expanse of Lake Erie, about 265 miles long, and at its centre sixty-three broad, its mean breadth being about 35, the circumference estimated at somewhat less than 658. The surface is calcu- lated to be 565 feet above the level of the ocean ; making it thirty feet lower than Huron, and sixty- two than Superior. The depth seldom amounts to 270 feet, and is said to be perceptibly diminishing from the quantity of earthy matter carried into it * Bouchette, vol i., p. 133, 134. Darby, p, 2Qa-«)& OINIRAL VIEW OF CANADA. w' by numerous rivers. The difficulties of the naviga* tor are increased by the want of harbours and an* ohorage, as well as by the projecting promontories, which render a frequent change of course necessary. The direction of the great water-communication, which, from the head of Lake Huron, has been near- ly due south, changes here to the northeast, till it opens into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The coasts, almost equally divided between the British and Americans, are generally very fertile. Lake Erie has acquired a peculiar importance, from having become the main centre of inland navigation. The two great canals reaching from it to the Hudson on one side, and the Ohio on the other, render it a me- dium of communication between the Atlantic, the Mississippi, and the Gulf of Mexico. The Welland canal and river, joining it to the Ontario, form a channel by which it is expected that a part even of the produce of the United States will be henceforth transmitted.* The outlet of Lake Erie, at its northeastern point, is the Niagara Channel, which, after pursuing its course thirty-three miles and a half, opens into Lake Ontario. In its progress it forms those stupendous falls which have no equal in the world, and will be afterward described. The waters, in passing to On- tario, are calculated to fall 334 feet ; this lake be- ing so much lower than Erie, and, consequently, only 231 feet above the level of the Atlantic. Ontario, the smallest of the great lakes, extends almost due east, with some inclination northward ; it is 172 miles long, 50^ broad, and about 467 in circumference. The depth of water varies from 15 to 300 feet ; and in the middle, a line of 300 fathoms has been let down without reaching the bottom. The whole area of the five last noticed ♦ Bouchette, vol. i., p. 134-137. Darby, p. 206-208. Gourlay, Statistical Account of Upper Canada (2toIs. 8vo. London. 18^), TOl. U., p. OSi mmmmm H OBKBRAL VIEW OF CANADA. lakes cannot be less than 80,000 sauare miles.* The banks are generally level, though a ridge of moderate height rises at some distance from its western and northwestern shores. They are for the most part covered with wood, though now vari- egated with partial and increasing cultivation. To- ronto and Kingston on the British, and Sackett*i Harbour on the American side, are excellent sta- tions, in which fleets have been constructed, inclu-^ ding ships of the largest size. There are several small islands at the eastern extremity, of which the principal is named Grand Isle. The long and wind- mg bay of Quints, to the west of Kingston, encloses . a very beautiful and fertile peninsula.! From the eastern extremity of Lake Ontario is- sues the stream which bears now, for the first time, the name of St. Lawrence, thouga it has also been called Iroquois and Cataraqui. Its channel is here so spacious that it is called the Lake of the Thousand Islands. The vast number implied in this 7/ name was considered a vague exaggeration, till the commissioners employed in fixing the boundary with the United States actually counted them, and found that they amounted to 1692. They are of every imagine hie size, shape, and appearance ; some barely visible, others covering fifteen acres ; but, in general, their broken outline presents the most pic- t'l; esque combinations of wood and rock. The nav- igator, in steering through them, sees an ever-chan- ging scene, which reminded an elegant writer of the Happy Islands in the Vision of Mirza. Sometimes he is enclosed in a narrow channel ; then he dis- covers before him twelve openings, like so many noble rivers ; and, soon after, a spacious lake seems to surround him on every side.| I. r .'■< * Nearly double the superficial surface of the State of New- York.— ilm. Ed. t Bouchette, vol. i., p. 151. M'Oregor, British America (3 -vols. 8vo, Edinburgh, 1832}, vol. ii., p. 533-535. t Kowison's Sketches of Upper Canada (8vo, second edition, Edinburgh, 1822), p. 46. Bouchette, vol. ii., p. 156. OIMBRIL f lEW OF CANADA. ' At the end of this reach the St. Lawrence is oIk atructed by an island in the centre, (Producing what is termed the Long Sault. The stream, rushing through a narrow passage on each side, hurries on the bark with dangerous velocity ; and the two cur- rents, meeting at the lower end, dash against each other, forming what is called the Big Pitch, The river then, expanding to the breadth of more than five miles, is named the Lake of St. Francis. At its termination begins a succession of very formida- ble rapids, named the Coteau du Lac, the Cedars, the Split Rock, and the Cascades, which, continu- ing about nine miles, completely interrupt the navi- gation for vessels of even moderate dimensions. The hardy Canadian boatmen indeed contrive, with poles ten feet in length, to force through certain flat- bottomed barks of from six to twenty tons. Huge rafts of timber are also seen descending the current ; but passengers by steam leave the vessel at one end of the declivity and re-embark at the other. Great operations, however, are now in progress to over- come these obstacles, and to secure a safe naviga- tion to the inland seas. / ,r.:^^ Y* Below these rapids the river spreads out into Lake St. Louis, near which there is a beautiful fall bearing the same name. Thiis impediment to nav- igation has been recently overcome by a canal call- ed La Chine. The St. Lawrence now receives an important accession by the influx of the great stream of the Ottawa from the northwest, after a course of about 450 miles,* through an extensive plain, gener- ally very fertile, and covered with magnificent for- ♦ Bouchette, vol. i., p. 187. According to Mr. M'Gregor, Brit. Amer., vol. ii., p. 525, this river *' is said to have its source near the Rocky Mountains, and to traverse in its windings a dis- tance of 2500 miles." He adds, that it certainly flows ten or twelve hundred miles before joining the St. Lawrence. We liave no hesitation, however, in preferring the sober statement of Bouchette to these extravagant estimates. Vol. L— C UNIVERSITY OF WINDS d'll ANY 85 OINBRAL VIBW OF CANADA. '««•'?)• "4 St ' s > •. 1*.- ests. Thene rivers at their junction form several large islands, oa t[ie principal of which is built tho city of Montreal.* Below that place the St. Lawrence presents a magnificent t xpanse, navigable for vessels of 600 tons, thus giving to the town just named all the ad- vantages of a seaport, although 660 miles from the sea. About forty-five miles farther down, indeed, where it widens into the Lake of St. Peter, it Ic comes somewhat shallow, and allows only a n^rro^'^' passage to large ships. Again, about ni^etv I'iles nearer the ocean, the rocks forming the IlaUt^lieu rapids so contract the channel as to render it unsafe unless at particular periods of the tide. At Quebec it narrows to 1314 yards; yet the navigation is com- pletely unobstructed, while there is formed near the city a capacious harbour. At 260 miles above its embouchure, it is still eighteen miles in breadth. About twenty-one miles below Quebec, its waters, beginning to mingle with those of the sea, acquire a saline taste- which increases till, at Kamouraska, 8eventy-0ve miles nearer its mouth, they become completely salt. Custom, with somewhat doubtful propriety, considers the river as continued down to the island of Anticosti, and bounded by Cape Rosier on the southern, and Mingan Settlement on the northern shore. f In considering the St. Lawrence as one of the grand hydrographic features of the globe, different views have been taken. Son;, s 'ib vrs consider it as originating ia Lake Ontar <> a: I dw th inte- rior channels as only the meL.ii:j ui uniting one lake with another. This will give to it a course of about 700 miles. Yet when it is considered that there is a continued current from the most remote tributary of Lake Superior to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, we lELy seem justified in regarding it as an entire river, 4^x*K. * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 156, 162-211. t lb. ibid., p. 164-169. •' f^' W'"".*^ »>*«* i 'tv-\ f-lr \^ ^: OBNBK\L VIEW OF CANADA. # extending upwari of 200^ miles, and forming one of the most important water-communications on the face of the earth. In this river-system a striking and peculiar class of objects is exhibited on a grander scale than in any other region ; we mean the waterfalls. These are not, indeed, like such as descend from alpine precipices, distinguished by height or by the pictu- resque forms of the rocky cliffs amid which they are precipitated ; but while the latter are usually mere streamlets, the others are mighty rivers, swelled to their full magnitude, and pouring the entire volume of their waters into the abysses beneath. Among these cataracts of Northern Amrvlca there is one which stands without a rival — Niagara. Here an immense river, after receiving tns surplus waters of four extensive lakes, projects them downward in a united mass. In general, when such large streams are obstructed by rocky barriers, they force their way through them in a number of narrow channels, with noise and impetuosity, but without any con* siderable descent. There is scarcely another in- stance where a sea-like flood, having brought its whole weight of waters to the brink of a lofty pre- cipice, throws them down in one unbroken sheet. The fall of the Rhine at Schaff hausen alone, though without either its height or volume of water, bears some resemblance to that of Niagara, which is ac- knowledged to be not only the greatest of cataracts, but, according to the general opinion of travellers, the sublimest object on earth. The ocean and the gigantic steeps of the Andes or the Himmaleh may include scenery of more varied magnificence, but probably exhibit no single spectacle so striking and 80 wonderful. W'thout attempting to convey to the reader*s mind a.iy image of this stupendous scene, which perhaps no pen can ever accomplish, we will simply state ihe elements in which its grandeur appears to ccu^p |piiNiliKi«Mne of the he whole, , in short, le display, phenome- [lere is the almost ta y waters. ) beneath, s lines of id eddies, lole atmo- inbows, in Above all, uliar char- »st efforts, y an idea, iding, and heard in rnation of s nothing le report val battle re experi- ;easeless, irast mill, onsidered diffusion ghts that 3 volume It varies here and rable cir- ake On- thought Lbove al* luded to impairs its effect ; while others, perhaps with reason, conceive that these would only distract the attention from the one great object ; and that this is more deeply felt when there is nothing seen but the cataract itself, "no sound but its eternal » roar. The Niagara Channel, as already mentioned, ex- tends from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, and the falls are situated twenty miles from the former and thir- teen from the latter. Being occasioned only by a general and not very great descent in the level of the land, there is nothing in the country around to indi- cate the vicinity of such a striking phenomenon. From the Erie boundary, in particular, the approach Is along a smooth though elevated plain ; through which the river, about a mile in breadth, flows tran- quilly, bordered by fertile and beautiful banks, and enclosing a large island. The deep, awful sound, however, is soon heard, and becomes gradually loud- er. Yet nothing appears till about a mile above the fall, when the water begins to ripple, and a little be- low is broken into a series of dashing and foaming , rapids, which form a grand spectacle. The stream then becomes more tranquil, though rolling with prodigious rapidity, till it reaches the brink of the great precipice. The fallitself is divided, by the intervention of Goat Island, into two unequal portions. The one called the British, or Horseshoe, according to the most careful estimate, is 2100 feet broad, and 149 feet 9 inches high. The other or American fall is only 1140 feet broad, and, even in proportion to this infe- rior dimension, pours a much smaller body of water. It has, indeed, some picturesque beauty, being lined by a wooded shore, and diversified by a number of small islands covered with stunted cedar. Its height is about 164 feet. The British one, however, being that in which the phenomenon is presented on the greatest scale, simple and without accompaniment. '*^ .^.-■\ m OSNERAL VI£W OF CANADA. is properly the fall. The most approved point of view is from the Table Rock, that reaches close to the waters, and forms part of the very ledge over which they descend. A daring visiter may even, by lying flat on his face, stretch out his hand and plunge it into the descending surge ; and it is from this station that the nearest view of the cataract is obtained, and its vastness is most distinctly per- ceived. An elevated spot behind affords a more ex- tensive but less imposing survey, which, however, combines^ the surrounding scenery. Nearly half a mile below, at a small chasm in the cliff, a spi- ral staircase leads the traveller down towards the water, and a narrow, slippery path, amid fragments of rock, conducts him up to the foo^ of the fall, and even a little above. To look from beneath on this immensity of rushing waters produces a peculiar sen- timent of mingled grandeur and terror. Some trav- ellers even venture into a singular hollow formed beneath the rocky ledge, where they may see in front the descending flood, and be wet only b3r its spray. Hennepin asserts that four coaches might be driven abreast through this awful chasm ; and several individuals have penetrated this recess to the distance of more than a hundred and fifty feet. t Goat Island, as already observed, divides the two falls, interposing between them its perpendicular fa- cade, 984 feet in breadth. Its length, extending up the river, is nearly half a mile. It was unapproach- ed by human foot till Mr. Porter,' proprietor of ex- tensive mills at Manchester, on the American side, contrived, by sinking strong caissons in the water, flowing perhaps eighteen miles an hour, to rear a wooden bridge 1000 feet long, and practicable for carriages. A road, now formed round the island, commands very fine views both of the fall and the rapids above. This spot is richly clothed with trees, tamong which the light foam is often seen flying. It is described as a little Elysium amid the chaos of the surrounding elements. f 6SNBRAL VIEW OP OAKADA. dl d point of 3s close to ledge over may even, hand and it is from e cataract inctly per- a more ex- , however, early half cliif, a spi- wards the fragments le fall, and ith on this culiar sen- Some trav- )w formed lay see in ^nly bjr its pes might lasm; and recess to fifty feet. js the two dicular fa- ;ending up approach- tor of ex- ican side, he water, to rear a icable for le island, 1 and the irith trees, en flying, chaos of The waters projected down this awful steep con- tinue for some space in a state of violent agitation ; yet a ferry has been established about half a mile below, across which the passenger is wafted over the heaving current without serious danger. The high level of the country extends seven or eight miles lower, to Queenston and Lewiston, for which space the Niagara rolls through a rocky channel, between high and steep banks, its breadth contract- ed to a quarter of a mile. Somewhat more than half way down, high cliffs, encircling the current in a peculiar manner, cause it to wheel round with an impetuous violence, which would instantly destroy any object that should come within its action. This is called the Whirlpool. Below Queenston the ground sinks by a steep descent to the level of the Ontario basin. The river then emerges, and again rolls a smooth stream between level and cultivated banks.* This great fall has excited an additional interest from the remarkable change supposed to have taken place as to its position. It is believed that the im- petuous waters, wearing away the rock over which they descend, are gradually removing the cataract higher up the river. By this process it is said to have receded from a point between Queenston and Lewiston, to which, as already observed, the high level of the country continues, and to have excava- ted the present deep and narrow channel more than seven miles in length. Upon this point geologists and travellers seem generally agreed, the only dif- ference being as to the rate at which the change proceeds. Mr. Gourlay, long a resident, says the oldest inhabitants think that the Great Fall has re- ceded " several paces. '^'^ Mr. M*Gregor mentions an estimate which fixes this recession at eighteen feet * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 138-146. Howison, p. 108-121. Dar- by, p. 211-213. Stuart, Three Years in North America (2 vols. fivo. 2d edit., EdiaburgSi, 1833), vol. ii., p, 142, 143. 92 •MMRAl. TIBW 0, CANADi.> fifty years. Lastly. fcrptiSS Hatf h " i°. "» <■«« in by two persons long re" Went on h^J"""* " "-eckoned. in forty years. This meatuL hJ*^ ^^J' " "•> fee by Mr. Lyell in his recem work „n '"* ?^^" "^opted consideied as theestShedtw^^°'°v.^y' "^y be It IS not without particular nfffif"" ^""^ subject.* pose a conclusion tW almost ff^?"* *« "'e o^ by the most eminent wrftera ^"^°'™»"s'y ^ormid state facts, of whir-h .if "" '^^' "'e th nic we can aware, and which se^m^^ '^f ■"« apparent?/ ^o? supposition that any consiSe^T^'l^ '» ^^fu'e th,* place, or is percep?ibl?rn 'nr„^"! '"""'«« has taken this extraordinary obj^c? ^'°^''^^' as to the site of We possess two earivH»„ • • one by Father HcZeliaZV^T''*^'^'''^ ^h; ?rn1?^l""r»%ate??^ .'vi.h the blst acToCsTvS^^«''«°ns- It appears impossible to riU^l^ "*'^'" travellers ference between them iTT" ^"^ sensible dS indeed be asserted thS; ,i answer to this, it m» J Us rocky ledgTi'n' an1±ble mf'' '^««»ns awa? may have considerably chp„„.i".^""*'" throughout stilf nearly the same dimeSi'' PJ^""' y«' 'eta"n' -pan Of coat lsll„Twtttffii^2rdr£ don, 1761 ), vol. i, n si??;!" ^"""^h America (2 vols In t^*'- ' he adds <>feet in •ckoned, 150 feet adopted maybe ubject.» we op- formed , we can tly not ite the } taken site of ) falls; ly 160 'harle- ations ellers, e dif. t may away hout, etain But ence ense i the argh, 2ino, dans , har. , I Lion- thd iich reU GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA.^ 3$ two falls, is on a line with both, or, according to Bouchette, forms along with them the chord of an irregular arc. Now Hennepin^s description, and more particularly his plate, represent the island as dividing the falls, and standing every way in the same relative position to them that it now does. But if the cataracts had changed their place in the manner supposed, they must have receded behind the lower extremity of the island, which would thus have been thrown Iforward, and appeared in front of them in the middle of the stream. If we assume Captain Hall's estimate, there must have been a change, since Hennepin's date, of 600 feet, or nearly a furlong, 'which would have caused a most con- spicuous alteration in the relative position of these objects. Some may urge that the lateral action of the falling waters might demolish this projecting front, and thus cause the island-boundary to recede along with them. Such an hypothesis seems quite out of the question as applicable to this huge mass, nearly a quarter of a mile in breadth. Even sup- posing it possible, a rock thus demolished from two opposite sides must have been irregularly acted upon, reduced to a broken and shattered state, and in some degree to a pyramidal form. There ap- pears no agency which could cut it down like slices from a loaf, so as to preserve always the same smooth perpendicular face separating the two falls, which it had in 1679, and continues to have at the present moment. No observer has noticed in this island any symptoms of progressive demolition. Mr. Howison so little suspects such a process, that, following up the common idea, he contemplates the period when it will be left " isolated in the midst of the river as a colossal pillar." From what we have stated, however, if any such change were taking place, it must by this time have afforded some mani- fest proof of its operation. It may be urged, that water acting with such stu- rim* OBNfiRAL TIEW OF CANADA. "-». pendous force must produce greater changes than we have here supposed. We would, however, refer to a fact which seems too little noticed by geologists, yet which any one who walks along the seashore may at once verify. Rocks daily washed by the tide have their surface hardened and polished to such a degree, as in a great measure to protect them against the action of the waves. Even the loosest sand, when within high- water mark, acquires a com« paratively f.rm and smooth surface. The ledge, too, over which the waters of the St. Lawrence rush, being beneath them, and not opposing any resistance to their course, is little liable to be disintegrated by their action. We are not aware of such an ef- fect being produced on any other cataract, nor does Mr. Lyell refer to any, although several falls are known to have existed from the remotest antiquity. The statements made by the neighbouring inhabi- tants are so vague, and differ so very widely, that iittle importance can be attached to them. The only changes which can be considered well authenticated are the occasional breaking down of the rocks in the middle of the great fall. Of this an example oc- curred on the 28th December, 1828, when a huge fragment fell with a crash which shook the glass vessels in the adjoining inn, and was felt at the dis- tance of two miles. It destroyed in a great measure the angular or horseshoe form, and, by rendering the line of the fall more direct, heightened its gran- deur.* In 1 818 there had been a similar dislocation of the Table Rock, other sections of which still wear a threatening aspect.f But this change was not pro- duced, as is commonly supposed, by the wearing away of the rocky ledge itself; it was by the under- mining of the bed of soft shale on which it rests i and hence the reason why the hollow space already * Hall, vol. i., p. 196. Mackenzie's Sketches of Canada (9vo London, 1833), p. 103. - >-^ ' ^ * ■>-- ^ * A ^4 Bouchette, vol. i., p. 142. .r ■ c -i . ^y.^i v-* %^^^.i ^i^M., 6CNBRAL VIEW OF CANADA. 35 is a com- le ledge, nee rush, ssistance itegrated 3h an ef- nor does falls are ntiquity. ; inhabi- lely, that rhe only mticated s in the pie oc- a huge ne glass the dis- iieasure ndering ts gran- ocation ill wear not pro- (vearing under- t rests t already lada (8to described has been formed beneath it and behind the descending waters. As this softer stratum, how- ever, is acted upon merely by the sprav thrown back upon it, the effects appear to be both limited and partial, and the consequent changes to occur only at long intervals. Having treated the subject with reference to the term of human life and the common historical eras, we feel little inclined to consider it in its bearing upon geological theories. It is only necessary to observe that, admitting the deep chasm through which the river flows to Queenston to have been excavated by its waters, it does not follow that a similar process must still continue in operation. Upon every mineralogical hypothesis, it is admitted that the strata, which form the crust of the earth, were at one time in a state very different from what they are at present; having a soft and yielding texture, produced either by th€< influence of fire or by recent deposition from water. The action of so. mighty a flood might then very easily, and in a com- paratively short period, excavate such a channel. But it is unphilosophical to apply reasons, drawn from so remote an era, to a period when the mate- rials of the land have acquired that fixed and con- solidated form under which they appear in our days. We shall now proceed to notice the most impor- tant and interesting particulars relating to the topog- raphy, &c., of this extensive country ; and first of Lower Canada. This province has for its eastern and northern boundaries the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Labrador, and the high ridge which separates the tributaries of the St. Lawrence from the rivers falling into Hudson's Bay. The northern limii terminates about 80° west longitude, where a line drawn due south to Lake Temiscaming, on the Ottawa, separates the two Canadian provinces. The river just named forms the western boundarv till ^^ fir\r\Te\&rh&s TkK^rtir^A^t a spi^rvskvuvo iuvmioiUy B-,-*— -,? -.-^ V.^-1.A.. | W. 'IW|iii w IW t-:.;r--:„ B6 GENERAL VIEW OP CANADA. i-.- whence a line drawn from it due south passes through Lake St. Francis, and extends for some space southward of the St. Lawrence. The south- ern frontier is parallel to the whole course of that great river, at a distance of from fifteen to a hundred and tliirty miles, and is formed on the south by Chaleur Bay, New-Brunswick, and the States of Maine, New-Hampshire, Vermont, and New- York. The precise limits, however, still remain dependant on the important territorial question now agitated between Great Britain and the United States.* This extensive province lies between 45^ and 52^ north latitude, and between 67o 60' and 80° Of of west longitude, making thus about 950 miles in length, and 490 in breadth. The entire area is esti- mated by the best authorities at 205,863 square miles, of which not less than 3200 are supposed to ponsist of lakes and rivers.f The northern part of this region consists through- out of a bold, rugged, and rocky territory, watered hy almost innumerable streams and torrents, and diversified by many chains of small lakes. The soil is generally unproductive, and no settlements have been attempted in any part of it ; yet recent surveys have discovered various detached spots, imbosomed among the hills or on the banks of the rivers, that appear susceptible of high cultivation. This de- scription of country comes down and borders upon the St. Lawrence, along its lower course, as high as Cape Tourment, only thirty miles below Quebec. It then recedes, and leaves between itself and the courses of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa, an exten- sive and generally fruitful plain, varying from fifteen to forty miles in breadth. Detached eminences and branches from the northern mountains serve only to variegate the surface, and give to it a more pictu- resque appearance.^ On the south of the St. Law- * See p. 68. f Bouchette, vol. i., p. 173, 182. % Lieutf naut*coloneI Bouchcttv consiucrs tuis ptain as tsr- aii-fc-i;.--.!^ WM."i^iL".i>-^._ GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 37 rence there is a similar plain, not quite so spacious, but somewhat more fertile and beautiful. The high lands cover only a small portion of its surface, ex- cept in the most eastern district of Gasp6, which presents throughout a rugged surface similar to that of the opposite shore, though including a much larger proportion of good soil.* Lower Canada, by the census of 1831, the last that has been taken, contained a population of 611,917. Its present number of inhabitants is sup- posed to be not less than 660,000. This province [IS divided into three principal districts, Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, and two small ones, [Gasp6 and St. Francis ; which last, however, is so [diminutive, and its townships so enclosed by those iof Montreal and Trois Riviere ;, that its subdivisions [have been included within their counties. Quebec is divided into thirteen counties: Beauce, Belle- chasse, Dorchester, Kamouraska, Llslet, Lotbiniere, Megantic, Montmorenci, Orleans, Portneuf, Quebec, Rimouski, and Saguenay. These are subdivided into seventy-nine seigniories, twelve fiefs, and thirty- eight townships. Population of this district in 1831, 151,985. Montreal comprehends nineteen, coun* [ties : Acadie, Beuharnois, Berthier, Chambly, Lach- jenaye. La Prairie, L^Assomption, Missisqui, Mon* [treal, Ottawa, Richelieu, Rouville, St. Hyacinthe, iheiford, Stanstead (this county includes five town- ships of St. Francis), Terrebonne, Two Mountains, '^audreuil, ^and Verchdres. These are subdivided Into sixty-three seigniories, eight fiefs, and forty-five townships, besides fourteen others newly formed >eyond the limits of the counties. The district of lontreal had a population of 290,050 by the census [minating, or, according to his order, commencing with the Gren- jyiile Hills on the Ottawa ; but as the upper banks of that river are still more level than those of the St. Lawrence, that cluster I seemingly can only be considered a branch from the great north* ! em range. * Bouchette, vol i., p. 185, 281-2SG, 298-304, 324. 38 OBN£RAL VIEW OF CANADA. f • of .831. Trois Rivieres includes six counties: Champlain, Drum mend, Nicolet, St. Maurice, Sher- brookc, and Yamaska ; subdivided into twenty-five seigniories, nine fiefs, and fifty-three townships; population 56,570 in 1831. Drummond is partly, and Sherbrooke almost wholly, composed of town- ships belonging to St. Francis. Gasp6 contains only two counties, Bonaventure and Gasp^, com- prising one seigniory, six fiefs, and ten townships : population as above, 13,312. It may be observed, that large portions of the three principal districts, and, indeed, the most valuable part of Trois Rivieres, are situated on the south side of the river.* The subdivisions above stated, founded upon the feudal system, according to which the French set- tlers were established, is important to them as con- nected with various judicial and political arrange- ments, but have little interest for the general reader. The district of Quebec occupies the whole coast watered by the gulf and river of St. Lawrence, from the eastern limit of the cci jny to the mouth of the river St. Anne, about thirty miles below Trois Ri- vieres, and thence in a direct line to the northern boundary. The greater part of this extensive sec- tion belongs to the uncultivated portion of the coun- try, and presents a chaos of mountains, lakes, and torrents, tenanted only by wild beasts and a few wandering Indians. At Cape Tourment, however, it begins to give place to a tract of a much more pleasing character; and though still traversed by rugged eminences, it contains much fertile land, which is described as being at once romantic and beautiful. V > In the midst of this fine landscape stands Quebec, the capital of British America. It is seated on a promontory stretching out into the river, which, by means of it and Point Levi on the opposite side, is narrowed to about three quarters of a mile, though * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 175-J8J w.*^| lA. GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 39 ix counties: aurice, Sher- I twenty-five I townships; nd is partly, sed of town- sp6 contains Gasp^, com- i townships: be observed, pal districts, rois Rivieres, ver.* Jed upon the French set- them as con« ical arrange^ ineral reader. whole coast wrence, from mouth of the )w Trois Ri- the northern Ktensive sec- of the coun- 3, lakes, and s and a few nt, however, much more traversed by fertile land, om^ntic and nds Quebec, seated on a jr, which, by osite side, is mile, though immediately below it spreads out into a wide basin. Cape Diamond, the most elevated point of the city, is reckoned by an eminent traveller 1000 feet high ; a proof of the fallacious nature of such estimates, since the more accurate observation of Bouchette fixes it at 345. Above a hundred feet lower is an elevated plain, on which are built the castle and the whole of what is termed the upper town. Thence i perpendicular steep of above 200 feet descends to the banks of the St. Lawrence ; and in the narrow interv^ between this precipice and the river is the lower town, the crowded seat of business and ship- ping. The scenery of Quebec and the surrounding coun- try is described by all travellers as rivalling in pic- uresque beauty the most favoured parts of the earth, ^he navigator who ascends the St. Lawrence, after e has passed the Isle of Orleans and entered the broad basin already mentioned, where he first comes in sight of this capital, is struck with intense admi- ration. He sees its citadel crowning a lofty cliflf, its castle and batteries overhanging a range of for- midable steeps, the river crowded with numerous vessels of every form and size, from the huge timber- aft to the bark canoe. The fall of Montmorenci ppears dashing its white foam almost to the clouds ; nd on each side is a long range of fertile and beau- iful shore. On ascending Cape Diamond a still rander and more extensive panorama bursts upon is view, combining all the boldness of rude with he richness of cultivated nature. Up and down the agnificent stream of the St. Lawrence is a reach f more than forty miles, on which sails almost Innumerable are in ceaseless movement. Below is the beautiful Isle of Orleans; while the opposite coast is diversified by a great variety of natural and cultivated scenery. To the north appears the river St. Charles, winding amifl fertile valleys and hills, with villages hanging on their sides ; while the pros- pect is closed by a bold screen of mountains. '^ Mr *, 40 OBNBRAL VIBW OP CANADA. '^r Weld prefers the views from the upper town, where, though fewer objects are seen, they appear more distinct and brilliant. This traveller, after visiting a great part of Europe and A.merica, gives to them a preference over everything that he had observed on either continent. IVlr. McGregor considers them similar, but much superior to those from the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling. Quebec, from its situation and the care with which it has been fortified, is a very strong town, and con- sidered the chief bulwark of British America. On the summit of the lofty headland just described stands the citadel. The rock consists of gray gran- ite mixed with quartz crystals, and a species of dark- coloured slate. About forty acres are here covered with works, carried to the edge of the precipice, and connected by massive walls and batteries with the other defences of the place. The main body of the fortress, however, consists of the upper town, whose fortifications enclose a circuit of about two miles and three quarters. The face of the hill towards the river is so extremely precipitous, that it requires only a common wall to protect it, though the gate leading from the lower town is defended by heavy cannon, and the steep approach by Mountain-street is enfiladed and flanked by many guns of large cal- ibre. As the declivity towards the interior and the plains of Abraham does not present the same abrupt race, but descends by successive ridges, it has been strengthened by a series of regular works, including ditch, covered way, and glacis, with some exterior defences to obstruct the approach of an enemy. It seems probable, therefore, that the place would hold out against any attack till the approach of the rigo- rous winter should compel the assailants to raise the siege. The upper town, which these fortifications en- close, forms the chief part'of Quebec, and the resi- dence of all the principal inhabitants not engaged in trade, it is a tolerably handsome old-looking iitU!*ji'.».ia..£'-' A. GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 41 :own, where, ippear more ifter visiting ives to them I ad observed nsiders them n the castles e with which writ and con- merica. On 9t described )f gray gran- iciesofdark- lere covered recipice, and 'ies with the I body of the town, whose vo miles and towards the it requires gh the gate ed by heavy ntain-street of large cal- rior and the ame abrupt it has been s, including me exterior enemy. It would hold of the rigo- its to raise cations en- nd the resi- ot engaged old-looking town; the houses being mostly of stone, partly roofed with tin. The streets are well paved, and in some instances macadamized, but they are much too narrow, and the broadest does not exceed thirty- two feet. St. Louis-street, the almost exclusive residence of the fashionable circle, has been lately adorned with several elegant mansions. The public buildings are commodious and substantial, without much pretension to architectural ornament. The castle of St. Louis, a large, plain, baronial-looking edifice, forms the dwelling of the governor. It com- prises a space of four acres, once fortified ; but the ,>great extension of the works has rendered its walls *|BuperfIuous, and they are allowed to go to decay. The lower town is a narrow, crowded range of uildings, extending along the base of the precipice. The spot on which it stands is entirely the creation of human industry ; for originally the waves at high water beat the very foot of the rock. Wharves, however, have been founded and carried out into the river, though nowhere farther than 240 yards ; and on these streets have been erected. So limited, indeed, is the space, that the quarter beyond Cape Diamond communicates with the rest only by a path cut in many places through the solid rock. On the inland side of the fortress, stretching more than a mile into the interior, are the large suburbs f St. Roch and St. John. > - ^^ j The sociei)^ of Quebec is more gay and polished * than is usual in colonial cities, where the pursuit of V, wealth forms too often the sole object of the inhab- ^itants. Here, besides merchants, there are a num- ber of British civil and military ofhcers, and a body **| of French noblesse, living on their domains. These ' different classes do not, it is said, always thorough- ly amalgamate. The French, though often superior in manners and habits, are in some degree disdained by the ruling people, which they do not well brook. Among the English themselves, the chief test of H»' SPPW 42 GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 1 II rank is an introduction at the castle, without which strangers will find themselves placed below those whom they would have been classed above in the mother country. The cultivated country northward of Quebec does not extend far, being closely hemmed in by the range of mountains. Immediately westward, in front of the fortifications, are the Plains of Abraham, memo- rable as the scene whereon Quebec was gained by the gallant Wolfe, and whence only it can be suc- cessfully assailed. The summit, indeed, is 330 feet high, which does all but command that loftiest pinna- cle on which Fort Diamond stands. As some secu- rity against this dangpr, four martello towers have been so placed as to range over the whole plain. Crossing the St. Charles, and going eastward, we reach the Falls of Montmoreiici, one of the most picturesque objects in all America. They do not, indeed, pour down that immense flood of water which renders Niagara so wonderful ; but the height is greater, being 240 feet, and the stream descends the whole of this vast steep in one white sheet of foam. It is received into a vast basin, whence arise clouds of vapour that display the most brilliant tints of the rainbow. M. Bouchette imagines that even Switzerland, though it contains much loftier falls, has none which descend in so unbroken a mass. He overlooks, we think, the Staubbach, whose stream, however, is less copious than that of M ont- morenci. In winter, when the falling waters con geal into icicles, these accumulate above each other, till they on some occasions swell to an amazing magnitude, and present a most curious spectacle. Beyoud Montmorenci, the country, though some- what rugged, continues to be cultivated and even traversed by commodious roads. Here occur the villages of Chateau Richer and St. Anne. Imme- diately after, it is necessary to cross the precipitous mountain forming Cape Tourmentj about 1890 feet J ' I i GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA; high, and the commencement of a long- series of similar heights, called ** the Capes," which render this part of the St. Lawrence grand but desolate. The coast below Mai Bay becomes altogether wild and desolate, while a facing of sandhills to- wards the water renders its aspect still more dreary. This continues to the mouth of the river Saguenay, one of the boldest features in this remarkable coun- try. It has been traced upward only to Lake St. John, about 140 miles from its mouth. That ex- panse, estimated at 100 miles in circumference, was found by M. Bouchette receiving large rivers from various quarters ; but as to their sources and relative magnit'ide nothing certain is yet known. At some distance Lelow, sixty miles from the mouth, the Bay des Has presents a magnificent harbour, capable of receiving the largest ships, and surrounded by vast tracts of fertile territory. The Saguenay is navi- gable for vessels of great bulk two leagues above its junction with the Chicoutimi. About five miles farther down, the level character of its banks ceases, and, to the point where it falls into the St. Law- rence, they are bold, steep, and rocky, shooting up sometimes into precipitous cliffs 2000 feet high, thinly clad with fir, birch, and other trees of a northern climate. The breadth, unless when it spreads into small lakes, seldom exceeds half a mile; but the depth is very extraordinary, vary- ing from 600 to 900 feet. Upon joining the great river now mentioned, here eighteen miles broad, it changes for some space the direction of the stream: and presents the remarkable circumstance that while the St. Lawrence at this place is only 240 feet deep, the Saguenay, above the junction, approaches to a thousand. Below the Saguenay there is still a coast pertain- ing to Canada 665 miles in length, but of a very un- inviting description. The land gradually loses its lofty character, and at Portneuf, forty miles farther -~. - - -- > L - ifl.^ JEfv> -. u GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. l^ down, it presents only eminences of moderate ele« vation. Beyond the immediate border it is a deep swamp covered with moss ; while the interior, ac- cording to the report of the Indians and Esquimaux, by whom alone it is traversed, is composed of rocky cliffs, and low hills scattered over barren plains, diversified with thick forests of stunted pines, and checkered with small lakes."* Returning to Quebec, and surveying the part of ithe province above that capital, we discover an en- tirely different scene. The bold range of the nor- thern mountains gradually disappear, and the coun- try, first diversified by various eminences, afterward sinks into a level plain. This territory is traversed by considerable rivers, fed by the mountains and lakes of the upper country, and flowing with a full and rapid current. These are chiefly the Portneuf, the Jacques Cartier, and the St. Anne, of which the last is the largest, and at its mouth the boundary of the province begins. Generally, this region has a smihng appearance, comprising the concessions, or fiefs and seigniories held by iho French Canadians, under regular though not very full cultivation; a considerable space being usually left in the rear, for the mere purpose of supplying timber and fuel. Closely following each other, they form almost one continued village, with neat churches at short dis- tances ; a pleasing though not varied scene. The district of Trois Rivieres, extending from the mouth of the St. Anne to the upper part of Lake St. Peter, is less important and populous than the two others ; yet it embraces a great extent of fertile land, though chiefly on the southern side of the St. Lawrence. The principal town, bearing the appel- lation of the district, lies at the mouth of the 3t, Maurice, a large tributary stream, which, being di- vided by islands into three branches, at first sup- * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 168, 169, 283-i,D4. M'Gregor, vol. ii., p. 467-470. GENERAL VIEW Of CANADA* 45 posed to be distinct, has given this name to the place. It was founded in 1618, in contemplation of its becoming the main emporium of the fur-trade ; but since that traffic has been extended into the more remote regions of America, Montreal was found a much more convenient station, and has ab- sorbed it almost entirely. The town, in 1825, con- tained 2453 inhabitants, and was supposed, in 1831, to have increased to about 4000. The rural districts of Trois Rividres, so far as they lie northward of the St. Lawrence, form a con- tinuation of the same kind of territory, already de- scribed as stretching from Quebec, and in general flatter, and capable of more uniform cultivation. To the westward, especially in ascending the river, it presents a succession of flourishing settlements and gay villages, occurring every eight or nine miles. The district of Montreal, if not the most exten- siye in Lower Canada, is at least that which con- tains the greatest proportion of valuable land. Commencing at the western boundary of Trois Ri- vidres, it extends along the St. Lawrence, but in that direction terminates where Upper Canada be- gins, not far above the capital. It shoots, however, ^ long branch up the Ottawa, embracing all the northern bank of that river, till it is bounded, along with the lower province, by Lake Temiscaming.* Montreal, the chief town in this district, though not ranking as a capital, is equal to Quebec in magnitude, and superior in commercial importance. Its greatness is likely to increase, from its favour- able situation and the growing prosperity of Upper Canada, of which, as being the highest point of the St. Lawrence to which vessels of the first class can ascend, it must always continue the emporium. * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 209. Evans, Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Agriculture in Canada (Supplement, 1836), p. 62. Reports of Canada Commissioners (February, 1837), Ap* pendix to Genera!^ p. 3, 16 GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. "^t- I! The site of this town does not present those bold and grand features which distinguish the Canadian metropolis, though its beauty can scarcely be sur- passed. The river, in this finest part of its course, divides itself into two channels, enclosing an island thirty-two miles long and ten and a half broad, which forms one of the most favoured spots on earth. The soil, everywhere luxuriant, is cultivated like one great garden, to supply the inhabitants with vegetables and fruits. These last are of the finest quahty, and the apples especially are said to display that superiority which so remarkably distinguishes them in the New World. Although the island pos- sesses in general that level surface which fits it for a thorough cultivation, yet about a mile and a half northeast rises a hill 550 feet high, commanding a noble view over the fertile country, which is water- ed by the several branches and tributaries of the St. Lawrence. The city, built on the southern border of this fine island, is not crowded, like Quebec, into a limited space, which can alone be covered with streets and habitations. It has a wide level surface to extend over; so that even the older streets are of tolerable breadth, and several of them occupy its entire length. The principal one. Rue Notre Dame, con- siderably exceeds half a mile in extent, and con- tains many of the chief public buildings. There is an upper and a lower town, though the difference of elevation is very slight ; but the former is much the more handsome of the two. The seven suburbs are not, as in the older capital, detached and extra- neous, but on the same level, and immediately ad- jacent. Their streets, continued in the direction of those in the body of the place, are regular, and display many handsome houses. The vicinity is adorned with beautiful villas. Of the public edifices, the new Catholic Cathedral, completed in 1829, is undoubtedly the most splen- OENBRAL VlfiW OF CANADA. 47 ^id) and is, in fact, superior to any other in British America. Its style is a species of Gothic ; it is 255 feet six inches in length, and 134 feet six inches in breadth. The flanks rise sixty- one feet above the terrace ; and there are six towers, of which the three belonging to the main front are 220 feet high. It is faced with excellent stone, and roofed with tin. The principal window is sixty-four feet in height, and thirty-two broad. On the roof has been formed a promenade seventy-six feet by twenty, elevated 120 feet, and commanding a most delightful view. The interior contains 1244 pew^, equal to the ac- commodation of at least 10,000 persons. The harbour of Montreal does not seem to have received all the attention which its importance mer- its. It is somewhat confined, and has no wharfage, though close to the bank in front of the town is a depth of fifteen feet, sufficient for the largest vessels which ascend to this point. Its chief disadvantage consists in two shoals, and in the rapid of St. Mary^s^ about a mile below, which vessels often find it dif- ficult to stem. Important improvements are now contemplated, and a grant for the purpose has even been voted by the legislature. In considering the rural districts of Montreal, soi far as they extend northward of the St. Lawrence, we shall begin with the tract reaching down to the province of Trois Rivieres. It presents an aspect similar to that of the whole coast from Quebec, but still more level, and also more fertile and populous. It forms one uninterrupted succession of flourishing settlements, with villages on a larger scale than in the lower districts.* The portion of Montreal district on the St. Law- rence extends to Pointe au Baudet, fifty-five miles above the capital, where it meets the boundary of Upper Canada. This tract, between the St. Law- .:*. « Bouchette, vol. i., p. 209-211, 232, 233. ^^\^&^ '**t -rr^ u eXNSRAL VIEW OF CANADA. rence and the Ottawa, forms the county of Vvi* dreuil ; it is level, diversified only by a few geptie hills, and it also very fruitful. La Chine is about eight miles above Montreal, where the navigation is interrupted by the fall of St. Louis, to obviate which, the fine canal bearing its name has been erected, at an expense of about 6i57,000 dollars. The Ottawa province, extending about 350 miles along the northern bank of that great river, forms, as it were, a very extensive wing, detached from the dis- trict and from Lower Canada, while the upper prov- ince extends opposite to it along the southern bank* Thus the boundary between these two territories, which at first nms due north as soon as it strikes the Ottawa, stretches first northwest, and then al- most due west. This extensive tract is as yet by no means occupied or improved in proportion to its natural capabilities. The numerous obstacles to the navigation, though now in part removed, have doubtless greatly retarded its settlement. It now only remains to notice the part of Lower Canada southward of the St. Lawrence. Though politically connected with the northern portion, it is so completely separated by the broad expanse of the , river, and bears so distinct a character, that we fol- low M. Bouchette^s example in treating it separately. Though less extensive, and containing no large towns, it is in many districts equally fertile and well cultivated, and the cities are dependant on it for a large proportion of their supplies. The most valuable part of this tract is that at- tached to the district of Montreal. It consists chief- ly of a very extended plain, almost completely flat, except that some detached hills, shooting up to a considerable height, diversify the surface. The Richelieu, the chief river, called also Sorel or Chambly, flows out of Lake Champlain, and is nav- igable more than half way up for steam-vessels not drawing more than four feet water. It cannot bo '*'. ■:'-'\:.'- GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 49 compared witb the St. Lawrence in grandeur; but in picturesque beauty few tracts can surpass this lovely plain, covered with fruilful fields, luxuriant meadows, smiling villages, and variegated by tow- ering peaks. The soil throughout is generally of such exuberant fertility, that it bears the appellatioa of the granary of Lower Canada. The portion of this southern district which belongs to Trois RiVidres is watered by fine rivers. The St. Francis, from a lake of the same name, flows due north, and, «v'ter traversing many fruitful dis- tricts, falls into Lake St. Peter. The Nicolet falls into the St. Lawrence, a short distance above Trois Rividres, and supplies the means of a great inter- course with that place. The Begancour has falls, said to be nearly equal in beauty I'o those most ad- mired in Lower Canada. Though this district is al- most entirely rural, there are villages near the mouths of the rivers ; none^ however, of much con- sequence.* The whole tract along the St. Lawrence and the Richelieu, extending inward from the bank eight or ten miles, has been granted in seigniories, formed into concessions, and cultivated to a considerable ex- tent, though many tracts in the rear still remain cov- ered by the original forests. But a large territory in the interior, reaching to the American frontier, and situated along the smaller rivers, had totally escaped the attention of these original colonists; though, notwithstanding occasional swamps, it forms one of the finest portions of Lower Canda. Instead of the flat p!ain which borders the great rivers, it presents an undulating surface, finely wooded and diversified by numerous streamlets, which render it particularly well adapted to pasturage. The climate is some- what milder than in the vicinity of Montreal, while it has the advantage of being healthy, and altogether * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 299-306, 350. Commissicners' Re- ports, Appen4iz to General, p. l, 2. ¥T - _ T a.. Il I ■ AO GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. free from the ague, which inflicts variotis parts of the upper province. The tracts on this side of the river belonging to the district of Qi ebec embrace a great extent of coast ; but the sett ements do not extend far into the interior. The possession of a portion, too, amount- ing to 6,400,000 acres, i^ still under discussion with the United States.* The aspect of the territory, as compared with the western, is decidedly bold and hilly, though not mountainous, as on the opposite shore. This territory is watered by nuraerows riv- ers, full and rapid, though, from being closely hem- med in by high land on the south, they have not so long a course as those farther west. The principal are the Chaudiere, Du Sud, St. Anne, Quelle, Green River, Rimouski, Great Mitis, and Matane. The tract watered by the Chaudiere, the largest of these rivers, is hilly and broken, the soil light, and in some places stony, yet, on the whole, fertile ; and the vicinity of the capital has led to its careful cul- tivation. It derives very great advantages also from the Kennebeck road leading from Quebec to Boston, and completed in 1830, by which its agricultural pro- duce is conveyed to a good market, and large sup- plies of live stock transported. The fall on the Chaudiere forms one of the most picturesque objects in America. If it does not equal the grandeur of Niagara and Montmorenei, it possesses features more interesting than either. The river is here narrowed to the breadth of between 300 and 400 feet, and the height does not exceed 130. It de- scends, too, not in one continuous sheet, but is bro- ken by projecting rocks into three channels, which, however, unite before reaching the basin below. Nothing, therefore, is on the same great scale as in its two rivals ; yet it surpasses both in the magnifi- cent forests by which it is overhung, who«e dark fo- . ■ ■; * See page 681 r • -. ^->- ':• GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 51 iiage, varied and contrasted by the white foam of the cataracts, product" the most striking effects. These are heightened by the deep and hollow sound of the waters, and the clouds of spray, which, when . illumined by the sun, exhibit the most brilliant vari- ety of prismatic colours. A succession of rapids for some space upward displays a continuation of the same bold and beautiful scenery. For a considerable space below the Chaudidre, the shores of the St. Lawrence continue fine and wel. cultivated. The river Du Sud, in particular, about thirty-five miles from Quebec, traverses a plain so level and fruitful as almost to dispute with the Richelieu the fame of being the granary of Low- er Canada. - About ninety miles below Quebec, Ka- mouraska, the most frequented watering-place in Canada, has risen to great importance. Visiters are attracted by the salubrity pf the air and the fine scenery. Below Kamouraska, the country is diversified by more abrupt eminences, while population and cul- ture become more limited. The least improved portion of this section of Low- er Canada is the district of Gas p^. It forms an ex- tensive peninsula, having on the north the river, and on the east the gulf, of St. Lawrence : on the south, the Bay of Chaleur, penetrating deeply into the land, separates it from New Brunswick. Gasp6, having thus a circuit of about 350 miles of coast, enjoys a favourable position for fishery, which has hitherto been the chief employment of its inhabitants. The fishery is chiefly of cod, carried on by open boats, with the aid of a few larger vessels. Since 1815, the timber trade has become an important resource. Having thus taken a general survey of Lower Canada, we proceed to speak of the Upper Province. Upper Canada comprehends an extensive range of territory, considered till lately a mere appendage to the Lower Province, but now fast rivalling it in 63 GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. •f- 1 . wealth and population. Its eastern boundary, as defined by the proclamation of 1781, is a line drawn from the St. Lawrence, a little above Montreal, due north to the Ottawa, and then ilong that river to Lake Temiscaming. Thence it again stretches due north to the mountainous border of the Hudson's Bay territory, which forms the northern limit. On the south it has the winding shores of Lakes Onta- rio, Erie, Huron, and Superior, with the channels connecting them, and generally ranked as portions of the great stream of the St. Lawrence^ On the other side of this water-boundary is the territory ot the United States. The western limit is much more vague, being, by the proclamation just mentioned, merely stated to be that of **the country commonly called or known by the name of Canada." M. Bou- chette seems to adhere most closely to established ideas, when he fixes it at the head of the streams which fall into Lake Superior, and thus extends it to about 1170 west longitude. This extensive province consists almost through- out of one uniform plain. In all the settled and surveyed portion, at least, there is scarcely an emi- nence deserving the name even of a hill ; th^igh it is traversed by two ridges of considerable extent, which decidedly mark the different levels of the country. The principal one passes through nearly its whole length from southeast to northwest, sep- arating the waters which fall into the St. Lawrence, and the lakes from those which are tributary to the Ottawa. The highest point is supposed to be the greatest elevation of the Rideau Canal, about forty miles north of Kingston. It is 290 feet above the Ottawa at Bytown, but only 160 higher than the level of Lake Ontario. Towards these opposite limits the surface descends at the rate of only about four feet in the mile, exhibiting to the eye no sen- sible departure from a complete plain. The high ground^ however, after passing the limits of settle- \^. \ OBNERAL VIEW OP CANADA. 68 ment, about eighteen miles northward of Lake Bal- sam, becomes connected with a somewhat loftier range, which continues in nearly the same direction beyond Lakes Huron and Superior, till it joins the mountainous frontier of the Hudson's Bay territory. The other ridge begins near the eastern extremity of Ontario, to which it runs nearly parallel, and pro- ceeds in the same direction to a point about twenty- four miles northwest from Toronto, where it sep- arates the tributaries of that lake from those of Hu- ron. It now turns to the southeast, and, running be- tween Ontario and Erie, crosses the Niaf^^ara, form- ing its stupendous falls, and terminating on the Genesee, in the United States territory. Although no part of it can aspire to the appellation of mount- ain, it has a more sensible elevation than the former ridge, and even rises into some bold heights. T]\e whole of this territory is estimated to con- tain about 141,000 square miles, or nearly thre^ times the extent of England. The only portion, however, that is yet surveyed or at all settled, is that bounded by the eastern coast of Lake Huron, and a line drawn thence to the Ottawa. This is estimated by M. Bouchetie to contain about 33,000 square miles, or 21,000,000 acres.'* Upper Canada, down to the period when it was conquered by Britain, was in a very wild and unre- claimed condition. With the exception of the small location on the banks of the Delroii;, it contained only detached posts at great distances, formed for miUtary defence and the prosecution of the fur-trade. After the peace of 1763, when the possession of it was confirmed to this country, a proclamation was, issued, fixing allotments of land to reduced officers and discharged soldiers. These grants, however,, appear to have been sought chiefly in the vicin- ity of the capitals and cultivated districts, and to .. ; *• * nour.hAtiA. vnl i n fiil^71 E2 •» r* 54 OP.NERAL VIEW OF CANADA. have scarcely at all extended into the great forest domain. 'J'he real settlement of Upper Canada took place in 1783, at the close of the first American war. At that time not only a large body of troops were dis- banded, but many inhabitants of the United States, ivho had adhered to Britain during this unfortunate contest, sought refuge within her colonies ; and as these'last were generally in a stale of great desti- tution, the government felt disposed to treat them liberally, and afford the utmost possible compensa- tion for their losses and sufferings. With this view, the whole land along the St. Lawrence above the French settlements, and also on Lake Ontario, to and around the Bay of Quinte, for the space of 150 miles, was formed into townships, originally entitled First, Second, Third, but to which regular names were afterward attached. These settlers were termed the United Empire Loyalists; and not only re- ceived an ample supply of land, but farming utensils, building materials, and subsistence for two years. A farther engagement was made, that every member of their families, on attaining the age of twenty- one, should have a fresh donation of 300 acres ; a promise which has been strictly fulfilled. Military grants were at the same time bestowed, at rates varying from 5000 for a field oflScer to 200 for a private soldier. These new occupants, many of whom had been accustomed to agricultural labour, and even to the improvement of forest land, soon produced a wonderful change, and converted a great extent of wilderness into fruitful fields. On the site of Fort Froutenac was founded Kingston, which gradually rose into a place of importance At the same time, other emigrants, in consideration of local habits and attachments, were settled upon the Ni- agara channel, and upon that part of the Detroit not previously occupied. Ill i79i Upper Canada had attained to such im- -^. GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 65 sucn im- portance, that, when Mr. Pitt determined to bestow a constitution on the colony, he formed this part into a separate government, giving to it the name of Upper, and to the early seitlftd-dibtricts that of Lower Canada. The former was not suppo- sed, after all, to contain at that lime above 10,000 inhabitants. General Simcoe, however, in 1704, founded the town of York, which was fixed on as the seat of government, and made the most strenu- ous efforts to encourage colonists to settle in the neighbourhood. They came in considerable num- bers, though chiefly from the United States. It was not till 1803 that, through the exertions of Col- onel Talbot, emigration from Britain was com- menced on i^ny large scale. The result of these measures was, that in 1811 the country was found to contain about 9623 persons paying taxes. By a careful examination in regdrd lo the most populous township, Mr. Gourlay estimated the tax-payers at one eighth of the entire population, which, on this principle, must have amounted to about 77,000. A vast additional • ipui^e, however, was given at the close of the last war, in consequence of the low rate of profit and wages, and the difficulty of finding em- ployment at home. The attention, first of the la- bouring, then of the middling class, and finally of the government, was thus forcibly drawn to the re- lief which might be obtained by removal to a new country, where the means of subsistence were abun- dant. These motives have attracted a continued succession of emigrants, both individually and in bodies, by whom the population of the province has been most rapidly augmented. In 1824, a series of returns, called for by Parliament, showed the number to be 151,097. In 1828 a similar census Eroduced 185,526. At the end of 1832 the amount ad risen to 296,000, and in 1835 to 336,000. It may be observed, too, that these returns are understood to be extremely defective, and the omissions numerw JHJ UIH I 'H > H »» 56 GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. ous ; probably, therefore, the actual population of Upper Canada may not fall materially short of 400,000. Upper Canada enjoys a climate considerably mild- er than that of the lower province. The great wa- ter-communication, along which it extends, stretch- es upward from Montreal in a southwestern direction till it reaches nearly the latitude of New- York. M. Bouchette has given a comparative table, from which it appears, that in the year 1820, the mean annual heat was six and a half degrees higher than in the other province. The extremes, also, are less se- vere ; for while the mean of the four winter months is from thirteen to seventeen degrees higher, that of July and August is a little lower. Nor do the seasons follow each other so abruptly as at Quebec ; and hence a certain interval occurs between winter and summer. In return for these advantages, the •weather is observed to be more variable, and there are only two months in which sleighing or sledge- travelling over the hard snow can be practised. Ague, too, more especially in the newly-settled dis- tricts, though not fatal, is distressing and debilita- ting. But the mildness of the climate affords to the farmer the important advantage that he can sow wheat in autumn, which thus attains a quality su- perior to that of the spring-grown grain, hither- to alone reared in other parts of British America. The opportunity of cultivating the finer fruits is a less momentous, though a very agreeable circum- stance. The soil of Upper Canada, at least within the present range of settlement, bears a very superior character. Its fertility, indeed, as will presently appear, is not so uniform as has sometimes been represented ; yet there is probably no tract of equal extent in the temperate zone with which it may not *^ advantageously compared. It is iiuwhcre mount- ainous, nor, with very few exceptions, is it rocky. GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 67 ite mouni- Considerable tracts are light and sandy, but few so niuch 80 as to be absolutely barren. The produc- tiveness of the country appears to be chiefly inter- rupted by swamps, which cover a large space, both in the most eastern and most western districts.* Upper Canada is divided into eleven districts, sub- divided into twenty-six counties and six ridings, which altogether comprise 277 townships. In de- scribing this province, we shall follow the example of M. Bouchette, in dividing it into three great por- tions, the Eastern, the Central, and the Western. We must nevertheless dissent from him so far as to attach the Midland District to the central part, where it appears to us clearly placed by nature. The ea[§tern division will then contain the territory between the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa ; the cen- tral will have its base on Lake Ontario, and extend north towards the latter of these rivers, without, however, at all approaching it as to actual settle- ment. The western division composes an extensive peninsula, nearly enclosed by Ontario, Erie, St. Clair, and Huron, anu the channels by which these lakes are connected. The eastern division, thep, consists of four dis- tricts : Eastern and Johnstown on the St. Lawrence, Ottawa und Bathurst on the Ottawa. In comprised in 1835 a population of 87,380. It is well watered, not only by the two great rivers, but by several im- portant tributaries, of which the largest fall into the Ottawa. The Petite Nation, rising only about five miles from the St. Law^jence, near Johnstown, trav- erses the territory in a line nearly due northeast. The Rideau, the Mississippi (quite distinct from the great central river of that name), and the Madawaska, rise in the Midland District, and flow in an easterly direction till they reach the Ottawa. The only im- ♦ Gourlay's Statistical View of Upper Canada, vol. ii., p. 8- U. 139. 170. 222. Bouchette. vol. i.. d. 76. 88. 89. 108-110. 237 Martin, p. 297, 298. 58 GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. portant tributary to the St. Lawrence is the Ganan- oqui, which falls into it near Lansdown. The soil of this part of Canada has been some- what varioush' reported, but appears, on the whole, not so uniformly good as in the more western dis- tricts. Considerable tracts are sandy, some are marshy, and others are broken and rocky. There is not wanting, however, a very fair proportion of fine land. The climate being more northerly than on the vipper course of the river, is not so mild, and the summ:;is are shorter; yet, even in these re- spects, it has the advantage of Lower Canada. It has also the benefit of being near Montreal, where agricultural commodities can be readily turned into money ; and the produce of the dairy, with vegeta- bles, fruits, and other articles, which elsewhere can be raised only for home use, find a value in that market. There is an easy conveyance to it by the rivers, though the roads in the inland townships are very defective. Its progress, however, has been particularlyretarded by large and improvident grants to American loyalists, disbanded officers and sol- diers, or favourites of the ruling powers. Many of these have altogether neglected their lots, and few have turned them to account with that active and improving spirit which has animated the recent classes of Brtish emigrants. The military settlers, it is said, generally showed themselves incapable of the persevering labour necessary to bring wild land into a productive state, and took the first op- portunity of selling their ^allotments. Hence its progress, though great and* rapid, has not equalled that of the western districts, towards which the tide of immigration has been chiefly directed. The central portion, which we consider as con- sisting of the Midland, Newcastle, and Home dis- tricts, has its base upon the northern shores of Lake Ontario, whence it extends towards the Ottawa; but, long before reaching that boundary, which, from .,i>>^^-*» ^i^"** GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 59 the direction of the stream, hecomes more and more distant, every trace of settlement disappears amid one vast and pathless forest. This forms by far the most extensive part of Upper Canada, and from its abundance of fertile land is extremely valuable. TiU of late, however, if was the least occupied, being nowhere cultivated but in the vicinity of the govern- ment stations. -The easten ^ras nearer to Lower Canada, while the western pi osessed great facilities for the fur-trade, with which view chiefly this upper quarter was in early times resorted to. But the tide of immigration which has lately flowed into Canada has directed itself, in a great degree, towards this central district. It was found more fruitful and much less occupied than the eastern, while it has a near- er market for its agricultural produce than the wesfi- c Its increase, accordingly, within the last fif- I'^^i ?. years, has been astonishing. The population in 1817 is estimated by Mr. Gourlay at 27,753 ; in 1824 it had risen to 53,600; in 1832 to 115,504; and in 1835 to 124,473. It is watered by the Moira, Trent, and other rivers of some magnitude. This last is connected with a chain of important lakes, at the head of which is the large one named Simcoe. These waters aflbrd considerable accommodation to the colonists; though they flow from too short a distance to afford an adequate conveyance if culti- vation were to stretch much farther northward.* Kingston, in the county of Frontenac, in the Mid- land District, was the original capital of Upper Can- ada, and, even after the transference of ^he seat of government to Toronto, continued the mo3t flourish- ing, till the agricultural colonies formed in the west gave to the latter the pre-eminence. It is advan- tageously built on the site of Fort Frontenac, at the junction of the St. Lawrence with Lake Ontario ; a position which has raised it to considerable impor- * Bouchette, vol i= , p, 108, Gourlay, vol. ii., p. 4S4, 4^, 497 Tables, 183!}, p. 9. 41' .' , '-^-''■-ri-iinii 60 GENIBIIAL TIEW OF CANADA. ,tance as the main entrepot between the lower and upper province. Barks cf from 80 to nearly 800 tons carry on an active intercourse with Toronto, Niagara^ and other places on the lake ; and magniii- ct wt steam-vessels convey passengers to and from those places. About half a mile distant is a low peninsula ending in Point Frederic, which, with an- other parallel one terminating in Point Henry, en- closes Navy Bay, the depot for the maritime arma- ment formed during the late war. On its western side is a dockyard, with other accommodations ; and I ; in this inland station were built some of the largest ships in the British navy. The town in 1833 con- \ tained 4196 inhabitants. ' York, in the county of the same name, in the Home District, and which has now assumed the Indian name of Toronto, is the official capital of Upper Can- ada, the residence of the governor, the seat of the courts of justice, and the place where the Parliament assembles. No town in the province has made so rapid a progress. In 1793 M. Bouchette saw the spot covered with dense and trackless forests, on the border of which stood one solitary wigwam. In ^ 179i the town was founded, and in a few years at- tained a considerable magnitude. It remained long '" inferior to Kingston, and in 1331 was supposed to contain only 4000 inhabitants. The great improve- ment, however, of the western districts, and the ex- tensive sales of land made there, both by govern- ment and the Canada Company, have now rendered it every way the more important place ; and by the last accounts its population had risen to 9500. The streets are spacious, and regularly disposed at right angles. The harbour is formed by a long narrow peninsula, enclosing a circular basin about a mile and a half in diameter, affording spacious and secure accommodation for shipping. The Western Section of Upper Canada, though less extensive than those just described, possesses GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 8uch advantages of soil, climate, and situation as ren- ders it fully equal to them in value and importance. It consists of a long' irregular peninsula, enclosed by successive portions of the great lake and river chain of Canada. This boundary, beginning with the west- ern shore of Lake Ontario, is continued by the Niag- ara chu.r!nel, Lake Erie, the Detroit, Lake and Riv- er St. Clair, and the southern and part of the eastern shore of Lake Huron. It terminates a little beyond Goderich, whence, stretching across to Lake Onta- rio, it is met by the Home District and the Indian territory. Its surface is s ..gularly level, scarcely containing any eminence that deserves to be called a hill, except in the ridge already described as run- ning in a circuitous line from the neighbourhood of Toronto to Niagara. Even its heights seldom ex- ceed 100, and never 350 feet. Besides that no part is very distant from the grand line of water-commu- nication, several fine rivers traverse the interior. The most considerable is the Thames, which, rising in the London District, and running westward about 150 miles through a fine country, falls into Lake St. Clair. It is navigable for large vessels to Chatham, fifteen miles up, and for boats nearly to its source. Parallel to it on the north, though with a shorter course of not more than 100 mile6,Js Big Bear Creek, which throws itself into one of the branches of the river St. Clair. Next to the Thames in magnitude is the Ouse, rising in the Home District, and flow» ing in an opposite direction southeast, till, by a very serpentine course, it reaches Lake Erie. It is navi- gable for schooners about twenty-five miles above its mouth, and considerably higher for boats. The Welland or Chippeway, nearly parallel to it, runs into the Niagara after a course of only fifty miles; but this river has become important on account of the canal cut from it to Ontario on one side and Erie on the other, which has obviated those obstructions ■t^ 62 GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. by which the navigr on of the Niagara channel is rendered impracticable. The soil of this extensive tract is almost entirely alluvial, consisting of a black or yellow loam,80.a.e- times mixed with sand, and covered with a thick stratum of vegetable mould. The forests are dense, but not, as in other quarters, entirely uninterrupted ; opening rather, in some places, into wide prairies or expanses of natural meadow. The country has by sanguine writers been described as everywhere luxuriantly fertile ; and though minute surveys have discovered light and sandy tracts of considerable extent^ there is, perhaps, scarcely a spot on the globe which it may not rival. The climate of ^ country situated between the 42d and 45th parallels ought to be that of the south of France ; but, in con- sequence of a peculiarity in the American continent, this does not procure an exemption from several months of frost and snow. Still its winter is con- siderably shorter, and its summer longer than in any other part of Upper Canada. Such advantages drew the attention of European settlers to this quarter earlier than from its distance might have been expected, and portions of it were brought into cultivation when the rest of Upper Canada was a wilderness. The French, when form- ing stations for the fur-trade at its western extrem- ity, were tempted by the fertile banks of the De- troit, between Lakes Erie and St. Clair, and estab- lished a number of seigniories similar to those on the St. Lawrence in Lower Canada. At the end of the great American contest, a number of disbanded troops or banished loyalists, who, in the course of military operations, had become acquainted with the Niagara district, or to whose former residence and habits it was congenial, accepted grants in it. In 1802, Colonel Talbot, having formed the plan of a settlement on the most central part of the north- ern coast of Lake Erie, obtained from government a t (- 1 1 ■^: au DA. ra cliannel is most entirely f loain,8o.a.e- with a thick sts are dense, ninterrupted ; w^ide prairies country has everywhere surveys have considerable spot on the climate of ^ 5th parallels ; but, in con- an continent, rem several nter is con- ' than in any >f European its distance 8 of it were t of Upper when form- em extrem- of the De- I and estab- o those on t the end of f disbanded course of linted with r residence rants in it. the plan of the north- irermnent a OBNEAAL TIBW OT CANADA. 68 ^nt of 100,000 acres, on condition of locating a settler upon every 200; which condition he has successfully fulfilled. From these causes the pop- ulation in 1817 had attained to the estimated number of 34,237, which in 1824 had risen to 55,200, in 1832 to 101,605, and in 1835, to 124,628.* This part of Canada is divided into four districts : Gore, London, Niagara, and Western. With respect to climate, Canada exhibits, in many particulars, a striking dissimilarity to Europe. In the first place, the temperature is much lower under the same latitude ; and this remark applies to the whole of North America. Thus Quebec, m 46^ 49^ N., has also the same latitude with Nantes in AV 13'. Yet the mean annual temperature of the former is 4r74o ; of the latter, 64*68°, a difference of nearly 13°. Edinburgh and Copenhagen, though more than 9° farther north than Quebec, exceed it in mean annual heat, the one by 6°, the other by 4°.t Tha next distinction is the great difference in the temperature of winter and summer ; the cold of the one and the heat of the other being much more in- tense than in those countries where the annual mean is the same. While the medium temperature of winter at Nantes is about 40*46°, at Quebec it is 14' 18°; but that of summer is noarly identical; at the first 68*54°, at the second 68 00°. Nay, the mean of the hottest nionth, which at Nantes is 70*52°f at Quebec is 73.40O. The summer of this last, when compared to that of Edinburgh, is almost tropical, exceeding it by ten degrees, and in the hot- test month by fourteen. Even in London the heat rarely attains 83° ; whereas in Canada, durin£ July, it rises occasionally 20° higher.]: These gr***^* * Bouchette, vol. ii., p. 108, 92-96. Gourlay, vol. ii., p. 299, 357, 406, 455. Picken, p. 177. t See Table by Professor Jamieson, in Murray's Encyclope- dia of Geography, p. 164. X Bouchette, vol, i., p. 337. e4 GENERAL VlftW OF CANADA. heats, however, leave the average still much lower than in European places under the same latitude. We do not intend to enter here into any discussion of the theories formed on this subject, none of which seem yet to be fully established. The influence of the winds, which blow chiefly from the northwest, over a vast expanse of frozen continent ; the position of the adjacent ocean, filled with fields and islands of ice, detached from the arctic shores ; the uncul- tivated state of the soil, covered with vast forests and swamps ; these have been the chief causes as- signed for so remarkable a difference. There prevails a general opinion that, since Brit- ish America has been partially cleared and cultivated, the extremes of both summer heat and winter cold have been sensibly mitigated. Ot^ drs, however, maintain that the variations are casual and tempo- rary, and that the changes referred to have as yet taken place on too small a scale to produce any marked effect. The prevailing winds in Canada are the northeast, northwest, and southwest. The first, blowing from' the ocean, brings rain, snow, and tempest ; the sec^ ond, from a vast extent of frozen land, is dry ant$ intensely cold; the last, from warmer regions, is mild and agreeable. In the height of summer the air is often quite still, the sky brightly clear, and the ^rays of the sun beat fiercely upon the earth. The nights at this season are beautifully transparent. Great and sudden trpir^itions from heat to cold alsa characterize this region. These are, of course, pro- duced by changes of wind, occasioning a rapid tran- sition from the one to the other of those extremes to which the whole continent is liable. The tropical countries being equally warm in the New as in the Old World, the hot and cold climates are in the former nearer to each other, and more apt to come into collision. These sudden changes have the effect of rendering every kind of atmospheric agitation, aad GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 66 more especially thunder and lightning, peculiarly violent. The order of the seasons also varies materially from that which prevails in Europe. The ahience of spring is generally incident to chmates where the virinter is very long and severe. The moderate heat of the advancing season appears absorbed in the process of converting the snow and ice into a liquid state, and can thus act only imperfectly upon the atmosphere. By the time this change is accom- plished, the sun^s rays have become powerful, and the summer is established. Scarcely is the ground cleared of snow when vegetation breaks forth, not gradually, as with us, but with almost preternatural rapidity. The months of June, July, and August are intensely hot, and bring all the crops to a speedy maturity. Autumn, which, according to some wri- ters, does not exist in America, is described by oth- ers as the most agreeable of all the seasons. In September and October the days are warm, but the mornings and evenings cool and agreeable ; and the fohage, assuming the varied autumnal tints, presents an enchanting picture. In November, when frost is about to set in, a grateful interval usually occurs of what is termed the Indian summer. A delightful warmth is then felt through the air, while a thin and beautiful haze covers the face of nature.* No rational account appears to have been yet giyen of this phenomenon ; for the Canadian theor}^ that it is produced by the smoke of distant prairies fired by the Indians, is unworthy of refutation. We cannot help suggesting, that all the waters, here so abun- dant, are then undergoing the process of conversion from a fluid into a solid form; in the course of whi(;h they must necessarily give out in large quan- titios the caloric which held them in a state of fluid- * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 339 340-344. M'Gregor, vol. i., p. 123-135. Howison, p. 243-24a. OourUy, vol. li., p. 14M4i. Darby, p. <»i-43i. - ^- 66 GENERAL TIEW OF CANADA. ity. Heat thus developed viill naturally be accom« panied with thin mistf which is, in fact, usually seen rising from the surface of a newly-frozen stream.* The winter of Lower Canada commences in the end of November, and lasts five months, or till the close of April. In the southern parts of the upper province it is nearly two months shorter. This pe- riod, which, in our conceptions, appears.so dreary, is to the Canadian a season of cheerfulness and en- t'oyment. Warm clothing and due pf^aution secure lim against any dangerous or even painful effects from the extreme cold. As the country is easily traversed in every dirrction by light carioles, large parties assemble, and enliven the gloom of the year by festivity and social intercourse.! It might have been expected that the excessive rigour of the climate, more especially its extremes and sudden changes, would have been peculiarly try- ing to the human constitution. Experience, on the contrary, has established its decided salubrity. The countries, too, in which the cold is most severe, and tl^e contrasts greatest, are found the healthiest. Hence Lower is more salubrious than Upper Cana- da, and the latter than the United States. It is true^ at the same time, that diseases originating in cold« euch as rheumatism and pulmonary consumption, are the most common ; and it is remarkable, that over adl Amerida the teeth are subject to early decays The Upper Province suffers from intermittent fever< though not so severely as the countries farther south; it is distressing and weakening, but seldom fatal.{ * Unibrtunatdy for the ingenious theory here advanced, this pecuUu' state of the atmosphere, so common for a few weeks m autumn, is not limited to irartions of the country where the yrtiera are overabundant, but is equally experienced throughout the United States.— Am. Ed. t Bouchette, vol. i., p. 343, 344, 409. Howison, p. 243. Back- troods of Canada (18mo, London, 1836), p. 206. X Bouchette, vol. i., p. 344. M'Gregor, vol, i., p. 136-1?^ GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. 67 The action of the climate upon agricultural pro- ductions is more favtmrahie in these countries than in others which have the same mean tempera- ture. The intense heat even of the short summer ripens corn and fruits which will not thrive in re- gions where the same warmth is more equally dis- tributed throughout the year. Thus Quebec agrees in mean annual temperature with Christiania ; yet wheat, scarcely ever attempted in Norway, is the staple of Lower Canada. The upper province near- ly coincides with the north of England; yet the grape, the peach, and the melon come to as much perfection as in their native soil.* Even rice is found growing wild.f In this respect British America seems not to fall much short of European countries under the same latitude. Its winter-cold, at the same time, enables it to combine the products of the northern with those of the southern temperate climates. By the side of the fruits above mention- ed flourish the strawberry and the raspberry ;| while the evergreen pines are copiously intermingled with the oak, the elm, and others of ampler foliage. The woods are filled with the rich fur-bearing animals that belong to an arctic climate. The only difficulty is found with such agricultural productions as, under milder skies, are improved by wintering in the soil. Autumn wheat, lor example, has not yet succeeded in Lower Canada ; and several of the more delicate artificial grasses have failed. The farmer likewise suffers inconvenience from the short interval in which all his operations of sowing, reaping, and * Out author is certainly under a mistake here. AltbAUgli these fruits will grow, and sometimes mature in Upper Canada^ they are always very inferior in size 9nd flavour to those pro* duced in mure southern latitudes.— Am. £d. t This is believed to be a different plant, however, from that usually cultivated for its grain. Perhaps the oryzopsit of botanyi or plant resembling rice.— Am. Bd. t BoucUette, vol. i., p. 33e. Backwoods, p. 143, 144. 68 OINIRAL VIIW or CANADA. fii ■V ' il *'*;.. harvesting must be completed, while he is left with- out occupation during the long ren ainder of the year. Before closing this general view of Canada, it may be necessary to introduce some notice of the ques- tion which has arisen between Britain and the Uni- ted States respecting their common boundaries. The vague terms often used in treaties have given rise to disputes and difficulties; but it is seldom, as in the present instance, that they apply to a territory of 10,000 square miles, or 6,400,000 acres. Though this tract is at present only an unbroken forest, yet, as it consists in general of fertile land, the process of colonization, now rapidly approaching it, will, at no very distant period, render it of great value. Both nations maintain their claim in a very peremp- tory manner ; and Bouchette, with other writers on the British side, repels with the utmost indignation the idea of yielding a single inch.* We respect the patriotic zeal of these authors ; yet, when such feel- ings carry a people to unreasonable demands, and prevent them from listening to argument, it may lead to calamitous consequences. We shall therefore endeavour to approach the subject impartially, and view it as if totally abstracted from either British or American interests. The terms of the treaty on which the dispute hin- ges are, that the boundary shall be drawn *' along the highlands which divide those rivers that empty them- telves into the river St. Lawrence from those which fall into- the Atlantic Ocean" These words were penn- ed in complete ignorance respecting the country, of which they were intended to dispose. Instead of one highland tract, whose opposite waters fall into the specified receptacles, there are two ridges, con- siderably distant, and enclosing between them the wide expanse of the disputed territory. Throuffh- 01^ its centre, from west to east, flows the St. Jphny * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 18, 26. McGregor, vol i., p. 140. \ OaNBRAL TIBW OP CANADA. 69 receiving nearly all the waters from the norih side of the one range and the south side of the other. The British, as their boundary, claim the mostsoutlw eriy, the Americans the most northerly of these two lines. Let us see how these claims will agree with the terms of the treaty. The British boundary clearly fulfils one condition ;. all the rivers on its southern side fall into the At- lantic. But on the northern it entirely fails, for there they all flow into the St. John, and not ono drop reaches the St. Lawrence. Here, then, we cannot but own a want of coincidence with the lit- eral terms of the convention. Bouchette does not deny this, and allows " that the letter of the treaty of 1783 has described a boundary which the puysi* cal and hydrographical divisions of the country to be divided rendered it utterly impossible substan- tially to establish." He contends, howeve \ hat its professed design of content plaUng ** reciprocal advantages and mutual convenience,'' and of pro* ceeding upon " principles of liberal equity and reci- procity," clearly decides the point in favour of Brit- ain. These, however, are very vague grounds on which to determine a matter of fact ; and, besides, we do not very distinctly see their bearing in our favour. No doubt it would be advantageous and convenient for Britain to get the whole of this ter- ritory ; but we cannot expect that the Americans will see the reciprocal benefit of t t'r losing the whole. They, on the contrary, maiiii.ain that their boundary is strictly and literally conformable to the terms of the treaty. The river.; on one side of it undoubtedly flow into the St Lawrence, while on the other they reach the St. John ; which last falls into the Bay of Fundy, and that bay communicates with the Atlantic* This, they pretend, is equiva- lent to the original rivers falling directly into %U* * Some of tbem fall into the Ristigouche, and thence into ■-;'"*>■? TO GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. Atlantic Ocean. But such an interpretation appears to us to be wholly inconsistent with the precision which ever ought to be observed in the terms of a positive treaty. Th^ obvious meaning was, that the rivers descending from the ridge in question were such as fall into the open Atlantic, and not merely connected with it in this indirect manner. It can- not for a moment be doubted, that the first was the meaning of the negotiators ; that they had in view the Penobscot, the Kennebeck, and the other streams flowing from the north into the ocean. We do not therefore think that the Americans stand on better ground than the British as to the literal terms of the treaty. Nay, we are convinced that these terms are wholly incapable of being executed, as they were obviously framed by persons entirely ignorant of the territory in question. In order to adjust this difference, it was agree^by the two contracting powers, on the 12th of January, 1629, to refer it to the arbitration of the King of Holland. Accordingly, on the 10th January, 1831, his majesty delivered his award, in which he con- eluded that neither of the proposed boundaries could be held as at all conformable to the term of the treaty ; and proposed, therefore, in their stead, the river St. John, which, as already stated, fiows through the middle of the disputed district.* This decision was rejected by both parties, who repre- sented that the o£co intrusted to the friendly mon- arch was to interpret the treaty in reference to the original terms, not to throw it aside and substitute the Bay of Chaleur, which is also connected with the Atlantic ; the argument with regard to these is exactly the same. * His majesty proposes that the line, after following for a considerable space upward the course of the St. John, should take that of its small tributary the St. f'rancis, and by it reach and follow tLe American land-boundary. We do not perceive the motive or advantage of this doviation ; our reasoning pro- ceeda upon the St. J6hn being made the boundary throughout, GENERAL VIEW OF CANADA. Tl an entirely new boundary of his own contrivance. He had produced, they said, not an interpretation* but a compromise. This is no doubt true; yet, agreeing with his majesty, that the treaty cannot be intelligibly interpreted, or possibly acted upon, and that the affair can be adjusted only by mutual concession, we cannot help thinking that the expe- dient proposed was deserving of a favourable con- sideration. The St. John divides the territory into two not very unequal portions ; the possession of the northern bank would secure to Britain the com- munication between New Brunswick and Canada, and prevent the frontier of the United States from encroaching too close on the St. Lawrence. A wa- ter boundary, where it can be procured, is usually preferred as the most precise and defensible ; and it is very probable that in this case it would have been adopted by the negotiators in 1783, had they not been wholjy ignorant of its existence. At all events, it is extremely desirable that some adjust- ment should take place as speedily as possible, be- fore the increasing importance of the land shall ren- der it a subject of serious dissension between two great nations.* f * Bouchette, vol i., p. 18-22, 480-498. McGregor, vol. i., p. 140. t With regard to the territory in dispute, it is certain that the condition of the treaty of 1783, referring to streams flowing northerly into the St. Lawrence, can be satisfied in no other way than by assuming that the highlands claimed by the United States are those intended by that treaty. But then, it is requi- red, by a second condition in the same treaty, that the streams running southerly from the designated highlands shall flow into the Atlantic Ocean ; and here the British cabinet contends that this latter condition completely fails ; inasmuch as the waters of these streams, that is, the St. John and its tributaries, have their outlet in the Bay of Fundy, which, say they, cannot be considered as satisfying the condition that they shall flow into the Atlantic. On this they proceed to set up a very different claim of their own : pretendinir that certain other highlands, !y* ing south of the St. John's and the disputed tenitonty, aie the 72 GENERAL TIEW QF CANADA. // ones intended by the treaty ; on the ground that the streams running southerly from the latter, viz., the Penobscot and the Kennebcck, fall directly into the Atlantic. But there are no streams originating in these more southern highlands which How into the St. Lawrence. Still, say the British cabinet, we have as good reason for our claim as you have for yours ; inas* much as, by assuming the northern highlands as the true bound> ary, you make good only one condition of the treaty, while we, in taking the more southern, no less completely satisfy the other condition. In opposition to this, the American government contend, and we think most rightfully, that both conditions of the treaty of 1783 are satisfied, and in the only way that they possibly can be, by taking, as they have, the more northern highlands; in- asmuch as from these, and from no others, the streams flow nortl>erly into the St. Lawrence, and southerly into the Atlantic ; assuming in this, as, under the circumstances, and on every fair- principle of construction, they seem justified in doing, that th^ waters of the St. John's, in flowing into the Bay of Fundy, should be considered within the meaning and intention of the treaty, as flowing into the Atlantic ; since this bay is a branch or arm of that ocean, and, as such, a part of the same, receiving its tides and opening broadly into it. Such are the grounds of the American claim. And now let us briefly consider the counter claim set up by the British cab- inet. By their own course of reasoning it may be shown, that they completely fail in the very point which they pretend is in their favour, since neither the Penobscot nor the Kennebeck flow directly into the open ocean ; the focmtir terminating in the bay of the same name, and the latter in I^heepscot Bay. Now, whatever may be the character of this objection, whether it be . well-founded or not, it must be considered as valid against the party choosing to avail themselves of it, ik> answer their own purposes in a parallel case. If, besides this, we consider that there are no streams running from the highlands assumed by the British cabinet into the St. Lawrence, we must be con* ' vinced that they make out a most unsatisfactory case ; and that, if this matter is to be decided by the terms of the treaty, and no- thing else, the American government, to say the least, occupy by far thr strongest ground. How this controversy may finally be adjusted it is impossible to foresee. Neither party manifests a disposition to yield ; and recent events have increased the apprehension that serious difl&culties may arise. It would be truly lamentable it the two nations should resort to extreme measures to settle this question; nor can we for a moment suppose, whatever may be the present ||ipearanc«s, that it will come to this.— ilm. Ed, ■■■f,S.' .J 'T- t S-: 0^1 THE NATIVE INDIANS, ETC. 73 I : ' CHAPTER II. ?", ;'.i4:'iu' The Native Indians inhabiting Canada and its BoT' ders. ^" ^* W'-fii itf-'Xit:" Peculiar Condition of those Tribes. — Their Physical Character. —•Form— Colour— Hair and Beard— Rodily Strength.— Dress. — Ornaments. — fainting and Tattooing of the Skin. — Modea of Subsistence. — Hunting.— Cultivation.— Food,— Houses. — Canoes.— Spirit of Independence.— Internal Order — Marria- ges.— Rearing of Children.— Intellectual Character.— Orato- ry. — Style of Composition — Religious Ideas. — Importance at- . tached to Dreams. — The Manitou.— Ideas of a Future State. — Reverence for the Dead. — Ceremonies »of Interment.— Su- perstitious Modes of curing the Sick. — Indian Wars. — Their Motives.- Preparations.— March. — Modes of attacking and surprising the* Enemy. — Return. — Treatment of Prisoners ; Tortures ; Adoption. — Treaties. — Indian Amusements— Mu- sic— Dancing— Smoking— Games.— DiJfferent Tribes inhabit- ing Canada and its Borders. Among the intellectual advantages derived from the discovery of America, perhaps the most impor- tant was the opening of a new page in the history of man ; for he was there presented under an as- pect never before viewed by the sages either of the ancient or modern world. The rudest form under which they had observed the human being was that called barbarous : and among the Greeks and Ro- mans, the Scythians were received as representing the man of nature. But, though comparatively rude, that people had already made a considerable prog- ress in the arts. They had reached the pastoral state, possessed numerous flocks and herds, and were united in large bodies under hereditary chiefs. The modern Europeans, again, have records of a time when they themselves were little removed from a similar coudition, of whicb e;(;ainple$ 9t|U 74 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING s 1% exist in the outer borders of the Continent ; but they have never beheld nations consisting only of hand- fuls of men, roaming through an unbounded and m continuous forest, having scarcely any animals ta- med for service or food, and supporting themselves solely on the precarious product of the chase.* On the first intimation of the existence of such tribes, they were in this part of the world supposed to be a ^ere assemblage of meager and shiv^^ring wretches, whose constant exertions must be employed in at- tempting to escape the famine with which they were perpetually threatened. The first discoverers, ac- cordingly, were surprised to find among them war- riors, statesmen, and orators ; a proud race, of dig- nified port, terrible in war, mild in peace, maintain-^ ing order without the restraint of law, and uniting by the closest ties the members of the same com- munity. Such, though with some remarkable ex- ceptions, was the picture exhibited by the savages cf the New World, particularly in its northern re- gions ; and those nations who dwelt on the rivers and lakes of Canada, presented it in the most deci- ded features, least modified by the restraints and re- , finements of civilized life. The English and French, who, during nearly three centuries, have been en- gaged with them in the relations either of close al- liance or of deadly war, have learned to appreciate all that is bright as well as all that is dark and ter- rible in the character of this extraordinary race. From this intercourse we are furnished with ample means of estimating a state of society so pecuhar, and so remote from that civilization to which Eu- rope has attained. ; In their physical character, the American Indians are considered by Blumenbach as forming a particu- * This should be somewhat qualified. The native tribes of . the New World, at the time of its discovery, were not unac- quainted with maize or Indian*com, which they cultivated in a rude way, as part of their means of subsistence.— iim. Bi, n CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 75 lar variety of the human species, differing, though not very widely, from the Mongolian. Believing, as we do, that the New World was peopled from the Ola, and considering that the Mongol race was situated nearest to the point where Asia and America come almost into contact, we incline to ascribe these variations merely to a change of outward circum- stances. The face is broad and flat, with high cheek-bones ; more rounded and arched, however, than in the allied type, without having the visage expanded to the same breadth. The forehead is generally low ; the eyes deep, small, and black ; the nose rather diminutive, but prominent, with wide nostrils ; and the mouth large, with somewhat thick lips. The stature, which varies remarkably through- out the Continent, is, in the quarter of which we treat, generally above the middle size. This prop- erty, however, is confined to the men, the females being usually below that standard, a fact which may be confidently ascribed to the oppressive drudgery they are compelled to undergo. The limbs, in both sexes, are well proportioned ; and few instances of deformity ever occur.* ^ n -^ ^ The colour of the skin in the Indian is generally described as red or copper-coloured ; or, according to Mr. Lawrence's more precise definition, it is " an, obscure orange or rusty iron colour, not unlike the bark of the cinnamon-tree." Although we believe that climate is the chief cause of the diversities in human colour, yet it is certain that all sav-res are dark-tinted. This peculiarity may be acco; i ted for by their constant Ci^posure to the inclemency of the seasons, to sun, air, and tempests ; and the same cause in civilized countries produces a similar effect on sailors, as well as on tL.jse who work constantly * Lawrenge's Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man (l2mo, London, 1834), p. 365. Adair's History of the American Indians (4to, London, 1775), p. 5, 6. Weld's Travels in North America and Canada (4to, London, 1799), p. 375-377. *:. ^iC^iii' ''JsS., 76 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING m m. Tfic fields. In the Old World, the intermediate ib s tyetween white and black are generally varieties of urown and yellow The red tint is considered characteristic of the New World. We must, ho^v- ever, observe, that the traveller Adai*\ who Jived upward of thirty years among the Iiifliahs, po^ii- tively asserta that n is artificially produ 3d ; ?^at '\ the oil, grease, and other linctuous substances with which they keep their skin confclantly smeared, there is dissolved the jaice of i* root which gradually tinges it of this colour. He stater, that a white m?in, who spent some years vr.th thti naUven, and adorned himself in tleir manner, complej.e)y acquire ' it. Chari-^vctix seems also to lean to the same opiraon. Weld IboijOfh rather inclined to dissent from it, admits that ? och a notion was adopted by mission- aries and , hfcrs who had resided long in the coun- try, It. is ceTtaia that the inhabitants glory in this colour, and regard Europeans who have it not as nondescript beings, not fully entitled to the name of men. It may be noticed also, that this tint is by no means so universal as is commonly supposed. Huf!iboIdt declares that the idea of its general prev- alence could never have arisen in equinoctial Amer- ica, or been sug.gested by the view of the natives in that region ; yet these provinces include by far the larger part of the aboriginal population. The people of Nootka Sound and other districts of the north- western coast are nearly as white as Europeans; which may be ascribed, we think, to their ample clothing and spacious habitations. Thus the red nations appear limited to the eastern tribes of North America, among whom generally prevails the cus- tom of painting or smearing the skin with that fa- vourite colour. We are not prepared to express a decided opinion on this subject; but :- Dbviously requires a closer investigation than h ' '^^. yet re* ceived.* nsiderei jst, hoiT- ho lived iJS, pOfii- i.^at :\ ices with smeared, gradually hite mfin, adorned ^uire*'' it. <^piraon. Irom it, mission- the coun- ry in this it not as the name tint is by supposed, liral prev- ial Amer- latives in )y far the he people le north- ropeans ; !ir ample i the red of North the cus- I that fa- Jxpress a )bviously » yet re- ive Of Tra- The hair is another particular in which the races cf mankind remarkably differ. The ruder classes are generally defective, either in the abundance or quality of that graceful appendage ; and the hair of the American Indians, like that of their allied type the Mongols, is coarse, black, thin, but strong, and growing to a great length. Like the latter, also, by a curious coincidence, most of them remove it from every part of the head, with the exception of a tuft on the crown, which they cherish with much care. The circumstance, however, which has excited the greatest attention, is the absence of beard, appa- rently entire, among all the people of the New World. The early travellers viewed it as a natural deficiency; whence Robertson and other eminent writers have even inferred the existence of some- thing peculiarly feeble in their whole frame. But the assertion, with all the inferences founded upon it, so far as relates to the North American tribes, has been completely refuted by recent observation. The original growth has been found nearly, if not wholly, as ample as that of Europeans; but the moment it appears, every trace is studiously oblit- erated. This is effected by the aged females, ori- ginally with a species of clam-shell, but now by means of spiral pieces of brass- wire supplied by the traders. With these an old squaw will in a few minutes reduce the chin to a state of complete smoothnef's ; ?nd slight applications during the year clear z.w9,y such straggling hairs as may happen to sprout. It is only among old men, who become careless of thf^ir appearance, that the beard begins to be perceptible. A late English traveller strongly recommends to his Countrymen a practice which, though scarcely ticordant with our ideas of manly velf t ke EquinoctJH^ Regions of the New Continent (9 vols. 8v , London, 1819), vol iii., p. 223. Adair, p. 3. Weld, p. 375. Charlevoix's Journal of a Voyage to North America (2 vou. 8vo, LondQUi 1761 ), vol ii.. d. 90. G8 .:«•:•* V mm ■;>WWyW(fcf», .« , f*»**t'*i T» \l THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING dignity, would, at the expense of a few minutes' pain, save them much daily trouble. The Indians have probably adopted this usage, as it removes an ob- stacle to the fantastic painting of the face, which they value so highly. A full beard, at all events, when it was first seen on their French visiters, is said to have been viewed with peculiar antipathy, and to have greatly enhanced the pleasure with which they killed these foreigners.* The comparative physical strength of savage and civilized nations has been a subject of controversy. A general impression has obtained that the former, inured to simple and active habits, acquire a decided superiority ; but experience appears to have proved that this conclusion is ill founded. On the field of battle, when a struggle takes place between man and man, the Indian is usually worsted. In sportive exercises, such as wrestling, he is most frequently thrown, and in leaping comes short of his antagonist. Even in walking or running, if for a short distance, he is left behind ; but in these last movements he possesses a power of perseverance and continued exertion to which there is scarcely any parallel. An individual has been known to travel nearly eighty miles in a day, and arrive at his destination without any symptoms of fatigue. These long journeys, also, are frequently performed without any refreshment, and even having the shoulder? loaded with heavy burdens, their capacity of supporting which is truly wonderful. For about twelve miles, indeed, a strong European will keep ahead of the Indian; but then he begins to flag, while the other, proceeding with unaltered pace, outstrips him con^ siderably. Even powerful animals cannot equal them in this respect. Many of their civilized ad* * Weld, p. 377, 378. Adair, p. 6. Relation de ce que s'est pass^ de plus remarquable aux Missions des P. P. de la Com- ?agnie de J^sus, en la Nouvelle France (32 tomes 8vo, Paris, ^85-1671), an 1667, p. 104. .^.,^ ,.,. ,vt^ T' „/ CANAD/l AND ITS BORSIRS/^T TO versaries, when overcome in war, and fleeing before them on swift horses, have, after a long chase, been overtaken and scalped.* Having thus given a view of the persons of the Indians, we may proceed to consider the manner in which they are clothed and ornamented. This last object might have been expected to be p. very sec- ondary one, among tribes whose means of subsist- ence are so scanty and precarious ; *^ut, so far is this from being the case, that there is scarcely any pur- suit which occupies so much of their time and re- gard. They have availed themselves of European intercourse to procure each a small mirror, in which, from time to time, they view their personal decora- tions, taking care that everything shall be in the most perfect order. Embellishment, however, is not much expended on actual clothing, which is sim- ple, and chiefly arranged with a view to convenience. Instead of shoes, they wear what are termed moc- casins, consisting of one strip of soft leather wrap- ped round the foot, and fastened in front and behind. Europeans, walking over hard roads, soon knock these to pieces ; but the Indian, t -ipping over snow or grass, finds them a light and agreeable chaussure. Upward to the middle of the thigh, apiece of leath- er or cloth, tightly fitted to the limb, serves instead of pantaloons, stockings, and boots ; it is sometimes^ sewed on so close as never to be taken off. To a; string or girdle round the waist are fastened twa aprons, one before and the other at the back, eacb somewhat more than a foot square ; and these are connected by a piece of cloth like a truss, often usedi also as a capacious pocket. The use of breech' they have always repelled with contempt, as cum- brous and efleminate. As an article of female dress, they would consider them less objectionable ; but ♦ Lawrence, p. 253. Weld, p. 388, 389. Long's Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader (4to, Lonvion, 1791), p. ^'v, . . ,u-..,--..-.. r .,^^^i^ ., .-i 1 80 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING that the limbs of a warrior should be thus manacled, appears to them utterly preposterous. They were particularly scandalized at seeing an officer have them fastened over the shoulder by braces, and never after gave him any name but Tied-Breech. The garin ... v enumerated form the whole of their prrman^ni drees. On occasions of ceremo- ny, indeed, or when exposed to cold, they put over it a short shirt fastened at the neck and wrists, and above it a long loose robe, closed or held together in front. For this purpose tb«y now generally pre- fer an English blanks. aU tht^^e articles were originally fabricated from the skins of wild animals ; but at present, unless for the moccasins, and some- limes the leggins, European stuffs are preferred. T.\e dress of the female scarcely differs from that r.JL the male, except that the apron reaches down to ihe knees ; and even this is said to have been adopt- ed since their acquaintance with civilized nations. The early French writers relate an amusing anec- dote to prove how little dress was considered as making- a distinction between the sexes. T^ Ursu- line nuns, having educated a Huron girl, presented her, on her marriage to one of her countrymen, with a complete and handsome suit of clothes in the Parisian style. They were inuch surprised, some days after, to see the husbaua, who had ungenerous- ly seized the whol? of his bride's attire and array- ed himself in it, parading back and forward in front of the con'.t^nt, and bet lying every symptom of the most extravagant exuitation. This was farther heightened when he observed the ladies crowding to the windo'v lo see hifr., and a universal smile spread over their countenances.* These vestments, as alrc'^y observed, are simple, and adapted only for uf . I'o gratify his passionate love of ornament, th<. ^d' m seeks chiefly to load \ * Creuxius, Nova Francia v^^o, A^aris, 1^64), p. 63,64. Adair, p. 7. Weld, p. 380-383. n^/ ^c. % • I i'^ CANADA AND ITS BORPZRS. tf-* 81 his person with certain g\ ring appendages. Be- fore the arrival of Europeans, shells and feathers took the lead; but, since that period, these com- modities have been nearly supplanted by beads, rings, bracelets, and similar toys, which are inserted profusely into various parts of his apparel, particu- larly the little apron in front. The chiefs usually wear a breastplate ornamented with them; and among all classes it is an object of the greatest am- bition to have the largest possible number suspend- ed from the ear. That organ, therefore, is not bored, but slit to such an extent that a stick of wax may be passed through the aperture, which is then load- ed with all the bawbles that can be mustered ; ^nd if the weight of these gradually draw down the yieldi^'ig flap till it rest on the shoulder, and the or- naments themselves cover the breast, the Indian has reached his utmost height of finery. This, howev- er, is a precarious splendour ; the ear becomes more and more unfit to support the burden, when at length some accident, the branch of a tree, or even a twitch by a waggish comrade, lays at his feet all his deco- ration s with the portion of flesh to which they were attached. Weld saw very few who had pre- ierved this organ entire through life. The adjust- ment of the hair, again, is an object of especial study As already observed, the greater part is gent ,ly eradicated, leaving only a tuft, varying in shape and place, according to taste and national cus- tom, but usually encircling the crown. This lock " is stuck full of feathers, wings c f birds, shells, and every kind of fantastic ornament. The women wear theirs long and flowing, and contrive to collect a considerable number of ornaments for it, as well as for their ears and dress.* But it is upon his skin that the American war- rior chiefly lavishes his powers of embellishment. * Creuxius, p. 63. Charlevoix, vol. ii., p. 119, 120. Weld, p. 381-383. Adair, p. 171. ^. ..jiiiLi- 82 THB NATIVE INDIANS INHABITlKfl His taste in doing so is very different i* >ni own. " While the European," says Creuxius, " studies to keep his skin clean, and free from every extrane- ous substance, the Indian's aim is, that his, by the accumulation of oil, grease, and paint, may shine like that of a roasted pig." Soot scraped from the bottoms of kettles, the juices of herbs, having a green, yellow, and, above all, a vermilion tint, ren- dered adhesive by combination with oil and grease, are lavishly employed to adorn his person, or, ac- cording to our idea, to render it hideous. Black and red, alternating with each other in varied stripes, are the favourite tints. Some blacken the face, leaving in the middle a red circle, including the up- per lip and tip of the nose ; others have a red spot on each ear, or one eye black and the other of a red colour. In war the black tint is profusely laid on, the others being only employed to heighten its ef- fect, and give to the countenance a terrific expres- sion. M. de Tracy, when governor of Canada, was told by his Indian allies, that, with his good-hu- moured face, he would never inspire the enemy with any degree of awe. They besought him to place hiaiself under their brush, when they would soon make him such that his very aspect would strike terror. The breast, arms, and legs are the seat of more permanent impressions, analogous to the tat- tooing of the South Sea Islanders. The colours are either elaborately rubbed in, or fixed by slight in- cisions with needles and sharp-pointed bones. His , guardian spirit, and the animal that forms the sym- 1: bol of his tribe, are the first objects delineated, r After ihis, every memorable exploit, and particularly < the enemies whom he has slain and scalped, are dili- gently graven on some part of his figure ; so that the body of an aged warrior contains the history of ^ his life.* * Creuxius, p. 62. Charlevoix, vol. ii., p. 118. Weld, pb 382, 383. Missions en la NouveHe France, ans 1664, 1665. v > ■V- ,( ^iiVl:. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 88 The means of procuring subsistence must always form an important branch of national economy. Writers take a superficial view of savage life, and, seeing how scanty the articles of food are, while the demand is necessarily urgent, have assumed that the efforts to attain them must absorb his whole mind, and scarcely leave room for any other thought. But, on the contrary, these are to him ver^ sub- ordinate objects. To perform a round of daily la- bour, even though ensuring the most ample provision for his wants, would be equally contrary to his in- cHnation and supposed dignity. He will not deign to follow any pursuit which does not, at the same time, include enterprise, adventure, and excitement. Hunting, which the higher classes in the civilized parts of the world pursue for mere recreation, is al- most the only occupation considered of sufficient importance to engage his attention. It is peculiarly endeared by its resemblance to war, being carried on with the same weapons, and nearly in the same manner. In his native state, the arrow was the favourite and almost exclusive instrument for assail- ing distant objects ; but now the gun has nearly su- perseded it. The great hunts are rendered more ani- mating, as well as more effectual, from being carried on in large parties, and even by whole tribes. The men are prepared for these by fasting, dreaming, and other superstitious observances, similar to those which we shall find employed in anticipation of war. In such expeditions, too, contrivance and skill, as well as boldness and enterprise, are largely em- ployed. Sometimes a circle is formed, when all the animals surrounded by it are pressed closer and closer, till they are collected in the centre, and fal under the accumulated weight of weapons. On other occasions they are driven to the margin of a lake or river, in which, if they attempt to seek ref- uge, canoes are ready to intercept them. Else- where a space is enclosed by stakes, only a narrow ■,imm«m»>*^ \ 84 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING opening being left, which, by clamour and shouts, the game are compelled to enter, and thereby se- cured. In autumn and spring, when the ice is newly formed aCad slight, they are pushed upon it, and their legs breaking through, they are easily caught. In winter, when the snow begins to fall, traps are set, in which planks are so arranged, that the animal, in snatching at the bait, is crushed to death. Origin Daily the deer, both for food and clothing, was the most valuable object of chase ; but, since the trade with Europeans has given such a prominent impor- tance to furs, the beaver has in some degree sup- planted it. In attacking this animal, great care is taken to prevent his escape into the water, on which his habitation always borders ; and with this view various kinds of nets and springes are employed. On some occasions the Indians j.Uice themselves upon the dike which encloses his amphibious village. They then make an opening in it, when ihe inmates, alarmed by seeing the water flowing out, hasten to this barrier, where they encounter their enemies, armed with all the instruments of destruction. At other times, when ice covers the surface of the pond, a hole is made, at which the animal comes to re- spire ; he is then drawn out and secured. The bear is a formidable enemy, which must be assailed by the combined force of the hunters, who are ranged in two rows, armed with bows or muskets. One of them advances and wounds him, and, on being furi- ously pursued, he retreats between the files, fol- lowed in the same line by the animal, which is then overwhelmed by their united onset. In killing these quadrupeds, the natives seem to feel a sort oi Mnd- ness and sympathy for their victim. On vanquish- ing a beaver or a bear, they celebrate its praises in a song, recounting those good qualities which it will never more be able to display, yet consoling themselves with the useful purposes to which ita flesh and its skin will be apphed.^iyt ^jy-^i^ f, '^ * Chattiaubriand's Travels in America and Italy (2 vols. 8V0) \ CANADA AND 1T8 BORDERS. 85 "Tf; Of the animals usually tamed and rei^der^d sub^ servient to useful purposes, the Indians have only the dog, that faithful friend of man. Though his services in hunting are valuable, he is treated with but little tenderness, and is left to roam about the dwelling, very sparingly supplied wiih food and shelter. A missionary, who resided in a Huron vil- lage, represents his life as having^een rendered miserable by these animals. At n^t they laid themselves on his person for the benefit of the warmth ; and, whenever his scanty medl was set down, their snouts were always first in the dish. Dog^s flesh is eaten, and has even a peculiar sanctity attached to it. On all solemn festivals it is the principal meat, the use of which, on such occasions, seems to import some high and mysterious meaning* But, besides the cheering avocations of the chase^ other means must be used to ensure the comfort and subsistence of the Indian's family; all of which, however, are most ungenerously devolved upon thei weaker sex. Women, according to Creuxius, serve them as domestics, as tailors, as peasants^ and ad oxen ; and Long does not conceive that any other purposes of their existence are recognised, except those of bearing children and performing hard work. They till the ground, carry wood and water, build huts, make canoes, and fish : in which latter pro- cesses, however, and in reaping the harvest, theii* lords deign to give occasional aid. So habituated are they to such occupations, that when one of themt saw a party of English soldiers collecting wood, she exclaimed that it was a shame to see men doing women's work, and began herself to carry a load.* Through the services of this enslaved portioli of Loiiddn, 1828), vol. i., ft. 269^279. Carver's Travels throngh the Interior Parts of North America (8vo, London, 1778), p. 287-290. Long, p. 96. * Colden's History of the Five Nations (2 Vols. 12mo, London, 1755), Vol. i., p. ff 14. Creams, p. 57. Long, p. 137, 138. \0L. 1.— H JJ'S«»*«.W.,.v«,», 86 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING the tribe, those savages are enabled to combine in a certain degree the agricultural with the hunting state, without any mixture of the pastoral, usually considered as intermediate. Cultivation, however, is limited to small spots in the immediate vicinity of the villages, and these being usually at the dis- tance of sixteen or seventeen miles from each oth- er, it scarcely makes any impression on the im- mense expanse of forest. The women, in the be- ginning of summer, after having burned the stubble of the preceding crop, rudely stir the ground with a long, crooked piece of wood ; they then throw in the grain, which is chiefly the coarse but productive species of maize peculiar to the Continent. The nations in the south have a considerable variety of fruits; whereas those of Canada appear to have raised only turnsols, watermelons, and pompions. Tobacco used to be grown largely ; but that pro- duced by the European settlers is now universally preferred, and has become a regular object of trade. The grain, after harvest (which is celebrated by a festival), is lodged in large subterraneous stores lined with bark, where it keeps extremely well. Previous to being placed in these, it is sometimes thrashed, on other occasions merely the ears are cut off, and thrown in. When first discovered by settlers from Europe, the degrees of culture were found to vary in different tribes. The Algonquins, who were the ruling people previous to the arrival of the French, wholly despised it, and branded as plebeian their neighbours, by whom it was practised. In general, the northern clans, and those near the mouth of the St. Lawrence, depended almost solely on hunting and fishing ; and when these failed they were reduced to dreadful extremities, being often obliged to depend on the miserable resource of that species of lichen called tripe de roche. The maize, when thrashed, is occasionally toasted on the coals, and sometimes made into a coarse t CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 87 kind of unleavened cake. But the most favourite preparation is that called sagamity, a species of pap formed after it has been roosted, bruised, and sep- arated from the husk. It is insipid by itself ; yet when thrown into the pot, along with the produce of the chase, it enriches the soup or stew, one of the. principal dishes at their feasts. They never eat victuals raw, but rather overboiled ; nor have they yet been brought to endure French ragouts, salt, pepper, or, indeed, any species of condiment. A chief, admitted to the governor's table, seeing the general use of mustard, was led by curiosity to take a spoonful and put it into his mouth. On feeling its violent effects, he made incredible efforts to con- ceal them, and escape the ridicule of the company ; but severe sneezings, and the tears starting from his eyes, soon betrayed him, and raised a general laugh. He was then shown the manner in which it should be used ; but nothing could ever induce him to allow the " boiling yellow," as he termed it, to enter his lips. The Indians are capable of ei'.tiaordinary absti- nence from food, in which they can persevere for suc- cessive days without complaint or apparent suffering. They even take a pride in long fasts, by which they usually prepare themselves for any great underta- king. Yet, when once set down to a feast, their gluttony is described as enormous, and the capacity of their stomachs almpst incredible. They will go from feast to feast, domg honour id each in succes- sion. The chief giving the entertainment does not I partake, but with his own hands distributes portions among the guests. Or. solemn occasions, it is a rule that everything shall be eaten ; nor does this obligation seem to be felt as either burdensome or ' unpleasant. In their native state, they were not acquainted with any species of intoxicating liquors ; their love of ardent spirits, attended with so many *. . -\ 88 THE NATIVfl INDIANS INHABITING ruinous effects, having been entirely consequent on their intercourse with Europeans.* MK The habitations of the Indians receive much less of their attention than the attire, or, at least, embel- lishment of their persons. Our countrymen, by common consent, give to them no better appella- tion than cabins. The bark of trees is their chief material both for houses and boats : they peel it off with considerable skill, sometimes stripping a whole tree in one pieceu This coating, spread not unskil- fully over a framework of poles, and fastened to them by strips of tough rind, forms their dwellings. The shape, according to the owner's fancy, resem- bles a tub, a cone, or a cart>shed, the mixture of which gives to the village a confused and chaotic appearance. Light and heat are admitted only by an aperture at the top, through which also the smoke escapes, after filling all the upper part of the mansion. Little inconvenience is felt from this by the natives, who, within doors, never think of any position except sitting or lying ; but to Europeans, who must occasionally stand or walk, the abode is thereby rendered almost intolerable; and matters become much worse when rain or snow makes it necessary to close the roof. These structures are sometimes upward of a hundred feet long ; but they are then the residence of two or three separate fam- ilies. Four of them occasionally compose a quad- rangle, each open on the inside, and having a com- mon fire in the centre. Formerly the Ivoquois had houses .jmewhat superior, adorned even with some rude carving ; but these were burned down by the French in successive expeditions, and were never after rebuilt in' the same style. The Canadians in this respect seem to be surpassed by the Choc- taws, Chickasavvs, and other tribes in the south, and * Charlevoix, vol. ii, p. lU-125. Adair> p. 40? 412. Creux- ius, p. 66. Missions ea la Nouvelle France, ans 1657, 1658, p. i06. 107. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 89 even by the Saukies in the west, whose mansions Carver describes as constructed of well-hewn planks, neatly jointed, and each capable of containing sev- eral families. In their expeditions, whether for war or hunting, which often lead them through desolate forests, sev- eral hundred miles from horns, the Indians have the art of rearing, with great expedition, temporary abodes. On arriving at their evening station, a few poles, meeting at the top in the form of a cone, are in half an hour covered with bark ; and having spread a few pine-branches within by way of mattress, they sleep as soundly as on beds of down. Like the Esquimaux, they also understand how to convert snow into a material for building ; and find it in the depth of winter the warmest and most comfortable. A few twigs platted together secure the roof. Our own countrymen, in their several campaigns, have, in cases of necessity, used with advantage this spe- cies of bivouac. The furniture in these native huts is exceedingly simple. The chief articles are two or three pots or kettles for boiling their food, with a few wooden plates and spoons. The former, in the absence of metal, with which the inhabitants were unacquaint- ed, were made of coarse earthenware that resist- ed the fire ; and sometimes of a species of soft stone, which could be excavated with their rude hatchets. Nay, in some cases, their kitchen utensils were of wood, and the water made to boil by throwing in heated stones. Since their acquaintance with Eu- ropeans, the superiority of iron vessels has been found so decided, that they are now universally preferred. The great kettle or caldron, employed only or* high festivals associated with religion, hunting, or war, attracts even a kind of veneration ; and potent chiefs have assumed its name as their title of honour. Canoes, another fabric which the Indians construct H 2 •*'■ .vf J m 1 1 .-^1 ^1 9Q THB MikTIVV INIMAN8 II|IIA9ITXN0 «: ■■-*■.■■■ very rudely, are yet adapted with considerable skill to their purpose. These are usually framed of the bark of a single tree, strengthened at the centre with ribs of tough wood. The ends are of bark only, but, being curved upward, are always above water, and thus revnain perfectly tight. Our sailors can scarcely believe such nut-shells safe even on the smoothest waters, and see with surprise the na- tives guiding them amid stormy waves, where their very lightness and buoyancy preserve them from sinking. They have another quality of great ad- vantage in the devious pursuits of the owners ; being so extremely light, that they can be easily conveyed on the shoulder from one river or branch of a lake ■ to another. One man, it is said, can carry on his back a canoe in which twelve persons may navigate with safety.* Having taken this minute survey of the physical condition of the Indians, we shall proceed to an examination of their social condition. The funda- mental principle of their polity is the complete independence of every individual, his right to do whatever he pleases, be it good or bad, nay, even though criminal and destructive. When any one announces an intention which is disagreeable to his neighbours, they dare not attempt to check him by reproach or coercion; these would only rivet his determination more strongly. Their only resource is to sooth him, like a spoiled child, by kind words, and especially by gifts. If, notwithstanding, he pro- ceeds to wound or murder any one, the public look on without concern, though revenge is eagerly sought by the kindred of the injured person. Notwithstanding this impunity, which, on our side of the Atlantic, would be followed by the most dreadful consequences, it is somewhat mortifying * Charlpvoix, vol. ii., p. 127-130. Weld, p. 363-389. Cteax iu8,p.68. Carver, p. 4i>, 231-233. Adur, p. 413-420. V "i CANADA AND ITS BORDERS* 91 to the pride of European civilization to learn, that there reigns a degree of tranquillity greater than the strictest police can preserve with us. The In- dians are divided into a number of little nations or tribes, fiercely hostile to each other, but whose members are bound among themselves by the strict- est union. The honour and welfare of the clan sup- ply their ruling principle, and are cherished with an ardour not surpassed in the most brilliant eras of Greek and Roman patriotism. This national at- tachment forms a social tie, linking the members to each other, and rendering exceedingly rare, not only deeds of violence, but even personal quarrels, and banishing entirely that coarse and abusive language which is so prevalent among the vulgar in more en- lightened communities. This feeling, added to the sentiment of dignity and self-command considered suitable to the character of a warrior, renders their deportment exceedingly pleasing. They are com- pletely free from that false shame which is termed mauvaise honte. When seated at table with Eu- ropeans of the highest rank, they retain the most thorough self-possession ; and, at the same time, by carefully observing the proceedings of the other guests, they avoid all awkwardness in their man- ners. Their generosity, too, in relieving each other's necessities, scarcely knows any bounds, and only stops short of an absolute community of goods. No member of a tribe can be in the least danger of starving if the rest have wherewith to supply him. Children rendered orphans by the casualties to which savage life is subject, are immediately taken in charge by the nearest relative, and supplied with everything needful as abundantly as if they were his own. Nothing gives them a more unfavourable * opinion of the French and English than to see one ^ portion revelling in abundance, while the other suf- fers the extremities of want ; but when they are told that, for want of these accommodations, men imiVERSITY OF WINDSOR LIBRARV 92 Thfi NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING are seized by their fellow-creatures and immured in dungeons, such a degree of barbarism appears to them almost incredible. Whole tribes, when obliged by the vicissitudes of war to seek refuge among their neighbours, are received with unbounded hos- pitality ; habitations and lands are assigned to them, and they are treated by their new friends in every " respect as a part of themselves. It may, however, be observed, that as such an accession of numbers augments the military strength of the tribe, there may be a mixture ol policy in this cordial recep- tion.* In consequence of this spirit of order and internal union, the unbounded personal freedom which marks their social condition seldom breaks out into such crimes as would disturb the public peace. Its great- est evil, of which we shall see repeated instances, is, that individuals, actuated by revenge or a spirit of daring enterprise, think themselves justified in sur- prising and murdering a hated adversary. From this cause every treaty bstween the tribes is ren- dered precarious ; though, as each is aware of these lawless propensities, room is left for mutual expla- nation, so that particular outrages may not involve a general war. This circumstance leads us to no- tice, that the favourable aspect presented oy the interior of these communities can by no means war- rant any conclusion as to the superiority of savage life when compared with that of civilized man. On the contrary, the most perfect form of government devised by the human being in the state of nature, has never been exempted from those feelings of re- lentless enmity and continual fear with which bor- dering nations regard each other. These, ao will , appear in the sequel, often impel them to the most * Charlevoix, vol. ii., p. 30-32, 86, 87. Creaxius, p. 72, 73, Carver, p. 248, 412. Adair, p. 378, 412. Missions en la Nou- vdle France, ans 1657, 1658, p. 128. \ ,r\~ ...t. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS: v? 93 direful crimes ; but at present we shall proceed with our survey of their domestic usages. Some writers have denied that there exists among the Indians anything that can properly be termed a matrimonial union. This, however, seems only a prejudice, in conse .(ence of there not being any regular ceremony, ab with us. The man, it appears, after having made an arrangement with the parent of his bride, takes her home, and" they live in every respect as husband and wife. The mode of court- ship among several of the tribes is singular. The wooer, attended often by several comrades, repairs at midnight to his fair one's apartment, and three times twitches her nose. If she be inclined to listen to his suit, she rises; otherwise he must depart. Though *his visit be so very unseasonable, it is said to be rr'-ely accompanied with any impropriety; the missionaries, however, did not think it right to sanction such freedom in their converts. The pre- liminary step is, in this manner, taken with the lady, but the decision still rests with the father, to whom the suiter now applies. Long has given no unpleas- ing specimen of the address : " Father, I love your daughter : will you give her to me, that the small roots of her heart may entangle with mine, so that the strongest wind that blows may never separate them?" He offers, at the same ^;^e, a handsome present, the acceptance of which xp considered as. sealing the union. Considerable discrepance pre- vails in the descriptions , and apparently in the prac- tice, as applied to different tribes ; yet, on the whole, great reserve and propriety seem to mark this inter- course. The young men of the Five Nations val- ued themselves highly for their correct conduct towards the other sex. Of numerous female cap- tives who fell into their hands during a long series of wars, though some were possessed of great per- sonal beauty, no one had to complu^u that her hon- our was exposed to the slightest danger. Tlie girls I \1 04 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING themselves are not always quite so exemplary ; but their failures are viewed with indulgence, and form no obstacle ^o uiarriage. Once united by that tie, however, a strict fidelity is expected and . nimonly observ^a. The husband, generally speaking, is not jealous, unless when intoxicated ; but when his sus- picions are really excited regarding the conduct of his partner, he is very indignant, beats her, bites off her nose, and dismisses her in disgrace. There are occasional intsances of a divorce being inflicted without any assigned reason; but such arbitranr proceeding is by no means frequent. As the wife performs the whole labour, and furnishes a creat part of the subsistence, she is usually considered too valuable a possession to be rashly parted with. In some cases these domestic drudges become even an object of dispute and competition. A mission- ary mentions a woman, who, during the absence of her husband, formed a new connexion. Her first partner having returned, without being agitated by any delicate sensibilities, demanded her back. The qaestion was referred to a chief, who could contrive no better ^ichsme than that of placing her at a cer- tain distil' je from both, and decreeing that he who should n£&i j oach her should have her ; ** thus," says he, "the wife fell to him who had the best legs." "With regard to polygamy, the usual liberty is claim- eel, and by the chiefs in the west and the south it is indulged to a considerable extent; but among the tribes on the lakes the practice is rare &nd limited. When it does occur, the man very commonly mar- ries his wife^s sister, and even her whole family, on the presumption, we may suppose, that the house- hold will be thereby rendered more harmonious. The Indian is said never to betray the slightest symptom of tenderness towards his wife or chil- dren. If he meets them on his return from a dis- t£^nt expedition, he proceeds without taking the slightest notice, and seats himself in his cabin as if ;>».„■ CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 95 he had not been a day absent. Yet his exertions for their welfare, and the eagerness with which he avenges their wrongs, testify that his apparent apa- thy springs only from pride and a fancied sense of decG'um. It is equally displayed with regard to his own most urgent wants. Though ho may have been without food during several days, and enters a neighbour's house, nothing ca^i i ^ke him stoop to ask for a morsel. • The rearing (for it cannot be ral of the children is chiefly arrji cost the parents the least possibi to the labour of procuring their s father is either engrossed by war and hunting, or resigned to total indolence ; while the mother, op- 3 education) that It may 8 m addition The ence. Infant in a Frame. pressed by various toils, cannot devote much time to the cares of nurture. The infant, therefore, being fastened with pieces of skin to a board spread with soft moss, is laid on the ground or suspended to the branch of a tree, where it swings as in a cradle, an * La Potherie Bacqueville de, Histoire de TAmeriique Siep- tentrionale (4 tomes 12mo, Paris, 1674), vol. ii., p. 22, 31 . Long, p. 93, 136. .Carver, p. 230-241, 367-376, 410. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1^12^ |2.5 ■so ^^* H^H L£ 12.0 us u 1-25 i 1.4 IIIIIJ4 <^ / f / 7 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0 (716) 873-4503 its '/. <\ m letters or study, many of the higher faculties of his mind are developed in a very remarkable degree. He displays a decided supe- tiority over the unmstructed labourer in a civilized community, whose mental energies are benumbed amid the daily round of meclumical occupation. * Ghatraobriand, toI. v., p. 129, 213. Weld^ p. 367, 388 , rt CAHADA AND IVS BORDBRS. 97 The foimer spends a great part of his life in ardnous enterprises, where much contrivance is requisite, and whence he roust often extricate himself by pres- ence of mind and ingenuity. His senses, |«rticu- lariy those of seeing and dmeUing, have acquired by practice an almost preternatural acuteness. He can trace an animal or a foe by indications which to a European eye would be wholly imperceptible ; and in his wanderings he gathers a mim'Ae acquaintance with the geography of the countries which he trav- erses. He can even draw a rude outline of them by applying a mixture of charcoal and grease to pre- pared skins, and on seeing a regular map he soon understands its construction, and readily finds out places. His facility iii discovering the most direct way to spots situated at the distance of hundreds Of miles, and known perhaps only by the report of his countrymen, is truly astonishing. It has been as- cribed by some to a mysterious and supernatural instinct, but it appears to be achieved by merely ob- serving the different aspect of the trees or shrubs when exposed to the north or the south, as also the position of the sun, which he can point out, although hidden by clouds. £ven where there is a beaten track, if at all circuitous, he strikes directly through the woods, and reaches his destination by the straightest possible line.* Other faculties of a higher order are deyeloped by the scenes amid which the life of savages is spent. They are divided into a number of little communi* ties, between whidi are actively carried on all the relations of war, negotiation, treaty, and aUiance. As mighty revolutions, observes an eloquent writer, take place in these kingdoms of wood and cities of bark, as in the most powerful civilized states. To increase the influence and extend the posseasions of their own tribe, to humble and, if possible, to de« * Weld» p. 391-394. Long, p. 83. Carver, p. 241, 242, Vol. I.— I 98 THB NATIYB INDIANS INHABITINO stroy those hostile to them, are the constant aims of every member of those little commonwealths. For these ends, not only deeds of daring valour are achieved, but schemes are deeply laid, and pur- sued with the most accurate calculation. There is scarcely a refinement in European diplomacy to which they are strangers. The French once made an attempt to crush the confederacy of the Five Nations by attacking each in succession ; but as they were on their march against the first tribe, they were met by the deputies of the others, who oifered their mediation, intimating, that, if it were rejected^ they would make common cause with the one threat- ened. That association also showed that they com- pletely understood how to employ the hostility which prevailed between their enemy and the Eng- lish for promoting their own aggrandizement. Em- bassies, announced by the calumet of peace, are constantly passing from one tribe to another. The same political circumstances develop in an extraordinary degree the powers of oratory; for nothing of any importance is transacted without a speech. On every emergency a council of the tribe is called, when the aged and wise hold long delibera- tions for the public weal. The best speakers are de- spatched to conduct their negotiations, the object of which is unfolded in studied harangues. The func- tions of orator, among the Five Nations, had even become a separate profession, held in equal or higher honour than that of the warrior ; and each clan ap- pointed ^he most eloquent of their number to speak for them in the public council. Nay, there was a general orator for the whole confederacy, who could say to the French governor, "Ononthio, lend thine ear; I am the mouth of all the country; you hear all the Iroquois in hearing my word." Decanesora, their speaker at a later period, was greatly admired by the English, and his bust was thought to resemble that of Cicero. In their diplomatic discourses, each (. t if CANADA AND ITS BORDBRS. 99 proposition is prefaced by the delivery of a belt of wampum, of which what follows is understood to be the explanation, and which is to be preserved as a record of the conference. The orator does not ex- press his proposals in words only, but gives to every sentence its appropriate action. If he threatens war, he wildly brandishes the tomahawk; if he solicits alliance, he twines his arms closely with those of the chief whom he addresses ; and if he invites friendly intercourse, he assumes all the atti- tudes of one who is forming a road in the Indian manner, by cutting down the trees, clearing them away, and carefully removing the leaves and branch- es. To a French writer, who witnessed the de- liyery of a solemn embassy, it suggested the idea of a company of actors performing on a stage. So ex- pressive are their gestures, that negotiations have been conducted and alliances concluded between petty states and communities who understood no- thing of one another^s language.* The composition of the Indian orators is studied and elaborate. The language of the Iroquois is even held to be susceptible of an Attic elegance, which few -can attain so fully as to escape all crit- icism. It is figurative in the highest degree, every notion being expressed by images addressed to the senses. Thus, to throw up the hatchet or to put on the great caldron is to begin a war ; to throw the hatchet to the sky is to wage open and terrible war ; to take o£f the caldron or to bury the hatchet is to make peace ; to plant the tree of peace on the high- est mountain of the earth is to make a general paci- fication. To throw a prisoner into the caldron is to devote him to torture and death ; to take him out, is to pardon and receive him as a member of the community. Ambassadors coming to propose a full and general treaty say, " We rend the clouds asun- * Missions en la Nouvelle France, an 1644, p. 87-93. Carver, p. 260. Colden, vol. i.,p. 169, etfeg. Adair, p. 79. 106 THtf Hfktltt tHtolAKi ItlttAttTlMO der, mnd drive away all darkness from the heavenst that the sun of peace may ^hine with brightness over us vAV^ On another occasion, referring to their own violent conduct, they said, *' We are glad that Assarigoa will bury iii the pit wh:^ is past ; let the earth be trodden hard over it, or, rather, let a strong stream run under the pit to wanh away the evil." They afterward added, "We now plant a tree, whose top will reach the sun, and its branches spread far abroad, and we shall shelter ourselves un- der it, and live in peace." To send the collar un- der ground is to carry on a secret negotiation ; but when expressing a desire that there might be no du- plicity or concealment between them and the French, they said that " they wished to fix the sun in the top of the heaven, immediately above that pole, that it might beat directly down and leave no- thing in obscurity." In pledging themselves to a firm and steady peace, they declared that they would not only throw down the great war-caldron, and cause all the water to (low out, but would break it in pie- ces. This disposition to represent everything by a sensible object extends to matters the most impor- tant. One powerful people assumed the appellation of Foxes, while another gloried in that of Cats. Even when the entire nation bore a different a^ipel- lation, separate fraternities distinguished themselves as the tribe of the Bear, the Tortoise, and the Wolf. They did not disdain a reference even to inani*' mate things. The Black Caldron was at one time the chief warrior of the Five Nations ; and Red Shoes was a person of distinction well known to^ Long the traveller. When the chiefs concluded treaties with Europeans, their signature consisted m a jiicture, often tolerably well executed, of the beast or object after which they chose to be na- med.* ^ * La Potherie, p^e&ce to tmne iii Colden, vol. i., p. 15, 40. 175. Missions en U Nonvelle France, ans 1665, 1^, n. 9U Weld, p. 395. ' CANADA AMD ITS BORDSRfl. 101 , The absence among these tribes of any written or even pictorial mode of recording events, was sup- plied by the memories of their old men, which were 80 retentive, that a certain writer calls them living books. Their only remembrancer consisted in the wampum belts ; of which one was appropriated to each division of a speech or treaty, and had seem- ingly a powerful effect in calling it to recollection. On the close of the transaction, these were deposit- ed as public doruments, to be drawn forth on great occasions, when the orators, and even the old wom- en, could repeat verbatim the passage to which each referred. Europeans were thus enabled to collect information concerning the revolutions of different tribes, for several ages preceding their own arri-* val.* The earliest visiters of the New- World, on see- ing among the Indians neither priests, temples, idols, nor sacrifices, represented them as a people wholly destitute of religious opinions. Closer inquiry, however, showed that a belief in the spiritual world, however imperfect, had a commanding influence over almost all their actions. Their creed includes even some lofty and pure conceptions. Under the title of the Great Spirit, the Master of Life, the ma- ker of heaven and earth, they distinctly recognise a supreme ruler of the universe and an arbiter of their destiny. A party of them, when informed by the missionaries of the existence of a being of in- finite power, who had created the heavens and the earth, with one consent exclaimed, " Atahocan ! At^ ahocan /" that being the name of their principal dei- ty. According to Long, the Indians among whom he resi(*ed ascribe every event, propitious or unfor- tunate, to the favour or anger of the Master of Life. They address him for their daily subsistence ; they * Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1658, 1660, p. 38. Weld, p. 3a», 390. I 2 KM THI VATITS INDIANS INRABITINQ beltote him to convey to them presence of mind in battle ; and amid tortures they thanlc him for inspi- ring them with coarage. Yet though this one ele- vated and just conception is deeply graven on their minds, it is combined with others which show all the imperfection of unassisted reason in attempting to think rightly on this great subject. It may even be observed, that the tern?, rendered into our lan- guage "great spirit,'* does not really convey the idea of an immaterial nature. It imports with them merely some being possessed of lofty and mysteri- ous powers, and in this sense is applied to men, and even to animals. The brute creation, which occu- pies a prominent place in all their ideas, is often viewed by them as invested, to a great extent, with supernatural powers ; an extreme absurdity, which, however, they share with the civiUzed creeds of £gypt and India. ^ When the missionaries, on their first arrival, at- tempted to form an idea of the Indian mythology, it appeared to them extremely complicated, more especially because those who attempted to explain it hiUi no fixed opinions. Each man differed from his neighbour, and at another time from himself ; and when the discrepances were pointed out, no attempt was made to reconcile them. The southern tribes, who had a more settled faith, are described by Adair as intoxicated with spiritual pride, and denouncing even their European allies as " the accursed peo- ple.'* The native Canadian, on the contrary, is said to have been so little tenacious, that he would at any time renounce all his theological errors for a pipe of tobacco, though, as soon as it was smoked, he immediately relapsed. An idea was found prev« alent respecting a certain mystical animal, called Mesoii or Messessagen, who, when the earth was buried in water, had drawn it up and restored it. Others spoke of a contest between the hare, the fox, the beaver, and the seal, for the empire of the h. \ r CAITADA AMD ITS BORDBR0. 103 World. Among the principal nations of Canada^ the hare is thought to have attained a decided pre- sminence ; and hence the Great Spirit and the Great Hare are sometimes used as synonymous terms. Whst should have raised this creature to such dis- tinction seems rather unaccountable ; unless it were that its extreme swiftness might appear something supernatural. Among the Ottowas alone the heav- enly bodies become an object of veneration ; \he sun appears to rank as their supreme deity.* To aive into the abyss of futurity has always been a favourite object of superstition. It has been at- tempted by various means ; but the Indian seeks it chiefly through his dreams, which always bear with hiih a sacred character. Before ^gaging in any high unaertaking, especially in hunting or war, the dreams of the principal chiefs are carefully watched and stu- diously examined ; and according to the interpreta- tion their conduct is guided. A whole nation has been set in motion by the sleeping fancies of a single man. Sometimes a person imagines in his sleep that he has been presented with an article of v^ue by another, who then cannot, without improprietyi leave the omen unfulfilled. When Sir William John- son, during the American war, was negotiating an alliance with a friendly tribe, the chief confidential- ly disclosed that, during his slumbers, he had been favoured with a vision of Sir William bestowing upon him the rich laced coat which formed his flill dress. The fulfilment of this revelation was very inconve- nient ; yet, on being assured that it positively oc- curred, the English commander found it advisable to resign his uniform. Soon after, however, he un- folded to the Indian a dream with which he had him- self been favoured, and in which the former was seea presenting him with a large tract of fertile land most commodiously situated. The native ruler admitted * Adair, p. 32. La Potherie, tome ii., p. 3-8, 11, 12. Loogt p. 139. Creuzius, p. 84. •jt 104 THE NATITB INDIANS INRABITINO that, since the vision had been vouchsafed, it must be realized, yet earnestly proposed to cease this mu- tual dreaming, which he found had turned much to his own disadvantage.* The manitou is an object of peculiar veneration ; and the fixing upon this guardian power is not only the most important event in the history of a youth, but even constitutes his initiation into active life. As a preliminary, his face is painted black, and he undergoes a severe fast, which is, if possible, pro- longed for eight days. This is preparatory to the dream in which he is to behold the idol destined ever after to afford him aid and protection. In this state of excited expectation, and while every nocturnal vision is carefully watched, there seldom fails to oc- cur to his mind something which, as it makes a deep impression, is pronounced his manitou. Most com- monly it is a trifling and even fantastic article ; the head, beak, or claw of a bird, the hoof of a cow, or even a piece of wood. However, having undergone a thorough perspiration in one of their vapour-baths, he is laid on his back, and a picture of it is drawn upon his breast by needles of fish-bone dipped in ver- milion. A good specimen of the original being pro- cured, it is carefully treasured up ; and to it he ap- Elies in every emergency, hoping that it will inspire is dreams, and secure to him every kind of good fortune. When, however, notwithstanding every means of propitiating its favour, misfortunes befall him, the manitou is considered as having exposed itself to jusl^ and serious reproach. He begins with remonstrances, representing all that has been done for it, the disgrace it incurs by not protecting its vo- tary, and, finally, the danger that, in case of repeat- ed neglect, it may be discarded for another. Nor is this considered merely as an empty threat; for if the manitou is judged incorrigible, it is thrown away ; . '*' Charlevoiz, vol. il, p. 156-158. Crauzius, p. 84. Long^ p. 69. CIHADA AND ITS BORBBR0. 105 and b]r means of a fresh course of fasting, dreamingi sweating, and painting, another is installed, from whorn better success may be hoped.* The absence of temples, worship, sacrifices, and all the observances to nvhich superstition prompts the untutored mind, is a remarkable circumstancoi and, as we have already remarked, led the early vis- iters to believe that the Indians were strangers to all religious ideas. Yet the missionaries fouim room to suspect that some of their great feasts, in which everything presented must be eaten, bore an idola- trous character, and were held in honour of the Great Hare. The Ottawas, whose mythological system seems to have been the most complicated, were wont to l^eep a regular festival to celebrate the beneficence of the sun ; on which occasion the luminary was told that this service was in return for the good hunt- ing he had procured for his people, and as an en* couragement to persevere in his friendly cares* They were also observed to erect an idol in the mid- dle of their town, and sacrifice to it ; but such cerei> monies were by no means general. On first wit- nessing Christian worship, the only idea suggested by it was that of their asking some temporal good^ which was either granted or refused, f The mission- aries mention two Hurons, who arrived from the woods soon after the congregation had assembled. Standing without, they began to speculate what it was the white men were asking, and then whether they were getting it. As the service coiitinued be- yond expectation, it was concluded they were not getting it; and as the devotional duties still pro- ceeded, they admired the perseverance with which this rejected suit was urged. At length, when the vesper hymn began, one of the savages observed to * Obarlevoix, toI. ii., p. 14ft, 146. La Potherie, yoI. ii., p. 11» t Missions en la NouveUe France, an 1635, p. 72. «kr 106 THS NATITB INDIANS INHABITING the other : " Listen to them now in despair, crying with all their might.*** The grand doctrine of a life beyond the grave was, among all the tribes of America, most deeply cher- ished and most sincerely believed. f The^ had even formed a distinct idea of the region whither they hoped to be transported, and of the new and happier mode of existence, free from those wars, tortures, and cruelties which throw so dark a shade over their lot upon earth. Yet their conceptions on this subject were by no means either exalted or spiritu- alized. They expected simply a prolongation of their present life and enjoyments, under more fa- vourable circumstances, and with the same objects furnished in greater choice and abundance. In that brighter land the sun ever shines unclouded, the for- ests abound with deer, the lakes and rivers with fish ; benefits which are farther enhanced in their imagin- ation by a faithful wife and dutiful children. They do not reach it, however, till after a journey of sev- eral months, and encountering various obstacles ; a broad river, a chain of \o(iy mountains, and the at- tack of a furious dog. This favoured country lies far in the west, at the remotest boundary of the earth, ivhich is supposed to terminate in a steep precipice, with the ocean rolling beneath. Sometimes, in the too eager pursuit of game, the spirits fall over, and are converted into fishes. The local position of their paradise appears connected with certain ob- scure intimations received from their wandering neighbours of the Mississippi, the Rocky Mountains, and the distant shores of the Pacific. This system of belief labours under a great defect, inasmuch as it scarcely connects felicity in the future world with virtuous conduct in the present. The one is held to * La Potherie, vol. ii., p. 12. Missions en la Noavelle France, an 1667, p. 53-55 ; an 1635, p. 72. t Animorum immortalitatem persuasissimam quidem omnea habent. Creuxiua, p. 87. u . I ir CANADA AND ITS BORDBR0. 107 be simply a continuation of the other ; and under this impression, the arms, ornaments, and everything that had contributed to the welfare of the deceased, are interred alonff with him. This supposed assu- rance of a future life, so cumformable to their gross habits and conceptions, was found by the mission- aries a serious obstacle when they attempted to al- lure them by the hope of a destiny, purer and high- er indeed, but less accordant with their untutored conceptions. Upon being told that in the promised world they would neither hunt, eat, drink, nor mar- ry, many of them declared that, far from endeavour- ing to reach such an abode, they would consider their arrival there as the greatest calamity. Men- tion is made of a Huron girl whom one of the Chris- tian ministers was endeavouring to instruct, and whose first question was what she would find to eat. The answer being " Nothing," she then ask- ed what she would see ; and being informed that she would see the Maker of heaven and earth, she ex- pressed herself much at a loss how she should ad- dress him.* Another sentiment, congenial with that now de- scribed, is most deeply rooted in the mind of the Indians. This is reverence for the dead, with which Chateaubriand, though somewhat hastily, considers them more deeply imbued than any other people.f During life they are by no means lavish in their ex- pressions of tenderness, but on the hour of final separation it is displayed with extraordinary force. ] When any member of a family becomes seriously ' ill, all the resources of magic and medicine are ex- hausted in order to procure his recovery. When the fatal moment arrives, all the kindred burst into loud lamentations, which continue till some person possessing the requisite authority desires them to * Missions en la Nouvelle France, an 1637, p. 121, 170: an 1635, p. 41. Creuxius, p. 87. Charlevoix, vol. li., p. 154, 155. t Cura ingens mortuorum. Creuxius, p. 91. 108 THB NATITB INDIANS INHABITING » cease. These expressions of grief, however, are renewed for a considerable time at sunrise and sunset. After three days the funeral takes place, when all the provisions which the family can pro- cure are expended in a feast, to which the neigh- bours are generally invited ; and, although on all solemn occasions it is required that everything shouldJlie eaten, the relations do not partake. These last cut off their hair, cover their heads, paint their faces of a black colour, and continue long to deny themselves every species of amusement.* The de- ceased is then interred with his arms and ornaments, his face painted, and his person attired in the richest robes which they can furnish. It was the opinion of one of the early missionaries, that the chief ob- ject of the Hurons in their traffic with the Fiench was to procure materials for honouring their dead ; and, as a proof of this, many of them have been seen shivering half naked in the cold, while their hut contained rich robes to be wrapped round them after their decease. Tbd body is placed in the tomb in an upright posture, and skins are carefully spread round it, so that no part may touch the earth. This, however, is by no means the final ceremony, being followed by another still more solemn and singular. Every eighth, tenth, or twelfth year, according to the custom of the different nations, is celebrated the festival of the dead ; and, tilt then, the souls are sup- posed to hover rouiMl their former tenement, and not to depart for their final abode in the west. On this occasion the people march in procession to the places of interment, open the tombs, and, on be« bolding the mortal remains of their friends, continue some time fixed in mournful silence. The women then break out into loud cries, and the party begin to collect the bones, removing every remnant of flesh. The remains are then wrapped in fresh and * CharleT(HZ, vol. ii., p. lfli« y . ; CANADA AND 1T8 BORDERS. 1U9 sup« d not this the be- inae men egin t of and valuable robes, and conveyed amid continual lam- entation to the family-cabin. A feast is then given, followed during several days by dances, games, and prize-combats, to which strangers often repair from a great distance. This mode of celebration cer- tainly accords very ill with the 3ad occasion ; yet the Greek and Roman obsequies were solemnized in a similar manner ; nay, in many parts of Scot- land, till very recently, they were accompanied by festival, and often by revelry. The relics are then carried to the council-house of the nation, vhere they are hung for exhibition along the walls, with fresh presents destined to be interred along \/ith them» Sometimes they are even displayed from village to village. At length, being deposited in a pit\ previously dug in the earth, and lined w;.;h the richest furs, they are finally entombed. Teara and lamentations are again lavished ; and during a few days food is brought to the place. The lK)ne8 of their fathers are considered by the Indians the strongest ties to their native soil ; and when calam* ity forces them to quit it, these mouldering frag* jnents are, if possible, conveyed along with them.* Under the head of religious rites we may include knedicine, which is almost entirely within the do^ main of superstition. The great warmth of affection which, amid their apparent apathy, the natives eher* ish for each other, urges them, when their friends are seriously ill, to seek with the utuiost eagerness for a remedy. An order of men has thus arisen en- tirely different from the rest of the society, uniting the characters of priests, physicians, sorcerers, and sages. Nor are they quite strangers to some branch- es of the healing art. In external hurts or wounds, the cause of which is obvious, they apply various simples of considerable power, chiefly drawn from the vegetable world. Chateaubriand enumerates .L* Chateaubriand^ vol. 1., p^ 215. C78Uziu») p.^ 9i. Caurl«. veil, vqL U., p. 186, 187 ; 193-195. VoL.1.— K 110 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING the ginseng of the Chinese, the sassafras, the three- leaved hedisaron, and a tall shrub called bellis ; with decoctions from which they cure wounds and ulcers in a surprising manner. With sharp-pointed bones they scarify inflamed or rheumatic parts; and shells of gourds, filled with combustible matters, serve in- stead of cupping-glasses. They learned the art of bleeding from the French, but employed it some- times rashly and fatally, by opening the vein in the forehead : Hhey now understand it better, but their favourite specific in all internal complaints is the vapour-bath. To procure this, a small hut or shed is framed of bark or branches of trees, covered with skins, and made completely tight on every side, leaving only a small hole, through which the patient is admitted. By throwing red-hot stones into a pot of water, it is made to boil, and thus emit a warm steam, which, filling the hut, throws the patient into a most profuse perspiration. When he is completely bathed in it, he rushes out, even should it be in the depth of winter, and throws himself into the nearest pond or river ; and this exercise, which we should be apt to think sufficient to produce death, is proved, by their example as well as that of the Russians, to be safe and salutary. As a very large proportion of their maladies arise from cold and obstructed perspiration, this remedy is by no means ill chosen. They attach to it, however, a supernat- ural influence, calling it the sorcerer^s bath, and employ it not only in the cure of diseases, but in opening their minds whenever they are to hold a council on great affairs, or to engage in any impor- tant undertaking.* All cases of internal malady or of obscure origin are ascribed without hesitation to the secret agency of malignant powers or spirits. The physician, there- fore, must then invest himself with his mystic char- * Chateaubriand, vol. i., p. 247-249. Creuxius, p. 58, 50. Ciirer, p. 390, 391. Long, p. 46, 100. '\Sk CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. Ill acter,and direct all his effort gainst these invisiUe enemies. His proceedings c v&rious, and prompt- ed seemingly by a mixture oi delusion and impos- ture. On his first arrival, he begins to sing and dance round the patient, invoking his god with loud cries. Then, pretending to search out the seat of the enchantment, he feels his body all over, till cries seem to indicate the bewitched spot. He then rushes upon it like a madman or an enraged dog, tears it with his teeth, and often pretends to show a small bone or other object which he has extracted, and in which the evil power had been lodged. His disciples next day renew the process, and the whole family join in the chorus, so that, setting aside the disease, a frame of iron would appear necessary to withstand the remedies. Another contrivance is ^0 surround the cabin v/ith men of straw and wood- en masks of the most frightful shapes, in hopes of scaring away the mysterious tormentor. Some- times a painted image is formed, which the doctor pierces with an arrow, pretending that he has there- by vanquished the evil spirit. On other occasions he professes to discover a mysterious desire, which exists in the patient unknown to himself, for some particular object ; ahd this, however distant or diffi- cult of attainment, the poor family strain all their efforts to procure. It is alleged, that when the mala- dy appears hopeless, he fixes upon something com- pletely beyond reach, the want of which is then rep- resented as the cause of death. The deep faith reposed in these preposterous remedies caused to the missionaries much difficulty even with the most intelligent converts. When a mother found one of her children dangerously ill, her pagan neigh- bours came round and assured ner, that if she would allow it to be blown upon, and danced and howled round in the genuine Indian manilsr, there would be no doubt of a speedy recovery. They ex- horted her to take it into the woods, where the «sc? 119 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING Mack-robes, as they called the Christian priests, would not be able to find her. The latter could not fully undeceive their disciples, because in^ that less enlightened age they themselves were impressed with the notion that the magicians communicated and derived aid from the Prince of Darkness. All they could do, therefore, was to exhort them reso- lutely to sacrifice any benefit that might be derived from so unholy a source. This, however, was a hard duty ; and they record with pride the example of a Huron wife, who, though much attached to her husband, and apparently convinced that he could be cured by this impious process, chose rather to lose him. In other respects the missionaries suffered from the superstitious creed of the natives, who, even when unconverted, believed them to possess supernatural powers, which, it was suspected, they sometimes employed to introduce the epidemic dis- eases with which the country was. from time to time afflicted. They exclaimed, it was not the de- mons that made so many die, it was prayers, images, and baptism ; and when a severe pestilential disorder followed the murder of a Frenchman who fell by their hands, they imagined that the priests were thus avenging the death of their countryman.* We have still to describe the most prominent ob- ject of the Indian^s passions and pursuits, his war- fare. It is that which presents him under the darkest aspect, effacing almost all his fine quali- ties, and assimilating his nature to that of fiends. While the most cordial union reigns between the members of each tribe, they have neighbours whom they regard with the deepest enmity, and for whose extermination they continually thirst. The in- tense excitement which war affords, and the glory * Missions en la Nouvelle France, an 1685, part iii., p. 155, 917; ans 1642, 1643, p. 49; an 1637, part iii., p. 216, 217; part ii., p. 838, &c. La Potherie, voL ii., p. 36-40. Charlevoix, vd. il, p. 176-180. CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 113 which rewards its achievements, probably give the primary impulse ; but after hostihties have begun, the feeling which keeps them alive is revenge. Every Indian who falls into the power of an enemy, and suffers the dreadful fate to which ^e vanquish- ed are doomed, must have his ghost appeased by a victim from that hostile race. Thus every contest generates another and a more deeply imbittered one. Nor are they strangers to those more refined motives which urge civilized nations to take arms — the extension of their boundaries, an object pursued with ardent zeal, and the power of their tribe, which last they seek to promote by incorporating in its ranks the defeated bands of their antagonists. Per- sonal dislike and the love of distinction often impel individuals to make inroads into a hostile tcriHory even contrary to the general wish ; but whem war is to be waged by the whole nation, more enlarged views, connected with its interest and aggrandize-' ment, guide the decision. To most savages, how- ever, long-continued peace becomes irksome and unpopular ; and the prudence of the aged can with difficulty restrain the fire of the young, who thirst for adventure. As soon as the determination has been formed, the war-chief, to whom the voice of the nation assigns the supremacy, enters on a course of solemn preparation. This consists not, however, in provi- ding arms or supplies for the campaign, for these are comprised in the personal resources of each in- dividual. He devotes himself to observances ^i^hich are meant to propitiate or learn the will of the Great Spirit, who, when considered as presiding over the destinies of war, is named Areskoui. He be- gins by marching three times round his winter- house, spreading the great bloody flag, variegated with deep tints of black. As soon as the young warriors see this signal of death, they crowd around, listening to the oration by which he sammous them K 2 114 THB NATITB INDIANS INHABITING to the field : " Comrades," he exclaims, ** the blood of our countrymen is yet unavenged ; their bones lie uncovered ; their spirits cry to us from the tomb. Youths, arise ! anoint your hair, paint your faces, let your sonsus resound through the forest, and con- sole the dead with the assurance that they shall be avenged. Youths, follow me, while I march through the war-path to surprise our enemies, to eat their flesh, to drink their blood, and tear them limb from limb ! We shall return triumphant ; or, should we fall, this belt will record our valour." The wam- pum, that grand symbol of Indian policy, is then thrown on the ground. Many desire to lift it ; but this privilege is reserved for some chief of high rep- utation, judged worthy to fill the post of second in command. The leader now commences his se- ries or mystic observances. He is painted all over black, and enters on a strict fast, never eating, nor even sitting down, till after sunset. From time to time he drinks a decoction of consecrated herbs, with the view of giving vivacity to his dreams, which are carefully noted, and submitted to the de- liberation of the sages and old men. When a war- like spirit is in the ascendant, it is understood that either their tenour or their interpretation betokens success. The powerful influence of the vapour* bath is also employed. After these solemn prelimi- naries, a copious application of warm water re- moves the deep black coating, and he is painted afresh in bright and varied colours, among which red predominates. A huge fire is kindled, whereon is placed the great war-caldron, into which every : one present throws something ; and if any allies, inidted by a belt of wampum and bloody hatchet to ' devour the flesh and drink the blood of the enemy* have accepted the summons, they send some ingre- dients to be also cast in. The chief then announ* ces the enterprise by singing a war-song, never sounded but on such occasions, and his example is CANADA AND ITS BORDBRS. 119 Is**'^^ ■■■■■-ii followed by all the warriors, who join in the mili« tary dance ; recounting their former exploits, and dilating on those which they hope to achieve. They now proceed to arm, suspending the bow and quiver^ or, more frequently, the mrsket, from the shoulder, the hatchet or tomahawk from the hand, while the scalping-knife is stuck in the girdle. A portion of parched corn or sagamity, prepared for the purpose, IS received from the women, who frequently bear it to a considerable distance. But the most important operation is the collection of the manitous or guardian spirits, to be placed in a common box, which is looked to as a protecting power. The fe- males, during these preparations, have been busily negotiating for a supply of captives, on whom to wreak their vengeance and appease the shades of- th^ir fallen kindred; sometimes also with the more merciful view of supplying their place. Tenderer feelings arise as the moment approaches when the warriors must depart, perhaps to return no more, and it may be to endure the same dreadful fate which they are imprecating on others. The lead- er, having made a short harangue, commences the march, singing his war-song, while the others follow at intervals sounding the war-whoop. The women accompany them at some distance, and when they must separate, they exchange endearing names, and express the most ardent wishes for a triumphant roi turn; while each party receives and gives some object which has been long worn by the other, as a memorial of this tender parting. As long as the warriors continue in their own country, they straggle in small parties for the con- venience of hunting, still holding communication by shouts, in which they imitate the cries of certain l^rda^d beasts. When arrived at the frontier, they aU umtefi>jid hold another great festival, followed by solemn dreaming, the tenour of which is carefully exanined. If found inauspicious, room is still le£^ ;S*s: 116 THB MATITB INDIANS INHABITINa to return ; and tho^ie whose courage shrinks are on such occasions supplied with an apology for relin* ouishing the undertaking ; but such an issue is rare. On entering the hostile territory deep silence is en- joined ; the chase is discontinued ; they crawl on all fours ; step on the trunks of fallen trees, or through swamps. Sometimes they fasten on their feet the hoof of the buffalo or the paw of the bear, and run in an irregular track like those animals. Equally earnest and skilful are they in tracing through the woods the haunts of the enemy. The slightest in- dications, such as would wholly escape the notice of a European, enable them to thread their course through the vast depths of the western forests. They boast of being able to discern the impression of steps even on the yielding grass, and of knowing by inspection the nation or tribe by whom it has been made. Various and ingenious artifices are em- ployed to entrap their foe. From the recesses of the wood they send forth the cries of the animals which are most eagerly sought by the rival hunters. Their grand object, however, is to surprise a village, and, if FK>ssible, the principal one belonging to the hated tribe. Thither all their steps tend, as they steal like silent ghosts through the lonely forest. On approching it, they cast hasty glances from the tops of trees or of hillocks, and then retreat into the thickest covert ; but, in total disregard of the roost disastrous experience, the obvious precaution of placing nightly sentinels has never been adopted. Even when aware of danger, they content them- selves with exploring the vicinity two or three miles around, when, if nothing is discovered, they go to sleep without dread. This supineness is much fos- tered by a delusive confidence in the manitous en- closed m the holy ark. If, during the day, the as- sailants have reached unperceived a covert spot in the neighbourhood of the devoted village, they ex- pect the satisfaction of finding its inhabitants buried 'I t CANADA AND TT8 BORDERS. IW in the deepest slumber in the course of the ensuing night. They keep close watch till immediately be- fore daybreak, when silence and security are usually the most complete. Then, flat on their faces, and carefully suppressing the slightest sound, they creep slowly towards the scene of action. Having reach- ed it undiscovered, the chief, by a shrill cry, gives the signal, which is instantly followed by a dis- charge of arrows or musketry; after which they rush in with the war-club and the tomahawk. The air echoes with the sound of the death-whoop and of arms. The savage aspect of the combatants; their faces painted black and red, and soon stream- ing with blood ; their frightful yells, make them ap- pear like demons risen from the world beneath. The; victims, too late aroused, spring from their fa- tal slumber, and, foreseeing the dreadful fate which awaits them if taken prisoners, make almost super- human St; uggles for deliverance. The contest rages with all the fury of revenge and despair, but it u usually short. The unhappy wretches, surpris^ and bewildered, can seldom rally or resist; they seek safety by fleeing into the depth of forests or marshes, whither they are hotly pursued. The main study of the victorious army is to take the fu- gitives alive, in order to subject them to the horri- ble punishments which will be presently descrijed. Should this be impracticable, the tomahawk or the hatchet despatches them on the spot, and the scalp is then carried off as a trophy. Placin£[ a foot on the neck of his fallen enemy, and twisting a hand in the hair, the warrior draws out a long, sharp-pointed knife, specially formed for this operation; thencutf* ting a circle round the crown of the head, by a few skilful scoops he detaches the hair and skin, lodges the whole in his bag, and returns in triumph.* ♦ Charlevoix, vol. i., p. 317, 327, 330, 338, 339, 359-361. Adair, p. 380-388. Rogers's Concise Account of North Amer- ica ( London, 1765), p. 222. 118 THB NATIVB INDIANS INHABITING m: m. At the close of the expedition, the warriors re- pair to their village, and even in approaching, an- nounce its results by various signals well understood among their families. According to the most ap- provea custom, the evil tidings are first communi- cated. A herald advances before the troop, and for every kinsman who has fallen sounds the death- whoop ; a shrill, lengthened note, ending in an eleva- ted key. An interval is then allowed, during which the burst of grief excited by these tidings may be in some degree exhausted. Then rises the loud, inspiring sound of the war-whoop, which, by its successive repetitions, expresses the number of cap- tives brought home as the fruits of victory. The barbarous joy thus kindled banishes for the moment all trace of lamentation. The women and children form two rows, through which the prisoner is led, having his face painted, and crowned with flowers as for a festival. Then begins the darkest of all the Scenes by which the savage life is deformed. A se- es of studied and elaborate torture commences, in which ingenuity is tasked to the utmost to inflict the intensest agony that can be endured without ac- tually extinguishing life. The first caress, as the French call it, is to tear the nails from the fingers ; the flesh is then pierced to the bone, and fire in va- rious forms applied to the extremities. Blows are also given to the last degree that natuVe c^:n sus- tain ; and sometimes an amusement is found in toss- ing, for a long time, the victim like a ball from one to another. Other contrivances.^ peculiar to infuri- ated savages, are sometimes resorted to. One mis- sionary, for example, being made to lie on his back, had his stomach covered with sagamity, on which hungry dogs were set to feed, which tore his flesh with their teeth. The unhappy wretch is occasion- ally paraded from village to village, kept for weeks in this state of suffering, fed on the coarsest refuse, and allowed only a neglected comer of the cabin to ; / fe^ CANADA AND IT8 B0RDBR8. 119 sleep in. At length a grand council is held to de- cide his fate, or, in other words, to determine whether all the furies of vengeance shall be let loose upon him, and his life be taken away amid the most frightful tortures, or whether he shall be salu* ted as one of themselves, and treated as a brother The decision is influenced by various considera- tions. If he be a youth or new to the field, a le- nient course may probably be adopted ; but a vet- eran warrior, who has been the terror of the nation, and on whose skin is painted a record of triumphs, has to dread a sterner sentence. The women have much influence, according as they either demand revenge for the loss of a husband or brother, or so- licit that the captive may supply the vacancy. The Iroquois, though the fiercest of these barbarians, being the deepest politicians, were always anxious to augment their numbers ; hence, though they pro- longed and heighten«^d the preliminary torture, they usually ended it by adoption. This was carried so far that they are described as having at length be- come less a single nation than an aggregate of all the suirounding tribes. The stranger, being receiv- ed into one of the families as a husband, brother, or son, is treated with the utmost tenderness ; and she, who perhaps immediately befqre exhausted her in- genuity in tormenting him, now nurses the wounds she has made, and loads him with caresses. He becomes now one of the clan, and goes with them to war, even against his former countrymen ; and so far is the point of honour carried, that to return into their ranks would be branded as an act of base- ness.* There are, however, many occasions in which the more inhuman resolution is taken, and a fearful dis- play is then made of the darkest passions that can * Charlevoix, vol. 1., p. 368-373. Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1642, 1643, p. 257, &c. ; ans 1643, 1644, p. 162-168. Adair, p. 389. 120 THB MATIYB INDIANS INHABITING Sffitate the human brenst. The captive is informed of his fate by being investrd with moccasins of black bear'H-skin, nd ^-iving ph'^ed over his head a ilaminff torr^i, th«; su. 'ndication:^ of his doom. Before the fatal scene begins, however, he is al- lowed a short interval to sing his death-song, which he perforn n a triumphant tone. He proclaims the joy with which he goes to the land of souls, where he will i eet hi^ brave ancestors, who taught him the ^^reat lesson .0 fight and to suffer. He re- counts his warlike exploits, particularly those per- formed against the kindred of his tormentors ; and if there was any one of them whom he vanquished and caused to expire amid tortures, he loudly pro- claims it. He declares his inextinguishable desire to eat their flesh and to drink their blood to the last drop. The scene is considered, even when com- pared to the field of battle, as the great theatre of Indian glory. When two prisoners were about to be tortured by the French at Quebec, a charitable hand privately supplied a weapon with which one of them killed himself; but the other derided his effeminacy, and proudly prepared himself for his fiery trial. In this dreadful work the women take the lead, and seem transformed into ragii.g furies. 8he, to glut whose vengeance the doom has been specially pronounced, invokes the spirit of her hus- band, her brother, or her son, who has fallen in bat- tle or died amid torture, bidding him come now and be appeased. A feast is prepared for him ; a war- rior is to be thrown into the great caldron; his blood will be poured out ; his flesh torn from the bones ; let the injured spirit then cease to complain* A game begins between the torturers and the tor- tured, one to inflict the most intense suffering, the other to bear it with proud insensibility. That there may be some appearance of open contest, he is not chained, but merely tied to a post, and a certain range allowed, witUi; which^ while the brand, the If CANADA AND ITS B0RDBR9. 181 hatchet, and every engine of torture are a^ plied, he can do somewhat to repel his assailants, md even attack in his turn. He struggles fiercely in the un- equal strife, and while his frame is consuniing in agony, still defies his tormentors, and iutbrav( death itself. Some even deride the feeble efforts of their executioners, boasting how much more 'Ef- fectively they themselves had applied torture to in- dividuals of their tribe. Yet there are instances when the murderers a*^^ lust triumph; the sufferer exclaims, "Fire i^ 'rt'ig, and too powerful;" he even utters lot: ! ^l.ii ^ ., which are responded to by exulting sho'*t9 of savage laughter. Some few have been -vnown, by almost incredible efforts, to break ion md by rapid flight to effect their es- cape. Tht general result, however, is death, after protracted suffering ; when the scalp, if still entire, 18 taken off and deposited among the military tro- phies.* It has been made a question whether the Indians can be justly charged with cannibalism. Jt is cer- tain that all the terms by which they designate their inhuman mode of putting a prisoner to death bear reference to this horrid practice. The expressions are to throw him into the caldron, to devour him, to eat soup made of his flesh. It has hence been plausibly inferred that this enormity really prevailed m early times, but was changed, we can scarcely say mitigated, into the present system of torture. Yet, as every action is described by them in terms highly figurative, those now quoted may have been used as expressing most fully the complete gratifi- cation of their revenge. Of this charge they can- >'\ nowbr "ther condemned or wholly accjuitted. M lie excited fury of their passions, portions of the flesh are often seized, roasted, and eaten, and draughts taken of the blood. To eat an enemy's * Charlevoix, vol. i., p. 375. Adair, p. 390, 391. Golden, vol. i., p. 144, 145. Vol. !.— L • .1*. 122 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING heart is considered a peculiar enjoyment. Long mentions a gentleman who came upon a party who were busy broiling a human heart, when he with difficulty prevailed on them to desist. There is ht< tie hesitation among them, in periods of scarcity, to relieve hunger with the flesh of their captives ; and during one war, this fate is said to have befallen many French soldiers who fell into the hands of the Five Nations. Colonel Schuyler^told Golden, that, having entered the cabin of a chief who had some rich soup before him, he was invited to partake. Being hungry and tired, he readily agreed, till the ladle, being put into the great caldron, brought up a human hand, the sight of which pu^ an immediate end to his appetite and meal.'* Although war may be considered as the ordinary state of those tribes, yet, after having for a consid- erable time experienced its destructive eflects, there usually arises a desire for an interval of tranquillity. To procure this, a regular form is observed. The nation which resolves to make the overture de- spatches several individuals, usually of some note, as ambassadors, with at least one orator. They bear before them the calumet of peace, which ren- ders their character sacred, and secures them from violence. They carry also a certain number of belts of wampum, with which are respectively con- nected the several motives and terms of the pro- posed treaty. The orator having obtained an au- dience of the chiefs on the other side, expounds the belts, dancing and singing in unison, and by ac- lions expressing the peaceful purpose of his mis- sion. If the opposite party be favourably inclined, they accept the offered symbols, and next day pre- sent others of a similar import. He them smoke» in the calumet, and the contract is sealed by bury ing a hatchet ; if there be any allies, one is depos * Charlevoix, vol. i., p. 318. Adair, p. 199. Long, p. 77, 78 Colden, vol. i., p. 156. ;,-.«^i ,* k r - CANADA AND ITS BORDERS. 123 ited for each. This agreement is often accompa- nied with professions, at the moment perhaps sin- cere, of maintaining the sun always in the heavens, and never again digging up the hatchet; but the turbulence of individuals, and the satiety of long peace, to which the whole nation is subject, usually rekindle hostilities at no distant period.* Some notice may finally be expected of Indian amusements ; the most favourite of which are smo- king, music, and dancing. These, however, are viewed in a much higher light than mere pastime ; being ranked among the most serious occupations, and esteemed quite indispensable in the conduct of every important affair. Without them a council cannot be held, a negotiation carried on, peace or war proclaimed, nor any public or private contract entered into; for not one of these transactions is accounted valid till it has been smoked over, and sung and danced to. The calumet is the grand in- strument of their policy. No important affair can be taken into consideration without the pipe in their mouths; and hence, to call an assembly of the chiefs is said to be lighting the council-fire. This tube accompanies and is the guardian of every em- bassy, and to qraoke together is the chief cement of national union. Music and dancing accompanying each other are equally indispensable to every solemn celebration. Yet the instruments and performance are alike simple and rude ; for their song, though often con- tinued for a long period, consists merely in the perpetual iteration of a few wild melancholy notes. The words are usually of the minstrel's own com- position, and record his exploits in war or hunting, and sometimes the praises of the animals which he has killed in the chase. The song is accompanied by performance on the drum, and on the chichikoue, * Chaxlevoix, voL i., p. 38 J. 124 THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING or pipe. The former is merely a hollowed piece of wood, covered with skin ; the latter is formed of a thick cane, upward of two feet in length, with eight or nine holes, and a mouthpiece not unlike that of a common whistle. Those who know how to stop the holes and bring out a sound consider themselves performers ; yet they cannot play upon it even those simple airs which they execute with the voice, though they will often continue for hours drawing out wild irregular notes. The dances of the Indirns, even those at com- xnon festivals, are on an extensive scale, requiring to a complete performance forty or fifty persons, who execute their evolutions by following each other round a great fire kindled in the centre. Their movements, monotonous but violent, con- sist in stamping furiously on the ground, and often brandishing their arms in a manner compared by an able writer to a baker converting fiour into dough. They keep good time ; but the music is so exceed- ingly sim,>le that this implies little merit. They conclude with a loud shout or howl, which echoes frightfully through the woods. The dances in cele- bration of particular events are of a more varied character, and often form a very expressive panto- mime. The war-dance is the most favourite and frequent. In this extraordinary performance, a complete image is given of the terrible reality ; the war-whoop is sounded with the most frightful yells; the tomahawk is wildly brandished ; and the enemy are surprised, seized, and scalped, or carried off for torture. The calumet-dance, which celebrates peace between nations, and the marriage-dance, which represents domestic life, are much more pleasing. Some mention is made of a mystic dance, carried on by the jugglers or doctors, with strange superstitious ceremonies, and in which a supernat- ural personage, tern.ed by some the devil, rises and performs ; but it does not seem to have been wit- CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.'?^'? 125 nessed by any European, and is said to be now in a great measure disused.* There iare, moreover, games to which the Indians are fondly attached, which, though they be only ranked under the head of amusement, are yet con- structed in the same serious manner as their other transactions. Their great parties are said to be collected by supernatural authority, communicated by the jugglers • and they are preceded, like their wars and hunts, by a course of fasting, dreaming, and other means of propitiating fortune. The favour- ite game is that of the bone, in which small pieces of that substance, resembling dice, and painted of dif- ferent colours, are thrown in the air, and according to the manner in which they fall, the game is deci- ded. Only two j)ersons can play ; but a numerous party, and sometimes whole villages, embrace one side or the other, and look on with intense interest. At each throw, especially if it be decisive, tremen- dous shouts are raised ; the players and spectators equally resemble persons possessed ; the air rings with invocations to the bones and to the manitous. Their eagerness sometimes leads to quarrelling and even fighting, which on no other occasion ever dis- turb the interior of these societies. To such a pitch are they occasionally worked up, that they stake successively all they possess, and even their personal liberty ; but this description must apply only to the more southern nations, as slavery was unknown among the Canadian Indians. A temporary interval of wild license, of emanci- pation from all the restraints of dignity and deco- rum, seems to afford an enjoyment highly prized in all rude societies. Corresponding with the sat- urnalia and bacchanals of antiquity, the Indians have their festival of dreams, which, during fifteen ' ♦ Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1645, 1646, p. 20, 21. Weld, p. 412-417. Creuxius, p. 67. Chateaubriand, vol. i., p. 205. Charlevoix, vol. ii., p. 70. Carver, p< •270, 271. L 9 '■>7i 126 THE KATIVS INDIANS INHABITING da3r8, enlivens the inaction of the coldest season. Laying aside all their usual order and gravity, they run a^ut, frightfully disguised, and commiting ev- ery imaginable extravagance. He who meets an- other demands an explanation of his visions, and if not satisfied, imposes some fantastic penalty. He throws upon him cold water, hot ashes, or filth; sometimes, rushing into his cabin, he breaks and destroys the furniture. Although everything ap. pears wild and unpremeditated, it is alleged that opportunities are often taken to give vent to old and secret resentments. The period having elapsed, a feast is given, order is restored, and the damages done are carefully repaired.* On the first settlement of Europeans in Canada, that territory was chiefly divided between three great nations, the Algonquins, the Hurons, and the Iroquois or Five Nations. The first held an exten- sive domain along the northern bank of the St. Lawrence, about a hundred leagues above Trois Rividres. Shortly before, they had been the most powerful of all these tribes, and considered even in some degree as masters over this part of America. They are described also as having the mildest as- pect and polished manners of any. They subsisted entirely by hunting, and looked with proud disdain on their neighbours, who consented to bestow on the soil even the smallest cultivation.f The Hu- rons w«re a numerous people, whose very exten- sive territory reached from the Algonquin frontier to the borders of the great lake bearing their name. They were also more industrious, and derived an abundant subsistence from the fine territory of Up- per Canada. But they were, at the. same time, more effeminate and voluptuous, and had less of the proud independence of savage life, having chiefs * Ctuurleroix, yo\. ii., p. 13-15, 159 164, dec. Chateaubriand, vol. i., p. 238-242. La Potherte, vol. ii., p. 126, 127. t La Potherie, vol. i., p. 232-299. CANADA AND ITS B0RDIR8. 127 hereditary in the female line, to whom they paid considerable deference. The Iroquois, destined to act the most conspicu- ous part amonfr all the native tribes, occupied a long range of territory on the southern bolder of the St. Lawrence, from Lake Champlain to the western extremity of Lake Ontario. They were thus beyond the limits of what is now considered Canada ; yet, as all their transactions were com- pletely connected with the interests of that country, we cannot at present avoid considering them as be- longing to it. This people were divided into five cantons, each of which was considered as an independent nation. They were united, however, by the closest alliance ; were never found waging war with each other ; nor did they often fail to combine their forces wheh at- tacked by neighbouring tribes.* The following are the names given to them by English and French authors : English. ^ French. Mohawks. Agniers. Oneidas. Onneyouths. Onondagoes. Onontagues. Cayugas. " Anniegu^. Senecas. Tsonnonthouans. * La Potherie, voL i., p. 232-289. Rogers, p. 237. Golden, p. 3, 4. 128 HISTORY OF CANADA CHAPTER III. History of Canada under the French. Earliest Discoveries of the English and French. — De la Roche. — Chauvin and Pontgrav6.-— De Monts. — Champlain^ em- ployed by him, ascends the St. Lawrence. — Founds Quebec. — Dealings with a Party of Natives. — Joins a warlike Expe- dition.— Victory. — Torture. — Transactions in France. — Fresh military Encounter. — Foundation of Montreal. — Various . Transactions.— Voyage up the Ottawa.— Great Expedition against the Iroquois.— Unsuccessful. — Difficulties in France. — Appointment of De Caen.— Peace among the Indian Tribes. ' — Duke de Ventadour Viceroy. — Rupture of the Treaty. — Quebec taken by the English. — Restored. — Large Supplies sent out. — Death of Champlain. — Great Power of the Five Nations. — Treaty with them. — War renewed.— Destruction of the French Indian Allies.— A Remnant flee to Quebec. — Iroquois Masters of Canada.— Louis XIV. determines to re- enforce the Colony. — Expedition under De Tracy.— Govern- ment of De Courcelles.- Frontenac. — De la Barre. — His fruit- less Expedition.— Denonville.— His violent Proceedings.— Critical state of the Colony. — Second Government of Froi\- tenac— Capture of Corlaer or Schenectady.— The English under Phipps attack Quebec— Repulsed. — Negotiations with the Indians. — Invasion of their Territory. — I^ath of Fron- tenac— De Calliftres. — Peace, and speedy Renewal of War. — Attempts by the English to conquer Canada. — Treaty of Utrecht.— Charlevoix's Account of the State of the Colony. —Its prosperity. — Administration of Du Quesne. The English took decidedly the most prominent part in the discovery of North America. In 1497, John Cabot, under a commission from Henry VII., landed on its shores, four years only after Columbus had reached the West Indies, and nearlj; twelve months before that celebrated navigator had touched 9X any part of the continent. In the following year, Sebastian, son to the first discoverer, performed a most extensive exploratory voyage along the greater UNDER THl TRSlfCfl. 129 part of the eastern coast, to lat. 66^ or 58o N., and south as far as Florida. The same eminent seaman took part in another expedition undertaken in 1517, for the discovery of a northwest passage. The squadron appears to have penetrated into Hudson^s Bay, but through the pusillanimity of Sir Thomas Pert, the commander, returned without completing the object in view. These interesting voyages, however, have been illustrated with such diligent and acute research by Mr. Ty tier,- that to our read- ers another detailed narrative of them would be very superfluous.* Various circumstances combined to withdraw the successors of Henry from this brilliant career. They were succeeded in it by France ; and it is sin- gular that the settlement of by far the greater part of what is now British America was effected by that power. When, too, England had wrested these pos- sessions from her rival, she retained them after most of her own colonies had established their in- dependence ; for which reason we find it necessary to enter at considerable length into the proceedings of those Gallic adventurers who laid the foundations of civilization in the Canadian provinces. In 1524, Francis I. commissioned Giovanni Ve- razzano, a skilful Florentine navigator, who appears to have sailed along the whole coast from Carolina to the northern extremity of Nova Scotia. It was then appropriated in the name of his most Christian majesty, under the magnificent title of New France. His second expedition was disastrous ; but in 1534, Jacques Cartier, a bold and able mariner of St. Malo, was sent out with a similar view. This discoverer made two voyages, in the second of which he pen- etrated up the St. Lawrence as high as the position now occupied by Montreal, and brought home with * See Progress of Discovery on the more Northern Coasts of America, from the EarUest Period to the Present Ti»ae, p. 15- 24, 31-38. Harpers' Family Library, 130 HISTORY OF CANADA him Donnaconna, a native king. He was employed a third time in 1540, though in a subordinate rank, under the Sieur de Roberval, an opulent nobleman of Picardy, who, having agreed to defray the ex- pense of the expedition, was created lieutenant- general and viceroy. The enterprise was begun with spirit; and a fort named Charlesbourg was erected near the site now occupied by Quebec. The natives, however, showed a hostile spirit ; the two leaders quarrelled; and Roberval abandoned the undertaking. He renewed it in 1640, but with an issue singularly unfortunate, neK'her he nor his brother, who accompanied him, being ever again heard of. For the details of these voyages also we refer to the work above mentioned, where they wiU be found narrated in a very 8?.tisfactory manner.* These failures, and still more, perhaps, the dis- tracted state of France during many years« occa- sioned by religious wars, withdrew the attention of the government from schemes of transatlantic colo- nization. The merchants, however, of the great commercial towns, particularly Dieppe, Rouen, St. Malo, and Rochelle, had opened communications, and even established posts for the prosecution of the fur-trade. That of Canada was carried on chiefly at Tadoussac, near the mouth of the river Saguenay. Tranquillity being restored by the union of parties under the sway of Henry n"^., the public attention was again directed towards New France. The Marquis de la Roche, a nobleman of Brittany, under- took to equip an expedition on a large scale, and form a settlement on that remote shore. The encourage- ments to such enterprises were always liberal ; and Henry in this respect seems to have surpassed all other monarchs. The marquis was authorized not only to levy troops, make war, build forts and cities. * Pages 49-58. -if*!^ ■'f. UNDBR Tllfi FRENCir. 131 and enact laws, but even to create lords, counts, barons, and similar dignities. He accordingly equip- ped several vessels, with a considerable number of settlers, whom, however, he was obliged to draw partly from the prisons of Paris. He sailed under the guidance of Chedotel, a Norman pilot ; but of the voyage it is only narrated that he landed and left forty men on Sable Island, a small barren spot near the coast of Nova Scotia. He then returned ; when, being thwarted in his designs at court, he fell sick, and died of chagrin. The colonists were entirely forgotten, and soon experienced such hardships as caused even the criminals among them to regret their dungeons. Having, with a few planks ob« tained from a wrecked vessel, erected a hut, they were obUged to subsist on the fish which they caught, and to replace their worn-out garments with the skins of sea-wolves. In this condition they wei ) left seven years, when the king, or, according to Ghamplain, the parliament of Rouen, sent out Che- dotel to see what was become of them. He found only twelve survivers, who exhibited the most wretched and deplorable aspect. On their return to France they waited upon Henry, who received them kindly, and made them a handsome donation.* The king was still disposed to encourage coloni- zation. In 1599, two eminent naval characters, Chauvin of Rouen and Pontgrave of St. M alo, under- took to settle five hundred persons, and prevailed on his majesty to aid them, by granting a monopoly of the fur-trade on the St. Lawrence. Chauvin, it is alleged, was disposed to execute as little as pos- sible of the agreement, his chief object being to avail himself of the exclusive traffic. However, being under the necessity of making some show, he fitted out two vessels, and- arrived at Tadoussac. * Histoire G^nera'e des Voyages (19 voh. 4to, Paris, 1746- 1770), tome xiv., p. >89-591. Champlain, Voyages du Sieur de (2 vols. 8vo, Pahs, 1830), tome i., p. 41-43. 1' : 132 HISTORY OF CANADA This situation being bleak and barren in the extreme, he was strongly advised to pvoceed farther up the river, to one which was reported to be much more ad- vantageous. Disregarding this suggestion, he buih a house twenty-four feet long, eighteen broad, and eight high, surrounded it with a ditch, and lodged there sixteen settlers for the winter. They had, however, a very slender stock of provisions, and on the setting in of the cold were reduced to the last extremity, and finally obliged to throw themselves on the mercy of the natives. Frpm that simple people they experienced a great degree of kindness, but, nevertheless, suffered such hardships, that many of them perished before the arrival of vessels from France. Chauvin performed another voyage, which was as fruitless as the first ; and in the coui^e of a thin! he was taken ill and died.* Fresh adventurers were never wanting in this hazardous enterprise. The next was the Comman- deur de Chaste, governor of Dieppe, who, though already gray with years, engaged in it, and prevail- ed upon some considerable merchants to s'^^ond him. He made a most important acquisition m Samuel Champlain, the destined founder of the French settlements in Canada, who had just arri- ved from the East Indies. He and Pontgrav6 were sent out to Tadoussac, with instructions to ascend the St. Law vence, and examine the country on its upper borders. They penetrated as far as the Sault St. Louis, a little above Montreal ; but, finding it impossible to pass that cataract, they with some difficulty reached the height above it, where they made the best observations they could on the river and country. Champlain, on his arrival in France, was dismayed to find De Chaste dead, and the whole undertaking deranged. He proceeded, how- ever} to Paris, and showed to the king a chart and * Champlain, tome i., p. 44-48. ^ ' VNDBR THB VRBVCH. 183 description of the region he had funreyed, with which his majesty appeared highly pleased.* Scarcely an interval elapsed when the same en- terprise was taken up by De Monts, a gentleman of opulence and distinction, and a special favourite of Henry. He obtained the highest privileges that had been granted to any of his predecessors, and having prepared an expedition on a more exten- sive scale than any former one, he put to sea ; but as he had accompanied Chauvin to Tadoussac, and viewed that bleak shore, he felt very averse to enter the St. Lawrence. It appeared to him that the seacoast, being in a more southern latitude, was likely to enjoy a milder climate ; an idea plau- sible, though erroneous. He directed his chief ef- forts, therefore, to the country now named Nova Scotia ; and though his operations there were dis- astrous to his companions, and ultimately to Y\m* self, they were the means of founding the impor- tant colony of Acadia. Our narrative of these adventurers, however, is reserved till we come to treat of that province.f Champlain, whose services he had secured, then remonstrated with him on the error of preferring an iron-bound coast to the beautiful and fertile banks of the upper St. Lawrence. De Monts lis- tened to the suggestion, and, undeterred by pre- vious losses, applied to the king for a commission. He obtained it without difficulty, associated^ as be- fore, with a grant of a monopoly of the fur-trade on the riven He fitted out two vessels, but, not find- ing it convenient to command in person, placed them under Champlain, who, accompanied by PonU grav^, was authorized to act as his lieuteiiant.{ The expedition sailed from Honfieur on the 13^ April, 1608, ai^d on the 3d June reached Tadonssae. * Champlain, tome i., p. 49>53. t Ibid., p. 54-561 t Ibid., p. 150, 151. Vol. I.-M ■• -u ..>..•.. ,..r ..... . ♦ 134 HIS10RY OF CANADA The Saguenay, hitherto the chief seat of the trafBo in furs, was described as ilowinff from a consider- ably distant source in the north. Forty or fifty leogues up, its current was broken by a succession of falls, beyond which was a lake (St. John) which it required three days to cross. On the other side were wandering tribes, from whom the skins were chiefly procured, and who reported that in their roammgs they came in view of the Northern Sea. Champlain had sufficient information to know that this could only be a large gulf; though he had no knowledge of Hudson's Bay, which had not yet been entered by the great navigator whose name it hears. The small port of Tadoussac was, tolerably safe ; but the shore consisted only of dreary rocks and sands, scantily clothed with larch and pine. He could find nothing to catch except a few small birds, which visited the spot only in summer. The natives who traded with the French sailed in canoes of birch-bark, so light that a man could easily carry them from one river or lake to another. The navigator continued to ascend the stream, though the banks were still naked and unpromising, till he reached the Isle of Orleans, which formed the commencement of the most valuable part of the river, being adorned with fine woods and meadows.* After passing this island, he immediately sought a commodious place of settlement, and soon fixed on a hill richly clothed with vines and walnut-trees, called by the natives Quebeio or Quebec. Having begun to clear and build, he form 3d an acquaintance with a number of the natives busily employed in the fishery of eels. They showed a considerable disposition to adopt European culture and other improvements, the introduction of which he was led to hope might issue in their conversion.! The Frenchman spent the winter here, and sow- * Champlain, tome i., liv. iii,, ch. 3« 4. , t Ibid., liv. iv., ch. 5. , ^ UNDER THB FRENCH. 135 ed some grain, for which he found the soil well adapted. The inhabitants^ who, unlike those high« er up the river, did not practise agriculture in any degree, were often reduced to the most dreadful extremes of famine. Of tl .a the settlers witness- ed a painful example in February, 1609, when a party of the savages, seeing them from the oppo- site bank, and hoping to obtain relief, resolved to cross, without regard to the floating ice. The French considered the attempt quite desperate ; and accordingly, in mid-channel, the canoes were dashed to pieces, and the poor creatures leaped on a mass of ice, whence they raised the most doleful cries. By pecuharly good fortune, a larger piece struck that on which they stood and caused it to drift ashore. They landed with joy, but in a state cf such ravening hunger, that, had the discoverers made any attempt to satisfy it, their whole stock would have been swallowed up. A limited allow- ance was, however, granted, which they sought to augment by very strange expedients. A detul pig and dog had been laid out as a bait for foxes ; but having been exposed two months, and the weather becoming milder, such a scent issued from them that the French could scarcely approach the spot. The new-comers, however, on discovering this store, exultingly carried it to their hut, and began to feast upon it. Their hosts ran to warn them of the danger of such food, but found them so busily enga- ged, each with a piece in his hand, that remon- strance was vain, and being themselves assailed with disgusting odours from the half-cooked vic- tuals, they were glad to retreat. Another dead dog had been placed on the top of a tree to attract birds of prey. The natives were so extremely weak that they could not climb ; but having, by great efforts, cut down the tree, they possessed themselves of this highly-flavoured morsel.* * Champlain, tome i., liv. iii., ch. 6. 136 HISTORY OP CANADA A« soon as the season admitted, Champlain re- sumed his Yoyage up the river, the banks of which were covered with noble forests. Twenty-five leagues above Quebec, at a small island named St. Eloi, he met a band belonging chiefly to the cele- brated nation of the Algonquins, commanded by two chiefs, Yroquet and Ochasteguin. It now ap. pears that a treaty had already been opened at the winter station by a son of the former, through whom they had promised to assist the stranger in his attempt to traverse the country of the Iroquois, on the condition that he should aid them in a war against that fierce people. The zeal of our adven- turer blinded him not only to the denger, but to the guilt of this most unprovoked aggression on a nation who had never offended him. In reply to a solemn appeal from the savage chiefs, he assured them ( his determination strictly to fulfil this questiona- ble engagement, and accepted of their proposal to visit him previously at Quebec* They accompa- nied him thither, and, exulting in the prospect of approaching triumph, spent five or six days in dan- cing and festivity, while Champlain procured a re- cnforcement from Tadoussac. He set out with his new allies on the 28th May ; and in a short time, having passed through Lake St. Pierre, he reached tho mouth of the river which takes its rise in the country of the Iroquois. He had been apprizecl that fifteen leagues farther up there was a consid- erable fall, but had been led to hope that his light shallop might be conveyed beyond it. On recon- noitring the spot, he found this to be quite imprac- ticable, as the stream from bank to bank was dash- ing with violence amid rocks and stones ; and his party had not strength to cut a road through the woods. Nothing, however, could damp his ardour; and, in the failure of every other resource, lie deter- # f!Vi«mr>1ain fnmA i liv iii ch t ¥'. f ( ) 4 ^ UNDER THE FRENCH. I3t mined to commit himself to the canoes of the sav- ages, and share their fate. As soon, however, as this was announced to his men, they " bled at the nose ;" and two only were found who did not shrink from accompanying the Indians.* By carrying their canoes, arms, and baggage half a league overland, the natives avoided the fall and re-embarked. When night approached they landed, reared huts covered with birch-bark, and having cut down large trees, formed round the spot a barricade of such strength, that five hundred assailants could not have stormed it without much difficulty. They sent some of their n'jmber to reconnoitre a few miles up and donvn the river, but rejected the advice of their European ally to set a watch during the night. High conjurations were now performed by the pilotois or priest, who was placed alone in a cabin, while the multitude sat round in solemn si- lence. Violent and mysterious movements shook the wigwam, which the Frenchman clearly perceived to be produced* by its crafty inmate ; while, in an- swer to his solemn call, th« demon appeared, an4y in the form of a stone, foretold the issue of the en- terprise. Solemn sounds overawed the spectators, though it was easy to discover that they were all uttered by the pilotois himself. The French chief was also every morning carefully examined regard- ing his dreams, and great exultation was expressed when they appeared to portend success. The only drilling employed to prepare them for the approach- ing battle was confined to their taking a number of canes, one for each man, with two longer ones for the chiefs, and fixing them in the ground according to the order in which the troops were to advance. The Indians then practised the vai>i6ife movements till they could arrange themselves exactly in the same manner. The river was diversified with na- Ciiamplain, tome i., liv. iii., ch. o. MS ' % 138 BISTORT or CANADA mcious low islands, abounding in woods, meadows, tnd game, but deserted in consequence of the deadly wars which had for some time been raging, ft opened into an extensive lake, now named, from our traveller, Champlain, and containing four large islands, also uninhabited. They had reached its southern extremity, and even entered a smaller one (George) connected with it, when, on the 20th June, at ten in the evening, they beheld the Iroquois, who raised loud shouts of defiance, and began hastily to arm and to form a barricade with trunks of trees. The invaders sent two canoes to ask if their ad- versaries would fight ; the answer was, there was \ nothing they more desired, but the hour was un- suitable, adding, however, that they would be ready next morning at daybreak. This delay was ap- proved ; but the two parties, instead of qualifying themselves for the combat by taking suitable rest, danced the whole night without intermission, ex- changing the most imbittered expressions of re- proach and contempt. The Algonqtiins being told that neither their courage nor arms were of ^-^y ▼alue, and that to-morrow would witness their doom, threw out in return mysterious hints that their ad- versaries would then see something never before witnessed. In the morning they landed, and the French chief saw the enemy come out of their bar- ricade, two hundred strong, firm and robust, headed by leaders with waving phimes, and advancing with a bold and determined aspect, which struck him with admiration. He and his two countrymen stationed themselves at different points, and the natives made way for him to go about twenty paces in front. He then fired an arquebus, loaded with four balls, by which two Indians were killed and one mortally wounded. His allies raised shouts which would kave drowned the loudest thunder, while the enemy were astounded at seeing armour, proof against ^u- tive weapons, pierced by this imj^own instrument VNDBR T ^5 FRENCH. 139 of destnictioit. Yet they still poured in clouds of arrows, till another shot, fired from a thicket, excited such a degree of fear that they fled precipitately, abandoning their fort, and seeking refuge in the heart of the forest. A number were killed, and ten or twelve taken prisoners.* The savaffes, having celebrated their victory witli dance and festival, immediately began their return to their own country. After travelling sixteen leagues, they took one of the captives, and in a for* mal harangue recounted to him all the cruelties of his countrymen, which he must now expiate ; they then summoned him, if he were a man of cour* age, to sing. He (^d so, though in a somewhat lu- gubrious tone. Champlain, then, was perhaps the first European who beheld that horrid scene of tor- ture, which we spare our readers, though described by him in the most minute detail. He did not, how- ever, witness that stoical apathy so often displayed, for the sufferer occasionally uttered loud shrieks, though his fortitude was, on the whole, wonderful. Tho Frenchman was asked why he did not join in this triumphant vengeance ; and when he declared that the sight gave him pain, and even showed a disposition to withdraw, they allowed him to termi- nate the scene by a discharge of ^his arquebus. The most shocking indignities were inflicted on the> lifeless body ; even the heart was plucked out and , cut in small pieces, which the other prisoners were compelled to receive into their mouths, though they* were not expected to swallow the horrid morseL The Algonquins marched on with th^d remaining Iroquois, who continued to sing, though fully aware of their approaching fate. Another employment of the victors was to ornament the heads of the slainy Uy be displayed in triumph on their arrival. With this view they earnestly solicited from Ohamplaiii * ChamplftiB, tome l, liv. iii., ch. «^ u : 140 HIST0R7 OF CANADA some copies of the paternoster, which sacred artU cle, amid all his professions of piety, he did not hesitate to bestow for this profane purpose. Thus prepared, as the party approached home, the heads were fastened on the ends of poles, and exhibited to the women, who came swimming across the river to meet their lords. The adventurer himself was presented with one of these savage trophies, with a request that he would offer it to his sovereign, which, to please them, he engaged to do.* On the author's return from this expedition, which seemed to hold out a great promise of ultimate suc- cess, he was greeted with unfavourable tidings from France. The merchants of that country, to his deep indignation, though, we think, witn very good reason, had raised loud complaints of the injury which they, as well as the nation at large, sustained by the fur- trade being confined to a single individyal. De Mont's commission was in consequence revoked, and his lieutenant was obliged to return home. He gave an account of his transactions, first to his pa- tron, and then to the king, who listened to them with much satisfaction. All his attempts, however, to procure a renewal of the monopoly proved abortive; yet such was his zeal, that he determined even without this aid to retain the settlement. To light- en the expense, he made an agreement with some traders at Rochelle, to give them the use of his building at Quebec as a dep6t for their goods, while they, by way of recompense, engaged to assist him in his plans of colonization. He was thus enabled in 1610 to fit out Cham plain with a considerable re- enforcement and fresh supplies. f On his return to the St. Lawrence, he received an application from the Algonquins to assist them in a new war ; and they promised to join him with 400 men at the entrance of the Iroquois river. Un" < * Champlain, tome i., Uv. iilj ch. 10. f Ibid,, n, 152, 153. UNDER THE FRENCH. 141 deterred by any motive either of fear or principle, and seemingly without any hesitation, he accepted the proposal ; but, on reaching the spot, affairs were found more urgent than had been supposed. A ca-' noe arrived with intelligence that a hundred of the en- emy were so strongly intrenched in the vicinity, that, without the aid of the Misthigosches, as the French were termed, it appeared impossible to dislodge them. The savages, on this information, hurried on board of their canoes, and prevailed on their Eu- ropean friend to quit his bark, and accompany them with four of his countrymen. On landing, the na« tives ran forward so swiftly that they were soon out of the sight of their allies, who floundered after them through woods and marshes, tormented by moschetoes, and much at a loss for their way. They met, however, an Indian, who came in all haste to inform them that his brethren, ill acquainted with military tactics, had no sooner arrived, than, with- out waiting for the French, they rushed to the as- sault ; and that, having sustained a most severe re- pulse, in which several of their chiefs were killed and a number wounded, all their hopes were now E laced in their auxiliaries. Having proceeded about alf a mile, they heard the bowlings of the hostile parties, who, as usual, poured on each other tor- rents of invective. On their appearance, these il" lustrious allies raised shouts louder than thmider, while Champlain advanced to reconnoitre the fort. He found it very strong, composed, according to the usual fashion, of large trees fixed close together in a circle. He himself was immediately wounded in the ear and neck by an arrow pointed with stone, yet not so as to disable him from acting. At the discharge of fire-arms the Iroquois, who seem to have been a different party from those formerly en- countered, felt the same astonishment and dismay. Covered by their intrenchments, however, they con- tinued to pour forth cloud9 of darts, and Champlaiur ^^N , 142 HISTORY OF CANADA whose ammunition began to fail, urged the savages to exert themselves in forcing a way into the barri- cade. He made them fasten ropes round the trunks of single trees, and apply &11 their strength to drag them out, undertaking, mean time, to protect them with his iire. Fortunately, at this moment, a party of French traders, unconnected with our leader, be- ing seized with martial ardour, came to join him ; and he thought it fair " that they should have their share in the diversion." Under iheir cover, the Al- gonquins puUed so stoutly, that a sufficient opening was soon made ; and though the stumps still stood six feet high, the allies leaped in, and the enemy were completely routed, most of them being killed' or drowned, and fifteen taken. Of the assailants three fell in the action, and fifty were wounded. Instead of carrying the heads of the slain, they "flayed them,*' taking the scalps as their trophy. Champlain asked and obtained one of the captives, whom he saved from the dreadful tortures which were inflicted on most of the others, one by one, at different stages ; the rest being carefully reserved for their wives and daughters, who took peculiar de- light in these scenes of savage vengeance, and were even ingenious in devising new and exquisite tor- ments. His prisoner, not being very carefully guarded, made his escape. The Frenchman, before taking leave of his allies, prevailed on them to al- low one of his people to remain with them and learn their language, while he, at their request, took a na- tive youth with him to Europe.* In 1611 Champlain returned to America with his savage, and on the 28th May arrived at the place of rendezvous appointed for another warlike expedi- tion. Not finding the Indians, he employed his time in choosing a spot for a new settlement higher up the river than Quebec. After a careful survey he . * Cbfunplain, tome i. liv, iii., ch. 11, 12. VNDISR THE FRENCH. ua fixed upon ground in the vicinity of an eminence which he called Mont Royal ; and his choice has been amply justified by the prosperity to which this place, under the name of Montreal, has subsequent- ly risen. He cleared a considerable space, sowed some grain, and enclosed it by an earthen wall. A distressing accident soon afterward occurred. Sa- vignon, the native who had accompanied him to France, with Louis, a European, and Outetoucos, an Indian leader, set out on a hunting excursion to an island in the Chambly. After excellent sport they were returning, when Savignon, v ho guided the ca^ noe, proposed to make a circuit to avoid a danger-* ous rapid. The chief, however, insisted that it was quite safe, without even lightening the boat, and the other allowed himself to be persuaded ; but, as soon as they came within the action of the whirlpool, the bark was tossed up and down in the most violent man- ner. Louis was thrown into the water and drown- ed. The chief endeavoured to swim to land, but could not stem the eddies, and sunk. Savignon alone, clinging to the canoe, whether above or be- low water, at length reached the shore. Champlain, on coming to the spot, could scarcely believe it pos- sible that any person should have attempted to pass this formidable rapid.* At length, on the 13th of June, three weeks after the time appointed, a party of his savage friends ap- pearec). They evinced much pleasure at meeting their countryman, who gave the most favourable re- port of the treatment which he had received in France ; and, after a Hberal present of beaver-skins^ they unfolded the cause of this long delay. The prisoner who escaped the previous year had spread a report that the French, having now resolved to es- pouse the cause of the Iroquois, were coming in great force to destroy altogether the Algonquin na^ * Champlain, tome i., liv. iii.y eh, 13. 144 HISTORY or CANADA tion. Champlain bitterly complained of their har« inff listened to such a rumour, which all his actions belied. They protested that it had never gained cre- dence with them, but only with those of their tribe who had no opportunity of knowing the foreigners. However, having received solemi protestations of friendship, they declared their determination of ad- hering to their alliance, and aiding to the utmost of their power his projects of penetrating into the inte- rior. They gave him very extensive information respecting the continent, their acquaintance with which was found to reach southward as far as the Gulf of Mexico. They agreed to his proposal of returning with forty or fifty of his people to prose- cute discoveries, and even form settlements in the country. The warlike designs, for some reason not explained, appear to have been dropped for the present; but they requested that a French youth should accompany them and make observations upon their territory and tribe. They asked their visiter to use his influence in order to dissuade one of their bravest warriors, who had been three times made prisoner by the Iroquois and always escaped, to relinquish the purpose he had now formed of set- ting out with only nine companions to attack the en- emy and avenge his former wrongs. Attempts were made to divert him from so rash a purpose ; but, ex- hibiting his fingers partly cut off and his whole body cowred with wounids, he declared that it was im- pe«sible to live unless he obtained revenge.* ^'''Xihamplain again returned to France with the view of making arrangements for those more extensive operations which he contemplated and had recom- mended to his Indian allies. The negotiation was attended with difficulty. De Monts, who had been appointed governor of Saintonge, was no longer in* oined to take the lead, and excused Inmself irom * Champlain, tome i., liv. iii, ch. I4r . UNDER THE FRENCH.. 145 going to court, on account of the urgency of his own affairs. He committed the whole to his former agent, ad' 'sing him to seek some powerful protect- or, whose authority might overcome V\^ opposition to his ))lans. Our adventurer was so fortunate as almost immediately to gain the Count de Soissons, who obtained the title of Lieutenant-general of New France, and who, by a fornal agreement, delegated to him all the functions of that high office. The count died soon after; but a still more influential friend was found in the Prince of Cond6, who suc- ceeded to all the privileges of the deceased, and made them over in a manner equally amplCc His commission, including a monopoly of the trade, ex<* cited loud complaints among the merchants; but our author endeavoured to remove the principsd ob- jection by allowing as many of them to embark in the ttaffic as chose to accompany him. There came accordingly three from Normandy, one from Ro- chelle, and.one from St. Malo. These were allow- ed free trade, burdened only with the condition of contributing six men each to assist in his projects of discovery, and a twentieth of their profits to de- fray the expenses of settlement.* In the beginning of March, 1613,t this expedition sailed from Honfleur, and on the 7th May anived at Quebec. Champlain, however, had an aim which diverted him from his grand schemes of war and discovery in the west. Among the objects of ad- venture in that age, a favourite one was a northwest passage to China ; hence everything connected with the report cf a sea beyond Canada inspired the great- est hopes. ' There was a Frenchman named Nicolas de Vignau, who had accompanied our trs^veller in * Champlain, tome i., liv. iv., ch. 5. t Champ?.ain's dates are jumbled in the most confused man* ner; but on comDaring page 312 with pages 245 and 246, it will be evident that the one here given is correct, though the nanra« tive of his voyage precedes the account of hia departure. Vol. I.— N \y»*l 146 HISTORY OF CANADA former expeditions, and spent a winter among the savages. This person reported that the river of the Algonquins (the Ottawa) issued from a lake which was connected with the North Sea; that he had visited its shores, and had there witnessed the wrecV of an English vessel. The crew, eighty in number, had reached the shore, where they had all been killed and scalped by the inhabitants, except one boy, whom they would have been happy to present to him, along with the trophies of their victory. Wishing to assure himself as to this story, the nav- igator caused the man to sign his declaration before two notaries, warning -him, if it were false, that he was putting a rope round his own neck. Finding the fellow persevere, and learning that some English vessels had really been wrecked in 1612 on the coast of Labrador, his doubts v/ere removed, and he determined to devote i season to the prosecution of this grand object. With this view he did not stop at Quebec, but, setting sail on the 13th May, arrived on the 21st at the fall of St. Louis. Here, with only two canoes, containing four of his countrymen and one native, he began his voyage up the river. The hardships and difficulties were very severe. ' He encountered a succession of cataracts and rapids, which it was necessary to avoid by carrying the skiffs and stores overland. Sometimes the woods being too dense to admit of this, it became requisite to drag them through the foaming current, not without danger of being themselves ingulfed. If they had lost their boats, they could neither have proceeded back nor forward, unless by the mere accident of meeting with friendly Indians. There was reason, besides, to dread an attack from some wandering bands of Iroquois, who, if victorious, would have doubtless treated the French as they treated their Algonquin captives. As the difficulties of navigation increased, they were obliged to leave their corn behind, and UNDER THB FRENCH. 147 trust entirely to their guns and nets, which afforded a precarious and somewhat scanty supply. Nicolas^ to our author^s surprise, was forward in recommend- ing parts of the river which the natives declared to be highly dangerous. At length the party reached the abode of Tessouat, a friendly chief, whose coun- try was only eight days^ sail from that of the Nebi- cerini (Nipissings), on whose borders the shipwreck was said to have occurred. The people received our adVienturer courteously, and > agreed to his re- quest of admission to a solemn council. It was preceded by an entertainment of boiled maize, with meat and fish ; after which the young men went out, and the old took their pipes and smoked for half an hour in silence. Champlain being then asked his object in soliciting the interview, after many cour- teous professions requested four canoes to escort him into the country of the Nipissings, which he earnestly desired to visit. To this the Indians de- murred, stating that tiie rout^ was very difficult, and that they were bad men and sorcerers, who had caused the death of many of their tribe ; neverthe- less, upon his earnest entreaty, they at length con- sented. After the meeting had broken up, however, the French chief learned that there was a great in- disposition to fulfil the engagement, and that no one could be found who was willing to accompany him. He therefore again called them together; reproached them with their meditated breach of faith ; and in refutation of their assertions of danger as arising from the people, referred to the fact of Nicolas hav- ing spent some time among them without any an- noyance. Hereupon De Vignau was called on to say if he had ever made such a journey ; and when, tifter long hesitation, he answered in the affirmative, they raised loud and fierce cries, declaring that he was speaking falsei /, having never passed beyond their country, where he had -gone to bed with them every evening and risen every morning ; and 148 HISTORY OF CANADA that he ought to be tovtured to death for having so grossly deceived his chief. Champlain, seeing his follower a good deal confused, took him aside, and adjured him to state the truth. The fellow, however, having recovered his confidence, renewed his former averments, and gave the fullest assurance that, if canoes could be procured, they would, ere lon^, reach the spot. The commander, unable to believe that any individual could persevere in such audacious falsehoods, went back to the savages, re« ferred to the interior sea, the English shipwreck, the eighty scalps, and the young boy in possession of the natives. Hereupon they shouted louder than ever, proclaiming his deceit to be now quite palpa- ble. They began to put close interrogatories, to which he returned only unsatisfactory replies. Champlain, extremely perplexed, called nim again to a private interview, and told him that everything already past should be forgiven ; but that if, by per* fiisting in false assertions, he should induce the ex- pedition to go any farther, he would most assuredly be hanged. The man then, after remaining silent for some time, fell on his knees and confessed that all he had said, and which had induced his master to undertake so long and painful a journey, was a complete untruth» The motives of this crime had been the eclat derived from the supposed discovery, and the being brought out to New France in a con- spicuous situation. He had trusted that the obsta- cles would be such as, at some earlier point, to lead his superior to renounce the attempt ; and with this view, m passing the falls, he had urged him to prefer the most dangerous channels. Champlain was obliged M inform the Indians that they v/ere right, and himself egregiously deceived. They earnestly entreated him to place the liar in their jfiands, who they would take effectual care should never again deceive him. But, though much and justly enraged, he resolved honourably to redeem his pledge. He V UNDER THE FRENCH. 149 had the vexation, however, to reflect, that not only had he encountered in vain a long series of labours and fatigues, but that the whole season had been spent without any effort to promote other objects which he had much at heart. He had now no al- ternative but to commence his voyage down the Ot- tawa, and on his way he was joined by a considerable number of savage allies, who rendezvoused at the fall of St. Louis. They agreed, though with difficulty, to allow two young Frenchmen to accompany them, with the view of obtaining a knowledge of the coun- try. Champlain left also De Vigniu, as a punish- ment for his falsehood ; who promised to make fur- ther discoveries, and to reach, if possible, the North Sea ; but none of the natives would have any inter- course with him. Our author then sailed to Tadous- sac, and thence to St. Malo, where he arrived on the 26th August, 1C14.* Affairs iu France continued favourable to the col- ony. The Prince of Conde being still powerful at court, no difficulty was found in equipping an expedition from Rouen and St. Malo, though it gave some discontent to the merchants of Rochelle, who were excluded on account of their no^ having come in time. They were accompa' .cd by four Fathers Recollets, whose benevolencp led them to attempt the conversion of the Indians.! Champlain, with this new company, arrived on the 25th of May, 1615, at Tadoussac, where he im- mediately pushed up to Quebec, and thence to the place of rendezvous at the fall of St. Louis. He found his old allies there, full of projects of war against the Iroquois, whom they proposed now to assail among the lakes to the westward ; and they promised to muster for this attack no fewer than 2500 fighting men. The Frenchman, never slow to ♦ Champlain, tome i., liv. iv., ch. 1,2, 3. t Ibid., tome i., p. 313-317. N 2 150 BISTORT OF (CANADA embark in such enterprises, now laid down a plan of operations, at which they expressed the utmost satisfaction. He accompanied them in a long route, first up the Ottawa, then, partly carrying the canoes overland, partly launching them on small pieces of water, till they came to Cake Nipissing, northward to that of Huron. The country through which he passed is described as in many places broken and rocky, though not mountainous, and completely uncultivated ; yet there was a profusion of berries and delicate small fruits, which the na- tives preserved for winter use. The Nipissings, about 700 or 800 in number, who inhabited the shores of this lake, received the party well. After remaining two days, they made their way by land and water to the coast of the great lake Attigou- antan, which appeared a complete fresh-water sea, 300 leagues in length by 50 in breadth. It is evi- dently the northern part of Lake Huron, apparently separated into a distinct body of water by the con- tinuous chain of islands which extend parallel to this shore.* After coasting it for about forty-five leases, they turned a point which forms its ex- tremity, and struck into the interior, with the view of reaching Cahiague, the appointed rendezvous of their savage friends. This country was found much superior to that hitherto passed, being well cultiva- ted, and abounding in Indian corn and fruits. At the place just mentioned, a large body were found collected, who gave them a joyful welcome, stating their expectation of five hundred more, who also considered the Iroquois as enemies. While their forces were mustering, several days was spent in dancing and festivity, the usual prelude to their expeditions. .They Uien set out and passed seversd small lakes, one of which led to the great one, which they nov; named Entouhonorons (Huron). * Champlain« toiae |.« liv. iv., ch. 6» \ h) UNDER THE FRENCH. 151 On the way they employed themselves in several hunting parties. Upon one occasion they made a large circle, enclosing the whole of a promontory that stretched into the lake ; after which, by loud cries and volleys of arrows, they drove all the ani- mals to the extreme point, where they were either taken or threw themselves into the water. To meet this last case a range of canoes were drawn up, and the quadrupeds fell beneath the weapons darted from either side. Having met a detachment returning with a band of prisoners, our adventurer was shocked to see them begin the horrid work ck torment upon a female, and reproached the leader with a cruelty so unworthy of a genuine warrior. The Indian replied, that it was no more than th^ enemy did to his country-women; but, in courtesy to his ally, he would desist, retaining, however, his full right to torture the men. After quitting the Huron Lake, they struck into the interior, and c£Lme to a smaller expanse of wa- ter, finely diversified by islands, which seems to be Lake George. On its banks they descried the Iroquois fort, which, in expectation of this attack, had been rendered peculiarly strong. It was de- fended by four successive palisades of trees twined together, with strong parapets at top ; and it enclo- sed a pond whence streams were led to the different quarters, with the view of extinguishing fire. They had advanced, and were skirmishing with success against their assailants ; but when the firearms be- gan to play, and they heard the balls whizzing about their ears, they hastily retreated within the ram- part. Thence, however, they poured forth showers of arrows and stones, which induced the allies, in spite of the exhortations and reproaches of Cham- plain, to withdraw beyond their reach. He now, however, endeavoured to train them to the use of European machinery, teaching them to construct with v/ood an elevated enclosure of planks, csdled 152 HISTORY OF CANADA Q cavalier, which should command the enemy's in- trenchment. The discharge from this platform was meant to drive them from the parapet, and afford to the assailants an opportunity of setting fire to the defences. The savages showed the utmost activity in constructing this. work, which they fin- ished in four hours, and 200 of the strongest moved it forward close to the pallisade. The shot from it drove the Iroquois into the interior of their strong- hold, whence they still continued to return missiles of various kinds. The Indians might now, with the greatest ease, have set tha fort in a blaze ; but Ohamplain soon found that he had to do with men who would make war only as they were inclined and accustomed. Instead of following his direc- tions, they preferred to pouf out execrations upon the enemy, 'and shoot arrows against the strong wooden defences. , At length they began to throw pieces of burning timber, but carelessly, and with little effect. Their European ally called out to them in what manner to proceed ; but the field was filled with such clamour akid confusion, that his voice was lost amid the tumult. The Iroquois, mean time, drew water from their reservoir so copiously, that streams flowed through every part of the fortress, and the slight fires were speedily quenched. Ta- king advantage of the disorder in the adverse ranks, they made arrows descend like hail, which pierced two chiefs and a number of their followers. Cham- plain himself was twice wounded in the leg. His allies hereupon felt a strong inclination to retire, and, as usual, they followed their oWn views, with- out any regard to his exhortations. They justified themselves by alleging the absence of the 500 aux- iliaries, promising, on their arrival, to renew the assault. Although, therefore, for twodayE> a strong wind blew most favourably for another attempt, no- thing could induce them to advance. Several petty attacks were made, but with so little success, that the French were always obliged to come to the res- UNDER THE FRENCH^ 153 cue ; while the enemy bitterly taunted the Algon- quins as unable to cope with them in a fair fieM, and obliged to f^^ek the odious aid of this strange and unknown race. As the re-enforcement did not appear, the savages determined to abandon the enterprise altogether, and return homeward. The retreat was conducted with a degree of skill and judgment which had not appeared in any of their offensive operations. T" .y placed the wounded and aged in the centre, \» *ile armed warriors guarded the front, rear, and flanks. The JLroquois followed a shcr": way, but sooa gave up the pursuit. If, however, the safety of the dis- abled was well provided for, their comfort was very little considered. Their bodies were bent into a circular form, bound with cords, and thrown into a basket, where they lay like infants in swaddling- clothes, unable to . hand or foot. Ghamplaia feelingly describes t agonies he endured while carried twenty-five or thirty leagues in this position, on being relieved from which he felt as if he had come out of a dungeon. He now claimed the promise to convey him home after his campaign. First, however, guides were wanting, then a canoe ; and he soon found that they were determined to detain him and his companions, with a view to their defence in case of attack, or to aid them in future expeditions. He was very ill provided for winter in so desolate a region ; but a chief, Darontal,. gave him his hovel, built in the best Indian style, and he found considerable amusement in their hunting excursions. On one occasion they constructed a wooden enclosure of a triangular form, each side nearly a mile long, with a narrow opening at the point, into whicn, by loud cries, and imitating the howling of wolves, they contrived to drive all the deer in the vicinity. The aper- ture being then shut, the animals became an easy Ifivy. * Champlain, tome i., liv. iv., oh. 7*' 'I A 154 HISTORY OF CANADA On the 20th'May of the following year Champlain set out, and found himself in the end of June at the Sault St. Louis. Having remained there a short time, he repaired to Tadoussac, whence he sailed, and arrived at Hc^fleuron the 10th September, 1616.* The interests ji the colony were now in consid- erable jeopardy. The Prince of Cond^, in conse- Suence of the share taken by him in the disturbances uring the minority of Louis XIIL, was not only in disgrace, but under confinement. The Marshal de Themines, however, was prevailed upon to under- take the duties of the situation, on condition ^ sha- ring its emoluments. Unfortunately, he was soon involved in controversy with the merchants, and after many and tedious transactions, during two years and a half, the Duke de Montmorency was induced to treat with Cond6 for his office of viceroy, and obtained it upon the payment of 11,000 crowns. Champlain considered this arrangement as every way eligible, the duke being better qualified for such functions, and, from his situation of high admiral, possessing the best nfeans of forwarding the object. A body of associated merchants had already, in Jan- uary, 1619, agreed to send out a larger colony than any preceding one, of eighty persons, including three friars, with the necessary supply of furniture, arras, seed-corn, and domestic animals. Their departure was, however, delayed a whole year by the disputes between Rochelle and other commercial cities, and between the Protestants and the Catholics. At- tempts were also made to degrade Champlain from the high situation in which he had been placed ; but by virtue of commissions both from Montmorency and the king, he suoceeded in crushing this opposi- tion.f In May, 1620, he set sail with his new equipment, and, after a very tedious voyage, anchored on the -■ v^Maiiipiaiii, luiiic i«, p. a0u*-o9O* t Jbid., tume i., Uv. iv., ch. 4< UNDER THE FRENCH. 155 , *l 7th July near the ni»Tt of Tadoussac. He found that, during his long absence, the settlements had been considerably neglected, especially at Trois Rividres, which he enlarged and defended by a fort, placed on a mountain that commanded the passage of the river. After all that had been done for the colony, there remained, when winter arrived, not more than sixty inhabitaiits, including women, chil- dren, and clergy, and ten of the number were em- ployed in establishing a religious seminary.* The following year, as soon as the season per- mitted, a vessel was sent out with letters from Mont- morency and his secretary, announcing a cuange which greatly surprised and by no means delighted (^ur comm^jider. The association of merchants who had fitted out the last expedition were deprived of all their privileges by the duke* who had intrust- ed the care of tb** colony to the Sieurs de Caen, un- cle and nephew, one a merchant and the other a mariner, the latter of whom was to visit it person- ally in the course of the summer. The local gov- ernor, ,who saw many causes of complaint against the merchants, had no ground on which he could ob- ject to this arrangement ; yet he was thereby vir- tually divested of his command, and subjected to the control of another, armed with formidable pow- ers.f About the middle of July he received notice that De Caen had arrived at Tadoussac, and was desi- rous of an interview. After some delay, he set out, and met him on the 3d August. He was received with the utmost courtesy, but soon found the new superintendent disposed to act in a very violent and -arbitrary manner. He claimed the right of seizing all the vessels belonging to*the associated mer- chants, which might have come out for the purpose of traffic ; and he actually took that of Du Pont, * Champlain, tome ii., liv. i., eh. 1. t Ibid., tome u.^liv. i., ch. 2. * ; W ■M J^ 156 HISTORY OF CANADA their fatrourite agent, and an intimate friend of our author. Champlain remonstrated ^.rongly against these proceedings, but without any effect^as he pos- sessed ncr power which could effectually check the violence of this new dictator. De Caen, however, left a supply of provisions, arms, and ammunition ; though this last is said to have been both scanty and ill adapted to its object. In consequence of these arrangements, a great part of the population con- nected with the European traders took their depar- ture, while the agent of Montmorency had brought only eighteen new settlers ; so that the colony, in- stead of being augmented, was thereby reduced to forty-eight.* Notwithstanding these vexatious occurrences, as soon as the goveri^or had time to breathe, he turned his attention to discovery and settlement in the in.- tenor. He formed an intimate connexion with a Huron who had assumed the name of Mahigan Aticq (Wolf Stag), to express the union of ferocity and mildness which became the savage character. Through him intelligence was received of a propo- sal made to terminate the long and desolating war \^hich had raged between his nation and that of the Iroquois. Champlai^i, on former occasions, when such an accommodation was mentioned, earnestly represeitted to them its great advantages ; and he now expressed the utmost anxiety to forward it. Learning, therefore, that two individuals of the hos- tile people had arrived at Trois Rivieres, he invited tiiem to Quebec, and met them at a village of friend- ly Indians in that vicinity. On his arrival, Mahigan took his hand, kissed and locked his own into it, causing the two strangers to do the same to his com- panions. Thus, hanain hand, they entered the chief cabin, where a number of the natives were seated, according to their respective ranks, and learned with * Champlain, tome ii., liv. i., ch. 4» - UNDER THB F&eNCH. 167 satisfaction the good understanding that now prer vailed. The^ then proceeded to the important ope|r< ation of dancing, which was kept up a longtime by the ^ Hies and the three visiters ; then each of theni kissed his hand, and put theirs into that of the gov- ernor. The Hurons now danced in a body, men, women, and children, when harmony was consider- ed as completely established. At this stage the Iro- quois explained their object, which Champlain read- ily engaged to promote. They represented this pro- posal for amity as proceeding entirely from them-;' selves, and that they came not as authorized envoys ; though this, we suspect, was rather to avoid prema- turely committing the nation. The Hurons, howev- er, treated them with friendship, and, in concurrence with their French ally, determined upon sending four of their number to complete, if possible, th^ negotiation opened under such favourable auspices.* On arriving at the headquarters of the Iroquois^ they met a very kind reception, and the treaty was nearly concluded, when it was almost broken off by an event strikingly characteristic of this fierce inde- pendent race. £ven before they set out, a savagOi whom the French named Simon, declared his deter- mination to accompany them, but in a hostile char- acter, singly towage war against this hated enemy; and such, in this rude tribe, was the total want of any public authority, that they could use nothing bj^r yond impotent remonstrances to deter him. They had recourse to their ally^ who employed warm rep- resentations, and even threats, to make the barba- rian desist. But though the latter admitted it to be very wicked in him, he declared ihat he was perfect- ly miserable, and could have no peace till he had cut off the head of an enemy. After this assurance all argument was vain, the community not having any means of placing its members under the slight- 4 Vol. L— O uiiaiDpi«is, tome ii., liv. i., cb. 6. w. 158 HISTORY OF CANADA est restraint. He accompanted his countrymen, and shared in their good reception; but as they were returning home, he nfet one of the detested tribe, and gratified his vengeance by despatching him. Such a deed, by any member of a civilized mission, must at once have terminated all negotiation ; but the deputies having satisfied the Iroquois, who were no strangers to such sallies, that it was completely an individual act, lamented b^r the nation, they over- looked it, and sent six of their number to conclude the treaty.* In the mean time the progress of the colony was still 'Checked by dissensions in the mother country. A union, indeed, was formed between the old and new comp^anies, which enabled them to proceed for some time with greater vigour. But, thouph united, they 'were not of one mind; contentious were soon kindled, which made Montmorency com- plain, that he had more trouble with this concern than with his most important affairs; so that he was well pleased, for a moderate consideration, to transfer it to the Duke de Ventadour. The new Viceroy, however, soon found himself involved in serious troubles. He professed, in a manner pecu- liarly decided, that his main object was to diffuse the Catholic religion throughout the New World; but h so happened that the Protestants were the only French citizens who possessed the nautical skill to conduct such an expedition, or were willing to brave its dangers. In despite of the court, there- fore, they formed the majority oi every crew ; and though the most illiberal restrictions were laid upon their worship, their numbers enabled them to treat these with little ceremony. Even De Caen pro- essed this faith; and the new viceroy had the fliction to learn that he had not only allowed Prot- '■ ^rzytis to be publicly offered up, but evei^ unamptain, tome u., p. /tf-09. 'vWrt-. ,sj,.,l^ H'-^i'' .,. UNDER THE FRENCH. 159 desired the Romanists to attend them. He was restless, therefore, till an arrangement could be made by which a captain of sound belief should be appointed to command the vessels. He could not, however,; escape the fatal necessity of employ- ing a' crew, most of whom were accounted hereti- cal; but, in return, he 'directed that the means of exercising their religion should be confined within the narrowest possible limits. In particular, he strictly enjoined that they should not sing psalms in the St. Lawrence ; but the mariners, who had freely performed this act of worship in the open sea, loudly exclaimed against such a capricious restriction ; and though th^ express orders of the duke could not be departed from, a compromise was made, allowing them greater latitude in other parts of their ritual. Our author uniformly express- es a pious horror touching the Reformers, and the utmost reluctance to grant them the slightest fa- vour ; but oddly excuses himself by saying, " They were almost two thirds Huguenots; so of a bad debt, one i^ust take what payment he can get."* Champlain was continued in all his powers by the Duke de Ventadour, who kept him a consider- able time near his person, so that two years and a half had elapsed before his return to Canada. He found the colony in the same unsatisfactory state as after his former absence ; the fort, for comple- ting which ail the materials and full instructions had been left, was exactly in the same condition as when he departed. The settlement at Quebec consisted still of no more than fifty-five persons, of whom twenty-four only were fit for labour.f He learned, moreo^'er, that the Indian affairs were by no means in a good btace. The Iroquois, being on tii^ir way to attack 8 tribe called the Wolves, had * Champlain, tome ii., p. 41, 94, 103, 104, 1 t ibid., tome ii., p. 137, l'6B. «»« * V-T. tj^". AF'* 160 KlSTORY OF CANADA killed a party who opposed their progress, among whom were five of another nation. The latter forthwith sent messengers, bearing as gifts collars of wampum, to the chiefs of the French allies, and entreating their aid in a war of revenge. It was easy to kmdle a hostile spirit among these fierce clans, and a strong party was soon formed in favour Of warlike measures. The more prudent anxiously recommended a pacific policy, and Mahigan Aticq hastened to Quebec, to apprize Champlain of what Was passing. Deeply regretting these events, he reiterated all his arguments for the preservation of the blessings enjoyed under the present tranquil system. As it was not in his power to go in per- son, he Sent Boull6, his brother-in-law, and after- Ward one of his people, named Emery, to impress these Views upon the savage assembly. They were both well received, and their advice approved by the great body of the nation ; but the lawless system which still prevailed in the tribe made it impossible to prevent nine or ten hot-headed youths from making an unauthorized inroad into the Iro- quois territory. This band, having reached Lake Champlain, surprised a canoe with three individu^ als, two of whom they seized and brought home in triumph. The preparations for the work of torture were already going on, when Emery hastened to cotivey the intelligence to Champlain, who im- mediately repaired to the spot. The sight of the captives, fiiie young men, and of the tortures pre- paring for them, quickened his ardour in the cause of peace and humanity. He strongly urged that, instead of such barbarous treatment, they should be sent home unhurt, with presents to compensate for this wantoti attack. After due deliberation, this advice was so ^r adopted that one individual was sent back, with two allies, one of them a chief, and Magnan, a Frenchman. This expedition, sent ^ith 80 laudable an intention, had the most tragical T7NDER THE FRENCH. 161 issiie. Ah Algonquin who wished to foment war, contrived to rouse the jealousy of the Iroquois by persuading them that this mission, though profess- ing friendship, was devised with the most treacher- ous intent. Misled by these views, the latter pre- pared to take cool and deliberate revenge. When the strangers arrived, they found the fire kindle/^, the caldron boiling, and, being courteously re- ceived, were invited to sit down. The Iroquois then asked the chief if, after so long a journey, he did not feel hungry. As he replied in the affirma- tive, they rushed upon him, and began to cut slices from his arms, and throw them into the pot ; soon after, they presented them to him half cooked. They then cut pieces from other parts of his body, and continued their torture till he died in lingering agonies. The Frenchman was tormented to death in the usual manner. Another Indian, more fortu- nate, while attempting to escape, was shot dead on the spot; a fourth was made prisoner. When news reached the allies of this dreadful tragedy, the war-cry was immediately sounded, and the re- maining captive was put to death with every re- finement of cruelty.^ Champlain himself, though deeply afflicted by the intelligence, saw no longer any possibility of averting hostilities ; he felt that, as a countryman had been deprived of life, the power of the nation would be held in contempt if no resentment were shown at so dreadful an out^ rage. Indeed, he experienced no little trouble, even among the friendly tribes, who immediately surrounded him. In several cases, Europeans were murdered in an atrocious manner, and under cir- cumstances which rendered it impossible to accept as an explanation the assurance that parties of Iro- (juois had penetrated to the spot. After overlook- ing these as much as possible, a fresh instance * Champlain, tome ii., p. 146, 211-214. , : Jf >4 02 iM HISTORY OF CANADA kavin^ 0<}cutTed, he demanded that an inditidual, to trhom strong suspicion attached, should be put into his hands. He detained him fourteen months ; but being unable to procure positive evidence, and pressed by other circumetances now to be related, he set hi n at liberty. The dignity of the French required that vigorous nieasni^s should have been taken to avenge so great a wrong ; but their attention was soon called to other quarters. Hostilities having broken out vvlth England, two of their subjects, David and Louis Kertk, Calvinist refugees, entered the ser- vice of that country, where they were known under the name of Kirk. They equipped a squadron, which sailed to the mouth of the St. Lawrence, captured several vessels, and intercepted the com- munication between the mother-country and the colony. The settlers, who had not yet sufficiently extended cultivation to supply themselves with provisions, were thus reduced to the greatest dis- tress. At length, in July, 1629, Sir David Kirk summoned Quebec. As, in addition to famine, the ammunition was nearly exhausted, the governor eoiisidered himself as having no choice but to sur- render. The invader, who still retained many of the feelings of his birth, promised honourable con- ditions, and every species of good treatment to his countrymen. They were allowed to depart with their arms, clothes, and baggage. The request of a ship to convey them directly home could not be complied with ; but they were promised a commo- dious passage by way of England. Champlain "Was desirous to take with him two little native girls whom he had carefully educated, and although Ht first objected to, this was granted on a fuller ex- planation. The place being surrendered. Kirk and the English showed to the garrison every species of courtesy ; though Baillif, a renegade Frenchman, to whom he intrusted the keys of the magazine, * Heriot, I from Chariev( t Chartovo UNDER THB FRENCH. 163 geized a great quantity of furd, besides rarions articles of church property, and subjected his coun- trymen to all the ill treatment in his power. Champlain, who arrived at Dover on the S7th Oc- tober, proceeded thence to London for the purpose of conferring with the French ambassador. The differences between the two nations were now in a train of adjustment ; but a large party in the Gallic cabinet set too little value on the settlement to think its restoration worth insisting upon. Champlain stifOnglv deprecated this view of the subject; his counsels at length prevailed at the court of Louis XIII. ; and when the English found the matter seri- ously pressed, they consented without much diffi- culty. The final treaty, however, was not signed till the 29th March, 1633. The indifference with which both countries viewed this colony, though bearing the pompous title of New France, was not ill justified by its actual con- dition. A fort, with some houses and barracks at Quebec ; a few huts for fishing and trade at Tadous- sac, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, formed nearly all that answered to that imposing name.* But even prior to its late disaster, arrangements had been made with a view to rescue it from this depressed state. Under the direction of Cardinal Richelieu, whose administration was marked by a bold and enterprising character, an association was formed oi a hundred distinguished individuals, who undertook that, by the year 1643, they would raise the popula- tion to 6000. They engaged to maintain the emi- grants for three years, bestowing upon them lands and seed-corn. They were also to send a suitable number of clergymen, subsisting them for hfteen years, and at the end of that period to assign them glebes sufficient for their support. f Their opera- * Heriot, History of Canada, 8vo, London, 1804 (translatiMi irom Charlevoix, histoire de ia Nouvelle France), p. 49. t Gharldvoiz iti Heriot, p. 37, 38. ., ,, „..,.. ,..,.. „«4 164 .--ik.,^ !..<»«.,. J- ^li:i^ HISTORY OF CANADA tions were suspended by the disastrous events just narrated ; but when the above treaty restored Can- ada to the French, their rights were fully confirmed, and they made no hesitation in reinvesting Cham- Slain with his former jurisdiction. The year 1633 ad arrived, however, before an expedition was ready to sail, which carried with it more property than was supposed at the time to exist in the colony. The governor found most of those whom he had left; but* their prosperity must have l^een greatly checked by the bigoted spirit which induced the court to prohibit altogether the exercise of the re- formed religion, by whoso professors chiefly the settlement had been supported. Some small com- pensation was afforded by the institution of religious establishments embracing objects of general educa- tion and instruction. A son of the Marquis de Ga- mache, whose fervour had impelled him to join the order of Jesuits, conceived the ambition of founding a college at Quebec, and was enabled by his friends to offer 6000 gold crowns for this purpose. His pro- posal was readily accepted, and, though delayed by the misfortunes of the colony, was carried into ef- fect in 1635. Four years later, under the auspi- ces of the Duchess d'Aiguillon, a party of Ursuhne nuns were sent out, and a seminary established by them at Quebec. But the religious foundation from which the greatest advantages were derived was that projected by the Abb6 Olivier, who had origi- nated the order of St. Sulpice, and proposed that a seminary, bearing its name and composed of its members, should be formed in New France. The king listened favourably to this suggestion, and, with a view of realizing it, made a grant of the whole island of Montreal. A party was formed, the Sieur Maisonneuve was placed at its head, and in- vested with the government. That importantvplace, where hitherto there had been only a few detached hutS} assumed now the aspect of a Fegular sQttle= UNDER THfi FRBNCH. 165 ment, and rose, by gradual steps, until it attained a great degree of prosperity.* But, in the mean time, the rising colony was des- tined to encounter severe disasters. The death of .Champlain, early in 1636, was a severe blow. Though some parts of his early policy were very duestionable, his devotion to the caUse, his energy and high reputation, were generally viewed as the chief bond by which the whole undertaking had been held together. The company, after their first great effort, soon telaxed, and allowed the settlement to relapse into a languishing state. They had sent, indeed, a considerable number of monks and nuns ; but of troops and stores, which were more urgently wanted, the supply was very scanty. The situation of M. de Montma?ny, the new governor, was ren- dered more criticalby the state of the Indian nations. We have already seen the renewal of the war with the Iroquois ; and as the weakness of the French had rendered it impossible for them to afford any aid to theit native allies, that warlike confederacy had advanced by rapid steps to a supremacy of power. They had completely humbled the Algon- quins, who formerly held the foremost place in the savage world; they closely pressed the Hurons, scarcely allowing their canoes to pass up and down the river ; and they now threatened in great forc6 the settlement of Trois Rivieres. In this exigency, Montmagny's resources enabled him only to carry on a defensive warfare, which he appears to have done with vigour, erecting a fort at the mouth of th^ river Sorel, by which the Iroquois chiefly made their descents. That fierce people. Whether tired of so long a contest or awed by the renewed power displayed by the French, began to make proposals for a solid peace ; and though the governor had good treason to doubt their sincerity and dread some sin- • rjhfirlnvniy in TT«Mnt: n iKL-K.I 166 HISTORY OF CANADA ister object, his situation left no choice but to re- ceive them with apparent cordiaUty. He therefore repaired to Trois Rivieres to meet their deputies, while the chiefs of the tribes in alliance with him came also to the interview. The envoys of the Five Nations then produced seventeen belts, which they had arranged along a cord fastened between two stakes. Their orator came forward and addressed the governor-general by the title of Ononthio, which, in their language, signifies Great Mountain; and though it was in reference to his name of Mont- maffny, they continued ever after to apply this term to the French viceroy. They often added the re- spectful appellation of father. The speaker de- clared the sincerity of their intentions, and their wish " to forget their songs of war and to resume the voice of cheerfulness." He then proceeded to the exposition of the belts, which occupied three hours, each explanation being accompanied with appropriate gestures, which alone would have been almost sufficient to unfold his meaning. Thus, having occasion to refer to the difficulties of canoe- navigation, he performed all the movements ;ieres- sary in guiding one through the rapids, and, repre- senting himself as striking against a rock, used signs expressive of the pain caused by such an accident. These belts variously expressed the calming of the spirit of war, the opening of the paths, the mutu£d visits to be paid, the feasts to be given, the restitu- tion of the captives, and other friendly proceedings. The governor, in conformity to Indian etiquette, delayed his answer for two days, when, at another general meeting, he bestowed as many presents as he had received belts, and through an interpreter expressed (he most pacific sentiments. Piskaret, a great Algonquin chief, then said, " Behold a stone, which I place on the sepulchre of those who were killed in the war, that no one may attempt to remove their bones, and that every desire of avenging their UNDER THE FRENCH. 167 death may be laid aside/' Three discharges of cannon were considered as sealing the treaty. It was for some time faithfully observed, and unwonted tranquillity reigned throughout this savage region. The Iroquois, the Algonquins, and Hurons forgot their deadly feuds, and mingled in the chase as if they had been one nation.* M. de Montmagny, like his predecessor, appears to have commanded the general respect of the na- tive inhabitants. Unluckily, in consequence of an attempt by De Poinci, who commanded in the West Indies, to render himself independent, the court adopted the jealous policy of continuing no govern- or in power longer than three years. This system was peculiarly ill suited to a settlement like that of Canada, where intimate local knowledge, and a pe- culiar mixture of firmness and address, were neces- sary to deal with tumultuary tribes whom they had not strength to subdue. Montmagny was replaced by Ailleboust, said to have been a man of probity, but scarcely possessing the energy required in so difficult a situation. During his government the Iro- quois formed the resolution of renewing the war in all its fury. No ground is stated ; but the Europe- ans and tneir allies, in consequence, became exposed to a series of dreadful calamities. The missionaries had not merely formed estab- lishments at Quebec and Montreal, but had also pen- etrated into the territory of the savages. In this task they certainly gave full proof of sincerity, re- nouncing all 'he comforts of civilized life, and ex- posing thenibeives to every species of hardship and danger. They have been accused of unduly com- bining political with religious objects. They did certainly employ their influence for the furtherance of French power, since they induced a number even of the Iroquois not only to quit the country to which * Charlevoix in Heriot, p, 51-^ 168 HISTORY OF CANADA the^were so strongly attached and settle within the limits of the colony, but even to fight against their own relations. But, at the same time, they un- doubtedly reclaimed their votaries from many sav- age habits, and trained them to some degree of or- der and industry. The Hurons were found the most docile and susceptible of improvement, and their great numbers afforded a wide field of exer- tion. Upward of three thousand of them are re- corded to have been baptized at one time; and thoUi^h it was easier to make converts than to re- tain them, yet a considerable change is said to have appeared in the aspect of this wild region, and very favourable prospects to have been opened.* The main object was to unite them in villages, of which the chief was Sillery, or St. Joseph and St. Mary, with several smaller dependent ones. In 1648 the Iroquois, as already stated, deter- mined to renew the war ; a resolution adopted by them, if we may believe the annals of the colony, without any ground, or "even pretext. The settle- ment, however, was now destined to experience the terrible effects of their rapid movements ; that they could advance like foxes and attack like lions ; and that their arrival and triumphant return were usu- ally announced at the same moment.! In the vil- lage of Sillery, where four hundred families were settled in the most profound peace, and the mission- ary was celebrating the most solemn ordinances of religion, the cry was suddenly raised, " We are mur- dered!'' An indiscriminate massacre had begun, without distinction of sex or age. In vain did wom- t'i! flee into the depth of the forest with infants in iheir arms, whose feeble cries betrayed themselves and their mothers. Finally, the assailants fell upon * Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1$42» 1619, P> <^ » &Q 1647. p. 19 ; ans 1649, 1630, p. 92. \ t Missions, ans 1659, 1660, p. 17. UNDER TRB VREKcDT. 169 the priest, and, after each successively had struck a blow, threw him int j the flames.* Notwithstanding this dreadful example, the Iro- quois having disappeared for six months, the villages relapsed into their former security]. This tranquil- lity, however, was again disturbed in 1649 by a party ' of the same people, amounting to a thousand, who made an attack, upon the mission of St. Ignace. Some resistance was offered, and ten assailants fell ; but ultimately all the inhabitants, except three, were killed or carried off. St. Louis was next attacked, and made a brave defence, which, though it was' uuaily stormed, enabled many of the women and children to escape. The missionaries could have saved themselves ; but, like others of their brethren, attaching a high importance to the administration of the sacrament to the dying, they sacrificed their lives to the performance of this sacred rite. They were not killed on the spot, but " reserved for great- er crowns/' having to pass through a dreadful series of torture and mutilation.f Deep and universal dismay now spread among the Huron people. Their country, lately so peace- , able and flourishing, was become a land of horror and of blood, a sepulchre of the dead, sind no hope appeared to the survivers. The whole nation, with one consent, broke up and fled for refuge in every direction. A few reluctantly offeried to unite with their conquerors, who, according to their usual pol- icy, readily accepted them. Tbt; greater number sought an asylum among the nations of the Cat, the Ottawa, and others still more remote. The mis- sionaries were greatly at a loss how to pi-f jeed with the remnant of their converts, now nearly reduced to the single village of St. Mary. The island of Manitoulin, in Lake Huron, was ptaposed^ but, * Missions en la Novuelle France, ans 1648, 1649, p^ 12, 13. f Miflgiohs, ans 1648, 1^9, p. 12, 34^S9, c. iv. Vol,. L-P J V,'ii>^', .i« no HIJ^TORY OF C'iNADA though they w ited the means or courage to defend their country, they felt a deep reluctance to remove to such a distance from it. They preferred the in- sular situation of St. Joseph, in Lake Ontario, which, it was hoped, would secure them against this dread- ed foe. They enjoyed fur some time an unw;,;nted tranquillity, but were obliged, by the di faculty of subsistence, to form stations on the oppc'site coast, at the distance of six or eight leagues., It was hoped bhat, on any alarm, the inhabitants might thence >l3e to the island for safetj/ ; but the Ire quois cm learning th« existence of these posts, cams upon theiTii .'siicces.?!" eiy, v/ith such suddenness and fatal precision, the it st emed ?'J if a destroying an- gel had g!uded their f >ie[r^<'. Oihn after the other was surprised and li'^stroyt J, till of many hundreds only a single individual escaped. The unhappy remnant of the Huron nation, now reduced to 300, renounced every hope of remainiug in their native seats. One of their chiefs addressed the missionary, representing the extremity to which they were reduced, being ghosts rather than men, and hoping to preserve their wretched existence only by fleeing into the depth of the forests, or to some distant country. If he chose to remain where he was, he could only have trees and rocks to in- struct. This was tho"^ preface to a solicitation that he should convey them to Quebec, and place them under the immediate protection of the French set- tlement. After serious consideration, this was deemed the most eligible course, and arrangements were immediately made for its execution. They w€k2 then led through the wide regions lately peo- pled by their countrymen, to the number of ten ot twelve thousand, but which now presented a scp! '^ of unbroken silence and desolation. The son aspect of the vast forr^t was only interrnnt^r^ ' j the traces of havoc vl slaughter at evfr> ,,ot fbfinerly inhabited, ailesting the general de^: v^'^^iun 'rer, till a station could be formed for them, which, from their former chief settldiment, was named SU- lery.* ' 1/ As the Iroquois now lord/d it completeljr over Canada, the French were vinfaally blockaded in the three forts of Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, fi'om under the very cannon of which they and their allies were sometimes carried off; and, almost every autumn, bands of hostile invaders swept away the limited harvests raised in the immediate vicinity of these places. Yet in 1653 this fierce nation began, of their own accord, to make overtures of peace ; and it was found with surprise that the missionaries bad powerfully contributed to this resolution. They had been regarded at first with extreme antipathy, being probably considered as enemies of their race, seeking to subvert tbo native deities and customs. In the course of the late inroads, however, a con- siderable number had been carried off, and after suf- fering protracted torture and partial mutilation, had been spared and adopted. Then their meek deport- ment, their solemn ceremonies, and the fervour with which " they .^oibeti to God hands without fin- gers," maie a »^^ rong impre'?ion on the savage breast. Henci, at different times, denuties from the ruling horde said, in their figurativa language, * Missions en la Nouvelle France, ana 1649, 1650, p. 83-88, ivu. «- 172 HISTORY OF CANADA that they c^me to wipe ciway the blood which had reddened the mountains, the lakes, and the rivers, to bring back the sun, which had hid his face during the late dreadful scenes of warfare. They solicited, at the same time, ** black-robes," as the]^ termed the missionaries, to teach them the Christian doctrine. The invitation to go into the midst of ferocious en- emies, into a land yet smoking with European blood, would have shaken the nerves of most men. Yet individuals were found who, with a generous self. devotion, did not shrink from the undertaking ; nor does it appear that the implied pledge of safety was violated even during war.* The. Onondagoes, in 1656, went so far as to solicit that a settlement con^ jiected with a mission should be formed in their ter- ritorjr; and Lauson, then governor, having acceded to this proposal, sent the Sieur Dupuys, with fifty of his countrymen, who built a church in the bosom of that savage region. This establishment, howev- er, was generally disapproved by the other tribes ; apd after it had subsisted two years, formidable as^ semblages took place, which Dupuys could not doubt were intended to attack him. He therefore considered himself fortunate in being able, while their attention was attracted to a great feast given for that purpose by a friendly Indian, to embark his troops and convey them to Montreal.! The French felt themselves too weak to reject proposals for peace, though often made with mortis fying haughtiness. The Viscount d'Argenson, who went out m 1658, considered it necessary to accept their terms, espec^Uy as the utmost cruelties were otherwise threatened to the captives. Yet even by these means his countrymen scarcely obtained any degree of the expected repose. This disappointment arosjB either from deliberate treachery, or the impos- * Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1655, 1656, p. 18-20; ans 1660, 1661, p. 33-40. t i/harievoix in Heriot, p. 74, 81-86. ans 1663, 1664, -QWd^ UNDER THE FRBNCK. 173 sibility of confining in one course the Various unruly elements of which the confederacy consisted. The most amicable professions hardly procured a respite from hostility ; for while one party treated, another attacked : ** Peace, it is said, is proclaimed at Mon- treal, while war rages at Trois Rivieres ; we arc daily attacked and murdered by those who cdl themselves our friends." At length, in 1663, it was announced that a grand deputation was coming from all the cantons, with the professed intention to unite the whole earth, and to bury the hatchet so deep that it might never again be dug up; and they brought with them a hundred collars of wampum. Unhappily, a party of Algonquins, stung by accumu- lated wrongs, determined to violate even the sacred character of such a mission ; and having formed an ambuscade, they surprised and killed the greater gart of them. All prospects of peace were thus lasted, and the war raged with greater fury than ever.* The Iroquois, during this period, continually ex- tended their dominion. Having seen the powerful effect of firearms, they procured them from the Dutch at Manhatti, and thus acquired an additional superiority over the neighbouring tribes. They at- tacked the Ottawas, on account of the shelter af- forded to their fugitive enemies. That people did not make even an attempt at resistance, but sought refuge amid marshes or in the islands on Lake Hu- ron, while others penetrated far southwest into the valley of the Mississippi, where they formed a junc- tion with the Sioux. On the same ground the Iro- quois commenced a desperate war with the nation of the Eriez, a name in their language signifying Cats. After a somewhat hard struggle, they com- pletely succeeded ; sr^ -' hundred of them stormed the main fortress of tli- ^nemy, though defended by — * Mission; en la Nouvelie' France, ans 1660, 1661, p. 12-26; •nsl663, 1664,p. 160, &c. Heriot, p. 87, 94, 95. ^ ? 2 .■■ • . t# .MflMiyJ'iln 174 BISTORT OF OANADA 9000 ni'^n ; and the survivors were either ineorpo. rated with the victors . Ua ^nto remoter regions. This once-powerfr^ .nXicn^ ;; is left no memorial of its existence except the great lake which bears its name. ^ is reckuiied that the conquerors held un- disputed sway over a country five hundred miles in circuit. The very sight of one of them struck ter- ror into the neighbouring tribes - v . .. the side of New-£ngland, the cry of " A Mohawk !" echoed from hill to hill, causing general consternation and flight.* Amid th?.d series of disastrous events, the French ffovernors, whether from weakness or pusillanimity, beheld the destruction of their allies and the com- plete ascendency of this hostile power, without any attempt to prevent either. They did not even go to war, but thought it enough to keep the colonists shut up in fortiiied posts, which the enemy had not skill to besiege ; and nothing else prevented them irom speedily destroying these settlements, the en- virons of which they daily assaulted. They even made a descent upon the Isle of Orleans, where th^y surprised a party of ninety Hurons ; and having killed six, bound the rest, ^nd made them sing in front of Quebec, thus openly defying the governor. M. Maisonneuve, e-rpreheisive f-T Montreal, and unable otherwise to procure aid, rt paired to France, where, by earnest solicitation, he obtained a re-en- forcement of a hundreii men. The Hurors, under S^U^opean protection, in a momenc of despondency, had made an offer of uniting themselves to the Iro- quois, which, as usual, was r adii> accepted ; but the former soon repented. '^ t p- oud nation then sent thirty deputies io remoi'Sirat lot only with the*^, but with the governor-eoneral, M. de Lauson. To him they said, *' Lift up thy arm, Ononthio, and allow thy children, whom thou boldest pressed to * Heriot, p. 73-77. Missions, ans 1659, 1660, p. 33-^. Ccl- dea'8 Hiatory of tho Five Nations, vol. i., p. 3, 4, UNDER THE FRENCH. 175 thy bosom, to depart ; for if thev are guilty of any imprudence, thou hast reason to fear, that, in coming to chastise them, my blows fall on thy head.** They even demanded canoes to convey these re- luctant associates. Lauson, instead of resenting this haughty address^ caused them to be informed, that if the Hurons were inclined to go, he woi>ld not oppose their departure ; that he had no canoes, but they might construct as many as they wanted. After this, considering that no option was left them, except tO which of the five nations they should unite themselves, the greater p^rt, in consequence, left the island.* ' Amid these external evils, the colony was farther visited by a terrible convulsion of nature. A suc^ cession of earthquakes, which commenced on the 5th of February, 1663, were felt for half a year with little intermission throughout all Canada, recurring two or ' ree times rvery day, agitating both the earth and he water , and spreading universal alarm ; yet, as tht^ did not inflict any permanent injury, nor cause the lo 5; of a single life, the accounts given of them are proo.ibly much exaggerated.! Meantime the m st urgent representations were made to Louis XI S that his government was totally neglecting one of the finest countries in the world, and exposing the French name to contempt, by al- lowing it to be trampled upon by a handful of sav- ages. That prince, who had recently assumed the reins of power, being eagerly bent upon every means of aggrandizement, was not likely |o over- look one so considerable. He was seconded by his minister Colbert, who had specially aevoted his thoughts to the extension of commerce; and it was therefore immediately resolved to take steps for raising Canada to her due importance. Four hun- * Heriot. p. 73, 75, 78-82. t Ibid., p. '9^101^. Mis^ons, an 1663, p. 17, 1& 176 HISTORY OF CANADA dred troops were ordered thither ; and M. de Monts was appointed commissioner to examine into and regulate the different branches of administration. The governor had hitherto exercised in person, and without control^ all its functions ; but there was now united with him a council of royal appointment, and an intendant, to whom were intrusted the weighty concerns of justice, police, finance, and marine. This new system did not at first work altogether smoothly, nor did the independent materials of which it was composed well harmonize. M. de Af esy, the governor, after having sent back to France two of the principal members of council, was him- self recalled. The court, however, persevered in its determination to raise the new colony to a prop- er rank. The associates, who had so long neglected it, and were unwilling to involve themselves in a large outlay with uncertain returns, resigned their privileges into the hands of the crown ; and govern- ment, according to the unvarying system of that age, placed it in the hands of the West India Com- pany, though it retained for some time the adminis- tration of its affairs.* In pursuance of these views, the Marquis de Tracy was sent out in 1665 under the joint character of viceroy and lieutenant-general, and thus invested with uncontrolled power. Along with him, in addi- tion to the former detachment, was despatched the entire regiment of Carignan-Salieres, for some time employed in Hungary against the Turks, where it had acquired a high reputation. A considerable number of settlers, including artisans, with horses and cattle, formed an accession to the colony ex- oeeding the amount of its actual members. The new viceroy lost no time in taking measures for checking the insolence of the Iroquois, and es- tablishing a supremacy over these proud savages. J%flH ■ '^f^ ^ % A i;&&rievcis: va amovt p> 9/, iva-ux. < i 5_SSS -a-:. UNDER THE FRENCH. 177 He began by erecting three forts on the river Rich- elieu, in a situation htted to cover the French terri- tory from their incursions. Overawed by these movements, and by the report of his large force, tiiree of the cantons sent deputies, with ample pro- fessions of friendship, proposing an exchange of all the prisoners taken on both sides since the last trea- ty. The viceroy was pleased with their dep^ort- Dient, and agreed to the terms. The fierce Oneidas and Mohawks, however, still kept aloof; and a party of the latter even killed three officers, one of wnom, De Chasy, was nephew to the viceroy. But as two corps were advancing into their territory, an envoy from each nation soon appeared at Quebec, profess- ion to negotiate for peace. They were well re- eeived, and invited to the governor's table, when the conversation happening to fall on De Chasy*s death, the Mohawk, jn a paroxysm of savage pnde, lifted bis arm, saying, '^ With this hand that young officer was slain." Tracy, in a transport of rage, told him be should never live to kill another Frenchman, and ordered him to be immediately strangled, wliile the ether deputy was detained a prisoner.* This event put an end to all pacific overtures, De Courcelles had already begun his march into the Mohawk dominions ; but as it was the depth of winter, the excessive cold, together with the wary conduct adopted by the enemy, prevented him from effecting much. On his return he found the vice- roy ready to take the field, with an expedition on a greater scale, in which 600 of the Carignan regi- ment were employed. He detained, without listen- ing to them, two new ambassadors, and, notwith- standing his advanced age, resolved to command in person. In spite of every precaution, the Indians had received notice of his approach, and, abandon- ing their villages, they left him to march through ft * Herbt. n, il3-lia ^'. % 5 f 178 HISTORY 01" CANADA desolate country. He found, however, an abun- dance of grain buried near their deserted abodes, which enabled him to subsist his troops till he reached the extreme frontier, where he found the Indians assembled on a spot whither they had not expected him to penetrate. On discovering the French they attempted no resistance, but fled with precipitation into still more remote and less acces- sible retreats ; and as the viceroy could not attempt to occupy this extensive territory, he found it neces- sary to return, without striking any decisive blow. Though this expedition had not fully answered its object, )^et the awe which it inspired, added to the protection of the forts, secured the colony in a great degree from the inroads of these fierce ma- rauders. It enjoyed a long tranquillity, and began even to assume a flourishing and cultivated appeui- ance. Most of the regiment of Carignan, both offi- cers and soldiers, settled in the country, where they received liberal grants of land. As many of the former belonged to families of rank, they rendered society more polished than was usual in transat- lantic communities, though they introduced the feu- dal laws and usages at that time common in Europe. Considerable inconvenience having arisen from the scattered manner in which a great part of the lands had been brought into cultivation, an attempt was made to concentrate them ; but the amount of la- bc'ur and property already invested rendered this to a great extent impracticable.* M. de Courcelles, who succeeded Tracy in 1667, is accused of some faults in the internal adminis- tration; but in his conduct towards the Indians, which formed the most important and diflicult branch, he displayed a happy union of firmness and address. He even succeeded, though not without difficulty and some indignation on their part, in pre^ l- \l * Heriot, p. 120-125. TJNDBR THB FR^NGHi 179 venting his savage allies from engaging in war against the Iroquois. He availed himself of this auspicious interval to extend the power of France to the interior of Ganadd and the upper parts of the St. Lawrence. Two Jesuits, Perrot and Marquette, were employed to survey those districts. The lat- ter induced a large body of the Hurons to settle at Michillimackinac, on an island in the river, between the great lakes Huron and Michigan, a situation very favourable for the fur-trade. Agreeably to the reports transmitted to him, the governor fixed upon Cataraqui, on Lake Ontario, near the present site of Kingston, as an advantageous point both for the protection of the trade and for holding the Five Nations in awe. He visited the spot, and having procured a meeting of the savage chiefs, obtained their consent to the measure, carefully concealing, of course, the most important object comtemplated in its erection. Courcelles had requested his recall; and on his return to Quebec in 1672, found his place supplied * by Louis, count de Frontenac, who was destined to act a most important part in the history of Can- ada. He was able, enterprising, active, and ambi- tious, but proud, overbearing, and subject to capri- cious jealousies and enmities. He entered, how- ever, cordially into the views of his predecessor in regard to the fort at Cataraqui, which he imme- diately caused to be established ; and it has often from him been called Fort Frontenac. At the same time he set on foot, or actively promoted, vast pro- jects for exploring the interior regions of America.*' Although this leader conducted the affairs of the ? colony with spirit and energy, his domineering tern- ; per could not brook the checks by which a jealous court sought -to limit his jurisdiction. It v^as en- joined that all affairs of importance should be deci-.! H «* Heriot, p. 123-140. 1 * *) 180 HISTORY OF CANADA ded in a council composed of himself, the bishop and the intendant, each with an equal vote. The prelate was supported by a numerous body of cler- gy, many of whom were connected with powerful families at home, and were accused of wishing to obtain the supreme direction of affairs. Their influ- ence was laudably exerted in opposing tHe sale of spirits to the savages, which produced most perni- cious effects, but which the count consMered as at once extremely profitable, and a means of attach- ing them to the French interest. The government, on carefully considering the opposite statements, decided according to the opinion of the clergy, and strictly prohibited the traffic. But the count had still more violent dissensions with the intendant, M. Chesneau, who was not only a member of the council, but authorized to act as its president ; and being considered a man of mild temper, the chief blame was thrown on the governor. As it was found impossible for them to act together, the court determined to recall both ; and M. de la Barre, ac- cordingly, in 1632, was sent out as the new vice- roy.* ■P'" -...■•,:^>.'i-.fv.' ;■/. , ■ Canada was then in a critical situation, which rendered it ill able to sustain the want of a vigor- ous administration. The fine territory on the Hud- son, at first occupied by the Dutch under the title of New Belgium, was subsequently claimed, and, after several contests, secured by the English, who named it New- York. Here, according to European ideas, they held the Iroquois country as included within their dominion ; and though this pretension could not be yet. declared, they endeavoured with success to court that people, and aJienate them from the French. Their merchants, carrying on a free trade, while tl^at of their rivals was fettered by an exclusive company, dealt with the tribes on more * Heriot,p. 146-149, 160, 161. ..X W ;'*JS^ VNDBR TRB TRENCH./^ 181 advanta|[eou8 terms. The Iroquois, therefore, found it their interest, not only to carry all their furs to the English market, but to buy up those of the sav- ages in alliance with France. Heavy complaints were made by that power ; but the Indians, assured of British support, treated them with great indiffer- ence ; and that shrewd race soon discovered, in the eager competition between these two European nations, the means of rendering their own position more secure and imposing. The military strength of the colony, too, was greatly reduced ; the troops who had gone out with Db Tracy, having had lands assigned to them, were become proprietors and cul* tivators rather than soldiers ; and though they held their tenures on the condition of military service, they could not be called out without interrupting the agriculture of the country, and endangering its sub- sistence. M. de la Barre, however, determined upon \rB.r , and, having obtained a re-enforcement of 200 men, advanced up the river. He was met at Montreal by deputies from the cantons, v/ho made strong profes- sions of friendship ; but these he considered vague and unworthy of credit, and was confirmed in thi* opinion when, soon after, a party of fourteen of ki» counytrmen were attacked and plundered.* He en- deavoured, however, to divide the strength of tbes© fierce tribes, by sending belts of peace to three of them, and directing all his force against the Senei.*as, whom he considered the most hostile, and also, we suspect, because it was through their territory thai the English penetrated to the fur-trade on the lakes. The hope was quite illusory in regard to the mem- bers of so poHtic a confederation. In proceedings upward, he received notice that deputies from th^ other tribes were coming to mediate a peace be- tween him and their neighbours ; that, in case t4 Vol. I.— Q * Heriot, p. 162-lfi8j 174;, 175. 1 182 HISTORY OF CANADA refusal, they were determined to make common cause with them; and, in the event of this alter- native, they had received ample assurances of sup- port from New-York. The difficulties of the French commander were greatly increased by sickness, which, in consequence of the bad quality of the provisions, had broken out in his army. Yet when the deputies met him on the northern shore of Lake Ontario, he assumed a lofty tone. He com- plained of their inroads into the country of the Illi- nois and other tribes in alliance with France; of their rntrages against the traders of that nation; and pat ..icularly of their having conducted the Eng- lish to the lakes, and enabled them to supplant the commerce of his countrymen. He concluded by stating that, unless reparation were made lor these injuries, with a promise to abstain from them in fu- ture, war and the devastation of their country must be the immediate consequence. The deputies very coolly replied, that Ononthio appeared to speak like one in a dream ; and that, if he would open his eyes, he would see himself wholly destitute of the means to execute these formidable threats. They defended their right to make war upon any Indian nations by whom they conceived themselves ag- grieved ; adding that the French party were attack- ed by them becauf 3 they were conveying arms to their enemies. As to the English, they had allow- ed them to pass through their lands, on the same principle that they had given permission to his peo^ pie, and would continue to do so. They were afraid lest the great number of the warriors here present, if they proceeded to Cataraqui, should tram- ple down the tree of peace there so happily plant- ed. They were still willinf^ to dance the calumet- dance under the shadow of its branchecj, and to leave the hatchet buried, ^mless the country grant- ed to theii} by the Great Spirit should be attacked. The Onondago deputies guarantied reparation for UNDER THE FRENCH. 183 any actual plunder inflicted on French traders, but added that no more could be conceded, and that the army must be immediately withdrawn. However humiliating these terms were, after such lofty threats and preparations, De la Barre had no choice but to comply.* The English, on the other hand , reproach- ed the Iroquois for not having prosecuted the war, and in terms which seemed to indicate a right to direct their movements. They replied, however, in the same determined manner : " Ononthio," said they, " is our father, and Corlaer (as they called the governor of New- York) our brother ; but nei- ther of them is our master. He who created the world gave us the land which we occupy ; we are free ; we respect both ; but neither has a right to command us ; and no person ought to take offence that we prevent the earth from being troubled." On another occasion, they said " Brother Corlaer, we tell you that we shall bind a covenant chain to our arm and to his as thick as that post."+ We cannot forbear remarking, that in this whole transaction the savages appear to great advantage compared both with their European allies and enemies. De la Barre, on arriving at Quebec, received de- spatches which placed him greatly at fault. A fresh re-enforcement had been landed, and the letters from court intimated the full expectation that he was carrying on a triumphant war with the Five Na- tions. On this supposition, the king made an ab- surd and cruel request, that he would send a num- ber of Iroquois pris*oners to man his galleys. We may then imagine the dissatisfaction fi4t at home when the real issue of the campaign was reported. The governor was immediately pronounced unfit for his situation, and was superseded in 1685 by the Marquis de Denonville, distingushed as a brave and active officer. ^^v ^ ' , ,, * Heriot, p. 170-189. t Ibid., p. 17S^180, CoMw, 1 ; _ nt% Ui. 1., p. OO* 184 HMTORY OF CANADA This commander, on his arrival, made some pro> fessions of a wish to maintain peace, though he must have understood that a quite opposite course was really expected of him. After giving what he professed to consider a fair trial, he soon declared his conviction that the Iroquois could never be con- ciliated, and that it was a matter of political neces- sity either to extirpate or reduce them to entire de- ptoiuicnce. He proposed also to erect a strong fort at Niagara, both to hold them in check and also to prev snt their introducing the English to the fur-trade on the lakes. He opened his campaign with a treasure the most iniquitous and unjustifiable that jan well be conceived. Having, under various pre- tax; allured a number of chiefs to meet him on the banks of Lake Ontario, he suddenly put them in irons, and sent them off to France, to fulfil the king's absurd scheme with regard to the manning of his galleys. He had not scrupled to employ two mis- sionaries in this base stratagem ; but the Indians, be- lieving them to be unconscious instruments of the crime, generously spared them both.* There could now be nothing on either side but war to the utmost extremity. Denonvilie was fully prepared for it, and had 800 French regulars, with ISOO Canadians and savages, ready to advance into the Seneca country, with the resolution, it is said, of putting all to the sword. On approaching the first village, they were suddenly attacked in front and rear by 800 of the enemy, and it was most mor- tifying to the French to find themselves thrown into a good deal of confusion, and to see the battle re- trieved by their undisciplmed allies. The Iroquois, being repulsed, did not again make their appearance in the field. The conqueror marched for ten days through vast woods, burning and destroying the grain and provisions, but not meeting a single ene- ^ nenoi, p. itfu-i» v%, w '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y, 145S0 (716)a73-4S03 ^6^ «? ' able officer, who had gained the respect and attachment of his savage neighbours. It is said that, on this and other high occasions, hO: danced with them the war-dance, brandishing the hatchet, shouting and hallooing in their' national manner. In addition to his countrymen, he had as- sembled about 800 Indians at the Prairie de la Magdeleine, near the town. Still the Iroquois, by their rapid movements and skill in ambuscade, suc- ceeded in surprising several of the advanced posts, and carrying off a considerable number of prisoners. But when the force on both sides was fully mus- tered, the assailants, though after a very hard con- test, were obliged to retreat. After these successes, the governor felt himself in a very commanding position, and no longer enter- tained any fear for the safety of the colony. Yet the ^ Iroquois, under a favourite chief named the Black Caldron, continued to make sudden in/oads in every direction, rendering seedtime and harvest alike pre- carious, and exposing every one who stirred out of the forts to the hazard of losing his life. It was their boast, that their enemies should have no rest except in the grave. In this desultory contest tho * Ueriot, p. 255-2€2, Golden, vol i., p. 137, 138. - V lot HISTORY OF CANADA V i Mtantage wsts usnally on their side ; and, though t detaehment penetrated into the canton of the Mo* hawks, they were obliged to return without gaining Any decisive advantage.* The Iroquois, however, in 'the {beginning of 1694, began ^o show a disposition towards peace. Two Onondagoes came to Montreal, and asked De Gal- lidres if certain deputies who were on their way tirould be received. They were answered in the affirmative; yet two months elapsed before they availed themselves of this concession. In March there came only an apology from the chief, who Was to have been at the head of the embassy, and Who threw the blame of the delay upon the English. A dark suspicion was now entertained, that these Xdissions were contrived with a most treacherous de- sign ; to stab the governor and M. de Callidres in pub- Ikc eouncii, while a large body concealed in ambush should take advantage of the confusion. Nothing dver occurred that could seem to justify this horrid apprehension, so little consistent with the cold and turdy manner in which the proposals were made. The truth appears to be, that two parties divided the councils of the savages. Orite, supported by the English, and relying on their promise eagerly urged the prosecution of the war. But „,i^ other, seconded by the ** praying Indians," or the converts made l!^ the missionaries, represented that the na- tion was wasting itself in a fruHless warfare ; that the British made large promises, and put them on bold enterprises, but did nothing to support them ; that, in short, they were lavish of Indian blood, but spaHng of their own. A vacillating policy resulted from this conUict. However, in May, the chief ar- rifed with eight deputies, and was well received br the governor, notwithstanding his want of confi- diSBiBe. This was the season of sowing, during the * HeROt,p.2«5-278. Coldra, vol. t., p. 13»-I4k ..i I- UNDER THE I'KEKCH. 193 continuance of which a truce was extremely con- venient. They expressed the most friendly dispo- sition, and even solicited the restoration of the K>rt of Cataraqui ; a request which Frontenac little ex- pected, but was quite disposed to grant. Oureou- hard went with these deputies, and returned in company with others, bringing also thirteen French- men, several of whom were persons of distinction, who had been long held in captivity. They c^me, however, only from two cantons ; and though the first belt, relating to the prisoners,, was conceived in friendly terms, the exposition of the others was obscure and unsatisfactory ; and all attempt to ob<« tain a proper explanation proved fruitless. It trans* pired, however, that the English interest was pow- erfully eixerted against peace ; and all that was at present contemplated was " to suspend the hatch- et." The count, though courteously, rejected all the belts except the first, declaring that he wished to chastise them only as a father does his children ; but that, unless more friendly sentiments were en- tertained, he could not long withhold the intended blow.* Affairs continued for some time in this uncertain state, the enemy making repeated proposals, to which little credit was attached ; while the govern- or, not having yet sufficient force to open the cam- paign in an imposing manner against a people who COUI4 muster 3000 warriors, was not unwilling to have a pretext for delay. Instead, however, of showing a more friendly temper, the deputies be- gan to assume a loftier tone, demanding that he should send envoys to their villages, and should cease at once all hostilities against them and the English. It was also understood that various at- tempts were made on their part to detach the al- lies, not without some prospect of success. The Vol. I.— R ♦ Heriot, p. 28»-288. :-!i^ IW HISTORY OF CANADA «ount, therefore, considered it indispensable to pro* c^ed to some measure which might impress the sav- ages with an adequate idea of his power. Th^ pre- vaiUng opinion was, that he ought at once to march ' Ins whole force into the heart of their territory ; but he preferred sending, in the first instance, an expe- dition to re-establish the fort of Cataraqui. This service was effected with promptitude, and almost without opposition. It did not, however, stop the tendency to defection among his confederates, who loudly complained of the disadvantageous terms on which the French traders dealt with them, when compared with those obtained from the British ij through the Five Nations. The lead was taken by a Huron chief, named the Baron, who concluded a treaty, not only comprehending his own adherents, but even embracing the Ottawas : all of whom prom- ised to desert the French, and unite with their mortal enemies. Yet La Motte Cadillac, command- er at Michillimackinac, by impressing on them with great address a dread of his sovereign's power, con- trived to change the resolution of these fickle tribes. They were even guilty of a counter-treachery, at- tacking a party of the Iroquois who had joined them, and defeating them with great loss.* These proceedings, however, were felt by the governor as strongly calling for some vigorous step to restore the reputation of his arms ; and this could only be effected by carrying war on a great scale into the enemy's country. As this resolution, however, was formed in the autumn, its execution was delayed till the following summer, De Callieres being convinced that the army could not, without much suffering, march amid frost and snov/ into those desolate re- gions. He listened to a plan for sending a detach- ment during the winter into the canton of the Mo- htkwks ; but it was soon understood that, through * lieriot, p. 289, 291-298, 305-308 ^ UNDER TRB FRENCH. 195 the aid of the English, they had placed themselves beyond the hazard of being overwhelmed by any sudden attack. An attempt to surprise hunting- parties, wh^ crossed, the St. Lawrence in spring, was attended with only partial success. It was not till the month of June, 1696, that oper- ations could be regularly commenced. At that period all the forces which could be mustered, regulars, militia, and Indians, were marched upon Cataraqui, and thence into the canton of Onondago. Great difficulty was found in conveying the army and baggage in batteaux along rapid streams ; and on one occasion the greater part had nearly been carriedsdown an impetuous waterfall. On entering a lake, they discovered, suspended to a tree, two bundles of rushes, which intimated that 1434 war- riors were waiting to engage them. They there- fore sailed across, and formed themselves in regu- lar order of battle. A fort was constructed to serve as a magazttie and place of retreat, and the troops then cautiously began their march into the heart of those savage regions. De Callidres commanded the left wing; the Chevalier de Vaudreuil the right : while the count, then seventy-six years of age, was carried in the centre in an elbow-chair. The host of the Five Nations, however, did not ap- pear; and, on reaching their principal fortress, it was found reduced to ashes, while two Frenchmen, long detained there, had been recently massacred. This excited surprise, as the fort had been care- fully constructed by the English, in a regular form, with a double palisade, and strengthened by bastiona and redoubts. It soon, however, became evident, that the cantons had determined to adopt the same policy as on former occasions, of allowing the enemy to march unresisted through their territory, satisfied that they would never be able to form any permanent establishment. Several prisoners esca- ped ; but the invaders could only overtake on& In- 196 HISTORY OF CANAD4 dian, nearly a hundred years old, who was barbar- ously givea up to the allied savages to be tortured. It was a dreadful spectacle to see more than four hundred men venting their rage on this venerable and infirm warrior, who endured all they could in- flict upon him with unshaken fortitude, deriding his adversaries as slaves to a contemptible race of for- leigners.^ After the Onondago canton had been thus over- run, the Oneidas sent deputies; but Frontenac, under present circumstances, would accept nothing short of unconditional submission. De Vaudreuil marched into their territory and laid it waste. It had been determined in council to advance, and treat the Cayugas in a similar manner; but the count, influenced probably by the exhausted state of his armament, resolved upon returning to Mon- treal. This conduct is much censured by the French writers, who consider that operations might have been carried further with great advantage. English authors, on the contrary, consider the whole expedition as an act of heroic folly, by w^ich nothing was eif^ cted ' except the destruc- tion of some grain and wooden cabins. The Iro- quois presently rallied, and harassed the invaders severely in their retreat; nor did they afterward cease their incursions into the settlement till they found the fro^ ler so strongly guarded that they could not carry off" any important plunder.f The governor, meanwhile, had a diflicult nego- tiation withwhis, own court, who had been persua-, ded that tne advanced posts maintained in the upper parts of the colony were of very little ad- vantage, while they chiefly caused the desolating wars in which it had been involved. The traffic thither, in fact, was carried on very irregularly by * Heriot, p. 309-321. La Potherie, vol. iii., p. 207, 20& t Ibid., p. 332^327. Colden. vol i., p. 197, 202. VNDBR THS FRBNCR* 197 an adventurous but desperate race, called the cott' reur's du bois — rangers of the forett. It was, besides, a strict monopoly, being only allowed under licen- ses granted to old officers or favourites, who sold them for about 600 crowns each to the merchants. The purchasers fitted out the coureurs with canoes and merchandise, reaping profits so Imple that the value of 8000 crowns was procured for French good? worth only a thousand. Tl^e savages, by their intercourse with the ISnglish, learning the extent to which they were cheated, made inces- sant complainic , and it was therefore proposed to allow them lu bring their own furs and dispose of them at Montreal, while the colonists should devote all their attention to the cultivation of the soil. But the governor and other members of the administration argued that this step would throw the Indian allies entirely into the hands of the Five Nations and the British ; adding that, while the fur- trade would be entirely lost, a general confederacy of the tribes against France might be also dreaded. They were probably influenced by the fear of sac- rificing their own power and patronage ; and they contrived so to modify the injunctions from court, that they produced little practical effect.* The Iroquois continued the war with vigour, but both they and the English met with repeated disas- ters, which made them wish for peace. The Black Caldron himself, in a hunting expedition, was surprised and killed by a party of Algonquins. Negotiations were opened through Oureouhar^, whose sudden death again retarded them ; but their success was secured by tidings that peace had been concluded in Europe between France and Britain. The colonists of the latter power, who first receiv- ed the intelligence, sent a deputation to Quebec to propose an exchange of prisoners, both as re* * HeriQt, p. 200. 201, 334-336. ltd 108 RISTORT OF CANADA ■pected themselves and their allies. The count, however, preferred to negotiate separately with the cantons, and he soon had the satisfactioh to discover that, notwithstanding the alhance which had so long united them to the English, a deep Iealousy was now felt lest that people, when no onger obliged to court their aid, should endeavour to enforce certain claims of sovereignty. He stu- diously cherished this impression, hoping to im- prove it into a friendship with his own countrymen. But ii^ the midst of these transactions he died, on the d9th November, 1698, leaving a high reputation for the energetic measures by which, with little aid from the mother country, he had retrieved the affairs of the settlement, and raised it into a power- ful and flourishing state. He was disinterested, but ambitious, haughty, and jealous of his authori- ty ; qualities which created him many enemies^ and considerably obstructed his designs.* De Callieres, who had already distinguished him- self by important services, was appointed his suc- cessor, and administered affairs in a manner which gave entire satisfaction. With more steadiness and prudence than the count, he possessed nearly equal vigour and address. Much time and many difficul- ties, however, still intervened before all matters could be finally adjusted with the Iroquois, and be- tween them and the allies ; but at length, in 170u, a pacification was effected, and the numerous pris- oners on both sides were allowed to return. On this occasion there was witnessed a surprising and somewhat mortifying ocf urrence ; for, whil# the natives eagerly sought their homes, the greater|)art of the French captives were found to have coniract- ed such an attachment to the wild freedom of the woods, that neither the commands of the king, nor the tears and entreaties of their friends, could induce i * Hexiot, p. 337^^45. VNDBR THB FRENCH. 190 them to quit the savage associates with whom they had united. After peace had been thus established with their enemies, the French were involved in a contest with their allies. Bourgmont, governor of Detroit, had endeavoured to unite the Ottawas with the Miamis in an expedition into the interior of the con- tinent ; but animosities had been for some time fer- menting between these tribes, aggravated by some imprudent and violent actions on his part. At length the former, instigated by a leadmg chief named ** the Heavy/' commenced an attack upon the latter, whom they pursued under the cannon of the fort. The guns being opened upon them, a con- test ensued, in which two Frenchmen, one of whom was a priest, were killed. The assailants then re- tired, and an old chief came to the governor to make the most humble apologies for this outrage, descri- bing it as a momentary ebullition, for which they could not themselves account. The European leader promised pardon, provided the savage, who had instigated them to this violence, were delivered up. To this step they showed the most extreme reluctance, even pretending that it was out of their power; but, as the condition was held indispensable, they at length produced the offender, though with the most earnest entreaties for his pardon. This was granted, though rather imprudently; for the Miamis, who had considered iliemselves fully enti- tled to his head, raised a violent commotion, which it required some force to put down.* Scarcely had peace been thus concluded among the savage tribes, with some hope of duration, when it was broken by their civilized neighbours. The succession of Philip of Anjou to the throne of Spain fave rise to a long and eventful contest between 'ranee and England. It was begun by Louis XIV. * Heriot, p. 346, 362, 374-377» 380-38i. \ J 8oa HISTORY or CANADA in the heisht of his power, and with every prospect of giving law to all Europe; instead of which, the exploits of Marlborough and Eugene, the fields of Blenheim and Ramillies, reduced him to the lowest condition, and at one time even seemed to place his crown in peril In these disastrous circumstances, the mother country was obliged to leave her cole- nies to their own resources ; while England, elated with repeated triumphs, conceived the bold design of embracing within her territory the whole north of America. The situation of Canada was rendered still more critical by the death of De Callieres, her able governor, which took place in May, 1703, though he was succeeded by the Count de Vaudreuil, who proved himself by no means destitute of the.quali- ties requisite for his high office. The English now called upon their allies of the Five Nations to renew hostilities against their old enemies ; but these tribes were exceedingly unwill- ing to interrupt their repose. They alleged that, when they concluded a treaty, they did so with an intention to jc^ep it ; while' the Europeans seemed to enter into such engagements solely with the view of immediately breaking them. One chief, with the rude freedom of his nation, intimated his suspicion that the nations were both drunk. They did little, therefore, of themselves or by their own impulse ; and, when called upon to join an expedition, came slowly and reluctantly forward. De Vaudreuil, in contemplation of a formidable attack, sought to dissipate it by an offensive move- ment. He sent out a detachment 200 strong, which, after a long march, succeeded in storming and de- stroying a frontier village named Haverhill ;* though, while returning, they fell into an ambuscade. Thirty of their number were killed ; but, having beaten off their assailants, the remainder reached Montreal in safety.! * In Essex county, Massachusetts.— Am. Ed, t Heriot, p. 3i»3, 364, 388, 397. UNDER THE FRENCH. 201 In May, 1709, an individual named Vetch, who had become intimately acquainted with the naviga- tion of the St. Lawrence, laid before the cabinet of Queen Anne a plan for the conquest of Canada. It being approved, he was sent to New- York, then called Manhattan, with authority and resources sup- posed sufficient for its accomplishment. De Vau- dreuil soon learned that 8000 English had issued from the place Just mentioned, and that these were to be joined by an equal number of savages. Hav- ing mustered his troops, he at first thought of car- rying war again into the enemy's country ; but, after the march had begun, his allies objected, and he adopted the more prudent course of merely protect- ing his frontier. The British, after forming a chain of posts from New- York, had occupied in great force Lakes George and Champlain, and were erecting forts with a view to cover their descent upon Canada. The Iroquois had joined them ac- cording to promise ; but it appears that a general council of the cantons was held at Onondago, when one of their chief orators remarked that their inde- pendence was only maintained by the mutual jeal- ousy of the two European nations, each of whom, if they could, would lord it completely over them, and that it was therefore highly imprudent to per- mit the English to conquer New France. These views were considered accordant with the policy which had always governed the cantons, and were immediately acted upon, though the manner in which this was accomplished does not exactly ap- pear. The English, however, in consequence of this want of co-operation, and of a pestilential dis- order which broke o^it among their own troops, abandoned the enterprise, burning their canoes, and reducing their forts to ashes.* * A report has generally prevailed, that the Iroquois caused this malady by throwing the skiiis of wild beasts into the stream S02 HISTORY OF CANADA Canada now enjoyed an interval of repose, though it was understood that the enemy were making act- ive preparations for a fresh expedition, and sparing- no pains to secure the co-operation of the Five Na- tions. All means of conciliation were therefore studiously employed, and were so far successful as to obtain friendly professions from the Senecas and the Onondagoes, but from them alone. At this time, however, the French were involved in a desperate struggle in the upper territory, with a nation hither- to unheard of, called the Outagamis or Foxes. This ihey ascribe to the machinations of their old antag- onists, who yet do not appear«to have taken any share in the contest. By the aid of a large body of Indian allies, these people were reduced to the ne- cessity of humbly soliciting terms of peace. But the subjects of Louis were persuaded by their sav- age auxiliaries to push matters to the last extrem- ity ; and after a fresh and dreadful struggle, this un- fortunate tribe was nearly exterminated. The vic- tors, notwithstanding, had reason to repent of their barbarous conduct, as the remnant of the defeated nation carried on against them a ceaseless and har- assing warfare, and rendered insecure their com- munication with the settlements on the Mississippi.* The English in 1710 prepared a new and greater armament. General Nicholson arrived at Boston with a considerable squadron; and fresh forces were expected, which, with those already in the colony, were to be employed in two joint expedi- tions, by sea against Quebec, and by land against Montreal. Notwithstanding every possible prepar- ation, thesQ tidings excited deep apprehension, which continued unabated till a report arrived, Rnd proved ultimately correct, that the invading squad- ron had been wrecked at the Seven Islands, near out of which the English drank ; but we cannot think this a very probable story. * Heriot, p. 397-416. : ^^ >» UliDER THE FRENCH. 203 the mouth of the St. Lawrence. Several barks having sailed thither, found the remains of eight ves- sels, which, having struck upon the rocks, had been abandoned, after being stripped of their cannon and stores. A number of dead bodies scattered along the shore attested this calamitous event. The com- mander, impatient to proceed, and disregarding the warning of an experienced pilot, had involved his armament in this disaster. General Nicholson had already taken the field ; but, learning the loss of the fleet, and foreseeing that the whole force of the en- emy would now be turned against him, he fell back upon New- York.* v ^ 'i i i Though Canada had thus been twice delivered, intelligence was received that fro*?!i preparations were making, and there was reason to fear that, if left without aid, she would at length be overwhelm- ed by superior forces. The governor, however, was relieved by the intelligence that, in consequence of a complete change of ministry, the English cabinet had determined to separate from its allies, and had opened a negotiation at Utrecht. Instruc- tions were sent to the colonial councils to sus- pend hostilities. Both the European powers being favourably inclined, the negotiations proceeded smoothly, and on the 30th March, 1713, this memo- rable treaty was signed. France retained Canada, though obliged, by the urgency of her circumstances, to cede Acadia and Newfoundland. She made over likewise all her claims to the sovereignty of the Five Nations : a very empty concession, by which she gave that which she had never possessed, and England received a nominal right which she could not enforce. t After this treaty Canada enjoyed a long peiiod of uninterrupted tranquillity. The observations of Charlevoix, who visited the principal settlements * Heriot, p. 399-4,04. t Ibid.,p.4l8,4l& \ 204 HISTORY OF CANADA during the years 1720 and 17*21, give a pretty good idea of their condition at that period. Quebec was estimated to contain about 7000 inhabitants ; both the lower and upper town were partially built, but none of the extensive suburbs appear to have then existed. The view from the summit of the rock ap. peared to him extremely striking ; and anticipating the change, since partly fulfilled, when the surround- ing shores and islands, then covered with almost unbroken forests, should display cultivated fieids, meadows, and villages, with numberless barks stud- ding the broad expanse of the St. Lawrence, he ex- pects it to form a prospect which nothing could equal. The society, composed in a great measure of military o-fficers and noblesse, was extremely agreeable ; and nowhere was the French language spoken in greater purity. Under this gay exterior, however, was concealed a very general poverty. The settlers, while they adnitted that their English neighbours knew better how to accumulate wealth, were consoled by reflecting that they were quite ig- norant how to enjoy it. They themselves, on the contrary, understood thoroughly the most elegant and agreeable modes of spending money, but were greatly at a loss where to obtain it. The only em- ployment suited to their taste was the fur-trade, the rovirtg and adventurous habits of which were ex- tremely attractive to them, and little fortunes were thereby occasionally made ; but they were in such haste to expend these in pleasure and display, that the author compares them to hillocks of sand in the deserts of A frica, which rise and disappear almost at the same moment. ' Many, who had made a hand- some figure, were riov/ languishing in distress. They began by retrenching the luxury of their ta- ble, and, as long as possible, were richly dressed. The patient and laborious process of agriculture had drawn little attention, and the timber-trade was yet in iter iafaucy, though the author points out the great '*<*■ VMDER T FRENCH. 205 importance which it was capable of attaining. The absence of gold and silver, almost the only objects then considered as giving lustre to a colony, had s^- ways caused New France to be viewed as of very secondary importance.* The coasts of the St. Lawrence, for some extent below Quebec, were already laid out in seigniories, and tolerably cultivated. At Pointe aux Trembles, seven leagues from the capital, many of the farmers were found in easy circumstances, and richer than their landlords ; the latter, having obtained grants which they had neither capital nor industry to im- prove, were obliged to let them at very small quit- rents. On reaching the mouth of the Be9ancour, he found a baron bearing the title of that river, and holding the office of inspector of the highways. He lived almost in a desert, and derived his income chiefly from traffic with the neighbouring Indians. Thence Charlevoix crossed to Trois Rivieres, which he found an agreeable place, amid a circuit of well- cultivated fields, but not containing more than 800 inhabitants. The fur-trade, with a view to which it was founded, had already been in a great measure transferred to Montreal, and the iron-mines had not ' yet begun to be worked. From Trois Rivieres he proceeded through the Lake of St. Peter, and, coasting along its southern shore, made particular observations on the river and district of St. Francis. From its excellent soil, covered with timber, it appeared to him well fitted for cultivation ; but the farmers were few, and had made such small progress, that, but for the oppor- tunities of trade, they would have been extremely poor. A more cheerful scene presented itself at the island and city of Montreal, the beauties of which he describes in terms similar to those of all subse- * Cbarlevoix'fi Journal, vol. i., p. 104, 111-114, 121-125, 145, 263-26.''». Vol. L— S -r *■• 206 .HISTORY OF CANADA U quent visiters. He does not make any estimate oi the population ; but it must have been considerable, as both the upper and lower towns were already built, and a suburb had been commenced. The place was then enjoying a respite from the alarms and calamities of war; and the two neighbouring villa. ges of Sault St. Louis and Montgomery, inhabited y friendly Indians, served as barriers against their more savage countrymen.* Above Montreal, the traveller appears to have found nothing but detached stations for defence and trade. He made his way through the rapids to Lake Ontario, in Indian canoes formed of birch-bark. We find no mention of anything French till he comes to Fort Cataraqui or Frontenac, at the entrance^of the lake ; but in his short description there is no ap- pearance as if the neighbourhood contained either cultivation or settlement. He had then a tedious voyage to perform along the southern shore in slen> der canoes, in which he was obliged to follow every winding of the coast, and often to sail two hundred leagues in order to shun a direct passage of twenty. He was liable also to be detained for an indefinite period by violent or adverse winds. At length he entered the river of Niagara, and came to a cottage which had been dignified to him with the name of fortress, and was occupied by the Sieur de Joncaire. There were two or three officers of rank, and, we presume, a few troops, but apparently no trace of cultivation.! After having surveyed the falls, he ascended the channel of Niagara, and having entered upon Lake Erie, proceeded along its northern shore. The voyage appeared to him delightful, in a charming climate, on waters clear as the purest fountain, and landing every night on the most desirable spots. He * Charlevoix, Journal, vol. i., p. 172-178, 190, 213-218, t Ibid., p. 293-297, 312-316, 34L UNDER THE FRENCH. 207 found always abundance of game, and a beautiful landscape, bounded by the noblest forests in the world. He fancied himself, like the ancient pa- triarchs, wandering through wide, unappropriated tracts, where he could pitch his tent in the most pleasant scenes. The oaks of Mamre and the foun- tain of Jacob seemed realized to him in the wilder- ness. Five days^ sail along these beautiful shores brought him to the channel of Detroit, at the other end of which, near Lake St. Clair, he found the fort bearing that name. He inclined to the opinion of those who regarded this as the most beautiful and fruitful part of all Canada. A French settlement had been begun there fifteen years before, but vari- ous untoward circumstances had reduced it almost to nothing. He proceeded thence to Michillimaoki- nac, near the adjoining extremities of the great lakes Huron, Superior, and Michigan. Like the others, it was a mere fort surrounded by an Indian village. On the whole, it appears that, above Montreal, there was nothing at this time which could be called a colony.f The repose procured for Canada by the treaty of Utrecht was followed by a long continuance of pros- perity. Yaudreuil, till his death in 1725, admin- istered her affairs with judgment and activity ; and under him cultivation was greatly extended. To remedy the want of hands, he proposed sending out annually 150 convicts, of the class usually con- demned to the galleys. This governor was succeeded by .the Chevalier de Beauharnois, who continued in power twenty years. This long period seems to have been diligently em- ployed in promoting the interests of the colony, and was productive of remarkable improvement. The range of cultivated farms was extended along the whole shore from Quebec to Montreal, and evea * Charlevoix, Journal, vol. ii,, p. 3-7. iMttvtRsiry OF ¥ims(at library 808 HISTORY OF CANADA several of the tributary streams. As the French Canadians studiously sought a river-frontage, they were content with lots including only a small portion of this, with extensive back-grounds The propor- tion, in some degree fixed by statute, was an acre and a half in front, with aa extent of forty behind. In the course of this period, too, the settlement at Detroit, which Charlevoix had found in such a lan- guishing state, was raised to some consequence. The French likewise, during this interval, appear to have entirely overcome that rooted enmit]^ so long cherished by the great Indian tribes. Their pliant and courteous manners, their frequent intermarria- ges, and, in some instances, an actual adoption of the habits of savage life, rendered them better fitted than the English to secure the confidence of this savage race. Instead of having to dread them as allies of Britain, they could usually, when occasion required, employ them as formidable, or, at least, harassing enemies to her. By their aid, and by the erection in commanding positions of the forts of Crown Point and Ticonderoga, they kept the rival colonies in peirpetual alarm. The struggles, however,^ carried on during almost the first half of the eighteenth century were chiefly confined to Nova Scotia, under which head thejr will be narrated. Canada enjoyed a happy exemption from those eventful vicissitudes which form the materials of history. An equally favourable change took place in re- spect to the fur-trade, which had shown so great a preference of the English market. A more liberal and equitable system appears to have been adopted ; and a large annual fair, opened at Montreal under judicious regulations, became the general centre of this traffic. Even the Indians in the back settle- ments of New-York brought their furs thither rather than to the capital of that state.* \ « M'Gregor's British America, vol. ii., p. 374. Burke's Ac- count of the European Settlements in America (2 vols. 8yo, London, 1808), vol. ii., p. 42, 43. 17NDER THE FRENCH. 209 M. de BeauhPTnois was followed in office by a rapid succession of governors, each holding sway for an extremely short period, incompatible with any steady system of administration. The CouLt de la Galissoniere, though a nobleman of great ac- quirements, ruled only a year, being superseded in 1746 by M. de la Jonquiere, who took an active part in the war for the reduction of Nova Scotia. After a temporary occupation of power by the Baron de Longueuil, the Marquis du Quesne, in- 1752, went out as governor-general. This officer appears to have carried on more openly than ever the system of encroaching upon the British colonies ; and the rfort bearing his name was erected within the con- fines of Virginia. So great an alarm, indeed,* spread through our settlements, that a general convention was. held at Albany, when a plan of common de- fence, proposed by the celebrated Dr. Franklin, was approved, but, from different causes, never carried into effect.* A census taken of the colony in 1753, is said by Raynal to have shown a population, of 91,000; but, from the number afterward found by the English, this appears to be somewhat exagger- ated. The financjBs were, however, involved in con- siderable disorder. The expenditure, which in 1729 did not exceed 400,000 francs, had risen in 1750 to 2,100,000 livres ; in 1758 it was 27,900,000 ; but this last, we may observe, was a period of general war, of which North America became one of the principal theatres. The conduct of Bigot, the intendant, was loudly complained of, and proved, indeed, to have been most fraudulent, his defalcations amounting to about 1,920,000 dollars. In 1755, Du Quesne was succeeded by De Vaudreuil Cavagnal.f * The failure of the plan of union here spoken of was owing to its being rejected by the Parliament of Great Britain, from the fear that it would too much increase the power of the colonies. —■Am. Ed, t M'Gregor, vol. ii., p. 375-381. Rayna!- Histoire Philoso* S2 220 HtSTORT OF CANADA CHAPTER IV. History of Canada under the British, War between Great Britain and France. — Advantages gained by the latter. — Expedition against Canada under Wolfe.-— His first Repulse. —Lands a second Time. — Victory. — Death. —Conquest of Canada.— State of the Population. — Their ?ood Treatment.— Refuse to join the Rebellion by the United Colonies.- The latter invade Canada.— Siege of Quebec- Repulse and Death of Montgomery. — Americans driven out of Canada. — A Constitution granted.— Division into Upper and Lower. — Rise c' Internal Dissension. — War with the United States. — Advantages gained by Britain on the west- em Frontier.— On the Niagara, &;c. — The Americans take York (Toronto) and Fort George.— Obliged to Retreat.— Their Successes in the West.— Fruitless Attempt on Montreal- Events on the Niagara Frontier.— Large Re-enforcements from England. — Failure of Sir George Prevost.- Peace.— Discontents of the Assembly.— Administration of the Duke of Richmond. — Earl of Dalhousie.— Sir James Kenvpt. — Lord Aylmer. — Increased Discontent.— Commission of inquiry.— Earl of Gosford.— Assembly still refuse Supplies.— Resolu- tions of the British Parliament.— Disturbances in Canada.— Insurrection. — Suppressed.- Political Movements in Upper Canada.— Sir Francis Head Governor.— Rising and Defeat of Mackenzie.— Aggressions from the United States!— Conduct of their Government. — Mission of the Earl of Durham. — Re- cent Events. W£ now approach the most memorable period in the history of Canada, when its dominion was finally transferred from France to a rival power. As the events of this contest, however, though ex- tremely memorable, form a portion of general his- tory, and are familiar to many readers, we shall clique et Politique des Etablissements et du 'Jommerce obs EuropSens dans les deux Indes (4 vols. 4lo, Geneva, 1780), vol. iv., p. 125, 137. Hawkins's Picture of Quebec (18mo, Quebec, 1831), p. 31^ 317. tHDM TRB BRITlatf. elf heire content ourselves with a rapid summary of them. The great war which broke out in 1765 opened in a manner most unfavourable to the British arms. General Braddock, who marched from New- York against Canada, having neglected the precautions necessary in such a country, was completely sur- prised by a combined force of French and Indians. He himself being killed, only part of the armv was saved by the skill and intrepidity of Colonel (after- ward General) Washington, who on that occasion distinguished himself for the first time. His troops being afterward joined to the provincial force under Generals Shirley and Johnson, repulsed near Lake George an attack made by a large body of the en- emy under Baron Dieskau. Johnson, having ac- quitted himself with great ability, and received sev- eral wounds, was rewarded with the honour of knighthood, and was long much esteemed in Amer- ican warfare.* But in the two following years the enemy, headed by the gallant Marquis de ]Vf ontcalm, obtained a series of successes, terminating in the deduction of the important forts called Oswego and William Henry. This last triumph was stained with the barbarous murder, by the Indians, of fif- teen hundred English prisoners ; which Montcalm, though, it should seem, unjustly, was accused of sanctioning^. These disasters, joined to the failure of Admiral Byng at Minorca, and other abortive ex- peditions, deeply depressed the spirit of the nation, and seemed to sink their reputation in arms lowex* than at any former period. Yet the courage of the British nation was soon afterward roused : the pub-' lie voice called to the helm of affairs William Pitt, the greatest statesman then living, and who was* destined to raise his country to a pitch of glory before unrivalled. « Kawkins, p. 3x8| 3i9. ilouchettiei, Vol. i., p. 440ii 812 HISTORY OF CANADA It was one of the main objects of Pitt's policy to obtain possession of the French territories in Amer- ica, and to form them, together with the British colonies, into one vast range of dominion. 'He chose as his chief instrument Wolfe, & young man without family or parliamentary interest, or even any established character as a commander. He had served only in subordinate situations ; yet the minister, with intuitive sagacity, saw in him the man best fitted to lead British troops to victory.* In the expedition against Louisburg in 1758, the most active, though not the highest, post was as- signed to him, and through his exertions, chiefly, that main bulwark of French America fell. After the great name thus earned, there could no longer be any objection to investing him with the chief command. In 1759 preparations were made on a great scale for the conquest of Canada, comprising twenty sail of the line, with smaller vessels and transports, having on board 8000 veteran troops. These were {)laced under the direction of Wolfe, who was al- owed the choice of all his officers. After a pros- perous voyage, the armament, on the, 26th June, arrived off the Isle of Orbans. Quebec was de- fended by the Marquis de Montcalm, having under his command 13,000 men, of whom, indeed, only 2000 were regular troops, the rest being Canadian militia, with a few Indians. The attack having been long foreseen, full time was given him to in- trench and strengthen his position. An attempt was first made to destroy the British fleet by fire- ships ; but these were caught with grappling-irons, towed aside, and allowed to burn oiit without doing any injury. Brigadier-general Monckton then oc- cupied Point Levi, opposite to the capital, which was thence bombarded with vigour ; but, though a * Entick's History of the late War, vol iv., p. 91. tTNDBR THE BRITISH. 213. Bumber of houses were destroyed, the defences re- mained almost uninjured. The place, therefore, could only be carried by storming the intrench- ments which the French had thrown up in front of it. This bold measure Wolfe resolved to adopt, and on the 8l8t July he effected a landing. The boats, however, had met with an accidental delay ; the grenadiers, it is said, rushed forward with too blind and impetuous a valour ; Montcalm, strongly posted between Quebec and Montmorenci, poured in upon them a destructive fire ; the Indian rifle told with fatal effect; and the assailants were Inally repulsed yrith the loss of 182 killed and 650 wounded. Wolfe /elt this disappointment so deeply that his delicate frame was thrown into a violent fever ; and in a despatch to Mr. Pitt, he afterward expressed the apprehensions under which he laboured. The fleet, his strongest arm, could not act against the wall of rock on which Quebec is seated ; and with bis weakened force he had to storm fortified posi- tions defended by troops more numerous than his own. As 6oon, however, as his health permitted, he called a council of war, desired the general offi- cers to consult together, and, it is said, proposed to them a second attack, on the French lines, avoiding the errors which had led to the failure of the first. They were decidedly of opinion that this was inex- pedient ; but, on the suggestion, as is now believed, of Brigadier^general Townsend, the second in com- mand, they proposed to attempt a point on the other side of Quebec, where* the enemy were yet unpre- pared, and whence they might gain the Heights of Abraham, which overlooked the city. Wolfe as- sented, and applied all his powers to the accom- plishment of this plan. Such active demonstrations Were made against Montcalm's original position, that he believed it still the main object; and, though he observed detachments moving up the river. ei4 HISTORY OF CANADA merely sei.. De Bougainville with SOOO men to Cape Rouge, a position too di^lant, being nine miles above Quebec. On the night of the 12th September, in deep silence, tlm troops were embarked and con- veyed in two divisions to the place now named \v olfr's Cove. The precipjce here was so steep, that even the general for a moment doubted the possibility of scaling it; but Fraser's Highlanders, grasping the bushes which grew on its face, soon reached the summit, and in a short time he had his whole army drawn up in regular order on the plains above. Montcalm, struck by this unexpected inteU lige/ice, at once concluded that, unless the English could be driven from this position, Quebec was Tost: and hoping, probably, that only a detachment had yet reached it, pushed forward at once to the attack. About 1500 light infantry and Indians arrived first, and began a desultory fire from among the bushes; but the British reserved their shot for the main body, which was seen advancing behind. They came forward in good order, nt d commenced a brisk attack ; yet no general fire was opened in return till they were within forty yards, when it could be fol- lowed up by the bayonet. The first volley was de- cisive ; Wolfe and Montcalm both fell almost at the same moment ; the French instantly ^&ve way in every quarter ; and repeated charges, in which the Highland broadsword was powerfully wielded, soon completed the victory. As soon as Wolfe received his mortal wound, he said, " Support me ! let i>ot my brave soldiers see me drop." He was c;!t), •* They run !" he asked, " Who run V Being told "The enemy," he gave some short directions, and then said, " Now, God be praised, I die happy!" ,We canri. - forbear quoting the simple and feeling observation. )f General Townsend respecting his heroic frif :>c, v^ose fate threw so affecting a lustre on this mt^muitr jie victor? ; *' I am not ashamed to tJNDBR THB BRITISH. 215 own to you, that my heart does not ex'^lt in the midst of this success. I have lubt but a friend in General Wolfe; our country has lost a sure sup* port and a perpetual honour. If the world were sensible at how dear a price we have purchased Quebec in his death, it would damp the public joy. Our best .uncolation is, that Providence seemed not to |>^MP!!i 2V8 HISTORY OP CANADA ed, determined to view Canada as a hostile country. They observed that the British, almost entirely oc- cupied in the attempt to put down the insurrection, had left this country very slightly defended. In September, 1775, two expeditions were fitted out, which were distinguished by tragical events, as well as by the brilliant and romantic valour of their chiefs. While the main bo^iy, under Montgomery, marched by Lake Champlain upon Montreal, Arnold, "with 1100 men, sailed up the Kennebec, and pro- ceeded through the vast forest that stretches be- tween it and the St. Lawrence, hoping to surprise Quebec. The sufferings of the party were extreme, being obliged to eat dogs' flesh and the leather of their cartouch-boxes. Ye tthey arrived, on the 9th November, at Point Levi, without any alarm having reached the capital ; but all the shipping had fortu- nately been removed from that side. Arnold was thus unable to cross, and in twenty-four hours the inhabitants were apprized of the danger. On the 14th that active officer contrived to pass the river and occupy the Heights of Abraham, though his force was too small for active movements till joined by Montgomery. This commander sent forward a reconnoitring party under Colonel Ethan Allen, who made a brave but rash attempt on Montreal, in which he was taken with his party, and afterward sent in irons to England. Montgomery, however, having reduced the posts of St. John and Chambly, and made prisoners of their garrisons, which inclu- ded a large proportion of the regular force in Can- ada, that city was quite unable to resist ; and Gen- eral Carleton, the governor, with difficulty escaped in a boat with muffled paddles. The American leader then advanced upon Quebec, and took the command of the united force. Carleton had under arms only 1800 men, of whom not more than seven- ty were regulars ; 230 of Eraser's Highlanders, who had settled in the country, were reinabod ^A UAiUC/1 ■i UNDER THE. BRITISH. 219 Colonel M'Lean ; the rest were British and Canadi- an militia, seamen, and others. The summons to surrender, however, was at once rejected ; and Montgomery, after pushing the siege during the month of December without any prospect of suc- cess, determined to carry the place by a night-as- sault. On the 31st, two storming parties were formed ; one under himself, and the other under Ar- nold. They were to advance from opposite sides, and meet at the foot of Mountain-street, then force Prescott Gate, and reach the upper town. The first battery encountered by Montgomery was de- fended chiefly by a party of Canadian militia, with nine British seamen to work the guns. Having re- ceived some previous notice, they were on the watch; and, about daybreak, saw amid the snow a body of troops in full march from Wolfe's Cove. Orders were given to make no movement ; and the enemy having halted at the distance of fifty yards, sent forward an officer to reconnoitre, who found everything perfectly still. On his return the Amer- icans rushed forward in double quick time to the attack. When they were close to the spot, Captain Barnsfare, at the critical moment, gave the signal for a general discharge of guns and musketry. It told with unexpected and fatal effect ; for, among many others, Montgomery himself, the gallant chief, fell to rise no more. The troops, on witnessing this disaster, made a precipitate retreat.* Meantime Arnold, from the opposite side, pushed * This event has been very variously related. Hinton (His- tory and Topography of the (Jnited States, 2 vols. 4to, London, 1834, vol. i., 336) even represents it as a mere casual fire by which Montgomery was killed ; but we have followed Hawkins, whose narrative appears to be the result of very careful re- search.* * Notwithstanding what is here said, the better opinion undoubtedly is, that this was a mere random shot ; and that, but for this fatal cas- yaliy, the surprise would have been complete, and the result of the sa- (erprise very different (mm what it proved.— .^Im. Ed, . - . 7,. „ i Hi K 'S'W. 220 HISTORY OP CANADA on his attack with desperate resolution. In as- saulting the first barrier, he received a severe wound in the leg, which obliged him to quit the field.* But his party, led on by Captain Morgan, carried the post, and pushed on to a second. Here, how- ever, their efforts were vain ; and General Carleton having sent a detachment upon their rear, they were surrounded, and finally, to the number of 426, obliged to surrender. Neither of the parties thus reached the main point of attack at Prescott Gate, where the governor was stationed, with the deter- mination to maintain it to the last extremity. The British were not yet aware of all the results of the contest. As soon as the retreat of the first party was ascertained, they went out"and collected from under the snow, which had already covered them, thirteen bodies. The surmise soon arose that one of them was that of the commander ; yet some hours elapsed before an oflScer of Arnold's di- vision identified him, with the deepest expressions of admiration and regret. Montgomery, a gentle- man of good family in the north of Ireland, had served under Wolfe, but having afterward formed a matrimonial connexion in America, he had adopted with enthusiasm the cause of the United States as that of liberty. His military character, joined to his private virtues, inspired general esteem, and has secured to him a place on the ro'l of noble and gal- lant chiefs who fell beneath the walls of Quebec. Arnold succeeded to the command, and attempted still to maintain his ground ; but the dispirited state of his men, still more than his actual loss, rendered * What a melancholy contrast to the heroism here displayed, was exhibited in the conduct of this officer at a subsequent pe- riod. By his execrable attempt to betray the all-important mil- itary post of West Point, its garrison, and, it is believed, the person of Washington himself, and, with these, the last hopes of his country, into the hands of the enemy, he covered his name with infamy, and obliterated all remembrance of his glorious deeds.— .4m. Ed. •■^ jf TINDER THE BRITISH. 221 him unable to keep up more than an imperfect blockade, at the distance of three miles. In April, 1776, his place was taken by General WooTster, who brought a re-enforcement, and made some fresh at- temptSi but without success. Early in May several vessels arrived from England with troops and sup- gHes, on which the enemy raised the siege and fell ack upon Montreal. Thence they were driven from post to post, till, on the 18th June, they finally evacuated the province, on which they never made any farther attempt.* This long war terminated in 1783, by the inde- pendence of all the colonies which had united against Britain. The issue, unfavourable, or, at least, mortifying to the mother country, was attend- ed with considerable advantages to Canada ; for a large body of loyalists, expatriated on account of their political principles, sought refuge in her terri- tory. They received liberal grants of land, and laid the foundation of that prosperity which has since so eminently distinguished the upper province. The country continued for some years in a state of progressive advancement, being only agitated by the desire, sometimes strongly expressed, of obtain- ing a representative government. In 1790, Mr. Pitt determined to grant this boon on a basis nearly re- sembling that of the British Constitution. As a pre- liminary, it was resolved to divide Canada into two governments, Upper and Lower : and it is somewhat remarkable, that this arrangement, so much depre- cated by the present loyalist party, originated with the minister, who carried it through in the face of strong opposition from Fox and other Whig mem- bers. He considered that the attempt to unite two classes of population, so different in origin, lan- guage, and manners, would evidently lead to disu- nion and dissension; while they argued that this * Hawkins's Picture of Quebec, p. 424-434, 438« Hinton, TOLL, p. 344. T2 .ft '■; ■-, 1 222 HISTORY OF CANADA union would afford the best means of harmonizing them into one social system. Another question arose with regard to the constitution of the legisla- tive council. Mr. Pitt proposed to form it of an hereditary noblesse, to be created for the purpose, and to include the more respectable French seign- eurs. Mr. Fox recommended a representative coun- cil, or, in default of this, one composed of members chosen by the king for life. This last suggestion, though not at first well received by the premier, was the plan ultimately adopted. The first House of Assembly, consisting of fifty members, was opened in 1792 by Lieutenant-gov- ernor Clarke. Their proceedings were for some time of no great importance. In 1797, Lord Dor- chester, who had been governor since 1786, was succeeded by General Prescott. Loud complaints were soon afterward made respecting the granting of lands, the board for that purpose having appro- priated large districts to themselves, and thereby obstructed the general settlement of the country. In 1800 Sir Robert S. Milnes was appointed lieuten- ant-governor. In 1803 a decision of the chief-jus- tice of Montreal declared slavery inconsistent with the laws of the country, and the few individuals in that condition received a grant of freedom. In 1807, apprehensions being felt of war with America, Sir James Craig, an officer of distinction, was sent out to superintend the affairs of the colony. About this time began those internal dissensions which have since so generally agitated the colony. The House of Assembly, though meeting regularly, do not seem previously to have aimed at the exer- cise of any high powers, or to have obstructed the governor in the discretionary exercise of his author- ity. But at this epoch they appear to have formed the design of rendering themselves independent, and even of controlling the executive. With the former view they demanded that the judges should UNDER THE BRITISH. 333 be expelled from their body, as beinjf dependant upon and removable by government. To gain the latter object, they offered to defray from the funds of the colony the whole expense of the civil admin- istration. Although this was a boon, and unasked for, yet, on account of its apprehended purpose, it was repelled with indignation, and the assembly soon afterward dissolved. The novel exercise of a free press by a newspaper called " the Canadian," in attacking the measures of government, was se- verely checked ; the printer was sent to prison, and all his materials destroyed. Six individuals were also taken into custody, though never brought to trial. These proceedings gave to this period the appellation of thei " Reign of Terror.* In 1811 a new Assembly was called, which did not show itself more compliant. In the autumn of that year, however, Sir George Prevost, a more popular governor, assumed the reins of administra- tion ; and circumstances soon after occurred which induced the Canadians to suspend their complaints, and to make displays of loyalty as ardent as if they had never been dissatisfied. The war commenced by the United States against Britain in 1812 produced a formidable crisis in the hisiory of Canada, especially of the upper province. It is not proposed to enter into any discussion of the grounds or merits of the hostile resolution adopt- ed by Congress.! Doubtless, however, as Britain • ' ■'-^ * . .' -\ - - V,' ■ ■ * Bouchette, vol. i., p. 443, 445. McGregor, vol. ii., p. 3dl. Roebuck on Existing Difficulties in the Administration of the Canadas (London, 1836), p. 6. t From the treaty of 1783, acknowledging the independence of her former colonies, the policy of Great Britain towards the United States was but little worthy of a great and magnanimous nation. She persisted for several years in keeping possession of the western military posts, in direct violation of the stipula- tions of that treaty ; exercising by this means a widely^extended influence over the Indian tribes, to the great minry of 6tir fron- tier settlements. By reviving the iuiqo^QS nue 6f 1756, vi^eh ^m S24 HISTORY OF CANADA then stood, with her whole disposable force en- gaged against Napoleon, they calculated with con- fidence on obtaining possession of the Canadas, if not of all British America. A similar impression prevailed in the colony itself, defended then by only 4600 troops, of whom not more than 1460 were in the upper province, though the most exposed, and presenting the most extended frontier. Not a few were inchned on the first alarm to pack up and quit goes in effect to deny to the neutral all trade not enjoyed by the belligerant, she greatly crippled and distressed our rising com* merce. By her orders in council of November, 1793, her armed ships were authorized to make prize of all neutral vessels hav ing on board the produce of the colonies of Frence, or carx^'ing provisions or supplies to the same ; and this in the absence ot any blockade of the ports of such colonies. Notwithstanding the treaty concluded by Mr. Jay in 1794, with the object of at fording some protection to American interests, these obnoxious orders, in place of being permanently repealed, were merely modified somewhat in their effects, by the substitution of others scarcely less objectionable, in 1795 and 1798. In 180f> she in- terdicted all neutral commerce with France and her dependances, by merely a paper blockade. Subjected to such sweeping an- Soyances from one of the great beiligerants, and exposed to vexa- ons equally ruinous at the hands of the other, there was no longer the smallest security for the peaceful prosecution of com- mercial enterprises, and our merchant ships could scarcely move upon the ocean but at the imminent hazard of capture and con- fiscation. But the abuse which most strongly excited the indig- nant feelings of the nation, as being more aggravated and intd- erable than any other, was the practice of British naval oflBcere boarding our ships on the high seas, and forcibly taking from them the seamen by which they were navigated, under the pretence of their being British subjects. Thus the American sailor found no protection afforded to him by his national flag, but might at any time be seized and transported on board a British ship-of- war, there to be detained, he knew not for what length of time, in a stat^ of odious and oppressive servitude. If to this list of grievances be added the outrageous attack upon the frigate Chesapeake by a British squadron at a time of peace, and with- in the American waters, and the crowning fact that no endeav- ours of the American government were of the slightest fivail in obtaining either redress for the past or security for the iuture, the reader will be able to perceive the causes by which this war was provoked.— ulm. Ed. UNDER THE BRmSR. 226 the country ; but Sir George Prevost, seconded by the majority of the inhabitants, adopted a more spirited resolution. The militia were called out; Quebec was garrisoned by the citizens; and the frontier placed in a state of defence.* The States, though they had resorted to hostilities with such sanguine anticipations, were by no means in a forward state of preparation. Few of the of- ficers who had distinguished themselves in the war of independence survived the lapse of nearly thirty years.f General Hull, however, one of these veter- ans, was sent with a force of 2500 men to open the campaign on the western frontier of Upper Canada.t On the 5th of July, 1812, he arrived att Detroit, ana on the 12th crossed the river and took posf 9ssion of Sandwich, whence he issued a proclamation invi- ting the colonists to join him, or, at least, to remain neutral. Having ro cannon mounted, he did not think it practicable to attack Fort Maiden, Which covered Amherstburg, where Lieutenant-colonel St. George with his small force was posted. Hull, how- ever, pushed forward detachments into the country, which gained some advantages and induced a few of the inhabitants to join them. But his prospects were soon clouded. Captain Roberts, with a smail detachment, had early reduced the Fort of MichUli- mackinac,^ which " opened upon him the northern * Montgomery Martin's History of the British Colonies (5 vols. 8vo, London, 1834), vol. iii., p. 188. t Carey and Lea, Geography, &c., of America (Svo, London, 1823), p. 59. t This force consisted of about an equal number of regular troops and of volunteers from the State of Ohio. — Am. EcL ^ Lieut. Hanks, who held this important post with a garrison of only fif*y-8ix men, had, by some unaccountable negliffenc«, received no information of the war, and was first apprized of its existence by the appearance of a hostile force, and a summoos from its commander to surrender the place. The great supeoior- ity of the enemy, whose force, consisting of regulars and Indiant, was nine huncured strong, left no alternative to the . i Si m I 226 HISTORY OF CANADA hive of Indians.' Almost the whole of that race eagerly espoused the British cause, and poured in from every quartei to support it. Meantime, Gen- eral Brock, having embarked all the troops that could be spared from the Niagara frontier, arrived on the 12th August at Amherstburg, where he mustered about 330 regulars, 400 militia, and 600 Indians. Hull, whose force, weakened by sickness and by sending away two detachments, is said not to have exceeded 800 effective men, retreated across the river, vnthdrawing the cannon prepared for the siege of Amherstburg, and shut himself up in De. troit. General Brock instantly crossed, advanced upon the fort, and prepared for an immediate as- sault ; but a white flag then appeared from the walls* and a capitulation was quickly signed, by which the whole American force, including the detachments, were surrendered prisoners of war. Loud com- plaints were made by the Americans against the conduct of Hull,* who was afterward tiied and con- commander but to capitulate at once on the most honourable terms he could obtain. — Am. Ed. * That the conduct of General Hull was most extraordinary throughout this brief and disastrous campaign, there can be little doubt. Of the effective character of the troops under his command we have the most satisfactory evidence, in the spirit and ga'lantry which they uniformly displaved whenever they were called to face the enemy. A detacnment under Major Vanhorn had bravely and successfully defended itself against a greatly superior force ; and Col. Miller, at the head of three hundred soldiers of the gallant forty-fourth regiment, so distin- guished for its valour at Tippecanoe, had completely routed a body of seven hundred British and Indians. Had Hull pushed on against Maiden with his intrepid little army immediately after his arrival in Canada, there can be little doubt that he would have carried the' place by a coup-de-main, such was the ardour of his troops. By neglecting to do this, he had afforded opportunity to the enemy greatly to strengthen his defences; iitill, by the first of August, he was provided with a suflBcient battering train to enable him to attack the fort in form. A coun- cil of war was accordingly held, and it was resolved that this •bould immediately be done. The general in ccnnmand aane* UNDER THE BRITISH. 227 demned to be shot, though spared on account of his age and former services.* The Americans made great efTorts to obtain a more fortunate result on the Niagara frontier. Ear- ly in September more than 6000 men were brought to the banks of the river, with the view of crossing it and penetrating into Canada. They were encour- aged by the exploit of two row-boats, which cap- tured the same number of British gun-brigs, with tioned the decision, the cannon were embarked, the time ap- pointed, and everything prepared for the army to advance; when, to its utter astonishment, without the slightest change of circumstances, or any apparent cause whatever, instead of moving against the enemy, they received orders to retreat with- out delay to the American side, and thus to abandon even such advantages as they had already obtained. This movement was executed not without exciting the utmost indignation both in the officers and men. As the Americans retired, the British assumed the offensive, and advanced. They commenced their operations by erecting batteries on the opposite shore to Detroit. Their next step was to despatch a fl:.g of truce to the Ameri- can commander, very modestly demanding, before a gun had been fired, the surrender of his position, and of the force under his command. The reply returned was, that the place would be defended to the last extremity. This was followed by^ an inef- fectual bombardment from either side. On the morning of the 16th the British army was suffered to land without opposition on the American shore ; they advanced immediately upon Detroit ; the American troops were posted most advantageously to receive them ; everything appeared to promise an easy vic- tory ; when, just before the approaching clamour of the enemy had come within the range of the American artillery, orders ware received not to fire ; and, at the same time, the troops post- ed in the town were commanded to retire tc cho fort. A white flag, in token of submission, was hung out upon the walls, and an unconditional surrender was immediately agreed to, not only of the fort and garrison, but of the entire military district, with kll the troops within the American general's command. Thus terminated this most humiliating and calamitous affair ; and the reader may judge whether there were not good grounds for at least some of the weighty charges preferred against the Ameri- can commander.— ilm. Ed. * James, vol. i., p. 56-58, 374-376, 72, 73. Martin, vol. iii., p. 189. Brackenridge's History of the late War (12ino, 6th edi- , PhUadelphia, 1836), p. 3a-4L ■»«. t88 niSTORT OF CANADA ¥a|qable cargoes, as they were passing ToH Erie. The troops are represented as filled with enthusias- tic oonfiaence, urging and almost compelling Gener- al Van Rensselaer, their commander, to commence active operations. Accordingly, he succeeded, on the morning of 19th October, in pushing across to Queenston a detachment, which, being well re-en- foorced, gained possession of the heights. General Brock baring come up, resolved to check their progress; but, making his advance with too smaU force, he was repulsed and killed, closing his brill- iant career by a glorious death. Meantime Gen- eral Sheafle, having brought up the main force of the British from Fort George, and being joined by a body of Indians, with a detachment from Chippe- way,, attacked the enemy ; and, after a sharp con- teat of half an hour, compelled the whole, amount- ing to above 900, to surrender at discretion.* The Americans made yet another attempt to re- tifieve tlXia unfortunate campaign. General Smyth, miho su^oeeded Van Rensselaer, had assembled on the 97tb November 4500 men in the vicinity of Black Rock. Early on the following morning, two detaohnoteiUs succeeded in crossing, and, after a long api confused, fight in the dark, drove In with loss *■ Notwit^hstanding the unfortanate result of the battle of Queenston, attrijbutaole to the .efusal of the militia to cross ovei; to. a^ support of the detachment on the Canada shore, it Wj^^jUndoubtedly, as it regards the troops engaged, a very gal- l^t afjfoir. The whole Aifierican force did not much exceed lOQN) men, of which not more than 300 were regulars ; whereas, fi^ni thexominencement of the action, they y/eie opposed to superior numbers, afterward re^raforced by 600 regular troops uoder General: Broc^ and still later in the day by a detachment of 800) strong under General Shea£fe, nearly alt regular troops. Notwithstanding this, the Americans bravely defended the ground they had won, against reiterated attacks, from an early nour in the morning to 5 o'clock m the afternoon ; nor did they fiiiaily yield until there was no longer any hops^ of their being BUfltained by re-eitforceroents firom the other aiae.— Am. Ed, UNDER THE BRITISH. 229 the British outposts;* but when day broke, and Lieutenant-colonel Bissfiopphad collected about 600 regulars and militia, ihey hastily retired to the other side, leaving a party of thirty to fall into the hands of the English. Another division began to cross, but some rounds of musketry and artillery induced them to return. In the course of the day, after a vain summons to surrender Fort Erie, nearly half the force was embarked, though in the afternoon the postponement of the enterprise was announced. After several days of uncertain councils, it was finally decided that the expedition should be aban- doned for the season.! The severity of the season caused a suspension of operations scarcely interrupted unless by an at- tack on Ogdensburgh by Captain M'Donnell, who, crossing the St. Lawrence on the ice, drove out tho garrison, and obtained possession of eleven pieces of cannon and a considerable quantity of stores.:^ The Americans, meantime, were making extraordi- nary exertions to open the new campaign. At Sackett^s Harbour, on the southern shore of Onta- rio, a naval armament was equipped, which gave them for some time the control of that fine lake. A large force had been assembled and placed under a new commander, General Dearborn. The plan of this campaign was limited to the conquest of Upper Canada, the achievement of which, as that country was defended by only 2100 regular troops, was con- sidered beyond the reach of chance. On the 25th * These detachments the American accounts state to have been entirely successful in occupying the enemy's works and spiking their cannon ; and that here, again, the failure of timely re-enforcements alone prevented a complete triumph. — Am. Ed. t James, vol. i., p. 81, 376, 377, 382-384. Brackenridge, p. 65-69. t This place was defended by a small militia force hastily raised under Col. Benedict, who conducted themselves with great gallantry, but could not successfully resist the British do ■ tochment« which was twelve hundred strong. — Am. Ed, ^ liiH 1 'iH 1 lMffl]|B| 1 1 Ira^ i^ vH 1 1 Hllmm uB ^1 i i * m\ i 11 .!;H ml| lim 1 niHB 11 BIlHiB™ 1 ; 1 m ' If 1 : ii , i> ii 1 ' 11 1 ' 1 i i ¥ 'm mi 1 i w 11 1 5 MlnfflM 1 1 ■ ill ' 1 JbmIh 1 ' 1 J 230 HISTORY OF CANADA April, 1813, the general, witji Commodore Chauncey, embarked about 2000 men, and sailed to York (To- ronto), the rising capital of the province. It was then very ill prepared for resistance, scarcely at all fortified, and defended by General Sheaflfe with only about 600 men.* On the morning of the 27th they reached the place and succeeded in landing, when, after a brave defence, protracted till two o'clock, the English were obliged to abandon the town. The invaders suffered chiefly by the explosion of a mine, which killed or wounded about 260, including among the former General Pike, a young officer of distin- guished merit, who had planned and conducted the attack.f After burning all the public buildings, they carried off the artillery and naval stores, an 1 by the 1st of May evacuated the place.| The next enterprise was still more important, being directed against Fort George, near Newark, at the entrance of the Niagara channel, considered the chief military position in the country. Nearly the whole force was employed, a small part only being left to defend Sackett's Harbour. Brigadier- general Vincent, on the other haiid, had only a Brit- ish detachment of about 1000 regulars and 300 mili- tia; and Newark had been exposed to so severe a fire from the American fort on the opposite side, that it was no longer defensible. The enemy, there- fore, could be resisted only by opposing his land- ing, or by beating him afterward in the field. When * By the American accounts, the British force in this action is stated to have been about 1000 regular troops and militia, and half that number of Indians. The number of prisoners alone was 550. t The firing of this mine was undoubtedly a most barbarous and unjustifiable act on the part of the British. Their defeat was already inevitable, and they knew the explosion couM not affect the result. It was, therefore, a wanton destruction of life, as cowardly as it was cruel, without any expectation of benefit to themselves.— ilm. Ed. t James, p. 136-149, 397-406. Brackenridge, p. 102-105. . UNDER THE BRITISH. 231 M Dommodore Chauncey, on the 27th May, disembark- ed 4000 men under Dearborn and Lewis, both these operations were attempted ; but, after a long and se- vere contest, were rendered unavailing by the supe- rior numbers of the invaders.* Vincent was obli- ged, after calling in the garrisons of Chippeway and Fort Erie, to retreat first to the Beaver Dams, and then to Burlington Heights, near the western ex- tremity of Lake Ontario. The victors could not in- tercept his retreat, but they established for the first time a regular lodgment in Canada.f Meantime a respectable naval force having been organized at Kingston by Sir James Yeo, Sir George Prevost, the governor, was prevailed upon to employ it in the attack of Sackett^s Harbour, defended only by a small party, while the main body of the enemy was employed against Fort George. He sailed on the 27th of May, with about 750 men ; but, on ap- proaching, showed considerable hesitation, and even gave orders for a return to Kingston, till, encouraged by the success of the Indians in capturing twelve boats with seventy dragoons, he succeeded in effect- ing a landing on the morning of the 29th. Notwith- standing the difficulties of the ground, he drove the enemy before him, till they took shelter in a log-bar- rack and stockaded fort. Thence they kept up such a destructive fire, that General Prevost, considering it impossible to force the position, and panic-struck, it is said, by a false alarm raised by General Brown in his rear, ordered a retreat. Much difference of opinion, however, prevailed among the officers. Major Drummond is reported to have said : *' A few • The only part of the American anny really engaged in this action was the advanced corps under Col. Scott, and part of the brigade of General Boyd, united, both numerically inferior to the enemy. The victory was complete, and the prisoners alone exceeded 600. — Am. Ed. t James, vol. i., p. 151 -164, 407-412. Brackenridge, p. 108» 112. II 232 HISTORY OF CANADA minutes, sir, and I will put you in possession of the place." He was ordered to obey ; upon which dis- content and a want of confidence in the commander- in-chief became general, and had a most injurious effect on the subsequent operations.* Fortune, so favourable to the Americans at the opening of the campaign, did not continue so throughout. Extraordinary exertions were made in the western states, particularly Kentucky. Two corps were formed, and despatched under Generals Winchester and Harrison, to march in different lines through Michigan ; then to unite and co-operate in recovering Detroit, and invading the adjoining dis- tricts. Winchester, suspected of a desire to achieve something before yielding his command to his co- adjutor, advanced with about 1000 men to French- town, within twenty-six miles of Detroit. Colonel Proctor, justly appreciating the importance of at- tacking him before the junction, hastily collected all the force within his reach, amountinrr to about 600 whites and 450 Indians. With these, on the S2d January, 1813, he succeeded in bringing the en- emy to action. They made an obstinate resistance, and being posted in houses and enclosures, caused considerable loss to the assailants : but they were ultimately overpowered, and nearly all made prison- ers. The general himself was among the number.f * James, vol. i., p. 165-176, 413-416. t The battle of tne river Raisin was gallantly fought by the Americans. Their little army consisted of only 750 men, nearly all volunteers from Kentucky, while the enemy's force was twice that number, including regular troops and Indians. The most ' shocking barbarity was practised by the savages after the ac- tion. The remnant of these brave volunteers, among whom were many of the most distinguished and respectable citizens of Kentucky, when there was no longer any hope of successful resistance, had capitulated on the condition that they should be protected against the Indians. This stipulation, ho\^ever, was not fulfilled. Scarcely had these gallant men given up their arms, when a dreadful scene commenced. The wounded viete scalped and stripped, the dead shockingly mutilated, and ■ I UNDER THE BRITISH. 233 General Harrison, on receiving intelligence of this disaster, took up a position near the rapids of Miami to await re-enforcements. Colonel Proctor felt equally the importance of attacking him before their arrival; Having assembled about 1000 regulars and militia and 1200 Indians, he embarked them at Amherstburg on the 23d April, then sailed across Lake Erie, and up the Miami. Many delays, how- ever, occurred, by which the enemy was enabled so to strengthen his position, that the attack made on the 1st of May had very little effect. The Ameri- cans were then encouraged to assume the offensive, which they did with large bodies of troops, partly landed from the river, partly sallying from the fort. At first they gained possession of the British batter- ies ; but they were then attacked at different points with such decisive success, that upward of a thou- sand were killed or taken, and the rest with difficul- ty found refuge within the intrenchments.* These ■ Proctor found himself still unable to storm ; but he - had so weakened the enemy's force as to remove all immediate danger of invasion.! Let us now return to the main theatre of opera- tions on the Niagara frontier, where we have seen an indiscriminate massacre of the prisoners took place. Out of the 450 who had surrendered, a comparatively small number , only escaped. — Am. Ed. * The force brought by Proctor to the attack of Fort Meigs is stated in the American accounts to have been 550 regulars, 800 militia, and 1500 Indians. The American garrison consist^ ed of 1200 men, principally volunteers, and in the sortie against the enemy's works they tvere supported by a detachment from the corps under General Clay, amounting to 800 men, also vol- unteers. The principal loss sustained by the Americans was owing to their too great impetuosity in pursuing the enemy, by which means they were drawn into an ambuscade, land attacked on all sides by a savage force greatly outnumbering their own. The abandonment of the siege, and the retreat of the enemy, are the best evidence of the prowess of the American troops. — Am, Ed. t James, vol. i., p. 194-201, 426-428. Brackenridge, p. 96-98. TT Q I 234 HISTORY OP CANADA the British driven before the enemy to Burling, ton Heights. Dearborn Immediately sent forward Generals Chandler and Winder, with 4000 men, to destroy, if possible, this shattered remnant ; a suc- cess which would have been followed by the con- quest of all the western provinces. On the fifth of June they took post at Stony Creek, to prepare for operations on the following day. In this critical situation. Lieutenant-colonel Harvey., having care- fully reconnoitred the enemy's position, suggested a night attack, to which General Vincent readily as- sented. It was made with 700 chosen troops, and, being favoured by deep darkness, was completely successful ; the two commanders, with seven offi- cers and 116 men, were made prisoners. The Brit- ish at daylight withdrew their small force ; and the Americans contended, that, but for the capture of the two generals, the advantage was all on their side. Their loss, indeed, had not been great ; yet such was the impression made by the events of the night, that, before eleven next morning, they had commenced a retreat to Forty-mile Creek, eleven miles distant.* Here they received a re-enforce- ment ; but, being threatened by Sir James Yeo, who had come with a squadron and a small body of troops to support General Vincent, they determin- ed on retreating to Niagara. Intelligence being re- ceived by the American commander that the Eng- lish had a small advanced post at Beaver-dam, Lieu- tenant-colonel Boerstler, with about 700 men, was sent to attack it. That officer, however, being un- expectedly assailed, first by a party of Indians, and * The united corps of Generals Chandler and Winder amount- ed to about 2500 men. The capture of these officers is to be attributed to the confusion arismg from the darkness of the night, and the consequent difficulty of distinguishing^ friend from foe. The loss of the Americans was 150 in killed, wound- ed, and missing ; that of the enemy ia prisoners alone was 100. '^Am* Ed, i tiKi f\ rjjiij; :pi., ',-.sf<,f# li' ■■ "JW!^^T"TT '-*-'■ ra;. v w ji^ii <^«RW *»T ■>! UNDER THB BRITISH. 235 soon afterward by a small body of regulars, con- ceived himself to be surrounded, and, on being sum- moned by Lieutenant Fitzgibbon, surrendered his whole corps prisoners of war.* The Americans now held nothing on the right bank of the river be- yond Fort George. The British even made incur- sions on the opposite shore, in one of which Colo- nel Bisshopp gained possession of Black Rock, where he destroyed or carried off the arms and stores; but being attacked while re-embarking by a superior force, his party suffered some loss, and he himself received three wounds, which proved mortal.f The British at this time gained some advantages on Lake Champlain, taking several vessels, and de- stroying the American magazines at Plattsburg and Swanton.J They were now, however, des- tined to experience severe reverses, and that, too, on the theatre of their most brilliant triumphs. The Americans made extraordinary exertions to retrieve their affairs on the western frontier; vol- unteers crowded from Kentucky, a territory of daring and warlike habits, and by September they had succeeded in augmenting General Harrison's army to upward of 6000 men. They had formed another fortified station on Sandusky river, which Major-general Proctor, without success, attempted * There is no doubt this expedition was ill judged, and with- out any sufficient object to have rendered it expedient. Still the account here given is most unjust to the American com- mander and the troops under his charge. They made a most brave resistance, though attacked on all sides by a greatly supe- rior force of British and Indians ; nor did they capitulate until their ammunition was all but exhausted, and one third of tiiieir number either killed or wounded.— -Am. Ed. t James, vol. i., p. 205-229, 431-442. Brackenridge, p. 114f< 119. t The magazines were the private warehouses of the citi- zens, whose property was most wantonly plundered and de- •troyed.— -Afli. -fiii. /%irw.',^i? .^i-u- ;^i'.i?}^.*t«9ffif«i*"^- S36 HISTORY OP CANADA to reduce.* A squadron of nine vessels, mounting fifty>six guns, had been equipped by them on Lake Erie, and it was with great difficulty that one able to contend with it could be fitted out by the Brit- ish, under Captain Barclay. An engagement took place, which was maintained with the utmost ob- stinacy ; but the conflict ended in the defeat and entire surrender of the English squadron.fj This event reduced General Proctor to extreme distress, depriving him of access to supplies and re-enforce- ments, while his stock of provisions had become quite inadequate for his own troops and the numer- ous Indians who had joined his standard. On the arrival, therefore, in the end of September, of Gen- eral Harrison at Detroit, he did not attempt to maintain his position at Amherstburg, but retreated up the river Thames. The other pursued him closely with 3500 troops, while Proctor was desert- ed by most of his Indians, of whom he had now only about 500, with 800 whites. At the Moravian town, on the 5th of October, he took up a strong position, flanked by the river on one side and a wood on the other, where he hoped to render un- availing the superior numbers of the enemy. Har- rison, however, had with him a body of combat- * The defence of this fort was one of the most gallant affairs during the war. The American garrison consisted of only 160 men, under the command of Major Croghan. Their works were weak, and a single six-pounder was all their artiller)'. Proctor assailed it with a force of 500 regular troops and 700 Indians, and was repulsed in all his attempts with great slaugh- teT.—Am. Ed. t The American squadron in this action consisted of nine vessels, mounting fifty-six guns ; the British, of six vessels, mounting sixty-nine guns. With the exception of the Lawrence and the Niagara, all the American vessels were small, whereas five of the British vessels were comparatively large. The loss of tl^e Americans was twenty -seven killed and ninety*six wound- ed ; that of the British, two hundred in killed and wounded, i^nd six hundred prisoners. — Am. Ed. i James, vol i.,p, 263-274. Carey and Lea, p. 62, UNDER THE BRITIS>;^. 237 ants yet unknown in warfare, the Kentucky mount- ed riflemen, accustomed to ride through the woods, using their weapon with almost preternatural skill. Their very novelty, he justly hoped, would make a strong impression. Following his instructions, they received the lire of their opponents, then gal- loped forward, and in a few minutes completely broke the British ranks, St: reading among them a general confusion.* The severest conflict was with the Indians, who lost their chief Tecumseh, one of the bravest of the brave, and equally dis- tinguished by policy and eloquence. The main ob- ject of his life had been to unite his followers in a grand confederacy against the Americans. In en- mity to them, he had warmly attached himself to the cause of the British, and aided them in succes- sive victories. General Proctor retreated to An- caster, where he could rally only 200 men, with whom he joined the Niagara army. Harrisoa also, having thus recovered Michigan, and conquer- ed the western districts, marched to re-enforce his countrymen in that quarter.f The Americans now formed a plan of operations on a grander scale, directed against Montreal, the success of which would have placed in their hands the whole of Upper Canada. In this enterprise two armies were destined to co-operate ; one, con- sisting of nearly 6000, under Major-general Hamp- ton, from Lake Champlain ; the other, amounting to 8800, under Major-general Wilkinson, from Grena- dier Island, near Sackett's Harbour, on Lake Onta- rio. As the city was defended by a very small pro- portion of the regular soldiers, who were qhiefly , * The British force in this action is no doubt much underra- ted. The Indians alone were, according to the American ^- counts, from 1200 to 1500. Six hundred regular troops were among the prisoners.— ^m. Ed. t James, vol. i., p. 276-298, 451-458. Brackenridge, p. 146- % 238 HISTORY OF CANADA W employed in the upper province, Hampton hoped, by pushing vigorously forw ard, to capture the place writh httle difficulty. But, hi ving passed the frontier in the end of October, he found on the banks of the river Chateauguay the advanced corps of 800 British, with 172 Indians, commanded by Lieutenant-colonels De Salaberry and M'Donnell. These officers posted their troops so judiciously amid woods, and so skil- fully concealed the smallness of their number, that the enemy, though they made several brisk attacks, were always repulsed ; and Hampton, believing him- self opposed by a large force, determined to retreat. Meantime, the larger expedition under General Wilkinson having crossed Lake Ontario, entered the river Saint Lawrence. At Williamsburg, two considerable detachments were landed, in order at once to clear the banks and to lighten the boats while descending the rapids. On the 11th Novem- ber, one of these, under Major-general Boyd, en- countered Lieutenant-colonel Morrison with an infe- rior British force. A very obstinate conflict ensued, in which both parties claimed the victory.* The result was not such as to prevent the Americans from continuing to descend the river towards Mon- treal. Near Cornwall the commander received de- spatches from General Hampton, intimating that he declined the expected co-operation, and intended to fall back upon Lake Champlain. Wilkinson then conceived it necessary to give up for this season any attempt upon Montreal, especially as he found the population hostile to the States, and attached to the British government. He therefore placed his army in winter quarters, near the French mills, on the Salmon river, where he formed a plan (a: at- tack! ?.g Prescott and Kingston; but, finding hii^sclf ^ In point of numbers, the detachments engaged in this conflict were probably about e^uai. The Americans were mostly new recruits, never before in action, while the Diitish force consisted entirely of veteran troops,— Am< Ed. ■i ^*>««MtW>' UNDER THE BRITISH. 239 much straitened for provisions, was induced to fall bpck upon Plaitsburg.* Meantime, the employment of the main army of the Americans in this unsuccessful expedition ena- bled their opponents to resume the offensive on the Niagara frontier. On the first intelhgence of the disasters sustained in the west, General Vincent had been ordered to fall back upon Kingston; but he considered that circumstances now justified him in maintaining his position. The enemy's force in this quarter had be#n greatly reduced. On the ad- vance of a strong detachment under Colonel Mur- ray, the American commander, General M'Clure, first fell back upon Fort George, then abandoned that post, previous to which he reduced the adjoin- ing to\^n of Newark to ashes.f Murray was not content with pursuing him beyond the river ; he al- so surprised and stormed Fort Niagara, taking above 400 prisoners, with a large quantity of arms and stores.| The English afterward surprised and plundered the villages of Lewiston, Black Rock, and Buffalo, where they retaliated not very consid- erately the acts of M'Clure at Fort George.^ Operations were recommenced early in the spring of 1814. Lieutenant-colonel Williams, with * James, p. 301-333, 347--350, 467-475. Brackenridge, p. 158 .-167. t This act excited great indignation in the United States against their own commander, and was promptly disavowed by the Americaa government. — Am. Ed. t The garrison of this place consisted of about 300 men, mostly invalids. Capt. Lewis, the commanding officer, was ab- sent from his post at the time of the attack, and, with the most culpable negligence, had made no provision against surprise. The entire garrison, with the exception of about twenty men who escaped, instead of being taken prisoners as is here stated, were put to the sword. A scene of devastation followed along the whole Niagara frontier, under pretence of retaliation for tile burning of Newark, that was truly appalling.— -Am. Ed. ^ James, vol, ii., p. 4, 8-22, 396-403. Brackenhdge, p. 169 ~AI1« 1 "*MjllH9^W^'' 240 HISTORY OP CANADA 1600 British, having taken post at La Colle on the river Richelieu, Wilkinson, who had upward of 4000 men at Plattsburg, determined to attack theni. On the 30th March he completely invested a large mill, which the British had converted into a for- tress. All his attempts to carry it were, however, fruitless. Major Handcock even made two attacks on the artillery posted in a wood, though without success. The American general finally gave up the undertaking, and fell back upon Plattsburg. In the beginning of May the English tfbops gained another advantage, carrying, though with some loss, the fort of Oswego, where they captured a considera- ble quantity of ammunition and stores.*! The main effort of tho enemy during this cam- paign was m^de on the Niagara frontier, where about 5000 men were placed under Major-general Brown, an of!icer who had distinguished himself on several occasions. On the 3d of July he crossed and summoned Fort Erie, which, with its garrison of 170, immediately surrendered. He then march- ed towards Chippeway, and beat at Street's Creek the advanced guard of Major-general Riall, which had endeavoured to stop his progress. The Eng- lish general was then obliged to retreat to Fort George, and thence in the direction of Burlington Heights. Brown hereupon laid siege to the fort, but, finding it stronger than he expected, and being disappointed of assistance from Sackett's Harbour, he fell back upon Chippeway. General Riall, on his part, having received some re-enforcements, ad- vanced ; the armies came close to each other, and * The American force stationed at this place did not exceed 300 men. The British were, notwithstanding, repulsed with great loss in their first attack, and it was not until they made a second attempt, with a body of 2000 men, that they succeeded in compelling the Americans to retire. In the mean time the stores, &c., had heen removed, and nothing; of value fell into the enemy's hands.— ilm. Ed. t James, vol. i., p. 83-90, 421-427. Brackenridge, p. 190-193. i : *-»*s4^ita«»» UNDER THE BRITISH. 241 on the 25th the Americans commenced the attack. The battle of Lundy's Lane was fought long, obsti- nately, and with various fortune, a great part of it amid thick darkness, which caused several strange mistakes. The American general and the second in command were wounded, and Riall, on the other side, was taken prisoner. By a singular accident, in the midst of the conflict, Lieutenant-general Drummond arrived with a re-enforcement from York, which restored the battle. Both sides claim a dearly-bought victory ;* the enemy, however, re- tired to Fort Erie. On the night of the 14th of August) Drummond made an attack upon the plac' in two divisions ; but his men, in both cases, «*< -ire repulsed with very severe loss.f Meantime another part of Canada became the the- atre of impo: tant operations. After the successes of the allied powers in Europe, the capture of Paris, and the abdication of Napoleon, Britain was enabled to turn her whole strength against the United States, over whom a full triumph was then anticipated. A strong detachment from the south of France arrived in Canada, and enabled Sir George Prevost to place himself at the head of 11,000 men, with whom he undertook to carry the war into the enemy's coun- try. He proceeded to the attack of Plattsburg on Lake Champlain, defended only by 1500 troops, the rest having been sent to the upper province. Ma- comb, the American commander, on being pressed by this superior force, fell back on his main posi- tion, which he strongly fortified. Sir George, on the 11th of September, arrived in front of it; but ♦ The battle of Lundy'a Lane was among the most sangui- nary and obstifxite conflicts that occurred during the war. The American accounts state that the British force engaged was little short of 5000 ; while their own was nearly a third less. The loss on both sides was exceedingly severe, and nearly equal ; amounting, in the aggregate, to nearly 2000 men. — Am. Ed. t James, vol. ii., p. 143-147, 436-452. Brackenridge, p. 21&- 236. XT,.. T -V '•'■... 1 U4J. *,— Uk -j^j; 842 UldTORY OF CANADA the naval force under Captain Downie, destined to co-operate with him, was attacked by the enemy, and under his very eye completely defeated and cap- tured.* Conceiving, after this disaster, that any success in storming the enemy^s position would be fruitless as to ulterior objects, and a useless sacri- fice of men, he immediately withdrew his army. This course was not approved by all ; and the gen- eral result, so contrary to expectation, gave rise to much discontent and recrimination.! The Americans were still strong in Upper Canada. On the 17th, General Brown sallied from Fort Erie, and caused a severe loss to the British, who soon after raised 'the siege. Being pressed by a large additional force under Izard, General Drummond retreated to the old position at Burlington Heights ; but receiving a re-enforcement, consisting of a de- tachment of the troops newly arrived from Europe, he again advanced. Izard, upon this, evacuated Fort Erie, and took up winter quarters on the oppo- site side of the river. During the autumn the Ameri- cans gained some advantages on Lake Erie, but were repulsed with considerable loss in an attempt to re- cover Fort Michillimackinac.l The war, meantime, in other parts of America was productive of important events. The British obtained possession of Washington, where they de- stroyed the public edifices and property ; but they "were defeated in their attacks upon Baltimore and New-Orleans. Both parties at this time became ' * The British force in this action consisted of seventeen ves- sels, carrying ninety-six gun", and more than a thousand men. That of the Americans wao composed of fourteen vessels, with eighty guns, and about eight hundreii men. While the action was raging on the lake, several desperate but unsuccessful at- tempts were made to storm the American works. The ti^iumpb of the Americans was thus complete.— Am. Ed. t James, vol. ii., p. 213-217, 462-4(>8. Brackenridge, p. 266- 271. t James, vol. ii., p. 230-240, 470. Brackenridge, p. 241. UNDER THB BRITISH. 243 inclined for peace, which was concluded at Ghent on the 24th December, 1814, upon terms which, after this long and checkered contest, brought back the two powers to exactly the same position as when they had commenced.* Sir George Prevost was succeeded in April, 1815, by Sir George Gordon Drummond, under whom some discontents began again to appear. These referred chiefly to the conduct of the judges, whom the Assembly viewed with such jealousy that they had impeached at one time the heads of the court both at Quebec and Montreal. In 1816, Sir John Coape Sherbrooke went out as governor-general; and under his administration, at once vigorous and conciliatory, harmony was little interrupted. In 1818, he was instructed by Earl Bathurst to accept the offer Amerly made to pay the whole civil list out of theWnds of the province ; and he applied, not for a permanent settlement, but merely for the sum necessary to meet the current expenses. This wa? readily granted; and, in orf^^^i to raise it, new taxes were imposed, of which, uowever, the Assembly re- served to themselves the appropriation. Sir John being obliged by severe illness to return to England, was succeeded in 1818 by the Duko of Richmond. This nobleman, though personally pop- ular, introduced an innovation, which led to the long and serious conflict between the crown and the As- sembly. Instead of submitting, like his predecessor, a detailed estimate of every object of expenditure, he divided the whole into chapters, each compre- hending a head or branch, the entire amount of which was alone specified. The Assembly refused to sanction such a change, and passed a vote ac- cording to the estimate of the former governor, stating each payment in detail. The legislative * For a full and accurate account of the events of this war, see Hale's History of the United States, Harpers' School Dis- trict Library, Third Series. 244 HISTORY OF CANADA council, however, withheld their concurrence rrom this resolution ; and the duke, expressing hki^dis- pleasure with th i lower house, had recourse to the irregular measure of drawing upon the receiver- general for the sum which he had demanded. In September, 1819, the duke's life and govern- ment were suddenly terminated by an attack of hy- drophobia.* After short internals under the Hon. James Monk and Sir Peregrine Maitland, the Earl of Dalhousie, in 1820, was removed from Nova Sco- tia to Canada. This nobleman, possessing a high \ \ military reputation and an amiable disposition, had been very popular in his former station ; yet, sha- ring with his advisers, it is probable, tho^pxtreme monarchical ideas which had hitherto p^ailed in the colonies, he was ill fitted to meet the new crisis that had arisen. Having estimated ab(]|^$ 105,600 as the amount necessary for the publi^Krvice, in addition to the revenues vested in the crown, he solicited this sum as a permanent grant. But the Assembly refused to pass more than an annual bill of supply, in which they specified every item. The council again rejected their vote, with the entire concurrence of the governor, who hesitated not to draw upon the treasurer for even a larger amount than had been asked from the Assembly. Earl Bathurst, on receiving notice of these pro- ceedings, did not disapprove of Lord Dalhousie's conduct, but strongly recommended economy. He directed, also, that two estimates should be pre- sented, one embracing the government expenses, to be defrayed by funds of which the crown claimed the entire disposal; the other to be employed on popular objects, in regard to which the members ^' might be left uncontrolled. At the same time, it was enjoined that both of these should be giVen in * This was occasioned by the bite of a tame fox, not suspected to be in a rabid state, and with which the duke was amusing himUili^Afn. Ed. if -'ii^.jaa^f ^^^^y UNDER THE BHITISH. 245 fuM|l^{ail. This arrangement was well received, the required sum was voted, and the session termi- nated amii mutual courtesies. In the year 1823, the popular cause was strength- ened by the insolvency of the receiver-general, Sir John Caldwell; an inquiry into whose accounts had been vainly demanded by the Assembly, and who proved to be indebted to the public nearly jCi^,OQO. When, in the following year, the gov- eripi^lr presented his estimates, the representatives asllimed a high tone ; disputing the right of the cjBwn to select the objects on which to employ its ifPnue ; condemning the unlawful appropriation of public money, and materially reducing the amount of the sum demanded. These proceedings drew forth a strong expression of displeasure from Lord I)alhoi^i|. In iBR, the government, during his lordship's temporary absence, was administered by Sir Fran- cis Burton. This officer, anxious to conciliate the lower house, yielded nearly all the points in dispute. He sanctioned a bill of supply, in which no distinc- tion was made between the government and the popular expendi'^ure ; an annual grant being made, with considerable reductions, so that a virtual con- trol over the whole revenue was thereby conceded to the members. Accordingly, they now openly claimed the right to appropriate all that was raised within the province, denying the privilege, hitherto exercised by government, of the uncontrolled dis- posal of certain branches. These were the produce of duties on imports, imposed by act of Parliament in 1774, and yielding annually about jC34,000, with some of smaller amount arising from the sale of land, timber, and other casual sources. Earl Bath- rust strongly disapproved of the concessions made by Burton ; and Lord Dalhousie, having resumed office in 1826, disallowed a bill in which the above claim was incorporated. ,. , . X9 246 HISTORY OP CANADA sepl< Lord Goderich, who in 1827 received the seIR of the Colonial Office, though he maintained the right of government to dispose of the disputeJft^ revenue, yet directed that an offer should be made of resign- ing it to the Assembly on their granting an annual civil list of je36,000. On tiie meeting of that body, however, M. Papineau was elected speaker; an ap- pointment which, ori account of his violent opposi- tion to the measures of administration, Lord^al- housie refused to sanction. The consequence Was, that no session of either house was held in the win- ter of 1827-1828.* ^ Discontent had now risen to an alarming hei|ll; and in the latter year a petition was presented to the king, signed by 87,000 inhabitants, complaining of the conduct of successive governors, particularly of the Earl of Dalhousie, and urging a complifl|ce with the demands ot the Assembly. Mr. Huski^n, who had become colonial minister, moved that this peti. tion should be referred to a committee of the House of Commons. One was accordingly named, com- posed in a great degree of members attached to lib- eral principles, who, after a very elaborate investi- gation, gave in a report, in which they strongly condemned the practice of appropriating large sums taken from the public revenue without the sanction of the representatives of the people. With regard to the main portion of the disputed income, being that produced by the duties of 1774, its disposal ap- peared, from the report of his majesty's law offi- cers, to be vested in the crown ; yet the committee judged that the real interests of the province would be best promoted by placing the whole under the control of the Assembly. At the same time, they distinctly expressed their opinion that the governor, the judges, and the executive council should be * Despatches from the Earl of Aberdeen to Earl Amherst (ordered to be printed 22d March, 1838), p. 10, 11. McGregor, vol. ii., p. 395-398. , _ ,, ^. , . i, , ■'^^»m^:,^ ^t'^'w^^iSBHwUP^''^^ UNDER THE BRITISH. 247 made independent of the annual votes of that body. They recommended that a more liberal character should be conferred on the legislative and executive councils; and that the public lands should be ^6- signed in a more beneficial manner. Generally ad- mitting that the grievances complai A of were more or less well founded, they advis«. a a thorough and effectual redress. This report appears to have given very decided satisfaction in the colony, and the Assembly order- ed it to be printed, and 400 copies distributed.* In a series of resolutions passed on the 19th March, 1820, they seem to limit their demands to the com- plete fulf ' ^) • out in 1828, had been furnished with instruction. ^,0 car^ry the recommendations of the committe^nto effect with as little delay as possible, and genepKly to follow a conciliatory system. He appears to have proceeded with zeal and efficiency in the prescribed course. Three new members were added to the legislative council, who are said to have bepn agreeable to the popular party. The judges, with the exception of the chief justice, whose advice on legal questions was considered deoirable, were requested, with some earnestness, to resign their places in that body. They declined compliance, but agreed to take no share in its deliberations, and did not afterward attend its sittings. New members were also added to the executive council, in which seats \TZ7Z even offered to Neilson and Papineiu, the leaders of the opposition. The act transferring to the Assembly the revenue in dispute could not be obtained immediately, but it was promised on the first meeting of Parliament. The Assembly, Low- ever, in voting the supplies of 1829, had proceeded on the supposition of having the whole at their dis- * Minutes of the Evidence taken before the Select Ooinmit« tee api)ointed in I93i on the Affairs of Lower Caoadft. t Ibid , p. 8. ■■«i i Wm 248 HISTORY OF CANADA ff II posal, and cut off several thousand pounds from the goverr':ir's estimates ; but as the vote did not appear to inv :>ive any absolute recognition of their claim, and as it seemed inexpedient to dispute a point vir- tually given up, Sir James yielded his assent. This step, though not approved by Sir iSeorge Murray, was not, under the peculiar circumstances of the case, positively disallowed. The governor is said to have treated the ruling party in the Assembly with a courtesy of manners to which they had not been accustomed ; and on his departure in 1830, ad- dresses were presented to him by the most respect- able inhabitai\)L§ of Quebec and Montreal, which were signed byvPapineau and other popular lead- ers.* Lord Aylmer immediately succeeded to the gov- ernment. His communications with th^Asaembly were of the most friendly description ; Sid though circumstances consequent on the death of George ' IV. had still prevented the passing of the proposed act, it was promised with all practicable speed. Lord Goderich, who now presided in the Colonial Office, directed that the items, which had been again rejected in 1830, and amounted now to $36,000, should not be longer pressed, but a compensation be requested for several individuals who had been thereby deprived of their income. On the 24th De- cember, his lordship sent two despatches, intimating his intention to bring in a bill which should em- power his majesty to place the proceeds of the du- ties in question at the disposal of the Assembly. In /return, that body was expected to make a permanent provision for the judges, as well as for the principal officers of government. The demand was fixed at $91,680, which, by a grant of $24,000, made in 1795 for the support of the civil government, would be * Evidence before Committee of 1834, p. 4, 5, .-, 87, 91-93. Existing Difficulties in the Government of the Canadas, by J. A. Roebuck, M.P. (London, 1836), p. 16. •■"''*^i>mii&'' UNDER THE BRITISH. 249 reduced to $67,680. It was intimated, however, that the casual and territorial revenues arising from the sale of land, the cutting of timber, and other sources, werti still to be considered as belonging to the king. They had amounted in the previous year to $53,908 ; but were reduced, by expenses of col- lection and other deductions, to about $36;000. This sum it was proposed to employ chiefly in pay- ing the stipends of the clergy o. the Established Church, hitherto drawn, not very appropriately, out of the army extraordinaries. It was urged that these funds belonged legally and constitutionally to his majesty, whose employment of- them upon ob- jects not of mere patronage, but closely connected with the interests of the province, could not be rea- sonably objected to. Lord Aylmer was well aware that this last reser- vation would be deemed very unsatisfactory ; but he considered it most prudent to lay before the As- sembly a full and frank statement of the views of government. That body, after inquiring into the mode of collection and amount of these revenues, passed a resolution, that, *' under no circumstances, and upon no consideration whatever, they would abandon or compromise their claim to control over the whole public revenue." Particular objection was also intimated to the support of exclusive re- ligious establishments; doubtless more strongly felt from the circumstance that the church to be endowed was different from that of the ruling party. They determined, therefore, for the present, not to grant any permanent supply ; and on the 8th March, 1831, di-iewup, on the motion of Mr. Neilson, a long list of grievances, which was presented to the gov- ernor. He expressed, in return, an earnest wish to know if these comprised the whole of their com- plaints ; giving them to understand that silence would be construed into an admission of their being so. They were accordindv silent ; passed a '■i ^:* 250 HISTORY OF CANADA bill of annual supply ; and showe^, on the whole, a more favourable tone and temper.* His lordship transmitted the list of complaints, with admission that many of them were well found- ed, at the same time strongly eulogizing the loyal disposition of the people of Canada. Lord Gode- rich, in a long reply, dated July 7, 1831, declared that there was scarcely a point which government were not ready to concede, and expressed his satisfaction at the prospect thus afforded of a ter- mination to this long and harassing contest. This despatch was laid before the House, who, in a se- ries of resolutions, declared their gratitude for the expressions of his majesty's paternal regard, the proofs of a just and liberal policy, and the feel- ings of kindness and good- will manifested in it. The different points to which it related were referred to separate committees.! / Soon after, a despatch from the colonial secreta- ry made kno^n that the act for transferring the funds in dispute had passed the houses of Parlia- ment and received the royal assent. Whether from extreme liberality or total inadvertence, it was so worded as to preclude the imperial treasury from ever exercising any control over them, leaving thus no room for negotiation with the Assembly. Lord Aylmer was instructed, however, to demand, in return, a grant of permanent salaries to the judges, who were also, according to the Assembly's desire, to be made independent of the crown ; and a simi- lar provision was asked for the governor and a few of the chief executive officers. This matter being referred to the Assembly, they began, on the 30th January, 1832, with the first particular. On provi- ding that the judges should be independent of the erown, and, with the exception of the chief justice, ♦ Evidence before Committee of 1^4, p. 9-13, 19-25, 31-40. t Ibid., p. 37-47. ',;,.(*' ' ^4tk>ien.\ UNDER THE BRITISH. 251 should not sit in the executive or legislative coun- cils, it was determined that permanent salaries should he paid to them. But, at the same time, a motion of Mr. Neilson was carried by a large ma- jority, that these should be drawn in the first in- stance from the casual and territorial revenues, which Lord Goderich had expressly reserved to the crown. Lord Aylmer considered it, therefore, ne- cessary to send home the bill, yet v/ith an advicb to accept the terms, as the best there was any like- hhood of obtaining. It was rejected, however, on two grounds ; first, that it did not render the judges really independent of the Assembly, but left an an- nual vote still necessary. We cannot help suspect- ing that there was here an unhappy misconception. The terms of the bill are, " that the salaries shall be secured to them in a fixed and permanent man- ner ;" and " shall be taken and paid out of the pro- ceeds of the casual and territorial revenue, an'*, the revenue now appropriated by acts of the provincial Parliament for defraying the charges of the admin- istration of justice and the support of the civil gov- ernment, and out of any other public revenue of the province which may be, or come into the hands of the receiver-general." It would appear that, according to the plain meaning of language, these terms involved a full warrant for payment. Prob- ably Lord Goderich had legal advice, and some technical terms usual in British acts might be want- ing ; but a provincial legislature could scarcely be expected to be fully aware of these niceties. The legislative body, the governor, and, we doubt not, also the Assembly, had considered this as a per- manent settlement ; the latter, had it been so acted on, probably would not, and certainly could not, reasonably jfiave objected. The other ground was the encroachment upon the casual and territorial revenue, which, made in this indirect manner, was considered peculiarly offensive, though Lord Gode- 252 HISTORY OF CANADA i.'S' rich had been fully apprized of their determination against any agreement in which this article was not included.* The next question which came before the As- sembly was the demand of a permanent provision for the governor and a certain number of the lead- ing executive officers. After a long debate, how- ever, it was carried by a large majority in the neg- ative. This decision placed tho Assembly com- pletely at issue with the crown, and has been rep. resented as a breach of faith on their part. They had not, it is true, come under any formal engage- ment; yet the report of the committee of 1828, which decidedly connected this arrangement with the cession of the disputed revenues, had always been referred to by them as embracing almost everything desired ; and to this part of it they had never hinted any objection. On the 6th of Decem- ber, 1830, they had passed resolutions, insisting in- deed on the control of the entire revenue, but ex- pressing an intention, were this gained, to grant the permanent provision now demanded. That preliminary claim certainly embraced also the cas- ual and territorial branches still withheld ; yet these were not of great amount ; and the present bill, like that relating to the judges, might have been so framed as to be inoperative without these funds Heittg embraced by it. No reason was assigned; but the view of the Assembly is stated to have been, that the executive not being dependant on them for a naval and military establishment, would, in case of such a permanent settlement, have been entirely free from that control which they sought to exercise over it. They passed, howeyer, a vote of annual supply, which Lord Goderich, though much dissatisfied with the tenour of their proceed- ings, thought it expedient to sanction.! * Evidence, 1834, p. 56-65. t Ibid., p. 58-63. s • •'•"■•^«Nto«» UNDER THE BRITISH. 253 Next year (1833) the Assembly still granted only an annual bill, in which, according to a requisition of Lord Goderich, they stated the purposes to which each particular sum was to be applied. They added, without its being asked or wished, the indi- viduals to whom it was to be paid ; and appended a number of conditions, chiefly bearing, that such persons should not hold any other situation, and should not be members of the executive or legisla- tive councils. This was considered objectionable, because public officers were thus suddenly deprived of situations which they had long held, without any consideration of their claims to compensation ; also because those regulations ought not to have been tacked to a money bill, but made the subject of a separate enactment. On these grounds this bill was negatived by the legislative council, and Lord Stanley, who had been placed at the head of the Colonial Office, intimated that, had it reached him, he could not have advised his majesty to assent to it. In the same session, a measure was introdu- ced for securing independence and permanent pro- vision to the judges, in a form calculated to obviate Lord Goderich's chief objections ; but, on the mo- tion of M. Papineau, it was rejected, and the speech- es of thie leaders of the Assembly are said to have implied, that it was no longer considered advisa- ble to exempt these functionaries from their con- trol.* The breach now continually widened. Lord Stanley, coi^sidering the conduct of the Canadians as manifesting a resolution to engross the whole power of the state, directed the funds not yet made over by Parliament to be employed in the partial payment of the civil officers ; and he is said to have determined to bring in a bill for repealing the act by which the concession had been made. Meantime Vol.. I.— Y » Rvi/^AiinA 1834 n 74-7Q >f 254 HISTORY OF CANADA V the Assembly had raised, and placed in the front of their demanas, a new article, which ahnost entirely preduded all hope of accommodation, namely, the abolition of the present legislative council, and the substitution of one elected, like themselves, by the body of the people. Such an arrangement was without example in any British colony ; and the ex- isting state of political feeling in the mother coun- try would have rendered it scarcely possible for jninisters to propose it in Parliament. It had been jfirst started in March, 1831, when Lord Aylmer had just gone out with the announced intention of act- ing upon the report of 1828, and redressing, if pos- sible, every grievance hitherto complained of. There seemed, therefore, room to suspect, that the conciliatory disposition shown, instead of producing final satisfaction, had only prompted to higher de- mands, through the belief that, by perseverance, th;ey would finally )i>biain whatever they chose to ask. Yet, though a resolution of the committee to that effect was approved by the members, it was not expressly included in the list of grievances then presented. But) on the 20th March, 1833, a petition to the king, signed by M. Papineau, speakei of the House of Assembly, strenuously urged this measure, and the calling of a body of delegates to arrange the conditions. The leading ones proposed were, a qualification in the electors of $48 in the country and of $96 in towns, a certain income to qualify the councillor, and the duration of his functions for six years. Lord Stanley, in reply, said this was an object to which, deeming it altogether inconsistent with the very existence of monarchical institutions, he could never advise his majesty to consent;, and he particularly objected to the proposed mode of effecting it, by what he termed " a national conven- tion." A counter address, however, by the legisla- tive council, was censured as intemperate in its lan- guage, and appearing to ascribe generally to his .1 ■««»i«yiua. rNDBR THE BRITISH. 255 majesty^s subjects of one origin views inconsistent with their allegiance. In conclusion, he alluded to " the possibility that events might unhappily force upon Parliament the exercise of its supreme author- ity to compose the internal dissensions of the colo- nies, and which might lead to a modification of the charter of the Canadas."* This despatch was submitted to the Aspsmbly, and its entire tenour, particularly the implied threat at the close, excited the highest indignation in that body. They declined this year (1834) to pass any bill of supply whatever, and employed the session in preparing another long list of grievances. They complained that, while those formerly urged were still unredressed, there had been added the partial payment of the civil officers without their consent. They made a peremptory demand of the elective legislative council, without which nothing would be accepted as satisfactory. Lord Aylmer's conduct was reprobated as violent, unconstitutional, and contemptuous, and his recall urgently demanded. The petition was presented to Parliament, and a committee appointed for its consideration. Meantime Lord Stanley retired from power, and was succeeded in the colonial department by Mr. Spring Rice. This gentleman renounced the de- sign entertained by his predecessor of recalling the revenues yielded to the Assembly, and gave intima- tion, it is said, that he would follow a more concil- iatory course. He only asked a little time till he could ^ake himself master of the subject ; and thus the popular leaders were induced to delay taking any strong measures. They bitterly complained, however, that the administration was carried on as before. Lord Aylmer was continued in the govern- ment, and though the Canadian funds were not in- trenched upon, a sum of $148,800 was advanced • Evidence, 1834, p. 78, 193-200. Roebuck, p. 17. ■'.17 ■> ' \, f r:l'!;;li Mi u \ ..iS i 256 HISTORY OF CANADA from the military chest for payment of the jivil ser- vants, by which their responsibility to the Assem- bly was equally evaded. Before Mr. Rice had ma- tured his plan, he was removed from office by the accession of Sir Robert Peel to power. He stated tiiat he had it completed, and was ready to submit it to the cabinet on the very day when this change occurred; an assertion which Mr. Roebuck treats with evident skepticism, though seemingly without any adequate ground. Sir Robert, on assuming the reins of office, early directed his attention to the disturbed state of Can- ada. After some deliberation, he determined to send out a commissioner, with power to examine on the spot, and redress without delay, every real grievance which should be proved to exist. Even the casual and territorial revenues were to be sur- rendered, on condition of the settlement of a civil list for at least seven years. The elective legisla- tive council, however, and the entire management of the public lands, could not be conceded.* Vis- count Canterbury, the late speaker, was first invited to fill this important appointment, and, on his decli- ning, it was col\ferred on Earl Amherst. This ar- rangement, however, was nullified by the vote which led to the resignation of Sir Robert, and the return of Lord Melbourne to power. The restored ministry followed up, with certain modifications, the plan of their predecessors. A commission was sent out, for inquiry only, and with- out the power of decision, composed of the follow- ing individuals: the Earl of Gosford, Sir Charles Edward Grey, and Sir George Gipps. The first, an Irish nobleman, professing principles decidedly lib- eral, succeeded Lord Aylmer as governor. Lord Glenelg, now the colonial secretary, drew up for their guidance a series of instructions, in which he * Despatch from the Earl of Aberdeen to Earl Amherst, p. 9-6. -'*'**>--^ >'HinWiiillB.iE 4> UNDER THE BaiTISH. 257 considered the claim to the disposal of the entire revenue somewhat exorbitant, and not warranted by British example, yet was willing, for the salce of peace, to consent to it on certain conditions. These wore, an independent provision for the judg- es, and salaries for the civil officers, fixed for a cer- tain number of years, ten being mentioned as par- ticularly suitable. With regard to the uncleared lands, the whole proceeds arising from their sale were to be placed at the disposal of the Assembly ; but government could not consent to part with the management of them, or annul the contract made with the Land Company, though they would be ready to guard against all abuses, and even to re- ceive any suggestions on the subject. The existing pensions were also to be retained, bul the future power of granting them would be surrendered. In regard to the critical question of the elective legis- lative council, it was said, "The king is most un- willing to admit, as open to debate, the question, whether one of the vital principles of the provincial government shall undergo alteration." The right of petition, however, was fully recognised, and his majesty would not " absolutely close the avenue to inquiry," even where, " for the present, he saw no reasonable ground of doubt."* The Earl of Gosford having arrived ii. Canada, lost no time in caUing a meeting of the legislature, who were convoked on the 27th October, 1835; and in his opening speeches he professed the most conciliatory views, particularly towards the French or popular party. He avowed the opinion, that " to be acceptable to the great body of the people is one of the most essential elements of fitness for public station." He intimated his readiness t9 place the whole revenue at the disposal of the Assembly on the conditions formerly stated. All the other griev- * Copy of the Instructions to the Earl of Gosford, &c., p. 5-13. Y2 d5S HISTORY OF CANADA ances were to be carefully examined and redressed; and allusion was made to " still graver matters," relucting which the commissioners **were not precluded from entering into an inquiry." The legislative council returned an answer which, in all respects, was extremely moderate. They generally concurred in the sentiments of the speech, deprecated the idea that difference of origin should affect political rights, which ought to be equal to all his majesty's subjects. But the House of Assembly, while holding conciliatory language, advanced much higher pretensions. The change in the legislative council was repeatedly pressed, as absolutely es- sential to the tranquillity and contentment of the province. The entire control of the public revenue was referred to, not as a boon, but an incontestable and essential right; and while they stated their readiness to consider attentively any measure tend- ing to facilitate the exercise of this right, they avoided all mention of conditions to be performed in return. Notwithstanding the high ground thus taken, the intercourse between the popular leaders and the governor was extremely friendly. He ad- mitted them to his table and his intimacy, and treat- ed them on every occasion with much kindness. They were understood to represent the great body of the people, whom he had expressed his desire to conciliate ; and he professed liberal views to those who would understand that term in its widest sense. So decided was the impression produced, that the opposite party loaded him with the bitterest invec- tives, and even threw out menaces of insurrection ; while the leaders of the Assembly went so far as to intimate, that th^y would relieve the immediate financial embarrassments by granting the three years' arrears, and a half year in advance. They attached to the grant somewhat hard conditions, which, however, were not rejected ; and on the re- mark being made that these would ensure its rejec- ■^?**Hijgfe«^ tNDBR THE BRITISR. 259 tion by the legislative council, an intimation is said to have been given that it would be accepted di- rectly by address, without being liable to the veto of that body.* ^ This good understanding was suddenly interrupt- ed. The governor's language above cited, in regard to the elective council, had been very different from that of his instructions, not pledging him indeed to the measure, yet such as, combined with his other conduct, conveyed to both parties the idea that it was determined upon. This course is defended as the only one by which the supplies so urgently wanted could be obtained ; and it was hoped that, by a continued conciliatory course, the Assembly might, when the real intention of the cabinet could no longer be concealed, be induced to wave their demand. Any degree of duplicity in a government, however, niust, when discovered, lower its dignity, irritate the deceived parties, and, at the same time, give them an impression of their strength, which had driven those in authority to such an expedient. Unhappily, all those effects followed before any of the expected fruits had been reaped. Sir Francis Bond Head had, at the same time, been sent out to Upper Canada, and, being a very straightforward person, and seemingly unapprized of Lord Gosford'd intentions, had made public a part of the instruc- tions, including that momentous passage already quoted relative to the legislative council. It was such as, though not wholly precluding discussion on the object, left to the popular leaders scarcely a hope of its attainment. Their rage knew no bounds ; they complained not only of disappointment in their favourite object, but of a deception by which they had been nearly misled. It was now determined * Papers relating to Lower Canada r20th Februarv, 1837) p. 4-12. Anti-Gallic Letters, by Camillus (Montreal, 1836- p. 35-41. Correspondence on Canada Af&irs (Brighton, 1836 p. 3<^, &c. ■*v,^ 260 .HISTORY OF CANADA not to grant the three years' arrears, but merely a sup- ply for the current half year, allowing only that short Eeriod to comply with their demand s. This slender o6n, too, was clogged with conditions which, as had been foreseen, induced the upper house to reject it, so that the session, in all respects very stormy, passed over without any provision whatever being made for the public service. The legislative coun- cil felt indignant at the violent attempts meditated for its overthrow, and instead of studying to show these to be unmerited, the members vented their re- sentment by rejecting almost every bill sent jp from the Assembly. Among these was the vote contin- uing the funds for national education, which were thus entirely withdrawn. All the political elements were disturbed, and in violent collision with each other.* The commissioners, in March, 1836, viewing this state of things, and seeing no prospect of obtaining money to carry on the government, without imme- diately yielding to every demand of the lower house, considered it indispensable to obtain it without their consent. This, they thought, would be best ac- complished by Parliament repealing the act passed on the motion of Lord Goderich, by which funds to the amount of $182,400 had been made over to the Assembly. This would indeed excite bitter resent- ment; but, with the other reserved revenues, it would at least enable the government to proceed without any grants from that body. Lord Glenelg was not forward to act on this recommendation. He wrote to the Earl of Gosford, expressing a hope, on grounds which do not very distinctly appear, that the violent resolution complained of had been in- duced by the partial and imperfect knowledge of the instructions, and that a communication of the whole * Roebuck, p. 39. The late Session of the Provincial*: Far liament(Montreal, 1836), p. 13-29. .^-^ tl'VJ ; >■ ... ■''':^mmmL UNDER THE BRITISH. 261 might lead to more favourable views. He express- ed a wish, therefore, that the provincial Parliament should be again called, and an opportunity affdrded for retracting before recourse was h^ to extreme measures. The meeting was accordingly held on the 22d of September, 1836 ; but the majority sooa presented an address to the governor, denying that^ according to the apprehension expressed in his speech, they laboured under any kind of misconcep- tion ; they saw nothing to make them change their views, or prevent them from insisting on the same demands, particularly that of the elective council. They adverted in an indignant manner to certain pretended authorities, as they termed the commis- sion, and maintained ^hat they themselves were the legitimate and authorized organ of all classes of in- habitants ; that they had used their power in such a manner as ought to have secured confidence ; and to them, not to a few strangers, ought to have been committed the fate of the country. They declared it their imperative duty to adhere to the contents of their last address ; " and to them do we adhere.** They finally expressed a resolution not only to do nothing more in regard to supply, but to adjoum their deliberations altogether, unless government should commence the great work of justice and re^ form, particularly in regard to the second branch of the legislature.* Matters had now reached an extremity which seea.ed to render it no longer possible to delay an interposition. Ministers therefore determined no longer to post*- pone measures for counteracting the proceedings of the popular party, and placing the executive government in a state of regular action. Parlia- ment having assembled, and the reports of the com- * Second Report of Canada Commissioners, p. 93-95, <&o. Papers relating to Lower Canada, p. 31-41. ., ^i 262 HISTORY OP CANADA missioners being laid on the table, Lord John Rus- sell, on the 6lh March, 1837, moved a series of res- olutions on which acts were to be founded. After a statement of the actual posture of affairs, it was proposed that the sum of $681,600 should be taken out of the provincial funds locked up by the Assem- bly, and applied to the payment of the judges and other civil officers, down to the 10th April. It was afterward agreed, not, as the commissioners had recommended, to resume any part of the ceded moneys, but by a strict economy to carry on the government from that date with the casual and ter- ritorial revenues, which circumstances had now raised to about $134,400. The elective legislative council, and the direct responsibility of the execu- tive one to the Assembly, were both declared inex- pedient ; though it was stated as desirable that con- siderable improvements should be made in the com- position of both. These suggestions gave occa- sion to very warm debates. The Tories, while they supported the proposals of government, ac- cused them of an imprudent indulgence and want of energy, which had imboldened the malecontent party to proceed to extremities. On the other hand, a small but active section of the popular leaders justified all the claims and proceedings of the Canadian Assembly, denounced the resolutions as unconstitutional and tyrannical, and predicted as their result civil war and the loss of the colonies. The motion of Mr. Leader, however, in favour of an elective council, was negatived by 318 to 56, and the cabinet measures were carried by overwhelming majorities ; but the death of William IV. intervened before they could be imbodied in acts of Parliament. The necessity of a dissolution, and the unwilling- ness to begin the government of a young and popu- lar queen by a scheme of coercion, induced minis- ters to substitute the expedient of advancing the amount by way of loan from the British revenue, in *"')s*flii«;t«i« UNDER THE BRITISH. 263 the prospect of being ultimately reimbursed from- the provincial fund. As an interval was to elapse between the passing of the resolutions and their being acted on, Lord Gosford was instructed to make a last trial of the Assembly, in hopes that, seeing such a vast major- ity in Parliament against them, they might be in- duced of themselves to vote the money, and thus save the necessity of any unwonted interference. Already, however, several violent demonstrations had taken place. Meetings were held in the coun- ties of Montreal and Richelieu, in which it was af- firmed, ^hat the votes of the commons had put an end to all hopes of justice ; and that no farther at- tempts should be made to obtain redress from. the Imperial Parliament. They considered the govern- ment as now only one of force, to be submitted to from necessity during their present weakness; and in order to reduce as far as possible its power, they declared that all consumption of British manufac- tures, and of articles paying taxes, ought to be dis- continued; and, finally, that a general convention should be held, to consider what farther measures were advisable. Lord Glenelg, in consequence of this state of things in Canada, had resolved to send out two ad- . ditional regiments; but afterward, finding this to be inconvenient, he gave authority to apply to rir Colin Campbell for such force as could be spared from Nova S3. An address was then moved by M. Tascb<3reau, a representative of the county of Beauce, expressing a willingness to give a trial to tho means proposed for amending the legislative council, but declining any grant till they were brought inix) operation. Another address, breath- ing most determined hostility, was then moved, and eaaied by 46 to 31. It denounced the step now tal.6ii as an absolute destruction of the representa- tive government in the province, a total refusal of all the reforms and improvements demanded. If these resolutions were carried into effect, the colo- ny, i% was said, would no longer be attached to the mother country by feelings of duty, of affection, and mutual interest, but solely by physical force. In this conjuncture they could see no motive for the ^lightest departure from their intention to withhold fbe supplies ; and they adhered in every resv :^t. to their resolutions of 30th September, 1836. ird Gosford, in reply, gave utterance to his dee; ■ ^ret at measures which > considered a virtu ' lihila- * Copies, &;c., of C'^^o^pondence relative to I.i>\ (23d D«c«mber, 1837), p. 8-13, 20-33. Canada ! T. "'r^' M '^'-^mm.- UNDBR THE BRITISH. 860 tion df the constitution, and immediately prorogued the Assembly.* The popular leaders seem now to haive formed ihe resolution of having recourse to arms. They had often asserted,! ^^^ seem to have at length be^ lieved, that only an effort was required to sever the colonies from the mother country. This was a most hasty and inconsiderate conclusion. The ex^ ample of the American colonies was referred to; but they were much stronger than the Canadians are now, while the power of Britain, on the othef hand, was considerably smaller. Yet it wa» only after a long and calamitous contest of eight yearft that they established their independence. The aid of the United States was indeed held forth ; but the latter had been so little disposed to intermeddle on such occasions, that they remained neutral during the long contest between Spain and her colonies, although her situation gave them little to dread from her resentment. It was, therefore, very unlikely that they should now engage for such an object in a contest with the whole power of Britain. The meetings in pursuance of these views were not held on so great a scale, or in the same pubiie manner as formerly. They were numerous, how- ever, and lie^thed the most hostile spirit, renoun* cittg all hope of redress from the parent states and pointing directly to a separation. A central com-» mittee was formed at Montreal, whose proceed^* ings were in a great measure secret, and {M'epara-* tions were imderstocd to be making for a general convention, It was nearly vain to attempt repress* ihg the vrc i violent dei vnnstrations against the gov* ernmen since no petty jury could be found to con* vict ; and in two instances, wheiji the evidence wa& considered perfectly conclasive, the bills were ig* Jkored by the ^rand jury. The governor, however^ Vol. I.~ * Correspondence, &c., p. 36-*45. t Roebuck, p. 33, 43, 50. 266 UISTOR OF CANADA learning that numerotn individuals holding heir majesty^s commission had taken a share in those meetings, caused letters to be written to them de- manding an explanation. On receiving none that was satisfactory, he dismissed eighteen magistrates and thirty* two militia officers. Among the latter was Papineau. In the beginning of October, the new arrangement of the two councils was carried into effect, at least to a great extent ; but it excited little interest, and was rejected by the popular lead- ers as wholly unsatisfactory.* The malecontent party became every day bolder. An association was formed, under the title of ** The Sons of Liberty," who paraded the streets of Mon- treal in a hostile and threatening manner. They emitted a proclamation containing the most violent expressions. " The wicked designs," said they, " of British authorities have severed all ties of sympathy for an unfeeling mother country." — "A glorious destin^r awaits the young men of these colonies ;" and this was explamed to be '^ to disfranchise our beloved country from all human authority, except that of the bold democracy residing within its bo- som." They alluded to "the struggle for life und liberty in which we must sooner' or later be en- gaged, when the day of glory arrives, that will see us emerge from a long, dark bondage to the splendour of light and freedom." At the same time in the county of Two Mountains, the people deter- mined not to obey the magistrates appointed in the room of those displaced ; an organization was form- ed of pacificator justices, to compose differences without recourse to the constituted authorities, and in whose decisions all true patriots were required to acquiesce. Meanwhile, the militia in that district were organized in a new form, under officers of their own selection, including those recently di^ (■"/ * Correspondence, p. 47-50, 63, 72. '^^^^mJ^. UNDER THB BRITISH. 267 missed; and an active training was carried on. All loyal and neutral residents were compelled ei- ther to join the malecontents or quit the territory, throughout which British authority entirely ceased.* No long tin^e passed before this cour««e of pro- ceeding was imitated in the more populous portion of the Montreal territory lying southward of the St. Lawrence. On the 23d October, a meeting was held of the five counties on the Richelieu and the Ya- maska, when a petition was presented from L'Aca- die to be admitted as a sixth. The petitioners used the strongest language, declaring themselves pre- pared to sacrifice everything most dear to them in this world, to emancipate from a vile slavery the land that gave them birth. They renounced all principles but those of the purest democracy, and desired to place themselves under the guidance and behind the buckler of L. J. Papineau. At the meet- ing of the six counties, the numbers attending were variously estimated from 1500 to 5000, of whom a proportion were armed. The recent appointnionts to the two councils were declared wholly unsatisfac- tory, while the introduction of an armed force into the province was stigmatized as a new and enor- mous grievance. The magistrates and militia were to be organized after the model of those of the Two Mountains, and the example of the Sons of Liberty was also recommended, ** that they might be pre- pared to support each other with promptitude and effect, should circumstances require them to protect and defend their threatened liberties.^* A similar address was drawn up on the following day, and circulated through the province. The same course was followed, of compelling the ofl^cers to resign their situati^ ry ar leave the countr^.f Governm- . lid not remain passive while its au- thority was openly set at naught, and insurrection • Ccnnespmidance., &e,, n, 63-70, f Ibid., p. 86-<89t 95 ICC^ =*. •-■K^X"-^^ '-'7 *,■ ^,'■=f^F^'* 268 HISTORY OP CANADA mLtxared under its ^'cr^ eye. Applications were made to Sir Colii.. < \ a^ Ull for two additional regi. ments, and lik wi^r r^r what force could be spared from the Uppor Province. The offers of the loyal inhabitants to place themselves in syrms, which had vho had assumed the title of their general. Papineau^s house, Which the victors at- tempted to burn, was saved, but the office of the Vinoicator newspt i *ir w«s destro ed. Exaggerated reports of this affair being spread throughout the country, heightened thn general ferment ; and it was annoi;inced from various quarttvrs that resistance was daily extending, and assuming a more organized ibrm. % It was now obvious, that nless some decisive step were taken, the malec ,. tit cruse must con- tinually gain new strength, and X .o connexion of th^ colonies with the mother country become seri- Gii^iy endangered. The course deemed most ef- fectual was immediately to arrest the most active leaders. A warrant was accordingly issued at Mon- tretd against twenty-six, of whom seven were mem* UNDER THI BRITISH. 869 ben of the Assembly, including Papineau and Viger. Nine were apprehended ; but Papineau had disap- peared, and doubts were even entertained if he were still in the province.* This step necessarily led to a crisis, especially as some of the warrants were against persons residing in the heart of the disiurbed territory. Two being m the vicinity of St. John, on the Richelieu, a party of eighteen voluriteer militia "vere despatched thither to apprehend them. An oversight seems to have been committed in sending so small a force, not regular, into the midst of a hos- tile country They succeeds d, however, in captu- rinsf the parties ; and an armed body of thirty, who appeared near Chambly, made no attempt to inter- cept them. Near Longueuil, however, they found a field on the right of the road occupied by 300 wellr^ armed men, protected by a high fence. From this afjHemblage ^ fii9 was immediately opened upon the dc chment, nrhich, from its position, could not be returned with effect. Several were wounded, the rest i reated, and the two prisoners were rescued by the insurgents.f The Stan rd of insurrection having thus been openly raised, it became necessary to act with the utmost promptitude. Information was received that Papineau, Brown, and Neilson were at the villages of St. Denis and St. Charles, on the Richelieu, which had been occupied by the armed inhabitants; aud accordingly, Sir John Colborne, the commander-isi" chief, sent strong detachments, under Colonels Gore and Wetherall, to attack these pla les. The forKne]*, on the 22d of November, having conveyed his for^e in a steamer to Sorel, proceeded up the river againsl St. Denis ; but being obliged to take a circuitous * It has been asserted by M. Papineau and his friends, that he gave no encouragement to extreme measures ; that he was opposed to ihe insurrection, and that he left the province to avoid being implicated in it.— Am. £d. J VWff«B|IUUU<2U«iC, p. W* AV«~* av. Z2 ■>■'' ^4 N,1 1 ill ! "1^^ 870 BISTORT or CANADA route, through tracks which, from previous rain, were knee-deep, the troops arrived in a very jaded •iate. Though the whole country was in arms, no serious resistance was encountered till they reach- ed the village, the entrance to which was defended by a large stone house strongly fortified, from which, as well as from others on each side, a heavy fire* was opened. A howitzer was brought up against it, whence round-shot was fired with a view to bat- ter it down, but without effect. Captain Markham, with the advance, had cleared the way and taken an adjoining house, but was then severely wound- ed, and obliged to quit the field. Finding that no impression could be made on the main barrier, that his ammunition was nearly exhausted, and that the troops were overpowered with fatigue. Gore eonsidered a retreat unavoidable. It was effected without serious inconvenience, though it became necessary to leave a cannon on the road, while his loss was six killed, ten wounded, and six missing. Meantime, Colonel Wetherall, with his detach- ment, proceeded by way of Chambly to St. Charles, a point higher up the river. He was delayed in a similar manner by the badness of the roads ; and, on leaching St. Hilaire, found it necessary to procure another company from Chambly, and even to send a messenger to Montreal, we presume for farther aidi Having reason, however, to consider his com- munications with that place intercepted, he deter- mined, on the 20th, to advance to the attack. About 1500 insurgents, under the command of Brown, had posted themselves in the village, and surrounded it with a strong stockade. The English commander, oa his arrival, drew up his force at a short distance, in the hope of producing some defection ; but none talcinff place, and a heavy fire being opened upon faind, qe pushed forward to the assault. In ^bout an hour the intrenchment was carried, the fortified houses and palisades were set on firoi the troops m VNDBR THB BRITISH. «71 were mastera of the town, and the insurgents fled in every direction. The carnage was great, the en- tire loss of the insurgents being about 300. Charges have been made of severe and vindictive proceed- ings, which we should hope are exaggerated.* An- other body took up a position in his rear, with a view of cutting off his return to Chambly ; but when he approached them on the 28th, they broke and dispersed at the first onset.f The affair of St. Charles decided the fate of the contest. A general panic spread among the peas- antry, and they began to consider themselves be- trayed by their leaders. Colonel Gore, strongly re-enforced, again advanced upon St. Denis, which he entered without resistance on the 2d of Decem- ber, Neilson and Brown having quitted it on the pre • ceding evening. He then marched upon St. Hya- cinthe, but found it also undefended, and made a vain search for Papineau. The chi^fj, renouncing their hopes, were already seeking safety in the ter- ritory of the United States. Brown reached it with great difficulty, through many perils ; Neilson was taken in a barn, conveyed to Montreal, and thrown into prison.^ Papineau, however, (sould not be dis- covered. Attempts were made to support the cause from a quarter which, under certain circumstances, might have proved very formidable. The United States contained many mdividuals disposed to sympathize deeply with the Canadians, and some of whom were inchned to join them. Even in the present hopeless circumstances, 200 passed the frontier ; but, before Sir John Colborne could send a force against thenii, m party of the volunteers of M issisqui county, under * There appears to be little doubt that there was a wanton and barbarous destruction of human life on this occasion.—* iLm. Ed. t Papers relating to Lower Canada (16th January, 1838), p. »-6, 272 HISTORY OF CANADA m the command of Captain Kemp, took arms and drove them back with some loss. The whole of the six counties, so lately in open rebellion, were in a fort- night reduced to perfect tranquillity.* There remained still the districts of Two Mount- ains and Terrebonne, north of Montreal, where in- surrection had been first organized, and still wore its most determined aspect. Sir John Colbome had judiciously postponed operations against this quar- ter till, the south being completely tranquillized, he co!ild direct thither his whoie force. On the 14th December he marched in person, with about 1300 regular and volunteer troops, against the large vil- lage of St Mustache. The disasters of th.'^ir breth- ren elsewhere had spread a well-founded alarm ; and the greater number of the men and their leathers, including Girod, the supposed commander-in-chief, fled precipitately. About 400 of the most resolute, however, continued to occupy a church and adjoin- ing buildings, which had been carefully fortified; and here so obstinate a stand was made, that a Brit- ish detachment was at one point obliged to recede. But fire having reached the adjacent edifices, soon spread to the church itself, the defenders of which were thereby speedily dislodged : while the troops, being protected by the houses, did not lose more than one killed and nine wounded. | Colonel Maitland now marched towards St. 6e-| coit, the chief village of the Grand Brul6 district, which had been the focus of insurrection; but on his way he met a deputation, tendering the most humble submission, and he entered the place without resistance. Unfortunately, the loyal inhabitants, who had been plundered and driven out oi the coun- try, could not be restrained from acts of violence, and a considerable portion of the houses were re- duced to ashes. Maitland, after occupying St. Scho« ♦ Papew (16th January, 1838), p. 18,1©: (2dFabw!«rj: ?=t* w>w«*i««< -*-««*«i*»*-***te-»»iitt«»f*.rf«^^ eNDKR TRB BRITISH. 273 lastiqne, returned to Montreal, leaving the district in a stat^ of perfect tranquillity. The people, com» plaining that their chiefs, after instigating them to revolt, had d^^serted them, seemed determined not to be again seduced into such a course. Several of the leaders were taken ; Girod himself, being sur- rounded so that he could not escape, committed suicide.* Upper Canada, meantime, had become the theatre of important events. For a considerable time, es- pecially since the residence there of Mr. Gourlay, a party had existed supporting extreme political opin- ions. These, it is true, were not imbittered by any feelings arising trom difference of race ; but many of the inhabitants had migrated from the United States, to whose institutions they were naturally partial. They gained over a number 'Of the British residents, influenced by the usual mdtives, and. who complained especially of the favouritism shown in the granting of land. These grounds of discontent were carefully investigated by the committee of 1828, and instructions issued by Lord Goderich, which here, as in the Lower Province, gave general satisfaction. The discontented party, however, pro* ceeded from one step to another, tiir Mackenzie, Buncombe, and other leaders scarcely made any secret of their desire to separate from Britain and join the American union. In 1834, this party for the first time obtained a majority in the Assembly ; and though they had hitherto confined themselves to complaints on particular subjects, they now com- menced a general opposition to the royal govern- ment, and at length, as in the other province, came into violent collision with the legislative council. They transmitted to the king a long Ust of grievan- ces, complaining that the offices in the colony were too numerous, too highly paid, and the holders re- ♦ Papers (29th January. 1838^. d. 11-14 ; (2d Febraary), p. # 274 HISTORY OF CANADA movable at the pleasure of the crown ; that support had been unduly given to particular religious es- tablishments ; and that Lord Goderich*£ recommend- ations had by no means been fully acted upon. Thejr also urged, with the same vehemence as in the lister colony, the demand for an elective legisla- tive council* This union of the two provinces, pushing with equal zeal the most extreme measures, brought af- fairs into a somewhat hazardous position. VS^hen Lord Gosford and the commissioners were sent to Lower Canada, the ministry placed the upper prov- ince under Sir Francis Head. Having arrived early in 1836, as already related, he took the straightfor- ward course of at once publishing the extent and limits of his instructions ; at the same time assuring the people of his most zealous efforts to remove evei^ practical grievance. The Assembly, however, were by no means satisfied ; and another ground of contest soon arose. Sir Francis added to the ex- ecutive three members, whose appointment was highly satisfactory to the popular party; but, as several weeks elapsed without their having been consulted on any subject, they stated in a lettei that they considered themselves thus rendered re- sponsible for measures in which they were allowed no share, and therefore tendered their resignation. While accepting it with regret, he maintained that he lay under no obligation to consult them on every measure ; but was at perfect liberty to judge of the occasions on which the public interest might require their aid. The House of Assembly immediately took up the affair, and having, agreeably to request, been furnished with a copy of the correspondence, drew up a report, and afterward a long address to ^tlie king, strenuously controverting the governor's doctrine, and, in the course of it, broadly charging him with *' deviations from candour and truth." * Inilructions to Lord Godford and Sir Fnuicis Head, p. U -65. * idUpMWiiiijii UNDER THE BRITISH. 275 Proceeding in the same spirit, they for the first time . stopped the supplies; in consequence of which, Sir Francis reserved all their money-bills for his majes- ty's decision, and rejected the application for pay- ment of their incidental expenses.* All hopes of accommodation being thus closed, he determined, on the 28th of May, to make an appeal to the people by a new election. It was contested with extraordinary ardour ; Sind a war of manifes- toes, proclamations, and addresses was Srthwith waged between the parties. The result was, that in the new Assembly a decided majority supported the constitutional side. The opposite party com- plained to the ministry that this effect had been pro- duced by illegal means, by extraordinary grants of land, and even by violence and bribery. The As- sembly, however, after inquiry by a committee, de-^ clared these allegations to be utterly false, express- ing, at the same time, the strongest auachment to the mother country and to the governor. During this tranquil and satisfactory state of Up- per Canada, insurrection broke out in the lower province ; and Sir Francis being requested to state what force he could spare, his answer was, all. He considered it not only practicable, bnt desirable, that every soldier should be removed out of his district, and a full display thus made of its Iryal and peace- ful condition.. He caused the arms to be deposited in the city hall of Toronto, under charge of the mayor, declining even tc place a guard over them, to prevent sudden capture. In this state of things Mackenzie determined to make an attempt upon the capital. Having a number of small detached parties throughout the province, who were ready to obey his mandate, and had even been trained to the um of weapons, he ordered chem to assemble, on the 4th December, on the great road called Yonge-street, • Upper uanada rapers (sOth June, 1836) p. 6, 48- 50. HX imr 276 mSTORT OF CANADik leading to Lake Simcoe. Hurrying by cross pathi * through the forest, they mustered at Montgomerie's tavern, about four miles from Toronto. Their num- bers, at first estimated at 3000, are not supposed to have exceeded 500. With the view of efifecting a surprise, they attacked every one going to the city ; among whom Colonel Moodie, a distinguished offi- cer, was wounded, and died in a few hours. Alder- man Powell, however, having shot one of his as- sailants, escaped, roused the governor, and gave the alarm ; upon which Sir Francis ran to the town hall, V here he found the chief justice with a musket on his shoulder, surrounded by a band of brave men who had hastily assembled. The arms being un- packed and placed in their hands, they posted them- selves in a defensive attitude at the windows of the building, and of others flanking it. But Mackenzie, presummg that Powell would instantly give notice, did not venture to advance ; a pusillanimous resolu- tion, assuredly, since he could never again expect so favourable an opportunity. By morning 300 loyalists were mustered ; and in the course of the day, Mr. Allan M'Nab, speaker of the House of As- sembly, arrived with sixty from the Goire District, and others from different quarters raised the num- ber to 600. On the 6th the force was considered sufficient for offensive operations ; but the governor, anxious to avoid the effusion of blood, sent a mes- sage to the insurgents, inviting them to lay down their arms. Mackenzie offered to comply, on con- dition that a national convention should be called, allowing till two o'clock for the answer ; but as no reply could be given to thisj proposition, ai-range- ments were immediately made for iittack on the following day. ,,^t . On the 7th December, at noon, #ie whole force marched out. The insurgents had occupied an el- evated position in front of the tavern, where, being in some degree protected by houseS; ihey endeav= -^jiaWiWtetnteiM' VNDER THS BRITISH. 2rt oured to make a stand ; but the militia, advancing to the charge with the utmost enthusiasm, soon broke the whole corps, which dispersed in every direction, Mackenzie himself escaping with extreme precipi- tation. They were pursued foui miles; two of the chiefs were taken; the tavern was burned to the ground ; and the revolt was so completely quashed, that Sir Francis considered he might safely exercise lenity, and dismissed the greater part of the prison- ers.* The militia, meantime, had been marching to- wards Toronto in great numbers; 2600 from the Newcastle District, and in all upward of 10,000. Immediate notice was now issued that they might return to their homes ; and thpse of the eastern dis- tricts were authorized to give their aid to Lower Canada. As it was understood, however, that Dun- combe had assembled a corps in the London District, which had been a main seat of faction. Colonel M'Nab was sent thither with a sufficient force. On its approach the chiefs disappeared, and about 300 of their followers laid down their arms. The insurrection had thus been entirely put down* and upper Canada was everywhere completely tran- quil, when a sudden danger arose which threatened to becf 'me very serious. Mackenzie fled to the city of Buffalo, in which he held several meetings, and kindled a considerable excitement. Van Rensse- laer, Sutherland, and other individuals acquainted with military s,ervice, presented themselves as lead- ers of au armament. A small corps was assembled, which took possessioa of Navy Island, situated in the Niagara channel, between Grand Island and the British shore, which they fortified with thirteen pie- (les of cannon. Hence Mackenzie issued a procla^ mation in the assumed name of the provisional gov- CMTttmeat of Upper Canada. Volunteers were invi- * rapers (Im JuD-, 4838), p, ZU ^ ; {^B\h J»n.), p. 3, & Vol. I. — ^A a * « 278 HISTORY OF CANADA ted from that country and from the States;' b^inc assured that out of the ten millions of acres which victory would place at their disposal, each should receive 300 in full property. There was to be no more dependence on Downing- street ; the Assem* bly, council, governor, and officers wercf all to be elected by the people. Trade was to be freed from all restraints ; and it was added, that the largest ves- sels would be enabled to ascend to Lake Superior. Ilecruits continued flocking to this post till their numbers amounted to about a thousand. Colonel M*Nab soon arrived with double that number of mi- litia ; but he wanted materials for crossing the chan- nel and forcing the strong position held by the in- j»::rgents.* All eyes were now turned to the government of the United States, on which the question of peace or war evidently depended. As soon as the first n6tice was received, there was displayed the most sincere determination to maintain a strict neutrality. The president issued two successive proclamations, warning the people of the penalties to which they would become liable by engaging in hostilities with a friendly power ; and the debates in Congress dis- played the most complete unanimity against any measure which might commit the American govern- ment in such a contest. The leaders of opposite parties united with one voice in this sentiment. Mr. Calhoun declared that, " of all calamities which could befall the civilized world, a war with Great Britain would at this moment be the most to be de- plored." There was scarcely time for a legislative enactment; but the president appointed General Scott, a veteran officer of energetic and decisive character, to take the command of the disturbed frontier. ^ Meantime an event occurred which created great % * Paper! (2d February, 1838), p. 12-14. * '-^f^^mmk^. UNDBR THE BRITISH. 279 excitement. A small steamer, named the Caro- line, was employed by the insurgents between Fort Schlosser on the American shore and Navy Island, conveying to the latter troops and stores Captain Drew was instructed by Colonel M^Nab to nuercept her return. He did not succeed ; but, seeing her m the channel, moored to the American shore, deter- mined to attack her. He approached undiscovered to within twenty yards ; and being then aslied the countersign, promised to show it when on deck. The Caroline immediately opened a fire; but the British boarded, and in two minutes were masters of her. Those who resisted were killed or made prisoners : while others, who appeared to be peace- able citizens, were put on shore. The vessel itself, which the strength of the current made it inconve- nient to tow across, was set on fire and abandoned, when the stream hurried it rapidly to the brink of the great cataract, down which the flaming mass was precipitated.* The destruction of the Caroline was soon follow- ed by the arrival of General Scott, who took vigor- ous and effective measures to prevent any supplies or recruits reaching Navy Island. Meantime, the force of the assailants was continually augmented ; two companies of regulars, with a train of artille- ry, had been sent from Lower Canada, and a tre- mendous cannonade was commenced. The insur- gents, seeing that their position became every day more desperate, determined to evacuate it, an object • This . tack on the Caroline very justly excited the highest indignation in the United States. It was manifestly an outrage, too flagrant to be borne, on their national honour and their neu- tral rights. The vessel was in American waters, and moored to the American shore ; and nothing but an actual state of war be- tween the two countries could justify a hostile attack under these circumstances. Furthermore, the American accounts deny that any resistance was made ; and affirm that the boat was wholly unarmed, and that there was nothing to provoke the (thedding of a drop of blood. — Am, Ed, *A> m .^' fm ItlSTOllV Of CANADA which they effected on the 14th Januaiy. Vail Rensselaer and Mackenzie were arrested by the American authorities, but admitted to bail. Sutherland, with a party of the fugitives, hastened to the extreme west, where, being re-enforced by some adventurers in that quarter, they attempted an establishment on Bois Bidnc, an island in the Detroit Channel. A body of troops, however, was soon despatched against them ; and a vessel, containing not cfUfy supplies, but several chiefs dignified with military titles, was captured. Finding it impossible to maintain themselves there, they sought an asy- lum on Sugar Island, which belongs to the United States. General Scott, meanwhile, was hastening to the place ; the governor of Michigan, however, addressed the refugees, and by mere dint of re- monstrance prevailed upon tliem to disperse. At" tempts were made at other points to form tumul. tuary assemblages for invading Canada ; but, under the altered circumstances, these did not excite any serious alarm. Meantime intelligence of the first insurrectionary movements reached Britain, where it excited the strongest sensation. A few of the popular leaders exulted in the event itself, and in the anticipation of its triumphant issue ; but the nation in general by no means shared this sentiment. The Tories, though they accused government of having, by want of energy, prep?tred this convulsion, expressed their cordial concurrence in all the means suggested for its suppression. As the house was about to rise for the Christmas holydays, ministers proposed that, in* stead of postponing their meetings, as usual, till the beginning of February, they should fix it for the 16th of January, when, according to the course of events, suitable resolutions might be adopted. « Parliament had no sooner reassembled than in- formation arrived which left no room to doubt that the insurrection would be suDpressed without hav^ ifi:''ii UNDER THE BRITISH. 281 ing assumed any formidable character. The aims of the government we^^* therefore directed towards reorganizing the exec r live on such a footing as, without suppressing Canadian liberty, miffht secure future tranquillity. But it was considered indispen- sable, for the present at least, to suspend the con- stitution of the lower province. A council was to be named by the queen, which, with the governor^ might exercise the functions now performed by the two legislative bodies ; but their powers were not to last beyond the 1st of November, 1840, nor were any of tb«)ir enactments, unless continued by the proper autliority, to be valid beyoud the 1st of No- vember, 1842. Sir John Colborne, then acting as provisional gov- ernor of Lower Canada, was instructed to carry these measures into immediate execution. The ministry, however, had determined upon a farther step, with a view to the ultimate settlement of the province. The Earl of Durham was solicited and prevailed upon to undertake its government, as well as that of all British America, and also to turn his attention towards an improved p^:n for its future management. This nobleman's h\;ii reputation as a statesman, and the lihorality of his> views on po- litical subjects, seemed tu afford a security that he would act with vigour, and, at the same time, with a strict regard to national freedom. He was empow- ered to form a species of representp.Mvp council, com- posed of thirteen membe s from eaca province, but to use them merely as advisers, and to call and dis- miss them at pleasure.** On the 29th May, 1838, Lord Durham arrived at Quebec, where he was received in 'le most cordial manner, for all parties seemed to unite in expecting from him a settlement of those dissensions which ♦ Correspondence relative to the affairs of British North America (ordeied by the House of Conrmions to be printed lith Feb.. 1830^. u. 1. 7. '" Ai2 "v™-* ■ /; ' /, ^ •■| ■ • ; i 2l92 HISTORY OP CANADA had 80 greplly distracted the country. In h^ vh- sequent progress to other districts, and to Upper Canada as far as Niagara, he met similar expres- sions of confidence and congratulation. He was soon, however, called to decide upon a delicate and difficult question, which Sir John Colbome had thought it expedient to reserve for his determina- tion. Wolfred Neilson, Bouch^tte, Viger, and other individuals of some distinction, were lying in the jail of Montreal charged with high treason. Some strong punishment was necessary to mark their crime, and deter from its repetition ; yet an impar- tial jury could not be expected for their trial, which, besides, would have reopened all those party ani- mosities which it was the object of his lordship to appease. Under this view he adopted the following course : The prisoners, having been induced to make a confession of guilt, were sentenced to be deported to Bf-nr^uda, and to be there kept in strict surveillance. U they should ever return to Canada without le^': '^ fr m the governor, they were to suf- fer the penalty of death. The same was awarded to Papineau and others implicated in the late insur- rection, but who, after its disastrous issue, had fled the country.* , As soon as this ordinance was known in Britain, it created an unusual excitement in' the legislature. Lord Brougham, in the House of Peers, made a motion, declaring it illegal, as condemning to death without trial, and to transportation to a colony Which was not within the jurisdiction of the gov- ernor-general ; but, under the peculiar circumstan- ces of the case, he proposed a grant of indemnity. This vote, though strenuously opposed hf Lord Melbourne, was carried in the Upper Hou^e by a Considerable majority. Ministers then havingf re- o «% Vl 7 '^ > /^ w '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEaT MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716; •I72-4S03 ^-b 'v- 284 HISTORY OF CANADA Meantime a fresh storm of insurrection brooded over the province. In the course of the summer, even amid apparent quiet, the burning of a steam- vessel, called the Sir Robert Peel, in the St. Law- rence, and the acquittal of the murderers of Char- trand in the face of the clearest evidence, showed that the spirit of disaffection was still deeply cher- ished. By the beginning of winter arrangements had been made for a general rising of the kabitarts, supported b^ individuals on the American side, who, under the title of sympathizers^ had espoused their cause. Arms and ammunition had been clandes- tinely introduced; and a species of association, bound hy secret oaths and signs, had been formed along the frontier. Lord Durham imputes this movement to the proceedings at home, which had shaken the confidence in his authority, and raised the hopes of the disaffected; but Sir John Col- borne considers that those preparations had been actively pursued ever since the preceding June. The government of the United States gave the first intimation of what was going on to Mr. Fox, the British ambassador at Washington. The tidings were soon confirmed from other quarters ; and Sir Johii Colborne lost no time in putting the province in a state of defence, and procuring an additiomd force from Nova Scotia.* On the night of the 3d November, a concerted ri- sing took place in all the southern counties of Mon- treal District ; but, owing to some failure of arrange- ment, the stations along the Richelieu were not found supplied with arms according to appointment, 80 that most of the inhabitants there dispersed and returned to their homes. The chief seat of insur- rection was now farther west, between that river and the St. Lawrence. There Dr. Robert Nelson, Cdte, and Gagnon had collected about 4000 men, • Conretpondence, p. 106, 125, 17i-180, 222, 246. ''t(^->iut, though with the loss of iwo men killed and the •ame number wounded. Mr. Ellice and a party ol* friends, who had been made prisoners by them at the outset, were allowed to return to Montreal. On the 11th, a week only after the first movement, M'Donnell could announce that the insurrection was completely at an end.f We must now turn to Upper Canada, where, even before the former outbreak. Sir Francis Head had resigned. The immediate cause was the disappro- bation expressed by Lord Glenelg for his removing Judge Ridout on account of his democratical princi- ples, and his refusing to obey an order to raise to the bench Mr. Bidwell, late speaker of the Assem- Correspondence, p. 248, 261, 202. f Ibid., p. 260-263. * :. 1 'i U 886 BISTORT OP CANADA ■/. v^ bly, and an opposition leader. He at the same time, in no measured terras, condemned the system, ot conciliation hitherto pursued in the Colonial Office, whose members he even branded as republicans ; insisting that u stern, uncompromising maintenance of the monarchical principle, and the exclusion from office of all opposed to it, was the only basis on which Canada could be governed. Ministers un- willingly accepted his resignation ; and Colonel Sir George Arthur, who had previously held a similar situation in Van Diemen^s Land, was appointed to succeed him.* The new governor soon found himself involved in difficult circumstances ; for early in June, bands to the number of 1000 or 1200 from the American side crossed the Niagara channel, and endeavoured to excite the people :o insurrection. The}^ attacked a party of fourteen lancers .posted in an inn, and, by setting it on fire, obliged them to surrender. But no sooner did they learn that Sir George had ar- rived at Niagara, and that the country was rising s^ainst them, than they hastily rec^rossed the fron- tier, leaving about forty prisoners, among whom were Morrow and Waite, the first and second command. In the end of June a smaller psuw^ passed the St. Clair and invaded the Western Dis- trict ; but finding themselves unsupported, and the militia advancing, they returned, after losing a few of their number, who fell into the hands of the pur- suers.! The summer now passed in comparative quiet- ness, though the great movement at the beginning of November continued to be deeply felt- along the upper frontier. Almost simultaneously with the ri- iring in Montreal District, a body of about 400 sailed from the vicinitflof Sackett*s Harbour and landed' * Narrative by Sir Francis B. Head, Bart (8to, LoMoOt 1839, 2d edition), p. 218-344. t Correspondence, p. 314-321. t7NDBR THE BRITISH. 387 •^ J 1 at Prescott. On the 13th, Colonel Young, with what force he could muster, and aided by Captain Sandotti with an armed steamer, compelled a large proportion of them to disperse, while the rest took refuge in a windmill and an -adjacent house built of stone, whence they could not be dislodged. Eighteen British were here killed and wounded. In the course of the day Colonel Dundas arrived with four companies from Kingston, but considered the build-* ings, the walls of which were three or four feet thick, too strong to be reduced without cannon. A few guns and some additional troops being brought up, an attack was commenced on the 16th, when the party within 4he stone building, after some stahd, sought to escape among the brushwood, but were all captured ; upon which those in the mill displayed a white flag, and surrendered at discretion. The whole number of prisoners was 159. The mil- itia, among whom some lukewarmness had been suspected, showed the utmost zeal, and mustered to the extent^of 5000.* The Niagara frontier was found so well guarded that no attempt was made there. But early in the morning of the -4th December, about 350 landed near Sandwich, set Are to the steamer and to the bar- racks, and killed several individualis. They were, however, no sooner attacked by a party of militia, than they fled either to the woods or \^e American shore, leaving twenty-six killed and twenty-five prisoners.f The captives on the former occasion had been treated with extraordinary lenity ; but this forbear- ance not having produced the expected effect, and being loudly complained of by the inhabitants, it was judged necessary to exercise great rigour on the present occasion. A considerable nuirber of the most conspicuous were accordingly put to death, and the rest condemned to severe or ignominious punishments. # * Coirespondeoce, p. 354-361. f Ibid., p. 3&"372; '« • I 1 2m 5(0CI1X. AND FOLITICAIi STATE # CHAPTER V. Social mul Political State of Canada, VkfivfKcX daMes of People.^-French Habitans-^Their Ten- urea.— Outward Appearance.— >Mocle of Living.— Religious and moral Character. — Manners in Upper Canada. — Mrae of Living. — Native Indians. — Their Number.— Catholic Indians. — Harons of Loretto.—JMffiBrent Tribes. — Effects of Protes- tant CopTersion.— Government Expenditure on them.— Pres- ent Dress and Mode of living.—Reiigious Instruction in Lower aod Upper Canada.— Education.— -Political State.— Govern- -^ ment under the French. — British Arrangements.— Ccmstitu- tim granted to the Canadas.— Division into Upper and Lower. . -^fievenue.— Military Force.— Justice. Tbe inhabitants of Canada are divided into three classes, among which no complete amalgamation has yet been formed. These are the original French cc^onists, commonly called habitans; the British setitlerft ; and the Indian tribes. Tbe habitans, at the time of the conquest, formed almost the whole of the European population. They bpd occupied the best lands along the banks of the St. Lawrence, between Quebec and Montreal; a considerable^ extent of those upon the Richelieu; and a small space on the Chaudiere, the Yamaska, the St. Maurice, and other tributaries of the great twe^, as well as a detached settlement on the fertile shoves of the Detroit. These tracts had been grant- ed to persons of dkiinctton and to favourites, usually in large blocks, which, as already stated, they beld under the title of seigneurs. But it accorded not with their habits to clear and cultivate for themselves grounds covered with an unbroken forest ; nor would the task be undertaken by faroiers on the terms ot an ordinary lease. The proprietors were therelare ai . 1 1. Jj i iiiwpi i wiiiii! ii ii i| i i ,ii i | i iiaji|^ii i .pi i ^ I W| i l|]| | |il,i|i i . ipf I OF CAlTAStA. 1^9 obligJ9d to make them over, in small lots, under the feudal title of fiefs, to hard-working men, who, on receivir^ this permanent interest, were willing to enoounte^ the toil. The annual payment or quit- rent is in general exceedingly small, amounting on somp properties only to 10 shillings a year, with a bushel of wheat and two fowls. The seigneur has, besides, certain feudal claims ; a tithe on fi6h> mill* dues, and, more especially, payments on sale or transference, which in ^ome cases amount to a fifth of the purchase-money. '^ • The occupants of these fiefs or farms, under the burdens now specified, are virtual proprietors of the . soil, which they cultivate with their own han^, aided by their families. They are described as a particularly contented, industrious, and amiable race of people ; and the lots, though much subdivided in the course of succession, are still sufficient to main- tain them in simple plenty. They till their lands with diligence, though without skill, having scarcely adopted any of the modern improvements. Their study is to produce from the farn everything they need; not only the whole of their food, buf their csiidles, soap, and even sugar. From fiax of their own raising, too, and the wool of their own sheep^ they are enabled to manufacture almost every article of clothing. Their houses, though generally buUt of wood, and only one story high, are wihitewashed, and tolerably commodious. A partition in the mid* die separates the kitchen from the principal apart*^ ment, at one end of which are the bedroom|| - Tbero^. is a garden, which, though in a 8omewha|pr^|NJi4 straggting §tate, and cultivated by the feii^ilpPmly, yields a comfortable 8upply*of fte morefommon fruits and vegetables. ^ The personal appearance of tire habitans is pecu- liar. They are tall, thin, an 1, from exposurcL to the • Bouchette, vol. i., p. 370^ 377 M'Gr«garj vWHMll mwmmmm or CANADA. 291 Twenty or thirty of the country carriages bring in parties to witness the ceremony, which is followed Dy feasts and dances, not unfrequently prolonged for several days. The young people, however, have t a somewhat rude method of expressing their opin- ion of an unequal union, especially if arising from the relative age of the parties. They assemble at night in large bodies, sounding various discordant instruments, horns, drums, bells, kettles, accompa- nied by loud shouts ; and a contribution to the church or some charitable purpose is indispensable to ob- tain a respite from this jocular persecution. The short summer is necessarily spent in almost unre- , mitting labour ; but when ice and snow have cov^ ered the ground, the gay season begins, and in their carioles or little chaises on steel runners, which pass swiftly over the frozen (Surface, they visit their neighbours, and spend much time in socisd inter* course.* The Canadian French, like their forefathers, pro- fess the Roman Catholic religion with much zeal, and in « manner which occasionally i^pproaches su- perstition. The roads are marked by crosses erect- ed at the side; their houses are tilled with little piictures of the Madonna and child, waxen imago<^ of saints and of the crucifixion ; and there is a prtiA^:$d expenditure of holy water and candles. They le- luctantly establish their dwelling beyond hearing of the church bells, and on Sundays the attendance is crowded. They have, however, those inadequate notions as to the sanctity of that day, which are general in Catholic countries. When worship is over, the remainder is devoted, without reserve, to amusement. ** Sunday,'' it is said, ** is to them their day of gayety ; there is ^en an assemblage of friends and relations; the parisn-church collects together all whom they know, with whom they have rela- * Bouchette, toL i, p. 405-409. M'Oregor, vol. il, p. Ml^ 569,594. 292 MOCIAL AND POLITICAL 8TATB tiont of business or pleasure ; the young and old, men and women, clad in their best garments, riding their best horses, driving in their gayest calkheSf meet there for purposes of business, love, and pleas- ure. The young habitant^ decked out in his most splendid finery, miUies his court to the maiden whom he has singled out as the object of his affec- tions ; the maiden, exhibiting in her adornment every colour of the rainbow, there hopes to meet her chevalier; the bold rider descants upon and gives evidence of the merits of his unrivalled pacer ; and in winter the powers of the various horses are tried in sleigh or cariole racing ; in short, Sunday is the grand f6te.** Even the violin and the dance in the evening are not considered unsuitable. Notwith- standing these customs, the religious spirit of the Canadians appears sincere, and is attended with great benefits. Their general conduct is inoffensive and praiseworthy. Crimes of an atrocious descrip- tion^ as murder and violent assaults upon the per- son, scarcely ever occur. Property is perfectly safe, both from the thief and the robber ; the ^doors of the houses stand open, and all sorts of goods are exposed without any precaution. They scarcely ever engage in those furious personal conflicts which, amon^ the Americans of English descent, are often carried on with such violence ; they know neither duelling, boxing, nor gouging. On the con- trary, they mutually treat each other with all the ceremonious politeness of the French school. One of the first things taught to a child is to speak deco- rously, to bow or courtesy to its elders or to stran- gers. They are said to be generous in relieving those in distress, liberal and courteous to all who have any claim on their hospitality. The custom of parents and children living together, often to the third generation, in the same house, marks a mfld and friendly temper. The only form under which hostile, passions are vented is that of litigation, to {' OF CiNADA. 298 which they are immoderately addicted, being f»- Youred by the comparative cheapness of law. M. Bouchette defends this as securing them from vio- lent and turbulent modes of terminating their differ- ences. The habitans are not a stirring, enterprising, or improving race. They tread in the steps of their forefathers, following the same routine, and with difficulty adopting the most obvious improvements of modern husbandry. Although extensive tracts lie in their immediate neighbourhood unoccupied, they resign them to the English and Americans, and have scarcely at all extended the range of their ori- ginal settlement. Even their amiable qualities tend ' to retain them in this stationary condition ; to which we may add their social disposition, their attach- ment to their kindred, their church, and the rites of their religion. They feel as if in leaving thesj things they would leave all. Their range of in- formation has hitherto been very limited : and their priests, it has been alleged, by no means favour the diffusion among them even of the first elements of education ; so that the majority of the adults cannot even read or write. But the legislature have lately made great exertions to improve them in this respect, and it is hoped that the rising generation will be more enlightened.* , ' The society in Upper Canada, with some excep- tions, presents a very different aspect. A great majority of the inhabitants consist of emigrants re- cently arrived from Ireland, Scotland, and England, who have not yet made much change in their ori- ginal ideas and habits. Those established at suc- cessive periods during the previous half century, are not represented by Mr. Howison, Mr. Talbot, and other writers under a very favourable light. Dis- banded soldiers and sailors were not well calculated « Bouchette, vol l, p. 404-413. M'Oregor, voL ii., p. 468» 661-567. Bb2 : t94 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL 8TAT1 :*"> to improre the race ; and even the volantary emi- grants were not alwavs composed of the respectahle classes, who, under the pressure of the times, have ' lately embraced this resource. The removal of the ordinary restraints of society, and the absence of religious ordinances and ministration, concur in giv- ing to them a reckless and unprincipled character; but the increased means of instruction, and the ex- ample of respectable immigrants, will, it may be hoped, gradually effect a thorough reform. No people in the world live better than the inhab- itants of Upper Canada. The abundance of prod- uce, and the low price at which it can be sold, nat- urally inclines them to take the full use of it. Three copious meals are daily served up, called breakfast, dinner, and supper, but consisting generally of the same component parts. They are not very social in their daily habits, to which, indeed, the almost impas&able state of the roads opposes great obsta- cles ; but they are fond of large parties, and, in a fiivourable season, five or six families often unite, and, )vithout any notice, drive to visit another at the distance of ten or twelve miles. Such aa arrival would not always be very opportune in an English household ; but '* in this land of plenty,'* the flour- barrel, the pork-tub, and the fowl-house afford at all times materials for meeting such an emergency i and the board is soon spread with a plentiful meal. The dance is an amusement of which they are pa»- sidnately fond. No inn is considered worthy of the same, unless it be provided with a spacious ball- room, which is called into requisition as often as convenience will permit. Intellectual recreations kftve not hitherto attracted all the attention which ftey merit. The sources of improvement already alluded to, however, have already made a great im- pression, and will, we doubl not, ^e long wipe off tto repioach from the Canadian people.* * Talbot, p. 21,35-43,59,66, 114, Ooarl*?,vol. ii)p.SSa. Shindig p. 389. WSmm mmmmmmfm Of CANADA. 805 There remains yet nndescribed a ainall but intent eating portion, the remnant of the Indian nations. It has appeared mysterious how tribes once so« powerful, without war or bloodshed, should hare silently disappeared, and only a handful sunriTe. The occupation of>Jtheir hunting-grounds by Euro- pean settlers, the mtroduction of destructive dis- eases, particularly smallpox, and the free use of intoxicating liquors, have, no doubt, materially thinned their numbers. Our researches, however, have led us to suspect that the diminution has not been nearljr so great as is supposed ; in other words, that the original numbers were much exaggerated. We have had occasion to observe, that the Iroquois, - the most powerful people in America, and occupy- ing a territory extending several hundred miles m every direction, were not estimated by the French to include more than 3000 warriors. Yet they en- joyed a better climate, and were not so entirely ig- norant of cultivation as the tribes northward of tne 8t. Lawrence. The Indians nnder British protection are dis- persed in small villages and settlements in different parts of Upper and Lower Canada. The charge made by Mr. McGregor* that they have not been kindly treated by the British government, seems scarcely well founded ; for not only do they remain peaceably under her sway, but they have repeatedly taken up arms in her cause against the ** Big Knives,^' as they term the Americans. In consideration of their services, and in compensation for the en- croachments made on their domain, each individual, on repairing to a fixed station, receives a certain amount of soods as an annual present; and this grant aifords the means of estimating the number residing within the provinces. In Lower Canada, in 18M, it amounted to 3929, exclusive of abodt ♦ ToL ii., p. 019. ' 296 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATS 460 Micmacs, or wandering tribes, from Nova Sco- tia and New-Brunswick. The number in Upper, Canada to whom, about the same time, donations ' w«re made, was 12,919 ;* making in the two prov- inces 15,841. The estimate thus obtained, however, is not quite so accurate as could be wished. Sev- eral thousands came from beyond the western fron- tier, a distance, in some cases, of four or five hun- dred miles, and even from the territory of the Uni- ted States ; but in consequence of the signal ser- vices rendered by them during the last war, pledges had been given which Britain must now fulfil. On the other hand, in the immense forest territory which the hand of cultivation has not yet approach- ed, there are doubtless very considerable numbers who retain their wild independence, and hold no r^ations whatever with Europeans. We may no- tice, in particular, the vast tracts to the east and north of Qusbec, whence no mention is made of any resort to the stations of distribution. ,The Indians of Lower Canada have been convert- ed ta the Catholic religion, and their spiritual con- cerns are superintended by five missionaries, who receive salaries of from $192 to $336 per annum. They appear much attached to these instructers, and show a deep sense of their religious duties ; yet they have admitted scarcely any change in their original habits, or made any progress in industry. Their husbandry, as formerly, is on a small scale, of the rudest description, and carried on entirely by women and old men. " The Indian tribes," said ' the late Lord Dalhousie, *^ continue to be warlike in their ideas and recollections. Insignificant as are ^«^some of th<3 tribes now in Lower Canada, civilized and accustomed to social life, there is not one of them that does not boast of the warlike days of their chiefs and warriors ; even now the word war- * Papers relating to Aboriginal Tribes. Ordered by Hoaae ^ CominoiiB to be pfinted, 14tu August, 1834, p. 23-25. i V ii | i fiU ir i ii wu gi^p(B>>BiB|l<»l» ' «seven men, sixty-five women, and forty-seven children. This poor remnant of a race once so powerful, holding only forty acres of land, derive a precarious subsist- ence from hunting, fishing, and some trifling articles made by their females. They recently preferred a claim to the fief of Sillery, a fine tract extending a league along the St. Lawrence, near Quebec, in vir- tue of a grant made to their ancestors in 16611 Tto case being brought before the courts, it was aigued by the crown lawyers that the grant had been made to the Jesuits in general terms, for the purpose **of assembling the wandering nations of New France, and instructing them in the Christian religion ;^ that, in 1609, these missionaries, representing that the Indians had quitted the spot on account of the soil being exhausted, requested and obtained a grant of at for themselves ; and that it remained in their pos- n - -.^^ — of CommoQi to be printed, 14th Augast, 1834, p. 6-9, 06, 97. 298 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATS session till the extinction of their order in 1800 when it devolved on the British government On these grounds the judges decided against the Ka- rons. We cannot help referring, however, to cer- tain facts in our historical narrative, founded on au- thorities which we incline to believe were unknown to either party in this contest. It there appears that the grant immediately followed the destruction of the Huron nation by the Iroquois, when the Jesuits, as the only means of saving the remnant of the tribe, removed them to Quebec. The date and the name of the principal settlement seem to show, that however general the terms may have been, the grant was made virtually for the benefit of these unfortu- nate fugitives, and to the Jesuits only as their trus- tees. If this be admitted, we know not how far their quitting it at one time for another spot, with- out any formal relinquishment, c )uld be considered as vacating their title. On the loss of their cause, they sent two deputies to London, who very ear- nestly solicited an interview with their great father. Sir Gfeorge Murray evaded this demand, but received them kindly, and though he could not reopen a le- gal decision, offered them grants of crown land» in other quarters; but they replied that an arrange- ment wnich would separate them, and require a com- plete change in their mode of life, could not be felt by them as any real advantage. In the vicinity of Three Rivers are 82 Algonquins, and near St. Francis and Be<;ancour, on the opposite side, 359 AbenaqrMs. These tribes inhabit rude vil- lages, composed of very poor bark huts, though somewhat better than the ordinary wigwams. They once possessed a considerable extent of land, the greater part of which has been wrested from them un- der various pretences by designing individuals ; and to prevent such frauds, it is proposed that no aliena- tion of property by these untaught tribes shall be held valid until it has been t»anctioned by govenir i mi i « l i m it i il|i> »n li n i H i mn.>ww JT CANADA. 299 ittent. I'arther down the river are three settle- ments of Iroquois, one at Sault St. Louis and Gaughnawaga, amounting to 967 ; another at St. Re- gis of 348 ; and a third of 282 at the Lake of the Two Mountains. This tribe, once powerful and even intelligent, are now indolent, wretched, and despised by their own countrymen. Those of Sault St. Louis possess some land, though, from misman- agement, it produces little ; and a late claim for an addition, founded on minute boundary questions^ was fruitless, though they also sent deputies to Lon^ don to enforce it. At the Lake of the Two Mount- ains are likewise 355 Algonquins and 250 Nipissings* ^hese have no land to cultivate, but, by their ac- tivity in hunting and supplying Europeans with furs, they have placed themselves in a more comfortable condition than any other Indians in Lower Canada. They complain much, however, of the extended colonization on the Ottawa, by which their hunting grounds are greatly narrowed.* In Upper Canada, along the St. Lawrence- and Lake Ontario, the Mississaguas are the leading tribe. Those of Kingston and Gananoqui, only 82 in num- ber, are described as worthless and depraved ; but such as dwell on the Bay of Quints and Rice Lake, amounting respectively to 143 and 317, have beeii converted to Christianity, and are much improved. On the bay are also 319 Mohawks, many of whom have applied themselves to agriculture, and %veii adopted in some degree the European dress, though mixed in a grotesque manner with their native at- tire. On the river Credit, which falls into the west- ern part of Ontario, are 180 of the same nation, who have been greatly civitized by their conversion. Around Lake Simcoe and its vicinity, about 550 Chippewas reside, under their chief, Yellowhead. These also have expressed a strong desire for in- * Papers relating to Aboriginal Tribes. Ordered by House of Comnidus to be printed, 14t& August, 1834, p. 23, 251 34, 66, 81 ■>^' > i| - |.*il)i ji l»i i t rK w i i 800 SOCIAL AMD POLITICAL 8TATB ttraction and the knowledge of religion, but have not yet experienced those benefits in an equd de« fnie. The banks of the Grand River, which fallH into Lake Erie to the extent of six miles on each ftide, was, by a proclamation of Genera) Haldimand, iet apart for the Mohawks and Six Nations, who oe-* cupy it to the number of about 2000. Some part of these lands has been sold with the consent of goy« emment, and the proceeds lodged in the British fands, yielding an annual revenue of jC1500, which ia distributed among them in goods. They still hold 860,000 acres of an excellent soil, over which they have spread themselves in small villages; and many of them attempt the simpler modes of farming. Farther west are the Munseys, on the Thames, 445 in number, and 309 Hurons, connected with the French settlement on the Detroit, and converts to the Catholic form of worship.* "With the last exception, all the tribes in Upper Canada, till within these few years, remained iii their primitive state of rudeness and ignorance. They are now, however, willing converts to the Christian faith, receiving instruction in reading and writing : their morals are greatly improved, and, in abort, the way is paved for their adopting generally the habits of civilized life. This good work has been almost entirely accomplished by teachers from the United States, belonging to the " Canada Con<* ferehce Missionary Society," auxiliary to that of the Methodist Church of New- York. The Indiana have always shown themselves desirous to be in^ Btructed. In 1827, the tribes, when receiving prea« eiits at the remote station of Drummond Island, in* timated to the agent that there was at MichillimHck-* inac a school, or place where the natives are taught to live as the whites do, ^* to mark their thoughts on *■ 1 . ; * Paptr9 TBiating to Aboriginal Tribes. Ordered by Hoaae «f 0«Bunooi to be piinted, 14tk Aiigutt, I83i, p. 37-aO. Mfcitif fiyi ii Te liberally treated than the French colonists iv. ihn •■ nuntry. Not only was their property pre- ^brveu uiviolate, but they were also invested with a^< ^he rights of citizens, and rendered admissible to every office on the same footing as British subjects. The Catholic religion did not merely enjoy full tol- eration, but the large property with which it had been invested was preserved to it entire. As a far* ther boon, the law of England, civil and criminal, in eluding the trial by jury, was introduced. The ira> proved security afforded by the latter code to person and life was duly appreciated ; but in regard to prop- erty and civil jurisdiction, the coutume de Paris t with the ordinances of the French kings, though forming a complicated, perplexed, and inconvenient system, had been so interwoven with the habits of the set- tlers, that they could not be persuaded to prefer one decidedly better. The civil law, indeed, had scarce- ly a fair trial, being administered by somewhat un- learned judges, partly naval and military officers, partly citizens not bred to the profession. In the prospect of a contest with the United Colonies, it became necessary to conciliate the Canadians, and a statue (14th Geo. III., cap. 83) was passed, called the " Quebec Act," founded upon a report of the crown lawyers, by which the French system was revived in the province, with the exception of the criminal branch, which continued to be similar to that of England. Although the rights of person and property had thus been from the first secured, the people had not yetl>een admitted to any share of political privilege. The administration, civil and military, was exercised f ♦if 310 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE 1>y one individual, uniting the functions of governor and commander-in-chief; and though the Quebeic Act provided that there should be a legislative coun- cil of at least twenty-three members, the nomination rested entirely with the sovereign. I'he natives, long unaccustomed to any other species of rule, for some time felt no dissatisfaction ; but at a later pe- riod, when they had opportunities of observing the operation of a more liberal system in England and the United States, a desire for improvement arose, and in 1784 a petition was presented for the estab- lishment of a representative constitution. The British settlers took the lead, but many of the French joined them. Their request was not granted till 1791, when Mr. Pitt proposed and carried in Parlia- ment a scheme of government resembling that of the mother country. By this act the upper province, which had long been rising in importance, was separated from the lower, and a distinct constitution appointed for each. The representative body in the latter con- sists of eighty-eight members, four from each of the cities of Quebec and Montreal, two from Three Rivers, one from William Henry or Sorel, and a varying number, but most commonly two, from each of the counties. The qualification of electors in the country arises from the possession of land- ed property amounting to 40^. a year; in the towns, from owning a dwelling-house of £5 a year, or renting one of JE^IO; and no religious disabihty ex- ists. The members hold their seats during four ydrs, and there must be an annual session, which - usijially continues through the months of January, February, and March. The governor has the same power in convoking, proroguing, or dissolving ihem, that the king has in England. For the last three sessions, the members have been allowed ten shil- lings a day while sitting, and four shillings a league 4or iraveliiog expenses. ;v\^,. \ "Vl^l^.: '«'V' OF CANADA. an t The legislative council exercises the attributes of the House of Lords in Great Britain, having power to alter and even to reject all bills sent up from the lower house ; they can also originate bills, which, however, must pass the ordeal of the representative assembly. It was at first proposed that this body should consist of hereditary nooility, selected from the great landed proprietors ; but as such a class could scarcely exist in a new country, where so few possessed large fortunes or the means of acquiring them, it was finally determined that the members should be appointed for life by man- damus from the king. The governor, with the aid of an executive coun- cil of eleven, appointed, like himself, by the sover- eign, exercised all the executive functions. Nd act passed by the legislature could become law till it received his assent, which he had power to sus- pend till the measure had been submitted to the government at home ; and even after it had been sanctioned by him and come into operation, the king retained the power of disallowing it within two years. No new tax could be imposed without the consent of the Assembly ; and though this law was not retrospective, the existing burdens were so very light as to make the exception of little conse- quence. The jurisdiction of the legislature extend- ed to every object connected with the colony ; but any act affecting religion, its ministers or revenues, or the waste lands belonging to the crown, was to be laid before the two houses of Parliament, and remain there for thirty days before the royal assent could be given. The constitution of Upper Canada was made nearly an exact copy of this on a somewhat small- er scale. The House of Assembly comprised ori- ginally sixteen members, which, with the increase of population and settlement, have been raised to BULi*y-two* * , I-. ^Id SOCIAL AND POLITICAL 8TATB, STC. The departments of finance, military defence, and administration of justice need not be treated s)l length, as they, will doubtless be ^eatly modified in the Wocess of new-modelling which the consUttt- tion of the two provinces is about to undergo. The most considerable branch of revenue is de- rived from the duties on imported goods, which are almost wholly in Lower Canada. The entire revenue of both provinces in 1834 was iGi7&,330. The British government have usually maintain- ed three regiments of the line in Lower Canada, but this number, of course, has been of late much augmented. The militia of that province were re- turned in 1827 at about 80,0p0 effective men,thcugh« these had among them only 10,000 muskets. The militia of Upper Canada exceeds 50,000.* Justice is administered by two courts of King's Bench at Quebec and Montreal, each consisting of a chief justice and three subordinate ones. There are provincial judges in the districts of Three Hiv- 6h, 6asp6, and St. Francis ; but there is no supreme tribunal, which Mr. Buller considers a serious de- fect. Such had been for nearly fifty years the const!- tQtion of Canada. But in consequence of events well known to pur readers, and already narrated, it has been to a great extent dissolved, and the Brit- ish Parliament are now employed in the important task of its reconstruction. * Martin, vol. iii., p. 140,280. BNt> or Vol. i. i I. j4- # 15 -*sr^^„ .■ Jiki^iii^^ ■* " '^ * t m rmr