^ ^^,^< IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT.3) // ^ >^ 1.0 I.I IttlM 125 |io ■^~ HHl iM 12.0 ■u u 11:25 HI 1.4 IRj 1.6 Photographic _,Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STRUT WiBSTU, N.Y. I4SM (716) 87^-4503 CIHM/iCMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/iCJVIH Collection de microficlies. Canadian Institute for Hittoricai IMicroreproductions / Institut Canadian de microraproductiont hiatoriquas Technical and Bibliographic Notas/Notas tachniqua* at bibliographiquaa Th« instituta haa attamptad to obtain tha baat original copy avaiiabia for filming. Faaturaa of thia copy which may ba bibliographically uniqua. which may altar any of tha imagaa in tha raproduction. or which may significantly changa tha usual mathod of filming, ara chaclcad balow. □ Colourad covers/ Couvartura da coulour pn Covars damagad/ a D n n m Couvartura andommagia Covars raatorad and/or laminatad/ Couvartura raataur^a at/ou palliculAa r~~| Covar titia miasing/ La titra da couvartura manqua I — I Colourad mapa/ Cartaa gtegraphiquaa tn coulaur Colourad ink (i.a. othar than blua or black)/ Encra da coulaur (i.a. autra qua blaua ou noira) Colourad plataa and/or illuatrationa/ Planchaa at/ou illuatrationa 9n coulaur Bound with othar matarial/ Rati* avac d'autras documents Tight binding may cauaa shadows or distortion along interior margin/ Laraiiure sarrte peut cauaer de I'ombre ou de la distorsion le long de la marge intirieure Blank leaves added during reatoration may appeer within tha text. Whenever poaaibla. these heve been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certainea pagea blanches ajoutiea lore d'une restauration apparaiaaant dans le texte. maia. iorsque cela Atait poaaibla. ces peges n'ont pas «t« fiimies. L'Inatitut a microfilm^ la meilleur examplaira qu'il lui a *tA possible de se procurer. Las details de est exemplaire qui sont peut-Atra uniques du poinv de vue bibliographique. qui peuvant modifier una image reproduite. ou qui peuvent exigar une modification dans la mAthode normale de filmaga sont indiqute ci-dessous. Ths tot r~1 Coloured pagea/ D Pagea de couleur Pagea damaged/ Pages endommagAas Pages reatorad and/oi Pagea reatauriea at/ou peiliculAea Pagea discoloured, stained or foxei Pages dAcolortes. tachatAes ou piquies Pages detached/ Pagea dAtachtes Showthrough/ Transparence r~y| Pagea damaged/ |~~1 Pages reatorad and/or laminated/ r~7] Pagea discoloured, stained or foxed/ r~n Pages detached/ FT] Showthrough/ r~7| Quelity of print veries/ Qualiti inigale de I'impression Includes supplementery materiel/ Comprend du metiriel suppUmentaire Only edition availeble/ Seule Mition disponible Pagea wholly or partially obscured by ar^fta slips, tissues, etc.. have been rafilmad to enaura the best possible imege/ Les peges totalament ou partiailement obscurcies per un feuillet d'arrata. une palura. etc., ont M fiimies k nouveau da fapon A obtenir la meilleure imege possible. Thi poi oft filR Ori bet the sio< oth firs sioi ori Th« she TIN whi IMai diff enti beg rigli req( met Additionel commenta:/ Commantairea supplimantairas: Wrinkled pages may film slightly out of focus. This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est fiimi au tt ux de reduction indiqui ci-deaaoua. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X y 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X Biro dAtaiis u«s du t modifier g«r une I filmage Th« copy filmod h«r« has boon roproducod thanks to tho gonoroaity of: D. B. Weldon Library University of Western Ontario (Regional History Room) Tho imagoa appearing horo aro tho boat quality poaaiblo conaldoring tho condition and logibiiity of tho original copy and in Icaoping with tho mtnlnq contract apocificationa. L'axamplairo fiimi fut roproduit grico k la gAniroait* do; D. B. Weldon Library University of Western Ontario (Regional l^istory Room) Loa Imagoa auivantoa ont 4tA roproduitoa avoc lo piua grand aoin, compto tonu do la condition ot do la nottotA do Toxompiaira fiimA. at an conformiti avoc loa conditiona du contrat do filmago. f liaa Original copioa in printod papor eovors aro filmad boginning with tho front eovor and anding on tho laat paga with a printod or illuatratad improa- sion. or tho bacic covor whon appropriato. All othor original copioa aro filmod boginning on tho firat pago with a printad or Illuatratad improa* aion, and (vnding on tho laat pago with a printad or llluatratod improaaion. Laa axomplairaa orininaux dont la couvorturo on papior aat imprimio aont fiimte an eommon^nt par la pramior plat at an tarminant soit par la darnlAro pago qui comporto uno amprainta d'Improaaion ou d'illuatration, soit par lo socond plat, aolon lo caa. Toua loa autroa axampiairoa originaux aont filmAa mx commonpant par la pramiAro pago qui comporto uno amprainta d'Improaaion ou d'illuatration at an tarminant par la darnlAra pago qui comporto uno talla amprointo. Tho laat rocordod framo on oaeh mieroficho shall contain tho aymbol — ^ (moaning "CON- TINUED"), or tho aymbol y (moaning "END"), whichovor appiioa. Un doa symbolos suivanta apparaftra sur la domiAro imago do chaqua microficha, salon lo caa: lo symbolo — » signiflo "A SUIVRE", lo symbolo y signifio "FIN". ra V er-ita Id to nt 10 polure, pon A n 32X Mapa, platoa. charts, ate., may bo filmod at diffarant reduction ratioa. Thoao too largo to bo ontiroly inciudod in ono oxpoauro aro filmod boginning In tho uppor loft hand comor, loft to right and top to bottom, aa many framaa aa roquirod. Tho following diagrama illuatrato tho mothod: 1 2 3 i,m cartaa, pianchoa, tableaux, ate pauvont itra .fllmAa A daa taux da rMuction diff Aranta. Lorsquo lo document eat trop grand pour Atre roproduit en un soul clichA, il est film* A partir do Tangle aupArieur gauche, do gauche A droite, et do haut en baa, en prenent lo nombre d'imagea nAceaaaira. Lea diagrammes suivanta illuatrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 4 5 6 /^ F'^-^-^ M. m THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO W- i University of Western Ontario LIBRARY LONDON - CANADA Class WV.VO.QA .... # -~-sr j^a cause the im{ tionabh It is c*- ■;# Tsz ■"«:- '^fe-,: r^K&v.Sik-mA'At^lit^. ■* - f ■ . - ,rf . .«.% imjki ADVERT ISEMEN ^^'^'^"^^ TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION. \^i>' .liiir* "e»q*iSai' .•jj*i> it:#^ The Author is free to ackaowledge, that since this Treatise first ven- tured on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which have wafted it along have been far more favorable than he had rea- son to anticipate. Had any one, on its first appearance, predicted that the demand for it would call forth tiveniy-two thousand copies during the past year the author would have considered the prediction extravagant and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smillS so propitiously on his humhle efforts to advance the cause of learning, he has endeavoured, by unremitting attention to the improvement of his work, to render it as useful and as unexcep- tionable as his time and talents will permit. It is believed that the terUh and eleventh editions have been greatly improved ; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the dis- advantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time, snatched from the active pursuits of a business life (active as far as his imper- fect health permits him to be), are any apology for its defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed at him, and render less pointed and poisonous tho3e that may ^1 upon hira. Not that he would beg a*truce with the gentlemen critics and re- viewers : any compromise with them would betray a want of self- confidence and moral courage which he would by no means be wil- ling to avow. It would, moreover, be prejudicial to his interest ; for he is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of the advan- tages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production that may appear, and, two or three years hence, revise his work, and pre- sent to the public another and a better edition. The improvements in the te)Uh edition consisted mainly in the ad- dition of many important principles ; in rendering the illustrations more critical, extensive, accurate, and lucid ; in connecti ng more iv AbVfiRTISfiMENT. cloaely with the genius and philosophy of our language the general principles adopted j and in adding a brief view of philosophical gram- mar, interspersed in notes. The intioduction into the eleventh EDITION of many verbal criticisms, of additional corrections in ortho> graphy and ortheopy, of the leading principles of rhetoric, and of general additions and improvements in various parts of the work, render this edition, it is believed, far preferable to any of the former editions of the work. Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless ex- hibition of pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some investigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of the community, whose minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of a kind of philosophical marua ; aid to such these notes are respect- fully submitted, for jubt what ihtj) may deem their real value. The author's own opinion on this point is, that they prtfer no material advantages to common learners ; but that they may profi^dbly engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree of interest to the literary connoisseur. Yew Yoieki 22nd August, 1829. .<\ r^i} .■KJli.?;.- .. - ...,,..: , ^,, ., ^y -yM r< rioti i'. ■ . Jv-^j;') 'iit> 5; . . ■ iiS u«v. ;J*'*',*6' :}1»♦■<-^ lilfm PREFACE. There appears to lie something assuming in the act of writing. Mel thrusting into public notice a new work on a subject which has alreiacly employed many able pens ; for who would presume to do this, unless Iw beUeved his production to be, in some respects, superior to every one of the kind which had preceded it? Hence».in presenting to thepubUc this system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will be looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no explanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of arrogance by such as are blinded by self- interest, or by those who are wedded to the doctrines and opinions of his predecessors, with them he will not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent either to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is willing to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are always-ready to enter into it on honourable terms. In this negotiation he asks nothing more than merely to rest the me: its of his work on its practical utility, believ- ing that, ^f it prove uncommonly successful in facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvemenc, that will be its beet apology. When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those learned philologists who have laboured so long, and, as many suppose so successfully, in establishing the principles of our language ; and, more es- pecially, when we view the labours of some of our modern compilers, who have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy medium of mental conference ; it does, indeed, appear a little like presumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so fre- quently engaged the attention and talena of men distinguished for their erudition. The author ventures forward, however, under the conviction, that most of his predecessors a.'C very deficient, at least in manner, if not in matter ; and this conviction, he believes, will be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community. It is admitted, that many valuable improvements have been made by some of our late writers, who have endeavoured to simplify and render this subject intelligible to the young learner, but they have all over-looked what the author considers a very important object, namely, a ayatematic order of parting ; and nearly all have neglected to develope and explain the principles in such a manner as to enable the learner, without great difficulty, to comprehend* their nature and use. By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its «w.i- plicity ; whilst to others its simplicity will prove its principal recommen- dation. Its ' iosign is an humble one. It proffers no great advantages to the recondite grammarian ; it professes not to instruct the literary con- noisseur ; it presents no attractive graces of style to charm, no blaring flights to astonish, no deep researches to gratify him ; but, in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of bjience, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and removing those obstacles that generaOy retard Its progress. In this way it endeavours to render interesting an4 viii PREFACE. delightful a study which has hitherto been considered iedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blended with the labour of the lenrner, and which is calculated to excite in him a Spirit of inquiry, thnt ^hall call forth into vigorous and useful exercise every latent energy of his mind ; and thus enable him soon to become thoroughly acquaiiued with the nature of the principles, and with their practical utility and application. Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these pages has endeavoured to shun the jiuth of those whose aim appears to have been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he hau aimed not so much at originahty as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of h/ s prede- cessors whose labours have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his opinion, furnish better and brighter of ):iii own. Aware that there is, in the public mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of policy, but from choice, to select his prindple.s chiefly from that work; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, the lan- guage of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the cefisure so frequent- ly and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity, by arrogating to themselves the credit due to another. . ; The author is not disposed, however, to dlsclabn all pretensions to ori- ginality ; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who would presume to make new ones ?) the manner of arranging, illustrating, and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he hap- pen to find in other works, ideas ond illustrations similar to some contain- ed in the following lectures, too hastily accusf» him of plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits often elicit corres- ponding ideas in difFtrent minds ; and hence it is not uncommon for the same thought to be strictly oris;inal with many writers. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a guftn< nt to shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of another ; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course of teaching and iuveMtigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and arguments on the siuject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding with those which he afterwards found had, under similar circumstances, been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critic, even tliougl- he should .not be willing to reject a ^^ood idea of his own, merely bccauise fome one felse has, at some time or other, been blessed with the same thought. As the plan of this treatise is far more ooinprchcusive than those of or- dinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work unrea- sonably voltuninous, treat some topics as extensively as was desirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important principles of the science, but also exercises in parsing," false syntax, and punctuation, suf- ficiently extensive for all ordinary, practical purposes, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series of illustrations so full and intelligible, BB completely to adapt the principles to the capacities of common learn-' «"»: Whether this design has been successfully or unsuccessfully execu- led. is left for the public to decide. The general adoption of the work into] that cunii Inl has blindl rity sets tcmsj wrapi with?! that his oi think I and tc best cl claima '» PRXFACK. ledioua, dry, and an easy melnod, nier, and which 11 cah forth into mind ; and thus the nature of the writer of these e aim appears to lav aiiiu'd not bo Ijtd of li'i prede- irer he could not, Vware that there nrinea contained cly from motives ' from that work; n views, the lan- » he varied from Etiual advantage isure so frequent* irs who have not lie writer, merely authors, and gaia the credit due to re tensions to ori- (and who would illustrating, and fore, if he hap- to some contain- nginrism. It is ,en elicit corres- common for the The author is ra from rcbulic, ! wishes it to be ation, has often ;t of grammar, ^terwards found liuds of others, jougl- he should aui.'c tome one ; thought. lan those of or- is work unrea- desirable. Its nciples of the jnctuation, suf- .d a key to the id intelligible, lommon learn^ issfully execu- of the work into BchooU, wherever it has become known, and th* readjMaU of fortf thotuand copies, (though toithout hitherto affording the author any pe- cuniary profit,) are favourhble omens. In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author has endeavoured to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the authp* rity of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, wliich sets at defiance all outhority, and attempts to overthrow all former sys- tems, and convince the world that all true knowledge and science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own invention. Not- wiih?tflnrling the author is awire that public prejudice- is powerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation will be liable to defeat his own purpose, by falling into neglect ; yet he has taken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subject critically and d!l>passionately, and to adopt such principles only as he deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the object he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others, consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the method adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the lea ner. That the work is defec- tive, the author is fully sensible ; and he is free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own want of judgment anc' 'kill. But there is another and more serious cause of them, nam.'^ly, the anomalies and imperfections with which the language abounds. This latter circum« Btance is also the cause of the existence of so widely different opinions on many important points ; and, moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can never be indisputably settled. But princi- ples ought not be rejected because they admit of exceptions. He who i" thoroughly acquainted with the genius and structure oi our language, can 'duly appreciate the truth of theae remarks. To conform, in our orthography and ortheopy, to some admitted stand - flrd, the author deems a consideration of sufficient ithportance to justlT him in introducing into his work an article on each of these subjects, ia which many words that are often mispelled or misprcnouneed, are cor- rected according to a work,* which, in his estimation, justly claims a de- cisive preference, in point of accuracy, to any other Dictionary of the English language. *4it* Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which it ac- companies ; and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the definitions nnd rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of Lectures. * The work alluded to, is " Walker's Dictionary," revised and corrected by Mr. Lymac Cobb. '*?•' •■•' A Bt No Con' ^^JW&iimil • wM ft ii tW * ■■ * ><■« *vi^rtd^iA<^_. CONTENTS. Page Address to the learner ... 13 A, am one 66, 128 And 123 Adjectives 87, 69 Adverbs 84 Agreement of words .... 63 Anonudies 169 Articles 64 Because 123 Bat, than, as. . . 114, 122, 162 Case 41 Nominative 43, 164 Possessive 49 ObjecUve 66, 98 Nominative case indepen- dent . . 40, 127, 161, 174 Nominative case ab8olutel28,176 Apposidon of cases . 128, 176 lilominative and dijective after the verb to &s . . . 184 Active, passive, and neuter nominatives 164 Conjuncti. • f.'Si' ,.. . •i«r«J9i mt W fts^>*i')f' 5«< >o iii-tfriy% -\V^l ,Dr ....... -^r^^i -'.ih ,/ \0 ,,,....., >> •jiw^mj'Vi j^;£'f j-nr ;iii ,ti^ J . . . . *^.. • fiiCi i '^0 .'. :::,:u'nbl 'li!' .'''I .;ikf^,jr,it<;ih'tO • !"-'•' . , . . ... ■■'-h^y-fhH': o!: .^< :sijji'il ?%■' .... clfO -, |o3f!rvf:';ar«§:A i^^ v)r'>-yi;'I iW-: v.>; »• /KwiA (f't , : . -f/x.hlnji'^-i i-u r.:.<];)fO.''- :.*: *, . j;;:;sJ--^<>([:>'TM/','i;d:t .^rti ,i-; . . . .^ .iiatt'j ;:;iiil .'•: rnfKmoT*! !:• . . . . . . . . . .^. . OkrV* T'; !i;nOfe'io*l ; ■! 'H M- jvi ■iai'f^OJ^ 00 1 . . . : ikiyh-l-dKi '■•■imOqi^^O- , ''" ';.'ir.:;^i{i«>'^ ^^ .^.*i': • . . . y/h'.KfflA ' <'■ c''- o'ii»-iio<.^ HUi , ■■vitv;'jfl -:v■1q^i}<^^ o- 1; : ovh^tiifjio/ ' \v'.: ....... .foi;-i'>nKii.>i*J i"^l ,lbi -vli jOJ . . .«■>!> .;!<: vh;-o;*i :'\'.^i:]'iudofMi^^sir>j-n\iiii':m1 .n-iiMhiiiv'-nl '^ri ,!'ni'c jffit' n-;!-f mIu Vii ^uolijiJiifu.' ' Ti: i;:i)::7-- m'I ,'. :; '1: .... uim::... I.: "i" Ti. .^^vii''.>i7iv? «i;l ,<.j;i . . y:rt:iiu'V \-\ : . . 7;wn7v • -'•i r 1 ^..vkvT'.xH 'i^r !...... ■ ';'' .■■n-p':}'' Clu '. '.■u:\cm\Mttu\ u\-- aO ,t4< . IT Vk'^ :!->;:»^.Hio Aj-yxj^iM Bru .^;;-. ^^'l.' <":. '. . > -yAnnrj {M ,:-V ,;U. ,rc ,01: vf^uiiwn muT ^'^, :'.:')f!tmfvvyt ri« /■«■ •-,.r--.V r., V . ■;.K!)fr.Tjri'«j>-'f"fiM>»l»l»» \t \^it , > . vy;t!^j,i;-,j-,7ir\r. ■-;! 'Hc>;iujo^:..l;jt^{: «jo . . . . a?hiv-M:;'!l('i-i,vi::> ^ Ivl ^'^i 'v/«H <^Sr r ■j'>-.' v?-:i , ii-:oih\ id .'.*,.. ivu!-/" ^i.: •■■vr^H.ct;>!u} ■)i^I.. O^j^^wM ' \')'. •...)" OOI .fix^'r •:,i!lr^ij/\ '^S:' i_ ;ji-f ;'i'n«;M^i! -".: .... ,;>^i.^-^/^ -t.;. u) v'»J» -'i-iy .&t sif.v''ff ;cr : ^-hmV' n\) iuj .?: • • • • - 1 .\' tii» f, J ..<%t .... ^; .Jjj'ijb/ . . . •^ixfuvi)/': . . . . '..i; 1- /KWlA i-yilMhA . . , . . ..is.nsjfAi ■ 1 • • » • t Vrtttv ^ . . . .vi?J'U'fffoK- . . . v'ii's-iioX ( Of;:} f»7iH?nif;!f'/ '"'1 ^-HK.** j'jJSd.-i'lli)"/' ■./i.'ii';-ir(; i-Yiin/. . . ^t:(.'lKu.»i{io' • ' ••il. i!-!)n.fe,vii'jv!L . . . (j!u::;.. .... •;:i|':!.»t> . :'..')/! •.n'r-'vv:.: ■ '^ HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LE * HNERS* , r - »V. fJ k As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an ar- rangement essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view 01 the order of pursing will not consider it new, but blend it with those long since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempt- ed plans somewhat similar ; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author considers a regular systematic order. The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to interrogate the pupil as he proceeds ; or else he is permit- ted to parse without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learned ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no systematic arrangement of questions as iiis guide. The systematic order laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses, without having a question put to him by tho teacher ; and, in so doing, he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the learner to proceed independently ; and proves, at the same time, a great relief to the instructor. The convenience and advantage of this method are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted with it. 1 he author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice, wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit and recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of them to practical examples immediately abolished. This system obviates the neces- aity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery ; for the young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most im- portant definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying them in parsing. If this plan bo once adopted, it is confidently beUeved that every leacher who is desirous to consult either his own convenience, or the advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years, devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing diis system, he can, with less labour, advance a pupil farther in a practical knowledge of this abstruse science, in two months, than he «ould in one year when he taught in the '« old way." It is presumed that no instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the truth of this assertion. Perhaps some will, on a first view of tho work, disapprove of the transposition of many parts ; but whoever examines it attentively, will find that, although the author has not followed the common " artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet lie has endeavoured to pttrsue a more judicious one; namely, « the order of tlie understandiag." The learner should commence, not by committing and rehearsing, out by reading attentively the first two lectures several times over. He A 2 xii mxTs r„ r,.:.u„,;„,,. appear obvious tn «., ^ '"""o ""»y Hoom r«/hl , ..^"* Pftrsing.. 7, ^»0 would by paSn.r 7/ ^''■'^'cally. n„d ovnl j/n » ,Z"'^'' ^^'" Jearn standing ,hoirv»r?n.^ '^^'^ ^"'•J« si Por/Jr,«n "^^ ^''^'^ ^""y, than work. ShonLf £«T . ^ »^''^«« '» the s.u^nn ^"'' ''" ^^^^ «» for f enco with avir^L^ '7.''^''«'»>'^y'>o n^no^^^^ "'^O'^"^ •mhor's fondest aS "^.^^"^"tioii so i.n^n „ ^'J""" '^ «""cal ;^<;'*k fall intJX hancl 'o •""' ^"'" ^'' ^"iTSlTlV?"'^^ «'« to become graninmWm t "l^' ^''« "--^ ovLcUnrhA,^"^ ''^^"'•' ^«s lectarer i» 3f '? '","^"<> "'i< system '"' '"'"^ P«?cm, will |i„,| "Bon, let hta c„l"""'r° ""J "w of th.",rri S2''l"'''. '" »"li"'re " «i>o p.« of L^T""!,'":"'" " vo.l».lly J , „ TJ' f I? "•'<">» »p,,|i. ■ S- KlftKUAir" >rdir, tho pxnniplos Diisly sfutod, he Im.s tnd ruloa belonging i' tho loarnor a con- encp, may bo prop- ^'» lanjjunn^o." By pply all his (Jofiiii- ' his parsing". To ilious ; but it must t ft pupil will learn Iff them fully, than »'J without Tuider- > pursues this pinn, 'ito a single losson 'iiir opportrmity of inco it in parsing, lool, as well as for linff pn'^os of tho of much tinjo and Of! to pursue this noquiro a crihcal nd desirable, tho 1 ; but should his y tho acquisition, ont ambition and ts contents, it is not bj thrown may bo dispos- borty to oiler a trouble to mako |ages, will find irk only to tho t to acquire a intense appli- In first take up 1 explain all its T in the book, he proceeds. lass should bo jrect errors in ^e manner he however, to iroughly ac- Ited. If this the learner, |e8 it cannot ^ in his pro< LKHAAf. a,? ■ >.'!. t* FAMILIAR LECTURES ON ENGLISH GEAMMAR. LECTURE I. • DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.— ORTHOGRAPHY. TO THE YOUNG LEARNER. You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of science. If, hviwever, you, like many a misguided youth, axo under the impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of little conse- quence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavour to convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only a pleasing study, but one of real and substan- tial utility ; a study that directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the condition of man. Gram- mar is a leading branch of that learning which alone is cap- able of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual existence ;— of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and every other path of science, you will dis- cover the truth of these remarks, and jeel its force ; for you will find, that, as grammar opens the door to every depart- ment of learning, a knowledge of it is indispensable ; and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of behig serviceable to you, even if you are destined tu puss thiough the humblest walks of life. I think it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses a decided udvantago over every other branch of learning. Penmanship, arithmetic, geography, as- tronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are highly useful in their respective places ; but not one of them is so universally applicable to p.actioal purposes aB this. In every situation, under all circumstances, on all occasions ', — when you speak, \ 14 ENGLISH SJIAMMAK. read, write, or thinic * ir« i , u,Ui.y. «-'"•. • knowledge of gr.„n,„ i, of .«,„,;„, ■Ooubtless you hnv^ i.^ j <»ulcl d,,,c.c. /„d e'*::. ■^r/lr^r™'" »«^«. that thev «ay, that without th , inotwed..^ r" ?"• '^e'-efore, when I pnder it impoSble ?or«Sro„'^ ""'^"P''"'"^ "Salt ^fe"'«In''T^'^"y -™™rnoUnIv"Sr'^ *e.„r,re'ir »ense. In other instances scve^l w^ff *^'' ^"^^ >>"' »<«- affixed to the words they emJln^ f'T meanings may he •hat not unfrequently tSfi? ' ""■ "'''at is still von^ ^ convey a meaning quite .h/,'"'" ""* ™ constructed^', 5 ef. Nothing of f s'ec" lal?:,?;,^/ =f 'hat which they te„d •ltent,on, then, than the acquSn „? ^ "^"^ Worthy of yo„; ^ The path which leads 2 "'^g'a.'nmatical knowledge «he way sfflooth andttrvZ";"'?/"''' ««ollence, is not In "fterspersed, and some obstacles to h/"" '"'" ""=' ^""^ "horns P'o language, you will fod i^'",'"' '"'""""'ed ; or,inSm be able tf you exercise your mlJ T T^^^^ ^^^^ you mil K>nouId vou A. vni. 1 ^ of a word,\r the s C of"^a t"!"" °™«»"""g 'he meaning, oouraged, but persevere eLl f'™""' y™ ""« noFbo d^^ |'^^rct^rrc\&?~^ KNOLISH GBAMMAR. fS is of essential lowing lectures, you will soon be able to discern the gram- matical construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much as a clear and distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing ; and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be under- stood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be dis- couraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to meet ; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your studies, is to cultivate the habit of thinking methodically and soundly on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention. Nothing will be more eC- fectual in enabling you to think, as well as to speak and write, correctly, than the study of English gra nmar, according to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated to expand and strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar communicated in an interesting and familiar manner. You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and knowledge ; — an age in which science and the arts are marching onward with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty ; — a land on which the smil'^s of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of the warrior and the clangour of ai*ms no longer echo on our mountains, or in our valleys ; " the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" the rhighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself, and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in igno- ranee. Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and virtuous people can never be enslaved ; and that, on the intelligence of our youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on, then, with a laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which leads to honour and renown. Press forward. Go, ana gather laurels on the hill of science ; linger among her unfading beauties ; " drink deep" of her crystal *buntain ; and then join in the ■■'••"^V'^arz-. 16 LANGUAGE. V,. ** march of fame " »«« ■■"?*"'^Kj-i:, — LAJNTGUAGE '^ ' ' ' •-'' " •^'* -^^^ ;.' lost extensive eo«c« .•.- ,. . i-anguage may be dividfrf j" • . 2- ^nto spoken and .vriiten' """""""•al and anifioai- language is commo^bth^ZTn'r ."V'""' "'""■^ 'S of natural lano-im,,^ • ^'^" ^"<^ brute Th^ i ™oduiations':??K - ^^^^^^^ t: r.''"^^'^ 'o^ht Sf these, two savages who h,fv„ „ ' *"'' features. By molnTr} S.eU faith %£",''■"'«''' «»'«'• imo com'Ae s "."'','"?- ♦k« • -^^^ ^ancjuao-e of hr.,f ^""tracts, and plight /AiXtntetrar^^^^^^^^ "- °^-.,3, ., ._ foone another.^In order to assLVv "''^""''"^" tlieir tCS ^ meant by the term word^ t'^/Z'"' "^^^P^^^^euding ^a' meaning of the term. ' ^ '''" endeavour to illustrate the -^^- The «oi!/ce;y which w« '^ , ception and which are '1^.'/^^" ^^^ ^^"^^'^°n and per materials of thinking and know '? "^ '" ^^' "^^"^ ^o be^tho For example, when fou pitce voufh ^7 ^^«°«^^-«ated ideas a sensation is excited whfchwe^eall '^5^ "^^^^ " P'^°^ «f ice.' which notices this sensation; Tr ch.i ?'"' ^^^^' ^^^"Ity ^Fl GRAMMAR. «7 uous, and you aiid you will . rf , ies those signs ich other their and artifical; those natural micating their signs all pcr- ature. This The elements > three kinds ; By means of ial language, e intelligible : iten and sup- and plight in the use of leir thoughts e bleating of iig, whining, animals, re- |s, by means pir thoughts ending what llustrate the I iftw. |n and per- to be tho lated ideas, lece of ice, liat faculty I the mind, i, or notion ea. This ieration of Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, not as natural, but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meanmg m themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those ideas aiiixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them. In English, for in- stance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the name gold ; not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the appli- cation of that sound to the idea signified, is an act alto- gether arbitrary. Were there any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the word gold would convey the same idea to the people of other countries as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, aurum denotes the same idea in Latin, and or in French. — Hence it follows, that it is by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds. Spoken Language or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the human voice. The voice is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis, (a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by the action of the throat, palate, teeih, tongue, lips, and nostrils. Written Language. The elements of written language consist of letters or characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of tho articulate sounds uttered by the voice. '/'■ ^ ^ GRAMMAR. ' ' *" ^' ■ ^".'^ Grammar is the science of language. Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular. Universal Grammar explains the principles which are com- mon to all languages. Particular Grammar applies those general principles to a particular language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established practice of the best speakers and writers by VKhom it is used. Hence, The established practice of the best speakers and writers of any language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that language. ^ , ..^»,- .:.^ ,^ ,.^.i... vi.^.. IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By tlic phrase, established practice, is in^plied reputable, na- tional, and present usage. A usage becomes good and legal, when it has been long and generally adopted. ' T*he best speakers and writer':, or such as may be considered good authority in the use of language, arc those who are de- servedly in high estimation ; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other literary attainments ; and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid n atter, and refined manner. "[ In the grammar of & perfict language, no rules should be admitted, but such as are founde 1 on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of that language and the nature of tiiingis ; but our language being tm-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a prac^ tea/ treatise, like this, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated by euttom. If we had a perma- nent and surer standard than capricious cxistom to regulate us in the trans- mission of thought, great inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a la):guage, are conspicuous among the number of those who form that lan- guage, aud have power to control it. Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive advancement, varied for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it as- sumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give It. We are, therefore, as rational and practical grammarians, compelled to submit to the necessity of the case ; to take the language as it is, and not as it thould be, and bow to custom. Philosophical Grammar investigates and develops the prin_ •ciples of language, as founded in the nature of things and th^ original laws of thought. It also discusses the grounds of th^ classification of words, and explains those procedures which ipraetical grammar lays down for our observance. Practical Grammar adopts the most convenient classifl- <}ation of the words of a language, lays down a system of de- finitions and rules, founded on scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and design, and enforces their application. Principle. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construc- tion of the language, sanctioned by good usage. Definition. A definition in grammar is a principle of lan- guage expressed in a definite form. Rule. A rule describes the penuliar construction or cir- cumstantial relation of words, which custom has established for our observance. ENGLISH GRAMMAR, English G&ammar is the art of speaking and writing ^e English language with propriety. OllTHoaKAPSr. 10 reputable, na- \ood and legal, ■ be considered B who are de- ished for their •iters, eminent er. be admitted, but e genius of that ng »m-perfect, it )pt some rules to I'e had a perma- : us in the trans- They, however, philosophy of a lo form that lan- n its progressive !. Hence it as- t choose to give ns, compelled to as it M, and not lops the prin_ lings and thg rounds of thg ures which [ient classifi. rstem of de- fs and good [forces their ir construc- jiple of lan- [tion or cir- iblished for id writing i^RAMMAB teaches u> how to uf words in a proper manner. The most important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were invented. Grammar, well understood, enables us to express our thoughts fully &rA clearly ; and, consequently, in a manner which will defy t'.ie ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and writ3 our vernacular to.i^ue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a consideration of the highest mo« aid of The semi-vovvels hlv^' 1^: *' ""-^ ^ «"" ^ hard. «^ves. They are/ , Z;:,rs'7'T T' °' ">«'"- Four of the semi.vowels n„ , ' ' ^""^ ^ ^^^ ^- Soft A diphthong is ,h« . . "■""■ '""" "■"■> ''y a single i„,p„,se tr Troi^T""'' "''"''' ""-el A word of one svll«M» • ' ''' ""' «"''• ^ord of two syilafe , i-r '*™*'* » Monosyllable • « «rjiables,aTrisS^VSf^^^"'°^^^ a Poiysyiiable. """^^ ""^ ^^«^' or more syllables, III. Words Word^ eonjmon consent, as sijns'fottt """''^' "^^ ^^ fc« and Mp^iT""' !^' »«• M .,«. aid the lit^ T' "''«"' »»'- ™ SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 31 A. — A has four sounds ; the long ; ns in name, basin ; the broad ; as in c«Z/, wall; the short ; as mfagnt, glass; and the flat, Italian sound ; as in bar, farther. Tiie improper diphthong, aa, has the short sound of a in Balaam^ Canaan, Isaac; and the long sound of a in Baal, Goal, Aaron. The Latin diphthong, i.r ] ^ i 94 ORTHOGRArKV. be more juBt than God ? Few know the value of health til they lose it. —Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively refined. And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat -- '*' .'- The vaulty heaven so high above our heads ; ffa >>■< . -\ ,«t> ": I have more care to stay, than wil to go. ^^^ - Rule n. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but /, I, or s, never double the final consonant when it is preceded by a single vo'vel ; as, man, hat. Exceptions ; add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. False Orthography. — None ever went sadd from Fingal. — He rejoiced over his sonn. — Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death. — Many a trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth. The weary sunn has made a golden sett, •-. ' ^ ''•■■. And, by the bright track of his golden carr, -■' if-' ■'■-''-. .• Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow. - Rule in. Words ending in y, form the plural of nouns, the per- sons of verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i, when the y is preceded by a con- sonant ; as spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriest, he carries ; carrier, carried ; luzppy, liappier, happiest. The present participle in ing, retains the y that i may not be doubled ; as carry, carrying. But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, it is not changed into i; as, boy boys; I cloy, he cloys; except in the words lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed laid,paid, and said; and their compounds, unpaid, unsaid, &c. False Orthography. — Our fancys should be governed by reason. — Thouwearyest thyself in vain. — He denyed himself all sinful pleasures. Win straiing souls with modesty and love ; Cast none away. , ;^ ,.= ,,-,| <,,,,., ^ ... ,. The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty. Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder allies green. Rule iv. When words ending in y, assume an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, the y, if it is preceded by a consonant is commonly changed to i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very rarely changed to i ; as, coy, coyless ; boy, boyish ; boyhood ; joy, joyless, joyful. False Orthography. — His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful humours. — The vessel was heavyly laden. When wo act against conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace. Christiana, mayden of heroic mien ! -f'^i^.^ ■f.r^-.n ■ -. ."«'■.,. Star of the north ! of northern stars the queen ! fl- '' a ;«»uJiM((tt •*) Rule v. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant whenthey assume another syllable that begins with a vowel ; us wit, witty,; thin, thinnish ; to abet, an abetter. t to- we sorri hcf.f R| after care/l Ft\ wed ^: •t* ftULfiS fOR SPELLING. 25 * health til they lose it. ively refined. at ■•\. '\:.'t :-!?'•-..'■«. >.i.ti . isonant but /, I, or s, preceded by a single utt,egg, odd, err, inn, r\ Fingal. — He rejoiced death. — Many a trapp il of nouns, the per- !S, comparatives, and s preceded by a con- he carries; carrier, I that i may not be stances as the above, cloys; except in the laid,paid, and said; erned by reason.—- lall sinful pleasures. m to reform yonder [additional syllable by a consonant is tess. jtances, it is very ; boyhood ; joy, icyful humours. — list conscience, we Ihe last syllable, ]a single vowel, ible that begins m abefler. fiut if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last sylla- ble, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to offer^ an offering ; maid, rfiaiden. False Orthogra^^hy — The business of to-day, should not be defered till to-morrow. — That law is annuled. — When we have outstriped our errors, we have won the race. — By deferingour repentance, we accumulate our '% son-'jws, — The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things which the f he&then philosophers allowed. At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below. — Thus mourned the hapless man ; a thunderring sound Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground. Rule vi. Words ending in double I, in taking less, ne.ss,ly, orful, after them, generally omit one I ; bs,, fulness, skilless, fully, skilful But words ending in any double letter but I, and taking ness, less, ly, or full, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful. False Orthography. — A chilhiess generally precedes a fever. — He is wed to dullness. The silent stranger stood amazed to see - • * -'f' —v^** Contempt of wealth and willful poverty. Restlesness of mind impairs our peace. — The road to the blisful regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king. — The arrows of calumny fall I harmlesly at the feet of virtue. Rule vu. Ness, less, ly, or full, added to words ending in silent e, 5 does not cut it off; as , palcTiess, guileness, closely, peaceful : except in « a few words ; as duly, truly, awful. False Orthography. — Sedatness is becoming. All these with ceasless praise his works behold. '^ Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives « •. Her ploughshare o'er creation ! Nature made a pause. An awcful pause ! prophetic of her end ! Rule vm. When words ending in silent e, assume the termination, 9nent, the e should not be cut off; as, abatement, chastisement. The words judgment, abridgment, acknoicledgment are exceptions to this rule. Ment. like other terminations, changes y into i when the y is pre- ceded by a consonant : as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry , vicrrimeni. ' False Orthography. — A judicioOs arrangment of studies facilitates im« ;)rovment. — Encouragment is greatest when we least need it. To shun allumients is not hard, To minds resolv'd, forwam'd and well prepar'd ' Rule ix. When words ending in silciit e, assume the termination, ible, or iblc, the e should generally be cut off; as, bla7ne, blamable; nre, curable; sense, sensible. But if c org- soft comes before cin ic original word, the e is preserved in words compQjmded with able; Is. peace, peaceable ; change, changeable. .\ 3d STTMOLOGT AX9 SYNTAX. Ji . i \ ' ! False Orthography. — Knowledge ia desirable. — Misconduct is inex- euaeabte. — Our natural defects are not chargable upon us.— We are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves. Rule x. When ing or ish is added to words ending in silent e, the e is almost always omitted ; ^s, place, placing; lodge, lodging ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. False Orthography. — Labour and expense are lost upon a droneish epirit. — An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected witb a servile and cringeing humour. Conscience anticipateing time. Already rues th' unacted crime. One sclf-approveing hour, whole years outweighs Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas. Rule xi. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the simple words of wmch they are compounded ; as, glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter. Many words ending in double I, are exceptions to this rule ; as, already, welfare, wilful, fulfil ; and also the words, wherever, chriitmas, lammas, &.c. False Orthography. — The Jew's pasoverwas instituted in A.M. 9513. — They salute one another by touching their forheads. — That which is sometimes expedient, ia not aliways eo. l^en, in the scale of reas'ning life 'tis plain. There must be, somewhere, such a rank as man. Till hymen brought his lov-detighted hour, There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower. The head reclined, the loosened hair, - The limbs relaxed, the mournful air :— See, he looks up ; a wofull smile , , Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile. You may now answer the following QUESTIONS. Whet is language ? — How is language divided 7 — What is natural language ? — What are the elements of natural language in man ? — Wherein consibta tlie language of brutes ? — What is artificial lan- guage ? — What is an idea ? — What are words ? — What is Grammar? — What does Universal grammar explain ? — Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal? — What is the standard of grammatical accuracy ? — What is Philosophical grammar ? — What is Practical grammar ? — What is a i)rinciple of grammar ? — A definition ? — A rule ? — What is English grammar ? — Into how many parts ia gram- mar divided ? — What does Orthography teach ? S Won :-|fe- -Misconduct ia Inez- ?ott us.— We are nutde snding in silent e, the odge, lodging ; slave^ I lost upon a droneiah tally unconnected witb veigha spelled in the same ire compounded ; aa, 'ords ending in double il/are, wilful, fulfil; IS, Slc. stituted in A.M. 9513. beads. — That which ia laii. vingf ? — What is natural [language in man 7 — That is artificial lan- ■What is Grammar? lorein does Particular idard of grammatical •What ia Practical •A definition? — A Imony parts is gram- XmiOLOeT AND STIfTAX. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX LECTURE IL OF NOUNS AND VERBS. at worditf I i Etymology treats of the different sorts of their vario'is modifications^ and tlieir deri\^atiort. Syntax treats of the agreement and government d Words, and of their proper arrangement in a sentAncCi The word ExYMOLoaY signifies tho origin or pedigree of words, ' ' Syn^ a prefix from the Greek, signifies /o^gvj/Aer. Syn-tax "j means placing together ; or, as applied in grammar, senlence- I making. I The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of I Words, and their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and v- thereby enable us to correct and avoid errors In speech, are I chiefly based on principles unfolded and explained by Etymo- logy. Etymological knowledge, then, is a prcequisite to tho study of Syntax ; but, in parsing, under the head of Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these two parts of grammar in connexion. Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would com- prehend the exposition of the origin and meaningof words, and* in short, their whole history, including their application to ;things in accordance with the laws of nature and of thought, ^nd the caprice of those who apply them ; but to follow up *the current of language to its various sources, and analyze ■the springs from which it flows, would involve a process alto, •^ether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It Iwould lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages to others more ancient vand so on, until the chain of research would become, if not ■endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following limited views yof this pnrt of grammar. 1 . Etymology treats of the elassificailon of words. 2. Etymology explains tho accident-^ or properties peculiar to each class or sort of words, and their '|U-e*icnt mddificatimts. By modifications, I mean the changes produced on their end- f •^'(^•■iMniiKi 'li .•.■\Lrj». *h I 11 18 ETYMOLOGY AND sV.XTAX. fin^tf, in oonsequenoe of their assuming different relations in respect to one another.. These changes, such as fruit, fruits, frnit'5 ; he his, hmt ; write, writes^, wrrtel4, write«, wrote, written, writw^, writer ; a, an ; ample amply, and the like, will be explained in their appropriate places. 3. Etymology treats of the derivation of words ; that is, it teaches you hoio one word comes from, or grows out of another. For example : from the word speak, come the words speaker/, speake^^, speaks, speakzii^, spoA'c, spoken, speaker, speaker'jr, speakers. These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the last three, express the same kind of action. They diifer from each other only in the termination. These changes in termination «»re produced on the word in order to make it cor"espond with the various persons who speak, the number of persons, or the time of speaking ; as, / speak, thou speakw^, the man speakc/A, or speaks, the men speak, Is^oke; The speaker speak* another speaker'* speech. The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connect- ed with iho second, wil' be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the Philosophical notes ; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is the province of the lex- icographer, rather than of the philologist. It is not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the Mexican, nor the Persian ; nor is it his province to explain their meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit ; but it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their connexions, relations, dependances, and bearings, not at the period in which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but at the •particular period in which he tvrites. His words arc already derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound to take them and explain thorn as he finds them in his day, without any regard to their ancient construction and applica* tion. .. , , ., CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to»l>c the legitimate object of the practical grammarian to consult prac- tical cmvemence. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a reference to essential differences in the primitive meaning of words, nor to their original combinations, but to \}iQ manner in t'hich thry arc at present employed. In tlie early tam^ its I i CtASlSlFlCATlOfJ. / 20 lifferent relations in fuch as fruit, fruit*, ite/A, write*, wrote, nply, and the like, es. f words ; that is, it 'ows out of another, the words speake*<, speaker, speaker'*, one and the same 3s the same kind of in the termination, ced on the word in :ious persons who )f speaking ; as, / or speaks, the men r speaker'* speccA. ntimately connect- panded in Lecture t I shall not treat consists in tracing •ovince of the lex- is not the business ramniar, to trace ireek, the Dutch, rovince to explain Italian, Mohegan, r properties, their ces, and bearings, an irruption into which Lamech at the particular already derived, , and he is bound them in his day^ ion and applica* pjive it to»l>c the to consult prac- sification seems n the primitive )inations, but to I. In the early tind rttde state of society, mankind are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the transmi8si(m of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those conr.iectivest or Words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity arid elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that eVery language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than in its barbarous state. The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascer. tained, not by the original signification of that word, but by its present manner of meaning, or, rather, the oj^ce which it performs in a sentence. The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it represents, are called its manner of meaning. Thus, The painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the carriage. Here the word paint, is first employed to describe the brush which the painter uses ; in this situation it is, therefore, an adjective ; secondly, to name the mixture employed ; for which reason it is a noun ; and, lastly, to express the action perform- ed ; it, therefore, becomes a verb ; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these applications. This mean- ing, however, is applied in different ways ; and thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took water from the water pot, to water the plants. ETYMOLOGY. Etymology treats, first, of the classification of words. The English Language is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic, and Gothic ; but in the progressive stages ot its refinement, it has been greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German lan- guages. The number of words in our language, after deducting (proper names, and words formed by the inflections of our [verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may be estimated at ahout forty j thousand. There are ten sorts of words, called parts of speech, ; namely, the noun or substantive, verb, article, adjec- tive, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, QON- ^ JUNCTION, and interjection. Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language «»W5 SO ETYMOLOGY ANl> SYNTAX. are included in these ten classes : and what you have lo do in acquiring a knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to be- come acquainted with these ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The Noun and Verb are the most important and leading parts of speech ; therefore they are first presented ; all the rest (except the interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you pro- ceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more labour, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become familiar with all the minor parts of speech. The principal use of words is, to name things, compare them with each other, and express iheir acli ms. Nouns, ^hi<|||^e the names of entities or things, ahjectives, which denote tife comparisons and relations of things by describ- ing them, and expressing their qualities, and verls, which ex- press the actions and being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised in a philosophical view of gram- mar. But in a treatise which consults, mainly, the practical advantages of the learner, it is believed, that no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the foregoing, which djyides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared to appreciate my argu- ments. /r '^ ■■■ ■ OF NOUNS. ■' • -'- s A NOUN is the name of any person, place, or thing ; as, man, Charleston, knowledge. tif >.*-:' K^i'vi^iH-;,*! 't Nouns are often improperly called substantives. A substan- tive is the name of a substance only ; but a noun is the name either of a substance or a quality. Noun, derived from the Latin word nomen, signifies name. The name of any thing* that exists, whether animate or inani- mai isa| moc youl Willi canJ witlJ •t sign cunsi and 1 the i\ how( sensf (-. guisl therm N( ^his * The word tM}ig,{rom the Saxon verb, thingian, to think, is alraoat unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that which has been created ; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also frequently applied to actions ; as, " To get drunk is a beastly thing.''^ In this pnrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature ; but it denotes merely an aetion ; therefore tliis action is the thing. t you have lo do in ir, is merely to be- 2ech, and the rules and Verb are the jh ; therefore they e interjection) are wo. As you pro- time, and cost you ti and verb, than it mrts of speech. ii)gs, compare them r things, ahjectives, f things by describ- id verbs, which ex- the only classes of lical view of gram- ainly, the 'practical lat no classification than the foregoing, ittempt to prove, in f adopting either a " speech, would be give my reasons e to any other, as presented to you, reciate my argu- ice, or thing ; as, itivcs. A substan- Inoun is the name m, signifies name. animate or inani- i, to think, is almoat every animal and I mean that which Id is also frequently [ly thing.'' In this It it denotes merely NOUNS. 81 mate, or which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or Uiink of, is a noun. Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, field, house, modesty, virtue, courage, danger, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish this part of speech from others, I will f'ive you a sign, which will be useful to you when you cannot tell it by the sense. Any word that will make sense with the before il is a noun. Try the foUov/ing words by this sign, and see if they are nouns : tree, mountain, soul, mind, conscience, understanding. The tree, the mountain, the soul, and so on. You perceive that they will make sense with the the prefixed ; therefore, you know they are nouns. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with the prefixed. These you will be able to distin- guish, if you exercise your mind, by their making sense of themselves ; as, goodness, sobriety, hope, immortality, Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of. a i thing, as well as its rci lity ; as, nothing, naught, vacancy, ; non-existence, invisibility. :■: Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs as nouns, • according to their manner of meaning ; and nouns are some- times used as adjectives, and adjectives as nouns. This mat- ter will be explained in the concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to comprehend it. ^ NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. Perhaps no subject has, in this age, eliclod more patient research, and critical investigation of original, constituent principles, formations, and combinations, than the English language. The legitimate province of philology, however, as I humbly conceive, has, in some instances, been |nade to yield to that of philosophy, so far as to divert the attention from the combinations of our language which rQ£iHtf|iili^as introduced, to Radical elements and associations which no wt^^ricetn the progress of literature, or the essential use for which language was intended. Were ihis retrogressive mode of investigating and applying principles, to obtain, ipimong philologists, the ascendency over that which accommodates the 4use of language to progressive reiinement, it is easy to conceive the state ©f barbarism to which society would, in a short tune, be reduced. More- Over, if what some call the philosophy of language, were to supersede, ftltogether, the province of philology as it applies to the present, progresr kive and refined state of English hterature, the great object contemplated by the learned, in all ages, namely, the approximation of language, in common with everything else, to that point of perfection at which it ia llie object of correct philology to arrive, would be frustrated. The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and Visionaries who absurdly endeavour to teach modem English, by rejecting $he authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting the learner back lo the original combinations, and the detached, disjointed, and barbarous 3f onslructions of our progenitors, both prudence and reason, as well as a iikl^f n ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 'I :! Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. A common noun is the name of a sort or species of things; as, man, tree, river. A proper noun is the name of an individual ; as Charles, Ithaca, Ganges. A noun signifying many is called a collective noun, or noun of multitude ; as, the people, the army. The distinction between a common and a proper noun is very obvious. For example : hoy is a common noun, be- cause it is a name applied to all boys ; but Cfuirlef is a pro- per noun, because it is the name of an individual boy. Al- though many boys may have the same name, yet you know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is not given to all boys- Mississippi is a proper noun, because it is the name of an individual river ; but nver is a common noun, because it is the name of a species of things, and the name river is common to all rivers. Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, are always common ; &.a, tree, the genus ; oak, ash, chestnut, poplar, different species ; and red oak, white oak, black oak, varieties. The word earth, when it signifies a due regard for correct philology, impel me to shun. Those modest writers who, by bringing to their aid a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wholesale traffic in the swelling phrases, " philosophy, reason, and common sense," attempt to overthrow the wisdom of former ages, and show that the result of ail *he labours of those distinguished philologists who had previously occupied the field of grammatical science, is nothing but error and folly, will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited by such consummate vanity and unblushing pedantry. Fortu- nately for those who employ our language as their vehicle of mental con- ference, cnstora will not yield to the speculative theories of the visionary. If it would, improvement in English literature would soon be at an end, ;aiid we should be tamely conducted back to the Vandalic age. As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is •evidently misapplied by those who make it the test of grammatical cer- tainty, it may not be amiss to ofi'er a few considerations with a view to «zpose the fallacy of so vague a criterion. All reasoning and investigation which depend on the philosophy of language for an ultimate result, must he conducted a posteriori. Its office, according to the ordinary mode of t-eating the subject, is to trace lan- guage to its origin, not for the purpose of determining and fixing gram- matical associations and dependances,such as the agreement, government, and mutual relations of words, but in order to analyze combinations with a view to develop the first principles of the language, and arrive at the primitive meaning of words, Now, it ia presumed, that no one who ha« kin note I iiOUNS— COMMON AND PROPER. 98 . proper. jort or species of I individual ; as collective noun, le army. a proper noun is ommon noun, be- t Cliarleft is a pro- Uvidual boy. Al- fne, yet you know rles is not given to because it is the a comnnon noun, igs, and the name )r variety of beings e genus ; oak, ash, d oak, white oak, len it signifies a lun. Those modest listry, much duplicity, " philosophy, reason, n of former ngea, and iflguished philologists :al science, is nothing t and contempt justly ig pedantry. Fortu- ;hicle of mental con- iries of the visionary. d soon be at an end, dalic age. ophy of language, is of grammatical cer- tioHS with a view to on the philosophy of wateriori. Its office, iject, is to trace lan< g and fixing gram- jement, government, combinations with ;e, and arrive at the hat no one who i)0» kind or quantity of dirt, is a common noun ; but when it de- notes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper noun. The toordt person, place, river, mountain, lake, to predict, that, if they make the attempt, they will find their systems more splendid in theory, than useful in practice. Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning has any efficiency in controlling the signification which, by the power of asso- ciation, custom has assigned to many words ; — a signification essentially different from the original import. Were this the^ase, and were the language now to be taught and understood in campliance widi the origi- nal import of words, it woiild have to undergo a thorough change ; to k« analyzed, divided, and subdivided, almost ad infinitum. Indeed, there is the same propriety in asserting, that the Gothic, Danish, and Anglo- Saxon elements in our language, ought to be pronounced separately, to enable us to understand our vernacular tongue, that there is in contending, that their primitive meaning has an Acendency over the influence of th« principle of association in changing, and the power of custom in deter- mining, the import of words. Many of our words are derived from th« Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages ; and 94 BTTM0L04T ANB tYKJAX. viKtuc, goedacM. Lest th* student be led to blend the idee of sbstnet noons with that of adjectives, both of which denote qoalities, a further illostration appears to be necessary, in order to mark the distinction be« twfien these two parts of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality con- sidered «!p8ff (that is, abstracted) from the substance or being to which it belongs ; but an adjective denotes a quality ^dtned (ac^ected) to the sub- stance or being to which it belongs. Thus, tohiteneat and vohite both denote the same quality ; but we epeak of whiteness as a distinct object of thought, while we use the word white always in reference to the noun to widch it belongs ; as white paper, white house. 4. 9ome authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and sub- divisions of nouns ; such, for example, as the following, which appear to be more complex than useful : Natural nouns, or names of things form- ed by nature ; as, man, beast, water, air ; 3. Artificial nouns, or names of things formed by art ; as, book, vessel, house : 3. Personal nouns, or those which stand for human beings; as, man, woman, Eklwin ; 4. Jfeuttr nouns, or those which denote things inanimate ; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following, however, is quite a rational divi- sion '• Material nouns are the names of things formed of matter ; as, stone, book : Immaterial nouns are the names of things having no sob- stance ; as, hope, immortality. the oiUy use we can maka of their originals, is to render them subservient to the force of custom in eases in which general usage has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, let the advocates of a mere^ philoflophical investigation of the la:>guage, extend their system as far a« & radical analysis will warraift them, and, with Home Tooke, not only consider adverbs, prepositions^ conjunctions, and inteijections, as abbrevib.r tions of nouns and verbs, but, on their own responsibility, apply them in teaching 'Jie language, in eomplianee with their radicid import, and * what would such a course avail them against the power of custom, and the influence of association and refinement 1 Let them show me on* gtammarian, produced by Bueh a course of iiutruction, and they will ex- hibit a " philosophical" miracle. They might as well undertake to teach arehlteeture, by having recourse to its origin^as represented by booths and tenta. In addition to this, when we consider the great number of obsc^to words, firom which many now in use are derived, the original meaning of which cannot be ascertained, and, also, iht multitude whose signification \uk9 been changed by the principlo of association, it ia preposterous to think, dHat * niere philosophical mode of investigating and teaching th9 language, is the one by which its signifieancy can be enforced, its corrects fleas determined, it« use comprehended , and its iniprovement extended, before what commonly passes for a pkilounphica' manner of developing the language can successfully be made the pedium through which it can be comprehended in all its present combinations, relations, and dependant ces. It must undergo a thorough retrogressive change, in all those combi•^ natipni, relations, and dependances, even to the last letter of the alphabet. An4 ^^«e vyc can consent to this radical modification oiid retrograde ratio of the English language, we must agree to revive the customs, the habits, and the precise language of our progenitors, the Goths and Vandals, Were aU the advocates for the introduction of such philosophical gram^ mais into common schools, at once to enter on their pilgrimage, and |¥^e^« intone tiatlva (purity and barbarity of the ancient Britoni, Pieta, ■M?, NOUNS — GENDER, f* 95 d th* idaa of abstnet te qoalities. a further ark th« dktinetion b«- denotes a quality con- se or being to which it (acljeeted) to the sub- ne«« and white both as a distinct object of irence to the noun to ite diviaions and sub- ing, wliich appear to amea of things fonn- al nouns, or names Personal nouno, or woman, Edwin ; 4. late ; as, book, field, quite a rational divi- med of matter; as, lings having no sub- der them subserricat isage has not varied idvocates of a merv^ leir system as far as Eie Tooke, not only ctions> as abbrevita.r libility, apply them •adical import, and ver of custom, and ^em show me on* i> and they will ex- undertake to teach nted by booths and number of obs<^t» riginal meaaing of tvhose signification is preposterous to ; and teaching th9 forced, its corrects tvement extended, ner of developing ough which it can ne, and dependant n all those combi•^ T of the alphabet, an and retrograde the customs . the oths and Vandals, iloBophical gram-. pilgrimage, and nt Britons, Piets, To nouns belong gender, person, number, and ease. ^^ GENDER. '., Gender is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. The masculine gender denotes males ; as a man, a boy. The feminine gender denotes females ; as, a woman, a girl. The neuter gender denotes things without sex ; as, a hat, a stick. ^& -.^tmi^ Ne^Uer meani n&Uher ; therefore neuter gender signifies neither Sender ; that is neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gen^ er means no gender. Strictly speaking, then, os there are btit two sexes, notms have but noo genders; but fur the sake of practical convenience, we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is no gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the and Vandals, it is believed, that the cause of learning and reiinement would not suffer greatly by their loss, and that the good sense of the present age, would not allow many of our best teachers to be of the party. The last consideration which I shall give a philosophical manner of investigating and enforcing the English language, is, that by this mode of analyzing and reducing it to practice, it cannot, in this age, be compre' hended as the medium of thought. Were this method to prevail, our present literal language would become a dead letter. Of what avail is language, if it cannot be understood ] And how can it bo accommodated to the understanding, unless it receive the sanction of common consent ? Even if we admit that such a manner of unfolding the principles of our language, is more rational and correct than the ordinary, practical method, I think it is clear that such a mode of investigation and develop- ment does not meet the necessities and convenience of ordinary learners in school. To be consistent, that system jvhich instructs by tracing a few of our words to their origin , must unfold the whole in the same mbTtner. But the student in common schools and academies, cannot afibrd time to stem the tide of language up to its source, and there dive to the bottom of the fountain for knowledge. Such labour ought not to be required of him. His object is to become, not a philosophical anti- quarian, but a practical grammarian. If I comprehend the design (if they have any) of our modem philosophical writers on this subject, it is to make grammarians by inculcating a few general principles, arising out of the genius of tie language, and the nature of things, which the learner, by the exercise of his reasoning powers, must reduce to practice. His own judgment, independent of grammar rules, is to be his guide in tp^aking and writing correctly. Hence, many of them exclude from thrir " systems, all exercises in what b called /aZse Syntax. But these profouml philological dictators appear to have overlooked the important considera- tios, that the great mass of mankind, and especially of boys and girls, in common schools, can never become philosophers ; and, conseq;uently, can b2 ! ' 4 W§ STViMOLOGY AND STaXTAX. natural division of nouns. Tho genden of nouns ar^ «o dOtily known, that a farther explanation of thum is unnecfiaaary, except what is given in the following NOTRS. 1. The same noun ia Hometimes masculine and feminine, and somttimes tnasculinc or feminine. The noun parents is off the niaHculine and femi- nine gender. The nonns parant, associate, neighbour, servant, friend, child, hirdfjish, dec, if doubtful, are of the nidsculine or feminine gender. 2. Some nonns naturnlly neuter, are, when used figuratively, or per- 9on\fied, converted into tlie masculine or feminine gonder. Thoae nouna are generally rendered masculine, which arc conspicuous for the attributen of imparting or communicating, and which ore by nature strong and efTica- cious ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, winter, &r. Those, again, are generally feminine, which are conspicuou.s for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable ; as, th« earth, moon, church, boat, vesinl, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune, virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c. This principle tor designating the sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally odhered to in never comprehend and reduce to procticc their metaphyeical and obscUrc systems of grammar. I wish to see children treated as reasoning beings. But therr should be a medium in all things. It is, therefore, absurd to instruct children as if they were already profound philosophers and logi- cians. To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necrssity, of exercising the learned in correcting false Syntax, I need . no other argument than the interesting and undeniable fact, that Mr. Murray's labours, in this depart- mentjhave eflected a complete revolution in the English language, in point of verbal accuracy. Who does not know, that the beet writers of this day, are not guilty of one grammatical inaccuracy, where those authors who wrote before Mr. Murray flourished, are guilty o( five ? And what has produced this important change for the better ? Ask the hundreds of thou- sands who have studied " Mr. Murray's exercises in False Sy^itax." If, then, this view of the subject is correct, it follows tha* &" greater portion of our philosophical grammarB, are far more worthy tho attention of lite- rary connoisseurs, than of the great mass of learners. Knowing that a strong predilection for what are termed philosophical grammars, exists in the minds of some teachers of this science, I hove thought proper, for the gratification of such, to intersperse through the pages of this work, under the head of " Philosophicai, Notes," a system of grammatical principled) as deduced from what appears to me to be the most rational and consistent investigations of this sort. They who prefer thia theory to that exhibited in the body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it. In general, these pretended, philosophical theories of grammar willbe found ta accord with the practical and still more philosophical theory embraced in the body of this icork. Wherever such agreement exists, ■ the system contained in these Notes will be deficient, and this deficiency may he supplied by adopting the principles contained in the other parts of the work. OF THE PHIIiOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. According to the method in which these philosophical investigatiooa of language have generally been condttcted, oil out words ahould be reduced ih« accorl ThI Abho Actoi Adm Adul Ambi Arbit Audii Auth Baroi Bene J)rid< Can( Gate Chai Con< •tot* tha redt Intr corr anil To< tha J the fot del ne: aoi W\ i .. 'NoUx4&->-o£NDfitt . i7 lOUni aro «o dftitly unnecBgMiy, except linine, and somttiinefl niaoculine and femi- our, servant, friend, ? or feminine gender. 1 fipiiralively, or per- nder. Tliose nonna OU3 for the ttttributeH ure strong and efTica- Those, again, are ibutes of containing or amiable ; as, thtt <^ffip,»oul, fortune, designating the srx erally adhered to in •hyeical and obscUrc as reasoning beings, therefore, absurd to ilosophers and logi- y, of exercising tlie argument than the 3urB, in this depart- language, in point writers of this day, those authors who ? And what has e hundreds of thou - ILSE Syntax." If, greater portion attention of litc- tv- mied philosophical lis science, I have spcrse through the Notes," a system irs to me to be the They who prefer are, of course, at ^ grammar willbe ilosophical theory agreement exiatt, nd this deficiency in the other parts rORDS. 1 inTeetigations of should be reduced •^r? ^ «h« Bagliah lauguuga ; but, in soait iustanoes, tht po«i appKet tb« according to hi* fancy. The tnaaeutine and feminine gendors arc distioguished in tliree way*: 1. Bji diftrtnt wordu; an, Mateuline. Bachelor Boar Buck Bull Cock Dog Praka Earl jFathor Friar Gander Hart Uorsfl Husband King Lad Abbot Actor Administrator Adulterer AmbMMdor Arbiter Auditor Author Baron Benefactor •Bridegroom Canon Caterer Chanter Conduotor Feminine. maid low doo ^fcow hen hitch duck rountflss mother nun gooio 'too mare wife queen lass Q. Bif a difference abbess iUAti /• «ctre4S administratrix . adulteress ambasaadress arbitreas auditrem authoress barenssB benefaetreea bride canoaess cateress «hantr(!3s conductress Masculine Boy "Brother Lord Man Maater Milter Nephew Ram Singer Feminine. Blovcn Son Stag Uncle Wizard Sir girl ' vister hidy ■ woman ' mistress apnwncr ' niece •we songstreBs or singer llut «wi5..Mi'aauglit*r t ' nWnd •awH.r':r.:>#; witch A madam ' ' !ff)»«T in termination ; Count Czar Deacon Detracter Director "l^: r^ Duke jBloctor Embassad(}r Emperor Enchanter Executor Fornicator God Governor Heir as, eountaea ezariaa deaconess detractresa /idirectreas dutohose • electreas •embaasadrcsa emperese enehantreis executrU iornicatreee goddess governess heiress .to two claMcs ; for it can be easily shown, that from the noun and verb, all the other parts of i^eech have sprung. Nay, more. They may even be reduoed to one. Verbs do not, in reality, express actions ; but they are intrinsically the mere names of actions. The idea of action or being communicated by them, as well as the meaning of words, is merely itifrr- aniial. The principle of reasoning assumed by the celebrated Home Tooke, if carried to its full extent, would result, it is believed, in proving that we h^vo but one part of ^eoch. Adnduns or adjectives were originally nouna. Sweet, red, whitt, are ihe nanus of quaUties, as well as stoectness, redness, whitenessi The ibtmer dificrs from the latter only in their manner of signification. To denote that the name of some quality or substance ia to be used in con- nesioa ^ith some other name, or, that this quality is to be attributed to ■ome other name, we soinetimes affix to it the termination en, ed, or y ; which signifies give, add, or /otn. When we employ the words wooden 88 ITVMOLdGY AND SYNTAX. Ilriw Ate%\i Heroine .i.*t*8 Proprietor proprietress 4- ■'*"'' H certifl Host hostess Protector /; protrectness .»<..-^.>(* Hant*r huntress Shepherd shepherdess 1 '» ■ H^ is evlH laheriMr inhcritreea or Songster songstress ^^B T^.^^1 inheritrix Sorcerer sorceress ^ ...iy^ji*^,. TastRMiter inBtructress Suiter suitress ■ ?!_ Jew jewees lioness Sultan suhaness or ft' B }8 reql Lion sultana iwfii H I sayfl Marquis marchioness Tiger tigress •-.;%? :.i\' '* H nouni Majror mayoress Testator testatrix - Jr>st i B that ifl Patwm ,., )>atrone68 Traitor ^^.ti. traitress •riir'-\ IB cftusel Peer peeress Tutor tutoress ^.i.n>;j ■ my^ Poet poetess r.; • Tyrant tyrannes» •-s»,/ Priert priestess Victor victress 'i-^Vi B f^ ^uM Prineft princess Viscount viscountess rsh'^' -jJB^B UX ill 1^1 Prior Fiophit prioress prophetess. Votary votaress Widower widow. 3. By prizing another word; as '-;U .V ■ A she-bear . ^B .A male-child A female-child .■^Hi.Lk Bi In t , Malc-deflcendant« Female-descendants. ijHhope, Persoh is « property of the noun and prononn wliich vnrien the verb: ; Tjt 7 The^«/ person denotes the speaker. Tiie second person denotesj the person or thing spoken to ; as, " Listen, O €art^ /'* j^uu/:^ . The third person denoCos the person or thing spoken of; asj ** The earth thirsts," Nouns have but ttoo persons, the second and third. When a man speaks, the pronoun I or we is always used ; therefore nouns can never be in the first person. In examples like the following, some woollen, wealthy, grassy, the terminations en and y, by their own intrin- sic meaning, give notice that we intend to give, add, or join, 4he names ool, teealth, or grata. Pfonount •re a .class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent their diiagrseable repetition. Participles are certain forms of the verb. Arti- cles, interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are co«tractionn or abbreviations of nouns jmd verbs. An (a, ane, or one) comes from a^anad, to add, to heap. The and that, from the Anglo-Saxon verb thtan, to get, assume. Lo is the imperative odook ; fie, oifian, to hate ; and vteleome means it is we// that you arc trome. /n comes from the Gothic noun iima, the interior of the bodf ; and about from hoilM, thn fMk outward boundary. Through or thorough is the Teutonic noun ^^^fff^h, rofMing passage, gate, door, ^ojy js the Anglo*Sai;on ito«n ■X- NOUNS— -PERSON. d9 propnetress j uU protrectrvM n^a.^ »hephcrdeM \'V songstress Borceres* ,u;..4.>.-; suitress ■ultanessor sultana ^^..j{ tigress : .I'ij tfstairix traitress tutoress tyrannessi victress viiicountees votaress widow, s V fit ulsntn. :..• v.-. I ft l.»«bV-.l [■'..'■/•, )nn whit^h varies spoken to ; as, spoken of; ns^ When a man ■afore nouns can following, some their own intrin- >r join, the tianics ies or qualities of to prevent their the verb. Arti- , are coatractionn one) comes from nglo-Baxon verb oli/ian, to hate ; comcB from the t from boda, th« Teutonic noun glo^Sason noun ili philolegisU suppose the notin to be in theirs/ person : — ** This may certify, that i Jonas Taylor, do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident, that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks of himself ; consequently the noun is of the third person. > If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought IS requisite ; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed. If I say, my son, have you seen the young man ? you perceive that the noun son is of the second person, because I address myself to him ; that is, he is spoken to ; but the noun man is of the third person, be- cause he is spoken of. Again, if I say, young man, have you seen my son ? man is of the second person, and son is of the third. " Hast thou left tliy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired sun of the sky ?" " Father, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship between us, that a child may tind it, when tlie sun is asleep in his wig-wam behind the western waters." ; , " Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies ! . -i-.^w- J Sink down, ye mountains, and, ye valleys, rise !" •• Eternal Hope, thy glittering wings explore Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore.'* In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and [hope, are of the second person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the fjram, beginning, source, author. He came from (beginning) Batavia. iff (formerly written gif, give, gin) is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon I verb gif an, to give. I will remain if (give or grant that fact) he will Ureinain.) But comes from the Saxon verb hconittan, to be out. I |informt'il no one but (be-oui, leave-out) my brother. This brief view of the rihjcrt, is suflicicnt to •jlucirlnte the manner in |which, according to Home Tookf-''s principles, the ten parts of speech are 'reduced to one. But I am, hy no menna, djpposed to concede, that this is the true princip!'' of clas.-/<»ca' treatise, jon this, or on any other subject ? IVherein is there a dif^play of philoeo- ?> phy in a rpcculative, etymological performance, which attempts to develop iand explain the elements and primitive meaning of words by tracing the- i *;to their origin, superior to the philosophy employed in the development and illustration of the principles byivhich we are governed in applying those words to their legitimate purpose, namely, that of forming a correct ' and convenient medium by means of which we can communicate our thoughts 1 Does philosophy consist in ranraeking th'' mouldy records of antiquity, in order to gueas at the ancient construction and signification of si single words 1 or have such investigations, in reality, any thing to do with [grammar? Admitting that all the words of our language include, ia their ort'c^e) ■*i 40 ETVMOLOOY AND SYJfTAX. ''I* nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, c]iair% friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth , hounds, ocean, and Hhore, are ail of the third person. ;^ NUMBER '"*'^'''^'* J^^'**^^^ Vf»*5ijKK|., Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more, ^ouns are of two numbers, the singular ojid the plural. The singular number implies but one ; as, a book. , l^he plural number implies more than one ; a^, baoks. 'oi r NOTFS ' "^ ""' ''••^ ^-f ^''^'^ V iRMf ifii .ji'^'lV ;i !-i. 1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form ; as, iiemp, flaxi barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness, compassion> &c ; others only in the plural form ; as, bellows, scissors, ashcsi riches, snufTers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers, idea, pains, vespcra. 2. Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine ; and, also, hiatus, apparatus, scries, species. 3. The plural number of nouns is geniTally formed by adding s to the singular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; bu sometimes we add e» in the plural ; as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; carpa, cargoes. 4. Nouns Ending in/or/nnexions in sentences, are employed for do other purpose, than6are/y to name olyecta. The fact of the case ia, that words are variously com- bined and applied, to answer the distinct and diversified purposes of naming objects, asserting truthti, pointing out and limiting objects, attri- huting qualities to objects, connecting objects, and so on ; andonthia ! -^' ■SOVSS — CASE. 41 i, sky, Spirit, c]iair% , skies, wings, eartli , irson. ;rjyiii7*.» Hi as one or more, r imd the plural, j; as, afcooA:., j^^' n one ; as, backs. form; as, liemp, flaxi cckiiess, compassion' ovvs, scissors, ashcsi ides, paius, yespcra. ors ; as, deer, sheep, OS. brmed by addiing s to lometimes we add es ; lasli, lashes ; carpo, il by a change of that vives ; except grief, I their plurals by the ular plural ; as, rul^ other vowel in tlie its, beauty, beauties ; is another vowel in ittorney, Attorneys; Si ethics, pneuma- singular or plurial nouns means, almf, ?r singular or nlurat minutia), ara atwayn banditti. tot according to any child, children ; ox, lOuse, mice ; louse, t, it does not foUow« ir combinations and purpose, tb8n6ar«/if is are variously cbm- versified purposes of iting objects, attri' d so on i and on thia lice ; brother, brothers or brethren ; cow, cows or kine ; penny, pence, or pennies when the coin is meant ; die, dice for play ; diesybr coin- ing ; pea and fish, pease and fish when the species is meant, hni peas and fishes when we refer to the number ; as, six peas, ten Jishe». 9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful, handfuls ; cupful, cupfuls ; «poonf ul, spoonfuls ; — brother-in-law, brothers-in-law ; court-martial, courts-martial. The following words form their plurals according to the xulea of the languages from which they are adopted. Singular. Antithcsia . Apex Appendix Arcanyni Automaton Axis Basis Beau Calx ■Chci'ub Crisis j.i> Criterion Datum Di(ercsi8 Desideratum Effluvium Ellipsis Emphasis Encomium Erratum Flural. ontilhescs apices J appendixes or ( appendices arcana automata axes bases ( beaux er \ beaus > '■ ■' { calces or ( calxes i cherubim or ( cherubs crises criteria data dinereses desiderata effluvia ellipses emphases ^ encomia or \ encomiums errata Singular. Genius Genus Hypothesis Ignis fatuus Index Lamina Magus jWemorandum Metamorphosis Parentliesis Phenomenon Radius Stamen Seraph Stimulus Stratum Thesis Vertex Vortex A rs'.v 3 Plural genera ^,„, ,..^ hypotheses ignes fatui { indices or ( indexest laminae magi memoranda or memorandums metamorphoses parentheses phenomena radii or radiuses Btoiinina ^ seraphim or \ seraohs stimuli strata theses vertices { vortices or U I ■ J vortexes. I * Genii, imaginary spirits ; gcnhiscs, persons of great mental abilities. t Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents nre meant ; indices, when referring to algebraic quantities. CASE. ' . Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state, situation, or position they have in relation fact is founded the true philosophical principle of the classification of iDords. Hence, an arrangement of words into classes according to this principle, followed by a development and illustration of the principles and rulss that regulate us in the proper use and applicatiou of words in urai and written discourse, appears to approxmmte as near to a true defi- nation of philosophical grammar as any I am capable of giving. Nouns, or the names of the objects of our precsptioos, doubtless eon« stitutcd the original class of words ; (if I may be allowed io asevune such 43 RTYMOtOOY ANt) SYNTAX. to Other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominRtive, the possessive, and the objective. I deem the essential qualities of case^ in English, to consist, not in the changes or infkctions produced on nouns and pronouns, but in the mrious offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming differ- ent positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning principles, founded in the nature of things. »»"•" ^ g'*i-T4J'j*'^^'iv Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to compre- hend what is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple ; but in the different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes. The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant by case 1 In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say he is in a good case, when he is fat, and in a bad eas0, when he is lean, and needs more oats ; and in this sense we apply the termi case to denote the state or condition of the horse. So, when we place a noun before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the nominative case ; but when it follows a transitive verb or pre- position, we say it hes another case ; that Is, it assumes a new posi- tion or siliMtion in the sentence : and this we call the objective case. Thus, the boy gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as acting. Ho is, therefore, in the nondnatice case. But when I say, Jane struck the boy, I do net represent the boy as the actor, but as the ob/ect of the action. He is, therefore, in a new case or condition. And when I say. This is the boy^s hat, I do not speak of the boy either as acting or as acted upon ; but as possessing something : for which reason ho is in the possessive case. Hence, it is clear that. nouns have three cases or positions. As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in connexion with the noun ; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of tlie noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature. In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse a hypothesis as an original class of wordi ;) but the ever active principle of aMociatioa soon trainformuJ no.ia* into vcrb3, by mak'mg them, when employed in a particular m inner, expressive of affirmation. This same principle aljo operated in appropriaiing nam^a to the purpose of attribut- ing qualities to other namf^g of objects ; and in this way was constituted the claaa of wordd called adjectives or attributes. By the same principle were formed all the other classes. In the following exposition of EngUsh grammar on scientihc principles, I shall divide words into seven classes, Nouns or Names, V*rbs,AdJeetivee, Adnouns or Attributes, Adverbs, Prepositions, Pronouns, aad Co^fttnC' tions, or Connectives. for »n •xplanation of the noun, refer to the body of the work, with to the origin But mi not aul cxistec I at a I smiled, I flowen % of spec I actions I A n live. The ifies a u lis deem la verb i lexiat. irerb co lese 1 |of the pubordi >iraporto Fori ihe ver i*8 conr y with th ^ehall n of grar • tagc to ^ e good \ A VI An Th verb ; I In 1 word ; presse ; active I theref 1 the nominative, '•-, -'bih hrtfl jb^Ki ..«« ihf to consist, not in prohoans, but in the , by assuming diifer- ccordance with this 'easoning principles, any one to compre- s extremely simple ; leanings as Proteus it, however, is mere peaking of a horse, e is fat, and in a bad id in this sense we •n of the horse. So, subject, we say it is uisitivo verb or pre- ssumes a new posi- II the objective case, •resented as acting. n I say, Jane struck but as the ol»'ect of dilion. And when boy either as acting or which reason ho t nouns have three >un are inseparably o understand them this part of speech, tion of the verb in fie to illustrate the comprehend their 3r to hold converso ver active principle nuking them, when lation. This same mrpoae of attribut- '&y was constituted the same principle icientihc principles, , V«rb9,Adjectiz€t, ttm, and Coniunc- the work, VERBS — ACTIVE, fASSIT«, AND NEITTER. ipv with each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give nami^ to the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the I origin of the first part of speech, which we denominate the noun. But merely to name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufllcient for their purpose. They perceived that tiiese objects existed, moved, acted, or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, :s smiled, talked, ran, and so on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow. Hence the necessity of another part k of Bpcoch, whose ofiice it should be to express these existences and I actions. This second class of words we call ,^. VERBS. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to SUFFER ; as, I am ; I rule ; I am ruled. Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. % They are also divided into regular, irregular, and defec- ■I tive. I The term verb is derived from th6 Latin word verhumy which signi- ;i fies a word. This part of speech is called a verb or word, because it ■f is deemed the most important word in every sentence ; and without .1 a verb and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can il exist. The noun is the original and leading part of speech ; the jverb comes next in order, and is far more complex than the noun. lese two are the most useful in the language, and form the basis fof the science of grammar. The other eight parts of speech are Isubordinate to these two, and, «s you will hereafter learn, of minor ^importance. For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as convenient as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent V with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I <«hall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle |of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some practical advan- ^tage to the learner is thereby gained. The following some consider ^^n good definition. ^; A VERB is a word which expresses affirmation. i An active verb expresses action ; and *' The nominative case ig the actor, or subject of the verb ; as, John writes. '•"■ i In this example, which ia the verb 9 You know it is the ; word writes^ because this word signifies to do ; that is, it ex- |, presses action, therefore, according to the definition, it is an I active verb. And you know, too, that the noun John is the aetOTt therefore John is the nominative ease to the verb writeSt In ■1 '*' «i ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. the exprewions, The man walks ; The boy plays ; Thunders roll ; Warriors' fight, you perceive that the words waVcSi plays, roll, and ^ht, are active verbs ; and you cannot be at a loss to know that the nouns man, boy, thunders, and warriors, are in the nominative case. As no action can be produced without some agent or mov- ing cause, it follows that every active verb must have some actor or agent. This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the nominative. Nominative, from the Latin nomina, liter- ally signifies to name ; but io the technical sense in wiiich it is used in grammar it means the noun or pronoun which i^ the subject of afiirmation. This subject or nominative may be active, passive, or neuter, as hereafter exemplified. A neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of being ; as, John sits. Now, in this example, John is not represented as an actor, but as the subject of the verb sits, erefore John is in the nom. inative case to the verb. And you Know that the word sits does PaiLOSOFHICAL NOTES.. Plausible arguments may be advanced, for rejecting neuter and passive verbs ; but they have been found to be so convenient in practice, that the theory which recognises them, has stood ihe test of ages. If you tell the young learner, that, in the following expressions. The chureh rests on its foundation ; TUti book lies on the desk ; The boya remain {are) idle, the nouos church, beok, and boya, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the verbs retta, lies, remain, and are, are active, he will not believe you, because there is no action that is apparent to his senses. At I should you proceed Xartber, and, by a laboured and metaphysical investigation and development of ihe laws of motion, attempt to prove to him that " every portion of matter is influenced by different, active principles, tending to produce change," and, therefore, everything in universal nature is altoays acting, it is not at all probable^ that you could convince his understanding, in opposition to the clearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to learners is a theory which they cannot comprehend ? Among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical grammar, the ingenious Home Tooke stands pre-eminent ; but, unfortu- nately, his principal speculations on the vtrb, have never met the public eye. William S. Cardell has also rendfsred hnnself conspicuous in the philological field, by taking a bolder stand than any of his predecessors. His view of the verb is novel, and ingeniously supported. The following is the substance of his theory OF THE VERB. A VERB is a word which expresses action ; ^st, ]\f an exists ; Trees frow ; Waters ^010 ; Mountains stand ; I am- All verbs are active, and have one object or i^ore than one, expressed or implied. The pillar stands ; that is, it keeps itself in an erect ot jta&ding posture ; it upholds or sustaihs itself in that position. They •j* %is ; ^y plays; Thunders lat the words walks, ; and you cannot be n, boy, thunders, and some agent or mov- 'erb must have some fducerofthe action, ■ ^atin no/nina, liter- 2al sense in which jt or pronoun which ia r nominative may be smph'fied. 3tion nor passion, ^n sits. esented as an actor, John is in the nom. "the word sits does ting nearer and passiye nt in practice, that the ^ages. If you tell the he church resla on ita ' ^ffnain (ere) idle, the acting, and, therefore e will not believe you' ?8es. Ai. should you ical investigation and re to him that " every principles, tending to ersal nature is always ce hia understanding, Js. Of what avail to •iters on philosophical ninent ; but, unfortu- never met the public If conspicuous in the ' of his predecessors ited. The following l^an exiatt ; Trees than one , expressed tself in an erect or lar position. They m^ VERBS — NUMBER AND PERSON. 45 lot express apparent action, but " condition of being ; that is, fit represents John in a pavticular state of existence ; therefore pite is a neuter verb. In speaking of the neuter gender of [nouns, I informed you that neuter means neither ; from which lit follows that neuter gender implies neither gender ; that is, -^neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, by an easy transit tion of thought, you learn that neuter, when applied to verbs, means neither of the other two classes ; that is, a ncMterverb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The jTian stands ; the lady lives ; the child sleeps ; the world exists ; the words stands, lives, sleeps, and exists, are neuter ^erbs ; and the nouns man, lady, child, and world, are all in Jthe nominative case, because each is the subject of a verb. ;»Thus, you perceive that when a noun is in the nominative ^ case to an active verb, it is the actor ; and when it is nomina- I tive to a neuter verb, it is not an actor, but the subject of the J verb. I Some neuter verbs express being in general ; as. The man I is ; Kingdoms erist. Others express being in some particular I state ; as, The man stands, sits, lies, or hangs. 1 will now give you two signs, which will enable you to distinguish the verb from other parts of speech, when you can- not teJI it by its signification. Any word that will make sense with to before it is a verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, ty sing, to hear, to ponder, to live, to breathe, are verbs. « Or, any word that will conjugate is a verb> Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs ; I write, thou writest, he writes ; I . smile, &c. But the words boy, lady, child, and world will not make sense with to prefixed : to boy, to lady, to world is nonsense. Neither will they conjugate, I lady, thou ladiest, dec, is worse than nonsense. Hence, you perceive that these ;' words are not verbs. There are some exceptions to these ; rules, for verbs are sometimes used as nouns. This w^ill ho explained by and by. To verbs belong number, per so , mood, and tense. At present I shail speak only of the number and person of verbs ; but hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all are ; i. e. they air themselves, or breathe ajr ; they inspirit, vivify, ojr uphold tiiemeelvee by inhaling air. Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a perso- nal oV verbal one implied. The clouds move; i.e., move themselves t\oxig. The troops marched twenty miles a day ; i. e. marched themselves. The moon shines : — The moon shines or sheds a shining, sheen, lustre, or brightness. The Bparrow flies :— flies or takes a flight. Talkers talk #" ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. their properties. And permit me to inform you that I shall not lead you into the intricacies of the science, until, by gra- dual and easy progressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such principles will be elucidated as you are prepared to understand at the time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious ' to get along rapidly ; but endeavour to become thoroughly acquainted with one principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you for the next. Number and person of verbs. You recollect that, the nominative is the actor or subject, and the active verb is the action performed by the nominative. By this, you perceive that a very intimate connexion or relation exists between the non:iiaative case and the verb. If, therefore, only one creature or thing acts, only one action, at the same instant, can be done ; as. The girl writes. The nominative girl is here of or speak word* or talk ; Walkers walk walkings or walks : The rain rains rain ; tSittcrs eit or hold aittinga or aessiens. To prove that there is no such thing ao a ncutei verb, the following appear to be the strongest arguments adduced. 1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence ; but the component parts of everything are «i ail times " influenced by diiTer- ent, active principles, tending to produiee change." Hence, it follows, that no being or thing can be represented in a neuter or non-acting state. This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be iden- tified with the primary laws of action, as unfolded by the principles of physical science. The correctness of this position may be doubted ; but if it can be clearly demonstrated, that ^very particle of matter is always in motion, it does not, by any means, follow, that we cannot speak of things in a state of quiescence. What ia false in fe.ct may be correct in grammar. The point contested, is not whether things always act, but whether, when we asssrt or affirm something respecting them, we always represent them as acting. 2. Verbs weie originally used to express the motions or changes of things which produced obvious actions, and, by an easy transition, were afterwards applied, in the same way, to things whose actions were not apparent. This assumption is untenable, and altogether gratuitous. 3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood ; and, as this mood commands some one to do something, any verb which adopts it, must be active. Thus, in the common place phrases, " Be there quickly; Stand out of my way ; Sit or lie farther." It is admitted that these verbs are here employed in an active sense ; but it is certain, that they are not used according to their proper, literal meaning. When I tell a man, literally to stand, sit or lie by moving, be would disobey me ; but when I say, " Stand out of my way," I employ the neuter verb stand, instead of the active verb move or go, and in a eorre^M>ndent sense. My meaning is, Move yourself out of my way ; or take your stand somewhere else. This^ however, does not prove that the sil the v^ forms agree| is ph notice plural writeJ Pei verbs\ thevt numb| a mar son of I w agree! He, "^ I is persoil TTeis They sentat would they I Noi verb, 1 2 3 1 you that I shall Bce, until, by gra- 5d to comprehend ih principles will rstand at the time ot be too anxious 'Come thoroughly ndertake another. ecollect that, the active verb is the his, you perceive xists between the only one creature instant, can be ^ffirl is here of •r walks .• The rain ve 'fh, the following ?ct quiescence ; but nfluenced by differ- pnce, it follows, that on-acting state. le verb to be iden- 'y the principles of y be doubted ; but '■ matter is always 'e cannot speak of may be correct in gs always act, but them, we always ons or changes of y transition, were actions were not US- -.• . .?■ 30 J ; and, as this which adopts it. Be there quicklyj an active sense ; ir proper, literal ie by moving, he way," I employ ■ or go, and in a ut of my way • ' not prove thai VERBS — NUMBER AND PERSON. ||| the singular number, because it signifies but one person ; and the verb writes denotes but one action, which the girl per- forms ; therefore the verb writes is of the singular number, agreeing with its nominative giri. When the nominative case is plural., the verb must be plural ; as, girls write. Take notice, the singular ver^ pnds in *, but the noun is generally plural when il ends in * y thus, The girl writes y The girlt i* write. Person, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs not to aerhs, but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree with its nominative in person, as well as itx number ; that is. the verb must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with ihejlrst, second, or third per- son of the noun or pronoun which is its nominative. I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You, They, are personal pronouns, I is of the^r*^ person, anH singular number; Thou is second, l)erson singular ; He, She, or It, is third person singular ; We is Jirst person plural ; Ye or You is second person plural ; They is third person pluraL These pronouns are the reprer sentatives of nouns, and perform the same office that the nouns would for which they itand. When placed before the verb, they are, therefore, the nominatives to the verb. Notice, particularly, the different variations or endings of tho verb, as it is thus conjugated in the Indicative Mood, Present Tense. ^ I •r ,.; Plural. We Walk, Ye or You walk> They walk, or the boys walk. Singular. 1. Person I walk, 1. Person 2. Person Thouwalke»<, S. Person 3. Person He walks, or ^ 3. Person the boy walks, > or walketh. ) This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in est, it is of the second person singular / but when the verb ends stand is properly used. If we choose to overstep the bounds of custom,' we can employ any word in the language as an active-transitive verb. Be, sit, and lie, may be explained in the same manner. 4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the manner of action. They must, therefore, be considered active verbs. The child sleeps soundly; He sits genteelly ; They live contsntsdly and happily together. The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By using adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some verbs ^re nat active. It is incorrect to say, I am happily; They were peacefuUi/; She remains quietly; The fields appear grgen/y. These verbs in ihejr 48 fcTYMOLOOY ANi> SYNTAJi. ins, or eth, it is of the third person singular. Walkest, ridesif ttandest, are of the second person singular; and walks or walketh, rides or rideth, rtands or standeth, are of the third person singular. I have told you that when the nominative is singular nuht- ber, the verb must be ; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be ; and when the nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the same person. If you look ag^in at the foregoing conjugation of walk, you will no- tice that the verb varies its endings in the singular, in order to agree in ^rm with the first, second, and third person of its nominative ; but in the plural it does not vary its endings from the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in sense with its nominative in the plural, as well as in the sin- gular. Exercise a little mind, and you will perceive that agreement and government in language do not consist merely in the ybrm of words. Now, is it not clear, that when I say, I walk, the verb walk is singular, because it expresses but one action ? And when I say. Two men walk, is it not equally apparent that walk is plural, because it expresses two p'»t!ons ? In the sentence, Ten men walk, the verb walk denotes ten actions, for there are ten actors. Coannon sense teaches you that there must be as many actions as there are actors j and that the verb, when it has no form or ending to show it, is as strictly plural as when it has. So, in the phrase We walk, common acceptation, do not express action; Vi: which reason we say, I «tn happy ; They were peaceful ; &c. But in the expressions, The child sleeps soundly ; She sits gracefully ; They live happily and contentedly ; we employ the verbs sleeps, sits, and live, in an active sense. When no action is intended, we say, They live happy and contented. If, on scientific principles, it can be proved that those verbs generally denominated neuter, originally expressed action, their present, accepted meaning will still oppose the theory, for the generality of mankind do not attach to them the idea of action. Thus I have endeavoured to present a brief but impartial abstract of the modern theory of the verb, leaving it with the reader to estimate it according to its value . To give a satisfactory definition of the verb, or such o one es shall be found scientifically correct and unexceptionable, has hitherto baffled the skill, and transcended the learning, of our philosophical writers. If its essential quality, as is generally supposed, is made to consist in express- ing affirmation, it remains still to be defined when a verb expresses affir- mation. In English, and in other languages, words appropriated to ex- press affirmation, are often used without any such force ; our idea of affirmation, in such instances, being the mere inference of custom. In the sentence, — " Thinki love, and hate, denote moral actions," the words ththk, lots, end hate, are nouns, because they are mere names of SP*" M h ■ t \ < lot only to under, ad. In reading, and then look mes over in your ive been contracted, to coalesce with the yet, it their present meaning and force, •b, the Saxons affix- ) was the noun -state ded the lerminalion lign that affirmation pted, and in many inally affixed to our n, and finnlly drop- verbs were denoted but, as these termi- the subject of affir- they have been laid reason, we might, e with the termina- were once separate o denote fh« femi- mind. After that, take another sontonco and proceed in tho sani6 manner, and so on throuorh tho whole lecture. Do rtdl presume to think, that tliosc directions arc of no real conse- quence to you ; for, unless you follow them s'rictlyi ydu need not expect to make rapid progress. Oil the otlior hand, if you proceed according to my instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of grammar in a short time. — When you shall have complied with this requisition, you may commit the following order of parsing a noun, and the order of parsing a verb ; and then you will be prepared to parse or analyze the following examples. ANALYSIS OR PARSING. Do you recollect the meaning of the word analysis ? If you do not, I will explain it : and first, I wish you to remem- xyeiy tliat analysis is the reverse of synthesis. Synthesis is the act of combining simples so as to form a whole or compound. Thus, in putting togelhel' lettei's so as to form syllables, syl- lables so as to form words, words so as to form sentences, ana sentences so as to form a discourse, the pro ess is called syn> thetic. Analysis, on the contrary, is the act of decdmposition; that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into its simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principle*. Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyse a sentence, is to separate from one another and classify tho different words of which it is composed ; and to analyse or parse a word, means td enumerate and describe all its various nine gender of abme ilouns^ we affix eaa ; as, heiress, instructreM. Mss is a contraction of thie Hebrew noun essd, a femnle. Ot our verbs, the tenriVnatioii est is a contraction of doest; eiki of doeth; s, of docs. We say, thou dost or doest love ; n of dede-, to the present tense of verbs to ^enote that the action named , is, t/etfe, did, doed^ or done. To and do, from the Gothic noun lani, signifying ani or t^fcct, nrc, ac- cording to Home Tooke, nearly alike in meaning and force ; and when the custom of affixing some more ancient verbalizing adjunct, began to be drof^ed, its place and meaning were genera l!y*^upplied by prefixing one of these. When I eay, " I am going to walk," the verbal or affirmative force is coaveyed by the use of to, meaning the same as do ; and walk is employed merely as a verbal na'ne ; that is, I assort that I shall do the act which I name by the word tcalk, or the act of walking. Perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious than profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, thatj on scientific principles, whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by a Verbalittngadiunct iti-l in the noun-state, and does not express affirmatioii, still this°theory would be very inconvenient in practice. I shall rccume this siibject in Lecture Xf. : ■ - C 55 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. properties, and its grammatical relations with respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all its »>lk;cf Jomr ewf changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at firsts appear to be of littFe iinportance ; hut, if you persevere, yoo will hereafter fincFit of great utility, for parsing wilt enabfe you to detect, and correct, errors in 'Composition, SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing a Noun, is — a noun, and" why ? —common, proper, or collective, and why ? — gender, and why ? — person, and why ? — number, and why ?— case, and why ? — Rule : — decline it. The order of po-sing a Ver^, Is — a; verb, and why ? — active, passive^ or neuter, and why ? — 'inactive — transi- tive or intransiiivc, and why ? — if passive — how is it formed ? — ^regular, irregular, or defective, and why ? — mood, and whv ? — tense, and why ? — person and number, and why ? — with what does it agree ? — Rule ; — conju- gate it. . ' I will now parse t\.\. iiv.uns according to the order, and, in m doing, by applying,' i'^o drfigitions and rules, I shall answer all those questions given in t!)^ order. If you have perfectly committed the order of ^.nrsing n T>oun and verb, you may proceed with me ; but, recoMectj you cannot parse a verb in full, until you shall have had a more complete explanation of it. / Johi's hand iremhles. John's is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person — proper, the name of an individual — masculine gender, it de- notes a mule — third person, spoken of — singular number, it implies but one — and in the possessive case, it denotes poss- ession — it is governed by the noun " hand," according to Rule 12. il noini or 'pronoun in the possessive case is gov^ erncd ly the noun it possesses. Declined — Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plu- ral — nom. Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns. Hand is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name of a sort or species of things — neuter gender, it denotes a thiii. the properly ; thus, The man^s dog eats, his dog eats. You perceive, then, that the added noun, denoting the thing possessed, has power to change the form of the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor, accord- ing to Rule 12 j thus, by adding dog, in the preced,' ig exam- ples, man is changed to man's, and he to his. Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quite familiar to you ; and then you will be pre- pared to analyze correctly and systematically, the following exercises. When you parse, you may spread the Compendi- um before you ; and, if you have not already committed the definitions and rules, you may read them on that, as you ap- ply them. This mode of procedure will enable you to learn all the definitions and rules by applying them to practice. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Rain descends — Rains descend — Snow falls — Snows fall— - Thunder rolls — Thunders roll-— Man's works decay — Men's labours cease — John's dog barks — Eliza's voice trembles — Julia's sister's child improves— Peter's cousin's horse limps. In the ne^t place, I will parse a noun and a neuter verb, which verb, you will notice, differs from an active only in one jpspect. ** Birds repose on the branches of trees. Birds is a noun, the name of a thing or creature — common, the name of a genus or class — masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both males and females — third person, spoken of — plural number, it implies more than one — and in the nomina- tive case, it is the subject of the verb " repose," and governs VERBS — ^EXERCISES IN PARSING. 55 Rtives. But why 'hy must we say, luse the genius of 3se who speak it, lion amounts to a nature of things, iive case, is gov- ; but we cannot : ? Because the log, the property, igimge requires, which he is rep- ake a particular erty ; thus, The e, then, that the power to change assessor, accord- )reced.' ig exam- larsed, until the ou will be pre- y, the following ' the Compendi- ■f committed the that, as you ap- sle you to learn to practice. -Snows fall — 1 decay — Men's 9ice trembles — 's horse limps. 1 a neuter verb, tive only in one ees. >> ture — common, sminine gender, n, spoken of — in the nomina- ," and governs 3' it according to Rule 3. Tfte nom. case governs the verb. De- clined — Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird. Plural nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds. Repose is a verb, a word that signifies to be — ^neuter, it ex- presses neither action nor passion, but a state of being — ^third person, plural number, because the nominative " birds" is with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. Conjugated — 1 pers. sing. I repose, 2 pers. thou reposest, 3 pers. he reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1 pers. We re- pose, 2 pers. ye or you repose, 3 pers. they repose, or the birds repose. Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distin- guished by italics, in the following EXERCISES IN PARSING. The book lies on the desk — The cloak hangs on the wall — Man's days are few — Cathmor's loarriors sleep in death — Clatho reposes in the narrow house — Jocund day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. The sunbeams rest on the grave where her beauty sleeps. You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that foUow,^ue or six times over, if you please. OBJECTIVE CASE.— ACTIVE TRANSITIVE VERBS. The objective case expresses the object of an action or of a relation. It generally follows a transitive verb, a participle, or a preposition. \^ A noun is in the objective case when it is the object of some- thing. At present I shall explain this case only as the object of an action ; but when we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition, I will also illustrate it as the object of a relation. An active verb is transitive when the action passes over from the subject or nominative to an object ; as, Richard strikes John. Transitive . neans passing. In this sentence the action of the verb strikes is transitive, because it passes over from the nomi- native Richard to the object John ; and you know that the noun John is in the objective case, btcause it is the object of the action expressed by the active transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. For example : Galllleo invented the telescope, Now it is evident, that Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some object ui view. In order d» ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 'M . to ascertbin that object, put the questiony Gallileo invented ^hat ? The telescope. Telescope, then, is the real object of the action, denoted by the transitive verb invented ; and> therefore, telescope is in the objective case. If I say. The •horse kickz the servant — Carpenters build houses — Ossian wrote poems — Columbus discovered America — you readily perceive, that the verbs kicks, build, wrote, and discovered, ex-- press transitive actions ; and you cannot be at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objecti\ case: — they are i'cr inty houses, poems, and America. The nominative and objcclive cases of nouns are generally known •by tiie following rule : tiie notninaiive does somelldng ; the objective has something done to it. The nominative generally comes be/ore the^ verb ; and the objective, after it. When 1 say, George struck the- servant, George is in the nominative, and sercanl is in the objective CP3e ; but, when I say, The servant struck George, servant is in the- nominative case,aHd George is in the objective. Thus you perceive, jhat Cast" means the diftorent state or situation of nouns with regard •to other words. It is souictimcs very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I shall, 'therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give you an ex- .planation of the participle and preposition. iBesides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes in •the nominative case independent, sometimes in the nominative case absolute, sometimes in appo.sition in the same case, and sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter v rb to be, or after •an active-intransitive or passive verb. These cases are illustrated in, JLacture X.andinthe 21 and 22 Rules of Syntax. ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS, -nn:. An active verb is transitive, when the action termi- nates on an object : but An active verb is intransitive, when the action does. not terminate on an object ; as, John walks. , ' You perceive that the verb walks, iu tliis example, is intran- sitive, because the action does not pass over to an object : that ds, the action is confint'd to the agent John. The following .sign will generally enable you to distinguish a transitive verb from an intransitive. Any verb that will make sense with the •words a thing, or a person, after it, is transitive. Try these verbs by the sign, love, help, conquer, reach, subdue, ovcrcomCy Thus, you can say, I love a person or thing — lean helpaj?er- «m or thing — and so on. Hence you know that these verba are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make sense with this sign, which fact will be shown by the followuig ex» I ACXiVE-lNTRANSlTlVfi VEftBS. 57 e action doea ■^itnples : smile, go, tome, play, lark, walk,fiij. We cannot say, if we mean t6 speak linglisli, I smile a person or tiling — I go Yi person or ihing ;-=-hence you perceive that these verbs arc not transitive, but intransitive. If yon reflect %pon these examjjles for a few moments, you will have a clear vjonception of tlie nature ut transitive and intransitive verba. BeCoro I cioso this subject, however, it is neceasary further to remark, that somo transitive on-1 iniransitive verbs cx[)res3 Vvhat is •caHerow. [liad. release, "my, leet. reedqijf^. KOUNS AND VERBS — ^PARSmG. dd NoTB 1. The words, the, that, those, and his, you need not pars*. 2. A Aoun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a noun understood ; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson.] ^" As you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases, it becomes necessary to present, in the next place, the declension of nouns, for you must decline every noun you parse. DC' clension means putting a noun through the different cases : and you will notice, that the possessive case varies from the nom- inative in its termination, or ending, but the objective case ends like the nominative. The nominative and objective cases of nouns itiust, therefore, be ascertained by their situation in a sentence^ or by considering the office they perform.- - .'... DECLENSION OF NOUNS. PLUR. SING. nxR. man men man's men's man. men. SING. Notn. king kings . , vi Nom Poss. king's kings' Foss. Obj. king. kings. 06;. Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding ex- amples, (except the, that, those, and his,) you may proceed with me, and parse the examples in the following exercises, m which are presented nouns and active-intransitive verbs. " My Jlock increases yearly." Flock is a noun, a name denoting animals — a noun of mul- titude, it signifies many in one collective body — masculine a^d feminine gender, denoting both sexes — third person, spoken of .—^singular number, it denotes but one flock — and in the nomi- .native case, it is the active agent of the verb " increases," and governs it, according to Rulk 3- The nominative case governs ,the verb. [Decline it.] Increases is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it ex- presses action — intransitive, the action does not pass over to an .object — of the third person, singular number, because its nominative " flock" conveys unity of idea j and it agrees with " flock," agreeably to Rule 10. A noun of multitude conveying unity of idea^ mu^t have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular. " The divided multUude hastily disperse." Multitude is a noun, a name that denotes persons — a collec- tive noun, or noun of multitude, it signifies many — masculine and feminine gender, it implies both sexes — third person, spo- ken of — singular number, it represents but one multitude, or collectiv'e body ; (but in another sense, it is plural, as it con- veys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more iudividuah than one ;) — and in the nominative case, it is the actor and c2 60 ETyMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. subject of the verb " disperse," which it governs, according to Rule 3. The nom. case governs the verb. — Declined. — Sing, nom. multitude, poss. multitude's obj. multitude. — Plur. nom. multitudes, poss. multitudes', obj. multitudes. Disperse is a verb, a word that signifies to do— active, it ex - presses action — intransitive, the action does not terminate on an object— third person, plural number, because its nominative " multitude" conveys plurality of idea ; and it agrees with " multitude" agreeably to Rules 11.^ noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural. Rules 10, and 1 1, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be based on the principles of the language ; and, there- fore, it might, porhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. Their application is quite limited, In many instances, they will not apply to nounShOf multitude. The existence of such a thing as " unity or plurality of idea," as applicable to nouns of this class, is doubfjiil. It is just as correct to say, " The meeting was divided in its sentiments," as to say, " The meet- ing were divided in their sentiments." Both are equally sup- ported by the genius of the language, and by the power of custom. It is correct to say, either that " The^ee< were dis- persed ;" " The council were unanimous ;" " The council were divided ;" or that, " The jfteet was dispersed ; " The council was unanimous ;" " The council was divided." But perhaps for the sake of euphony, in some instances, custom has deci- ded in favour of a singular, and in others, of a plural construc- tion, connected with words of this class. For example ; cus- tom gives a preference to the constructions, " My people do not consider ;" " The peasantry go barefoot j" " The Jlock is his object;" instead of, ^* My people doth not consider ;" "The peasantry goes barefoot ;" " The Jlock are his object." In instances like these, the application of the foregoing rules may be of some use ; but the constructions in which they do not apply, are probably more numerous than those in which they do. EXERCISES IN PARSING. '" - ^- ' Nom. case. Intran. verb. Nom. case. Intran. verb. Men labour. The sun sets. Armiea inarch. ^ The moon rises. f Vessels sail. .. ,u The stars ... '. twinkle. * > Birds fly- The rain , ,. descends. Clouds move. The nver flows. ]\Iultitudes perish. • The nation mourns^ m wot IVhe sut For iaaotheJ Vor^ A VI j««Barthl commc The I i tictioit. .AV( taitti u As I |)Ut to (o ansM Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the na erns, according to Declined Sing. ude — Plur. nom. f, do — active, it ex - not t&rminate on ise its nominative d it agrees with plurality of ideaf n the plural. >n. They appear ige ; and, there- 1 to retain them. Y instances, they xistence of such plicable to nouns 3t to say, " The ay, "The wee/, ire equally sup- by the power of "ie fleet were dis- rhe council were ; " The council But perhaps lustom has deci, >lural construe- example; cus- iy people do not The flock is his isider;" "The is object." In ?oing rules may ih they do not 5 in which they Tntran. verb. . lets. "■'' •«^' ■■'. . 9€S» winkle, * escends. lows, (loums. on the number XOTJJJS AND VERBS— PAttSING. 61 «6r words which you parse, but on the attention which you give Vhe subjects i*aii may parse the same exercises several times occr. for the gratiftoatioii of those who prefer it, I here present another BlVlSIOrJ OF VBRBS* Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and inlransitiveu A verb is transitive when the action affects an object-; as, - ''Earthquakes reck kingdoms ; thrones and palaces are shaken down ; and potentates, princes, and subjects, are buried in one ' common gravo.'* The namiai^Ve to a ipaflsive verb, is the object, but not the agent of the ' tame upon me ;^' ^* I am he who toas, and is, and is to come.'* •>■ As an exercise on wiiat you have been studying, I will now ' |)at to you a few questions, all of which you ought to be able Ka answer before you proceed any farther. QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. With what two gessral divisions of grammar does the second lec-^ ture begin ? — Of what does Etymology treat ? — Of what does Syn- ^ tax treat ? — On what is based the true principles of classification ? — > How do you ascertain the part of speech to which a word belongs ? — What is meant by its manner of meaniog ? — Name the ten parts of speech — Which of these are considered the most important ? — By wha*. jsign may a noun be distinguished ? — How many kinds of nouns ave there ? — What belong to nouns ? — What is gender ? — How many genders have nouns ? — What is person? — How many persons have no ins T — What is number ? — How many numbers have nouns? — Wha: is case ? — How many cases have npuns ? — ^Does case consist in the inflections of a noun ? — How many kinds of verbs are there ? — By what sign may a verb be known ? — What belong to verba 1- — What is synthesis ? — What is analysis ?- -What is parsing ? — Repeat the order of parsing the noun. — Repeat the order of parsing the verb. — What rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the possessive case ? — What rule, in parsirg a noun in tlie nominative case? — What rule applies in parsing a verb ? — What is meant by government ?— Explain rules 3. 4, and 12. — By what rule are the nominative and objective cases of nouns known ? — By what sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive verb ? — Do transitive verbs ever ex- press a moral action ? — Are intransitive and neuter verbs ever usewd a-^ transitive ? — Give some examples of transitive verbs with ;;er5on£(Z and verbal objects. — What rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objective case ? — Explain rule 20.— In parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveymg plurality of idea, what rule do you apply ? 6'^ KTYMOLOOY AND SYNTAJf. QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Whether the learner be required to answer tlie following questioilf ^ or not, is, of course, left discrelionarj with the teacher. The author takes the liberty to suggest the expediency of 710/, generally, enforcing such a requisition, mitil the pupil goes through the book a second time» Name some participial nouns. — AVhat are abstract nouns ? — ^What IS the distinction between abstract nouns and adjectives ? — What are natural nouns ? — Artificial nouns ? — What is the distinction between material and immaterial nouns ? — Are nouns eyer of the masculine and feminine gender? — Give examples. — When are nouns, naturally neuter, converted into the masculine or feminine gender ? — Give ex- amples. — :Speak some nouns that are always in the singularnumber. — Some that are always plural. — Speak some that are in the satme form in both numbers. — fsamcrll tlie various ways of forming the plural number of nouns.— Of what number are the nouns news, 'tneanzj alms, and amends? — Name the plurals to the following compoiinJ nouns, handful, cujfitl, spoonful, brother-in-law, court-martial. QUESTIONS ON THE PHIIX)SOPHICAL NOTES, What has usually been the object of philosophical inveetigatfonsi! of language ? (page 32)-rDo the syntactical dependences and con- nexions of words depend on their original import ? — Is the power of association and custom efficient in changing the radical meaning of •omo words ? — Have words Intrinsically a signification of their own; or is their meaning inferential; i. e. such as custom has assigned to them ? (page 38.) — On what fact is based the true, philosophical principle of classification ? — Deifino philosophical grammar. — Which is supposed to be the original part of speech ? — How vvere the othern formed from that ?•— How many parts of speech may be recognised in a scientific developeipont and arrangement of the principles of our language ?— Name them. — What testimony have we that njany things do not net ? (page 43.) — Repeat some of the arguments in favour of, and against, the principle which regards all verbs as active, — In what moods are verbs used in their noun-stale 1 (page 48.) — Give exam* pies. — What is said of the terminations, est, cth, s, and en,, and of tlie words, be and Jo. .. REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS. You have already been informed, that verbs are the most important part of speech in our language ; and to convince you of their impor- tance, I now tell you, that you cannot exprcsfj a thought, or commu- nicate an idea, without making use of a verb, either expressed or implied. Verbs express, not only the state or manner of being, but, likewise, all the difterent actions and movements of all creatures and things, whether animate or inanimate. As yet I have given you only a partial description of this sort of words ; but when you are better prepared to comprehend the subject, I will explain all their properties, and show you the proper manner of usir;g them. A word that is generally a noun, somolimes becomes a xcrb ; and a verb is frequently used as a noun, 'j'hese changes depend on the yoUv scale unyie into tl fount) Nc alwa as, '] Tl case, dietin If .Bcrte 8, tl beh a thi of I lion not " ill Jow s. b;^j:. NOtTKS AND VERBS- "FALSE SYNTAt. 6» Jllowinp question*, clier. The author enerally, enforcing book a second time, ct nouns ? — What !tives?_Whatare listinctioii between 'r of the jnascaHne ■e nouns, naturally :ender ?— Give ex- ? singular number at are in the stfme ys of forming the ouns news, memtt, lowing compoand iri-martial. L NOTEa 3al investigation* ndenccs and con- — Is the power of idical meaning of tion of their own; w has assigned to ue, philosophical ■ammar.— Which V were the other* ay be recognised principles of our that many things Jnts in favour of, active.-^ln what 8.) — Give exam» | lid e/i, and of tlie NS. ' most irn;>ortant t of their impor- ght, or commu- Jr expressed or ' of being, but, 11 creatures and > given you only I you are belter heir properties, Ds a xcrb ; and depend on the «cnso which the word conveys ; or, rather, on the office it peribrmt In the sentence ; that is, the manner in which it is applied to thinn. For instance ; gtory is generally a noun ;^as, '* The glory of Goa*s throne." But if I say, I ghry in religion ;* or. He gh/ies m wicked- ness, the word glory becomes a verb. The love of man is inconstanti In this sentence, love is a noun ; in the next, it is a verb : They love virtue. He walks swiftly ; Scavengers sweep the streets ; The ship sails well. In these phrases, the words walks, sweep, and sailSi are verbs ; in the following they are nouns : Those are pleasant walks / He takes a bftiad sweep ; The ship lowered her sails. Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a gramma- rian without exercising your judgment. If you have sufficient resolution to do this, you will, in a short time, perfectly under- stand the. nature and office of the different parts of speech, their various properties and relations, andther sentences, and, likewise, the following exercises in FALSE SYNTAX. A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The number of inhabitants of the United States exceed nine millions. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, Whan our abundance make us wish for more. While ever and anon, there falls Huge heaps of hoary, moulder'd walls. .'it'^. LECTURE in. OF ARTICLES. An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit their iignification ; as, a man, the vi^oman, , There are only two articles, a or an and the. A or an is called the indefinite article. The is called the definite article. but tol Th| ticulaJ \. OF ARtlCLtiS. 6S native in number The indefinite article limits the noun to one of « kind, but to no particular one ; as, a house. The d^nite article generally limits the noun to a par- ticular object, or collection of objects ; as, the house the men. The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a dis- tinct part of speech, ought not to be admitted in a scientific classification of words. A and the, this and that, ten, few and \fourth, and many other words, are used to restrict, vary, or define the signification of the nouns to which they are joi led. They might, therefore, with propriety, be ranked under the general head of Restrictives, Indexes or Defining Adjectives, But, as there is a marked distinction in their particular mean- ing and application, each class requires a separate explanation. Hence, no practical advantage would be gained, by rejecting their established classification as articles, numerals, and de- monstratives, and by giving them new names. The character and application of a and the can be learned as soon when they are styled articles, as when they are denominated specifying or defining adjectives. The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are but two articles, a or an and the, you will know them wherever they occur. A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is taken in its general sense ; as, " Fruit is abundant ;" " Gold is heavy ;" " Man is born to trouble." Here we mean, fruit and gold in general ; and all men, or mankind. When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to one object, but to no particular one, we employ a or an. If I say, "Give me a pen ;" " Bring me an apple ;" you are at liberty to fetch any pen or any apple you please. A or an, then, is indefinite, because it leaves the meaning of the noun to which it is ap- [^lied, as far as regards the person spoken to, vague, or indeter- ^minate ; that is, not definite. But when reference is made to a mrticular object, we employ the ; as, " Give me the pen ;" [* Bring me the apple, or the apples." When such a requisi- ion is made, you are not at liberty to bring any pen or ^pple you please, but you must fecch the particular pen or. >ple to which you know me to refer. The is, therefore, lilled the definite article. " A star appears." Here, the star referred to may be town as a particular star, definite, and distinguished from all lers, in the mind of the speaker ; but to the hearer it is left. / / «0 HTYMOLOaT AND SYNTAX. dtnong the thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, undiS' Unguished and indefinite. But when the star has previously been made the subject of discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer, a (jle/inite object, and he saj^s, " The star appears ;" that is, i\idX particular star about whicli We were discoursing. " Solomon built a temple " Did he build any temple, un- determined which ? No ; it was a particular temple, pre- eminently distinguished from all others. But how does it be- come a definite object in the mind of the hearer ? Certainly not by the phrase " a temple," which indicates any temple, leaving it altogether undetermined which ; but supposing the person addressed was totally unacquainted with the fact as- serted, and it becomes to him, in one respect only, a definite and particular temple, by means of the associated words " Solo- mon built ; that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others the hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguish- ed as the one erected by Solomon. If the speaker were ad- dressing one whom he supposed to be unacquainted with the fact related, he might make the temple referred to a still more <<'efinite object in the mind of the hearer by a further explana- tion of it ; thus, " Solomon built a temple on Mount Zion ; jftnd that was tfie temple to which the Jews resorted to worship." " The lunatic, the poet, and the lover, " Are of imagination all compact." " The horse is a noble aninjal;'* " the dog is a faithful creature;" '• the wind blows;*' " the wolves were hpwling in the woods." In these examples we do ,not refer to any particular lunatics, poets, lovers, horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, but we refer to these particular classes of things, in contradistinction to other objects or classes. The phrase, ■*' Neither the one nor the other," is an idiom of the language. Remarks. — Thia method of elucidating the articles, which is popular PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. A, AN, THE. jia a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, a and the belong ^ that class of adjectives denominated definitives or restrictives. A, Mit, ant, or one, is the past participle of ananad, to add, to join. It denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed is added, united, aned, an-d, ened (teoned), or madc^nt*-^ The and that. According to Hof)^ Tooke the is the imperative, and that the past participle of the Anglo-oai^pn verb thean, to get, take, as- sume.' The and that had originally the same meaning : the difference in their present application is a modem refinement. Hence that, as well as the, was formerijr used, indifferently, befora sither a siaguUr or a plural noun. AftTICLES — PARSING. with Blair, Priestley, iiowth, Johnson, Hanis, Beattie, Coote, Murray. and many other distinguished philologists, is discarded by some of our modern writers. But, by proving that this theory is exceptionable, they by no means make it appear that it ought, therefore, to be rejected. Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place with one that is more convenient in practice. Neither have they adopted one ' less exceptionable. The truth is, after all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, more or less exceptionable. These exceptions and imperfec- tions are the unavoidable consequence of the imperfections of the lan- guage. Language, as well as every thing else of human invention, will always be imperfect. Consequently, a perfect system of grammatical principles would not suit it. A perfect grammar will not be produced, until some perfect being writes it for a perfect language j and a perfect language will not be constructed until some super-human agency is em- ployed in its production. All grammatical principles and systems which pri* not perfect are exceptionable. NOTESr 1. The article is omitted before nouns implying the different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c ; as " Modes- ty is becoming , Falsehood is odious ; Grammar is useful," &c, 2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns ; as, Barron killed De- catur ; except by way of eminence, or for the sake of distinguishing a particular faipily, or when some nOun is understood ; as, " He is not « Franklin , he is a Lee, or of the family of the Lees ; We sailed down the (river) Missouri." 3. An adjective is frequently placed between the article and the noun with which the article agrees ; as, " A good boy ; an in(2u«fn'ou« man." Sometimes the adjective precedes the article ; as, " As great a man as Alexander ; Such a shame." 4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each sepa- rately under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes placed be- tween the adjective many and a singular noun ; as, " Where munf 9. rosebud rears its blushing head ;" Full many a flower is bom to hiaa^ unseen." 5. The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the com- parative or superlative degree ; as, " The more I examine it, the better I like it ; I like this the least of any." You may proceed and parse the following ar(igles, when ^ou shall have committed this. SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing an Article is — an article, and f\^y V,^efinite or indefinite, and why ? — with what [noun 4oes it agree ? — Rule. " Hf is thc^ son of a kinj?.'* The is an article, a word prefixed to a noun, to limit its sig- Inification — definite, it limits the noun to a particular object — it belongs to the noun ^< son," according to 7 6« ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAii RuLlB 2. The d^nite artich the htl&hgs to nouns in ihi Angular er plural nmnber>. A IS an al'ticle, a word placed before a noun to limit lis sig* Qjficalion-^indefinile, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no particular one— it agrees with " king," agreeably to Rule 1. The article a or an agrees loith nouns in the sin^ gutar number onli^. Note. — By considering the original meaning of this article, the pro- priety of Rule 1 will appear. A or an (formerly written ane) being equivalent to one, any one, or some one, cannot be prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an exception to thia rule. A ia placed before a plural noun when any of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun: few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million ; as, a few men, a thousand housta, &c. After having parsed these articles several times over, please to read this third lecture three times ; then turn back, and examine the second lecture critically, observing to parse every example according to the directions previously given, which •vill prepare you to parse systematically all thq articles^ nouns, and verbs in these subsequent , EXERCISES IJT PARSING, A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountams stana. The multitude pursue pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. Farmers mow the grass. Farmers' boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the mer- chant's goods. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo invented the telescope. James Macphereon translated Ossian's poems. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch Book. I will now oiTer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles, ' which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable you to use them with propriety. 5ut, before you proceed, please ta answer the following QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. How many articles are there ] In what sense is a noun taken, when it has no article to limit it ? Repeat the order of parsing an article. — What rule applies in parsing the definite article ] What ruie in parsing the indefinite ? QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Before what nouns is the article omitted ] Is the article the eyer ap- plied to adverbs ? ' Give examples. What is the meaning of • pr an ? When is a or an placed before a plural noun ] Fropj what ar^ a, the, and that derived ? EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, NoTB TO Rule \. An is used before a vowel or silent /i, and before a consonant or u long, ai^d also before the word one, tht, » not oolf diwf reeabU to \\w HX, h\xx, according to this note, im« noun. proper to I cause the| irord hur pies ; butl ought to I lUant A en| leart, many al heavy 1<| NoTi )mitted ; to their sea is g iThe gol The IS good hvell. In the [kind of Ipariiculai -ing of gri i, omitted, quality, o ithat is, ti ^article si I good for In the [^rops of to the < I therefor< Not I article ^« Oral OP ADJECTIVES' e9 p to nouns in thi roper to bay a apple, a humble suppliant, an hero, an university, be- ause the word apple begins with a vowel, and h is not sounded in the ord humftle, for which reasons a should be an in the first two exam« ies ; but, as the h is sounded in hero, and the u is long in university, a ught to be prefixed to these words : thus, an apple, an humble sup- liant ; a hero, a university. You may correct the following EXAMPLES. A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an hoi'so, an herald, an leart, an heathen, an union, a umbrella, an useful book, nany an onfi. This is an hard saying. They met with an eavy loss. He would not give an hat for an horse. Note 1. to Rule 2. The articles are often properly mitted: \v!um used they should be justly applied, according ;o their distinct character ; as, " Gold is corrupting ; The ea is grron ; A lion is bold." It would be improper to say, The gold is corrupting ; Sea is green ; Lion is bold. The grass is good for horses, and wheat for the men. Grass s good for the horses, and the wheat for men. Grass looks ivell. Wheat is blighted. In the first of these sentences we are not speaking of any particular kind of grass or wheat, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to any ^particular crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat ; but we are speak- ing of grass and wheat generally, therefore the article the should he .omitted. In the second sentence we do not refer to any definite kind, quality, or number of horses or ?nen ; but to horses and men generally ; that is, the terms arc here used to denote whole species; therefore the article should be omitted, and the sentence should read thus, " Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men." In the third and fuurth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the iirops of grass and wheat now on the ground, whieh, in contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered as particular objects ; therefore we should say, *• The grass looks well ; Tlie wheat is bUghted." Note 2. When a noun is used in its general sense, the article should bo omitted ', as, " Poetry is a pleasing art |'* Oranges grow in New Orleans." FALSE SYNTAX. Com in the garden, grows well ; but corn in the fiekl, iloes not. How s the tobacco sell ? The tobacco ie dear. How do you hke the ttudy he grammar 1 The grammar is a pleasing study. ▲ candid temper roper for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I ecuted this way unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the Iter, are the four elements of the old philosophers. Mi LECTURE IV. OF ADJECTIVES. I An Adjective is a word added to a noun, to express quality pr kjnd, or to restrict its meaniDg ; as, a good "—^t- ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. man ; a had man ; a free man ; an unfortunate man ; owe man ; /or'; circular, quadrangular, conical, &c. 8. The termination i«/, ;" ^ the adjectives expresses a slight de- gree of quality below the ci : iparati ' ; as, black, blackish; salt, saltish. Very, prefixed to the comparative, t:v^i sses a degree of quality, but not always a superlative degree. Itead this Lecture carefiilly, particularly the Notes ; after which you may parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, the examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definition g and rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But, before you proceed, please to commit the SYSTEMATId ORDER OF PARSING. 'Jthe ord^r of parsing Q.n Adjective is — an adjeetive, tellect has connected with words, are to be reduced to the standard of our forefathers, appear not to have sufficiently attended to the changes which this principle of association actually produces. As language is transmitted from generation to generation, many words become the representatives of ideas with which they were not originally associated ; and thus they undergo a change, not only in the mode of their application, but aliso in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, thoir meaning must ne- cessarily change as much, at least, as things themselves change ; but this variation in their import more frequently depends on accidental circum- ettinces. Among the ideas connected with a word, that which was once of primary, becomes only of secondary importance ; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated. Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of the.se remarks, In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the following language : — " I, Paul, u rascal of Jesus Christ, unto you Gentiles," &.c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word, would dare to call " the great apostle of the Gentiles" a rascal ? Rascal formerly meant a ser- vant; one devoted to the interest of another ; but now it li nenrly synon- ymous wilh villain. Villain once had none of the odium which is now associated with the term ; but it signified one who, under the feudal sys- tem, rented or held lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant, "As you are an accomplished villain, I order that you receive JE700 out of the public treasury." The word ei/Zcm, then, has gii'cn up its original idea, and become the representative of a new one, the word tenant having supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of word? chans^s, a thousand examples could be adduced ; but with the in- telligent reader, proof is unnecessary. v. ■^n Kxr.nci;ii:s tM rAUsn-G. 75 east ; much ot later, latest or era. always in the in the highest ion: chief, ex- t, sincere, vast, neraal, supreme, ities arising from as UDell-forMiidi ar, conical, Slc. jses a slight de- sh ; salt, saltish. f quality, but not ! Notes ; after id neuter verb, 1 cannot repeat 3ium when you imit the 3ING. -an adjeetive, e standard of our the changes which lage is transmitted representatives of and thus they ' ication, but also in meaning must ne- _ .hange ; but this iccidental circum- at which was once and sometimes, by rd, giving place to been associated, these remarks. In find the following you Gentiles," &c. Id dare to call " the tnerly meant a scr- V it li nearly synon- Jium which is now ider the feudal sys- the VIII. says to a in, I order that you rd villain, then, has .tive of a new one, ;liat the meaning of id ; but whh the in- and wliy ?-- compare it— degree of comparison, and why? — to what noun does it belong ? — Rule. " That great nation was once powerful ; but now it ia fechle." 1 Great is an adjcclive, a word added to n noun to express its quality — pos. great, comp. greater, Fup. g.eaicnt— il i-* in the positive degree — ^it expresije? the quality of nn object wiihoiit nny increase or diminution, and belongs to the noun " nation," according to -j iiiwo;. ^ ntuir j-h Rule 18. Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns expressed or un-. derstood. Wits is a verb, n word tliat signifies to br — neuter, it expresses neither action norpatwion, but being or a ftnte of being — third person singular, because its nonjinntive " nfUion" is a noim of multitude, conveying unity of idea — it agrees with " nation," agreeably to Ruix 10. A noun of multitude conveying unity of idea, may have a verb or pronoun agreeing icitk it in the singular. Powerful is an adjective belonging to " nation," according to Rule 18. PeciZc belongs to " it," according to Note 1, under Rule 18. 1$ is ft. neuter verb, agreeing with " it," agreeably to Rule 4. . i,\^%t. " Bonnpavte entered RuHiin wUli 400,009 men." Four-hundred-thouaand is a numccal adjective of the cardinal kind, it is a word ui=ed in counting, .iiid biUougs to tlie nonn " men," according to Note 2, under Rule 18. Nnmr.ral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in numhcr iciih their adjectives, -tm^^^ If, in parsing the following example,?, you find any words about which you are at a loss, you vill ploase to turn back, nnd parse all the foregoing e.vnmples again. Tliia cuuiac will enable you to proceed without any difficulty. ;>,,^;,;,.i,., , ■lo>MiM>\-.:Cmr CKfrfomJw- ?Tore if nn nctvi^rb. Of and to are prcposilibns, governing the 'Aouiui that follow them in the objective cat;e, '«-!> KXKRCISKS IX PARSING. * « «i A benevolent man lif>lps indigent boiroars. Studious scholars leam many ln,<;j L^ssoust Wealthy m^'rclijir.is own large ships. The heavy t^hips bear large burdens ; liie li;:':!irer ships carry less burdon-s. .Tdst ix>eis use ii^furative Jangnago. ungrarnmaiical expressions oft 051(1 a true (•ritjcr.s car. Weak critics rnai;nify (riflinfj errors. No oompo.sjllon b porlect. The rabble was Viimultuous. The late- wa^ihed-praHs looks green, KrattMy tr^^.s form a delig-htful arbour. The betting sun makes a beautiful iipicarimce ; tfie variegated raih- l)o\v appr.urj more beautiful. E|):itniiioiui;«s was the greatest of the Tlieban general.s ; Pelojndas was ircxt to Epatn.innndas. The lirni llect contained tliroe J ujidrcd ni(;n.t the .second contained four thnnsaad. The earth contains one tlionsaijd million inhabitants. Maiiy a cheering ray brightens ib.e good man's jiatlnvay. ■ r, NoTi:. X'V.r, Worth. The adjective lik^ in a contraction of the phV*- tirip!' likened, and generally hns tbe prrpos-iMnn tnifo understood afterft. " .She i" like [unto] her brother ;" - 'i'hcy uy.- unlike [to] him." " The k-n-^'dom of heaven id like [likened or mado I ike] unto a householder.'.' The r.oun loorth has altogether dropped ity uiiEociatcd words. " Thp D I IP I ll p ' 7« feTTMOLOGV AND Si'NTAX. ■Vi pj eleth 10 worth ten dollars a yard ;" that iP, The elotb i« of tht woril of ikn doUara hf the yard, or for a, one, or every yard. Some emiopnt philoIog^eUi do not admit tbc propriety of nipplying an ellipsis after like, worth, ere, but, except, and than, but consider tEcm prrpoMtiona. See Anrmalics, in the latter part of the work. REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS. A critical analysis requires that the adjective, when uaed without Its noun^ should be parsed as an adjective belonginpf to its noun un- derstood ; as, '* The virtuous [persons] and the sincere [persons] are always respected ;" *' Providence rewards the good [people] and punishes the bad [people.]" " The evil [deed or deeds] that men do lives after them ; " ' " The good [deed or deeds] in oft interred with their boness"^ But sometimes the adjective, by it« manner of meanin^r, becomes a noun,- and lias another adjective joined to it ; as, " The eliief good;" •' The vast immense [hnmemity] of spact;." Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the character of adjectives, according to their manner of meanhig. j as, " Sea fish, iron moriar, wirte vessel, gold watch, corn field, meadow ground, mointain height." The principle Which recognises custom as the standard ofgratnma- tical accuracy might rest I'ur its support on the usage of only star words, and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the genius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would be correct to observe this analogy , and say, *♦ Good, goodcr, goodest ; bad, hmider, haddest ; little, littler, littksr; much, mucherr lnucbe5^ "By /Aw mean;" " What crre the mws'l" But such a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establisli it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts o^ the philosophical urn* pire, the good sense of the people will caiise them, in this instance, as well as in a thousand others, to yield to custom, and say, " Good, better, best;, bad, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, more^ most ;" "By this means ,-" " Wliai is the news]" With regard to the using of adjectives and other (pialifying wordf,. «are must be taken^ or your language will frequently amount to ab-- surdity, or aonsonse. I-iCt the following general remark, which is better thjrn a- dozen rules, put you on your guard. Whenever yon \Uler a sentence, or put your pen on paper to write, weigh well in your mind the m&inhig of the tvord.^ which yon are about to employ. See thattUey convey preeist'ly the i4ea^ which you wish to express by them, ajii tbus'you will avoid innumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say,. with propriety, he is very wicked, or ext I- ingly lavish^becauso the teyiiiSf wicked amYluvrsk are ttdjeetives that admit of coraparison ; b«t,.ii'we hike the words in their literalaccep- tation, tiierc is a aolocisrn in calling anian vry honest, or exceedinglij just, for the words ht/nesi and ju»l literally admit of no comparison, in point of fact, a man is hnmiox dishonest, just or unjust; there Mn lie fw UMwlintn <»i: <^X4;*^m l« tl»V?f:^<>ct. Vf r^ corn>ct, v-vj^ »fi-'€»rrcct, lb>«CT!V69 — iXtSWG. Tt ^iry right, very wrong, are common expressions; but they are not iUertUly proper. What is not cori'ecty must bo incorrect ; and that which is not incorrect, must be correct ; what is not right must bo wrong t and that which is not wrong, must bo right. To avoid that circumlocution which must otherwise take place, our best speftkera knd writers, however, frequently bompare adjectivns which do not literally admit of comparison : " The most estabiithei JK'actice ;" " The most uitoettain method ;" '* Irving, as a writer, is yar fitort accurate than Addison ;" " The metaphysical inveatif^Ciiona of our J|)hilosophical gramihars are still more incomprehensible to the loam- iar." Comparisons like these should generally be Avoided ; but some^ times they are so convenient in practice ds to rehdier them adiniMible. Such expressions can be reconciled with the principles df ^iiiniar only by considering them as figurativei Comparative members of sentences should be set in direct oppoiir tion to each other ; as, " Pope was rtc/t, but Goldsmith was poor." "the following sentences are inaccurate : " Solomon was wiser than Cicem was eloqtterit." " The principles, of the Reformation wero ieepet In the prince's mind than to bo easily eradicated." This latter 8enie:ace contams no comparison at all ;, neither does it literally con- vey any meaning. Again, if the Psalmist had said, " I dm the wisest ot my teachers, he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would imply that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, " I am wiser than my teachers," he does not consider himself one of them^ but places himself in contradistinction to them. Fiefbre yOu J)fo(ibed tiny farther, you may answer the following ^.^ QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. ^ What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective l—Hy what sign may an adjective be known ? — Are participles ever used !A8 adjectives ?— does gender, person, number, or case belong to adjectives ? — How are they varied ? — Name the three dogreea of comparison. — ^What effect have less and least in comparing; ai^ectivee? — Repeat the order of parsing an adjective. — What rule applies in parsing an adjective '?-^What rule in parsing o yerb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying unity of idea '^— What Note should be applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun 7— What Note in parsing numeral adjectives ? QUESTIONS ON THE NOtE^. Ilepeat all the various ways of forming the deffroes of comparison, ihentioned in the first five Notes. — Compare these adjectives, ripe^ .frmdl^mischievous, happyi able, good, liiile, much or many, near, UUt, old. — ^Naihe some adjectives that are always in the superlative, and never compared. — Are compound adjectives compar^ ? ^What ii said of the termination tsA, and of the adverb very? — When does an adjective become a noun ?— What character does a noim assume when placed before another noun ? — How can you prove that custimiia 0^ vtondaiid of gramniatical accarary 7 /.. n ETYftlOLOay AND SY2«TAX. > u l I J,,,, .QUESTIONS ON THE PlULOSOPltlOAL NOTJBA . ,4, How tire adnoiuis divided ? — What constitutes the true charaetef of an adjective ? — What am thn siifnificntiori and denotement of the terminations, t'w, ed, ui^.d iff i — VVl;nt do /p/i! and of07i signify ? — Name the tlirce ways in wiiich n^stnctivos are tipplied. — How was numera- tion orijjinally performed / — VVimt ii s.iiil oUtvain, twenty, score, and the ordinal numbers ? — Wljni is said ot the chang'^s produced in the moaning of words, Ijy ihe piinciplo of associaiion ? .'juiT • \^ EXERCISES IN FALSE SV^NTAX. ''^'^^T, Note 9, under Rule 18. IJoublo Comparafives and SupertaUvei ishould be avoided ; such as, wnrscr. Irsrcr, 7noi\' deeper, more wicked- fir, &c.; chiefest. sup7'e/ncst, perfecicst, Tightest ; or more perfect, mos/ perfect, most supreme, &,c. Virtue coiifers liio most supreme dignity on man, and it should! be his chiefest desire. '•-:•.«()!( /'jihiUrj-i-o,' He made the greater light lo rule the day, arid the lesser light to rule the night. "' The phrases " most supreme," nnd " chiefest," in the first sentence, are mcorrect, because supreme nnd chief, nrc in the supeilative degree without having the superlative form pupcrndded, which addition make them double Buperlativeg. They should be written, " confers supreme dignity," and " his chief desire." We can say, one thing is less than another, or smaller than another, be- cause the adjectivca7e*jS nnd smaller are in the comparative degree ; but the phrase " lesser hght," in the second sentence, is inaccurate. Lesser is a. double comparative, which, according to the preceding Note, should be avoided. Lesser is as mconcct us ladder. gooder,tDor8er. "The smaller light," would be less exceptionable. You can correct the follow- ing without my assistance. Correct them four times over. The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those bf imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lessor weight it carries. ' •■'''• ';:""V~"- ''-'"'M': }:\' J,,^,:';:^^-'' i^'^'^^'^'y^' • The nightingale's Volfeb is tlic most sweefest'in the gfo*^8r'"^''^'i'"' ^' The Most Highest hath created us for his glory. \^Ji— * He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong proof of the fact ; the ne»t, a more stronger still ; but the last witness, the most strongest of all. He gave the fullest and mott sincere proof of the truest friendship. PHILOSOPHICAL XnOTES. 'Participles are formed by addins to the verb the termination ing, ed,ot en. Ing signifies the same as the lioun being. When postfixed to the ndun-Btate of the verb, the compound word thus formed, expresses a con- tinued state of the verbal denotement. It implies that what is meant by the verb, is being continued. En is an nlterntion of an, the Saxon verbol- iring adjunct ; ed \a a. contraction of dede ; and the terminations d and t, are a contraction of eof. Participles ending in ed or eft, usually denote the 4ocjo, dede, doed, didydonc, or Jinished3in\e of what is meant by the verb. The book is printed. It is n print-ed or prinC-dvne book,or such a onte .*»- rue charactet ement of the iiify ? — Nam© was numera- Uy, score, and oduced in the 1 Superlatives more wicked- 2 perfect, most d it should be lesser llglrt to jt sentence, are degree without ke them double ! dignity," and an another, be- ve degree ; but urate. Lesser g Note, should joraer. " The rect the foUow- ible than those ster the lessor ■■■•- -■' ^iJ'i^V'-: ierid»t,'ittrii6Te of all. lest friendship. ition ing, ed, or loslfixed to the "xpresses a con- lat is meant by e Saxon verba 1- nationa d and t, ually denote the iantbylheverb. k,orsueh a one I^' •PARTICIPLES. 'O*^'- :.«ji 6m^ -rtlt ic *i^f»» 'LECTURE V. t§ :nt^^^*^v OF PARTICIPLE S .^^ " ''."»'^. ^^ A Participle is a wo'd derived ironi a verb, aud par- takes of the nature of a verb, and also ol an adjective. ■?''» Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, and the compound.; ...^.^.^^/^^^v *1'..; ''^ The present or impcrjcct participle denotes action or being continued, but not perfected. It always ends iiv ing ; as, ruling, being : "1 am inriting a letter." The perfect participle denotes action or being perfected or finished. When derived from a regular verb, it ends, in ed, and correspond.-; with the imperfect tense; as, ruled, smiled : •' The letter is written. The compound participle implies action or being com- pleted before the time referred to. It is formed by placing having before the perfect pailiciple ; as, having ruhd^ having been ruhd : ''Having written the letter, he mail- Theierm Participle comes from the Latin word parUcipio^ which signifies Xo parlakc ; and this name is n;iven to this part. as the done act of printing has mnilc it. The book is written; i. e,Jt has received the dune ox jinisk-ed act cf ivritiug it. Participles bear the same relation to verb.3, tUnt adnouas do to noun^. They might, theri-'fore, be styled verbal adjcrtives. But tliat theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a ?nnc]y foundation. In clas- sifying words, wo ought to be gtii'h^d more by their manner of meanings, and their inferential meaning, than by their primitive, essential significa- tiop. " I have a broken plate ;" i. e, I have a plate — broken ; " I have broken. a plate." If there is no difference in the essential meaning of the word broken, in these two construction • cannot be denied, that there is a wide difference in the mean in .r inferred, by curtom ; which difference depends' on the manner in which the term js applied. The former construction . denotes, that I posse is a plate which v. 'i.^ broken, (whether with or without my agency, is not intimate!!,)p' ilir.ps. one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas, the mnnnin^.^ of the hater is, that I performed the act of reducing the plat'? from a whole to a broken state ; and it is not intimated w^hether I possess it, or some cne elre. It appears reasonable, that, ii a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs in couritructionedifler- ing so widely, may properly be clas-sed with diiferent parts of speech. Thia illustration liliewise establishes the propriety of retaining what we call th^ perfect tffise of the verb, ' ' y-"^*^! IV"-^ 80 I ' t! Si'^MOLOOT AWD ttNTAXi ! Il 111 pf speech, because it partakes of the nature of the rerb and pf the adjective. Sy many writers, the participle is classed %vith the verb, and treated as a part of it ; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an adjective, requires many syntactical rales, which apply not to the verb ; and, in some other respects, has pnojperties peculiar to itself, it is believed that its character is sufficiently distinct frq^n the yerb, to entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech^ It i^t in fact, the connecting link ^between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also the noun And the verb. 5 ;= ' All participles i^re pompou^cl in their meaning ap(J office^ jLike verbs, they express action and being, and denote time J and, like adjectives, they describe the nouns of which they /denote the action or beings. In the sentences, The boatman is grossing the river ; I see a man lahauring in the field ) Charles is standing ; you perceive t^ut the pfirticlples crossing anU labouring express the actions of the boatman and the nian> and standing the state of bteing of Charles. In these respects, ther^, they pa.tii'ce of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they describe the several nouns associated with them, like de- scribing adjectives ; and that, in th^s respect, they participate the proj«eitics of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe^ \tia.\ they denote actions which are still going on ; that is, in. complete or unf,nished' actions ; for which reason lye call thera^ imperfect participles. Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before pouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denqminated participia,l adjectives ; as, A loving com^ pinion; The n/>p/inja' stream ; /?oam^ \yi;ids ; A «i?Vartiei pies from each of these verbs, learn, walk, 8hun,'8mUe, sail; conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate, disengage. Thus, Pres. learning Perf. learned, Comp. having learned, -Pres. walJcing,Per(. walked, Compound A«». ing walkedj and so on. '■ You may now commit the order of paiving a participle, and then proceed with mc. SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARS-ING. The order '^f parsing a Participle, is — a participle, and why ? — fronn what verb is it derived ?— speak tlie three— present, perfect, or compound, and why ?«— to what does it refer or belong ? — Rule, " I saw a vcflsol sailing.'^ Sailing is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and par. takes of thtr natqre of a verb, and also of an adjective — it comes from the verb to sail — pres. sailing, perf, sailed, comp. having sailed— rit is a present or Imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of an untliiished action-and refers to the noun *♦ vessel" for its subject, according to RuL9 87. The present participle refers to «om« nofin §r^ pronoun donotfng the subject or actor. '' nwi 82 ETVMOLOCY ANT) SV.VT.W*. " Not a breath clio{iirl).s tlic slccpin'T billow." Sleeping is a participial adjocfivo. .-v word added to a noun to express its quality — it Cf'j:nut, m itli propriety, be compared — it belongs to the noun "biiio',v/' a^n-ccubly to Rule 18. AdjecticQS Ic'cni^ to, and qnahj'ij, nouns expressed cr undersiooch '!!/..','■ .'"'^"r . You will please to parse these two words several times over, nnd, by a little reHection, you n ill perfectly understand the 27th Rule. Recollect, the participle nevtr varies its termi- nation to agree with a noun or prououn, hr, us it has no nom- inalivef it has no agreement ; but it simply refers to an actoi. Examples : I sec a vessel sallijig ; or, I see three vessels sail- ing. You perceive that tJic participle saiUrig refers to a sing- ular noun in the first example, and to a plural noun in the second ; and yet the participle i:3 in the same form in both examples. The noun vessel is in the objective case, and gov- erned by the transitive verb sec. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is ita nonjiaativc ; as, the vesscll sails; the vessels *a?7. ' .>.r.-, ,..;. .In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates to the participle,. In the sentence, " The man is beating his horse," the noun horse is in the objective case, be- cause it is the object of the action expressed by the active transitive participle " beating," and it is governed by the par- ticiple beating, according to .,j,, j„,,f,,^„ v.-?; -^rm uc > Rule 26. Participles have the same government as the verba Tiavefrom tvhick they are derived. The principle upon which this rule is founded is quite ap. parent. As a participle d'^rived from a transitive verb ex- presses the same kind of action as its verb, it necessarily fol- lows that the pariiciplo must govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived. When you shall have studied this lecture atlentivel}', yon may proceed and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If, in unul yzing tlieso examples, you find any words whicii you cnnnot |)arsc correctly and sysfcmaticaf. ly by referring to your Com])end fur dt finilions and rules, you jvill please to turn bade t»ul rend over again the whole ^vtf lectures. You must exercise u litile patience ; and, for your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have acquired a thorough luiou ledge of these five parts ot ippecch, only /re more will n fi"itu;i lor ycu to Uaru, Bc_iuij. < X PARTICIPLES. 88 [t as the verbs l>ilioU9 to excel. Be thorough in your invostignlions. Give vour reasoning. powers free scope. By studying these lectures with attention, you vvill acqyire more gran^matical knowledge in three months, than is commonly obtained in two years. In the following examples, the words purling, crusted, slum- bering and twinkling, are participial adjectives. There and its you may omit. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard th« young dog barking. The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float long rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching, melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave oM herniit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the desert thistle bending there its lonelyhead. REMARKS ON PART|Ci;^Li;S,, Participles frequently become nouns ; as " A good undfrsUmding ; Excellent toriting ; He made a good beginning, but a b^^d ending." Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the best authorities; "The goods are selling;" "The howae is JuiiW- I tng ;" " The work is now publishing." A modern innovation, how- ' ever, is hkeJy to supersede this mode of expression : thus, " The goods' are being sold;" "Theiiouse is being l^tdlt;" 'A The work is now being published." You may now answer these. . ' • QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. How many kinds of participles are tliere ? — What is the ending of a present participle ? — What does a pcrfL^ct j)articiple denote ? — With what does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond ? — What is 9; compound participle ? — From wliat word is tlie term })artici|Je derived ? — Why is this part of speech thus niyueci ? — Wherein does this part of speech partake of the nature of a verb,?' — Do all partici- ples participate the propertio.4 of adjectives ?— In what respect ? — When are partici{)les called participial adjeciives? — Give examples. — llojiy niay a present participle be known ? — Repeat the order of parsing a j>articiple.— What Rule applies in parsing a present })artici- ple ? — What Rule in parsing a pavti<'ij)ial adjective ? — Do jiarlicipU'S vary in their terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor? — What Rule applies in parsing a noun in the object i\e case, governed by a particinie ? — Do participles ever become nouns ? — Give examples. QUESTIONS 0\ THE PIIII-OSOPIIIC'AL NOTES. How are particinlos formed ? — What does the imperfect puHiciDliB press? — What do perfect nartiriplw denote ? - "' ' "■' 5ii^» express y:.../^ hi ETYMOLOGY ANO SYNTAX. \ .•^■^4■,r,;^,.-f^■■ '^' LECTURE VI. -^?^, OF ADVERBS. An Advrrb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb, a par'ticiple, an adjective, or other adverb. Recollect, an adverb never qiialifioG a noun. It qaali^es any of the four parts of speech abovj named, and none others. To modify or qualify, you know, means to produce some ehartge. The adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt s style cxceZ^ Irving's, the proposition is affirmative, and the verb excels ex- presses the affirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style excels rifit Irving's, the assertion is clianged to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or changes the meaning of the verb, ^xceWi You perceive that it is the little word not. This word has power to reverse the meaning of the sentence. Nof, then, is ^nodificr, qualifier, or negative adverb. When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, it generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is performed, or some accidental circum- stance respecting it. In the phrases, Tlie man rides gracefully, awkwardly, hadly, swiftly, sloivly, &;c. ; or, I saw the man riding sioifthj, slowly, leisurely, very fast, &,c., youpGrceixe that the words gracefully, awkioardly, very fast, &c., are ad- verbs, qualifying the verb rides, or tlio participle riding, be- cause they express the : anner in whif h J.\e action (;Ienoted by the verb and participle, is done. In the phrases. The man rides daily:, ipeekly, seldom, frc^ quenily, often, sometimes, never ; or. The man rode ycsierday,^ heretofore, long since, long ago, recently laWy, just now ; or, The man will ride soon, presently, directly, immediately, by. and by, to day, hereafter, you perceive that all those words in italics, PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. ■ ' As the happiness and increasing propperity of a people essentially di'pcnd on their advancement in science and the arts, and as language in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearing?, ia strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that that nation which continues, throughsuc- ccsaive ge. -rations, steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglect- ful of the ...Itivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this re- mark is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the Kng lish hiTiguage as their medir n for tlic transmission of thought. Among i»' re'^ .n-nenf?- 1 >ay bo -.ati'^cd those pjoccdurosby whiclt verbs and nouns xiiv^ • - 1 w Hiodified and contracted ns to form what wc call adverbs, dictr.bativas, conjunctions, and prepositionfi ; for I presume it will be .'rtuiiy c^iiccded, that conciBencss, as well ap copiousi.csc and pcrepicuity soon, often, much, well, far, wisely, justly, justly, You you wi \ 1 >^ \ ; sense of a rb. It qaali^es d none others, produce some ; s style excels 'erb excels ex-. 's style excels ve. What is le verb, ^xcelsl rhis what place; nov>, for, at thi» time. Why means /ar t^hat reason f how — in what mind, mood, or manner ; exceed' ingly — to a great degree^; very — in an eminent degree ; often and seldom signify many time»,few tiine^. The procedures b} '.vhich words have been eontractcd, modified, and oombiiicd, to form tins clips of word?, have been various. Tl;e most pro- lific family of this illeyiiiniate rnee, are those in ly,a contraction of like. Gentleman -ly,meHvs gcntifinan-like, Uke a gentleman. We do not yet say, ladily, b»u lady-like. Tha noith Britons still say wiBelike, manlike, instead of toieely, manly. Quick comes from gmick, the past part, of the Anglo-Saxon verb gwic- ••MM H ETVMof-OOT AND SVXTAX. Other part of speech in the English langiui^e. I \^ HI. thercr fore, give you some sign.< or fli/e -ft^ftc mp me* "; in \'\v' nl3inner af a creature that ha? life. Rapid In — rapid-like, Kkt i; rapi.i ; a quick-ly or swift-hj running place in a pfrcimi. ' Al'Wa'^8. "intra, t'on of in all ways. By a sUght tran>'ition, it nicans*, »« or at all linies. ^(-o.\ contraction of t'tZ-oTi-?. On4y — one-like. Al-so — alt the ecmt '^'hiu^- ) Etcr—nn age. For crer and ever — far figc/t and ages. E\'cr in tcl -yKonymous with nhvnyfl. Nnner — ne ever. It signifies no a^eihn period of I'une. 'No, contrnciinn of not. Not, a modification of no-thlna, notk'ir.r, novf^hi, fiauiiht. " He is not greater" — is greri t -■ r in nought -in fialh i,?<'. Adrifi m the pafet part: adrifed, ad rif'd. adrift ; from ihe Sftson drifan, or adrif'iif, \p drive. ' 'Agt*, forinerly writtoft y^o. gon, agon, gone, agonc, is the psst pan, of the Verb to go. It rcfoi's to time gone by. Ammder, the Saxon pnst pnH. Asinidren, from the \(^vhitotidrian or asondrian.tnf^' pnratc. Aloft — on ■ /;<; loft, on Inft, on Ujft : lyft being the Anglo-Haxon A'Ofd (r>r air or rlnudfi. Astrtiy, ll,it» par;, of i>linei;an, to stray. Axi.-'ry, port, of u-ri/rA/Tw, to wriih**. iDVEnns. %r Adverbs, though very numerous, hnay. for the sake of prae- lical convenience, be reduced to particular classes. 1. 2. 5. 6 Of Number j as, Once, twice, thrice, &c. Of Order ; as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c. Of Place i as. Here, there, where, elsewhera, any- where, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whithe^, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, wltenc«, thence, wliithersoever, &c. 4. O/'. Time. Present; as, Nt)W, to-day, d:c. Past ; as. Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, loiig ago, «Sic. Future ; as. To-morrow, aot yet, hereafter, henceforth, ' henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immedi- ately, ere long, straightways, &c. Time Indefinite ; as,' O.ft, often, oft-times, often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, i?ever, again, (Sec. 0/ Quantity ; as, ]\Iuch,little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abu;idantly, &c! Of Manner orqualily ; as, Wisely, f(^olishly, j;ustly, ujn- justly, quickly, slowly, &;c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by adding the termination hj to an adjective or a participle, pr by changing le into ly ; as, Bad, badly ; cheerful, cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admiraoly. 7. Of- Doubt ; as. Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance. 8. Of Affirmation : as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubt- less, certainly, yea, ycB, surely, indeed, really, dec. Of. Negation ; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, <^50. ^0,. Of Interrogation ; as, How, why, wherefore, whether, Arc., and sometimes when, whence, where. Neiids — nef.d'i$; anciently, nudes, naAc is. To-\i>it, the infinitive otiriitan, to know. It means, 1o he known. Ay or yea signifies have it, enjoy it. Yes, is ay-es, have, ipoBseee, enjoy that. Our con-upt o-yes of the crier, is the French UT>perative,oye«, hear, Ijist^n. Straight way — by a strriglit way. While — wheel; period in which pgmethin^ whiles or lohccls itself ronnd. Till — to whiLe. Perl Latin, — the Englii^h hy. Perhaps — per hnps, per chance. These exair.piofl of (lerivution am pivi^n With the vi'jns. Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs ; and I believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the systematic order, your times over. Those y/ords in italics are adverbs. - SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing an Advebr, is — an adverb, and ^vhy ? — what sort ? — what d^es it (jualify ? — Rule. " My friend has returned agmn ; but his health is not very nood." ^ Again is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb— of time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not pre- cisely defined — it qualifies the verb " has returned," accord, ing to Rule 20. Adverhs 'qualify vcrhs, participles, adjcct'ves, ahdi Qlhcr adverbs. Not is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an ad- verb—of negation, it makes the assertion negative j that m, it changes the proposition from an aflirmative to ^ fteg^tiye — and ts if ^"N *-^> ADVERBS. t^,f^^.f^ B9 ft qualifies the adverb '• very," agreeably to Rule 29. Ad- verbs qualify verbs, &c. v. a Very Is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an ad- jective — of comparison, it compares the udjective ** good," and qualifies it according to Rule 29. Adverbs qualify adjec- tives, &c. EXERCISES IN PARSING. The traveller described a lofty castle decaying gradually. Very few literary men ever become distinguished poets. The great Milton excels 710/ Homer. The Roman woman once, voluntarily contributed their most precious jewels to save the city. Many small streams uniting, form very large rivers. The river Funza falHng perpendicularly, forms a vast cataract. Attentive ser- vants always drive horses very carefully ; negligent servants often drive horses very carelessly. Assiduous scholars improve very fast ; idle scholars learn none at all. Friendship often ends in love ; but love in friendship, riever. Note, Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked? Not yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not,yet,far,a9denottght qualify " have walked" understood ; perhaps qualities not ; and quite qualifies /ar. The adverbs always and carefully both qualify the verb " drive :" the former expresses time, and the latter, manner. Once and voluntarily qualify the verb " contributed ;" the former expresses number, and the latter, manner. The word their you need not parse. The active verb to save has no nominative. The nouns love and friendship, following in, are in the objective case, and govemed by that preposition. REMARKS QN ADVERBS. When the words therefore, consequently, etccordingly, and the like, are used in connection with other conjunctions, they are adverbs ; but \vhen they appear single, they are commonly considered coryMncfion** Thp words when and wlwre, and all others of the same nature, such 4W whetvce, whither, tc!henever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, while, wherefore, &.c., may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because they pardci pate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions j of adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of time ox place ; of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences. There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs ; is, " More men than women were there ; I am more diligent than he." In the former sentence more is evidently an adjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it ; in the latter it is an adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that are sometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs ; as, " To- day's lesson is longer than yesterday's. ''' In this example, to-day and yesterday are nouns in tlie possessive case ; but in phrases like the following, they are generally considered adverbs of time. *■' \le came [^to his] ho7ne yesterday, and will set out again to-day.^' Here they are nouns, if we supply on before thom. "Where 7nuc.h [iceaJth, talent, or soxwcihing e\s^] is given mwcif^ .4 90 KtYMOLOOY AND SYNTA*. [increase, improvement] will be required ; Much money lias befpn ex- pended ; It is much better to write than starve." In the first two oi these examples, much is an adjective, because it qualifies a noun ; in the last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjective better. In shorty you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by ita^ sense, or by considering the manner in which it is associated with other wordj>. An adjective may, in general, b^.dlstingiiished from an adverb by this rule ; when a word qualifies a noun or pronoun, itia an adjective, but when it qualifies a verb, participle, adjective or adverb^ |t U ^ adverb. Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs , when their nouns are understood; " He rides about;, that is, about the town, country, or aom.B-thing else. "She was near [the act or misfortune cf\ falling ;" " But do not after [that time or firenij lay the blame on me. " He came doxcn [the ascent] from the hill ;" "They lifted hifxx up [the. ascent] out of the pit." " The angels above;'^ — above tfs — ^'* Above these lower heavens, to us invisible, or dimly seen." Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in False, Syntax, you may answer these : . QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. Does an adverb ever qualify a noun ? — What pagrts of speech does it qualify ? — When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what doe^ it express ? — When an adverb qualifies an adjective or a#erb, what does it generally express ? — Compare some adverbs. — By what signs may an adverb be known ? — Give examples. — Repeat some adverbial pi ases. — Name the different classes of adverbs. — Repeat some of each class. — Repeat the order of parsing an adverb. — What rule do you apply in parsing an adverb ? , QUESTIONS ON THE NOTE&. Repeat some adverbs that are 1(ormed by combining prepositipn» with adverbs of place. Repeat some that are composed of the article a and nouns. — What part of' speech are the words, therefore, conse- quently, &c.? — What words are styled adverbial conjunctions?— Why are they so called ? — ^Is the same word sometimes used as an adjec'* tive, and sometimes as an adverb ?— Give examples. — Whafis sard of much ? — By what rule can you distinguish an adjective from an ad^- verb ? — Do prepositions ever become adverbs ? QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of lan- gtiage ? — Illustrate the lact. — What is said of ly, like, and qUick 1 — ■ How are the following words composed, always, alone, only, also ? — Wliat is the meaning of ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, aloft, astray, awry ? — Give the signification of needs, to-wit, ye, yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till and per. Note. Learners need not answer the questiona. oij the Philoso- phical Notes, in this or any other Lecture, linless the teacher deems It expedient. ■'■^ ADVERBS. i^Ur.l EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. Note 3, to Rule 29. Adjectives aro sometimes improperly applied as nd verbs; as, indiiroront honest ; excellent well j miserable poor : — She writes elegant ; He is walking slow. The adjectives indijferent, excellent, and miserable, Me here impro- perly used, because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or adverbs, but such modihcations aro denoted by adverbs. The - phrases shouhi, thercrore, be, " indifferently honest, excellently wellj rniserqidy poor." Elegant and slow aro also inaccurate, for it is not the otHce of tiio adjective to express tlie maimer, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but is the office of the adverb. The con- Btructions should be, " She writes elegantly; Ho is walking slow}^" You may correct the following examples several times over, and explain the principles that are violated, i. e.j^t.'.] ;ju.ofu;'- FALSE SYNTAX. ' "tJ -..: i^. v ajh".' He 55pcaks fluent, and reasons coherent. '" . ^^ She reads proper, and writes very neat. '""" They onccj lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor. Kv- - - • • "■ '» The lowering clouds are moving slow. He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give offence. Note 4, to Rule 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly- used instead of adjectives ; as, " The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably to his offence." The adverb suitably is incorrect. It does not express the manner of the action of the verb"addressed," but it denotes the quality of the noua terms understood ; for which reason it should be an adjective, suitable -Sj'^^r^ ^ - ;_ FALSE SYNTAX. -.//- ^ .-; ' :' '..^.,._ - The man was slowly wandering about, solitarily and distressed. He lived in a manner agrccahhj to his condition. The study of Syntax should be previously to that of Punq- tuation. vnt-sti^.sf^ He introduced himself in a manner very abruptly . Conformably to their vehemence of thought, was their vehc-' mence of gesture. I saw him previously to his arrival. PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. From, according lo 11. Tookc, is tiie Anglo-Saxoi". and Gro»"c noun fram, beginning, source, author. "He came From{he.ginniinp '^^"^^^^f-i Of he BupBpses to be a fragment of the Gothic and Sp/'l."***'." "/•»»■«. mon, the so- '/j'';f^»"f) »*-' Of or of, in its modern acceptation, signifi'"''^^ ^^^<*> fundtreit . consequence, oflKpring, follower vid. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ■^ i^ 12.2 S; 1^ 12.0 Id I' i 1^ |p5 ||l.4 1 1.6 ^ 6" ► V ^%. ^^^^' ^l^- Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 33 WIST MAIN STRUT WnSTM.N.Y 14SM (716)S7!i-4S0.1 ■^ ^,4" in'M«LO«Y ANB STNTAf . ■ 7 ,11 < I LECTURE Vlt.-' >- !^'^ ,^ -.i OF PREPOSITIONS. A pEBPOBiTioN is a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them. The term preposition is derived from the t«vo Latin words, pr«, which signifies before, and pono, to place. Prepositions are so called, Because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they govern in the objective case* The principal prepositions ara presented in the following list, : which you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled to distinguish them fh>m other parts of speech when- ever you see them in composition* A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. .,j^ •t to ft« with in into within without Hiis list coirtidna many words that are sometimes used as con- junctions, and sometimes as advert)s ; but when you shall have keoooM acquainted with the Tiature of the preposiUon, and of the conjunction and adverb too, you will find no diificulty in ascertaininip to whiah of these classes any word belongs. By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that A piece of (fif) the loaf, is, t^ piece ditjointd, or teparateddcom the loaf« The fragrance of or o^the rose. For signifies couoe, 1 write for your satisfaction ;" i. c. your ■atisfac'^ tion being thp cmuof. By or i«*is the imperativo byth, of the Saxon ironic to be. With, the hnperative otwithan, to join ; or, when equivalent t« iy, of toyrtAan, to be. "I will go tot7/i him." " I, >otn him, will go.**^ /n comes from the Gothic noun inna, the interior of the body ; a cave or efll. About fron\ hodq^ t\\e f^rst outward boundary. Among is the past part, of gtttnaengan, to mingle. Through or thorough is the Gothic sub.-v ■tantive dauro, or the Teoitonic thurugh. It means paesage.'gate, door. Jtefore — ^«-/«ir«, hjtihir^dt i*-lou), be'aide,be-»ide»,be-nealh, are formed by^orabtning the imperative be, with the nouns /or«, hind, low, tide neath, iyTcatf'*- Saxon neothan, neotAe, has the same signification as ncdir. Bt' aver :■ -'M/M"i.!:< A after a...n'>(- betwixt.; ,,j{*^, ander near about beside ^<, athwart through up against above down unto towards below before serosa' nrb. nbtwithstaadiat between behind around •>!. a out of beneath off amidst instead of frnrn on, upon throughout over against beyond among undemeatli according to Itscen, ««»«itr/xt — le and t'ipain. A, dual proposition. Be-yond—ht- patood. ^ ^*^^md a place, means, ie pataed that place, M^darto »»S^«»''?Suot ^h'OUtndtng or j00t-withstandhig" (this order ;) i. e. no4 o^lMwVf guage various nothing that per plained nature that of a TRCPOSITIOKS. '« fVom the loaf. k performs a double office in a sentence, namely, it cimnetu wordi, pad also shows a relation between them. I will first show yon Uie use and importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn is ripe-— October, it is gathered — the field — men — ^who go>— hill — bill-^baskets — -which they put the ears. You perceive, that in this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning ; but let us fill up each vacancy with a prepo^sition, and the sense will be clear. **■ When corn is ripe, in October, it is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill ioith baskets, into which they put the ears.** From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our lan- guage would be very deficient without prepositions to connect tlie various words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but nonsense. There is, however, anotherjpart of speech that performs this office, namely, the conjunction. This will be ex- plained in Lecture IX. ; in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a connective particle, is nearly allied ta that of a conjunction. In the next place I will show you how pre- positions express a relation between words. The boy's hat is under his arm. In this expression, what relatioii does the preposition wider show ? You know that hiu and arm ar» words used as signs of two objects, or ideas ; but under is nM the sign of a thing you can think of ; it is merely the sign of the relation existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since Uie word under is the sign of the relation existing bet ween particular ideas, it also expresses a relation existing between the- words hat and arnif which words are the representatives of those; ideas. The boy holds his hat in his hand. In this sentence the prepoai*- tion in shows the relation existing batweoii kat and hand, or the sH*. nation, or relative position, each ha^i in reg^ard to the another. And^ if I say, The boy's hat is on his head, you perceive that on show* the relation between hat and head. Again, in the expressions, Tlio; bpy threw his hat up stairs-^unr/er the bed— behind thetabie-i-throt^h the window — Qt'«r the house — across the street — into the water—and' 30 on, you perceive that the several prepositions express the diiTsrent relations existing between the hat and the other Boun», «ftmv,.i The pear is. on the ground, under the tree." Prepositions govern the objective case, but they da not express aii> action done to some object, as an activoitransitive verb or piMticipJe> does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the objective case, because it la the object of the re2a<«?T?55 OJ )osition " m, ^X9 distract the labouring inind of inaii. Septimius stabbed P«iil^ pey standingf on tlie shore of Egypt. , . . A beam of tranquility orien piay s* round the lieart of the truly j»oaa man. The thoughts of former yeais glide over my soul, like swift- shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales. At the aj)proach of day, nighi's swit'l dragons cut the clouds full fast ; and ghosts, wandoiin<^ here and thure, troop home to church- 3'ards. Love still pufisuos uX\ ever devious race, True to the winding lineaments of grace. ■-■"*' Note. — The words mij and and you need not parse. The noutt " meteors," following the adverb " like," is in the objective case, and governed by unto understood, according to Note 2, under R«lo 32. The iioun " home" is governed by io understood, according to Rule 32. ,^> "; REMARKS ON PREP0SITIOx\S AND VERBS. ,^^7/ A noun or ()rononn in tlio objective case, is often governod by a preposiiion unJerrftood ; as, " Give liim that book ;" that is, " Give that book to him ," " Ortugral was one d'lij wandering," &c., that is^ on one day. " Mercy gives qffiiciion a grace ;" that is, Mercy gives a grace to affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32. To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attdn> lion is requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the uae of by and with ; as, " He walks icllh a staff 6u moonlight ;" "He was taken by stratagem, and killed with a sword." Put the one pre* position for the other, and say, " lie walks by a staff wilh moonlight ;" " He was taken icitk stratagem, and killed by a sword ;" and it will appear, that the latter expressions dilibr from the former in sigliifica-' tion, more than one, at first view, would bo apt to imagine. Verbs are often compounded of a verb and r preposition; as to up- hold, to ujtiftstand, to oieylcoK ; and this composition gives a new meaning to the verb ; as to M?ic?crsland, to itj7/idraw, to forgive. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and sepa- rately from it, like an adverb ; in which situation it does not less affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in ajl instances:, whether the preposition is placed cither before or after the Verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered as a part of the verb. Thus, to cast means (o thnnc ; but to cast up an ac- count, signifies to compile it ; therefore itp is a part of the verb. The phrases, to fall on, to bear ovt, /ognc over, convey very different meanings from wbat they would if ihe prepositions on, out, and otett were not used. Verbs of lliis kind are called ccmjcund verbs. You may now answer the ioliowing , nUx.v/ natn aiii itX QUESTIONS NOT ANSVVEREB IN PARSING. ^n Frdm what words is the {crmprpj:n*i(ion derived ? — Wliy isitfUiili^ named ?— Repeat the list of prepnsitinnp. — Nnmc the three parts of speech that govern nouns and pronouns in theolijoctive caso.-i-Wh€H is a noun or pronoun in the objective case, the object ofun a-CtJoO'*— When is it the object of a relation ?— Repeat the order of pti«lii|L« M STTMOLObt Kitt) ^NTiLX. mm ^^^^mA 1 prepositi(Mt.->^What rule do you apply ih parsiilg b. nonn or pronomi l^vemed by a proposition ? — Does every prepositlori tequirg an ob* jectiVe case after it ? — Is a noun or pronoun ever governed l^ a i«rc- position understood ? — Give examples.— ^ What is said of verbs com- pounded of a verb and preposition ? — Give the origin and meaning Cf Ihe prepositions explained in the Philosophical Notes. >. LECTURE VIIL f fK?oa J. r OF PRONOUN^. -^rtloA A Pronoun is a word Used instead of a noun< and ge-^ nerally to avoid the too freqilent repetition of the sannid Word. A pronoun is, likewise, sometimes a substitute fox* & sentence, or member of a sentence. The word pronoun comes from two Latin words, proi which Means JoTi or inauad of, and nomenf a lamei or noun. Hencd you |>erceiTe that pronoun means /or a noun^ or instead of a noun. In the sentence^ " The nuin is happy; ^ is beneto)6nt ; he it use- fttl ;'* you perceive that the word he is used instead of the noun mem f consequently he must be d ftonoun. You observe, too, that, by making use of the pronoun he m this sentence, wo avoid the repetition of the norm man, for without tho pronoun the sentence WOiuld \itt rendered thus, " The man is happy ; ihe man is benevolent ; the riMri is useful." By looking again at the definition, you will notice thSt pronouM' always Stand for ndUns, but they do no4 always avoid the repetition of liouns. Repeiiiion meaiis repeating or mentioning the same thing dgain. In uie serttencej " I come to die for my country,*^ the pro- ftounsj- / and mij, stor^fbr the nfimi& of the petson who speaks ; but ttiey do' nbt avoid ilte repetition of that nam'e, becitUse th& name or libnn fvr which the pronouns are used is not mentioned at alY. I'ro- Aouns of the third person generally avoid the I'epetltion o/tBe nciuns fbr which they stand; but pronouns of the fifsi ttid sechnd pdftKiii tometim&s avoid the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do hot. A little further illustration of the pronoun will show yoil its im« portaiice, and also that its nature is very easily comprehended* If we had no pronouns in our language, we should ba obliged to express ourselves in this manner : " A woman went to a man, and told the man that the man was in danger of being murdered by a ganff of robbers; as a gang of robbers had made preparations for attacking thd man. The man thanked the woman for the woman'? kindness, and, as the man was unabl<> to defend the man's self, the man lefl the man's house, and went to a neighbour's. " This would be a laborious style indeed; but, by the help of pro^ nounS) we can express the sartie ideas with far greater eas^ and coih ;X^^ }>BI80KAL PR0N6UA8. 07 or pronoMi quire an ob* led bv «i f^' verbs com- 1 meaning - n oftHe litiuns second pdfaaa s they do hot. w yoU its im- rehended< If gedi to express n, and told the by a ganff of for attacking ian-9 kindness, he man left the the help of prop eas^ and coif eiseness : ** A woman went to a man, and told him that he was ia great danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers, who bad made preparations for attacking him. He thanked her for her kindness ; and, as he was unable to defend himself, he left his house, and went to a neighbour's." If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be at ft loss to tell which words arc pronouns ; and you will observe, tob, that they all stand for nouns. Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, (he Personal, the Adjective, and the Relative pronouns. They are all known by the lists. \\ 1. OF PERSONAL fRONOUN^. Personal PRonouNs are distinguished fronv ffle rela- tive, by their denoting the person of the nouns for which they stand. There are five of them ; /, thou, hti, she, it / with their plurals, JVe, ye or you, they. To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case. Gender. When we speak of a Tttaii, we sfly he, his, him; wheif we speak of a icoman, we say shCf hersf her ; and WheA ttre speak of a thing we say it. Hence, you perceive that gcHder belongs to pro* nouns as well as to nouns. E^tample : ** The general, in gfatitadto to the lady, offered her his hand ; but she, not knowing hint, decHtted accepting it." Tho pronouns his and Mm, in this atentcrnee, persoR< ate or represent the noun general ; they are, therefore, of the mas> euliAe gender; her and she personate lady; therefore, they are feminine ; and. U represents hand, for which reason it is of the netf ' ter gender. This illustration shows you, then, that pronouns musl be of the same gender as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to the variation of dte pronouns to express &ix. Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine ; she is feminine ; it is neuter. You may naturally inquire, wliy pronouns of the first and second persons are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns* as well as of the third. Tho reason is obvious. The first person, that is^ the person speaking, and the second person, or the person spoken to« beihg at the same time the uubjocts of the discourse, are supposed to be present ; from which, and other circumstances, their sex is com* monly known, and, therefore, the pronouns tliat represent the^e per* sons need not be marked by a distinction of gender ; but tha, third person, that is, tlic pcrsen or thing Bpoken of, being abtv^nf, niyi in I M feirMOLOGY AND SYNTA'X. Sinffular. . ,^^^^3; ii Plural, 1: ftiaMy respecla uiiknown, necessarily requires the pronoun that ftftthds for it to be marked by a distinction of gender. In parsing, we somelimes apply gender to pronouns of tlie first and second person, and also to the plural number of the third person ; but these have no peculiar form to denote their gender i therefore they have no agreement, in this respect, with the nouns which tljey represent. ■ ^^[.^(jf, ^qj bniWH ii» 'foxu j»i;j JPerson. Pronouns! have three pcrsoiii in eacli uiuubcr. .ftfiLr?!* ** the first person has ,'^T<4'i'>- Thov, is the second person He, s\e, or it, is the third person We, is the first person ' * • .-. ' Ye or you, is the second person ^^l-fj^ -JTAey is the third person .,*>. ; This Recount of persons will bg very fnlelligible, ivhisri you toflect tliat there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse ; iirst, the person who speaks, may speak of liimself; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other person ; and as the speakers, the i^jraons St '>.?r=. ;ns haust have a plural number, ^ig^g .j^ Ho/iV/: '.Ji?^^«»3t; l^ronouns of the second and third persbi'i always t:;Trefe ift penion with the nouns they represent ; but pronouns of the first person do not. Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used. it represents a nona; but; nouns are never of the first person, therefore tiiese pro- iu>uu caunot agree in person with their nouns. Number. Pronouns, like nouns, have two nainl»ers, tiie singular and the plural; as, /, thou, im; tte^ t/e ©r yoti^ihey. ;■ ^''*'^ . ^ ''"; Case. Pronouns have tln*ei* caseK the ' Y 6»nhiriiif§i the possessive, and the objective. w;- » ,*. -i:;! i^ In the next place I will present to you the ilcclvisivn of the por- sonal pronouns, which declension you must cmnmit to momorj' !«- fore you proceed any further. The advantages resulting from the committing of the following de- clension are 80 great and diversified that you cinnot be too particular in your attention to it. You recollect that it is Hometiines very diffi- cult to distinguish the nominr'ave case of a lunm froni the objective, because these cases of nor ' are not marked by a difference in ter- mination ; but this difficulty is removed in regard to tlie personal pronouns, for their cases are always known b\' their termfnatioii. By ^udyin^the declension you will learn not only the cases of thq pro- nouns, but also tbcir genders, persons, and numbers. ""■ , \ frSRSONAL PRONOUNS. m^. ; we, ye or 1 i.oniiiiatiTe, DECLENSION OP THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST Singjdar. Nominalive ^ I, Possessive my or mine Objeciice me. lingular. Nominaiivc thou, Posscfisive Objeciice thy or thine, thee. JWttSc'jZrTis. Singvlnr. Nominafue he, Posssfisii^c his, Ol^'eclive him. Femtnin ?. Singxila r. Nominative she. Possessive her or Objiciive her. PERSOX. we, ^ our or ours, U8. si:coKD rsKsoN. ^ . v..„ I'hiral. ye or you, .. ycur or yours, you. THniD iPERSOy. Plural. U^ they, their or thoir*. them. .'rV*« •-.J(T « fC THIi?D hers, PERSON. Plural. ■.' they, ' ■ their or theire, them. Neuter. N&)ninati :e Pones sivt Objective Singular. it, its, it. TniED PERSON. Plural. they, their or their«t *■' them. -^''- ' • ' NOTES. 1. When self is zMeA to the personal pronouns, as himself, myself^ itself, thcmsclvcH, &c., they are cnlled compvtind personal pronouns, and are used in ihe nominalive or objective case, but not in the possessive. S. In order to avoid ihe disagreeable hir^haesa of tound occasioned by the frequent leeuirence of the lerminations e-it, edft, in the adnptn- tion of our verbs to the nonin Mive t.'iou, a mjd.'rn innov ition wh h substitutes y>u for tknu, in f.unilinr style, hasg-neraliy ten ai!o; te !» This innovation contnbutes greruly o the harmony of our codcq ij^l y.j. You was formerly restricted to the plur il numb r ; but now it is emp. y- ed to represent either a singular or a plural noun. It ought to ba recol- lected, hov^'ev'/r, that v;lien uiHc.d as the r-p.Tsentative of a singular noua» this word retains its original plural form: and, therefore, the verb con- nected with it Bhcid alvv.iy^ be plural. Inattention .to, this p;-culinrity has betrayed ec.v;- .vriterg into vhe erroneous conclusioti that because yoa implies unity when it: repiosm s a ^ingLilar noun, it obght, wh'.'n thu-s em- ployed, to be followed by a wr gu \v verb ; as, " When was yoa there i** '' How far was you iVom the p u-tiea i" S ich a cDn^tructioa, however, is not supported by gjod ui-ng", nor by nnilogy. It is as manifest a solecism as to say. We o.'n, or w^; is. Weie it, i^ any case, admiasible to connect a singular verb with you, the ii>e r.f w a would still be ungram- matii^l, for thia lonn of the vs^b n con.ined to ih-.^ first mid third pert;ons» io|d smc 13 second pernm. Jvasi being ciccond perBon, it would approzl- too ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. mate nearer to correctnees to say, you toaat. We never use the eingufaf of the preft'nt tense with you : you art, you is ; you walkest, you walhs. Why, thfo, shoulj nny aiti'ii pi ho innde to tu.ci' «ii u ay ^o uiinnturni Mid artituitou.n na thf coniKv.i i^ of ili? eingilar verb in the piift ttn-e wiih llii.- p.niiuuii \ In ove.y jioint of vii'W, the coridlruciiou, " Wheti were you there i" " Iii.w far were you fruin the parute i" in prt'feruhle to the other. 3. Tlie worJs my, thy, his, her, our, yovr, their, nrc, by imny, dcno* minatedpasscstf/uc adjective pronaurn ; but they a[vii\yiataitd fornuutit in the poseo!?sive cage. They ought, therefore, to be claseed with the personal pronoutw. That principle of oiassiftcation wliich rankd them with the adjective pronouns would also throw all nouns in the poo8eE«ive case among the adjectives. Example : " The laHy gave the geutiomno ier watch for his hone." In this eeatenee her per9onatpp,or stands for, the noun " lady," and his repivseiitd " geml 'iiian." This fact is clear- ly ehown by rendering the sentence thu:^, " Tiie lady gMve the p;enilQ- mnn the laih/n watrh for the gentleman's horse." If laJy'a an I gsntle- man's are nouns, her nr.l hismixii bj p^'r^onil pronouni. Th/Barae re- marks rpp'.y to nty, thy, our, yiur, thair, nil I iH. 'i'his view oi" the.-e words m ly be objected to by tho^e w'.io p culite auJ refioj up n the principles of grammar until ih.^y prove dieir nonexistence;, but it is believed, nevertheU'iti, to be bated ou sound reason and common sense. 4. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, ymrs, theim, have, by mnny re?p7C- table grammarian.^, been considered merely the p>sse8i n d.nominated pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. It is believed, however, ihnt a Uttlc ntlondon to the meaning and office of these words will clear- ly t^how the impropriety of both I'a-se cla: ti ie.itic n '. Those who pursue the former arrangement allege, tint in the exritiiples *' You may imigine what kind of fai h theirs wa : My p'.ei^ures are pist ; hen an I yoirs arc to come : They rpplnu l:, thi y coastrun the sentences ihu?, '' You may imagine what kind of faith the r faith was; — her p'eisitre^ an I iJur pleasures are to come ; — but condemnetl her ct, drirt and ymr can' duct ;" or thup, " You may imagine what kind of faith ih" faith of them was ; — the pleasures of her an I the [leisures of yo i are to come ; — but condemnc;l the conduct of her an I th.' cjndact ofyoi." Bat thefe conttmctions (botii of whieh are cornc;) pove too m ich for their purpose ; for, as Foon as we f-upp'y the noim' after the.-e word-s 'h y are resolved into p "rsonul rrononn of kin Ire I m ;nninT, an I th.^ noun j which •we pvpp'y: thu"^. /7/cV.<^, that in tka present sppUcatioo of th««e proiyoutw xhev iik- rfiRSONAL PRONOUNI. 101 Variably stand for, not only the person possessing, but, also, the thing posiesaed , which gives them a coj/i;jOMnrf character. They may, there- fore, be properly denominated CoMPorNo pERsoNAr. Pronouns; and, as they always perform a double office in a sentence, by rt'presenting two other word3, and, consequently, including two cases, ihey should, like the compound relative lohat, be pnrsed as two word.:*. Thus, in the ex- ample, " You may imagine wliat kind of faith theirs was," theirs is a compound personal proiojn, equivalent \o their faith. Their is a pro- noun, a word used instead of a noun ; personal, it personates the pL'rsons spoken of, understood ; third person, plural number, &c. ; and in the possessive case, and governed by " faith," according to Rule 12. Faith is a noun, the name of a thing, &,c. &c. ; an J in the nominative case to " was" and governs it ; Rule 3. Or, if we render the sentence thus, " You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them* was," faith would be in the nominative case to " was," and them would be in th«- objective case, and governed by " of;" Rule 31. Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless be preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood af;er these words, and not represented by them. But this is assertion without proof; '"sr, if a noun were understood, it might be supplied. If the question be put, whose book ? and the an.^wer be, mine, aura, hers, or theirs, the word book id included in such answer. Were it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine book, ours&ooA', hers 600A;, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it would be giving a double answer : but when the question is answered by a noun in the possessive case, the word book is not includ- ed, but implied ; as. Whose book I John's, Richard's ; that is, John''8 book ; Richard's book. This view of the subject, without a pirallel, except in the compounds what, whoever, and others, is respectfully submitted to the public ; believ- ing, that those who approve of a critical analysis of words, will coincide with me. Should any still be di^^posed to treat these words so superficially as to rank them among the simple pronouns, let them answer the follow- ing interrogatory: If what, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs ? 5. Mine and thine, instead of my anJ thy, are used in solemn style, beff re 1 word beginning with a vowel or silent h; as, " Blot out all mine iniquities ;" and when thus used, they are not compound. His always has the same form, whether simple or compound ; as, " Give John his book ; That desk is his." Her, when placed before a noun , is in the possesMve case; as, "Take her hat." when standing alone, it is in the objective case ; aSy " Give the hat to her." When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and committed the declensions of the personal pronouns, you may commit the following * In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his, her.our, your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more clearly demon- strate the correctness of that assertion, than this latter construction of the word theirs ? All admit, that, in the construction, " The faith of them," the word them is a personal pronoun ; and for this conclusive reason ^^^-it represents a noun understood. What, then, is their, in the phrase, " their faith ?" Is not obvious, that, if them is a personal pronoun, their must be, also? for the litter represents the same notin as the former. lOS ETyMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. til! :i M r SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. ^ • The order of parsing a Personal Pronoun is — d pronoun, and wliy ? — personal, and why ? — person, and why ? — gender tuid number, and why ? — Rulf. ; case, and why? — RoLi\ — Di!cline it. . ■'There aro rriiany ppciilinrilios to bi obsj^n'cH in parsingf personal pronouns in ihoir diffbrent porsons; therefore! if you wish ever to parse them correctly, yon must pay particular attention to the man- ner in which the folfowinjj are analyze'. Now notice, particularly, and you will perceive that we apply only one rule in parsing / and my, and two in ])arsing :hou, him, and thei/. " /saw m// friend." / is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it repre- sents the person speaking, understood — first person, it denotes the speaker — singular number, it implies bnt one — and in the nominative case, it represents the actor and subject of the verb " saw," and governs it, agreeably to Rlle 3. The nnm. ca^e gov. the verb. De- clined — first pers. sing. num. nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. mo. Plur. noKL we, poss. our or ours, obj. us. My is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it per- sonates the person speaking, understood — first person, it denotes the speaker — sing. num. it implies but one — and in the possessive case, it denotes possession ; it is governed by the noun " friend," agreeably to Rule \'2. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses. Declined — first pers. sing. nom. I, poss. my or x^ine, obj.. me. Plur. nom, we, poss. our or ours, obj. us. ' ; •' Young man, thou hast deserted thy companion, and left him in distress." Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it personates " man"— second person, it represents the person spoken to— mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun " man" is for which it stands, according to. Rule 13. Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender and number. Thou is in the nom. case,.it represents the actor and subject of the verb " hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to Rule 3. The nom. ease gov. the verb. Declined: — sec. pers. sing. num. nom. thou, poss. thy or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye or you, poss. your or yours, obj. you. Him is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it personates " companion" — tliird pers. it represents the person spoken of — mas. gend. sing. num. because tiie noun " companion" is for which it stands: Rule 13. Pers. pro., &c. (Repeat the Rule.)-^ Him is in the objective case, the dbject of the action expressed Lj- ^e active^transitive verb " ha»t left," and gov. by it : Rule 30. A^ Hxe-trttn». v^rbs gov. the ohj. cttse-. Declined^third pefs. riias. g«lft«f^ ' X PEUSONAL PRONOUNK — PARSIIVG. 10$ fG. ' jN is — i rson, and case, and ng personat i\»\i ever to to the mati- partjcularly, T:i\ng I and nal, it repre- L denotes the e nominative " saw," and le verb. De- line, obj. mo. rsonal, it per- il denotes the ssessive case, id," agreeably •s governed by poBS. my or i. id left Um in — personal, it lerson spoken for which it WIS for which subject of the ' The nam. thou, poss. our or yours, m •" is for sinff. num. nom. he, posa. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or iheirs, obj. them. '• Thrico I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat ; but they dr.adiid th(> force of :ny iirm." They in a pronoun, a word usod instead of n noun — pprsonal, it represnnls '• cliiofj"' — iliinl [j Ts. it d.Miotnb tijo ;>or.so!»H Hpe, bat plural in form.) because the noun Juliet is for which it stands : Rule 13. Pers. Proa., &c. — your is in the poss- essive case, it denotes pocaession, and is governed by " paper," according to Rule 12. A fioun or pron., &c. (Repeat the Rule, and decline the pronoun.) Paper is a noun, the name of a thing — jM>mmon, the name of n sort of thin^*— neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex — third 104 BTYMOLOaV Al'iiy SYNTAX, .■i I I, "erson, spoken of— aing. number, it implies but one — and in the obj. eaae, is the object of the action expressed by the transitive veib " present," and governed by it: Rule 20. Active-transitive verba govern the obj. case. Note. Should it be objoctrd. that yours doesnotmean your paper, any more than it inean'.T/o«j- book, y lur AoMSc^our any thing, let it be borne in rninJ, that pronouns have no definile meanirig, like other words ; but their far/tcu/ar aignilication h always tleieniiined by the nouns they represent. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Julia injured her book, and soiled nii.ie : hers is b'tter than mine. My friend sacrificed his fortune to sec^ro yours : his deeds deserve reward ; yours merit disgrace. Henry's labours are past ; thine are to come. We leave your forests of beasts for ours of men. My sword and yours are kin. Note. S!ie un ler.siood, \i noinintaiive to soiled, in the fir.st example ; and the sub-laniive part of mine, after than, is nom. to is, understood: Rule 35. The verbs to secure and to come have no nominative. The pronouns mine, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my, and yours, personate nouns understood. REMARKS ON IT. For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun i7, many grammarians have b.en greatly puzzled how to di.'pose of it.or how to account for its multiform, and, seemingly contradictory characters. It is in great demand by writers of every descripiion. They use it without ceremony ; eith?r in the nominative or objisctive case ; either to represent one pert^on or thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns in the masculine, f inininj, or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it represents a member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number oi sentences taken in a mass. A little attintion to its true character, will, at once, atrip it of all its mystery. It formerly written hit, according to H. Tooke, is the past partic'pte of the Moe.~o-Gothic verb haitan. It means, the said, and, therefore, like its near relative that, meaning, the assumed, originally, had no respi'ct, in its application, to number, persron, or gender. "7/ is a wholesome law ;" i. e. the said (law) is a wholesome law ; or, that (law) is a wholesome law ; — the assumed (law) is a wholesome law. "Itia the man ; L believe it to he them:" — t'le said (^mun) is the man ; that (man) is the man : I believe t 'e said' (persons) to be them ; I believe that persons (according to the ancient application of that) to be them. "It happened on a summer's day, that many people were assembled," &c.— • Many people wcr.- a sembled : it, that, or the said (fact or circumstance) happened on a summei'o day. It, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referred to a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. " How is it with you ]" that i?, '• How is your state or condition?" " It rains; It freezes; ft is a hard winter;" — The rain rains; The frost frosts or freezes: The said (winter) is a hard winter. " If is delightful to see brothers and sifters livinc; in uninterrupted love to the end of their days." What is delightful ? To sec brothers and sisters live in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, this , in orJor to express the nicest shades and colours ol thought. " Min m i.st account for himself;" " Mankind must ac- count for th^msylves;" "-All mm TCi\\»t account for them selves ;'* *'All mm. wimm. and cMllren, must account for themselves ;" Ecery mm m.j it account for lilmself." Each of thjse aMseriions convoy* tha same favii or truth. ]i.n, the la.it, instead of presenting thy whole human family for the mind to contomj)late in a m.ws, by th» peculiar force of e.ery, disirihules thorn, and presents each separately and singly; and whatever ij affirmed of one individual, ibo miiMJ instantantously transfers to tho whole human race. Each relates to two or mo;v piTPon? or thing?, and eignifiea either of rhe two, or every one of any number taken separately. .Every relates to several pei3ona or thing?, and slgnificseachone of them all taken !»' parnt; ly. E'thur nhtes to twi pT'om or thin^n tak^n s"pintely, onl signifiea th^ one or ilie othe-r. ' E'th^r of the titrcc;' u aa iinp.ope.- e.\pre.,eion. 't should be.'-oiiyof tlie ili.eo." Nsither impjria not e':t\p.r ; liir»t ia, not one nor tho othci ; as, " iV«i- *A«rof my f.iend4 was there." Wlien an nllu.iion i.3 nindu to more than tuto, none should bo Uucd instead o£ neither; aa," iVon* of my friendi waa there." '^ KW EiTMOLOGV AND SYKTaX:. II. The demonstratives are thoso wliich precisely point out the subject to which they relate. List : this, and that, and their p'rarals, thcsa and those, and fonmr and lalt^ir; as, " 7'/i^ is true charity; /Aa^ is only its image. There is but a sliVht s.hn'l*^ or' cJiiTcTcncc in t}n mr'aning and ap- C" a ion of i/w and thai. When ri;.lert nt>.e is iii&'k' to a particular k, we tiiy, " 'J ako //i^ bock;" but whon we wish to bo very poixitsd and precisi-, we bay, "Take that book ;" cr, if it ba nearby, ** Take thvi bonk. ' Von pt rcoive, then, li at those dt moiistrativea have all ihj force of tho dciiniiu nrticlc, and a little more. This 8q1 tleie refer to th> nearest p'rsona or things, that and ihqa« to the most distant ; as, " These goods are fupeiior to those." This and ihsse indicate the latter, or last mentioned ; that and thoae, the former, or first mentior.e I ; as, " Both wealth nndpotcriy arc temptations ; that ttnda to excite pride, this, discontent." , ,'. .. " Some place the blisa in action, some in case ; " TAosc call it pleasure, and contentment, these." They, those. As it is the ofTice of the pers^onal they to repreecnt a aoun previouily introduced to our notiG ', there appcamto be a ellght de- parture from analogy in the following oppliraiion of it: " They who seek adier wisdom, are turc'to find be:': r.ieJ/ that sow in tcar.^, sometimes ifeap in joy." This usn^o, however, is well csitablit*hed, and they, in. euch conctruction?, io gcncrcLy cr-^loyed in prcfcience to those. , in. Tlie indcifinlte arc those which express their sub- jects in an indefinite or general manner. List : some, other, any, one, all, such, both, samo, another, none. Of these, one and other are declined like nouns. Another is declined, but v/ants the plural. The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the mean- ing unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight shade of dif- ^rence of meaning, wo say, Give me a pap.r, otie paper, any paper, tome paper, and hO on. Though these words restrict the mraning of the noun, they do not fix it to a ^ardcular oh]fiCl. We therefore call them indefii ito. Theee aljectivo,- , or a Ijc "■:■•.' • prononn*^, f;cqr.enr'ybrl-ng to nouns un- derrtr.ol, in v.-hich tli'.u.t:or: ;; ; 'h,:]! b • p.r.-fcd ai-corri-i^j; y ; p=, " You picy \c\i.e either ; Ho i- plunr-o,! with ^Ai.^ took, bai rli-l.li.'.s ih:ti (book ;) All (men) have sinned, but sumc (mm) have ri-p- uted.' The words one, other, and none, arc -.i.^d in loih num- bers ; and wh'^n ihey stand fcr nouns, liicy aie not ad- jectives, but indefinite j>rcv.ouns : aj«, " The great one^ ii ADJECTIVE rRONOUNS— PARSING. 107 of the world have their failings ;" " Some men increase in wealth, while others decrease ; ' " None escape." Tho word "ones,' in the precedinjj example, does not belonjj to a noun und«T.sto( d. If it did, we could supply the noun. Tlie ini^ar.- infi is not " ilie gnai one in in, nor ones inun," therefore oiie is not an ndj^'ciive pronoun ; but lii-t in aiiiiijr is, " The great men of tiie world." therefor.' ones is a pronoun of tlie indjtinite kind, represent- ing tho noun men understood, and it ought to be parsod lilte a person- al pronoun. The word others, in the next example, is a compound pronoun, equivalent to other men ; and should be parsed like 7nine, thine, &c. See Note 4th, page 100. I will now pans-e two pronouns, and then present fome examples for you to analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, you should bo at a loss lor deiinitions and rules, pleas-.^ to refer to the Compendi- um. But before you proceed, you may commit the following SYSTEMATIC OUDEIl OF PARSING. The order of parsing an Adjective Pronoun is — an adjective pronoun, and why ? — distributive, demonstra- tive, or indefinite, and why ? — to what noun does it be- long, or with what does it agree ? — Rule. i , . '• Orieman instructs many others." One is an adj-^ctive pronoun, or specifying adjective, it specifically points out a noun — indetinite, it expresses its subject in an indetinite or general manner, and belongs to the noun " man," according to Rule 9. Adjeclue pronouns belong to nuum, exj^ressed or understood. Others is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective pronoun and a noun, aiid is equivalent to other men. Other is an adjective pronoun, it is used specifically to describe its noim — indeiinite, it ex- Eresses its subject in an indetinite maimer, and bjlongs to men : LuLE 19. (R prat the rule.) Men is a noun, a name denoting p r.>>ons — common, &.c., (parse ii in full ;) and in thr objrciive case, it is the object of the aciion expressed by the transitive verb " ii»- htrucis," and gov. by it : Rule 20, Active-lransituc lerOs. &,c. " Those books are mine." • Those is nn adjective pronoun, it specifies what nonn is referred (o — d monstraiive. it precisely (Kjints out the subjecito wlilch itreiateti — and agrees with the noun"bfM)ks" in the plural number, according to Note 1, und< r Rule 19. Adjective pronouns must ag fee in number with their mruns. Mine is a compound personal pronoun, including both the possess- or and the thing possess d, and .' > equivalent to my books. My is a pron. a word used insttad of a noun — ptirsonal, it stands for tho name of the person sp* aking — hrst pernon, it denotes the speaker sing, number, it implies but one — and in tho poss. case, it denote* % lOB atYMOtOOY AND SYNTAt. possession, and is jg^ov. by " books," according to Rule 12. (Repeat the Rule, and decline the pronoun.) Books is a noun, the name of a thing — common, &c. (parse it In full ;) — and in the nominative case after " are," according to Rule 21. The verb to be admits the same case after it as before it. EXERCISES IN PARSING.' Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps a little. These men rank among the great ones of the world. That book •belongs to the tutor, this belongs t^ me. Some men labour, others labour m>t', the former increase in kvealth, the latte)* decrea«e. The boy wounded the old bird, and stolj the young ones. None performs his duty too well. None of thof^o poor wretches complain of their miserable lotl Note. In parsing the distributive pronoraiaal adjectives. Note 2, under Rule 19, should be applied. ;,„-,,;,„ .,„-,, „■..». • ; a ti'V/rxiicXiO/ .'.( ■••i'fr'j 1. W. tion of it out piiy." 2 IVJi child toii have ju-it ^. rr, p^non of " W/iich ( 4. Tilt are qualifi nal a Ijeci greatest I we saw be 5. T,h lowing : " Whei pronoun as, whos ever or i ''^^- DEC Nom. vvh wh wh Which umedasthi whose foil punished, writorj* ; I de,)artiu'e wiiom, in Thai ra Spending u KSr.ATIVE PROXOUNS. tot , (Repeat ! name of a native case Us the same ,lVi' elps a little. That book sour, others ejyje. The ae performs lain of their 23, Note 2, general, to coifed the I, a/i/e, before^ means going 1; Tiiisisthe n, &,c. Wc these senten- id Jfje, which 0, therefore, njOrnumber, pronoun, in an, s/ie; in loun, of more iation of the relates to an the second, it is of the pliir. num. ; .pie. Henco note its gend. dent in sense, ine gend. and feminine, and of the rela- and brutes ; as, •• He is a. friend who is faithful in adversity ; The bird which sung so sweetly, is flown ; This is the tree which produces no fruit." ■■.■,'' . ., • . ^^ .- . That is often u^ed as a relative, to prevent the too frequent repetition of who and which. It is applied both to persons and things ; as, « He that acts wisely, dfeserves praise; Modesty is Oi quality that highly adorns a vvprnan." .-)ff.t seen.*' 3. Which may be npplird to persons when we wish to distinguish one p^rjon of two, or a p irticular pci'son among a number of others ; as, " Which of the two ? Which of them i3 he »" 4. T'iit,ia pr;firei:e tote 'to or wM^h, ia appliad to piraon? when they are qaaUfied by an aJjective in th.' superlative degree, or by the pronomi- nal a Ijeci/e same; as, " Chirl.'s XII., king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madm.n that tha warld ever saw ; — He is the same man that vfQ saw before " 5. Thai U employed after the interrogative V}ho,j lowing : "Who that has any sen^e of religion, woul _ Jses like tha fol- ve argued thus 1" It ■' When the word evs7- or soever is annejeed to a relati"^ * pronoun, the combination is caWed a. compound pronoun ; as, whosv3r or whososvsr, whichever or whichsover, what' ever or whatsoever. Jm!;; ,j.;.L-\-\ q -rifri' rf<^T> »f V.v- 5\ 7T ''^ DECLENSION OP THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. '^' r^'"*-'^^ SINGULAR AND PLURAL. ' c'langrd iou-ht or w^icfi wiiUoiii dostroying ih" siMisn ; an. '• Tli'^y tfiaf ( who) r^provo lis, rnny ht oar b st fiiend^ ; From evry thin;r tlia'- (wJiich) you see, d rive instruction. " 'Iliafl^si d inonstiativ adj cJiiO, whfMi it belonj-rs to, or points out, som pariici l;ir noun, fiilifr o>pr >.••« d or imp. i d : an, " llt^uirn thaL book: Fnat belongs to m •, Ciivo ni W';rt'.' VV.v n that i.s noiiiirr a r -luiivf nor an adj ciivv proMonn, ii i.s a conj inc.icn; ft!*, " r«ke car(.' /hit every day b;* well employed." The word thnt^ in ihis* l*st sentencp, cannot hi c'langod to who or vkich wi bout destroying: the sens •, th( r lore you know it is nota relative pronoun; IK ithcr does it point out any panicuiar nonn, for which reason yon know it is not an adjective pronoun ; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is a conjunction. If you pay p:irii ulnr a Jo-uion lo this elucidation of the word that, you will liiitl no ditticnliy iii |Mirsini i . Winn n i-. a r dative or an a 'jec'ive pr noun, it may b^^ know.i by the si^ns given ; and when- ever these » will not apjdy lo i., you know it i.s a conjunction. Sf me writers are apt to m;ikr> too free a use of this word. I will give you one example of affronted that which may-vrveasacauion. 'i he tutor sai I, in sp. aking of the word tiiat, that that that that that Indy parked, wa.-i i.ot ilic iliat that liiai g(tntli man r>qiie.>>tcd her to analyz . 'I'his st ntenc, ihouj^h rend red inelif^ant by a bad choice of wrrds. is stric.ly grammatical. The first that is a noun; the necond. a conj line lion ; the third, an adjective pronrun: the fourth, a noun ; ih' fifth, a n laiive piuiioui ; tho sixth, an ailj< dive pronoun; the soventh, a npun; the , if r Tid r d thus : 'I iie tu or .^aid, in sp* akin^ of the word that, that ti^at that uhich that lady jaiscd, was not tiie tiiat ichich that g( nil man requested her to aualyze. :.i,' 5?c»; « ' WHAT. What is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which ; as, " This is what 1 wanted ;" that is, that which, or, thi thing which I wanted. . / ivj-i. f,... What is a compound of which that. Thes*^ words have been con- tracted and mane to coalesce, a part of the onlio^iauhy ot both biing atill retained : what — wh\ich\ — th[at ; {which-that.) Anciiniiy it appeared in the vaiying foim-, ^Aa qua, qua tha, quHha,qutlial, qwhat, hwal, and finally what. What may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an inter- jection. Wlii-n it is iqiiivaitnt to //; 3/ which, the thing which, or those things iphich, ii is a compound rila ive, hi cause it iiuludes both the antecedent and the n lauve; a.->, •' I will iry what (thai which) can be found in femoie del' ^acy ; What you rtiCuUcct witli most piuu>ure, r are the \ you ruCi W'.ieji two woo g've u u tlVj, ^jvi P* a, taa by iijo Vt. •• cau lij , toliick) Jia Wi,,c. bj parsed is bound lent lo lu bjunJ," i Wkii, u ini jrro^jaii " W,o IS t luterro^ Word or p! qioui; a., Uvi.io / ;v^ ooior in sj^ aaJ sub.it usjj u;i ail tivti.-i, (,r aj aro par.ieu , kiuj; a.s, ' " ^^at nu foui mousie W .at au dc'noiniiiai,t( is ui,i( / IV W.ut, UV hi CO.In.r.iCl c ini,«jijiid r Uiihuown ; I eudow.s loha IjJin take wi tt-njcs may u:hich liuiut "funo which wi.l dei^n, i wiih" A c( flint and a dudj aiiiecc or the adject XELATIT2 PROIfOtrm. Ill or w^'icfi • »s, inny >p., d rive (lonj-ri* ^^f >,i d : nH, ' VV.i' n j mci'n; vord //lrt^ t \vi hniU pronoun ; eason you sentence, word that., itive or an und wUen- iinction. rd. I will i a cam inn. at that Uiat l^tcd ii'-T to bail choice noun; iliP ly I'ourih, a e pronoun ; le ninih. an more st piLttaure, are the virtnons ac'lons of your past life ;" that h,iJiose things which you fccoiltjc, (Sec. Wiiea wha!. is a compound relative, you must always pane it as two w'uids ; i.i'y lijo vcrli •' \\;.i ,ry ; ' loliic'i, the niauvu part, is liie noin. ca.>e to ••can lij foiiiid.' " 1 navo liuard tvluti ^i. e. ilutl which, or tKe thing w/iicii) lias bo. n alleued." W itx.cr and ivh,)^i>evcr arcj also compoun.I relatives, and should bj parsed line the coin,,ouiid wiiat ; as, '• Wio-Jccr laKos tiiai oaih, is bound to enibrce thd laws." in this senieiice, wkoecer is equiva- lent to lie ivh), or, the man who; thus, " He who takes that oaili, is bjunJ," &.C. Who, which, anJ w'lit, w'.ien U!$ed in asking questions, are called ini.srrogaiivtf pro.io.iiis, or ron I W M are you doing ?" luterro^aiive prniouas have no a.uecjiijut; b.u thjy reiate to the word or piii'a->o Wiuou la uil.* aaswjr lO lUo q.iesiion, lor uioir siibso- q.ieui; a., "' VVw-m di ( you see / 'Vi\\i prcct^.tor. W.tui \iii\ki yon Uviue I ^Mittuitij. ' A.iUtc.-djiit anJ subioquoiu are opposed to each Oiujr in sigiiiitca.ion. A.ii.cjdcni m aiisprjceding,or yive proiiouiia ot uk^ d. in uiiitraiive or indenniie kind ; as, " Jiito to.tich p oini.'>u our iw^uve iribj.s hope to come ;" " ^ tat misery ilie vicious endure! VV.uU havuc liasi liiou made, foul inonsier, sin." i .< >..; ,-..,..• :'..,. ^ .' . vt W .at and wuich, whan join'^d to nouns in asking questions, are denoinuiai.^ iniw-rrOi^a.ive prunuinaui aijeCiiveii ; as, " Wiuit man ia ui.n / iy,.jc/i roflut did he iaKe r' ■»' .:^';.'wv:; W .at, wha ever, and whatsoecer, which, whichei-er, and whichsoever, in coan.r.tciioas liRe ihe tbuowiui', are cowipotind p ououus, but not c inijiound rvia.ivjs ; as, *' in waai chaiacior 1> iiier was auinivied, ia uuhiiown ; iiive Jjjin uhat namj you caoose; i\atureo ca-o largtly endows whuLfcer happy man wi.i dti4.n to use her iitaj>(iith ; Let hiin take which coaiao, or, whiclte^er courst; lie wid." 'I'lii se sm- tenoes may be rendered inus; " i hat character, or, ^Aftcharaciir in tcliich liutit r was adiniitt-d, is unknown ; Cuvei.im llial iiuuic, or, tlie name which you cliousu ; Aaiurt's care t nuows that happy man who will deign, »^c. ; Let him lawe that coi.rot, o., the couioe iviLic'i ho will." A compound rcia.ive necessumy induces both aii anieco- dmt and a reJa Jve. Tiiese compounds, you wiil notice, do not in- clude aniecedtnis, the tirtit part of each word b ing the article ^/itf, or the adjeclivo pronoun thai; iherelore the^ c^naot propyl ly be de- 112 »TT»ltOLOOY AND SYNTAJti nominated compound rolativea.— With regard to tlio word ever au- nexeJ to these pronouns, it is a singular fact, as soon as wo analyze the word to which it ia subjoined, eicr is entir»^Iy excluded from the sentence. W'.a' ia sometimos used as an interjection ; as, *^ Bui what! ia thy servant a dog, that he should do thii ? What ! rob us of our right of suffrage, and then shut us up in iungeous !" You have now coma to the most formilablo obstacle, or, if I may so speak, to the most rugged emiuenco n the path of grammatical science ; but bo not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, your futurj course will be interrupted wiih only hero and there a gentle elevation. It" will require close application, and a great deal of sober thi «king, to gain a clear concopLion of the nature of the re- lative pronoups, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily comprehended by tlie young learner. As this VIII. lecture is a very imjjortant one, it bjcom3s necessarj for you to read it care- fully four or tivB times over bt foro you proceed to commit the fol- lowmg order. Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you please. 'M^ v.; ■.i^s.^.^m-jn^i .. SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSliNTG. ':T T/ie order of parking a Relative Pronoun, is — a pronoun, and why ? — relative, and why ? — gender, per- son, and number, and why ? — Rule ; case, and why ? — *■! i^yliii'i ,1 JJ 'U Rule. — Decline it. • ' aiiiia .j*ii'i -u; / " This is the man whom we saw." ,,^,, Wftowt ia a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — relative, it relates to " man" for its antecedent — mas. gend. third pers. siog. num., because the antecedent '• man" is with which it agrees, ac- cording to Rule 1 4. Relative pronouns agree loith their antecedents in gender^ person, and number. Whom is in the objective case, the object of the action expressed by tho aciive-transiiive verb " saw," and gov- erned by it, agreeably to Rule 16. When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relnlive is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its own member vf the sentence. ■.. :;• j, a ,.'.'■• Whom, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that gov- erns it, according to Note 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline who.) V i •^ '%^']^ *' From what is recorded, lie appears," &c. ; _ ' What is a comp. rel. pron.,mclu'ding both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which, cr the thing which. — Thing, the antecedent part of what, is a nounj tb£ name of a thing — com. ; iho name of a species — neuter gender, it pks no sex — third person, Spoken of-^siiig. number, it implies but c^tte — aad in the obj. case, it t« the c by it; ; I refer used in cedunt- " thing' &c. I ably to Rule nominui What kind, br> '• nothinj Rule the ward guph\ u Wliat is " nothln/5 —It is i transitive When a Nt)TE I tive when Truth hand, accordanc unfolded very simp oi the lea Of the is strictly any other It ought t< V)e, you, that, and always bei like many Wlio Who cam womufi, o that (thin^ you pleas " What h done? take ?"- J hfiLATITE FRbNOUNS — rAnSING. lis li ever aii- analyze 1 from the L what ! i» ua of our ', if I may ammatical y over this, md there a L great deal e of the re- ach are not I. lecture is ead it care- ntnit the fol- lompendium so: ouN, is — a ender, per- d why ? — ■n I — relative, it d pera. sing, t agrees, ac- nts in gender^ the object of iw," aud gov- hative and the \me other word Iverb that gov- Ipeat the Note, 1* f^ [jedont and the hich.— Thing, t- |a thing— com. -third person, Ihe obj. case, it in the object of thy'relatlon expressed by the prep. " from," andffOfVi by it: Rulk 31 (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to wnlch I refer.) Which, the relative part of what, Is a pronoun, a word used instead of a nouji — relative, it relates to '• thinjj" for its antoce- cedunt — ueut, gtuid. third pors. sing, number, because the antecedent *' ihhig" is with whicii it afrrce«, accordin|r to Rule 14.. Rel.pron., &c. Which is in the nom. case to the verb '• is recorded,'' agreu- ably to Rule 15. The relative is the nominative case to tlie verb, i"hen no no?ninalive comes between it and the vera. . , • ffr ■ j:' " W/iffli have you learned ? Nothing." What is a pron, a word used, &c. — velativc of the interrogative kind, because it is used in asking a question — it refers to the word "nothiny" 'nr its .sM^segwe/i/, according to •• " "' '/,"''\" " Rule 17. When the rel, pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the u^ord or phrase containing the answer to the question for its subse- qut>A'. which subsequent must agree in case icith the inter:'ogative. Wliatis of the neut. gend. tliird pers. sing., because the subsequent " nothing" is with which it agrees : Rule 14. Ret. pron. agree) &.C. — It is in the objective case, the object of the action of the active- transitive verb " have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to Rule 16. When a nom., &c. See Note 1, under the Rule. Note 1. You need not apply gerJ. pers. and nuinb. to themterroga- tive when the answer to the question is not expressed. -■■■■■,'''•'■' ^, '^'^f' WHO, WHICH, WHAT.';.' 'J i/ ....'", J Vo'i'i-rV^- TnUh and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance with the usual method of treating them ; but if they were unfolded according to their true character, they would be found to bo very simple, and, doubtless, much labour and perplexity, on the part of the learner, would thereby be saved. Of the words called " relatives," who, only, is a pronoun; and this is strictly personal ; more so, indeed, if wo except / and we, than any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. /, thou, he, she, it, we, you, and they, relate to antecedents, as well as who. Which that, and ivhat, are always adjectives. They never stand for, but always belong to, nouns, either expressed or implied. They specify, like many other adjectives, and conned sentences. ^ WIm supplies the place of which or what, and hsper-tonalnoiin. Who came? i. e. what man, what woman, what person ;—^which man, woman, or person, came ? " They heard what I said" — they heard that (thing) if/uc/i" (thing) 1 said. " 'J'ake what (or whichever) course you please ;" — take that course which (course) you please to take. " What have you done ?" i. e. what thing, act, or deed, have you done ? " Whjch thing I also did at Jerusalem." " W/ticfe-will you take ?" — fehich book, hat, or something else ? •• This is the tree % 114 EinSOLOCY AND SYNTAX. v>\ich (tree) prodiics no fruit." " Mo that (man, or which man) aois widjiy, Jjajrvorj praiso.'^ T.ji-y w.io pr f.jr lui.s in iliod of troating tho " Rjlalives," a liberty lo uJjpi ii,uiKi purai; ii uccordiiigiy. Tin mi'i \v!io i-HuructH yo.i, la'i'nir.s faithrnlly. Th'i boy whom T instruct, letir.is w 'II. Tii? la ly vv.io.sj liou.su \vj occijiy, bisiowsi nu. >y c.iariii jH. IViiu m »J 'siy w.iicii highly a.ltjrn.s a wosnaii, she po.ssjciso.s. Ha that aou wi^stjly, desorvvs praise. Tiiis i.s the tree wiii.:h proJuc'>s no iriiii. I b liove what he says. He speaks wliat he knows. • W.iatiivor puriii ts tho humrt, also foriifi' s it. What doe it* thou? Noiiiiiiir. W lat book iiavp you ? A poum. Waose hat have you ? John's. W.io does that work ? Honry. Wnom aeeat tho i ? To waom gave you tiio presoni ? Wnich pen did he take ? Whom you i^riiorantly worship, him disclaro I unto you. I h^mrJ wimt he said. Gior^^c, you may pursue wlsuicvor scii^nce euiid your laste. E.iza, laKe w.iichjvor iMiitern ploasos you bjst. Wiioovuf lives to see this republic foroake her moral and liierary in- stitutions, wih b ;iiold hoT Jiberii js prostrated. Wiioaoovur. ihuretore, will bj a friond of the world, is the on^my of God. NOTiiJ. Thj n< m laiive casio i? requenily placed nftcr the verb, nnd the objective cn<\ It-f le the verb th.it govern^ it. iVht/m, in eveiy sen- tence except on.', hnne, modesty, book, hat, pen, him, the third what ond w'tiah, the relative p.irt of the li at twi whnts, arv all in the objective case, and govern.*;! by the several verbs that follow ih-ra. See Rule 16, an 1 Note 1. Ttee is noin. after id, according to Rule 21. Thing, the anieceJ.n pirt o( whitevcr,i noin. to "foiiities;" icAicA, the relative pirt, is no a. to " pmn;j.'' Nuking is governed by do, and poem, by Azof, unJ^rniooJ. i/?/iry is noin. to doe*, un lerHood. fV tote and J ihn's are governed according to Rule 12 /, thou, ynu, him, Slc, nprvft-nt nou:i4 unLr-. i .-ii.'.»-n. ^, .ji- »•■»< ..-■..€-.-« - ... .,,,_■.. ,.■ ,. REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS. ZM-. Which souieiiiues relates to a an uib.-r of n senienee, or to a whole sen eucc, for itsaniecedeat ; a. , " We art require an aixilia.y, the « should be omitted; as,*" />o«f thou not Itkold a rock with its head of heath I" denontini refined ti «u;A an p is, Let thi Ptc-n;il i.f lievdd. " itJ.-mer oc But, in Hi ajy-j3 rcqi pleaaej w, Let auch I Q From w avoid the What distil personal pr — Is gi-nde it applied l- ions to den( them in th How raanj — When se how are the in form ]—\ Bonal prono theira denor corapounJd oitjg a p..'r8o of the fiidi J pronoun is «onal prono! the compouj What are tach relate relate ?— W — Give exa — Repeat al aouna under sent nouns, parsing an indetinite ac fiftd demons What are term aniecO' vaded en ac tohich rppli. to ir.'n'iona plied to per be declined pJcs.— What three kinds c What words ; $ BKLATIVR PRONOrXS — PAR9!^«. %^ \h man) whnm I nail, she J the iroo aks what L. What Waose Whom len did he you. I ■r science you bjst. iicrary in- , iliorefore, e verb, nnd 1 evfiyaen- id what nnd \\e objective ;c- Rule 16, Thing, the the rolaiive id poem, by ! and Jthn's i., riprt'ront govoin d by a are in the :e," &c., is er pjiitevn ;" ipound rela- jui" Ta;c after" see:" )r to a whole od and keep What it* the laiidinenla :" is frequently r"pal verb, is lui when em- Oost thou not I P denominated a rt- lative pronoun ; ns, «• I nm pienyed with mich aa have a, refined taste;" that is, with tkop.e who, or them who have, ice. "Let «u;A a? presume to advice others, .look well to their own conduct ;" that is. Let those or them icho prelum j, &lv " A:i ntatnj as were ordained to eternal iifcs, bclieveil ," that is, they, those, or all wht were ordained, be- lieved. " He exhihned tlie namii testimonials as wito adduced on a former ocnri-.ion ;" thai is, tho'ic tosiinionials u'Aic/j wcro ftclduced, &,c. But, in examp.es likv.- the?f!, if we piipply the ell p-irt which a critical an- alysis rcqui;et; ua :o do, as will b;: found lo b;- a co!\ur.c ion ; ihuc, " lara pledged w.th such parsonf, a-t those pfiiaoi,a are who have a re.lned taste ; Let ouch pers.ma, as those persons arc who prcciunie," &c. QLfboriONS NOT ANSWCilL:!) LN PARSING. From what woidi i.^ the term pronoun derive 1 ? — Do pi onounc always avoid the repetit.on of noun^ \ — Name the three kinds of pronouns. — Whatdiotingt't-hej the personal frcrn tin; relative pronouns ? — llow many personal pronouns are there I — Repeat them. — What belong to pronouns? — Is gender applied to all the personal pronouns? — To which of them Iq it applied ? — Wtiich of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termina- iond to denote their gender ? — How many persons have pronouns ? — Speak them in their different persons. — How many numbera have pronouns? — How many' cases? — What arc they \ — Decline all the personal pronouna. — When self is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are they used \ — When is you singular in sense ? — la it ever singular in form ? — Why are the words my, thy, his, her, our, your, their called per- sonal pronoun.^ '. — Why are the words mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs denominated compound p "r»-onal pronouns ^--How do you parse these compounJd ? — What la er,i;l of others ? — R' peal the order of par- tms a p'lBoaa! pronoun ? — What Rule do you apply in parsing a p.onouu of the tirdi per. on, and in the nominative case i — What Rule when the pronoun is in the po3ses.-.ive cn.se ? — What Rules apply in parsing per- sonal pronouns of the second and third person >. — What Rules in parsing tbe compotinda, yours, ours, mine, &c. ? — What is said of the pronoun it. What are adjective p.onouna I — N.%me the three kinds. — What doe? iottch relate to ? — ^To v/hat docs every relate 1 — To what does either relate ? — What does neither import? — To what do this and these refer? — Give examples. — To what do tAa< and Mose refer? — Give examples. —•Repeat all the adjective pronouns. When adj. pronouns belong to Bouna understood, how arc they parsfd ? — When they stand for, or repre- sent nouns, what are they called '. — Give examplea, — Repeat the order of parsing an adjective pionoun. — V/hal Rule do you cipply in parsing the indefinite adjective pronouns? — What Notes, in parsing the distributives aftd deiiionstiauvcs { Whutare relativi; p/onoun.^? — Rt'pcat them. — From what words is the term aniecodcut de'ived ' — What dovi aniecedcr.t mean? — Are relatives vaded on aoccur.t of g'-ndcr, per.ion, or nr.'>!ilK'r ? — To 'Ahat are tono and which rppHiid I — To v.'hrii in t^ut. applied ? — Should who avcr bo npplicd to irnvional hf>ir;w.T or chiidre.T ? — In what instan-ic may 7f/(/cA bf.- Ap- plied to pen-ens I — D.'cKae the rcintivo pronoun.^^. — Can wkir.h and that be declined ? — Is that ever used us three pai tjs of epecch ? — Give exam- ples. — What part of t^^peech is the word what ? — la what ever used as three kinds of a pronoun ? — Give examples. — What is said of whoever ? What words are uped as interrogative pronouns ? — Give e:;nmples. — Whcft *fe ne BTYMOLOttY AND UYSTAX. are the worda what, which, and that, called adjective pionouas N— \Vh — Does the relative which ever relate to a sentence fur itd nnteceileiit i — When doe« ihc ccu- junmion aj boconu a le.ative { — Give cxiunpled. EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. NoTR 1, to Ituuii J 3. Wiun a no. in or pionoiiu is tlio subject of a verb, it miieit bj in tne noinina.ivo cnso. VVno will go ? lliin and f. II )vv d )0 4 th30 do ? Is thea well ? " Him anvl I ;" not pop-r, because the pronoun him ia the subject of the Verb will go undci>>tood, therefore him should be in the nominative case, he, according to the above Note. (Rep -at thj Note.) Ilimand I are connected by th3 co.ijuuciion a/id, an I Aim ii in tho* objective case, and / in the nom.n.Ttive, cnerefore Rule 33i\l ia violated. (Rcpiat the Rule } In the seconl and third e.Kamplea, thee should be thnu, accord- ing to iha Note. The verbs, d)e3 and i», are of the third perdon, and the nominative tfiou i.-j sccon I, for which reason the verba should be of the secon I p?raon, rfo?', d) an I art, agrjeabiy to Rule 4. Youmay correct the other examples, four timea over. . FALSE SYNTAX. , Him and irn wont to lowii yesterday. Thee must he attentive. Hitn who is carcloss, will not improve They can write as well as mi. This is the man whom was expected. Hjr and I deserve esteem. I have mado greater proHcijncy than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do yon think was there ? Whom, for the sake of his important sorvicas, had an ollico of honour b3stowed upon him. Note 2, to Ritle 13. Personal pronouns being nsjed to supply the place of noun*, should not be employed in the sama m^mbsr of tha sentence wX.i the noun which thi?y represent. FALSE SYNTAX. Th9 m?n th3y ara th ^re. I saw him the king. 0;ir caus5 it ia just. Many vvord.s they darken speech. The noble gen ral w!io had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about doinj good, they are continually doing evil. In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should bo omitted, a3?ording to Note 2. Note, 3, to Rule 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not be used instead of these and those. FALSE SYNTAX. Remrvo them propers from the defik. Give mr* them books. Give them men their di.scharoe. Ob.ierve them three tiicre. Which of them two persons descrve-s moht credit? In all these e.XTmple--), th^sc should bs uwd in place of Mc?w. The u?e of the pi^r^onal, them, in such constructions, presents two objectives ofter one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by amploying an adjective pronoun in its stead. ' ^ i A Coi used to c sentences Connects because y Conjunct tcnces in d dances of I refined state The term which sigiii is a word t can fully co is requi.-,ite simple sentc chiefly nsed A Sent plete sense A SiMPL inative, an as, « Whei You perce nominative a containing m and one Jinit simple senter A CoMPt simple sen in the fielc This sente sentences joi of its connet sentence witl thus, « Whei The natur ted. Alter quently vvi.sh nected with conjunction; jbjoctivo case, •OMJUNCTIOMS. LECTURE IX. in •'fj OF CONJUNCTIONS. A Conjunction is a pnrt of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence : it sometimes connects only words ; as, " Thou and ho are happy, because you are good." Conjunctions nro thoso parts of language, which, by joining sen- tences in ditfertint ways, murk the connexion;* and various dcpen- dancus of human thought. They bjlong to language only in its refined state. The term Conjusctiom com?3 from tho two Latin words, covy which signifies together, and Jtingo, to Join. A conjunction, then, is a word that conjoins, or joins togeihor somoihing. Bjfore you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly nsed to connect sentences. A Sentence is an assemblage of words forming com- plete sense. A Simple Sentence contains but one subject, or nom- inative, and one verb which agrees with that nominative ; as, " Wheat grows m the field." You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentence containing many parts of speech ; but, if it has only one nominative and one Jinile verb, (that is, a verb not in the infinitive mood,) it is a simple sentence, tliough it is longer than many compound sentences. A Compound Sevtenck is composed of two or more simple sentences connected together ; as, " Wheal grows in the field, and ?nsn reap it." This sentence is compound, bacause^t is formed of two simple sentences joined together by the word and; which word, on account of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence without the conjunction, it bocomes two simple sentences ; thus, " Wheat grows in the field. Mcin roa[^ it." The nature and importance of the coiijunciion, are easily illustra- ted. Alter expressing one thought or sontimotit, you know we fre- quently wish to add another, or several otliers, which are closely con- nected with it. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction : thus, " The Georgians cultivate rico and cotton ;" that "-m^ 118 BTYiMOLOSY AJO SVNTAX. is, "They cultivate rice, add cotton.'' This sentence is compounJ, and without the use of the conjunction, it would bo written in two separate, simple sentences : thus, " The Georgians cultivate rice. Thay ciiilivalo cotlnn." The conjunction, tliongh chiefly* used to connect s?ntencos, som'itirn os coniu'cts only words ; in which capaci- ty it is nearly allirjd to iho preposition ; as, '" Th-3 sun and (add) the planets constitute tlse ao'.ar bysiem." In tiiis, which i.-i a simple sen- tence, cim\ connects two icords. A few more examples will illustrate the natun, and exhibit the use of this part of sfj-'ech so clunrly, as to enable you fully to com- prehend it. Tli3 following simple sentenct's and nioinbers of sen- tences, have no relation to each other until they are conaected by conjunctions. Ho labours harder — more succestfully — I do. That man is healthy — he is temperate. By fillinor up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words : thus, " Ho labours harder and more successfully than I do. That man is healthy because he is temperate." Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative «nd the Disjunctive. I. The Conjunction Co/>M/a/iUi3 serves to comiect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which ex- presses an addition, a supposition, or a cause ; as, " Two and three are five ; I' will go if he will accompany me ; You are happy 6sca!M. yet, because, i nect either wl 2. Relative ces ; as, " Bl( commnndmen You will V five times ovi may parse thi On scientifi( I Hitions and ct tween them be and some p nouns and vert tht-y did not pi " I wish yoi the opinion o monstrative m the following r believe that [a the latter coil! part of ^peocli the former con iHeDtefaces, by Bftleri of thbtjg ." eONJTJNCTlONS. 11» 3 compound, k'ritten in two uliivalG rice. iefly used lo ,vhich capaci- uid (add) the a simple sen- nd exhibit the fully to com- nbcrs of" sen- connected by _I do. That incies in these ce of this sort 3ssfuUy than I 5 Copulative connect and jr which ex- ; as, "Two I impany me ; 1 that expresses implies a sup' lects a member to connect member that jy came with resses, not only loUo.vinjr list^! nh ill ihosoiirild, lies as proposi' iiioroiii .sorts of ch of any word )NS. since, for, be^ 2}isjunctive. But, or, ndr, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, uevt;rtheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as. Some conjunctions are followed by correspondipnf conjunctions, so that, in thy subsequent mv3n:)ber of the sentence, the latlcr answers to the former; as, 1. Though — 7/et or n",vertheless ; as, '■^ Thmtgh ho was rich, ye« foi'our sake;4 he becam3 poor." 2. Whei-^r — or : as, " Whether he will go, or not, I cannot tell." it is improp r to say, "Whether he will go or no." 3. Either — or ; f^^, " I will either send it, or bring it myself." 4. Neither — nor ; as, " Neither thou nor I can comprehend It." 5. As — -as; as, " She is as amiable as her sister." -'- 6. As — so; as, " As the stars, so shall thy seed b3." 7. So — as; as, " To see thy glory, so as I have seen thoo in the sanctuary." 8. So — tluzt; as, " He became so vain, that every one disliked him." NOTES. 1. Some conjunctions are used lo connect simple sentences only, and from them into compound sentencet; such aa, farther, again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple members only, so as to make them compound members; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as*, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, on, singular number, agreeing with " wisdom or folly," according to Rule 9. Two or more nouns singular, joined by disjunctive cou' junctions, must liavc verbs, noum, and pronouns agreeing with them in the singular. tial meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken ns n whole, wi' s-hall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By th? latter, I assert, positively, thnt, " I would not wilfully hurt n fly ;" whereas, by the former, I merely loisk you to believe that " I would not wilfully hurt a fly ;" but I do not affirm that as a fact. That being the past p?»rt. of thean, to get, take, assume, by rendering it as a participle, instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its | primitive character. Thus, " I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you | to believe the assumed [fact or atatfment ;] or, the fact assumed or taken. If, (formerly written {gif, give, gin,) as previously stated, is the impe- nthre of tb« Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. In imitation of Hom« It yc Rules p For cxi /heir le. nouns, junction plural, i tors. A noun fei Tlwmas with who But ]( and see \ his lessor ent const that Orlai it as.serts progress. action of too, that I -"n the sir iiULE 9. Ru'LE 4. Joseph CdN JUNCTIONS — PARSmfi. m^ -a conjunc- md why ? — ractpr." -• Lo connect sen- — co;-.ulative, it ig on a mtmber i <' wisdom and 1 may parse it in » form." 1 :) — and in the noun " wisdom" ouns in the same r,c.— of the third dom and virtue " to lumber, joined by I pronouns agreC' connect semen- erves not only to 3in on a member necta the nouns the third pen>on, according to 1^ disjunctive con- (freeing with them ine the meaning of find, that they do rt, positively, thnt, nor, I merely viish )ui I do not affirm i!ume, by rendering come nearer to its I a fly. I wish you L assumed or tahen. | stated, JB the impe- imitation of Hom'^ It you reflect, for a few moment?, on the meaning of the last two Rules presented, you will see, at once, th; ir propri"ty and importance. For example; in the sentence, "Orlando and Thomas, who study their lessons, make rapid progres-:," you notice tliat the two singular nouns, Orlaiulo and Thornas, are connected by the copiilfttive con- junction and, therefore the verb mike, which agrees with them- is plural, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives or ac- tors. And you observe, too, that the pronoun* who and their, and the noun lessons, are plural, agreeing with the nouns Orlando and Tliomas, according to Rule 8. The verb study is plural, agreeing with who, according to Rule 4. But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and see how the sentence will read : Orlando or Thomas, who stidies his lesson, makes rapid progress," Now, you perceive, that a ditfer- ent construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply^ that Orlando and Thomas, both study, and mike rapid progross ; but it asserts, that either the one or the oth"r studies, and mnkes rapid progress. Hence the verb jnakes is singular, becaus" it expresses the action of the ona or the other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the pronotms who and his, and the noun Zessora, are likewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando or Thomas, agreeably to LluLE 9. Studies is also singular, agreeing with who^ according to RulE 4. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Joseph and his brother reside in New-Vork. The sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. 1 re- Bp-^ct my friend, because he is uprinrht and obliging. Henry and Willliim, who ob?y their teach ir, improve rapidly. H3nry or Wil- liam who obeys his teacher, im )rov3s verv fast. Neither rank nor possession mokes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meek- ness, form the good man's happiness and interest : they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United Siat s, as justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions. Note. The verb form is phiral, and agrees with throe nnuns !>'ng[ular, connected by copulativf* coninn;Mions, nccordintr to Rule 8. The verb comfort agrees with they for its nominntive. It is connected to support by the conjunction and. ncrrecnbly to RfLE34. jlnffdt \i> nom. to are un;lcr3too I, nnJ Great Dritaia is nom. to can ioas< understood, accord- ing to Rule 35. Tookc, some of our modern philoFophicnl writers ore inrlinf d to teach pupils to render it ns n verb. Thus, " I will go. i/ he will nccompany me; — "He will nrconipTny me. Grant — give \hn\ [fnct.] I will po." For the purpose of ascertaining the primUive mennmf' of this word. I hove no objection to piich a repolution ; but, by it, do we pet the exnct meaning and force of if a« it is npplied in our modern, r< fined stofe of the langunge ? I trmo not. But, admitting we do, does thi« prove thnt puch a mode of resolving eentencee can be ndvantngrously ndopted by learner* in cemmm schools ? I presume it cannot be denied, that instead of tench- iog tb« Uanner to vxpreM hiraaelf correctly in modem Esglkh, cock » MMWte litl BTYMOLOGY AND SYNTAJt» ! ir I , REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS. The same Word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an ttdverb, or a preposition. " I submitted, /or it was in vain to resist ;" in this example, for is a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a p;epo3iiion, and governs victory in the objective case : " Ih' coritenJed for victory only " In ihc first of ihe following senteri.?es, aincc is a conjunction ; in the second, it i3 a preposiiion, and in ths third, an adveib ; " Since wa must part, let us do it p.>aceably ; J[ have not seen him since that tima ; Our friendship conimenccd long since." "He will repent fte/f/re he dies ; St - nd 6c/ore me ; Why did you not return before" [that or this time ?] In the first of these three examplesk iefore is an adverbial conjunction, be^rmse it expresaeij 'ims ani connects; and in the second and third, it is a piepr ;ition. As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its mem- bers. Without attending to this cicumstance, the learner may some- times be at a loss to perceive the conjieclirg power of a preposition or conjunction, for every prepoaition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sen- tence begins with a preposition or conjunction, its members are trans- posed ; as, " In the days of Jorani, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha ;" " If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thte ; but, if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever." " When coldness wrop3 this suffering clay, , , I ■'' , " Ah, whither strays the immortal mind !" "T ' That the words in, if, and when, in the?c examples, connect themem- bfers of the respective sentences to which lh?y are attached, will obvious- resolution is merely making him familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of necessity which compel all nation? in the early and rude state of th eir langu'ige, to e.cp ess themselves In short, detached sentences, employed if a? a verb when th -y used the following circumlocution : " My son will reform. Glte that fact. I will forgive him." But in the pr S'nt, improved state of our lanjjiage, by using if as a conjunct'on, (for I miinnin ihit it is ono.) we express the same thought more briefly ; and our madern moie of expression his, too, a decided advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In S:otlanland the north of Kngtand, some pi'ople still make use of gin, a contraction of given : thus, ' I will pardon my son, gin he lefor.n." But who Will oontaid, that they speak pure English ? But psrhrip"? the advocates of what they call a philosophical devolop- raent of language, will say, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an cllip-is, they mean such a one us is necessary to the grammatical constniction, i cannot accede to their as- sumption. In teaching grammar, ns well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes: — we oug'it neither to pass supcriic'ally over an ellipsis necesaa'y to the sense of a phrase, nor to put mo Jem English to the blu^^h, by adopting a mo le of resolvins sentences that would entirely change the character of our language, and carry the learner back to the Vand^licls age. ....■■■,.. , ^ ^u ^ put ceni«j froiB t6c ^ai(fti ^rb> tcM-uidyti t<^He-r5ut. *' All were "W^O As COKJUNCTiONc 133 3IT10NS. conjunction, an n to resist ;" in e two members m, nnd governs only " unction ; in the ' Since wa must that time ; Our Vhy did you not throe examplesi [»3 ani connects; re also ita mem- irner mny sonic- a preposition or 1 connects either Whenever a sen- smbera arc trans- ished the prophet hte ; but, if thou connect the mem- led, will obviouB- nt and barbarous Our forefathers, I which compel all ';cp e33them3elve8 hsn th -y used the that fact. I will ou.- lan^iagii, by .) wo express the . pression hu, too, It of elegance, but lorth of England, iven: thus. ' I will d, that ihcy speak :)3ophical devolop- of sentences, they ati such a one us accede to their as- ling?, we ought to illy over an ellipsis ■n English to the lat would entirely learner back to the It, All were -w^tl ly appear if wc restore these eentenccs to their natural order, and bring* these particles between the members which they connect : thus, " Eliaha the prophet flourished in the days of Joram, king of Israel ;" " The Lord will be found of thee if thou seek him ; bat he will cast thee ofTfor ever ^thou forsake him :" " Ah, whither etrays the immortal mind, " When coldness wraps this sufTering clay ]'' As an exorcise on this lecture, you may now answer these QURSTIOrtS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. Fioui what words is the term conjunction derived ? — What is a sen- lenoe I — What is a simple sentence ? — What is a compound sentence f— Give examples. — In what respect do conjunctions and prepositions agree in tliL'ir nature ? — How many sorts of conjunctions are there ? — Repeat the lists of conjunctions. — Repeat some conjunctions with their corres- ponding conjunctions. — Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences ? — Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction. — Do you apply any Rule in parsing a conjimction 1 — What Rule should be applied in parsing a noua or pronoun connected with another ? — What Rula in parsing a verb agree- ing with two or niore nouns sinp;ular, connected by a copulative conjunc- tion 1 — What Rule when the nouns are cormected by a disjunctive] — In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply ? — Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of speech? — Give ex- amples. — What is said of tho words for, since, and before ? — What is said of the tran?posing of sentences? QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions derived ? but (be-out leave-out) the ptranger." Man is but a reed, floating on the current of time." Resolution : " Man is a reed, floating on the current of time ; but (he-out this fact ) he is not a stable being." And — aned, an'd, and, Is the past part, ofannnad, to add, join. A, an and, or one, from the same verb, points out whatever is ancf, on/rrf, or made one. And also refers to the xhing th^^t ia joined to, added to, or, made one with, sonn ot'.ior person or thing ni'-ntion^d. " .Julius and Har- riet will make a h^ippy pair." Re?olution ; " Juliu:?, Harriet joined, united, or anei, will make a happy pair ;" i. e. Harriet made one with Juliu.'", will make a happy pair. For means rausc. v- ' Because — ue-cause, is n compound of the verb he nnd the noun muse. It retains the meaning of both ; a?«, " I bf^K-'ve the maxim, /or I know it to be true ;" — I believe the maxim, he-cause I know it to be trup ;" i. c. the cause of my belief, he, or is, I know to be true. Nor is a contraction of ne or. Ne is a contraction of no , md or, of other. Nor is, not uthcr-v/iup ; not in the (ri';rr way nr mnnner. Else is the imperative of alesan, unleps. r,{' nnleKrin,:\nd leH, the pa?t part, of lesun, all signifying to dismiss, reloisi>, loc.=!cn, set free. " Ho. wil' be punched, unlcsn he. rnpent ;" — " UulcsiS, release, g^vc up, {the fact) he repents, he will be punished." Though is the imperative of the Sa;nii verb thajigan, to allow, and yet, of getan to got. Vet i^ eimi)!y, gel : :in."ii'nt g is our modem y. — " Though he si ly me, yet. will I trusi in him : — Grunt or allow (tlia fact) he slay mc, get, or retain (the opposite fac; I will trust in him." ■•■"•'■£'■ 124 nTYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. *Whati8'Home Tooke's epinion of thtitl — From what is each of the fof- k>wing words derived, that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, unless, l«9t, though, and yet ? ' . LECTURE X. OF INTERJECTIONS.— CASES -OF NOUNS. Interjections are words which express the sudden emotions of the speaker ; as " Alas ! I tear for Kfe ;'* •* O Death ! where is thy sting." Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feeliii|g;. Almost any word may be used as an interjection ; but when so em>- ploycd, it is not the representative of a distinct idea. A word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or lather, to make noises, when they have no useful inforipation to com- municate, are apt to use woi-ds very freely in this way ; such as the following expressions, la, la me, my, O my, O dear, dear me, surpri- sing, astonishing, and the like. Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by their taking an exclamation point after them. PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. The tcim Interjection is applied to those inarticulate sounds employ- ed both by men and brutpg, not to express distinct ideas, but emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings in groan- ing, sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by the dog in barking, growling, and wliining, by the horse in snorting and neighing, by the sheep in blealing, by th-? cat in mewing, by the do\'e in cooing, by the duck in quacking, and by the goose in hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by words ; but, as written words are the ocular representatives of articulate sounds, thoy cannot be made clearly to denote inarticulate or indistinct noises. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural lan- truagc ; but they fall below the bounds of regulated speeclu Hence, real interjections are not a part of written language. The meaning of thopc words commonly called interjections, is easily shown by tracing thcra to their roots. Pinh and Pshaw arc the Anglo-Saxon paec, paeca ; and are equivalent to trumpery ! i. e. tromperic horn tromper. Fy or fic is the imperative, foe, the past tense, and foh or faugh, the past part, of the Saxon verb^a/i to hate. Lo is the imperative of looh. Halt is the imperative of healden, to hold. FaretPcU — fare-well, is a compound of faran, to go, and the ad- veib well. It means, to go icell. Welcome — wel-come, signifies, it is well that you are cotne. Adieu comes from the French a Dieu, to Uod \ meaning, I commend you to God. ;h of the foT- , unle8$, i«B*» lOUNS. the sudden for Kfe;" as of feeling. t when 80 em*- A vrord which jssarily belong speak often, or ijnation to com- tf ; such as the Bor wifi, surpri' , are generally n. ' sounds employ- .9, but emotions, beings in groan- ig, by the dog in and neighing, by in cooing, by the stiines attempt to ir representatives note inarticulate ig to natural kin- ch. Hence, real •jections.is easily nd are equivalent 'oh or faugh, the ve of healden, to kogo, and the ad- fme, signifies, it ia I a Dieu, to God » iNtERJECTlONS — PAttSINCJ. 125 A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS. 1. Of earnestness or grief ; as, O ! oh ! ah ! alas ! 2. Contempt; as. Pish ! tush ! 3. Wonder ; as, Heigh ! really ! strange ! 4. Calling; as, Hem! ho! halloo*! 6. Disgust or aversion ; as, Foh ! fy ! fudge ! away t 6. Attention ; as, Lo ! behold ! hark ! 7. Requesting silence ; as, Hush ! hist ! 8. Salutation ; as, Welcome ! hail ! all hail ! Note. We frequently meet with what some call an interjective phrase f such as, Ungrateful wretch ! impudence of hope ! folly in the extreme ! what ingratitude ! away with him ! As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the English language, it will require but little attention. Yon may, however, make yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and then commit the SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing an Interjection, is, — an inter- jection, and why ? " O virtue ! how amiable thou art !" O is an interjection, a word used to express some passion, or emotion of the spe'aker. The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated, although some of them have not been fully explained. Before you proceed any farther, you will please to begin again at the first lec- ture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in the exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study faithfully six hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you may beconie, if not critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, in six weeks ; but if you study only three hours in a day, it will take you nearly three months to acquire the same knowledge. EXERCISES IN PARSING. True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes the happiness of all around him. Modesty always appears graceful in youth : it doubles the lustre of every virtue which it seems to hide. ^. ... He who, every morning, plans th^' transactions of the day, and follows out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through tlie labyrinth of the most busy life. The king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbt- rouB act ; but, alas ! I fear the consequence. ISO ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. E'en now, whare Alpine solitudes ascend, I set me down a pensive hour to spend ; And, placed on hifjh, above the storm's career, Look downward where a hundred realms appear:^ Alas ! the joys that fontuno brings, Are trifling, and defray ; And thosb who mind the paltry things. More trifling still than they. Note. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, ujAjcA is governed by the verb to hide, according to Rule 1G. He ia nom. to car- ries; who is nom. to plans. Follows agrees with who understood, and is connected to plans by and ; Rule 34. What did the king give ? A reward to me. Then rc«)ar(Z is hi the oft/.case.gov.by g'flue ; Rule 30. Me is gov. by to understood ; Note 1 , under Rule 32. The phrase, com' milting that barbarous act, ia gov. by for ; Note 2, under Rule 28. Hour is in the obj. case, gov. by to spend ; Rule 20. "Look is connect- ed to set by and; Rule 34. Joys is nom. to are. That is gov. by brings ; Rule IG. Those is nom. to are understood. They is nom. to are understood ; Rule 35. CASES OF NOUNS. In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive ex- planation of the cases of nouns ; and, as they are, in many situations, a little dilficult to be ascertained, I will now offer some remarks on this subject. But before you proceed, I wish you to parse all the ex- amples in the exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention to the remarks in the subjoined Note. Those remarks will assist you much in analyzing. A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after the noun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. Look at the sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, "He who, every morning," &c., and see if you can find the verb to which fce- is nominative. What does he do ? He carries on a thread, &c. jHe, then, is nominative to the verb carries. What does who do ? Who plans, and who follows, &.c. Then toho is nom. to plans, and who understDod, is nominative to follows. " A soul without reflection, like a pile " Without inhabitant, to ruin runs." In order to find the verb to which the noun soul, in this sentence, is the nominative, put the question ; Wiiat does a soul without reflec- tion do ? Such a soul runs to ruin, like a pile without inhabitant. Thus you discover, that soul is nominative to runs. When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their natural order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb, and the objective, after it ; but when the words of a sentence are transposed ; that is, not arranged according to their natural order, it frequently happens, that the nominative comes after, and the objec- tive, before the verb ; especially in poetry, or when a question is asked; as, " Whence arises the misery of the present world ?" " What CASES OF NCINS. 127 seg, which i« nom. to car- Jerslood, and ng give 1 A 56 ; Role 20. :> phrase, eom- der Rule 28. jjfc is connect- at is gov. by tcy is nom. to extensive ex- my situations, le remarks on irse all the ex- pay particular 3 remarks will my lines after matter. Look ig with, "He verb to which a thread, &c. does who do ? to plans, and this sentence, without reflec- lout inhabitant. good thing shall I do to inherit eternal life ?" Put these expressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will precede, and the ob- jective /:)//oj/? its verb: thna, "The niis:'.ry of the present world arises whence ; I shall do \v\vM j^ood thing to inherit eternal life." *' Now came still eicnbvr^, and twilight gray " Had, in hor sobiu- livury, all things clad. " Sicrn rugged nurse, thy rigid bn-e " Willi pmiL^nco many a ijenr she. bore." What did the evening do ? 'J'ho cvoning cayneun. Gray twilight had clad what ? Twilight had clad all things in her sobur livery. Evening, then, is nom. to came, and thj noun things is in the objective case, and gov. by had clad : Rule liO. What did she bear ? She bore thy rigid lore with patience, /or, or during, many a year. Hence you find, tliat lore is in the .objective case, and governed by bore, ac- cording to Rule 20. Year is governed^ by during understood ; Rule 32. A noun is frequently nominative a to verb understood, or in the ob- jective, and governed by a verb understood ; as, " Lo, [there is] the poor Indian ! whose untutoreil mind." " O, the pain [there is] the bliss [there is] in dying !" " All were sunk, but the wakeful night- ingale [was not sunk. ] " He thought as a sage [thinks,] though he felt as a man [feels."] " His hopes, immortal, blew them by, as dust [is blown by."] Rule 35 applies to these last three examples. In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pro- nouns which have not yet coma under our notice. Sometimes a noun or pronoun may be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it. OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. Whenever a direct address is made, the person or thing spoken to, is in the nomirative case independent; as, "James, I desire you to study." You notice that, in this expression, I address myselfto James ; that is, I speak to him ; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, either expressed or implied, to which James can bo the nominative ; there- fore you know James is in the nom. case independent, according to Rule 6. Recollect, that whenever a noun is nf the second person, it is in the nom. case independent ; ^hat is, independent of any verb ; as, Selma, thy halls are silent; Love and meekness, my lord, become a churchman, better th/in nrobiiion ; O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings, but ye would not ! — For a farther illustration of this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax. Note. When a pronoun of the second pereon is in appoFition with a noun independent, it is it) the same case ; as, •' Thoif, traitor, I detest thee." 1S8 ETYMOLOQlf AND SYNTAX. OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, without any verb to agree with it, is in the nominative case abso' lute ; as, " The 'iun hein^ risen, we pursued our jour- ney." ' Sun is here placed before the participle " being risen," and has no verb to agree with it ; therefore it is in the nominative case absolute, according to Rule 6. Note 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is always of the second per&on ; but, in the case absolute, it is generally of the third person. 2. The case absolute is always nominative ; the following sentence is therefore incorrect: " Whose top shall tremble, Ai/n descending," &c. ; **' should be, he descending. OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION. Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case ; as, " Cicero, the great orator, philosopher, and statesman of Rome, was murdered by Anthony." Apposition, in a grammatical sense, means something added, or names added, in order ni .re fully to define or illustrate the sense of theiirat name mentioned. You perceive that Cicero, in the preceding example, is merely ihe proper name of a man ; but when I give him the three additional ap- pellations, and call him a great orator, philosopher, and'statesman, you understand what kind of a man he was ; that is, by giving him these three additional names, his character and abilities as a man are more fuUymade known. And surely you cannotbeat a loss to know that these four noujis must be in the same case, for they are all names given to the sarao person; therefore, if C/cero was murdered, the oroifor was murdered, and \\ye philosoplier was murdered, and the statesman waa murdered, because they all mean one and the same persoij. Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, aje frequently in (tppom sition; as. He struck Charles tlie student. Now it is obvious., that, when he struck Charles, he struck the student, because Charles was the student, and the student was Charles ; therefore the noun student is in the objective case, governed by " struck," and put by apposition with Charles, according to Rule 7. Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then be prepared to parse the following examples correctly and systexaaticaUy. PARSING. "Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore." JMTnirfJB.R noun, the name of a person— com. the name of a sort— VASKS OK NOUNS— PARSINO. 13t fem. {TOuder, it denotes a female — second pers. spoken to— sing. num. it implies but one— and in the nominative case independent, because it-is addressed, and has no .'erb to agree witii it, according to Rule 6. Wlien an addres.i u made, the noun or pronoun addres»» ed, ismU in the nominative cane imlepeiuieiit. " Tlio general being raniioined, the barbarians permitted him t« depart." General is a noun, the namo, &c. (parso it in full :) — and in the nominative case obsoluto, because it is placed before the participle *' being ransomed," and it has no verb to aj»rce with it, agreeably to Rule 6. A noun or yronaun placed hefwe a participle, and being independent of the rest (ftfte sentence, is m the nominative case ahso' lute:' " Thou man of God, flee to the land of Judah." Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — persona],'it personates " man" — second pers. spoken to — ma.3. gender, sing. num. because tlie noun "man" is fur which it stands ; Rule 13. (Re- peat tlie Rule.) — Thou is in the nominative case independent, and put by appu.ntion with man^ because .it signifies the some thing, ac- cording to Rule 7. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifyijig the same thing, are put, by apposition, in tlie same case, Man is in the nominative case independent, according to Rule %. Flee agrees with thou understood. " Lo !• Newton, priest of Nature, shinns afar, " Scans 'he wide world, and numbers every star." Newton is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case to ^ shines :" Rule 3. Priest is a noun (parse it in full), and in the nom. case, it is the actor and subject of the verb " shines," and put by apposition with " Newton," because it signifies the same tliing, agreeably to Rule 3. (Repeat the Rule.) EXERCISES IN PARSING, T^m from your evil ways, O house of Israel ! Ye iields of fight, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair ! proclaim your Maker's won- drous power. O king ! lice for ever. The murmur of thy streams, O Lora, brings back the memory of t le past. The sound of thy M'oods, Garmaliar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Mal- vina, a rock with its head of heath ? Three aged pines bend from its lace; green is the plain at its feet ; there the flower ofihe moun- tain grows, and shakes its wiiite head in the breeze. The General being skin, the army was routed. Commerce having thus got into the legislative body, privilege must be done away, Jesus Jiad convevcd himself away, a muliitude being in that place. I being in great haste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark 4;loud3 rolled away. The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, wa» jiubject to all the frailties and inconveniences of human nature, sio excepted; (that is, sin being excepted.) ISO fiTVMOLOGV AND SYNTAX. In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourisihed the prophet Elisha. Paul the apostle sufiercd martyrdom. Come, peace of mind, delight* ful guest ! and dwdl with mc. Friends, Romans, countrymen ! lend me your ears. Soul of the jnst, companion of the dead ! Where is thy home, and whitlier art thou fled 7 Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour, There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower :— The world was sad, I ho garden was a wild, And man the hermit isighed, till woman smiled. Note. Those verba in italics, in the preceding examples, are all in the imperative mood, and second person, agreeing with thou, ye, orfou, tinderstood. House of Israel is a noun of multitude. Was routed and inti«( be done are passive verbs. Art fled is a neuter verb in a passive form. Clotfud is a perfect participle. Till is an adverbial conjunction. When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in ths foregoing exercises, you may answer the following QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. Repeat the list of interjections. — Repeat some interjective phrases. — Repeat the order of parsing an interjection. — In order to find the verb to which a noun is nom., what question do you put? — Give examples. — Is the nominative case ever placed alter the verb ? — When ? — Give exam- plea. — Does the objective case ever come before the verb ? — Give exam- ples. — Is a noun ever nominative to a verb understood^ — Give examples. —When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent ? — Give ex- amples. — Are nouns of the second person always in the nom. case inde- pendent ? — "When a pronoun is put by apposition with a noun independent, in what case is it? — When is a noun or pronoun in the nora. case abso- lute ? — Give examples. — When are nouns or nouns and pronouns put. by apposition, in the same case? — Give cxanples.— In parsing a nou. .-• pronoun in the nom. case independent, what Rule should be applied ". — In parsing the nom. case absolute, what Rule ? — What Rule in parsing nouns or pronouns in apposition ? — Do real jnlerjections belong to written lan- guage ] {Phil. Notes ) — From what are tha following words derive^' pishffy, lb, halt, farewell tcelcoine, adieu ? LECTURE XL - ) -,•.•' - OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an extensive, knowledge of nine parts of speech ; but you know but little, as yet, respecting the most important one of all ; I mean the Verb. I will, therefore, commence this lecture by giving you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses j'of verbs. Have the gcodness, however, first to turn back and read over Lecture II., and reflect well Upon what is there said respecting the verb; after which 1 will conduct you so smoothly through the mocda and tenses, and the conjugation of verb.Sj MA6nS Of V£nRS. 131 Uiat, instead ol finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep in* tricacieS) you will scarcely find an obstruction to impede your pro* gresst I. OP THE MOODS. The Mood or Mode of a verb means the manner in which its action, passion, or )IOODS OF VERBS. 133 dare things, me with me ; a multiplica- icalive mood indicative in lext in order, ive in sense ; ith the nature ictive. passion, or r expresses a , it is in the ill improve ; I will not be re, he would ire.) ding examples, ly, chide, repenty r another verb in iree of the pre - an?l the fourth, a txccpt, whether, feibs that follow It every day, his lid ride out here- t, &c., the verbs d ; as, " Though :tive and indica- in of the verb to manding, ex- )epart thou; longer ; Go exhorts; tarry ley are all in the Lily that mode of \\r\g in grammar is extended to th? two of the verb in exhorting, entreating, and per- mitting. A verb in the imperative mood is always of the second person, though never varied in its terminations, agreeing with thou, ye or you, either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in this mood by tlie vense ; recollect, however, that the nominative alway%i8 second per- son, and frequently understood ; as, " George giv^me my hat ; that is, give thou, or give you. When the nominative is expressed, it 1* generally placed after the verb ; as, " Go thou ; Depart ye ; or be- tween the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " Do ikou go ; Do ye dep&rt. (Do is the auxiliary.) . -,, • * . The Potential Mood implies possibility, liberty, or necessity, power, will, or obligation ; as, " It may rain : He may go or stay ; We must eat and drink : I can rid^ He would walk ; TJiey should learn. In the first of the«e examples, the auxiliary may implies possibili- ty ; in the second it implies liberty ; that is, he is at lit)erty to go or to stay ; iu the third, must denotes necessity ; can denotes power or ability ; would implies will or inclination ; that is, ho had a mind t» walk ; and should implies obligation. Hence you perceive, that the verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must drink, can ride, would walk, and should learn, are in the potential mood. Note L As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the Bubjuncttve when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt, contingency, supposition, &c., so a verb in the potential momi, may, in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive; as. If I could deceive him, I should ablior it ; Though he should increase in wealth, he would not be charitable." I could deceive, is in the potential ; |jf I ^ouWcfeccitc, is in the subjunctive mood. , 2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, isiised in asking .a question ; as, " May I go ? Could you understand him ? Must we die ?" PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. The changes in the terminatlona of words, in all languages, have been formed by the coaleecence of worda of appropriate meaning. This sub- ject was approached on page 49. It is again taken up for the purpose of frhowing, that the moods and tenses, as well aa the number and person, of English verbs, do not ::.olely dcpcml on inflection. The coalescing syllables whit'i form the number and person of the He- brew verb, arc Btill considered pronouns ; and, by those who have inves- tigated the Bubjcct, it is conceded, that the emme plan has been adopted in the formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, aa in the Hebrew. Some languages have carried thid pvocea? to a very great extent. Ours la re- markable for tlie small number of its inflections. But thoy who reject the passive verb, and those moode and tenses whith are formed by employing whet are called " auxiliary verbs," hecau$e they arc formed by two m- morn 134 ETYMOLOaV AND SYNTAX. I The Infinitive Mood expresses action, passion, or being, in a general and unlinnited manner, having no nonninative, consequently, neither person nor number ; as, " To speak, to walk." Infinitive means unconjined, or unlimited. This mood is called the infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nomina- tive. A verb in any other mood is limited ; that is, it must agree in number and person with its nominative ; but a verb in this mm>d has no nominative, therefore, it never changes its termination, except to form the perfect tense. Now you understand why all verba mr» een contracted 'hen contracted sic meaning, as •nsequently, an )t passive veth, •y who contend id parsing them id their dissect- fa\ accuracy of le verbs, formed lo show that this Ipractical grain* If you study tliis lecture attentively, you will pereeive, fliat w'hen I say, I write, the verb is in the indicative mood ; but when I say, if I write, or, unless I write, &c., the verb is in the subjunctive mood ; write thou, or ttyrite ye or you, the imperative ; I may writer I must torite, i could ujrite, Sic , the potential; and to tmie,- ■■!■■■ ■ n i n Ml II ii<— ^— W W II i^«^— — III! I -by the simple process of exploding the passive verb, and reducing the number of the moods to three, and of the tenses to two. It is certain, ihowever, that if we reject the names of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the names of the potential and subjunctive niooda, and of the passive verb, in writing and discoui-se, we must still employ those verbal combinations which form them ; and it is equally certain, that the proper mode of employing such combinations, is as easily taught or learned by the old theory, which names them, as by the new, which gives them no name. On philosophical principles, we might, perhaps, dispense with the future tenses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately ; but, as il- tluatrated on page 79, the combined words which form our perfect and pluperfect tenses, have an associated meaning, which is destroyed by analyzing each word separately. That arrangL-nient, therefore, which .reyects these tenses, appears to be, not only uitphilosoj)hical, but incon- sifttent and inaccurate. For the satiafaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their adop- .tion, too, a modernized philosophical theory o( the moods and tenses is ihere presented. If it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has tlie advantage of being new ; and, moreover, it sounds large, and will .make the commonality stare. iLet it be distinctly understood, that lyou tea/;h " philosophical grammar, founded on reason and coinmon sense," and you will pass for a very ilearned man, and make all the good bousf wives wonder at the rapid imarch of intellect, and the vast improvements of the age. MOOD. Verbs have three moods, the indicative, (embracing what is commonly included under the indicative, the subjttnctive, and the potential,) the imperative, and the infinitive. — For dcfinitiona, refer to the body of the work. ' TENSES. 137 or event, or event 5 precise modesty efthem." ietki finish' ictly as any fine the pre- jay projplerly nt participle ie in the ex- not be in ac- ple. Henco >d to this and of their true ectly, the pro- iiion of very id reducing the It is certain, feet, and future da, and of the >y those verbal that the proper r learned by tlie them no name, jcnse with the cly ; but, a» il- our perfect and is destroyed by lercfore, which \ical, but incon- •for their adop- la and tenses is 111 as the old one, of being new : ivionality stare, [hical grammar, pass for a very ler at the rapid lat ia commonly i potential,) the [he body of the lii The Perfect Tense denotes past time, and also con- veys -an allusion to the present ; .as, •' I have finished my letter." The verb liave finished, in this example, signifies that the action, though passed, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the present. Under this view of the subject, the term perfect may be properly ap- plied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the completion of the action, but, also, alludes to the particular period of its accomplish- ment. • ■ iv,' The Pluperfect Tense represents a past action or event that transpired before some other past time speci- fied ; as, " I had finished my letter before ray brother arrived." ,-8 k^- You observe that the verb had finished, in this example, represents one past action, and the arrival of my brother, another past action ; therefore had finished is in the pluperfect tense, because the actioD took place prior to the taking place of the other past action specified in the same sentence. TENSE OR TIME. Verbs have only two tenses, the present and the past. A verb expressing action commenced and not completed, is-in the pres- ent tense ; as, " Religion soars; it Aa« gained many victories ; it toii^to] carry its votaries to the blissful regions." When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense ; as, "This page (the Bible) God hung out of heaven, and retired." A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods, is always in the present tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. The command must necessarily be given in time present, although hsfuljilment must be future. — John, what are you doing ? Learning my task. Why do you learn it ? — Because my preceptor commanded me to do so. When did he command you ? Yesterday. — Not now, of course. That it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to be given in future time, and that the fulfilment of the command, though future, has nothing to do with the tense or time of the command itself, are truths so plain as to put to the blush the gross abaurdity of thoae who identify the time of the fulfilment with that of the command. EXERCISES IN PARSING. You may read the book which I have printed. May, an irregular active verb, signifying " to have and to excrcfiso might or strength," indie, mood, pres. tense, second pers. plur. agreeing with its jjom. you. Read, an irregular verb active, infinitive mood, present tense., with vhe sign to understood, referring to you as its agent. Have, an active verb, signifying to possess, indie, present, and having for its object, booli andsrstood after " which." Printed, a perf. participle, referring to book .tinderstood. 139 ETYMOLOGY ANfi SYNTAX. The First Future Tense denotes a future action or eventt ; as, « I will finish, ,* I shall finish my letter." The Second Future Tense represents a future action that will he fully accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event ; as " I shaill havejinished my letter when my brother arrives/* This example clearly shows you the meaning and (he proper nse of the {>econd future tense. The verb " shall have finished" implies a future action that will be completely finished, at or before the time of the other future event denoted by the phrase " when my brother arrt\g5." Note. What is sometimes called the Inceptive ivXnrQ, is express- ed thus; " I am going to write i*^ "I am abovt to write." Future time is also indicated by placing the infinitive pres- it immediately after.thelndicative present of the verb to he ; thus, * am to write ;" " Harrison is to he, or ought to he, commander in chief;" " Harrison is to.command the army. You may now read what is said respecting the moods and tenses several times over, and then you may learn to conjugate a verb. But, before you proceed to the conjugation of verbs, yo!^ will please to commit the following paragniph on the Auxiliary verbs, and, also, the signs of the moe Bwallovved^ le. 41 .J- . SWNS OP THE MOODS ANu TENSES. Ir The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conjugation. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. The Indicative Mood is known by the sense, or by its having no sign, except in asking a question ; as, " Who loves you ?'/ The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest are generally signs of the Subjunctive ; as, " If I love ; unless I lovej" &c. A verb is generally known to be in the Imperative Mood by its agreeing with thou, or ye or you understood ; as, " Love virtue, and follow her steps ;" that is, love thou, or love ye or you ; follow thou," &c. May, can, and must, might, could, would, and should, are signs of the Potential Mood ; as, " I may love ; I must love ; I should love," &c. To is the sign of the Infinitive ; as, " to love, to smile, to hate, to walk." SIGNS OF THE TENSES. The first form of the verb is the sign ol the present tense ; as, love, smile, hate, walk. Ed — the imperfect tense of regular verbs ; as, loved, smiled, hated, walked. Have- — the perfect; as, Aaue loved. . _ Had — the pluperfect ; as, had loved. Shall or will-^^the first future ; as, shrll love, or will love ; shall smile, will smile,. Shall or will have — the second future ; as, shall have loved, or will have loved. Note. There are some exceptions to these signs, which you will notice by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood. Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and advantage, as to commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and tenses before you proceed farther than to the subjunctive mood. If you do, the sup- posed Herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be trans- formed into a few hours of pleasant pastime. 138 ETYM0X.06T AND SYNTAX. The Indicative Mood has six tenses. The Subjunctive has also six tenses. The Imperative has only one tense. The Potential has four tenses. The Infinitive has two tenses. ,^ '^•v^l CONJUGATION OF VERBS. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular combina- tion and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled the active voige ; and that of a passive verb, the passive voice. Verbs are called Regular when they form their imper- fect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect par- ticiple, by adding to the present tense ed, or d only when the verb ends in e ; as, Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. I favour. I favoured. . favoured. ,. ; ^ . I love. I lovei. lovei. ;> A Regular Verb is conjugated in the following manner. To Love. — Indicative Mood; • m Present Tense. ' . . \. Plural. 1. Wo love, ■ - 2. Ye or you love, 3. They love. Singular. Pers. I love, 2. Pers. Thou lovest, 3. Pers. He, she, or it loveth ) or loves. ^ When we wish to express energy or positiveness, tlie auxiliary do should precede the verb in the present tense : thus, . -^ „. r ^ ;? ; Singular. ■ . Plural. - ., v v-i^' 1. I do love, ' ' 1. We do love, 2. Thou dost love, 2. Ye or you do love, 3. He doth or does love. 3. They do love. / ■ Imperfect Tense. ' " O- . Plural. *'.' • 1. We loved, i. ... 'Sing^tlar. 1. I loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 3. He loved. 2. Y^ o?' you loved, 3. They loved. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 141 I. a. 3. 1. 2. 3. Or by prefixing did to the present : thus, Singular. I -did love, Thou didst love, He did love. Singular. I have loved, Thou hast lo vcd, He hath or has loved - ' Singular^ 1. I had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 3. He had loved. Plural. 1. We did love, 2. Ye or vou did love, 3. They did love. Perfect Tense. Plural. 1. We have loved, 2. Ye or you have loved, 3. Thy have loved. . Pluperfect Tense. Plural. 1. We had loved, 2. Ye or you had loved, 3. Thev had loved. ■'^: 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. First Future Singular. I shall or will love, ' 1. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. He shall or will love. 3. Second Future Singular. I shall have loved, 1. Thou wilt have loved, 2. He will have loved. 3. Tense. /": u- Plural. We shall or will love. Ye or you shall or will love. They shall or wiH love. Tense. Plural. ^ We shall have loved, Ye or you will have loved, They will have loved. Note. Tenses formed without auxiliaries, are called simple tenses ; as, I love; I loved; but those formed by the help of auxiliaries, are denominated compound tenses ; as, I have loved ; I had loved, &c. This display of the verb shows you, in the clearest light, the ap- plication of the signs of the tenses, which signs ought to be perfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther. By looking again at the conjugation, you will notice, thut have, placed before the perfect participle of any verb, forms the perfect tense ; had, the plu- perfect ; shall or will, the first future, and so on. Now speak each of the verbs, loce, hate, walk, smile, rule, and con- quer, in the first person of each tense in this mood, with the pronoun /before it ; thus, indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I love ; imperf. I loved ; perf. I have loved ; and so on, through all the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conjugation of the verb in the indicative mood, you will find no difficulty in conjugating it through those that follow., ibr in the conjugation through all the moods, there is a great sio^ilarity. Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense, or elliptical future. — Conjunctive form Singular, Plural. • ', 1. If I love, 1. If we love, ; 2. If thou love, . 2, If ye or you love, 8i If .he love,, ^ 3. If the^ love, 142 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. • • Singular. "^ 1. If I lo/e, 2. If thou lovest, 3. If he loves. Look again at the conjugation in thn indicative present, and you will observe, that the form of the verb 'flbrs from this form in the subjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, does not vary its termination on account of number or person. This is called the coiijunctke form of the verb ; out sometimes the verb in the sub- junctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in the same mimner as it la in the indicative, with this exception, if, though, unless, or some other conjunction, is. pretixed ; as. Indicative form. Plural. V '■■'':■: 1. If we love, *. , 2. If ye or you love, 3. If they love. The following general rule will direct you when to use the con- junctive form of the verb, and whr-n the indicative. When a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has a. future signification, or a reference io future time, the conjunctive form should be used; as, " If thou prosper, thou shouldst be thankful ;" " Ho will maintain his principles, though he lose his estate ;" that is, If thou shall or shouldst prosper ; though he shall or should lose, &lc. But when a verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has no reference to future time, the indicauve form ought to be used ; as " Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faithless." Uy this you perceive, that when a verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future sig- nification, an auxiliary ,i* always understood before it, for which reason, in this construction, the termination of the principal verb never varies ; as, " He will not become eminent unles. he exert him- self ;' that is, unless he shall exert, or should exert himself. This tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be called ihe elliptical future. The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses of this mood, are conjugated, in every respjct, like the same tenses of the indicative, with this exception ; in thie subjunctive mood, a conjunction implying doubt, &-c., is prerixed to the verb. In the second future tense of this mood, the ycrb is CQ;ijugated thus, Second Future Tense. Singular. 1. If I shall have loved, 2. If thou shalt have loved, 3. If he shall have loved. 1. o Plural. If we shall have loved. If you shall have loved, If they shall have Icfved. Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will readily perceive the distinction between the two conjugations. Imperative jMood. . ..;.- >; Singular. Plural. 2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or you, or thou love. - do ve or you love. N'iT ,, and you rm in the does not , is called n the sub- nner as it s, or some B the cou' len a verb iication, or 5 used; as, laintain his or shouldst ■n a verb in uture time, ms what he that when a I future sig- [, for which ncipal verb e exert him- self. This deal future. first future 10 tlie same ictive mood, CQ^ijugated I loved, ■''^- 1 loved, loved. will readily ^e or you, or I love. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 143 Note. Wc cannot command, exhort, &c. either mpast or future time ; therefore a verb in this mood is always in the present tense. Potential Mood. ■ .■•?..■.. •- •. ..-■ ^'^ ' Present Tense. Singular. 1 . I may, can, or must love, 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must love, 3. He may, can, or must love. Singular. 1. I might, could, would,. or should love, 2. Thou mightsi, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love, 3. He might, could, would, or should love. Singular. 1. I may, can, or must have loved, 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have loved, 3. He may, can, or must have loved. Plural. 1 . We may, can, or must love, 2. Ye or you may, can, or must love, 3. They may, can, or must love. Imperfect Tense. - ; - Plural. 1. We might, could, would, or should love, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, or should love, 3. Thoy might, could, would, or should love. Perfect Tense. " ' ' - Plural. . • j 1. We may, can, or must have loved. 2. Ye or you may, can, or most have loved, 3. They may, can, or must have loved. Pluperfect Tense. Singular. ' 'r- 1. I might, could, would, or should have loved, 2. Thou mightiit, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved. 3. He might, could, would, or should have loved. Plural. 1. We might, could, would, or should have loved, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, or should have loved. 3. They might, could, 'ou^J, or should have loved . By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood, you will find it very easy ; thus, you will notice, that when- ever any of the auxiliaries, maij, can, or 7nust, is placed before a verb, that verb is in the potential mood, present tense ; might, could, wouldy or should, renders it in the potential mood, imperfect tense ; may, can^ or must have, the perfect tense ; and might, could, would, or sliould have, the pluperfect tense. ' ' „,._■.. Infinitive Mood. Pres. Tense. To love. Perf. Tense. To have loved. ^' 144 EtYMOLOOV And 8YNTA*. '^ Participles. Presenter imperfect, Loving. ., ' Perfect or passive, Loved. Compound, Having loved. Note. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly with the imperfect tertse ; yet the former mny, nt all times, be distinguish- ed from the latter, by the following rule ; In composition, the imperfect tenae of a verb always \\an a nominative, either expressed or implied: the perfect participle never has. For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when you shall have learned to conjugate the verb to loie, you will be able to conjugate all the regular verhs in the English language, for they are all conjugated precisely in the same manner. By pursuing the fol- lowing direction, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb. Conjugate the verb love through all the moods and tenses, in the first person singular, with the pronoun / before it, and speak the Participles : thus, Indicative mood, pres, tense, first pers. sing. I love; imperf. tense, I loved; perf. tense, I have loved: and so on, through every mood and tense. Then conjugate it in the second pers. singular, with the pronoun thou before it, through all the moods and tenses ; thus. Indie, mood, pres. tense, second pers. sing, thou lovest; imperf. tense, thou /ovec/.^/; and so on, through the whole. After that, conjugate it in the third pers. sing, with Ae before it ; and then in the first pers. plural, withu'e before it, in like manner, through all the moods and tenses. Although this mode of procedure may, at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your perseverance, induces me to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate your progress. When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may con- jugate the following verbs in the same manner ; which will enable you, hereafter, to tell the mood and tense of any verb without hesita- tion : walk, hale, smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relcUe, meif, shun,fail. yl LECTURE XIL ' ; OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Irregular verbs are those that do not form their im- perfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the present tense ; as, Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perf. or Pass. Part. I write I wrote written I begin * I began ' hegun I go . ' I went gone \ v;: -■ : Thefo Bn H. an Pres. ! Abide Am Arise Awake ^ar, to hi Bear, to ci Beat Begin Bend Bereave Beseech Bid Bind Bite Bleed ' Blow Break Breed Brincf Buill Burst Buy Cast Catch Chide Choose Cleave, to ac Cleave, to sa Cling ^ Clothe Come Cost Crow Creep Cut Dare, to venti Jare, to chall Deal Dig Do* Draw Drive Drink Dwell men > IRRtrOULAH VERBf. 145 :>! The following is a list of the irregvlat verbs. Those marked with an K. are sometimes^ conjugated regularly. 1 Pres. Tense. v Imperf. Tense, Per/, or Pass. Part. I Abide abode abode B exactly 1 Am was been itinguish- 1 Arise ' aroise arisen imperfect 1 Awake awoke, R. awaked implied : 1 Bear, to bring for dt bare born 3 Bear, to carry bore borne irhen you 1 Beat beat beaten, beat )e able to 1 Begin began begun they are 1 Bend • * bent bent g the fol- Bereave ,i bereft, R. bereft, R. jonjugate Beseech besought besought ' ^ nd tenses, Bid 1 1 bade, bid - bidden, bid >■■ ind speak Bind bound bound rs. sing. I Bite •'■ bit bitten, bit and ao on, Bleed • ' bled bled le second Blow blew -■' ■ blown the moods Break broke brokea sing, thou Breed bred bred he whole. Bring Build , ■ ' ' brought brought l* ore it; and -r; built built er, through Burst burst, R. burst, R. edure may. Buy i ■ . ■ : - ; bought bought ist you will Cast cast cast ce, induces Catch caught, R. caught, R. to facilitate Chide chid chidden, chid Choose chose chosen u may con- will enable Cleave, to adhere clave, R. cleaved Cleave, to split cleft or clove cleft, cloven lout hesita- Cling clung clung .-' , ■'• '.> shun,fail' Clothe clothed clad, R. Come '• came come ; \ •'•.!• ■■ Cost cost cost y^ Crow ■ ,. crew, R. crowed . ^'-' Creep crept crept / Cut cut cut -J Dare, to venture durst dared -• ' Dare, to challenge Regular ■^'f:.'- « . * Deal dealt, R. dealt, R. their im- Dig dug, R. dug,R. r ition of d Do did done Draw drew drawn Drive drove driven Pass. Part. Drink drank drunk, drank* Dwell dwelt, R. dwelt, R. * The men were druiik ; i. e. inebriated. The toasts were drank. I 146 ETY^fOLOGT AND SVNi-AX. Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tenss. Perf. or Pa Eat cat, ate eaten Fall fell fallen Feed fed fed Feel folt folt Fight fought fought Find found A)und Flee iltul J iled Fling ilung flung Fly Jlcnv flown Forgot forgot foryoltort FofHuke " forsook 15 forsaken Freeze froze frozen Got ^r got ;. J ffotf Gild ,> gilt,R, >. g'lt. R. Gird ^ ^? girt, R. girt, R. Give V! gu ?o given Go went gone Grave graved graven, R, Grind ? gronnd ground Grow _ grow had grown Have ' had Hniig liuug, R. hung, R. Hear heard heard Hew Sr » hew"!d : hewn, R. Hide hid hidden, hid Hit hit hit Hold ir * hold hold Hurt ,C. hurt iiurt Keep kopt kopt Knit , \}. knit, R. knit, R. >. Know -to know . / ;,' known . Lade ladod > laden Lay laid Jotd Lead led ltd Leave left toft licnd lent leat Let let . M Lie, to lie down lay Mn lioad loaded !^ laden, R. Lose lost lost : .?^ Make niudc 5 , ., made Meet mot * met Mow mowed mown, R. Pay l)aid paid Put », put put Read 3.4, road ,; read Rond raut -;-"'^"WHt„ t Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten, is still in gooJ Uflc. Pfe9. 7 Rid Rido Ring Rise Rive Rurt Saw Say See Seek Sell Send Set Shako Shnpo Shuve Sliear Shed Shine Show Shoe Shoot Shrink Shred Shut «!"? Sink Sit Slay SJeep' Slide Sling Slink :, Slit : Smite Sow Speak Speed Spend Spill Spin > , Spit , Split Spread , * Ridden 1 t San^func IRUfiGULAR VfiUBS. lit tss. pan. %»»• ' Pre». Thlssj Rid Ridfl Ring Rise Rivo Rurt Saw Say See Seek Sell Send Set Shako SHpo Shuvo Sliear Shed Shine Show Slice Shoot Shrink Shred Shut Sing Sink Sit Slay Sleep Slide Sling Slink Slit Smite Sow Speak Speed Spend ■ " Spill Spin .> Spit ; Split Spread •. 'T I fmperf. Tense. Per/, or Past. PurL rid rid rodo rode, ridden'" rung, rang rung tose risen rived riven ran '•^ ' run sawed lawn, It. • said said saw seen sought sold •ought seftt sent - . set set shook shaken shapetl shaped, shapeit shnvod ,, shaven, R. sheared • shorn shod shed shone, R< shone, R. showod shown shod shod shot , shot shrunk shrunk shred r shred shut ; shut Hung, sangf sunk, sankf sung - sunk sat Sttt slew slain slept slid slept sliddcn slung slunk ^ slung slunk >» slit, R. , ,; slit, R. h smoto smitten .' sowed down, R. .sjwke spoken sped I ' '•PG:<■■ ' >- stole ■ stolen V^^l; Stick stuck '"''^- • stuck • '-'"^ Stinff Stink ■ . ■ • ^ Btung stung stJink stunk u: Stride stode, strid stridden Strike ' ■.%_ ■•■ struck ■ • struck or stricken' String- strung ' strung . ; Strive strove striven Strow or Strew strewed ar strewci' V strown, strewed or r strewed swet, R. ^ Sweat . BWCt, R.. Swear '> swore sworn ■'^ Swell swelled , '^ ' swollen, R^ Swim .■<>;h*- swum, swamr ":' swuni Swmg '.vi ,■ swung swung '*-.;r Take t ,. Tread* trod trodden ^ ^ ■■^"^'^ Wax waxed waxen, R. ^ Wear wore • ' worn . "' Weave wove woven r Wet wet wet, R. c^^;:: Weep • wept wept i'^ ik^ Win • t won won '■ Wintf wound wound Work wrought, worked wrought, worked Wring wrung wrung Write wrote written. •. In familiar writing and discourse, tlie following, and some other verbs, are often improperly terminated hy t instead oied; as, "learnt, spelt, spilt, stopt, latcht." They should be " learned,, spelled, spilled, stopped, latched." You may now conjugate the following irregular verbs in a manner similar to the conjugation of regular verbs : arhc, begin, hind, do, go, grow, run, lend, tench, vrite. i'liuf*, to arise — Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I arise ; imperf. tense, I aroae ; perf. tense, I have arisen : and so on, tliroufrh nil the moods, and all the tenses of tiu'h mood ; and then spenk the participles : tlius, pres. arising, perf. arisen, coiup. having arisen. In the next place, conjugate the same \'cvb in the soc!)ud pers. sing, through all the nux)ds and tenses ; and •■^ then in tl that» you bind, &Ck Now re learn the parse the l of speech. «m for d£ will now] definitions Could a it expresse "we" tot] tense of th plies possil ever distanl it agrees, r gated — Ind perfect tens feet, I had each tense every verb These ex( I learn m John, do y( letter, but tl whom I gav before the i My friend sh times, if he ( If Eliza si does not impi by midsumm unless you The physicifl bless it. I ( have gone h if he had co? Young ladies diligently, w spirit of disc for one's co seek God is lence. A go Note 1. ] arc nora. nftcr VERBS— Exercises m parsing. 149 i Part" f^^^i. ir;> ken' U, 'V wed Of*' -.,N rked jme other [s, "learnt, y, syilied, la mannef lood, pies. If. tense, I 1 tenses of ling, petf. 1 the same UcB ; and then in the third person sing, and in the first person plural. Ailer that) you may proceed in the same manner with the words begiuf bindi &Ck Now read the XI. a:nd XII. lectures /owr or^rc times ovet, and learn the ordef (if parsing a verb. You will then be prepared to parse the following verbs in full : and I presume, all the other parts of speech. Whenever you parse, you must refer to the Corapendi- . iim for definitions and rules, if you cannot repeat them without, t will now parse a verb, and describe all its properties by applying the definitions and rules according to the systematic order. " We could not accomplish the business." Could accomplish is a verb, a word which signifies to do — active, it expresses action — transitive, the action passes over from the nom. " we" to the object " business" — regular, it will form its imperfect tense of the indie, mood and perf. part, in ed — potential mood, it im- plies possibility or power — imperf. tense, it denotes past time how- ever distant — first pers. plural, because the nom. " we" 19 with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule 4. A verb must agree, &c. Conju- : gated — Indie, mood, present tense, first pers. sing. I accomplish ; im- perfect tense, I accomplished ; perfect, I have accomplished ; pluper- fect, I had accomplished ; and so on. — Speak it in the person of each tense through all the moods, and conjugate in the same manner every verb you parse. . • / EXERCISES IN PARSING. These exercises contain a complete variety of Moods and Tenses. I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou learnest thy lesson badly. John, do you write a good hand ? Those ladies wrote a beautiful letter, but they did not despatch it. Have you seen the gentleman to whom I gave the book ? He has gone. They had received the news before the messenger arrived. When will those persons return ? My friend shall receive his reward. He will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow. If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies, he does not improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished his work by midsummer, he will'receive no wages. Orlando, obey my precepts, unless you wish to injure yourself. Remember what is told you. The physician may administer the medicine, but Providence only can bless it. I told him that ho might go, but he would not. He might have gone last week, had he conducted himself properly ; (that is, if he had conducted, &-c.) Boys, prepare to rtcite your le&sons. Young ladies, let me hear you repeat what you have learned. Study, diligently, whatever task may be allotted to you. To correct the spirit of discontent, let us consider how little we deserve. To die for one's country, is glorious. How can wo become wise ? To seek God is wisdom. What is true greatness ? Active benevo- lence. A good man is a great man. Note 1. Man, following great, nni\what,'\n the two Inst examples, arc nom. nfter i* ; Rule 91. To seek God, and to die for one's country, V' • 150 E'ryMOLOGY AND SYNTAX* •re members of sentences, each pitt as the n'om. case to tV respective^f Rule 24, The verb to correct ia the infinitive mood absolute : Note under Rule 23. May ^e allotted is a passive verb, agreeing with voHieh, the relative patt of whatever. Thai, the first part of whatever, is an adj. pronoun, agreeing with ta:sk ; and task is governed by study. Hear, fol- lowing let, and repeat, following h«ar, ore in the infinitive mood without the sign to, according to Rule 25. To rcci7c is governed by prepare .• ■Rule 23. Is told, is a passive verb, agre; iug with icAicA, the relative part of whatever ; ami you, following, is governed by to understood : NoT/.. 1, under Rule 32. 3. In parsing a pronoun, if the noun for which it stands is not expressed^- you must sav it represents some person or thing undeistood. v LECTURE XIII. OF THE AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE^ VKIBS, I. AUXILIARY VERBS. Before you attend to the following additional remarks on the Aux- iliary Verbs, you will do well to read again what is said respeetrng them in lecture XI. page 140. The short account there given, and their application in conjugating verbs, have already made tnem quite familiar to you ; and you have undoubtedly observed, that, without their help, we cannot conjugate any verb in any of t'le tenses, ex- cept the present and imperfect of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the present of thp imperative and intinitive. In the lormation of all the other tenses, they are brought into requisition. Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugation ; that is, they are used only in some of the moods and tense? ; and when unconnected with principal verbs, they are conjugated in Uie fol- lowing manner : . MAY. [■■-> I may, thou raayst, he may. We may, ye or you may, they may. T might, thou mightst, he might. We might, ye or you might, they might. CAN. I can, thou canst, he can. We can, ye or you can, they can. I could, thou couldst, he could. We could, ye or you could, they could. WILL. I will, thou wilt, he will. We will, yo or you will, they will. I would, 'hou wouldat, he would. We would, ye or you would, they would. Pres. Tense. \ Sing. I Plur. Imperf. Tense. S Sivg. I Plur. Pres. Tense. J Sing. I Plur. Imperf. Tense. i Sing. } Plur. Pres. Tense. , Sing. Plur. Imperf. Tense. S Sing. ) Plur. •AUXILIARY VERBS. 161 Pres. Tense. ImperC. TeiisQ. Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Pres. Tense. Imperf. Teflse. SHALL. v.--iw Sing. I shall, thou shalt, he shall. Plur. We shall, ye or you shall, they shall. Sing. I should, thou shouldst, he should. Flur. We should, ye or you should, they should. TO DO. Sing. I do, thou dcst or doest, he doth or does. Plur. We do, ye or you do, they do. Sing. I did, thou didst, he did. Plur. We did, ye or you did, they did. Participles. Pres. doing. Perf. done. .TO BE. Sing. I am, thou art, he is. Plur. We are, ye or you are, they are. Sing. I was, thou wast, he was. Plur. We were, ye or you were, they ■\yere. Participles. Pres. being. Perf. been. TO HAVE. S Sing. I have, thou hM> he hath or has. i^ Plur. We have, ye or you have, they have. S Sing. I had, thou hadst, he iiad. ^ ( Plur. We had, ye or you had, they had. n. Participles. Pres. having. Perf. had. X)o, i^, have, and iciU, are sometimes used as principal verbs ; and when employed as such, cto, oe, and have, may be conjugated, by the help of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and tenses. Do. The different tenses .o,f c/w dn the several moods, are thus formed;: Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I do; imper- fect tense, I did ; perf. I have done ; pluperfect. I had done; first future, I shall or will do; sec. fut. 1 shall have done. Subjunctive mood, pres. tense, If I do ; imperf. if I did ; and so en. Imperative mood, do thou. l*oteniial, pres. I may, can, or must do, &c. Infini- itive, present, to do ; perf. to have done. Participles, pres. doing; perf. done ; compound, having done. IiAVE. Have is in great demand. No verb can be conjugfi'iced through all the moods and tenses without ii. Have, when used as a principal verb, is doubled in some of the pa-^t tenses, and becomes »n Auxiliary to itself; thus. Indie, raood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. { have ; imp. tense, I had ; perf. 1 have had ; pluperf. 1 had had ; first fut. I shall or will have ; sec. fut. I «hall havo had. Subjunc- tive, present, if I have ; imperf. if I had ; perf. if I have had ; pluperf. if I had had ; first fut. if I shall or will have ; sec. fut. if I shall have had. Imper. raood, have thou. Potential, present, I may, can, or must have ; imp. I might, could, would, or should have ; perf. I may, can, or must have had ; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should have had. Infinitive, present, to have ; perf. to have had. Partici* plea, pres. having ; perf. had ; compound, having hsd. : i! 152 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Be. In the next place T will present to you the conjugation of the of the irregular, neuter verb, Be, which is an auxiliary whenever it is placed iefore the perfect participle of another verb ', but iu every other situation, it is a princi/ja/ verb. - . To Be. — Indicative Mcx)D. '" .1 Prcs. . . ,erf. S Tense. ^ Perf. 'Tense Plup. Tense. Sing, riiir. Sivg. riur. S Sii . I J'l Sing, ur. Sing. I am, thou art, he, she, or it is. , Wc are, ye or you are, they are. I was, thou wast, he was. W'c were, ye «r yoi; were, they were. I have been, thou liast been, he hath or has been. We have been, ye or you have been, they have been. I had been, thou hadst been, he had been. ( Plur. We had been, ye or you had been, they had been. First ( Sing. I shall or will be, thou shalt or wilt be, he shall or will he, Fut. T. I Plur. We shall or will be, you diull or will be,theyshall or will be .Second < Sing. I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been. jFut. T. ( jP/ur. Weshallhave.been,yow will have been, they will have beeij •Subjunctive Mood. .• .' If I be, if thou be, if he be. If we be, if ye or you be, if they be. If I were, if thou wert, if he were.. If we w^TC, if ye or you were, if they were. Pres. Tense. Imperf 'Tense. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. ';^:- The neuter vei'b to be, and all passive verbs, have two forms in the iimperfect tense of this mood, as well as in the present; therefore, the following rule will serve to dircet, you in the proper use of each for-Hfi. When the sentence implies doubt, snpnosition, &-c., a,ndthe neuter verb be, or the passive verb, is used with a reference to pres- ent or future time, and is either followed or preceded by another verb =in the imperfect of the potential mood, the conjunctive form of the .imperfect tense must be employed : as, " If he were here, we should rejoice together ;" " She might go, lop.re she so disposed." But when there is no reference to present or future time, and the verbis neither ^followed nor preceded by another in the potential imperfect, the indica- tiveiorm. of the imperfect tense must be used ; as, " If he wasil\, he did not make it known ;" " Whether he was absent or present, is a matter of no consequence." The general rule for usinglhe conjunctiva forn;i of the verb, js presented on page 145. See, jilso, page 135. The perfect, plupeifeet, and first future tenses of the subjunctive mood, arp conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of the indi- cative. The secjn i future is conjugated thus: Second ( Sing. If I shall have been, if thoushalt have been, ifhc shall, &c. Fut.l'. ( Pl'ir. if we shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, &,c. Imperative Mood. PrC'B. ^ Sing. Be, or bo thou, or do thou be. "-li .»«.•>'►''«' Plur. Be, or be ye or you, or do ye or you be, ' ' ; •''*!| .■'>■' 'rcB. ( ,5 Penso. I 1 tion of the lienever it It ia every e been. >een. 11 or will be, ill or will be have been. 11 have beeri « ■•"■' arms in fli0 therefore^ ise of each and the [lee to pres- nother verb brm of the we should But when •b is neither the indica' xsi[\,heA\d a matter of ictiva form J5. ctive mood, I of the indi- ic shall, &c. 1 if they, &>g. ';■,.'. 1 Hff\H\ PASSIVE VERBS. PoTENxrAL Mood. iSi 'Jf: ^i^ PreB. Tense. Imperf. < Suijp. Tense. \ Plur. Perf. i Sing. Tense. ( riur. Plupcr. S Sing Tciise f Sing. I may, can, or must be, thou mayst, canst, or mu»t'bc, be J may, can, or muat be. f Plur. Wo may, can, or must be, ye or yon may, can, or must' be, (^ tliey may, cun, or must be, I might, c»uld, would, or eheuld be, thou mightst, '&,c. ' We might, could, would, or should be, you might, &c. I may, can, or must have been, thou mayst, canst, dec. We may, can, or muat have been, you may, can, &,c. I might, could, would, or should have been, thou, &c. :. \ Flur. We mig'u, could, would, or should have. been, you, dco. Infinitive Mocd. Pres. Tens*. To be Perf. Tense. To have been. Papi-'ciples. iPres. Being. Perf. Been. Compound. Having been. Tliia verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is by far the most important verb in onr language, for it ia more frequently used than any other ; many rules of syntax dopond on constructions associated witli.it, and, without its aid, no passive verb can be conju- gated. You ought, therefore, to malte yourself perfectly famiUar »vith all its changes, before you proceed any f«rther. II. PASSIVE VERBS. ^ ^ > The cases of nouns are a fruitful theme for investigation and .dia- cussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject has frequent- ly engaged our attention ; and, now, in introducing te yotir notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both interesting aud prpfitable to present one more view of the nominative case. Every sentence, you recollect, must have one ^/wVe verb, or more than one, and one lu/minalive, either expressed or implied, for, witliout .jtbem, no sentence can exist. The nominative is the actor or subject concerning which the verb jnokes an affirmation. There ore three lundsof nominatives, active^ ^lassive, and neuter. # , The nominative to an artice verb, is «c/j'i'C,'becauseit ;)irorf«ces an action, and the nominative to a passive verb, in passive, bectttUDcit receives or endures the action expressed by the verb ; for, A Passive Ymn denotes action received or endured by the person or thing which is the uoiniaatiye ; 4is, " The bo!/ is beaten hy his fathei*." • You perceive, that the nominative boy, in this example is not represonted as the actor, but as the object of tlie action expressed by ihe verb is beaten ; tliat U, the boy receii.'s or endures the acUon per- formed by his father; therefore hoy in a passice nom'mative. And you observe, too, that tlie verb is beaten denotes the action received prcjjduretl by tho numimitivo ; therefore in t^fctteRh ^ passive VGth, 154 ETVMOLOeSY A^D SYNTAX. 1 I II If I say, John kicked the horse, John is an active nominative, becauao he performed or produced the action ; but if I say, John was kicked by the hqrse, John is a pussivo non^inative, because he received or endured the action. The nominative to a nculer verb, is neuter, because it does not pro- duce m action nox receive one ; as, John siis in the chair. John is here connected with tlie neuter verb sils, which e.\i)rcsse8 simply the atat&ol' being of its nominative, therefore John is a neuter norainar tive. I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nominatives by a few examples. I. Of Active, Nominatives ; as, " The boy beats tlie dog ; The iady sings ; The ball rolls ; The man walks." II. Of Passiv? NipMiNATiVEs ; as, "The ioy is beaten; Tho lady is loved ; The ball i» rplled ; The tnan was killed." III. Of Neuter Nominatives ; as, " The boy re^nains idle ; The lady is beautiful; The hall Men on the ground; Tlie »ian lives ijv town." You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs. Passive Verbs are called regular when they end in ed; »s, was loved; was conquered. r ■ All Passive Verbs are formed by addieg the perfect participle of an active-transitive verb, to the neuter verb to be. -■-'■- ' ■■'" If yo^ place a perfect partic.ij)le of an active-transitive, verb after this neuter verb be, in any mood or tense, you , will have a passive verb in Uie same mood and tense that the verb ^ woul^ J)e ,in ,if the participle were not used; as, I am slighted; I yvaa slmJui^j;; He will be slighted; If I be sligUed; I may, can, pr jnust be s%Avill be able to conjugate any passive vert) in the English language. The regular passive ver^.to be loved, .which is formed by adding tlie perfect participle loved to the neuter verb to be, is conjugf^t^d ,iu the foUow;ing manner.; To Be Loved. — ^Inimcat^ve Mooo. .. .,,^ ,, fi .,, ^ I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved. We are loved, ye or you are loved, they arc loved. I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved. -^ - We were loved, ye or you were joved, they yrere lovci!^. I have been loved, t^ou .hast -been loved, he has been Pres. { $ing. Tense. \ Plur. Imperf \ SUng. Tense. ,( Plur. (Sing. Perf. J loved. Tense. J Flttr. We have been i ,t)ccn loved. loved, you have been loved, they havf^ Plup. Tense. First Future. Second { , Future. { . Pres Tense Imperf. Tense. This .1: 1: Pres. Tense .1^ Pres. Tense. Imperf. J Tense. ] L rS Pcrf. Tense. ' I S Pluper. Tense. 1 I Pres. Tei Pre Note. ' pa88U)e voii Now con .the first pel Passive vkrbs. 155 xninativ^, John was e received )8 not pro- John is simply the ir nominal natives lny dog ; The I Tho lady idle ; The m lives i^ fos. id in edf ) perfect Iter verb (Verb aAer e a passive )e ,iu if the jhi^)l He '-" styghted^ the <;ca)- tny passive rSing. by adding ijug^tfsdin r. )vcd. 'ere love;^. le has been I, they havf? r Sing. Pres. Tense Sing. Plur. Imperf. ^ Sing. Tense. | PZur. Pres. Tense Pros. Tense Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. I had Deen' loved, thou hndst been Iov«d, he had been Plup. J loved. Tense. } Plur. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, loved. I shall or will bo loved, thou shalt or wilt be loved, he First J shall or will be loved. Future. J Plur. Wc shall or will be loved, you shall or will be loved, they (. shall or will be loved. Second { Sing. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he, &c- Future. \ Plur. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, dec. ' ' SuBJUxcTivE Mood. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved. If we be loved, if ye or you be loved, if they be loved. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved. If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved. This mood has six tenses : — See conjugation of the verb to be. Impehative Mood. Be thou loved, or do thou be loved. . , .'. Be ye or you loved, or do ye be loved. ' ' ^ ,' PoTJvNTiAi. Mood. ; " i ' V I may, can, or must be loved, thou mayst, canst, or must be loved, &c. We may, can, or must be loved, you may, can, or must be loved, &.c. I might, could, would, or should beloved, thou mightst &c. VYe might, could, would, or should be loved, ye or you might, could, would, or should be loved, &.c. I may, can, or mu.st have been loved, thou mayst, canst, . or must have been loved, «fec. We may, can, or must have been loved, you may, can, or must have been loved, &c. I might, could, would, or should have been loved, thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been loved, &-C. Plur. We might, oould, would, or should have been loved, you might, jould, would, or should have been loved* ^- they, &.C. Infinitive Mood. To be loved. Peff. Tense. To have been loved. Pauticiples. Being loved. Perfect or Passive. Loved. ^X , Compound. Having been loved. Note. This conjugation of the passive verb to be loved, is called the passive vQice of ihe regular active-transitive verbfo love. Now conjugate, the following passive verbs ; that is, speak them in .the first pers. sing, and plur. of each tense, through all the moods ; fSing. Imperf. J Tense. | Plur. (Sing. Perf. Tense Pluper Tense. Plur. Sing. 1 Pres. Tense. Present. r: >A 156 rtvmologv and svstax. and speak the participles ; " to bo loved, to be rejected, to bo slighted, to be conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to be sought, to bo taken." Note 1. VVlira Uie ijt^rfccrt participle of an intraimiiv,; verbis joined to the neuter verb f.(t he, the coni!)in?uioii is not a paspive verb, but a n>'irter Vtrb in a pasNivc form ; ns, " Iht i.f gnna ; The birds rtrr^^JCM ; The boy is groion; My fVictuI is arrived." The following mode of constmction is not to be preferred : •' Ho has gone ; The birdd haoe tlown ; The boy has grown ; My friend /ifls arrived." 3. Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present participle to the auxiliary verb to he, through all its variations ; as, instead of, I teach, thou teacheat, he teaches, &c., we may say, I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching, &.(!. ; and, instead of, I tauglit, &c., I was teaching, &c. This mode of conjugation expresses the continuation of an action or state of being ; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and contributes to the harmony and precision of langu.ige. When the present participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb to be, the two words united, are, by some grammarians, denominated an active verb, either transitive or intransitive, as the case may be ; as, " I am writing a letter ; He is walking ; md when the present participle of a neuter verb is thus employed, they term tiie combinations a neuter verb ; as, " I am sitting ; He is standing." Others, in constructions like these, parse each word sepiirately. Either mode may be adopted. "■ III. DEFECTIVE VERBS. Defective Verbs are those which are used only in some of the moods and tenses. , The principal of them are these. Pres. Tense. Iniperf. Tense Perfect or Passive Participle is wanting. May, * might. Can, • could. " ' i' Will, would. .. '.' Shall should. . , Must ' must. ■ Ought, ought. quoth. Note. Must and ought are not varied. Ought and quoth are neve>- used as auxiliaries. Ought is always followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, which verb determines its sense. Ought is in the present tense when the infinitive following it is in the present ; as, " He ought to do it;" and ought is in the imperfect tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive ; as, " He ought to have done it." Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, you may read over the last thrt;e lectures carefully and attentively ; and as soor as you become acquainted with all that has been presented, you will understand nearly all the principles and regular construc- tions of our language. In parsing a verb, or any other part of speech, be careful to pursue the systematic order, and to conjugate every verb until you become familiar with all tlie moods and tenses. Shnuli passive, lormod b regular, tion, Slc the other because verb mm ptinishcd . punished und sped Columi «mbus. tlis prece I'oen bull tliat man, spected, y he left tl He may !i friend ou^ je to have All the mmy of before yoti over a few 1*1 ease to riilo and the rejipec by paying iciearly to ( notes. As soo; iom, so th parsing ; you parst following O Mercy i ular numb Komiiialu Is is an person, sir 4. The I VBRBS — PARSING. 157 ^* He slwald have been pumslied before ke committed that atrocious deed." Should have been punished is a verb, a word that siguities to do — passive, it deii)tos action received or endured by the num. — it is Jormod by adding the perf. part, jmnished to the neuter verb to be — regular, the per?. j)art. cads in ei— potential mood, it implies obliga- tion, &c. — plupcri'oct' tcnae, it denolcs a past act which was prior to the other past time specified by " committed" — tliird pera. sing. num. because the nom, " he" is with which it agrees : Rule 4. The verb must agree, &.c. — Gonjngiitcd, Indie, mood, pres. tense, ha is punished ; imperf. Lonse, lie was punished ; perf. tense, he has been punished; and so on. Conjugateitthroughall the raoodit and tenses, and speak the participles. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Columbus di«covered America. America was discovered by Col- umbus. The pr«ceptor is writing a letter. The letter is written by the preceptor. The work can be done. Tlie house would have been built ere this, had he fulfilled hi« promise. If I be be>:ten by llmt man, he will be punished. Young man, if you wich to be re- spected, you must be more assiduous. Being ridiculed and despised, he left the institution. 'He is reading Homer. They are talking. He may he respected, if he become more ingenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honoured for his benevolent deeds. Thid ought ^e to have done. ^ ' ADDITIOxXAL EXERCISES IN PiRSING. All the rao?t important principles of the science, together with niiuy of the i-ules, have now been presented and illustrated. But before you proceed to analyze tho following exercises, you may turn over a few pages, and you will lind all the rules presented in a body. IMease to examine thera critically, and parse the examples under each rule and note. The examples, you will notice, are given to illustrate tho rejipoctivc rules and notes under which they are placed ; hence, by paying particular attention to them, you will be enabled fully and iclcarly to comprehend the lusaning and application of all the jrulcs and notes. As soon aa you become familiarly acquainted with all the dcjin'd- ions, so that you can apply th3m with facility, you may omit them in parsing ; but you must uhviiys apply the rules of Syntax. When you parse without applying the definitions, you may proceed in the following manner : " I\Iercy is the true badge of nobility." Msrcy is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, sing- ular number, and in the noiuinative case to "is :" Rule 3. The Homhiaiive case governs the verb. /-J is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person, .singular number, agreeing with " mercy," according to Rule 4. The verb must agree, 6ic. -. . >- . ,.- • ; i 158 ETYM^LfKiY AND SYNTAX. The. is a definite article, Wonginj* to " badge" in fho singular number : Rule 2. The dejinite article the, &-c. 7Vw is nn adjective in the po«it»vo degree, and belongs to the noun " badge :" Rulk 18. Adjectives beltmir, &.c. liadgp. is a noun coratnon, neuter gender, third person, singtilar number, and in tiie nominative case after "is,", and put by apposition witli *' mercy," according to Rule 21, The verb to be may have Ike same case ajicr it as before it. Q/" is a preposition, connecting «* badge" and " nobility," and slewing the relation between them. Nobility is a uoun of multitude, mas. and fom. gender, third pera. King, and in the obj. cnso, and governed by " of:" KuLi!^ 3J. Prcr positions govern the obj. case. EXERCISES IN PARSING. .. . , ,- • Loarn to unlearn vvliat you have learned amiss. What I forfeit for myself is a trifle ; that my indiscretions should reach my posterity, wounds me to the heart. Lfidy Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild airjibition of the duke of NorthumbeHaud. • King Micipsa charged, his sons to consider the senate and people ©f Rome &s proprietors of tlie kingdom of Nuuiidia. Ilazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts ; and fronj what is left on record of his actions, he plainly appears to have proved, wiiat the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of violence, cruelty and blood. » ' Heaven hides from briitcs what men, from men >vbat spirits know. Ho that formed the car, can he not hear? . . _ , ile that hath ears to hour, let him hear. Note 1. Learn, in tlu' first of the prec;;Jiiig e?:aniples, is a transitive . verb, because ihc nclion p;is.-i^e(2 0"f, the eoustrujlions in ly b:.- eonsiJored anomalous. ►■• \ ANOMALIES — PAUSING-. 161 will cease ing ;" " 0/ s ;" as WB vns unwell centuries, loinaly, aH :dtioy3 the in a iivino; lu^e many quently, be iy some, a id for, and J'ag to the anomnlouH e it, which cnce only, inke a rulo e to be the ying rules nd 8th cx- nble, have^ asligUt." Let high- be he tliat soul, turn to receive jty tlocp.'' vv(>ro ox- ! c'llcctcd I no nomi- 5t, second, y di'penda lb, in 8ucli itiveid not nomalous. Instead of saying, " Let it ^to] be enacted ;" or, " It is or shall be enacted ;" " Let him [to] be blessed ;" or, " He shall be blessed ;" Let ua turn to survey," &,c. ; the verba, be enacted, be blessed, turn, &p., ac- cording to an idiom of our liiiigunge, or the poet's license, are used in the imperative, agreeing with a nuiuinalive of the lirst or third person. The phrases, mcthinks nuil inethought, arc anomalies, in which the objective pronoun 7ne, in the first person, ia useil in place of a nominative, arid takes a verb after it in the third peis?on. lliin was anciently used in the same manner ; as, " him thute, him thought." There was a period when these constructions were not anomalies in our language. Former- ly, what wg call the objective cases of our pronouns, were employed in the same manner as our present nominatives are. Ago is a contraction of agonc, the past part, of to go. Before this participle was contracted to an adverb, the noun years preceding it, was in the nominative caee absolute ; but now the construction amounts to an anomaly. The express- ions "generally speaking," and " considering their means,* under num- ber 4, are idiomatical and anoraolous, the subjects to the participles not being specified. According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and prepositions require the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them,; and this requisition is all that is meant by government, when we say, that these parts of speech govern the objective case. See jjages 52, 57, and 94. The same principle applies to the interjection. Interjections require the objective case of a pruioun of the first person after them ; but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person ; as," Ah me! 0\i thou ! O my country J" To s.iy, then, that interjections rejuir* particular cases after them, is synonymous with saying, that they govern those cases ; and this office of the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs in the Latin, and many other languages. In the examples under number 5, the firsat me is in the objective after " ah," and the second me after ah understood ; thus, " Ah miserable me !" oc- cording to Note 2, under Rule 5. — Happiness, under number 6, is noni. independent ; Rule 5, or in the nom. after O, according to this Note. The principle contained in the note, proves that every noun of the second person is in the nominative case ; for, as the pronoun of the second per- son, in such a situation, is always nominative, which is shown by its form, it logically follows that the no^, under such circumstances, although it has no form to show its catc, must necessarily be in the same case as the pronoun. "Good, pleasure, ease, content, ///«/," the antecedent part of "whatever," and which, the relative part, arc noni. after ar< understood ; Rule 21, and name in nom. to be understood. The second line maybe rendered thus ; Whether thou art good, or whether thou art pleasure, &,c., or be thy name that [thing] which [ever thing] it may be : putting be in the imperative, agreeing with name in the third person. Something is nominative after art uaderstood. EXAMPLES. 1. "All wore well but thu si ranger.''' "I saw nobody ftwMhe stranger." "All had returnoil but he." "None ^»Mlio imie de- serve the fair." " Tlio thing they cun't but jiurpose, they postpone." " This life, at best, is but a drcani." " Itattbrds but a scanty mea- sure of enjoyment." " If he hut touch the hill.s, they will smoke." *' AJan is but&. reed, floating on the current of time." 162 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 2. "Notwithstanding his poverty, hc*scontcnt." 3. *' Open your liiind wide.'' " The apples boil soft.'' « The purest clay is that which burns ichUe." " Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring." 4. " What though the swelling surge thou see ?" &c. " What if the foot, ordaiu'd the dust to tread ?" &c. Remarks. — Accordinfr to ihc principle of nnalypis assumed by many of our most critical philologists, but is always a disjunctive conjunction ; and agreenbly to thft same authorities, to construe it, in any cage, as a preposition, would lead to error. See false Syntax under Rule .35. They ipaintain, that its legitimate and undeviating oflice.is, to join on.a mem- ber of a sentence which expresses opposition of meaning, and thereby forms an exception to, or takes from tiie universality of, the proposition contained in the preceding member of the sentence. That it sustains its true character as a conjunction in all the examples under number 1, will be shown by the following resolution of them. — " All were well but the stranger [was not well."] " I saw nobody but [/ saw] the stranger." " None deserve the fair but the brave [deserve the fair."] " They post- pone the thing which [they ought to do, and do not,] but which [thing] they cannot avoid purposing to do." " This life, at best,[i» not a reality,] but it is a dreaiTi. It [affords not unbounded fruition] but it affQida a. scanty measure of enjoyment." " If he touch the hills, but exert no greater povicr upon them, they will smoke ;" — " If he exert no greater power upon the hills, but [he-out this fact] if he touch thein, they will smoke." " Man is not a stable being, but he is a reed, floating on the current of time." This method of analysing sentences, however, if I mistake not, is too much on the plan o/' our pretended philosophical writers, who, in their rage for ancient constructions and combinations, often overlook the modern associated meaning and application of this word. It appears to me to be more coasistent with the modern use of the word, to consider it an adverb in constructions like the following: " If.Ae Jiut (only merely) touch the hills, ihty will smoke." Except and near, in examples like the following, are generally constru- ed as prepositions: "AH went except him;" "She stands near ' This teach me more than hell to shua> , ;," ;V, \ . v • That more than heav'n pursue. •' . • v V Transposed. - . \-. .- O God, teach thou me to pursue that (the thing) which conscience dictates ta be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven ; and teach thou me to shun this (i}ie thing) which conscience warns me not to do, more cautiously than would I shun hell. ^ .:■', s • : .,j. Trials of Virtue. — IUerhick. • ■ .--^ • * . For see, ah ! see, while yet. her ways With doubtful step I tread, A hostile world lis terrors raise. Its snares delusive spread. -^-'y. '• O how shall I, with heart prepared, y-^'\- t- Thq •. '" »' Transposed. ' ". ^ * ' ' '''•'•' For see thoii, ah ! see thou a hostile world io raise its terrors, and ■see thou a iioislile world to spread its delusive snares, while I yet tread her (virtuf'i<) ways with doubtful steps. O how shall I learn to meet those terrors with a prepared heart ? llow shall I learn to guard my unexperienced 'foot from thethousund snares of the world ? ;■ A 1 A 'I A The d morn, (u soon app( widening Away froj Ei Nature' with rich( doign to u Note. part is goV ed. To 8 mood, gov, in the fifth in the form pron. and ii to " man ;" sentence it transposed W An Where the Diamo liOr Af • Lorenzo in him wh( POETRY TRANSPOSED — PARSING. 165 The Morning in Summer. — Thompsok. > Short is the doubtful empire of the nighty "^^ .'^i-*^ And soon, observant of approaching day, r The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews, . •-. . At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east. Till far o'er etlier spreads the wid'ning glow, And from before the lustre of her face Wiiite break the clouds away. <. • '•:'^ Transi'Osed. The doubtful empire of the night is short ; and the meek-eyed morn, (ivliich is the) mother of dews, observant of approaching day, soon appears, gleaming I'aintly, at first, in the dappled east, *''' the widening glow spreads far over ether, and the white clouds break AV/uy from before the lustre of her face. - : Nature Bountiful.— Akenside. . ' '.; :; ■ Nature's care, to all her children just, *- With richest treasures, and an ample slate, ,:i. Endows at large whatever happy man Will deign to use them. Transposbd. Nature's care, which is 'ist to all her children, largely endowa, •with richest treasures and wxi ample state, that happy man who will iloign to use them. Note. What, in the second example, is a comp. rel. The ontecedent part is gov. by teach understood ; and the relative part by _ Lorenzo, repress thou pride ; nor hope thou tofi::d a friend, onLy ia him who h{is already fpyrid a irierid in thee, ... . „ , „;, i 169 ^ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. !' True Greatness. — Pope. Who noble ends by noble means obtains, Qr, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, liiice good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed Like Socrates, that man is great indeed. Transposed. That man is great indeed, let him to reign like unto good Aurelius, or let him to bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble ends by noble means; or that man is great indeed, who, failing to obtain noble .ipnds by noble means, smiles in exile or in chains. ^ Invocation.-^Pollok. ' Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom All things seem as they are, inspire my song ; j^y eye unscale: me what .is substance teach ; And shadow what, while I of things to come. As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase .Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant. Transposed. Eternal Spirt! God of truth! to whom all things seem to be as they really are, inspire thou lAy song ; and unscale thou my eyes : teach thou to me the thing which is substance ; and teach thou to me ;the thing which is shadow, while I sing of things which are to come, ;as one sings of things which are past rehearsing. Grant thou to me ^;bpught aad pl^raseology which shall severely sU't out the whole idea. The Voyage of Life. ..v r ^ow few, favoured by ev'ry element, ^ith swelling sails make good the proi^fiised port, ^^ith all their wishes freighted ! Yet ev'en these, 7,. ' . , «^^"V Freighted with all their wishes, soon complain. :% Free from mi (fortune, not from nature free. They still are men ; and when is man secure ? ^, As fjatal time, as storm< The rush of years !Beats down their strength ; their numberless escapes In ruin end : and, now, their proud success, But plants new terrors on the victor's brow. What pain, to guit the world just made their own ! Their nests so deeply downed and built so high ! Too low they build, who build beneath the stars. Transposed. ^9yf few persons, favoured by every element, safely make the promised port with swelling sails, and with all their wishes freighted ! Vet even these few persons who do safely make the promised port -jyith lall their wishes freighted, soon complain. Though they are free from misfortunes, yet, (though and ijet, corresponding conjunc- lions, form only one connexion) they are not free from the crtirse of ^lure, for they still are men ; and when is man secure ? Time is jj» ffit^l to him, as a storm is to the mariner.-— The rush of years .# POETRY TRANSPOSED— PARSING. 161 Aurelius, e ends by Lain noble m to be as my eyes : ,hou to me •e to come, thou to me vhole idea. I make the jfreighted ! |mised port they are . conjunc- ccrtirse of Time is of years beats down their strength ; (that ts, the strength of these few ;) and their numberless escapes ends in ruin : and then their proud succesa only plants new terrors on the victor's brow. What pain it is to them to quit the world, just as they have made it to be their own world ; when their nests are built so high, and when they are downed so deeply : — They who build beneath the stars, build too low for their own safety. ^ s.r.' Reflections on a Skull. — Lord BykonI "/ ' . - - Remove yon skull from out the scattered heaps. . ~ * Is. that a temple, where a God may dwell ? ' ' Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered Cfel? ! " Look on its broken arch, its mined wall, Its chambers desolate, and portals foul : Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall, i The dome of thought, the palace of the soul. Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole,) The gay recess of wisdom and of wit, ' . And passion's host, that never brooked control. Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ, . ,^ , > People this lonely toWer, this tenement refit? ^, _; Transposed. Remove thou yonder skull out from the scattered heaps. Is that " ft temple, where a God may dwell ? Why, even the worm at last disdains her shattered cell ! Look thou on its broken ai'cb, and look thou on its ruined wall, and on its desolate chambers, and on its foul portals : — yes, this skull was once ambition's airy hall ; (it teas') the dome of thought, the palace of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, ayeless hole, the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, which never brooked ccmtrol. Can all the works which saints, or sages, or sophists have ever written, repeoj^e this lonely tower, or can they refit this tenement ? ^ -■ ■ For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from the English Reader, or any other grammatical work. I ha^e already hinted, that parsing in poetry, as it brings more immediately into re- quisition the reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessa- rily tend more rapidly to facilitate your progress : therefore it is advi- sable that your future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis of poetry. Previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you ought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just presented; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose. Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in falae syntax, you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures, unless you have the subject matter already st !•. w ,;.ill o^Ter a lew more remarks, which will doubtless be use •■. . i,:« strati ng some of the various " methods in which one word ? m'-'v:;; from another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn li anr' r-ad again what is advan- ced on this subject on page 27, and in the j . . '.osophical Notes. 1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs. - 3. Adjectives are derived from nourts ' 4. Nouns are derived ^rom adjectives. - " 6. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, front "to love," comes " lover ;" from " to visit, visiter ;" from " to survive, survivor," &c. In the following instances, and many others, it is difficult to deter- mine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from the verb, viz. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate; fear, to lear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to act," &c. 2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs ; as, from the noun salt, comes " to salt ;" from the adjective warm, " to warm ;" and from the adverb forward " to forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; as, from " grass, to graze ;" sometimes by adding en ; as, from "length, to lengthen;" especially to adj.ectiwoa; as, from " short, to shorten ; bright, to brighten." 3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner : ad- jectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y ; as, from " Health, healthy; wealth, wealthy; might, mighty " &c. • Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are derived from nouns by adding en ; as, from " Oak, oaken } wood, wooden ; wool, woollen," &c. • Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by adding fvl ; as, from " Joy, joyful ; sin, sinful ; fruit, fruitful," &c. Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of dimmution, are derived from nouns by adding some; as, from " Light, lightsome , trouble, troublesome ; toil, toilsome," &.c. Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding less ; CiS, from " Worth, worthless ;"' from " care, careless ; jo;, , joyless," &c. ■■ Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding ly ; as, from " Man, manly; earth, earthly ; court, courtly," &.c. Soma afi ]*y adding ) imports dir i- C' somen or tendency Some ac termination answerable 4. Nouns termination times by adc letters ; as, • 6. Advert changing le fron* which from « slow, There are that it wouli them. The derivatives f only can be ^ Some nou] tions hood or Nouns enc q.ualities; as, Nouns end state,. OP cone Some nouns i Imrdship," &,e Nouns whic ery, prudery," as, « Brave, b Nouns endir or cdndition ; i &c. Nouns whic " Physician, m generally from ^>i, " Command Some nouns and denote cJiar Some nouns They are forme find tlie like ; a< h'll, hillock ; CO fiiERlVATION. ;-'»&?. « . i^ U9 ,iU Etymo- impor' nentary 3, it has emarks, various " ["ore you a advan- DTES. nes from ,"" comes er," &c. it to deter- loun from ; sleep, to imes from n adjective forward." softening dding en ; ; as, from nrier: ad- ling y ; as, &LC. I made, are |eu', wood, by adding Inution, are ll.ightsome r lading less; joyless,' ladding ly »" Some adjectivefl are derived from otlier adjectives, or fVom noun* by adding i$h to them ; which termination when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality ; as, " White, whitish ;'* i. Of somewhat white. When addef' to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency to a character ; as, " Child, childish ; thief, thievish." Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the termination able ; and those adjectives signify capacity ; as, "Answer, answerable; to change, changeable." 4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the termination ness ; as, " White, whiteness; swift, swiftness;" some- times by addimr th or /, and making a small change in some of the letters; as, " Long, length ; high, height." . 6. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote t}\e same quality as the adjectives fron* which they are derived; as, from " base," comes "basely;" from " slow, slowly ;" from " able, ably." There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to enumerate them. The primitive words of every language are very few ; the derivatives form much the greater number. A few more instancs only can be given herd. fcijome nouns are derived from other nouns, by addiug the termina' tions hood or head, ship, cry, wic, ric, dom, ran, merit, and age. Nouns ending in hood or head, are such as signify character or qualities; as, "Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &.c. N'Ouns ending in ship, are those that signify office, employment^ state,- or condition ; as, " Lordship, stewardship, partnership," &c. Some nouns ending in ship are derived from adjectives ; as, " Hard, hardship," &g.. Nouns which end in ery, signify action or habit ; as, " Slavery, fool* ery, prudery," &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives ; as, " Brave, bravery," &,c. Nouns ending in wic, rie, and dom,- denote dominion, jurisdiction, or C(5ndil;ion ; as, " Bailiwic, bishopric, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c. Nouns which end in ian, are those that signify profession '; as, " Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in merit and age, com e generally from the French, and commonly signify the act or habit ; as, " Commandment," " usage." Some nouns ending in nrd, are derived from verbs or adjectives^ and denote character or habit ; as, " Drunk, drunkard ; dote, dotard.'' Some nouns have the form of diminutives ; but these are not many. They are formed by adding to the terminiuions kin., ling, ing, ock, el, t»nd "ihe like ; as, " Lamb, lambkin ; goose, gosling ; duck, duckling, hill, hillock ; cock, coclcercl," &c. ..<_^-. ,i ,....,- >—»--.-. . ■1^ 4^ lYd ETYAtdLOGrYAND SYNTAX. t \ ,>hi. OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXED. I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaininjsf^il list of Latin and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in English as prefixes. By carefully studying their signification, you will be better qualified to understand the meaning of those words into the composition of which they onter, and of which they form' a notarial part. I. LATIN PREFIXES. A, aft, tf&s, — signify from or away; ae, a-vert, tO tnra {rom ; ah-y'ectt to throw away ; abs-traci, to draw away. Ad — to or at ; as, ad-here, to stick to ; ad-mire, to wonder at. ' Ante — means before ; as, ante-cedent, going before. Circum — signifies round, about ; as, circum-Jiavigate,^ sail round. CoWi com, CO, cot — together ; as, con-join, ta join together ; com- press ^ to press together ; co-operate, to work together , col-lapse, to fall together. Contra — against ; as, cont'rd-dict, to speak against. De — front, down ; as, de-duct, to take from ; descend^ to go down. Di, dis — ^asunder, away ; as, di-lacerate, to tear asunder ; dis-miss^ to send away^ E, ef, ex — out ; as, e-ject, to throw out j ef-flux, to flow out ; ex- clude, to shut out. Extra — ^beyond ; as, extra-ordinary, beyond what is ordinary. In, int, it, ir — (in Gothic, inna, a cave or cell ;) as, in-fuse, to pour in. These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns, commonly reverse their meaning ; as, in-sufficient, im-polite, il-legi- tiniate, ir-reverence, ir-resolute. ' Inter — between ; as, inter-pose, to put between. Intro — ^within, into ; as, intro-vert, to turn witliin ; intro-duce, to lean into. Ob, op — denote opposition j as, object, to bring against ; op-pugn, to oppose. P^r — through, by j as, per-ambulate, to walk through ; per-haps, by haps. Post — after ; asy post-script, written after ; post-fix, placed after. Prcc, pre — before ; as, pre-fix, to fix before. Pro — ^for, forth, forward ; as, pro-noun, for a noun ; protend, to stretch forth ; pro-ject, to shoot forward. Procter — past, beyond ; as, preter-perfect, pastperfect ; pr&^r-naiU' raZ, beyond the course of nature. Re — again or back ; as, re-peruse, to peruse again j re-trace, to trace bacK. il^^o— backwards; as, re^ro-spec/iuc, looking backwards, Ss — aside, apart; as, se-rfucc, to draw aside. *«A— I Subter- Super- fo overlooj Trans— to carry o^ A — sign Anipht— natures. Anti — Hf Dia-^th Ill/per — 1 Hypo — u one disseml Meta — de didrtge the i Para — ci ceived opinio Peri—Toi Syn, syl, a meeting oi is taken toge ,fx;:;. » PREFIXES. m n]^ Ik list of in English au will be ds into the a nteterial >m V ^ -^-Zy^^ nlro-duce, to st; op-pvffnt h ; per-haps, laced after. J pro4end, to ; pr^r-natu- ; re-trace, to xds, ^ ' 1 u . 1 . i lit-.., n M ^'>,^i RECAPITULATION OF THE EULES OF SYNTAX, With Additional Exercises in False Syntax. The third part of Grammar is Syntax, vvliich treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their proper arrangement in a sentence. Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and Govern- ment. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, person, number, or case. For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53. For the de^nition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words ard members, see pages 119, 124, 128, agid 167. The principal parts of a simple sentence are the nom- inative or subject, the verb or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation, and the object, or thing affected by the action of the verb ; as, " A wise man governs his, passions." In this sentence, man is the subject ; governs the attribute ; and passions the object. A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. ' ' Ellipsis is the omission of some word or wcrds, in order to avoid disagreeable or unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideas concisely, and with strength and elegance. In this recapitnlation 6f the rules, Syntax is presented in a con- densed form, many of the essential Notes being omitted. This is a necessary consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know, are blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this work, you must look over the whole. You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercise* in false Syntax ; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the er- i;grs without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, yon she tions »re going pa The number eagle, a Thee ^«r or / ihe hats. Note 1 by the use a little rev haved with mer, I rath I say, «T mean to ] " There w( most of th( 2. The each; as. that is, ♦ eve 3. When qualities of article shoi same thing and a white black and w The no thou learnc The vei and persor singest." Note i. e RULES OP SYNTAX. Hi -9 treats of of their Govern- has with see pages jf its words the nom- ATord that ffected by wems his, ; governs together, Imetimes a wcrds, in 'petitions, strength Ited in a con- . This is a Etymology |e a complete »r the whole, lai exercises kct all the er- [se examples, yon shonid be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constrao- tions ire erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the fore* going pages. ;, RULE. I. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, individually or coliectively ; " as, A star, an eagle, a score, a thousand." RULE II. The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singU' lar or plural number ; as, " The star, the stars ; the hat, the hats.' ' Note 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by the use or omission of the article a. If I say, " He behaved with a little reverence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, " He be- haved with little reverence," my meaning is negative. By the for- mer, I rather praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. When * I say, " There were few men with him," I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable ; whereas, when I say, " There were a few men withliim," 1 evidently intend to make the most of them. 2. The indefinite arjticle sometimes has the meaning of every or each ; as, " They cost five shillings a dozen ;" that is, ' every dozen.' " A man he was to all the country dear, " And passing rich with forty pounds a year !" ,? / that is, ' every year.' 3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various qualities of things individually different, though alike in name, the article should be repeated ; but when the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. " A black and a white calf," signifies, A black calf, and a white calf; but " A black and white calf," describes the two colours of one calf. ' • -V, * RULE III. ^ • . . VI , The nominative case governs the verb ; as, " / learn« zAoM learnest, Ae learns, iAez/ learn.' . RULE IV. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person ; as " The bird sings, the birds sing, thou singest" Note 1. Every verb when it is not in the infinitive mood, n;upt 174 RULES OF SYNTAX* have a nominative, expressed or implied ; as, " Awake, arise j" that is, Awake ye ; arise ye. 2. When a verb comes between tw'o nouns, either of which may be considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with that which is more naturally its subject ; as, " The wages of sin is death ; His meat was locusts and wild honey ;" " His pavilion i«t« dark. t^'a/er5 and thick c/owc?s." EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. Frequent commission of sin harden men in U. Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found. The sincere is always esteemed. Not one of them are happy. - \ WIi;.L avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably t9 them / Disappointments sinks the heart of maii ; but the renewal of hope give consolation. The variety of the productionsof genius, like that of the operations of nature, are vithout limit. A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to re- lieve him. In p' ■•ty and virtue consist the happiness of man. O thou, my voice inspire, Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips .with fire. 5 Note 1. Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, And never, never be to heaven resigned ? He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business. Note 2. The crown of virtue is peace and honour. I ^-3 chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy. ■ RULE V. When an address is made, the noun or pronoun ad- dressed is put in the nominative case independent ; as, " Plato, thou reasonest well ;" " Do, Trim, said my uncle Toby." Note 1. a noun is independent when it has no verb to agree with it. 2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the ^rs< person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or ihird person ; as, " Ah ! me ; Oh ! thou ; O I rir^itc." RULE VI. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being nomii virtue NoTI pendeni «Towl Orwc Allth Note.- fiignify t Virtue stituted 2 Two ing the case; a moxi, th( verbs." Note. *' The she «'flw) a m\ We ou£ The pr^ native cas and put b\ tive case, i the followl I saw j| They s J It was , Adams \ were both I dependenci Augustij is various^ Two ^ingulaA WTLES Of SYNTAX. 17a rise }" that which may agree with Bs of sin is .viiion toert e suitably ^ wal of hope le operations [''thing to re- rupt, and had >ronoun ad- endent ; as, id my uncle verb to agree mn of \he first )ronoun of the i! virtue^ Litioiple, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case absolute ; as, ' " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost ;" " The sun being risen, we travelled on." Note. Every nominative case, exceptthe case absolute and inde^ pendent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood ; as, " To whom thus Adam;" that is, spoke. FALSE SYNTAX. Him Destroyed, Or won to what may work his utter loss, - : 'f V All this will follow soon. Note. — Two substantives, when they come together, and do not Bignify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so con- stituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit. ^ RULE VII. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signify- ing the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case ; as, " Paul the apostle ;" Joram the king ; Solo- moxi, the 5071 of Davjd^ kijjLg of Israel, wrote many pro- verbs." Note. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence ; as, " The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library — (jwhich teas) a misfortune that greatly depressed him." FALSE SYNTAX. ' We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things. The pronoun he in this sentence is improperly used in the nomi- native case. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love," and put by apposition with " God ;" therefore it should be the objec- tive case, him, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the followinsf.) I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited. . ^ -^ They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. It was John, him who preached repentance. Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July, 1826, were both signers and the firm suppor terb of the Declaration of In- dependence. Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Ctesar, is variously described by historians. RULE viir. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the singular number, connected by copuHtive conjunctions. 176 RULES OF SYNTAX. must have verbs, nouns,"" and pronouns, agreeing with them in the plural: as, • " ^ocvdXQsand Plato were wise ; they were eminent philosophej's." .. s.^A Note 1. When each or every relates to two or more nominatives in the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must agree with each of them in the singular; as, " Every leaf, antZ every twig, and every drop of water, tee?ns with life." 2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence has ano- ther noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the verb and pronoun agreeeing with it in the singular ; as, " Prosperity, with humility, render's its possessor truly amiable ;" " The General, also, in conjunction with the officers, has applied for redress." FALSE SYNTAX. Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies : It is exported in large quantities. Two singular noujs coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb grows is imprn;)er, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, " cotieo and sugar," which two nominatives are connect- ed by the copulative conjunction, and; therefore the verb should be plural, anno ; and 'Jien it would agree with coffee and sugar, accord- ing to Kule 8. (Repeat the Rule.) The pronoun ?7, as it represents both the nouns, " coffee and sugar," ought also to be plural, theij, agreeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus, " Coffee and sugar grow in the West Indies : they are exported in large quan- tities." Time and tide waits for no man. Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. Life and health is both uncertain. Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astoni.^^hment. What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think you have no need of asfsistancc ? Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. Why is whiteness and coldness in snow ? Obey the connnandinents of thy father, and the law of thy mother: bind it continually upon thy heart. Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes .of the judicious. There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepista, which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect. EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE. Every man, woman, and child were numbered. Not proper ; for although and couples things together so as to pre- sent the whole at one view, yet every has a contrary effect : itdistri* butes them, and brings each separately and singly under considera* tidn. 1 number Whei and eve Twc singuli must } them ir learned Note ferent p« person, v in fault ; But it w< 2. Wi noun am or pronoi « Neither were offe Constri Ignorai Theve plural, be one or the singular, negllgenc -A circh Neither Neither Man .is merely as Whens cerityof fi Man's I own hands Despise they may TJie prii A coll unity of RULES OF SYNTAY. 177 ing with re wise ; ominatives verb must r, and every e has ano- 7 to put the Prosperity, tie General, ss." .. rted in large idea. The 1 of both its are connect- rb should be igar, accord- it represents plural, they, lus, " Coffee large quan- diocrity. nense ocean, en you think ishcd. thy mother : e in the eyes e orthoepists, ect. r so as to pre- fect : itdidtri. ler considera* tion. Were numbered is therefore improper. It should be, " was numbered," in the singular, according to the Note. (Repeat it.) When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and every occurrence are beheld In the most favourable light. RULE IX. ■' Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the singula?^ number, connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the singular ; as, " Neither John nor James has learned his lesson." Note 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of dif- ferent persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in person, with that which is placed nearest to it ; as, " Thou or I am in fault ; I or thou art to blame ; /, or thou, or he, is the author of it." But it would be better to say, " Either I am to blame or thou art,^' Ac 2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pro- noun and a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, which should generally be placed next to the verb ; as, " Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him ;" " I or they were offended by it." Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided. FALSE SYNTAX. Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. The verb, have caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the plural, because it expresses the action, not of both, but of either the one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in the singular, has caused ; and then it would agree with " ignorance or negligence," agreeably to Rule 9. (Repeat the Rule.) A circle or a square afe the same in idea. Neithor whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry. Neither of them are remarkable for precision, Man .is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are moved. When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the sin- cerity of friendship is proved. - Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, j)ut into his own hands. Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for they may be thine own lot. Tiie prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy. auLE X, A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying unity of idea, generally lias a verb or pronoun agreeing % -•!! -•'''I If! 2i <■ 1?« RULES OF SYNTAX. \\ Ah \i in the singular ; as, " The meeting mas large, and it ha^d three hours." Note. Rwlep iO, apd 11, are limited in their appiication. Sec page 59. FALSE SYNTAX. The nation are po\yerful. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel . The church have no power to inflict corporeal punishment. The flock, and not tlie fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the shepherd's pare. That nation was once powerful ; but now they are feeble. RULE xr. ^ noun of multitude, conveying plm-ality of idea, must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plu- ral^ as, " The council were divided in ^AeiV sentiments." JTALSE SYNTAX. My people doth not consider. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its cjiief good. The committee Was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the business to the genera' meeting. ' The people rejoices in that whiph should give it sorrow. RULE. XII. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed |)y the noun it possesses ; as, " Mans happiness ;" Its value is great." Note 1. When the possessor is described by circumlocution, the possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only j as, " The duke of Bndgewater' s canal ; Thte bishop of Landqff^s ex? cellent l^ook ; The captain of the guard's house." This usage, hoyi^^ ever, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally ©onvey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, " TMs is the governor of Ohio's house !" ' 2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follov?? each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally an- nexed to the last only ; as " For David my servant's sake ; John the fiapti!'':> head J The canal was built in consequenco of De Wi(i Cltntvn ^': '. s[overhor'-' advice." governor But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, the sjgn nhould be applied to the firs t possessive only, ancf under- stood 10 the rest ; as, " I reside at I rd Stormont'Sj my old patron find benefactor ' 3. Its, the po^ses^ivt case of tV, is often improperly used for 'tis, or, it is; as, « or, "Ttsn 4. Partit) sessive case Upon Gnd's reckoned a such instan( substantive 6. Phrase ther of Josei as some ha\ possessive cs of or ^artLong of the works One friend o: llon>.ers w( Neverthelei James Har Note 1. Ii great calamitic This is Pet Note 2. Th The silk v/a Note 4, Mu Much depen The measur lay it before th Personal which they writes, and ) Note. You noun, is always should be plur 99 and 100. Every man w Incorrect, bet number with th Rule 13, is vio would be of the 'nan, according 1 An orator's toi Rebecca took 1 *f!/^i» ge, and page 59. RULES 0^ SYNTAX. 179 it. D.bjects of of idea, the plu- nents." s referred ;overned ss ;" /<« ution, the rm only j daff's exr. age, hoys^-; >t literally his is ih0 md follow erally an- John the De Witt expressed , nd under- Id patron or '/is, or, it is; as, " Its my book ; Its his," &c. ; instead of, " It is my book; or, " ^Tis my book ; It is his : or ^Tis his." 4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the Pos- sessive case ; as, " In case of his majesii/s dxjing without issue, &c. ; Upon Glad's having erukdnW his works, &.c. ; I remember its being reckoned a great exploit ; At my coming in he said," &c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28. 6. Phrases like these, " A work of Washington Irvingh ; A bro- ther of Joseph's ; A friend of mine ; A neighbour of yourSy" do not, as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two possessive cases, but they may be thus construed : " A work of (out of, or, UTA-ong the number of] Washington Irving^ s works ; that is, One of the works of Washington Irving ; One of the brothers oi Joseph; One friend of my friends ; One neighbour of your neighbours." FALSE SYNTAX. ' y JlonJ.ers works are much admired. Nevertheless, Asa his hnart was not perfect with the Lord. James Hart, his book, bought August the 17, 1829. Note 1 . It was the men's women's, and children's lot to suffer great calamities. This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation. Nnte 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production. The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's. Note 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently. Much depends on this rule being observed. The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay it before the council. RULE XIII. Personal pronouns must agree with the which they stand, in gender and number ; writes, and he will soon write well." Note. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun, is always plural in form ; therefore the verb connected with it should be plural : as, " My friend, you icere mistaken." See page 99 and 100. FALSE SYNTAX. Every man will bo rewarded according to their works. Incorrect, because the pronoun their docs not agree in gender or number with the noun " man," for which it stands ; consequently Rule 13, is violated. Their should bo /lis ; and then the pronoun would be of the masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with man, according to Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.) An orator's tongue should bo agreeable to the ear of their audience. Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. nouns for as, " Johrt " ii I if; i' i t. i' 180 nULES OF SYNTAX. Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven^ in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation. Note. Horace, you was blamed ; and I think you was worthy of censure. Witness, where was you standing during the transaction 7 How far was you from the defendant ? RULE. XIV. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in gender, person, and number ; as, " Thou who lovest wis- dom ,*" " I who speak from experience." Note. When a relative pronoun is preceded by twoantecedent8 of different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, but not without regard to the sense ; as, " I am the man who cominand you ;" or, " I am the man who commands you." The meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear, if we render it thus , " I who command you, am the man." When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sen- tence ; as, " I am the Lord that maketh all things ; that stretcheth fortli the heavens alono ; that spreadeth abroad the earth ■ y myself,"&c. FALSE SYNTAX. • Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst st»te it. The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost their lives by this means. Thou great First Cause, least understood ! Who all my sense confinci. Note, 2d part. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and brought hira fortli out of Ur of the Chaldees. RULE XV. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative 'Come« between it and the verb ; as, " The master ii^ho taupcb^ us, a^ -s eminent." ■>• ■' FALSE SYNTAX. If he will not hear his hoHi frieiid, whom shall be sent to admonish him? This is the man whom, he inrornied me, was my benefactor. PULE XVI. When a ?i'.>minative comes between the relative and the verb, tiio relative is governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its own member of the sen- tence; as, "He who?/i I serve, is eternal." • . Note 1 tvhomever placed be 2. Eve expressed is, he who , 3. The times ele| nouns; as 4. The conjunctio fault" Ji This is Not prop cd by the -ought to 1 hy esteem,! wording to I They wh From the ibe estimate* He is a n Our bene and who we They wh( of fortune. Who did Who did Who did ' When £ it refers to the r[uesti< agree in < is that ? Ji Note. W not, is doubtf case with the Who gave Of a bookseli Who walk Who will a ds heaven, ;putation. worthy of an 7 How jdents, in ovest wis- tecedentftof person with he man who ^ou." The usly appear, ith either of out the sen- lat stretcheih myself,"&c. it. which have be Abraham, rerb, when as, " The to admonish Ifactor. ilative and |wing verb, )f the sen- RTJLES OP SYNTAX. 181 Note 1 . Wlio, tvMch, what^ the relative that, and their compounds, whomever, whomsoever, &c., though in tlie objective case, are always placed before the verb ; as, " He whom ye seek, has gone hence.** 2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either expressed or implied ; as, •' Who steals my purse, steals trash ;" that is, he who. 3. The pronouns whichsoever, whatsoever, and the like, are some- times elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns ; as, " On which side soever the king cast his ^es," &,c. 4. The pronoun what is sometimes improperly used instead of the conjunction that ; as, " He would not beUeve but what I was in fault" It should be, "but f/io^"&c. .-.;,, -v"r-. - •":•-. 'V..,- - •■ ■• FALSE SYNTAX. ';'.' This is the friend who I sincerely esteem. Not proper, because who, which is the object of the action estpress- cd by the transitive verb " esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to be whom, in the objective*, and then it would be govemad by esteem, according to Rule 16. ^Repeat the Ruie : — and, ai80,«c- «ording to Rule 20. " That is the friend whom I sincerely esteem." They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. From the character of those who you associate with, yourrown will ^be estimated. He is a man who I greatly respect. Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and who we ought to be grateful to. They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of fortune. Who did you walk with ? Who did you see there ? Who did you give the book to ? . RULE XVII. When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative ; as, " Whose book is that ? Joseph's ;" " Who gave you this ? John." Note. Whether the interrogative really refers to a subsequent or not, is doubtful ; but it is certam that the subsequent should agree in case witli the interrogative. • ,. ,• FALSE SYNTAX. Who gave John those books ? Us. Ot whom did you buy them ? Of a bookseller, he who lives in Pearl-street. Who walksd with you ? My brother and him. Who will accompany me to the country ? Her and me. ' ! f-f' : t "'I m A/ 1S2 RULES OF SYNTAX. Adjectives frequently belong to pronoims ; as, " / am " He is industrious." ,- ■ ---'•v,vi *.:■.■ -: EUl.E XVIII. ' , -'--i' Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood ; as, " He is a good, as well as a wise nian." Note 1, miserable. 2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must acree in number with their adjectives, when of the cardinalkind ; as, "Ten feet ; Eig>>fv fathoms." But some anomalous and figurative expres* 'sions fon.. an exception to this irule ; as, " A Heei of forty saii ;^* * Two hundred head of cattle." 3. Adjectives sopietimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part of a sentence ; aa, '^ To see i^pleasqnt ; To be blind is wn- fortunate ; To die for our country, is glorious" 4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in con- nexion with the action by which that quality is prpduced; as» "'Red hot iron ; Pale blue lining ; Deep sea-green sash ; The apple? hoil ;sofi ; Open your hand trtcfe; The clay burns white; The nje burns, blue ; The eggs boil hard." ^. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun i» nndprstood, the two words may be considered au adverbial phrase ; as, " In general, in particular;" that is^ generally, particularly. <». Adjectives should be placed next to the noun^ which they qua- lify ; as, " A tract of good land." 7. We should gt t eraliy avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literally admit of comparison ; such as, more impossible, most impossible ; more unconquerable, more perfect^ &q. See Remarks on adjectives, page 76. 8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in co'-apaFing two ob* jects, it should be in the comparative degree ; but when more thar» two are compared, the superlative ought to be employed ; as, " Ji^lia is the taller o{ the two ; Her specimen is the best of the three*" FALSE SYNTAX. Note 2. The boat carries thirty tun. The chasm was twenty foot broad, and ope hundred fathom in depth. Note 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of furniture. My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land. Note 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more incompre- hensible. It is the most uncertain way that can be devised. rphis is a more perfect model than I ever saw before. Note 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest ? J. was at a loss to determine which >va8 thp y/im Pf .tie three. , Adje derstoo Note ] ber with sorts.** 2, The and one, s man, evei a collectii 3. Eit} kingoflsi his throne the one or Note 1. They hi These k He saw Note a. There a Every pi of morality Note 3. Nadab ai Active " Caesar i America Ye who \ Ye, in th of the actio: therefore it ! governed by sitive verbs j Who did They vvhc ed, cannot r* He and th She that i He invitee Who did t They who RULES OF SYNTAX. 183 ssed or ■nan. , ••/am rst agrea 0, "Ten 3r expres- ty sail f mood, or ad is un- idjectives, ra in con- a8» "^Red. ipples boil fiye burns, he noun i» 3il phrase ; irly. they qua- ives as da \iihle, most Remarks ^g two ob- Imore than in depth. lit piece of f land, lincompre- Lhree. RULE XIX. Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or un- derstood ; as, " Any man, all men." Note 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in num- ber with their nouns; as, " T^is book, these books; itMsort, those sorts.** 2. The pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, neither^ anothert and one, agree with nouns in the singular number only ; as, " Each man, every person, another lesson ;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea ; as, " Every six months." 3. Either is often improperly employed instead of each ; as, " Th6 king of Israel, and Jehosapimt the kingof Judah, sat ei/A^r of them on his throne." Each signifies both taken separately ; 6t/?i«r implies only the one or the other taken disjunctively : — " sat each on his throne," FALSE SYNTAX. Note 1 . Those sort of favours do real injury^ - - ' They have been playing this two hours. These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. ■ He saw one or more persons enter the garden. Note 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible. Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws of morality and religion. . Note 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life, Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer, RULE XX. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case ; as, *' Ca}sar conquered Pompey ;" *' Columbus discovered America;" " Truth ennobles Aer." . FALSE SYNTAX. Ye who wore dead, hath he quickened. Ye, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb " hath quickened ;" and therefore it should be you, in the objective case. You would then be governed by " hath quickened," agreeably to Rule 20. Active-tran- sitive verbs govern the objective case. Who did they entertain so freely ? They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupt- ed, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. He and they we know, but who are ye ? She that is negligent, reprove sharply. He inwted my brother and I to pay him a visit. Who did they send on that mission ? - * . They who be has mpst injured, he had the greatest reason to love. . w ■n i" :^l ■t .!■ m 184 RULfiS OF SYNTAX. RULE XXI. The verb to he may have the same case after it as hefore it ; as, " / am the man ;" « I beheve it to have been them ;" " He is the thief." Note 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and follow- ing the verb to be^ signify the same thing, they are in apposition^ and, therefore, in the same case. Rule 21 is predicated on the prin- ecome ransitive im; To Ihc/cite." in agent apas- iive case thus, ** Pitticus was offered a large sum by the king ;" " She was promised ihem (the jewels) by her mother ;" " / was asked a questxon." It would bo better scn«e, and more agreeable to thp idiom of our lan- guage, to say, "A largo »vvi was oHered to PiUicus ;" " Theyvfeie promised (to) her ;" " A quesition was put to me." 3. Some passive verbs arc formed by using the participles of com- pound active verbs. To smile, to wander, to dream, are intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no pjissive voice ; but, to smile on, to wonder at, to drea?n of, are compound active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice ; as, " He was smiled on by f6f- lune ; The accident is not to be wondered at ;" ' " There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, ^* Than are dreamed of in your philosophy." -.-ft-V RULE XXIIL A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun ; as, " Cease to do evil ;" " We all have our talent to be improved ;" " She is eager to learn ;" " They are preparing to go ;** " Let him do it." Illustration. The supposed principle of government referred to in this rule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, •' Cease to do evil," the peculiar manner in which cease is introduced, requires or compels us to put the verb do in the infinitive mood ; and, according to the genius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thus connected with cease, in any other mood, unless we change the construction of the sentence. Hence we say, that cease governs the mood of the verb do. Similar remarks may be appliea to tbe words talent, etger, preparing, and Mm, in the respective examples under the rul" Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood invariably to the preposition to prefixed, which word they do not, of course, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some filausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word, f we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, per- haps, answer all practical purposes. RULE. .••■-'- A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor. - 1^- Illustration of the examples under Rule XXIIL " To do" refers to thou understood for its agent ; " to be improved" refers to talent; •' to learn," to she ; " to go," to ilieij ; and " to do" refers to him. Note 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of the sentence ; as, " To confess the truth, I was in fault." \»\\ m I m ^, IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) I.U US ^" ii I.I 125 £ 1^ 112.0 IL25 i 1.4 l^^= /a w *■ Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREIT WEBSTBR, N.Y. M980 (716) 17^-4503 \ iV •N? :\ SN^ •s- o fe ^ ^ 186 RUL£S OF SYNTAX. 3. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by eonjunetions or advwbs; as, " An object so high as to he invisible f "He is wise enough to deceive f** " The army is ab(mt to march." RULE XXIV. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequent- ly put as the nominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb ; as, " To play is pleasant ;'* " Boys love to play /" " That warm climates shorten life, is reasonable to suppose ;" " He does not consider ho\D near he approaches to his end." Note. Toy the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omitted ; as, " I heard him say it ;" instead of, " to say it." RULE XXV. The verbs which follow hid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, help, let, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed ; as, •« He bids me come /" " I dare engage ;" " Let me go ;" " Help me do it ;" i. e. to come, to go, to do it, >, r ; RULE XXVI. ''■' '* Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived; as, " I saw the tutor instructing his pupils." Note. The present participle with the definite « rticle the before it, becomes a noun, and must have the preposition of after it. The and of must both be used, or both be omitted ; as, " By the observing of tr,uth, you will command respect ;" or, ** By observing truth," &c. FALSE SYNTAX. ; / Note. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it. The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up Jkings, belong to rrovidence alone. Thm Til denot Th some " 1 9avt Note as iteioi Herod Blatant a verb, another i to Avojd moneyj" come dei 3. A? verbs, ari they ben for * he b( the parti( much moj participle; 'I was cl spoke ;*— iuid rose;' I seen h Seen is Imperfect to Note 3 ejnployed verb is fc ticiple: th piany a pu Notes. come home Had no Europe loi The sun Since th ThoFrt RULES OF SYNTAX.. 187 tions or is wise quent- lect of ant ;" m life, , er hoU) ' properly s, heart [initive ids me me do earing approve verbs tutor efore it, rheand ving of '&c. U for it. Iting up *r These are the rales of grammar, by observii^ of which yon may ftjpid fliuBtakes. RULE XXVII. / -xa The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor ; as, « I see a boy running. RULE XXVIII. The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some poun or pronoun, expressed or understood ; as, «* 1 3aw the boy qhused" Note 1. Participles of nejiter verbs have the same (»se ^flerthem as jbi^ore the:~< ; as, " Pontius Pilate, being ^oternor of Judea, and Herod being Tetrarch" &c. 2. A participle, with its adjuncts, may sometimes be .considered as a BuJ^tantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition ; as, " Taking from (mother without his hrumledge or assent, is called stealing ; He studied to Avoid fixpressing himself too severely ; 1 cannot fail of having fnoney,* &c.; By prpjnising mvch^ and performing but little, we be- come despicable." 3. As the perfect participle and the imperfept tense of irrregular verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be not inctiscriminately used. It is frequeiitly said, - He begmi,* for * he began ;' ' He run,' for ' he ran ;' ' He come,' fpt > he came ;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect tense ; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed instead of ^e participle; as, ' I had wrote,' for * I had written ;* ' I was chose,' for * I was chosen ;' ' I have eat,' for < I have eaten.' * He would have spoke ;' — spoken. 'He overrun his guide ;'—or«rran. '^U^ suii had rose ;' — risen. FALSE SYNTAX. I seen Mm. I have saw many a one. Seen is improper, the perfect participle being uded instead of the imperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, " I saw him," according to Note 3. Have saw is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employed instead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed by combining the auxiliary have with ils perfect par- ticiple: therefore the sentence should be writtep thus, "I ht^ye nen jDhxiy a one ;" Note 3. Note 3. He done me no h^rm* £c>r I had wrote my letter bpforie he come home. Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to Europe long ago. The sun had already arose, when I began my journey. Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted. The French language is spoke in every state in Europe. 168 RULES OF SYNTAX. He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they yvik on ihe same subject. RULE XXIX. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, "A very good pen writes extremely well;'* « By living temperately," &c.. Note 1. Advevbs are generally set before adjectivoa or adverbs, after verbs, or between tlie auxiliary and the verb : as, " He made a very sensible discourse, and was attentively heard." 2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses qualUyt it naust be an adjective, but when it expresses manner^ an adverb should be used } as, " She looks cold ; She looks coldly on him; He. feels warm; He feels trar^nZ^ the insult ofl'ered to him." If the verb to be can be substituted for the one employed, an adjective should follow, and not an adverb ; as, " She looks [is] cold; The hay smells [i^ sweet ; The fields look [are] green ; The apples taste [are] «mr; " The wind blows [is] /rcsA." 3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs here, there, and where te verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither,thither,whither; thus, " He came here [hither] hastily" " They rode there [thither] in two hours ;" " Where [whither] will he go ?" But in familiar Btyle, those constructions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be ad- missible. 4. The use of where, instead of in which, in constructions like the following, is hardly admissible ; " Tlie immortal sages of '76 formed a charter, where [in which] their rights are boldly asserted." 6. As the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, literally supply the place of a noun and' preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a preposition in conjunction with them ; " JFVom whence it fdlows;" " He came /romiftewce since morning.** Better, ** Whence it follows ;" " He came thence." The following phrases are also ex- ceptionable : " The then ministry ;" " The above argument ;" " Ask me never so much dowry," " Charm he never so wisely." Better, *• The ministry of. that time or period ,*" *' The preceding orgnment ;** *' Ever so much dowry ;" " Ever so wisely." FALSE SYNTAX. Note 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to re> raonstrate. He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. These things should bo never separated. We may happily live, though our possessions are small. RULE XXX. Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative ; as, " Such things are not uncommon ;" i. e. they are common, Note. another as, "His it is gran But, as an affirm nesatiie " 1 cannc It should Note 2 Ididnc Be hon There Precept Prepoi from Uti Each is They se It is not Who die Who did Home, long, &c. stood; as June ;" " ran throi called a i years, &c Note 1. before the p paper." 2. To or unlike; as, Others cons and maintaij 3. Nouns are used wit miles long ; «re sometim 't- ly wtk on nd Other y well f" )r adverbs, le made a expresses lanner^ an i coldly on d to him." a adjective ; The hay taste [are] and where er,whither; •e [thither] in familiar IS to bo ad" >ns like the '76 formed »> • supply the ecism in whence it Whence re also ex- .'» « Ask Better, gument RULES OF SYNTAX* 180 .»» ore to re- enerally are not Note. When one of the two negatives employed h joined to another word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expresskm ; as, <* His language, though inelegant, is not ungrammaticid ;" that is, it is grammatical. But, as two negatives, by destroy ing each other, are equivalent tO an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a nesative meaning. The following sentence therefore is inaccurate : " I canno/ by no means allow him what his argument must prove." It should be, " I cannot by any means," &c., or, '* I can by no means." FALSE SYNTAX. Note 2d part. I don't know nothing about it. I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her. Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example. fiULE XXXI. Prepositions govern the objective case ; as; " He went from Utica to Rome, and then passed through Redfield.'' FALSE SYNTAX. Each is accountable for hisself. They settled it among theirselves. -t'*' I& is not I who he is displeased with. Who did you go with ? Who did you receive instruction from ? RULE XXXII. Home, and nouns signifying distance, time when, how long, &LC., are generally governed by a preposition uhdeV' stood; as, " The horse ran a mile ;" " He came home last June ;" " My friend lived four years at college "; that is, ran through the space of a mile; or, ran over a space called a mile ; to his home in last June ; during four years, «v^ 4. In propriety we expre Verbs be followi , "Last Uon of wi sttuction I are also found hin commerce should be, « This whose nai been writu all my lift would affc to have sei "History p a species o 6. Gen( present ten Instead equal to tw whatever u that virtue be, " are ec is always a( EXAMP] We adon On tbes£ »mong men The enei hearts. Is it me o Though sincerely ac There we By exerci The propt wholly cons Affluence not recomm( The cares , They that •hall be ligh FALSB SYNTAX. 103 ihonld bo 1 the last - e refer to the perfect le present have read important } century, art of this the action e either of med many V remains, priests in t powers ;" lut we can- t powers ;" ore, to say, lustrate the as recently ladelphiar ast, without [onsiderably has grown It no reason for its hav- iout before |l takepos- |ilding,"&'C. id shown to Iserved, and beg :"— " I U certainly [his bonds." • to knofw^^ ^y sight ;' " the dead." « I fear- l"— « that I 1, if I could ;» or, " It '•Thisdedi- be publish* 4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with proprioty, particular attention should be paid to the meaiiing of MrtiKt we expreps. Verbs expressive of Aope, desire, intention, or command^ ought to be followed by the pbssent tense of the infinitive mood. ♦* Last week I intended to have written,^* is improper. The inten- tion of writing was then present with me ; and, therefore, the con- struction should be, *' I intended to write." The following examples are also inaccurate : " I found him better than I expected to have found him ;" " My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, to have withdrawn my wealth to another ronntry." They should be, " expected tojind him;" " to unthdraw my wealth." " This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose name it bears." It ought to be, " which proves itself to have been written," &c. " To see him would have anbrded me pleasure all my life." Corrected, **To have seen him;" or, " To see him would afford me pleasure," &c. " T^e arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who hoard them ;" — " were sufficient to satisfy." "History painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings :" — " to invent such a species." 6. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the present tense. Instead of saying, " He^did not know that eight and twenty were equal to twenty and eight ;' ' " The preacher said very audibly, that whatever was useful, was good ;" " My opponent would not believe,, that virtue was always advantageous ;" " The constructions should be, " are equal to twenty ;" " whatever is useful, is good ;" " virtue is always advantageous." EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED. We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity. On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among men. The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts. Is it me or him who you requester to go ? Though great has been his dibobedience and his folly, yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven. There wer ", in the metropolis, much to amuse them. By exercising of our memories, they are improved. The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were wholly consumed. Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will not recommend us to the wise and good. The cares of this world, Ihey often choke the growth of virt ue. They that honour me, I will honour ; and them that despise me, thftll be lightly esteemed. 1^4 FALSE SYNTAX. i intended to have called last week, but could not. The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain. The book is printed Very neat, and on fine wove paper. I have recently been in Washington, where I have men Gen. Andrevt''' Jacksoii, he who is now President. Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last. The Chinese wall is thirty foot high. It is a union supported by a hypotliesls, merely. I have saw him who you wrote to ; and he would hitve cairie bick with me, if he could. Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understflncf the nature of the religion which they reject. If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned. Education is not attended to properly in Spain. He know'd it was his duty ; and he ought, therefore, to do it/ He has little more of the great man besides the titK).- Richard acted very independent on the occasion. 1/Ve have done no more than it was our duty to have don^. The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived. His speech is tlie most perfect specimen I ever saw. Calumny and detraction are sparks which, If yon do not hioWf they will go oiit of themselves. Those two authors have each of them their merit. Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sensoj Lies in three words, health, peace, and com'petehctf, A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of ifiUTife, with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandtBur, than if they were adjusted to one another with the accurdttest syrnifietry. A lampoon ol" a satire do nof carry in them rot)f)ery or murd^er. The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle. If some pSfsons opportunities were' never so favourable, they wotfW be too indolent to improve. It is reported that the governor will come here t t-'rtiorrow. Beauty and innocence should be never separated. Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will have much to fear and little to hope. Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly Versed in their knowledge of the Scriptures. Virtue and mutual confidence is tlie soul of friendship^ . Where these are wanting, disgust-or hatred often follow little difierences. An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a Christian. The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all hi» pleasures : tire rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him. There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will inclinef him to oftend. This is one of the duties which requires great Gircumspection.^ They that honour me, them will I honour. ■/ ; • ;> '- fiver; Peric ans, tha Thou deliver u ^ Thati iianity hi Thou| attention In his ions. Aftef] I have n( I had i diaappoin Five ai If he g has visit0( I could than a re virtues tin The col He woi The edi; Surely, life ; and ] If a ma doth hd no He better. The mo have lookec ascribing i propensity mig ■wa^ m:: Palse syntax. 1»5 Kievi Gen> jante Wcl* mderstnui io il' ed. anoi biow, i of ifWirfe, ^e grondtBur, flccur^tetft murc(er. gle. jtheywotfld low. where you ily Versed in ip. Where ierences. [ion, to seek »dstallhi» him. • will incline Every church- and 8cct have opiiiioiia peculiar to],themselve8. Pericles gained such un ascendant over the minds^ot' the AthenU ans, that ho might be said to attain a monarchial power in Athens. Thou, Lord^ who [hath permitted affliction to'^come upon us, sliall deliver us from it in due time. That writer has given us an account of the manner in wliicli chri»» llanity has been formerly propagated aniong the heathens. Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unwortliy of your attention. In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless profess*' ions. Aftet 1 tisited fiurope, 1 returned to America. I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again disappointed. Five and eight makes thirteen : five from eight leaves thrde. If he gees to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he has visited that renowned watering place. I could not conviace him, that a forgiving dispos. Jon wits nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest virtues that ever was or eitn be possessed by man. The eollege consists of one great, and several smaller edifices. He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy* The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been. Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my >■ life ; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them bs gtWd astray doth he not leave the ninety and nine, Stc. ? He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it better. * • The most ignorant and the mo^t savage trib33 of mert, When they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing their origin to somj inviaible, dosiguing cause, and fait a propensity to adore their Creator. , i:>;dfc.; ■■**; kpectioi •D/ •^'■i Oritloal Notes and Ob^servatioitr^ Observation 1 . The following absurd phrrtses s« common in thd sacred desk and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who^ regard common sense ; — " Sing the two first and three last verses."' Just as if there could be more than one first and one last. There may be a first two, a second two, &.c. ; a first three, a. second three, a last three. " Within the two last centuries •" " The second syllable of the- three first words;" " Tl)e three first of tliose ovtliocpiAts tiave no rule by which their pronouncintlon is regulated ;" — " the last ttoo centu- ries j' " ihe first three words ;" " iho first three of these orthoepists.'*^ 2. Adjectives should not bo used to express the rtiianner of action. " The higher the river, the swifter it flows ;" " James learns easier than Juliet ; ho sees deeper into the millstone than she ;" — ^""tbe more sviflly it flows ;" " learns mora easily ;" '^further into the millstone." *' lie conductecj the boldest of any ;"— " the most boldly." 9. More requires thaii after it. The following sentences are _ therefore improper : " He was more boloved, but not so much ad- mired, as Cinthio;" " Richard is more active, Gut not so studious, aa Iris companion." The legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in these constructions, will show their gross impropriety : thus, "Ho was mor& beloved as Cintluo ;" '* Richard is more active as his. com- panion," &c, 4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally substitutes for two or more words belonging to otlier parts of speech. " Will you accompany mo to Europe next summer?" " Yes." " Do you believe that the voyage will restore your health ?" " No" In these ex- amples, the adverba yes and 7zo, are substitutes for wliole sentences, and, therefore, do not qualiiy any words understood. I'fis, inthia instance, literally means, " / will accompany you ta Eiirope next summer ;" and no, " / do nut believe that the voyage will restore my h 'aWi" Many other af'verbs are often employed in a similar manner. *' Firstly" is often improperly used instead of the taXvexh first ; "a good deal " m?,\cn<\ of, m^ich, or, ^ great deal. 6. A nice distinction should be observed in the nao of such and so. The former may be employed in expressing quality ; the latter, in expressing a degree of the quality; as, " Suck a temper is seldom ioimd ;" " So bad a temper is seUlcm (bund." In the following ex- amples, so should bo used instead of such : '" He is such an extrava- gant young man, that I cannot associate with him ;" " I never before saw such large trees." The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought net to be imitated. " On p;xgo forty-five ;"' " Look at page nineteen ;" '— forty-fifth, nineteenth. should languag tuated /i "H0 8h< nected t( the min( usages j' of going Work dc! reeled thi " on goinj 7. Th follow vei But at is ( ington ;" The prep( " He lives But before countries, " She resid " They live 8. Pass employed i house to let business to and carriag to these cor be, « This h( business to 9. Ambig Not literally nothing; bu unexceptions " A crow i " I saw''a h " I saw a s through a spy "One may see, with half " A great s( sea shore, ser^ hers and circu io the sea sho^ long search, anchor." CRITICAL REMAKIfSi. 107 r< n in thd all who verges, lefe may •p, a last )lo of the- I no rule )o centu- lOcpistH.'*^ yi action, rns easier '' the "moire lillstoue'" 3nce8 are much ad- udious, <»s elUpsea in fhns, "Ho 5 hia. oora- %i\tum for Will you ow believe these ex* lentences, r'fls, in this irofQ next restore wy X manner. frst ; "a \ich and so. \q latter, in • 13 seldom lowing ex- \\ extvava- ^ver before bers, ought ininet^en ; 6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular reurard should be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom oTour languaffo and the best usage. "In my proceedings, I have been ac- tuated from the conviction, that I was supporting a righteous cause;" " He should have profited from those golden precepts ;" " It is con- nected to John with the conjunction and ;" " Aware that there is, in. the minds of many, a strong predilection in favour of established usages ;" "Ho was made much on at Argos ;" " They are resolved of going;" "The rain has been falling of a long lime ;'' "It is a work deserving of encouragement." TIjese examples may be cor- rected thus, "actuated htj the conviction ;" "by those golden precepts ;" " 6y the conjunction and ;" " predilection /or;" " much of at Argos;'* " on going ;" " falling a long time ;" " deserving encouragement." 7. The preposition to is tised before nouns of place, where they follow verbs or participles of motion ; as, " I went to Washington. ' But at is employed after the verb to be; as, "I have been at Wash- ington ;" " He has been to New- York, to home," &-c., are improper. The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ; " He lives in France, in London, in Philadelphia, in Rochester." But before single houses, and cities and villages which are in distant countries, at is commonly used; as, "He lives at Park-place;" " She resides at Vincennes." People in the northern states may say, " They live in New-Orleans, or, at New-Orleans." 8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive meed, should not be employed as active agents. The following are solecisms : " This house to let ;" ." Horses and carriages.to let ; " Congress has much business to perform this session ;" because the agents, house, horses, and carriages, and business, which are really passive, are, according to these constructions, rendered as active. The expressions should be, " This house to be let ;" " Horses and carriages to be let j" " much business to be performed." 9. Ambiguity. — " Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not literalhj correct, for wisdom is certainly more to be desired than nothing; but, as a figurative expression, it is well established and unexceptionable. " A crow is a large black bird :" — a large black — bird. " I saw''a horse — fly through the window :" — I saw a horsefly. " I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass." I.saw, through a spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail. " One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see, with half an eye, how the world goes. " A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the mem- bers and circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's search to the sea shore ; whereas, he meant, " A large stone, which, after a long search, I happened to find by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." 108 CRIttCAL RfiMARKS. " I eliall only notice those called personal pronouns." I «hall no* tice oniy those called personal pronouns. 10. TAirroLOGY.— Avoid words which add nothing to the sense } such as, " Now extant^ free gratis, slow mope, cold snow, a hot buh, • JUneing stream, a dull biocb^eod, tciae sages." " I am just going to go there ;" I am about to go. 11. AfisifRDiTiEs and Improprieties. — ^'^ I can learn him many things." It ouiffht to be, " I can leach him." To learn, iatoaequir* txt receive informatioa ; to teach means to communicate it. "I don't think it is so." You do think, that it is not so. Ever, always. " I have ever been of this mind." I have altOaya been. Ever and always are not synonymous. Ever refers to one indefinite period of time ; as, " If ho ever becomes rich :" always means at all times. Excuse, pardon. The former signifies to release from an obliga- tion which refers to the future ; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime that is past. " Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday :'* pardon me. Remember, recollect. We remember a thing which we retain in our mind ; we recollect it, when, though having gone from the mind, we have power to call it back. Defect, deficiency. A thing which is incomplete in any of its parts, is defective ; a total absence of the thing, is a deficiency. ,^ This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work. .1* .*)!!'■. !•■» '> ■ 11 >)■■•.■■.'>•>■■-■ ,->:i. ' . ' -*^*-i v;.tt:? ■::; • '(■ ' . Oiii ■■:^.'' /■-t::: • \ri iu'i -.^.■.,.^ >'Wi^-» e,'i--rii'":>< It n«?^?i) ;^r'- ;ij''»*'^'^it ^i*-^-- ; r ...V f^-- Pron foUowii Cobb's Incorrei Abscisi( achievm adze agriculti almanac ancle baise bason ;!,i-;^rii,jj. ■^VilRll^i-^yiUii^V *■■*«&.' X OorrectloAB in Orthography. •■<*■•.' i.l 1.'. - • _L ■ jvy:. '. From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, the following are selected, and corrected according to Johnson and to Cobb's Walker :— Incorrect. Correct. Incorrect. Correct. Abscision Abscissioh diocese diocess achievment achievement dipthong diphthong adze addice dispatch despatch agriculturalist agriculturist doat dote almanac almanack draft draugnt ancle ankle drouth drought baise baize dye die bason ' basin dyor dier bass "' base embitter imbitter bambazin bombasin embody imbody boose bouse '* ^ enquire inquire boult ''•■' bolt * •«•• enquirer inquirer buccaneer bucanier enquiry inquiry burthen burden ensnare insnare bye by enterprize enterprise calimanco calamanco enthral inthral camblet camlet entrench intrench camphor camphire entrust intrust canvas canvass enwrap inwrap carcase carcass epaulette epaulet centinel sentinel etherial ethereal chace "^^." chase faggot fagot chalibeate chalybeate fasset faucet chamelion chameleon fellon felon chemist chymiat fie ■'•^*' fy chemistry chymistry germ germe cholic colick goslin gosling clnise choose gimblet gimlet cimetar ci meter grey grP.y clench clinch haloe halloo cloke cloak hansel handsel cobler coI)bler highth "height hindcrance chimnies chimneys hindrance chesnut chestnut impale empale clue clew inclose enclose connection connexion inclosure enclosure corset corslet indict endict cypher cipher indictment endictment dactyl dactyle indorse endorse 1 200 CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY. \ Incorrect. Correct. Incorrect. Correct. indorsement endorsement restive {)i>tlirestiff instructor instnictcr ribbon riband insure ensure rince rinse insurance ensiiranco Sadler saddler laquey lackey sallad salad ' i**'f laste last I'w^f' sceptic skeptick licence license scepticism skepticism loth louth • , segnr cigar lye lie .H seignor • seignior •'A malcontent maleoontcnt Serjeant ,,,.,{,,^1-, sergeant maneuver manoeuvre slioar ' shore merchandize morchiindiso soothe sooth misprison misprision staunch .jj,j,j^j^ stanch ..i.i^l monies monoys stroight straight •ii« negociate neootiaio s*ib.s tract subtract .;v'J negociation negotiation suitor j^^, sul'ier J- .*;■; noviciate novitiate sythe scythe ouse ooze taller tattler opako lopaque tlirosli thrash paroxism paroxysm tluvak • , thwack parti zan ^mrtisan tipler ' ■ tippler patronize patronise tranquility tranquillity phrenzy phrensy tripthong triphthong pinchers pincers trissyllablo trisyllable plov/ plough valice valise "li))'^ poney po"y ;<;, vallics .J,.,, valleys .^, ifnutii'.' potatoe potato ,^..,^ vise .',,;,,;.; vice •; VisiW pumpkin pumpion ,ij,.,. waggon ,,,^ , wagon ^ivmi'-i quere query warrantee warranty - -Vr recognise reindeer recognize raindoer whoopiiigcough hoopingcougl^ ,j., woe wo (.. l-eirifprce re-enforc;o yeast ,,.,.,„,. yeat .-40 ^^■'uV:■^. iUl :'A" mi-\ -i-lS IMi. i \ . .'..'■:.' .;■• 'i'. '■'-:: '1^ -oit <'i-; i' ■[-<.!- ' " ' ■ •iiCii't V';; i:\ , iaj_ lit' .','■■ ' . ■. •» ' . -"^ . •• "iw .i^»r ■ •J",'!!') 1 !i;Vi>^ ' (•> U {! ". >i • il'.aiii W:l ■ .i/lt i:t-:i:: ;.v.!/> ;»j'. '' - ..^4j2«'*-* fW/i^^ '•■'>. 1 ; V ("• » f.i.flfrt'ii iij'J t. ■>:'); 'I'suM .•'., ■ . !•.; > ;j''nii'<' ;- y*ii;< S*"' ! llJ.'i ■ . i vKi'i. ::■; t .!i{*nf.' t>i/x\ 'If. ; , •, -'.)'■»' . - ■,'•'■ '-i • 'mi. crtCf^.s.i .?! ■ • !)•:< !.)i ! ti'r'./ 1 f l' j- :• ■Sillitf' I'jI^ Ji'-t ■ .r-^i ■ . .I'l.-nir' i-'fti.. . iiUhnvi 'ii'- 'rt'i.i'MUFA •"i'ltj;.- •».^M<«' '.if'^^'tHy.' )»r.iu if ' :*i ^'•J^ [v ^,m v.« ;ougt^ '•.Hi I •.'Hv ^ •U\ikyn f. ; . ■ ;-«^Vv'>\ Oorrections in Orthoepy. The following words being often erroneously pronounced by po^ people, ns ^vell as by the vulgar, their correction, in this place, agree- ably to Cobb's Walker, it is presumed, will be useful to many. Borne 't>f the mispronunciations given are provincial. iOrthography. Improper, Pronounced. Again. a-ganc' n-gen Ally '..i .jii'.ie *- ul-ii' ■ f»f( , . Are '' are ar Azure ■azh'-ur Ta'-zure ' • ■'. Bade bade 1' ^ad , , Beard bard ■^;«;': ■bcerd Been '*' '^ ben or bcwn 'f". bin h •' ' Bleat , ■\ blaat ,"". blect Boil '•• bUe •"•^^' boil Bonnet bun'-net "' ijon'-nil -.^■'- Brooch brotsh brootsh Camphire kara'-fire ^'■' kam'-fir Tti'.' Canal ka-nawl' ka-nal' ■ •'.' Catch '' ketsh katsh Causeway kros-wa' kawz'-wa ■ .. . ( Chalice ^"'. kal'-ia :--'^!r'^- tshal'-is >.'.= •;> Chasten tshas'-sn tshase'-sa .';.-• ' Chimney : trfiim'-blc' ,, '• tshim'-ne ■ ' Chine i*' 'tshime tshinc <;hoir ' '^'*" koir ■kwire ' Clevy klev'-ia kiev'-ve ■- ■ CUnch 'klensh "klinsh ' • % ■' i ^ Column J -^kol'-yum , , kol'-lum 'f'r ii<%'.:.il €ombat '' kom'-bat ''*-'-'' "' • ■kum'-bnt d'u; *)(- Comma kom'-me kom'-ma «---H Coquet ko-kwet' ko-kei' _ «^,;'Jf Corps '• korps "•'■ kore i3oi-]).se korps Cover • ';' klv'-ur : '^- ' kuv'-ur Deaf ••;• deef ;•■ '• def Decisive ■^' ile-sis'-iv • "tle-si'-siv Depot de'-pot ' ^■'' de'-po' 1 Depute dep'u-tize ' ' de-pute' Design ' de-zine' de-sine' 1 Dint dent dint Docile do'-fiile dos'-sil ; i Dis-gU3t dis-gust' dis-gusl' Dismoy dis ma' diz-ma' iV' \ Disown dis-one' diz-one' ■ ...J Dost ''■ ' ' ' dost ''^ dusX lyiHwffeC aa2 CORRECTIONS IN ORTnOEPr. >■,- Doth Does Drain Drought Drowned Ductile . Edge EUUier English Era ( :, Ere Fasten .sj4>|r^yt Fearfo) Figure Fiend First Foliage Fortune Fortnight Fountain Fracture i Fragrance Futile Gather Get Girth I Goal ^ Going Gold Gum Grudge Gypsunff Mas Have Heard Heart!) Hiss .^: Hoist 1 Homely Hoof Hostler Hiunble Jesting n. Kettle Lecture Leisure ". Lever Lid i Lilach Loam Loo Maintain Improper, doth ^ dooa dreen drouth dround'-ed duk'-lile i'-thur png'-iisl^ e-re' pre fa8'-tl» fcf'-ful fig'-gw fend fust fbil'aje fbr'-tshun fort'-nit foun'-tn iVnk'-lshur fiug'-ranso fu'-tile gcth'-ur g't gurt gool gone or go'-it> goold goom be-grctsh' gip'-Bum hcz ha've hcerd hurt'^ or hath siss hiate hum'-ble' huf httWH'-luif hum'-bl jeesil-iii kit'-tl Ick'-tshur lozh'-ur ' lev'-ur led la'-lok loora hi mane-tane' Vronounced, dutJi duz drone di'out dround duk'-til edjc c'-iliur ing'-gliiili e'-ra are fas'-pn feer'-ful fig'-ure fcend t'lllHt fo'-le-aje tbr'lHhuno fort'-nito foun'-tin frak'-tshuro fra'-grnnsc; fu'-til gath'-ur gPt gerth gole go'-ing gold gum grudge iip'-8un| \ lax hay* herd harth hins hoist lioine'-la hoof os'-lur um'-bl iest'-ing kot'-tl lek'-tahuro le'-zhure le'-vur lid li'-lak J lome loq men'-tane \k ■vlt'j ■ I ' Orthogn Mominid Mountnir Nature Neither Oblige Oblique Of Oil Only Panther Parent Partner Pasture Patron Pincers Pith Plait Poem Point Pother Precept Preface Prelude Process Product Progress Profile Pumpion Put Quoit Raisin Rapine Rear Reptile Rid Rind Rinse Rosin Routine Roof Sacred Said Sat Says Scarce Schedule Shut Since Sit Sleek Sliver Slothful cdniiEcTioNs IN onTnosry. fi6it Orthography MominiJ Mountnin Nature Neither ' Oblige Obiiquo Of Oil Only Panther Parent Partner . Pasture Patron Pincers Pith Plait Poem Point Pother Precept Preface Prelude Process Product '■ ProcrcBS Profile Pumpion Put Quoit Raisin Rapine Rear Reptile Rid Rind Rinse Rosin Routine Roof Sacred Said Sat Says Scarce Schedule Shut Since Sit Sleek Sliver Slothful '^''**** Tmprot^er. ^' marc'-nindo HiOi. if«K" »»A*-t, Pronounced. mor'-njttdo ," nioun'-in ^* na'-tshuro nl'-ihur o-blocjc' o-blcok' ■an" U Wi •I'M ■»ii.- J » :. {• •1 ■ on'-lo or un'-la ' pnnc'-tur pnr'-cnt f pard'-nur ' pas'-tshur pat'-ruu pinsh'-urx pelli /. pleet pome pinte both'-ur prcs'-scpt pro'-fase pre'-ludc pro'-aes pro'-dukt pro -grcs pro'-filo pungk'-in put (verb) kwnlo *»' Ml- ^ra .'j'lfj • ■ ••tir-. '"< fn ^ -if: :!!:■ .1 -I ' I, r. >•■»{' T>;*' Ml ra -zn ra'-plnc .rare rcp'-lile red rino rcnse roz'iin rou'-tcnc ruff sak'-red Bade set snzo sknrso skcd'-ulo shct sense HCt silk sliv'-vur plawth'-ful (:f^/.*M.;:;'». i(U»'- l-,l> 'IM' rt-R- moun'-tin na'-tshuro ne'thur o-biye' ob-liko' ov oil ono'-lo ' pan'-thur pa'-rent part'-nur pas'-tshuro pa'-trun pin'-surx pith flite po'-om ^ point ' puth'-ur , pre'-HOj)t prff'-ms prcl'-ude prow'-HOfl prod'-ukt prog'-res pro'-f.l' pump'-yun pu't kwoit re'-7,n rop'-in ■ rccr rcp'-til rid rind rinsp. ro/.'-in roo-tc(!n' roof sa'-krcd Id l4» .'#," !*1 ■z ^■l!''«'V«,sf sez pka'rHc scd'-jule shut sinne sit sleok sii'-vnr slotli'-ful iVv I i '11, i 'i^TSr' 2U COBSECTIONS iN ORTHOEPY* Orthography, Soot Spikenard Spoil Steelyard Stamp ' Stiat Sword Ssmod Therefoie Tha To Tour Treble Toward* Trophy Tuesday Verdure Vizier Volume Were Yea Yes Yest Yet You Youth Ague and fever Alternate Anntmciate Andiron Antipodes Apparent Architecture Assumption Auxiliary Certiorari Christianity Clandestine Coadjutor Compendium Connoisseur Courteous Coverlet Cowardice Decrepit Demonstrate Debideratum Diamond Discrepaiice Improper. sut spig'-nut spile stil'-yurdz. stomp stent '. nword si'-nod , , t A . thare"-for» . , r tour trib'-bl Z.: to-wards ; ^ trof-fe ^ ' , tshuz-de . ver*-jur ..'■[ vi'-zhur vol'-lum, ware f', ., yeest or eest lit yuth fe'vem-a'^gur awl-ter*-nate an-nun'-shate hand'-i-um an'-te-podz ap-par'-ent artsh'-e-tek-tshu as-sump'-shun »wks-il'-a-re sasa-ur-ar'-ur kris-tshan'-e-te klan-des'-tine ko-ad'-ju-tur kom-pen'-de-um kon-nis-sure' kore'-te-us kuv'^-ur-lid kou'-urd-ise de-krip*-id dem'-on-strate de-sid-er-at'-ura di'-mund dis-krep'-anHBe Pronounced^ soot spike'-nard spoil steel'-yard stamp stint ■o'rd sin-ud ther'-fore thiU too toor ,> treb'-bl ~ to-urdz tro-fe . tuze-de ver'-jure , I viz'-yeer ,; vol'-yumc' "u' wer yis . yest yet • yoo yooth a'-gu and fe^-vui ^ al-ter'-nate an-nun'-she-ate . and'-i-urn ah-tip*-o-deez ap-pa'-rent ar'-ke-tek-tshure as-sum'-shun , awg-zil'-ya-re ser-she-o-ra'-ri kris-tshe-an'-e-te- klan-des'-tin ko-ad-ju'-tur kom-pen'-je-um ko-ncs-sare' kur'-tshe-us , kuv'-ur-let - kou'-urd-is de-krep'-it de-mon'-strate de-sid-e-ra'-tum di'-a-mund dis'-kre-panse w ■^-.u I." Orthogr Disfranci Dishonei Disorder Electrify CSmac^tc fixoiator; iStxtempo £xtraord Feminine Frequent! Genuioe Guardian 'Cymnasti flalleli^al Hospital Humorouf Idea IgooFamui Indecoroui Irradiate Literati Maiotenan Masculine Mercantile Meliorate Museum National Jifomenclatt Nominative Obedience ObstreperoM Octavo Oratory Parentage Partiality Patronage Patriarch Patriot Patriotinn Piiiiologist PhiloBopliy Philoaophicai Pliigiarism Possess Possessive Possession Preventivs Pronmiciatioii Propitiation Prophecy ^\ COEHECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. ao5 ■fnfeH •':^ii;^'i'^ ;:T -,f )^' Disfranchise Dishonest Disorder Electiiff Emarnte Expiatory Extraordinary Feminine Frequently Genuine Guardian 'Gymnastic Hallelujah Hospital Humorous Idea Ignoramus Indecorous Irradiate Literati Maintenance Masculine Mercantile Meliorate Museum National Nomenclature Nominative Obedience Obstreperous Octavo Oratory - Parentage Partiality Patronage Patriarch Patriot Patriotinn Philologist Philosophy Philosophicai Pifigiarism Possess Possessive Possession Preventive Pronunciation Propitiation Prophecy Improptu dis-fran'^tshise dis-on'-est dis-or'-dur e-lek'tur-ize e-nia'-shate ' eks-pi'-a-.totie «k8-tem'-pore eks-tra-or'-de-na-re fem'-e-nine frek'-went-le jen*-u-inc gar-deen' gim-nas'-tik hal-lc-lu'-ja hos'-pit-at hu'«mur-ufl i-de' ig-no-ram'-ua in-dek'-o-ius lr-rad''-e-ate lit-er-at'-i mane-tand'-anse tmas'-ku-line mur'kan-t^e mur-kan-teel' mur-kan'-til .me-li'-o-rate mu'-ze-um na'-shun-al no-raen'-kla-ture nom*-e-tiv o*be'-de-ense' cob-strop'-pu-lu8 ok'-ta-vo or'-a-to-re pa'-rent-aje par-shal'-le-te pa'-trun-nje 4>at'-re'atk pat'-re- ^t pat'-re-ut-ism fi-lol'-lo-jist fi-los'-o-fe fi-lo-sof'-ik-al pla'-ga-riwn tpos-ses ipos-scs'-siv fo3-sceh'-ua re-vent'-a-tiv ^ro-nun-8e-a'*shun pro-pis-e-a'-shun prov'-e-si (noun) TroMunced, * dis-fmn'-tshiz diz-on'-est diz-or'-dur ■ e-lek'-tre-fi " «-ma'*8he-ttte eks'-pe-a-turn'e >«kB-tem'-po-re eks-tror-de-na-rt fem'*e-nin £re'>kwenVjle jen'-u-in gyar'-de-an jim-nas'-tik kal-le-loo'-ya os'pe-ttfl yu'-muF'Ug ': i-de*-a ig-no-ra'-mua in-de-koi-nii ' ir-ra'-de-at* lit-er-a'-U men'-te:id-7'w-tor, e-pi-cu-rc-an, /;t-ter-est-cd, in-ter-cst-ing, rcp-ar-a-ble, •> 6'c-og -nise, Zcg-is-la-ture, o6-li-ga-tory, in-rom-pi^r-a-ble, ir-rep-a-ra-ble, in-ej;-o-ra-ble. In a large class of words, iIk; vowels a, e, and at, t-hould be pronounced like long a in late ; such as fare, rare, there, their, where, air, chair, compare, declare, &c. In the words person, perfect, mercy, interpret, determine, and the like, the vowel e be- iore r is ofu;n erroneously sounded like short u, Its proper sound is that of c in met ^ pet, imperative. ^ v- 3. With respect to the pronunciation of the words slcy, kind, guide, &,c., it appears that a mistake extensively prevails. It is believed that their common pronunciation by the vulgar is the correct one, and agreeable to the pronunciation intended by Mr. John Walker. The proper diphthongal sounds in skei, kyind, gyide, are adopted by the comniort n^ass, and perverted by those who, in their unnatural and affected pronunciation of these words, say ske-i, ke-inde, ge-ide. This latter mode of pronouncing them in two syllables is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words boil, toil in two syllables i thus, bo-il, to-il. ' 4. il/y, wind, pour. When my is contrasted with thy, his, her, your, &c., it is pronounced vii, in all other situations it is pronounced mc ; as, " My [me] son, give ear to my [me] counsel." When wind tnds a line in poetry, and is made to rhyme with mind, bind, kind, &.C., it io pronounced wi'nd, but in other situations it is ^^ronounced >viud. .„., " Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind " yees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind." Pour. Sound, as Ab cpcI in some o corrections phrase* rci Improper. Aint haint taint baint maint Wont wer'nt waunt woodent mussent Izzent wazzent hezzent doozzent tizzent School A>- Comthon Akst ben hul hum stun dooz gla'sa ma'ss bra 'as pa'ss flown t PH0VINCIALI5MS". :i.'Q:^ 207 Pour. Analogically, the diphthong ou, in tliis word, has its proper Sound, as in hour, eout " Yc heavens ! from high the dewy nectar pour, , " And in eoft silence shed the kindly shower." ■■ . 1^ : Provincialisms. -', "'^^ used asT ' nounced tedeem- 1 in pro- I h^VA iblea $Xr- -sa-rc-a,. ar-a-ble» a-ra-ble, and ai, there, person, e be- sound is rel , guide, jelieved ect one, Walker, pted by innatural; ge-ide. incorreclL yllables i his, her, enounced len wind '}d, kind, onounced Contractions, Vulgarisms, and other Improprieties. Ab cvch of the ibllowint; provincialisms and vulgarisms has its locality in some on« section or other of North America, it is hoped that these, corrections will be found useful in the districts to which the varioutt phrases respectively belong. .A'i Improper. Correct. Aint Are not hiz-zn hiz haint ^ have not hou-zn houz'-iz taint j^,,; 'tis not an'-shent ane'-tshent baint {/. '„ ■ are not an'-jel ane'-jel maiot may not dan'-jur dane'-jur wont wiP not stran'-jur strane'-jur wer'nt were not tsham'-bur tshame'-bux waunt was not na'-tur na'-tshure woodent would not nat'-ur-el natch'-u-ral jnussent must not for'-tin for' tshune jizzent is not for'-tew-nate for'-tshu-nate wazzent was not vur'-tew ver'-tshu hezzent '^ ■ has not vur'-tew-us ver'-tshu-us 4oozzent ' ' ■ '•''^ does not ak'-tew-el ak'-tshu-al tizzent 'tis not ed'-ew-kate ed'-ju-hate W^hool who will fath'-ur fa'-thur don't heft weight . can't stoop porch. i'U . stent ' -' task 'tis • . helve handle muss '"'.■■ disorder Comthon in New England or dump unload New Yo^rk. scup swing Akst askt ;..: ; chase • •• gig or chaise ben ^ bin - cutter one-horse sleigh hul whole staddle -■^' fapling hum . >4,f; ..j, ;• home foxy reddish stun stone \^ ;^^.- suple '■'*" spry or supple dooz . , ■ . ;,; duz .,'. ^ 1 / . . gla'ss glass In Pennsylvania. ma'ss mass ,, ,t-y Strenth strength bra'ss brass j / lenth length pa'ss pass . V , hrenth breadth flownt Uant ort ought Improper. Correct. m 208 PROVINCIALISMS. Improper. Correct. Improper. Correct. nan , • what till jO wisht wish put pot wunst onoe fu't Alt ouc!: oh a-koont' ak-kount' cheer - chair pu'l-pit pul'-pit q)Ook ghost parc'-sun par'-sn fumentz ^opposite wanitjr vanity - , t *.-' • ,. in wain in vain Md., Vm., Ky., MU»., ffe. ornary ordinary for by to spare Thar thare we bit small piece whar hware . ' "^ .diweniember do not remember bar [bear] bare ' war wer JfMA. mout mite [might] gwine go'-ing Dd'or dore shet or shut rid flo'or a'ad flore and tota or fetch ( karre, fetch* ( or bring less )ooz hop'd helpt koorse korse ca-hoot' ^part'-nur-shjp soorse sorse mar'-bl mocv off Note. Clever, pretty, ugly, curious, expect, guess, and reckon, though correct English words, have, among the common people of Newr England and New York, a provincial application and meaning, ^ith them, a clever man is one of a gentle and obliging diq>08ition4 instead of a man of distinguished talents and profound acquirements. Pretty and ugly, they apply to the disposition of a person, instead of to his external appearance. In these States one will often hear " I guess it rains," when the speaker knows this to be a fiict ; and, therefore, guessing is uncalled for. " I expect I can go ;" or, " I reckon I can ;" instead of, " I suppose or presume." In New England a clergyman is often called a minister ; in New York, a priest ; and south of New York, a parson. The last is preferable. ■ < >._ New England or New York. I be goin. He lives to hum. Hese ben to hum this two wfteks. You haddent ought to do it. Yes I had ought. Taint no better than hizzen. Izzent that are line writ well I Tizzent no better than tl a ere. The keowsbe gone to hum, neow, and Fmer goin arter um. iHe'li be here, derighte, and bring yom-it and thairn. He touch' d the stun which I shew h'm, an di guess it made him sitbe, for 'twas ciasing hot. Corrected. I am going. He lives af iKMne. He has been at home thsse 2 weeks. You ought not to do it. Certainlf I ought. ' Tis no better than At*. Is not that line well written^ It is no better, or, it ia no^any bet» ter than this. The cows are gone hom», and / am going after them. He will be here directly, and bring yovirs and theirs. He touched the stone which I show- ed him, and it made him sigh,{ag it was hissing hot.. New Run, Thi to tnal ngonet( Where g squire? the heft When ju A fortnj ye? Ji up a tav gone af( JMssky CI Btvanp. My frinds Jightfully mound oi hez a lor is furder ; like my h I know'd t iind I teir ize nither it; but ij giv cm n B»e. So ried my p Be you fi Neow I beat. You baint fr Yea, Go Jkneow hec I seen him. Yes, I hal and that him. I done my yours? N I be to be the I^eave me be, I never took r I wish I haddi ever, I doj skeer me. M \ 1>R0VINCIALISMS. 200 \» , kic. ight] .fetch, "8 r-8h|p d reelcont leofHeMT ^g. ^ith instead Pretty of to his guett it therefore, n I can ;" gyman is of New KHne. eaweekB. Certainlf tent ^any bet- , and I am and bring ch I show- sigh,{e* New England or New York. Run, Thanel, and cut n Btaddle, for to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter go, daddy. Where shall I dump my cart, squire 7 Dump it yendcr. Whals the heft of your load. When ju git hum from Hafibrdl A fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye ] Ju sec my Danel, whose sot up a tavern there ? No. He had gone afore I got there. O, the pesky criter ! Hele soon be up a «lump. My frinda superb mansion is de- lightfully sitewated on a aate-eral mound of considerable hithe. It hez a long stoop in front ; but it is furder from the city than I'de like my hum. I know'd the gal waa drownded, And I tell'd the inquisitioners that ize nither geestin nor jokin about it ; but if they'd permit me to giv cm my ideze, they'd obleege me. So I parsevered, and car- ried my pinte. You don't say so. Be you from Barkshire 1 I he. Neow I swan ! if I aint c)ean beat. You baint from the Jarseys, be ye ? Yes. Gosh! then I guess you kneow heow to tend tarvem. /n Penntylvania. I seen him. Have you saw him ? Yes, I have saw him wunst; and that was before yoa seed him. I done my task. Have you did yours? No, but I be to do it. I be to be there. He know'd me. Leave me be, for Ime afear'd I never took notice to it. I wish I haddent did it ; howsum- ever, I dont keer : they cant skeer me. Correeied. Go, Nathaniel, and cut a aapling^ to make n lever of. I wmt about to go, or, intending to go mmt" diately, father. Where ahall I unload my cattf Yonder. What it the weight of your load. When did you return from Hart- ford 7 A fortnight ago. It it pottible ! Did you see my tan Daniel, who hat opened a puhlie house there 7 No. He had left before I arrived there. O, the paltry fellow ! He will 0OOB come to nought. My friend' t superb mansion is de- lightfully tituated on a natural mound of considerable Aetf At. It hat a long patch in front ; but it is farther from the city than / would like to reside. I knew the girl had been drowntd, and I told the jury of inquett that / wat not jetting about it ; but, by permitting me to givt them my view of the tvbject, they would oblige me. So, I persevered, and gained my point.. Indeed! Are you from Berk* shire 1 I am. Really! I am surprised. Are you from New Jersey 7 Yes. Then I presume .ypu know Aon» to tend a tavern. Corrected. y.-^yi: I saw him. Have you seen him? Yes, once ; and that was befojr* you saw him. I have done my task. Have y^u done yours? No, but I must. *I shall be there ; or, I must be tjiere. He knew me. Let me be, ."br I am afraid. I never took notice of it ; or, bet- ter thus, I never noticed it. I wish I had not done it : however, I disregard them. T^^y cannot scare me. 210 PROVINCIALISMS. In Pennsylvania. Give me them there books. •'^' He ort to go ; so he ort. No he Often. Dont scrougc me. I diddent go to do it. Aint that a good hand write 1 Nan? I know'd what Jie moant, but I never let on. It 18 a long mile to town. Ah ! I thought 'twas unle a short mile. Iriah.. \ • Not here the day ; h« went till Fittsburgli. Let us be after pairsing a wee bit. Where did you loss it ? Md., Va.,ky.,or Miss. Carry the horse to water. Tote the wood to the river. ./' ■ Have you focht the water ? . " -' > I've made 200 bushels of com this year. ^.x-.*-. He has run against a snagi Is that your plunder, stranger i He will soon come of that habit. I war thar, and I seen his boat was onelend too heavy. ■ - ,- What you gwine] Hese in cohoot with me. Did you get shet of your tobacco 1 Who hoped you to sell it. Corrected. *''^a •<^' Give me ihose books. He ought to go, really. He ought not. Don't crowd me. I did not intend to do it. '''■" ■ Is not that beautiful writing 1 ••'*■' What ? 1 knew what he meant, but I kept that to myself. It is a little over a mile to town. Ah ! I supposed it to be less than a mile. -m • :■■ .- Corrected, He is not here to-day. Pittsburgh. Let us parse a little. Where did you lose it. '•* • *' Corrected. He went to .1V ••- Lead the horse to water ; or, water the horse. Carry the wood to the river. Have you fetched, or brought, the water 1 I have raised SOO bushels of corn this year. He has got into difficulty. Is that your baggage, sir ? -''^ He will soon overcome, or get rid of, that habit. I was there, and I saw that his boat was loo heavily laden, or loaded. Where are you going ? He is in partnership with me. Did you get rid, or dispose of, your tobacco ? Who helped you to sell it ? . .' ; K., • i r. PllO cordin, sentim tensive Pros teachei accent, second, Accent particulai the rest, < of the vo; which syl Every For the si give a se* the princi; Quanii in pronou; A vowt causes it i as, " Fall A sylla the vowe bOnnigi, hi A long pronouncir slowly ^ga Mmphat voice, by a to lay part tence. Sc cular tone Emphas: jtion. Pauses. tion of the fpaceof til Tones. ••r*,- .•.HI'.- PROSODY. f t tingt tie meant. If. > to town. I less than He went *« ; or, water •iver. irought, the liels of corn ir ? get rid of, that his boat or loaded. ith me. lose of, your it? .; •>• Prosody treats of the modulations of the voice, ac- cording to the usages of the language we speak, and the sentiments we wish to express : hence, in its most ex- tensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution. Prosody is commonly divided into two parts ; the first teacher the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone ; and the jsecond, the laws of versification. Accent. Accent is the laying of a peculinr stress of the voice on a particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word presume, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, and the second syllable, tume, which syllable takes the accent. Every word of more syllables than one has one accented syllable. For the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, we frequently give a secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which take« the principal accent ; as, tea'-ti-mo-ni-'al, a-ban'-don-Hng. '' Quantity. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in jpronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. A vowel or syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel ; which causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters ; M, " Fall, bale, mOod, hoQse, feature." A syllable is short when the accent is on the consonant, which causes the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; as, " ttnt, bOnnd, hangSr." A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing it ; thus, " "mate" and " note" should be pronounced as slowly again as ••' mil" and " ndt." Mwphaaia. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sen- tence. Sometimes the emphatic words must |)e distinguished by a parti- cular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. Emphasis will be more fully explained under the bead of Elocu- tion, Pauses. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessa- tion of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many eases, a measurable space of time. Tones, Tones are difTereni both from emphasis and pquses ; consist- 212 rUNCTL'ATION. ing in the modulationa of tliu voice, or tlu', notes or variations of eoimJ which we employ in the exi)re(^.-ion oi' our sentiments. Emphasis uficcts partioukir vi'ords and phrases; but tones nflccl sen- tences, paragraphs^ and soiuelimcs a whole dis(.;our,'?e. o4l (, i'i ' ■'«,: ( Punctuation. a. Punctuation is the art of dividing written composi- tion into sentences or parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark tlie ditlbrcnt pauses which the sense and an accurate pronuDciation require. Tho Comma represents the Hhortcst pause ; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, double that of the semi- colon ; and the Period, double that of tho colon. Punctuation is a modern art. Tho ancients were entirely unac- quainted with the use of points ; and wrote, not only without any dis- tinction of members and periods, bat also without any distinction of words. This custom continued till the year 360 befose Christ. How the ancients read their works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After the practice of joining words together had ceased, ■ notes of distinction were placed at the end of every word. This practice continued a considerable time. As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place whilst manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was in- troduced with the art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual : ail the points did not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration, W'rc produced some lime after tho others. Tlie whole set, as ihey are now used, liocame established, wjicn learning and refinement iiad made considerable progress. As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the gram- matical construction of sentences, their application presupposes, on the part of tho student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit of exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary taste in applying thorn properly, they are of great utility, and justly merit our particular attontiun. The great importance of acquiring a tliorongli knowVdge of punc- tuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is established by the single fact, tint the meaning of a scn'enceis often iotnll}/ pcrierlcd by the omisaion or iniaapjilicatitm of points. To il- lustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous examjiles might be selected. The following border on tho ridiculous : " Mr. .Tared Hurton " Tryon has san about s gone to visage, v Before for him t and a co? An ad not amoi ous of pj of a sent( When same mai tence is. c there are at the shri juncts are is simple abundanc( RULE eral, be se with living Exercii corruption liis way to RULE accompani a comma present aj^ . Jish languj mere com I Exercis lion to (uti a real dele serves to e RULE sentence must he di is. in ma JToved." >l PUNCTUATION. ^13 9 of souni iflcct eeo- jomposi- poiiits or hich the micolon, a [■ the semi- irely unac- )ut any dis- jlinclion of rist. How not easy to lad ceased, • ord. This take place mly known t it was in- }, however, semicolon, the others. ilied, wlien n the gram- upposes, on lough they f judgment rreat utility, ge of pnnc- its rules, is nee is often His. To li- es might bo Mr. .Tared Hurton having gone to sea his wife, desires tlie prayers of this church;" " Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, has sandy Jiair, liglit eyes, Ihin visage, with a sliort nose turned up about six feet hiyh, &c." Corrected ; " Mr. .Tared Hurton, having gone to sea, his wile desires the prayers of tiiis cliurch ;" "tliin visage, with a shojt nose turned up, about .six feet high," &c. ,, Before one enters upon the Ktudy of punctucation, it is necessary for him to undcirsland what is meant by an adjunct, a. 'Ample seiitence, and a compouiul aenlcnce. An adjunct or imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence ; as, " Therefore j" " studi- ous of praise;" " in the pursuit of commerce." — For the definition of a sentence, and a comjiound sentence, turn to page 119. When two or more adjimcts arc connected with the verb in the same manner, and by tlie same preposition or conjunction, the sen- tence is. compound, and may l)o resolved into as many simple ones as there are adjuncts ; as, " They have sacrificed tlicir /jertZ^/i and/or/ une, at the shrine of ranitij, pride, and extra cdnnnce." But when the ad- juncts are connected with the verb in a ditferent manner, the sentence is simple ; as, " Grass of an excellent quality is produced in great abundance in the northern regions of our country." ,'■;- v COMMA. V , ■■': :,:!'::.■_ ' ' RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in gen- eral, be separated by a comma ; as, " Every part of matter swarms with living creatures." Exercises in Punctuafion. — Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions injhc human heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness. RULE 2, When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative is accompanied with an insc![)iirable adjunct of importance, it may admit a comma imuiediatdy boiore the verb; as, " The good taste of the present age, lias not allowed us to neglect ibe cultivation of the Eng- lish language ;" " Too many of the pretended fri^iidships of youth, are- mere combinations in pleasure." Exercises.-^-Tho indulgence of a hnrsh disposition is the introduc- tion to future misery. To bo totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in cliaracler. The intermixture of evil in Iniman/society serves to exercise tbe buHoriug graces and virtues of the good. RULE 3. Wlicn the conuuNion of the differoiit parts of a simple sentence is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the adjunct must be distinguished by a comma before and after it ; as, " His work is, in many respccla, very imperfect. It is, therefore, not much ap- proved." But when those interruptions are slight and unimportant, it 914 PUNCTUATION. .H it is better to omit the comma ; as, " Flattery iacerlainly pernicioas ;" " There is «M7'eZy a pleasure in beneficence." Exercises. — Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentle- ness is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your failings, llumility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and ignorance under costly atliro. The best men often expe- rience disappoiutinonts. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumed behaviour can always hide the real character. RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in appo- sition when accompanied with adjiuicts, must be distinguished by commas ; as, " My son, give mo thine heart ;" " Dear Sir, I write to express my gratitude for your many kindosses ;" " I am obliged to you, my friends, lor your many favours ;" " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge ;" " The buUerJly, child of the summer, llutters in the sun." But Mtwo nouns in ap- position are unattended with adjuncts, or if they form only a proper name, they should not be separated ; as, " Paul the apostle, aulFered martyrdom ;" " The statesman Jtjjh-son, wrote tlie delaration of In- dependence." Exercises.— ^Jjord thou hast been our dwelling place in all genera- tions. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of ven- geance ? Death the king of terrors chose a prime minister. Hope the balm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the great Chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety. RULE 6, The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple sentence, must bo separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " His father di/iii^, he succeeded to the estate ;" " To confess the truth, I was in fault ;" " The king, approving Oie plan, put it in execution ;" " He, having finished his academical course, has re- turned iiome, to prosecute his professional studies." Exercises. — Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfor- tune. To enjoy present pleasures he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family assembled under the eye of one com- mon Father. RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing commas between its members ; as, " The decay, the waste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of serious reflections." TJiree or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, connected by conj mictions, expressed or understood, must be scpa- fated by extreme! and disc fearing, " Succes 6usly, ii Two . curing ir must be great ain " Plain, fully, wc Excrc of the ni depresse; and degr Self-cc a youth, elder bro upon and rous and what is reading v good stud justly lov soberly ri In our of decay i *. The as to rend degree of observed may seem ear, nnd a "The Ijei employed the conjur the {)rinei Bhould be employed, conjimetii junetion is be made t nnd thf good ;" t As !l last noun no pause 1 the last a omitted ; .h rniciooB }" . ^.•■i«>'f .) ' I. Gentle- Yoa too parel excel 3tten cxpe- lininistered. ns in appo- guished by r, I write to I obliged to oslle of the be butterfly, iiouns in ap- ily a proper lie, suffered ration of In- 1 all genora- udy. Canst land of ven- ster. Hope onfucius the wise. The finitive mood ending on it, solved into a sentence by itate ;" " To llie plan, put mrse, has re- lilc at miafor- ixiTG ease and could not fail irtue pursued ipiness. All of one com- iinipleonesby ly, lUo waste, and suggest a a, or adverbs, must be scpa- rUNCTUATlON. 215 fated by commas ; as, " The husband, wife,* and children,! tmfSet extremely ;" " In a letter, wo may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss ;" " David was a bravo, wise, and pious man ;" " A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator, lives lor a noble purpose ;" " Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigor* 6usly, in wliat we undertake." Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, oc- curing in the same construction, with their conjunctions understood, must bo separated by commas ; as " Reason, virtue, answer one great aim ;" " Virtue supports in adversiity, moderates in prosperity ;" *' Plain, honest truth, needs no artificial covering ;" " We are fear- fully, wonderfully framed." Exercises. — We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man from his rank in creation. Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a youth. He is altcrnaiely supported by his father his uncle and his elder brother. The man of virtue and honour will be trusted relied upon and esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timo- rous and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true lovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking are the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The groat business of liie is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and walking humbly with our Creator. To hve soberly righteously and [)iously comprohenils the whole of our duty. In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. ."■ *. The correctness and iinporlnnce of tins nilo nppear to be so obvious, as to render it not a liltl(! suiinif^intf, that any writer, possessing the least degree of rhelorieal ta^ite, s-houid reject it. I am bold to afHrm, that it is observed by every correct reader and speaker ; nnd yet, as strange as it may seem, it is irenerally violated liy tiiose printers who punctuate by the car, nnd all others who are iuHueiieed by their pernicious example ; thus, " Tl»e head, the heart and the iiands, should l»e constantly and actively employed in iloinrahle pause in pronuiieialion is ne."(>ssary between the last noun and the verh.aeonnna should he inserted to denote it ; but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, or between the last adverb nnd the verb, the comnui, in such instances, is properly omitted ; thuS; David was a brave, wise, and iuoua man." aid PUNCTUATION. Ap idle trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. Thf* unhappy person had been seriously alFectionately admonished but in vain. RULE 7. Comparative sontencos whose members are short, and sentences connected with relative pronouns the moaning of whose antecedents is rostiiclodor limited to n particuhir sense, should not be separated by a comma ; as," Wisdom is butter than riches ;" " No preacher is so successful as time ;" '■ Ho accepted what I had reject- ed ; ' " Self-denial is the sacrifice irliick virtue must make ;" " Sut>' slract from many modern poets all that, may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain ;" "Give it totlism^/t wliom yon most esteem." In this last exauiple, the assertion is iv^i ot " man in general," but of " the man whom you mo^: . esteem." But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly inserted before tlio relative ; as, " Man, wlio is born of a wo- man, is of few days and full of trouble;" "There is no charmin the female sex, vhich can su|)ply the place of virtue." This rule is equally applicabie to constructions in which the rela- tive is understood ; as, " Value duly the privileges you enjoy ;" that is, "privileges ^/i?c7i you enjoy." Exercises. — How much better is it to uet wisdom than jjold 1 The friendsbips of the world can exist no longer tban interest cements them. Eat what is set bjforo you. They wiio excite tMivy will easily incur censure. A mm who isof i; djtraeting spirit will misconstrue the most innocent words that can bi puttog.jther. Many of the eviia wliich occasion our complaints of the world are wholly imaginary. The gentle mind is like the sm)oih stream which reflects every object in its just proportion anJ in its fairo.-»t colours. In that unaf- fected civility wliich springs from a gentle mind there is an incompar- able charm. The Lord whom I servo is eternal. This is the man we saw yesterday. RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunction expressed, thoy must not be separated ; as, " Libertines call religion, bigotry or supsrsiition ;" " True worth is modest and retired;" "The study of natural history, expands fis/t,'/ elevates the niiuf' ;" " Some m^n sin d 'liberately aii-l presumptuously." When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only should be separated ; as, " There is a natural d itbrom'e between m u'it and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly ;" '• Wlietlior we eatrjr drink, labour or sleep, we should be temperate." • , ' .■■ • But if th) pirts connocted by a conjunction are not short, they may be separated by a comma ; as, " llom uiees may bo said to be .miserable rhapsodies, f>r ilangerous incentives to evil." Exircisis, — Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad pas- sions. True iVienilship will at all tim'vs avoid a rough or careless behaviour. Health and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all the undoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair ftiidartle destroys RULI comma r security; in others, power so the attac Excrc friend en in summ yon*h bo tible and RULE ceding vc comma is '*! suppos But wh which, b) verb to be "Themo! had men ; isj to will Excrcl.s was the m be condem Cndure is I. Who the mcmb; require a c botbre the however, i.'^ seek the I vill cast th a comma n 2. Sever having a c relieve the to reward 3. A ren the form o " It hurts a the vice of s ruNCTUATiorr. 217 rig. Thi* ihed but in short, *nd r of whose uld not be es;" "No had reject- » ;" « Sub- hakspeare, it esteem." •al," but of I comma is )in ofawo- 3 charm ixt i\i the rela- m ;" that rold ? The Ut cements r will easily nisconstrue bf the evila nagiaary. lects every that unaf- 1 incompar- is the man nnected by Libertines modest and levates the r." When arated ; as, , virtue and riir or sleep, short, they said to be ny bad pas- or careless few friends I'ruth is fair ftiid artless simple and sincere uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies and the vigour of our minds. RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is underi^tood, a comma may, in some instances, bo inserted ; as, " From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." But in others, it is bettor to omit the comma ; " No station is so high, no power so great, no chari\cter so unljloniisheil, as to exempt men from the attacks of rashness, malice, and envy." Exercises. — As a companion ho was severe and satirical ; as (Z friend cnptious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer there will bo no beauty .iiid in autumn no fruit. So if you^h bo trifled away without improvement manhood will be contemp- tible and old age miserable, IttJLE ro. When ;islrni)lo moinbor stands as the object of a pre- ceding verb, and its verb inny bucliauged into the infmitivo mood, the comma is generally omittoii ; as, " I suppose he is at rest;'''' changed, ""I suppose him to be at rest.'''' But when the verb to he is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood^ wliich, by trans{70sition, may bo m;i(lo the nominative case to it, the verb to be Is generally separated from the intinitive by a comma ; as, " The most obvious remedy is, to wiihilrwr from all associations with had men ;" " The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all associniious with bad men." Exercises. — 'I hoy believed ho was dead. He did not know that I was the man. I know she was still alivo. The greatest misery is to be condomnod by our own hearts. Tiio greatest misery that we can Cndure is to bo condemned by our own hearts. « NOTES, 1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member fronr the mcmb;'r to wliii'li it Ix'lonirs, sucli intnrvoning phrase appears to* require a comma at each extremity; as, *' They sot out early, arirf, before the close of the day, arrivt.'d at tlio duslinod place." This rule, however, is not gouorally followed by our best writers ; as, " If thoa seek the Lord, ho will bo Ibiind of tlun* ; hut if thou forsake him, he will cast thoo oil* for e .'or ;" '■ Jiut if the parts connected are not short, a comma may be inserted." 2. Several verbs succeeding eacli othoj ir. the infinitive mood, and having acomtnon depondanco, may b'^ divi;l<'dby commas; as, "To relieve tlie indio(Mit, to comfort the alllictcd, to proto(;t the innocent, to reward the deserving", are hinnaneand noble employments." 3. A reni'irkablo oxprossion, or a (■•hort observation, somewhat in the form of a quotalioii, may bo j)ropi'rly marktid with a comma; as, '' It hurts a man's pride to say, li!o not know ,•" " IMutarch calls lying, the vice of s luces »'^ 919 rtJNCTUATIOM. 4. When words are placed in opposition to each othor, or with somo marlied variety, they must bo distinguished by a comma ; as, " Tlio' deep, yot dear ; tlio' gciUlc, yet not dull ; " Strong, without rage ; without o'erjlowing, full." " Good men, in thi;* frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only in uniori with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of each other. "^ Somotimoa when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, the comma m ly bu omitted ; as, '* Many states were in alli-f ance with and under the protection of Rome." The same rule and rostrictions apply, when two or more nountf refer to the same proposition ; as, " Ho was composed both under thef threatening, and at the approach, of a cruel and lingering death ;" " He was not only tlio kbig, but iho father, fj/* his people." 6. The words, " as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, now, lastly, onco more, above all, on the contrary, in tho next place, in short," an;l all othyr words anJ phrases of a similar kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma ; as^ " Remember thy best friend ; form"j'hi, tlie supporter of thy infancy J now, the guardian of thy youth ;" " He feared want ; hence, he over- valued riches ; " So, if youth b? trifled away, " &c. " Again, we must have food and clothing ;" " Finallij, let us conclude." The foregoing rules and examples are sufBiient, it is presumed, to suggest to i\vi learn;3r, in all ordinary instances, the proper place for inserting the comma ; but in applying these rules, great regard must bj paid to the lengih 'A\\\ m ;aiiiug ot tlvj clauses, and the proportion which thoy bciar to one an Jther. SEMICOLON- •Wf! The SLv.nicolon is itsod for dividing a compound sentence into tvVo or mare parts, not so closely connected as those which ara separated by a comma, n jr yot so little dopjnJont on each other, as thoso which are distinguished by a colon. Rule 1. When the preceding member of a sentence does not of itself give complete sense,bnt depends on the following clauso,and sometimes when the sense of that miMiibor would bo complete without the con- cluding one, the semicolon is used; as in the following examples : " As the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our species ; so, nothing is more de- structive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly ;" " The wise man is happy, when lie gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he gains the applause of those around him ;" " Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom." Exercises. — The path of truth is a plain and sale path that of false- hood a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell offierceuess and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness which God perceives to be uo other than disguised misery as then tlicre lid RUL proposit us in thi as, "Si Note ists cmp The( conuectt so indepi RULI but folio the subje her inabi gospel n works ar palace w ciousness Exerc\ stition an . passions which los When we behol imknown RULE and a still or conclui legislator, stretching petual TGf and wratl overawe t When a nected wit close; as, In the among ou )r, or with ima; as. not only in ach other."' Dti agrees, ere in alli^ nore nountf h under thef ng death ;" t, secondly* rary, in thef )f a similar ;omma ; as« hy infancy J ce, he over- Again, we >." resumed, to or place for regard must 3 proportion ICC into two separated those which s not of itself nd sometimes lout the con- ig examples : ng to reason, is more de- olly ;" " The ion; the fool, Straws swim thatoffalse- jntlenoss and is a worldly juised misery I'UNOTUATlON*. 219 as Ihoro are worldly honours which In liis estimation ar) reproacii no tliere is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness. But all subsists by elemental strife :,'j ' And passions are the elements of life. RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule or proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction as ; as in the fullowing instance : Propositions govern the objective case ; as, " She gave the book to him." Note. — In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctu-* ists employ the colon, instead of the semicoloiw V COLON. The Colon is ur,oJ to divide a sentence into two or more parts, loss coimccted tliati tiioso wiiich are separated by a semicolon ; but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. ■'■RULE. 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some Hitf)plemental remark, or further illustration of the siibject, tlie colon may be properly employed ; as, " Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel revealed the plan of divine interposition and aid." "Great works are performed, not by strength, but by perseverance : yonder palace was raised by single stones; yet you sc^e its height and spa- ciousness." Exe7'cises. — The three great enemies to tranquillity are vice super- stition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions superstition which tills it with imaginary terrors idleness which loads it with todiousness and disgust. When we look forward into the year wliich is beginning what do we behold there? All my brothruu is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents itself. RULE 2. Wiion a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied ; as, " A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almi<2luy governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing us of per- petual rest prepared for the righteous lioreaftor, and of indignation and wrath awaiting thfi wick'^d : thps> are the considerations wiiicli overawe the world, which support inle^'-iiy, and check guilt." PERIOD. When a sentence is complete, and so ind^p'^ndent as not to bo coiv nected with the one which folknvs it, a period should be inserted at its close ; as, " Fear God." " Hoiiour the patriot." " Respect virtue.' In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of practices among our best writers and grammarians. Compound sentences K 220 PUNCTUATION. connected by conjunctions, are sometimes divided by the period ; tar, " Recreations, thougli tliey may be of an innocent Itind, require steady government to lieep them wiihin a due and limited province. But such as are of an irreguhir and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished from every well-regulated mind." The period should follow every abbreviated word ; as, " A. D., N. B.,U. S., Va., Md., Viz., Col., Mr." PASH. hi- - •'•'^•fi-^ The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent Writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a signilicant pause is required ; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment ; as, " If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !" " If acting conformably to the will of our Creator ; — if promoting the welfare of mankind around us ; — if securing our own happiness ; — are objects of the highest moment: then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue." A dash fqllowing a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if the stop were alone ; and when used by itself^ requires a pause of such length ns the sense only can determine.^ *' Here lies the great — False marble, where ? " Nothing but sordid dust lies here." .'..lifr. INTERROGATORY POINT. The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence; as, " Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?" , „. , :y, Note. — The inteiTogative point should not be employed in cases where it is only said, that a question has been asked ; as, " The Cy- prians asked me why I wept." . EXCLAMAtORY POINT. The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emo- tion, surprise, joy, grief, &c., and sometimes to invocations and ad- dresses; as, "How much vunity in the pursuits of men !" "What is more amiat)]e than virtue !" " JNfy friend ! this conduct amazes me I" " Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loviti^- liiudnosd is great !" PARENTHESIS. A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may be omitted without injuring tiie grammatical construction ; as, " To gain a posthumous reputtition, is to save a i'(i\v letters (for what i6 a name besides '?) from oblivion." " Know Ihontliis IruLli, (onougli for man to know,) " Virtue alone is happiiii'^s below.'' fUNCTUAtlON. 221 period} &*r [uire steady ince. But 3 governed, , "A.D., as. 1 incoherent tence breaks here there is L he, so much " If acting r the welfare •—are objects 1 to cultivate to be greater quires a pause NoT&.-^The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate deprefMioil of the voice ; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a point, the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the sense would require, if the parenthetical characters weird not used. It ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member has that precedes it ; as, " He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) who is not jealous when ho has partners cf love. " Or why so long (in life if long can be) " Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me ?" Parenthesis, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form an exception to tliis rule ; as, " If I grant his request, (and who could refuse it ?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment" ' ■' ■ •'^^' ' APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION. The apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark the po^aessive case of a noun ; as, " ^tis, for it is; iho\ for ihottgh ; 6*eft for over ;" " A man^s poverty." A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's ownlaugnage; as; " The proper study of mankind is man." When an author represents a person as speaking, the language of that person should be designated by a quotation ; as. At my coming in, he said, " You and the physician are come too late." A quota- tion contained within another, should be distinguished by two single commas ; as, "Always remember this ancient maxim: ' Know thyself.'" I interrogative uch exquisite iloyed in cases as, "TheCy- If sudden emo- lations and ad- 1" « What ;t amazes me I" DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS. It is proper to begin with a capital. ' 1. The first word of every sentence. 2. Proper name.' , the appellation of the Deity, &c. ; as, " James, Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron ;" " God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit." 3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, nouns which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun / and the in- terjection O, and every line in poetry; as, "American, Grecian, English, French ; Irving's Sketch Book, Percivals Poems ; I write ; Hear, O earth !" -. remark, which Instruction; as, 3tters (for what .i/^i.. iiow,) Jl'-'V.' APPEIDIX: V, VERSIFICATION. ' Poetry is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination. Versification, in English, is the harmonious arrangement of a particular number and variety of accented and unaccented syllables, according to particular laws. Rhyme is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllable in one line, to the sound of the last syllable in another ; as, " O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue sea, " Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as/ree." Blank Verse consists in poetical thoughts expressed iii regular numbers, but without the correspondence of souna at the end of the lines which coi>stitutes rhyme. Poetical Feet consist in a particular arrangement and connekion of a number of accented and unaccented syllables. They are calldd feet because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. ' All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables ; and are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : — Dissyllable. A Trochee - J An Iambus u - A Spondee APyrrhick u u Trisyllable. ''' A Dactyle - u v An Amphibrach c - ci An Anapaest \j %j - A Tribrach \j u u A Trochee has the first syllabic accented, and the last unaccent- ^d ; as. Hateful, pettish : Restless mortals toil fdr nought. . ; • .r -' .: ^"-^/ An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accent- ed ; as, Bfitray, consist : The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke dScay. • ^ A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter un- accented ; as. Labourer, possible : — From the l6w pleasures 6f this filUen natiire. An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last ac- cented -y as. Contravene, acquiesce : At the close 6f the day, when the jhaml6t is still. A Spondee, as. The pale moon. A Pyrrhick, as, on th6 tall tree. An Amphibrach, as, Delightful. A Tribrach, as, Numerable. RHETORIC. s'VVa '■ * I n■-■^ ■■<. .7,, ■■■'.\U h ;ination« tnent of a I syllablea, syllable in \^ V-l A' ■',• - in regular end of the I connexion 1^ are calldd ste]^s along ables; and ur of three, I — t) t unaccent- ast accent- 3 latter un- the last ac- ill. he tall tree. &bld. GuAMMAB instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly, * Rhetoric teaches us to express them with force and elegance. The fornoer is generally confmed to the correct application of words in constructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of words, of the happiest method of con- structing sentences, of their most advantageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various kinds and qualities of composition. The principles of rhetoric are principally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of gram- mar. Hence, an acquaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the liberal arts, is a pre-requisite to the study of rhetoric and belles-lettres. COMPOSITION. It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that good sense is the foundation of all good writing. One who understands a subject well, will scarcely write ill upon it. Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer the union of good sense and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her province to teach him to embelish his thoughts with elegant and appropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agreeable variety of expression. It ought to be his aim *' To mark the point where sense and dullness meet.' » .1 • STYLE— PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION. Style is the peculiar manner in which we express our conceptions by means of language. It is a picture of the ideas which arise in our minds, and of the order in which they are produced. The qualities of a good style may be ranked under two heads, perspicuity and ornament. ' ■' "-*' *^'' •^ht"^'^^- 924 STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. Perspicuity, wliich is considered the fundamental quality of a good stylo, claims attention, first, to single words and phrases ; and, secondly, to the construction of sentences. When considered with respect to words and phrases, it re- quires these three qualities, imrity, propricly, and 'preci- sion. Purity of language consists in the use of such words and such constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in opposition to words and phrases belonging to other lan- guages, or which are obsolete or new-coined, or employed without proper authority. Propriety is the choice of those words which the best usage has appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them. It implies their correct and judicious application, in opposition to low expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significant of the ideas which we wish to convey. It is the union of purity and propriety which renders style graceful and |)erspicuous. ..^v .«.>.. m Precision, from praciderc, to cut off, signifies retrenching ftll superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas inieodcd to be conveyed. ^::;t :rn STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. A proper construction of sentences is of so great import- ance in every species of composition, that ^^'"i cannot be too strict or minute in our attention to it. Elegance of style requires us generally to avoid many short or long sentences in succession ; a monotonous correspon- dence of one member to another ; and the commencing of a {uece, section, or paragraph with a long sentence. The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence are , Unity, Clearness, Strength, and Harmony. Unity is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A sentence implies an arrangement of words in which only one proposition is expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts j but these parts ought to be so closely bound together, as to make on the mind the impression, not of many objects, but of only one. In order to preserve this unity, the following rules may be useful. 1. In the course of the sentence, the scene should he chinged as Utile as possible. In every sfintence there is 1 quality jrds and inlences. ;8, it re- id ytreci- ^ords and ive speak, ther lan- smployed lest usage :pre8s by cation, in 869 which o convey, iers style ■'.<• v ; i; i ■ !• I itrenching a manner :)py of the at import- not be too nany short correspon- ncing of a atence are sentence, vliich only St of parts ; ther, as to ects, but of Dwing rules sliouU \^ se there is STRUCTUKK OF SENTKiNCSS. 325 \/, some leading or governing word, wiiich, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to the end of it. The fol- lowing sentence is not con.structc{l according to this rule :— ♦' After we canio to anchor, they put mo on shoit;, where I was sulutod by all my iriumls, who ncoivcd mo with the greatest kindness." In this sciiti ik;;-, though iht* olijccts are sufficiently coiincctod, yot, by shii'tijigHo froqiiently the place and the person, the vessel, the shore, wc, they, I, and w;/to, they appear in so disunited u view, that the mind is led to wander forthe sense. The sentence is restored to its proper unity byconstructing it thus : " Having come to anchor, I was put on shore, where 1 was saluted by all my friends, who receiv- ed me with the greatest kindness." '2. Never crowd into one sentence tilings which have so little connexion that they would hear to he divided into two or more sentences. The violation of this rule produces so unfavour- able an effect, that it is safer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and confused. 3. Avoid all unnecessary 'parentheses. Clearness. Aniblguity, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from a bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words. :.-,:..-;: ■,'. , ,, A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences is, that those words or members most nearly relaled should he placed in Hie sentence as near to each other as possihle, so as thereby to make their mutual relation clearly appear. Tliis rule ougiit to Jbe observed. 1. In the position of adverbs. " By greatness," says Mr. Addison, " I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a wliole view." Tne improper situation of the adverb only, in this sentence, renders it a limitation, of the verb 7nean, whereas the author intended to have it qualify the phrase a single object; thus, " By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of » whole view." 2,. In the posilion of phrases and members. " Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton, in any circum- stances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow ?" Corrected : " Are these designs which any man who is born a Briton ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any circumstances, in any situation, to avow ?" 3. In the position of pronouns. The reference of a pro- 220 iMir/ronic \^ $i 1 fci*«..'vi ^^; , •■»(. noun to ita noim should uhvivys bo so char thai we rannolpOit- sib/p mialake it. : otherwise, llio noun ought to bo ropoiUed. '* It is folly to pivtond to mux oursolvos nfjjuinst tho nccidentn of lil'o, by hoapiug up lroasur(\s, whirh iioiliinj>' oiui protect uh ngaiiiht but tho good jjiovidtiuu^jf our Iliiivonly Father." Which, in this seutoiuc, griuunuUioidly refers to //raA'ttrc* / and this vvouKl convert tho wiioh^ period into jionsense. Tho sentence should have been thus eonstruoted, " It is folly to protcnti, by henpitig up treasures, to arm ourselves against tho acculcnLs of life, against which nothing can protect us but tho good providonco of our Jleavtnly Fatlita'/' Sthrkhth. Hy tho s/rnifrlh of a sentenco is nicnnt such an arrangement of its several words andmend»ers as exhibits tho sense to tho best advatttnge, and gives every word and mem- ber its duo weiglit and force. 1. Tho first rule for promoting tlio strength of a sentenco is, to take from it all redundant wonlfi and 7ncm?wrs. What- ever can ho eavsily suppdied in tho mind should generally bo omitted ; thus,' " ConteJit with deserving a triumph, ho re- fused tho honour of it," is bet(er than to say, " Being content with deserving a triumph," «Vo. " They returned back again to tho same city from whence they canu; forth." If wc ex- punge from this short sentenco Jice words, which aro mere expletives, it will bo much more neat and forcible; thus, " They returned to the oity wl enco they came." Hut wo should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a hardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit. 2. Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all the particles employed for transition and connexion, is required. In compositions of an elevated character, tho relar five should generally bo inserted. An injudicious repetitiou of and enfeebles stylo ; but when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possi, ble, it may bo repeated with peculiar advantage. " Such a man may fall a victim to power ; but truth, aiid reason, and liberty, would faU with him." a. l)isj)osc of the capital word or words in that part of thfi sentence in which they will make the most sfrikinff impressiftn. 4. Cause the 7neml)ers of a sentenco to fro on rising in theif importance one above another. In a sentenco of two members, the longer should generally he tho concluding one. 5. Af^oid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preppsi* tipn, or amj inconsiderable tcord, unless it he emphatical. FKiUnES OP SI'KK<'H. 22.7 molpoit- ccidents lotect UB /athcr." - 'asurvs ; 0. Tho folly to ninst tho s but tho ; such an hibitstho nd meni- scntenco What- erally bo h, ho re- }g content \ck uguin If vvc cx- nro mere \Ae; thus, But wo mrdncss to shelter relativcft, ncxion, is , tho rela^ •cpetitiou cts which as possir Such a (Ason, and art of thfi trcsswit' (T in their nicnibers, / prcppsi' 0. Where two Ihint^it arc compared or contrasted with each other, a resemblarvc in the lawjua{!!e and construction should Ic observed. *^\'-V' nof!:- ^--r' '"• .-• •.■-.-• • •. •'■ -•• ;mj»ivr FIGURES OF SPEECH. in ''•.. •i\ 'Piijuros of Speech rnny bo dcscribod as that language which is prompted cither by tho irmvgination, or by tho pas- sions. Thoy generally imply some duparturo from simplicity of expression ; and exhibit ideas in a mannor more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures l>ave been commonly divided into two great classes ; Fig- ures of TFortZ*, and Figures of Thought. Figures of Words are called Tropea, and consist in a word s being employed to signify something that is different from the original meaning ; ej that by altering tho word, wo destroy the %ure. When we say of a person, that lie has a fme taste in wines, tho word taste is used in its common, literal sense ; but when we say, he has a fine taste for paititing, poetry, or music, we use tho word figuratively. •' A good man enjoys comfort. in the midst of aiivorHity," is simple language ; hut when it is said, " To tho upright there ariscth lifrht in darkness ^''^ the same sentence is (!Xi)rcsaod ia a figurative stylo, light is put in the place of comfort^ and darkness is used to suggest tho idea .of adversity. ' The following are the most important figures : 1. A Mktai'IIOB is founded on tho nwomUance which one •object bears to another j or, it is a compiU'isou in an abridged form. When I say of some great minister, " That ho uphoids tho state like a pillar which supjwrts the weight of a whole edi- fice," 1 fairly make a comparison ; but when I say of such a minister, " Thiit ho is tho pillar of state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In tho latter construction, the compa- rison, between the minister and a pillar, is made in the mind ; but it is expressed without any of the wt)r(ls that denote com- parison. MiHaphor!^ abound in rill wr'tmgs. In the scriptures they wmmm '::^9i RHETORIC. '''' liiay be found in vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is ■railed a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c. ; and men, according to their difTerent dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep, dogs, ser- pents, vipers, 6ic. Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American Aborigines who linger on the borders of the "white srttlcments," employs the following beautiful metaphor : "The proud pillar of their independence has been shaken down, and the whole moral Jahric lies in ruins. 2.. An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor con- linued ; or, it is several metaphors so connected together in sense, as ircquenlly to form a kind of parable or fable. It When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee." , 4. A Metonymy is where the cause is put for theeflect, or the efilct for the cause ; the container for the thing contained ; or the sign for the thing signified. Wlu the eff be res| by "g the phi for the the per 5. A is jytit f( or a spe anythin is calle< Thus horse is »heru an tlie " he like ma "Youth 6. P] which ' When V frniles V restlesst*\ show th propertic The "Che "The them; 7. Ai absent or address is swallo O grave " Wee bend thy of the hi silence o 8* An antithesis Examp increase 1 FIGURES OF SPEECH. «fcNh^ When we say, " They read MttUnt" the cause is put Ibr C the effect, meaning " Milton's works." " Gray hairs ihouW V be respected ;'* here the effect i» ptitfor the oausc; raeoiiirig'' p by " gray hairs," old age, which produodsgray hftirsi hi the phrase, '* The kettle boils," the container is substituted for the thing contained. " He addressed the cludr /" that itf^ the person in the chair. i>j ^- ^M 5. A Synecdoche or Comprehension. When the whole is |Ait for a part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for » species^ or a species for a genus ; in general, when any thing le^^^ or anything more, is put for the precise object meant, the H^re is called a synecdoche. , ^ . V,^ , , _^ . , .. ^ -:..,^. ^^ g: Thus, " A fleet of twenty sa/Z, instead ^f^ ftiips." " Tho horse is a noble animal ;" The dog is a faithful oreclture :" »heru an individual is put for tl^e species. We sometimes use the " head" for the person, and the " waves" fort^e «ca. In like manner, an attribute may be put for a subject ; as, "Youth" for the young, the ",deep" for the sea. ;i. jisiiv* • 6. Personification or Prosopopceia is thttt ft^urtj by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. When we say,. " the ground thirsts for rain," or, " the earth smiles with plenty;" when we speak of " ambition's being restless,^* or, " a disease's being deceitfptl ;" such expression^ show the facility, with which the mind can accomipodate the properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate. The folio wing are fine examples of this figure; " Cheer'd with the gftiteful smell, old Ocean smiles ;" " The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them ; and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." 7. An Apostrophe is an address to some person, either absent or dead, as if he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently made to a personified object ; as, " Death is swallowed up in victory. O death f where k thy stin^ ? O grave ! where is thy victory ?" " Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore : bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sunbeam at noon over the silence of Morven." 8. Antithesis. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of two objects. Example. "If you wish to enrich a person, study riot to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires,'^ "-'■^' %*4^ ai- RHETORIC. v^vJ-jH 9. Hyperbole or Exaggeration consists in magnifying- an object beyond its natural bounds. "As swift as the wind j as white as the snow ; as slow as a snail 5" and the like, are ex- travagant hyperboles, y^i u}^\^n ^u-v ^» '• .: -M^fi {.«>> '>^vtt "I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the- blasted fir ; his shield, the rising moon j he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hills." 10. Vision is produced, when, in relating something that is past, We use the present tense, and describe it as actually passing before our eyes. < ' • , ^'-' 11. Interrogation. The literal use of an interrogation,'' is to ask a question ; but when men are strongly moved, what- ever they would affirm or deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a question. ^ , "^^^'^ , A "^ '^^"^^^ Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that he should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repent. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it ^ Hath he spoken it ? and. shall he not make it good ?" " Hast thou an arm like God ? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him?** 12. Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions, such as surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. " O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way- faring men!" "0 that I had wings like a 4ove ! for then would I fly away, and be at rest !" " ' .•.:'.::' ■:':^ '•^"; * 13. Irony is expressing ourselves in a mariner contrary to our thoughts ; not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks. We can reprove one for his negligence, by saying, " You have taken great care, indeed." The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests of Baal to prove tho truth of their deity. " He mocked them, and said, Cry aloud, for he is a god : either he , is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey, or, perad- yenture, he sleepeth, andmurt be waked." 14. Amplification or Climax consists in heightening all the circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a strong light. ... •. Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he saya, " It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds ; it is the height of guilt to scourge him ; little less than parricide to put him to death : what nam3, then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?" ... 1 '^nniPffi^ ««p mmmmm w^mm (■"t ying an ind; as , are ex- lear, the le shore, " ing tfittt actually •■:r- fogfiitidn,' ;d, what- ess, they Lord is le should Hath he ; thou an :ehimr ons, suck of way- for then intrary to force to ;ence, by lallenged «He [either he ir, perad- [ening all desire to he saya, Ihe height lut him to moifying .R.'\J> vS tff^M} "1^ ^Si-^.^ KEY 9 Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under ihe Rules and Notes. . - RuL^ 4- Frequent cornmission of sin hardens men in it. Great pains have been taken, &c. — is seldom found. The sincere are, &;c. — is happy. What avail, &c. — Disappoint- ments sink — the renewal of hope gives, dcc-w without limit — has been conferred upon us.— Thou canst not heal — but thou mayst do, &c. — consists the happiness, «Scc. — Who touchedst, or didst touch Isaiah's hallowed Kps with iire. JNiote I. And wilt thou never be to Heaven resigned ?.— And who had great abilities,* &c. Note 2. Are peace and honour. — was controversy. Rule 7. Them that you visited. — him that was mentioned. — ke who preached repentance, &c.— mm B'»«?!IW|IWBP^^^^^HPI mmmmm I / 292 KEY TO THE EXERCISES. M) \;iy, RtTLE 19. Homer^s works arc, &,c. —Asa's heart. James Hart's book. Note 1. It was the mm, loomen, and children's lot,'&;c. ; or, It was the lot. of \ho mon, women, and cliiklrcn.— i\7cr, Jb/m, and Andrew's, &c. Note 2. This' is Campbell the i>oeVs production; or, The production of Campbell, ^fec— The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer and habcrda.'i-hcr. Nite 4. The ])upirs eompofiing, 6^0.— rule's being observ- ed. — of the president's neglecting to lay it before the council. Rule 13. Of his audience.— put it on Jacob. — sprinkle them— and they shall, &c.— of his reputation. Note. Yo\x were Iblamed ) you were worthy. —where were you ? — how far tcere you f Rule 14. Who hast been, &:c.— 'to is the sixth that has lost his life by this means. Who all my sense con/ifterf5^/ or, didst confine. Note. Arid who Uroughtest him forth out of Ur. Rule 15. Who shall be sent, &c.— This is the man who. Rule 16. Tney7o whom much is given, &cc.—with whom you associate, (Sec. — lohom I greatly respect, &cc.—whom we ought to love, and to lohcm, &c — They whom conscience, &c. — With whom did you walk 'i—Whom did you see ? — To whom did you give the book ? Rule 17. Who gave John those books ? We.— Mm who lives in Pearl-street— My brother and he.— She and /. Rule 18. Note 2. Thirty /ims.—twenty/eef— one hundred Jathoms. Note 6. He bought a pair of new shoes— piece of elegant furniture. — pair o£ fine horses— tract of poor land. Note 1. Are still more difficult to be comprehended-'-mosi doubtful ov precarious wtiy, &Q..'-This model comes nearer perfection than any I, &;c. Rule 19. Note. That sort— these two hours.— T/w« kind, ■&C.— He saw one person, or more than one, enter the garden. Note 2. Better than himself— is so small.— /i/s station may fee, w bound by the laws. j i Note 3. On each side, &c.— took each Irs censor. Rule 20. Whom did they, &c.— They ivhom opulence,-f wmm KEY TO IHS EXERCISES. 233 fchom luxury, &c. — Him and them we know, &c.r^Hfer tiiai is negligent, &c. — my brother and me, &c. — WApm. did they send, &c. — Them whom he, &c. Rule 21. It is I.— If I were Ae.— it is he, indeed. — Whom. do you, &c. — W/m do men say, &c.— and who say ye, &c.— whom do you imagine it to have been ?— it was /; but you knew that it was he. Rule 25 Bid him come.— durst notvTo it....}leQ.T himread, &c. — mak^s us approve and reject, &g.— better to live — than to outlive, &c.— nobler. — was possessed, or that ever can be. — one great edijice, — smaller one*.— honesty is. — it to be. — will follow me, r^.I shall dwell— .15 gone astray.,— he could not have done* -feeling a propensity. *•. ::^^^i: .•.v;'.» : r'^. .if ■■i ^. intend- .—very V Jack, rty feet whom —under' wilt be- ifore, to duty to , or it will go, Reason's lad been . '.. ^1 le.--- pcr- —should in Ms"-' -are the tiave in- . — which opinions tionarchi- >pagated. -After I ended to three.— ited. — is |ne great low me, \ve done* PU NO TU AT ION. ''■m COMMA. CORRECTIONS OF THE BXERCISBS IN PUNCTUATION^ RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human heart. Tlie friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery is a sign of littfeness. RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the in- troduction to future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is n real defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good. ..- RULE 3. Charity, like t!ie sun, brightens all its ooject fV«Sg., '■■^m,-f vf:T--v,.«»M*i, ^t i T ii itrf i th j .. ^'AsAiah 'i^ sysS^ <-1' / A^.*.-^/