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Tous Im autras axamplairaa originaux sont film*s an commandant par la pramiira paga qui comporta una amprainta d'impraaaion ou d'illustratlon at an tarminant par la darniira paga qui comporta una talla amprainta. Un daa symbolaa suivants apparaltra sur la darnlAra imaga da chaqua microfieha, salon la caa: la symbols -h^ signifia "A SUIVRE", ia symbola V signifia "FIN". Laa cartas, planehas, tableaux, ate, pauvant Atra film«a A das taux da rMuction diff«rants. Lorsqua la document est trop grand pour Atra raproduit en Mn seul niich*, 11 est film* d partir da I'angia sup«rieur gauche, «Je gauche h droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images n^cessaira. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ypf^WMHyHi1,||ii1ii'Fi«ii' INQUIRIES INTO THE CAUSE Of ov % BY SAMUEL NEWCOMB, Surgeon. ACCORDING TO THE TRUE ANATOMICAL. STRUCTURE OF THE wmAm Amm mmwwm§B e^wim^ AS TAl DOCTOR^'SPURZHEIM. flj8ontreal : PRINTED BY NAHUM MOWER, No. 91, St. Paul Street. 1822. Price Qs. 6d, , .^If— -"Sj^.^^.J Sx^o(> ^ .JfSj^ ■f>M 4FB3]f^®4l. IN order that the preface to the following observations may not become tiresome from its length, I shall only allude to the object of my inquiries, and the inaptness which is gen- erally manifested in the study of Nature, of thinking for our- selves, together with our readiness to follow adopted meta- physical opinions without putting them to the test of our rea- soning faculties, guided by the influence of facts which are presented, under a due consideration of the beings of Nature as they really are, from the most simple to the most complica- ted state of organization. The object then of these observa- tions, is to form some rational conclusion relative to the cause of the manifestations of the faculties of the mind of Man as the most perfect of the works of creation. Now in order to do so, it is necessary to follow the natural gradation of simple nature step by step, from the most simple to the most complicated and perfect in manifestations— Man. The ease with which adopted opinions may be followed, holds forth a flattering inducement to all who are, or can be satisfied with appearances alone ; but he who wishes to know things as they reallv are, is not satisfied with appearances only, but is guided wholly by observation and induction. Hence he leaves appearanees to tlie speculative and superficial observers, whose IV PREFACE, inculcations naturally corroborate with a love of the marvelous. The following inquiries are therefore offered to the public con- sideration, with a sincere hope that the good intentions with which they are offered, will sufficiently compensate for any ambiguity or any imperfection of a first attempt. And it may suffice to offer no other apology for intruding upon the public than that I conceive it incumbent upon every one who feels to do good, to do so ; and to exert every power to add something to the stock of knowledge ; yet I am uninclined to presume to offer any thing new to the already enlightened and learned. But my intentions are merely to offer an easy means of giving a just direction to the thoughts and reflections of the youtl^ who are yet in the pursuit of knowledge. SAMUEL NEVVCOMB, Surgeon. Montreal, 25th June, 1822. % y %> mmmmtM It % 4 l INTRODUCTION. I HAVE thought that a short introduction by way of Question and Answer, might render the' following inquiries more easily understood by the young mind j and yet every one is aware that the best method of detecting any imperfection in a work is to see it in print. And it is self-evident that it is necessary there should be a mutual for- bearance on the part of the Author and reader. Thus the Author cannot expect the reader's ap- probation before he has become acquainted with the subject and the principles upon which it is founded j nor should the reader condemn, until by a thorough knowledge of th m, he is able to point out the defects, if there be any. Q.— In what consists the difference of Animal and Automatic life ? A.— Animal life takes place with consciousness, and Automatic life constitutes the functions or ac- tions which take place without consciousness j as the functions or actions of the Stomach, Liver, Kidneys, &c. 6 Q. — What is understood by the functions of Ani- ml life ;> /i. — All those actions of the Brain and Nervous Systems which take place with«rtkconsciousness. Q. — Are all the faculties of the mind manifested by means of the Brain ? A. — Yes. Q. — Is the Brain composed of but one single Or- gan for the manifestation of all the faculties of An- imal life ? A. — No : for the Brain is composed of as many different and independent organs as there are spe- cial faculties. Q. — Does all consciousness reside in the Brain ? A. — Yes.— But Q. — Do we not see with our eyes, hear with our ears, &c. A. — Yes ; but it is by means of the Brain alone that we have consciousness of it. Q. — Do we not perceive the light which strikes the eyes, or the sound whicli agitates the nerves of the ears ? -A. — Yes; but merely passively; but it is by means of an internal faculty that we are rendered conscious of it ; which causes attention and con- stitutes the active state of the five external senses ; for they are all governed by the same laws in res- pect to the internal faculties, and therefore serve on- ly to receive external impressions and to propagate 1. - 1l > them to some internal Organ ; but with respect to their immediate sphere of activity each sense has its own laws. Q. — What proof is there that the Brain is com- posed of many Organs ? A. — The existence and manifestation of the dif- ferent faculties, their modifications and the impos- sibility of /one Organ's manifesting one fa\'ulty in perfection and another in a limited manner. As : men of great genius manifest the greatest perfec- tion ; while others manifest only a middling share of talent, and others still less. And again the sep- arate independence of the five external senses, with the plurality and peculiar functions of the Organs of Automatic life, are also at least presumptive proofs. Q. — Are the size, form and external figure of the body in general, expressive of any of the facul- ties of the mind ? A. — No : for as the Brain is exclusively the seat of all the faculties of the mind, it is upon the head alone that the external expressions, indicative of the faculties of the mind, are to be sought. - Q. — What is the general external expression in- dicative of talents in general ? A. — \. well proportioned and developed fore- head ; because the reflecting faculties have their seat in this part of the head. •Q. — Why are not the external size and form of •Af;: 8 the body in general indicative of some of the fac- ulties ? A — Because there is no proportion between the form and size of the body and the manifestation of the mind ; for the body may be ill-proportioned, small and very weak j and yet the manifestations of the faculties of the mind may be very energetic. ^- urn INQUIRIES INTO THE CAUSE OP TltlE mAHWw^OTAOT®MS OF ®iia mwniiif ffliHD^ IN EXAMINING Nature, the reflecting powers are naturally brought into action by the impres-, sions of the beings around u^ conceptions are formed, and these are more or less correct accor* ding to the number of observations founded on facts. Hence in order to render these observa- tions as intelligible as possible and establish a prin- ciple at least rational, I shall in the first place take notice of the properties of Matter as being the lowest in the scale of things ; and proceed from a simple to a more complicated state according as new parts are addjed, and the faculties are multi- plied ; inculcating at all times that no faculty can be manifested without a related organization. It will not be denied that every kind of Earth, every Metal,. every Salt, has its determinate qualities by B iiifl'r'ii- diU^Mk-o • L^S^-: 10 which one may be distinguished from another ; as weight, crystalization, affinity, and other Physical and Chemical properties, which are fixed, deter- minate and permanent j and it is as evide: J: that matter is subject only to the laws of Physics and Chemistry. In advancing a step to what appears next in gradation, we perceive Vegetation offered for consideration, in which we perceive a more complicated system. In addition to the foregoing substance we see in Vegetation the principle of life J and besides being subject to all the laws of matter, it has so: lething proper to iiself compared with matter alor.e j as to be subject to the laws of life ; such as to be produced by a germ which has formerly made a part of a similar being, to be nourished by intusseption increase, decrease and die 5 thus forming a step on the way towards perfection ; for in plants it is well known there is an assimila- ting power, which is not a property of simple mat- ter ; and this is indubitably a species of organization. Thus as we rise in the scale of beings, it is perfect- ly conceivable that the increased number of the manifestations, has a cause, and that this cause is evidently a more complicated state of organization. And the same laws may be observed throughout all nature from the most simple to the most peJect ; by which all the phenomena of the manifestations of Animal life, from the lowest to the highest and perfect in the scale of being, are perfectly explica- t I # ^PMHRl s ' » « I t 11 ble. Now as it will not be necessary to examine the analogy of every class of natural beings, from Plants up to Man, in order to render the principle quite evident, and perfectly conceivable that Na- ture does not vary her laws in any one class of nat- ural beings, but that there is a strict analogy throughout, I shall suppose a class in which Animal Life is apparent, and consequently Automatic or Organic Life, that the repetition of Analogies might not become fatiguing to the reader. Hence attending to the phenomena observable in this class of beings, it is necessary to pay attention to the particular functions and the Organs by which thsse are performed ; and we shall indubitably see that the induction to be formed is determinate, conclusive, and has a natural tendency to the de- velopement of that principle which will naturally lead the mind of the reader to some just concep- tions respecting the cause of the manifestations of the Human Mind and tlie Organic condition of the different faculties. Thus a question is naturally suggested, what is perceivpd in this class of beings as an additional testimony in tli« elucidation of the subject ? It may suffice to observe that there are perceived cer- tain innate faculties which are not observable in Plants, and these are discoverable from the difter- ent manifestations which have not been observed in the Vcirctable world. B ^ 12 Now to elucidate this point with more precis- ion, and to give to the reasoning upon it a more determinate conclusion with respect to the facts observed in this class of beings, I must take notice of the material structure of the additional parts, which have not been observed in Plants. Thus it is evident from the manifestations as is observed above, that a distinct Nervous System is added ; because even in this simple class of Animals there are actions, such as manifesting fear on the approach of an enemy and certain instincts j which cannot be ascribed to the functions of Automatic Life. And as by fear consciousness is supposed, it is to be infered that an animal which fears is qon^ scious of danger. Hence Animal Life begins with consciousness. Now it must appear quite evident that Nature ob^ serves the same laws throughout all classes of be^ ings in respect to the perfection of their manifesta^ tions. And it is indubitably evident that this perfect tion is in exact proportion to the parts which are added as we rise in the scale of beings. Hence the manifestation of a faculty supposes an organic zation by which such manifestation is performed. Thus the manifestations are proportionate to the organization and its developement in so far as na- ture is concerned alone ; for I shall have occasion in a subsequent part of this little work to observe ^ # "^ t^ttm-nm^-rm- ^^ "' 13 that a conformable exercise improves the manifes- tations of the different faculties. Now as analogies might be repeated to infinity tendmg to prove that the same principle obtains throughout all classes of natural beings I shall omit a further repetition of them, and solicit the reader's attention particularly to a consideration of the manifestations of the Hu- man Mind ; which, of all subjects, has from the remotest antiquity, engaged the attention of Phi- losophers and Physiologists, and still opens a field of the most important matter for investigation. Hence in order that the principle inculcated in the analogies, of the preceding part of these inquiries, . may apply in the reasoning upon this most impor- tant part of the subject, it is necessary, in addition to what has already been adduced, to observe, that, in man is united all the properties of the lower or- ders of beings. Thus man possesses matter and is subject to all the lawj of matter ; his body has ex- tension and figure, and possesses all other Physical and Chemical qualities. And many functions can- not be explained without a knowledge of the laws of Physics, Mechanics, and Chemistry. Moreover thalife of Man, and of Plants, is supported by the same means, namely, by the influence of Caloric, Air, Light, Food, &c. Again we observe in the higher orders of Animals certain manifestations, which are not observable in the more inferior class- es, in exact proportion to the number of parts tik? k. u which are added, or in other words, according to the more complicated state of organization. And I repeat tliat I cannot too much insist on the fact, that there can be no manifestation of any faculty of Animal Life without a relative organization, any more than that Automatic motions can be produ- ced without related Organs. Moreover, it is a fact generally admitted that Nature, in order to produce various effects, has varied the material condition of the different Organs. This is observed throughout all nature : every Salt and every Metal has its own crystalization ; every Plant, every Fruit Tree has itb particular organization. It is the same with Animals, and even with Man ; and each has a par- ticular function. Thus, the Lungs are destined for respiration, the Liver for the secretion of Bile, the Stomach for digestion, &c. The five external senses are separated and independent of each other, which, together with the plurality and indepen- dence of the Organs of Automatic Life would ren- der it at least -^ presumptive proof that the difler- ent internal sensations and functions of the mind, are also manifested by different and independent Organs, even in the minds of the most sceptical. And yet there are, notwithstanding the clearness with which the principle is apparent, different oth- er proofs furnished by the Psychology of Man and Animals in the state of health and disease. For in children some faculties are considerably active. •4 15 •?^; and others appear later, as is evident from daily observation ; and this is, incontestably, m exact proportion to the developement of the organiza- tion. Thus it is rendered quite evident that the Brains of Animals are different ; because the man- ifestation of their faculties is so ; and it is the same in Man. It is even demonstrated from the daily observed fact, that every individual does not pos- sess all the faculties in the same degree. For some excel, others are middling ; and again others are endowed with genius while certain individuals are idiots. Hence it must now appear that the brains of idiots cannot be so perfect as the man of the greatest genius, even in the minds of those who might feel opposed to the principle. And on the contrary it cannot be doubted that this state of their minds must be ascribed, unavoidably, to an original defect in the organization. Moreover if this principle were not founded upon natural facts ; and that if the Brains of different Animals were not composed of ditlerent Organs, why should their understanding increase in proportion as their brains become more complicated ? and it is even necessa- ry that the cerebral organization in each sex should be at least modified j as some faculties are more active in Men and Males, and others more in Wo- men and Females. And these modified manifesta- tions are easily understood if it be admitted that ;| ^ ^ fit *iC- * .'T ^ryj^-^ ^-^ /iJtt4^^^^-^ ""-^ Jft,^ rk'il.rfl^'Ar^-*— • ^*^ J^%-. • ^^ /. .^ ^ 't^/^-e-^'- ^#^ y^^ ■r^pAj^ / .m^ -y- * "^r C^ 16 certain Organs are more developed in Men and Males and others more in Women and Females, Moreover in the same individual, some of the sen- timents, propensities and intellectual faculties are manifested with great energy, and again other fac-y, ulties are scarcely perceptible. Thus, one excels in the memory of things, and yet cannot combine two Philosophical ideas : an- other will excel in a particular branch of the Me- chanical Arts, while another is a great Poet and a bad General, &c. Hence it is perfectly conceiva- ble that the same portion of the Brain cannot pre- side over different functions. Moreover as the functions of the external senses, are attached to^ different Organs, one may be weak and the other strong J and the same phenomenon is observable in the internal faculties of the propensities, sentiments and intellectual faculties. For if it were admitted that any one Organ could manifest every faculty, how would it be possible for the mind by means of the same instrumentff to manifest one faculty in perfection, and another in a most limited mannei ? Some faculties are known by daily observation to appear earlier and others later ; I say, known by daily observation, because their manifestations are so. And the. manifestations are an incontestible proof of the existence of any faculty. For as the related Organ, of any faculty, is developed, the faculty is manifested. And again if the manifesta- f r :% Oi ■\ A i^k ' ^ ' r^ % Va 17 f f tions of every faculty, were dependent upon the same Organ, they ought to appear and disappear simultaneously. But every difficulty is removed if it be admitted that there are difterent Organs, the developement of which takes place at different pe- riods like the five external senses. Moreover, the faculties require rest, because it is impossible for them to act incessantly any more than the Muscles of voluntary motion. Protracted study fatigues; yet it may be continued if the object be changed. Hence, if the brain were a single Organ, it would be equally fatigued by this new species of action. The eyes may be fatigued by looking at any object and still we may listen to any agreeable sound, as Music, &c. because there is one Organ for seeing and another for hearing. This consideration is very important in Medicine ; for by attention to these circumstances, partial insanities may often be avoided. Thus, if an Organ be so active either from its great developement or on account of its too great irritability, that its activity becomes in- voluntary, then it is necessary to avoid every thing which may tend to keep up its activity and put in action entirely diflferent ones. This alternate ac- tion and rest would, however, be impossible, were there but one single Organ for ail the manifesta- tions of the mind. Now as in the state of watch- ing the same Organ cannot be active continually, but rnus* occasionally rest; so in sleeping, all Organs C t\ ^ :ai!jHBHBHSKW!" 18 are not inactive, but some one enters at certain times into action, which constitutes dreams ; and the ideas which result from the state of dreaming are more or less complicated according to the num- ber of the Organs which enter into action at the la^ time. Oa" Hence the state of dreaming, it is incontesta- IW bly evident, proves the plurality of the Organs of Animal Life. For it would be impossible to have dreams, or a particular combination of ideas and sensations, v/ere the brain composed of but one single Organ •, and indeed if each faculty were not attached to a particular and independent Organ. LS And as the Brain acts upon the external woiid IH by means of the voice, the five external Senses and >Iuscular motion, it is evident that in dreaming if the action of the active Organ, is propagated to tha Muscles there follows motion ; if to the Vocal Or- gans, the person speaks, &c. ; and it is well known that some persons rise, walk and do many things, speak and see. It is observed that some dreaming persons even reason better than when awake 5 and this is not surprising when we consider that in deep reflection • we avoid the noise of the world and cover the eyes with the hand in order to put to rest as many Or- gans as is possible, that the Vital power may be di- rected to the Organs of the reflecting faculties. In dreaming and somnambullism this naturally hap- /;/r^< Q.y / ■ n it ^ -- i--. t f . ...' 19 i * 1 t n :S r- i- n )- *-/ pens, so that the active Organ§ perform their func- tions with more energy. Visions may be thus ex- plained ; as in dreaming, the person sees inwardly and admits the outward existence of the object thus seen. And this state may be permanent or it may be transitorry ; and the former or the permanent state constitutes a true alienation of the mind ; and ex- plains why some visionaries think they see things invisible to others. The state of disease also proves the plurality of the Organs contained in the cere- bral mass. It will not nor cannot be denied that one nerve may be diseased while another or all oth- ers are in health and perform their functions natur- ally ; for it is well known that a person may be blind and hear, or he may be deaf and slill he may see as perfectly as any other person. From all these proofs and considerations which might be ex- tremely multiplied, it must appear quite evident, even to the most sceptical, that no faculty can pos- sibly be manifested without organization j and that each faculty must indubitably be attached to a par- ticular and independent Organ j and finally that the Brain is an aggregation of Organs. Now as the plurality of the cerebral Organs is incontestable, it is as evident that the perfection of the manifestations, is in exact proportion to the more complicated strte and developement of the cerebral organization in regular succession from C 2 20 the lowest and most imperfect to the highest and most pefect order of natural beings— Man. But as it may be a ked, where the characteris- tic marks of humanity begin— it may be replied that if due attention be paid to what has been in- culcated throughout the preceding part of these in- quiries, it will evidently appear that all superior or- ders of Animals possess common and proper facul- ties ; that is certain faculties common to themselves and the orders of natural beings below them -, and it is the same with Man ; but Man also possesses the common faculties in greater perfection, and the distinguishing marks of humanity begin with the faculties proper to Human Nature. It has been generally said that Animals act from instinct in opposition to understanding in Man ; which is erroneous, and refutes itself when considered in its proper light. For understanding is a knowledge of our faculties and the power of modifying their actions. Thus an Animal, a Dog, for iristance, will not eat the food laid before him because he fears the blows of his master ; he wants but he will not ; and again another Animal which is fond of hunting, if a hare passes before him, will not pursue it, for the same reason j hence though the Dog feels a great propensity or desire to eat, or follow the hare, yet he does not because he chooses to modify his actions, and thus he acts from under- standing. Otherwise it would indeed be cruel to 4- ^ f i i- ^ .. ' 21 punish an Animal for doing contrary to our wishes. On the contrary, if new-born children cry and suck their fingers, they do not act from understanding. Moreover instinct is a general expression, and va- riaus Animals have various instincts, tliat is, one of one kind, and another of another kind of instinct } and if instinct were a peculiar faculty, an Animal possessing one instinct ought to possess all instincts. Understanding is a general expression, and denotes a general faculty. Thus Perception, Memory, Judgment, and Imagination are common faculties of the understanding ; but every particular Percep- tion, Memory, Jutlgment and Imagination as of space, form, colour, time and number belong each to a particular faculty; so that, if Perception, Memory, Judgment and Imagination were special faculties, it is evident that every individual who possesses one kind of Perception, Memory, Judg- ment or Imagination, ought to possess all kinds of Memory, Judgment, Perception and Imagination. Hence one individual may have a good memory of one kind and a vo--; defective one in respect to other things. A Poet possesses a higti degree of imagination, but does he possess all kinds of im- agination ? as to invent - Machinery, compose Mu- sic, &c. One may judge well in one respect, and still very badly in others. Now in order to show more clearly that the manifestations of the diflferent faculties of the mind, depend upon the organiza- ■ T' l .M 22 tion, and tliat each faculty must be attached to a particular and an appropriate Organ, it is necessa- ry to take notice of the modified condition of the faculties in the diflerent sexes, and of the same in- dividual at different ^es. It is maintained that the different mann:r of thinking and feeling in Men and Women depends upon the difference of delicacy in the cerebral fibres. But this idea will not admit of a determinate and rational conclu- sion ; for it is a fact subject to daily observation, that some Women resemble Men in the manifesta- tion of the intellectual faculties, and vice versa, while admitting that certain parts of the Brain, are more developed in Men and others more in Wo- men, the difference of the manifestations of their faculties is perfectly explicable. ' Thus facts show beyond a question, that the difference of the manifestations of the mind in Men and in Women, depends on the organization and developement of the cerebral parts. Moreover the manifestations of the mind and understanding, are modified in every individual. Hence all Animals of the same species, and all Men, have essentially the same corporeal parts ; but differ merely in the proportion and develope- ment of the different parts of the organization j and this difference produces differences in the manifes- tations of the respective faculties. And this fact is rendered qiiiie evident by the state and liffeient 23 degrees of idiotism ; which must have fallen under the observation of every individual. For it is ob- served that, in general the heads of idiots are ei- ther too small, or are increased in size by water collected in the cavities of the Brain. In either of these casos the defect in the organization is easily conceivea j because the manifestation of the facul- ties, is deiective. And new as it has been all along maintained that no faculty can be manifested with- out a relaied Organ, it must appear evidently sat- isfactory that the faculties of the mind are mani- fested more perfectly, more distinctly, and the ideas more clearly, in exact proportion as the or- ganization of the Brain becomes more perfect. For imbecility is not always general, but sometimes merely partial ; as appears in those persons who answer reasonably and execute correctly the things relative to household affairs j instances of which are not extremely rare. And consequently it is evident that in these cases the developement of the superior parts of the Brain, has been impeded ; thus a Brain too small is generally attended with imbecility. Now the possibility of training, exercising, or in other words educating the faculties of the mind, equally proves the dependence of the manifestation of the different faculties on the organization ; for it is quite inconceivable how an immaterial being can be exercised or educated. It has been main- I 524 tained that Men and Animals come into the w ovkl destitute of any determinate faculty ; their minds as blank paper j and that afl is learned by educa- tion, &c. But if the faculties were learnt from education and external impressions, why have not instructors found means of confering judgment, understand- ing, and good qualities in general ? and why are Mfe not all men of genius ? Moreover it is a v/ell known fact, that brothers and sisters often differ materially in their characters, though their educa- tion has been uniformly the same. Now this difference of character, is only a dif- ference of the manifestations of the different facuK ties, and is explicable alone by the difference of the developement of their related Organs ; because there is a direct relation between the manifesta- tions of the feelings and of the faculties of the un- derstanding and their respective organizations.— Thus the innateness of all the faculties, is rendered evident beyond a doubt, because their organization is so. But there is no innate idea, sensation or principle, for there is a great difference between innate faculties and innate principles, ideas and sensations. But the faculties which perceive the impressions, conceive the ideas and form princi- ples, are innate. Hence every faculty is confined to its own Organ ; and its manifestations are pro- portionate to the developement of the Organ. We - 25 1 observe that thoucjli the functions in general of all fiicuhies, are modified in different nations, and conse uentlv the functions of the faculties which determine all laws and principles; yet the same primitive faculties are observable in the customs, tnanners and laws of all nations. Hence the in- nateness of the faculties is too evident to escape the penetration of profound thinkers ; for many ancient and modern Philosophers, both profane and religious, were perfectly convinced of this truth. Hipocrates, in treating of the qualities neces- sary for a Physician, speaks of natural and innate dispositions. Condillac says, Man does not know what he can do, till experience has shown what he is capable of doing by the force of nature alone ; therefore he never does any thing purposely until he has done it instinctively. This observation will be found permanent and general. Thus all a man does, he did at first from nature alone, for nature commences and always commences well. Now the innateness of the faculties was so evident to ancient Philosophers, that they thought that even sensa- tions and ideas were innate. However, although the assertion of the innateness of sensations and ideas, is incorrect, and that in reality only the fac- ulties, which produce these sensations and ideas, are innate ; yet it shows how forcibly innatenesst has at all times, struck the minds of profound thinkers. Now as Man unites sM the faculties D 26 which are dispersed in different Animals, he is like- wise endowed with various others pecuUar to him- self j and it is proved by daily experience, that the faculties of Man are multiplied j and that there must exist a subordination between the faculties of the mind j because there is a general law through- out all nature, that inferior faculties are subordin- ate to superior ones. Thub Physical laws are sub- mitted to Chemical laws ; Gravity forvinstance is a Physical law, and it is modified by Chemical Af- finity. Physical and Chemical laws, though preserved in Organic beings, are modified by Organic laws. In the Muscles, and in the circulation of Animrals, the Physical laws of Motion and Hydraulics are preserved, but they are subjected to the laws of Life. Chemical laws are preserved in Digestion, but they are modified by Organic laws. And again Physical, Chemical and Organic laws exist in Ani- mals, but they are modified by Animal laws. Now the same principle must be applied to the laws of Human Nature, namely, all inferior laws. Physical, Chemical, Organic & Animal are preseived in Man, but they must be subordinate to the laws of the hu- man faculties. Now as it is proved incontestably that the feelings and intellectual faculties are inherent in the nature of Man and that the manifestations depend upon the organization, it might be object- ed that an irresistable necessity in our actions ac- cordingly would be unavoidable ; yet when it is considered maturely, in what liberty consists, this objection will be naturally put to rest ; for accor- ding to such notions of liberty as are indicated by such objections, we might expect from every one hatred and perfidy as well as friendship and fideli- ty ; and that all that relates to positive institution, punishment, &c. become useless; thus such notions of liberty are merely speculative. Such liberty alone can be admitted as corresponds with the ge- neral laws of nature and with the nature of Man. Hence admitting that Man acts by motives, then is lie subjected like all the rest of nature, to the laws of cause and effect ; for true liberty con- sists in the possibility of doing or of not doing any thing, and in the faculty of knowing the motives and of determining oneself according to them. — Consequently it is necessary to consider in liberty, knowledge and will, the motives and the influence of the will upon the actions. But will must not be confounded *vith the propensities, inclinations and desires •, for neither Man nor Animals act freely if they feel only an internal satisfaction ; because this is only the fulfilling of every desire ; and these incli- nations and desires are felt both by Man and Ani- mals involuntarily. For every faculty of Animal life being active, gives an inclination or a desire. Hence it follows that no one can change the na- ture of his faculties and organization. And that T>2 ; 4 28 both Man and Animals arq obliged to feel hunger if the respective nerves act in a certain manner, and they must see if light strikes the seat of vision ; and tinally are tbliged to feel an inclination if the respective Organ be excited. But these inclma- tions, propensities or desires of different Organs are not yet will; for Man and Animals have often inclinations, yet wi/l, not. As I have observed in a preceding part of these inquiries, that an Animal, a Dog for instance, may be hungry, he may want, yet he will not eat the food which is laid before him. Hence mil, begins with the understanding, and is always in proportion to it. Man has the greatest freedom because his xvill has the greatest extent, and this is because he possesses the greatest under^ standing. He can compare the present with the past, foresee the future, and discover the relation between cause and effect. Now not only will, but even accountableness begin, with the knowing fac- ulties ; for idiots have inclinations, but they are neither free nor answerable. The willing faculties are not however given up to chance, but are sub- mitted to certain laws ; for the laws of the under- standing are as determinate by creation as the laws of nutrition. Hence the first condition of free- dom is, uill, which is the effect of knowledge and reflection ; and secondly it concerns what is to be known and compared, the motives j thus will is ■* ■ *^-*--"ff'' 29 the decision of the understanding according to motives. H£ifC£ as the source of the motives, is princi- pally in the faculties of the feelings and sentiments, and as they must be as numerous as the faculties are, it results that their energy depends upon th^ energy of the faculties themselves. Moreover he v^ho has many and energetic faculties, has many and vigorous motives ; and his freedom is propor- tionate to the strength of his mil, and to the num- ber and energy of his faculties. But willt or the faculty of choosing and deciding is not sufficient to freedom, but the plurality of the motives is also necessary ; for if any one was endowed with but one faculty, he would not be susceptible of but on« feeling or motive, and his knowing and reflecting faqulties could not act upon it so as to make a comparison or choice between motives, because there would be but one motive ; but if endowed with several faculties, he would be susceptible of different feelings or motives ; but it must likewise be considered whether he would act with or with- out freedom j for the plurality of the faculties and organs only, it is quite evident, is not sufficient to freedom ; for if any one acts by motives witliout mlly he does not act freely, because in such cases it would be necessary that one faculty should be only stronger than another in order to act ; and there would be no freedom because the strongest J I SO propensity would prevail. Hence the plurality of .the faculties produces merely the plurality of mo- tives, but will decides. Yet these two conditions do not constitute liberty : but there is a third con- dition necessary, namely, the influence of the mil upon our actions. For, in the diseased state it happens sometimes that we know the different mo- lives ; and yet the will has no influence upon the actions; for the faculties which constitute mil, may put in action certain faculties of the mind, while others are independent of it. Now as we have seen that although we are not answerable for our inclinations and sentiments, because they exist of themselves, and the uill cannot put them into action ; yet the will has a greater influence upon the superior or intellectual faculties, because it be- gins with {he understanding, and can re-produce their actions in thinking of different objects, their qualities and various relations to each other ; and it has also an influence upon the five senses and voluntary motion. And thus Man becomes ac- countable for his actions, though his inclinations and sentiments are involuntary; because he has power over the use of the instruments of these in- dependent faculties ; but as soon as the external senses or voluntary motion are withdrawn from the influence of the will, liberty, and consequently guilt ceases. And indeed the only true idea of lib- erty consists in the consideration that, it requires 1 \ r » I « 31 will, motives and the influence of the will upon the external instruments. And yet this liberty is not Moral liberty. Therefore it is necessary to inquire into what Morality consists, and where our actions become Moral, or where the Morality of them be- gins. Now as in Organic life the functions of eve- ry Organ, are not equally important, as for in- stance. Mastication and the mixture of the food with Saliva, are less important than Digestion, Cir- culation and Assimilation ; and also the secretion of certain Glands are less necessary for the preser- vation of individuals than Kespiration, &c. It fol- lows from hence^lhat the importance of the facul- ties of Animal life, is also different ; for the fact that Nature observes a strict concordance in her laws is perfectly conceivable. Thus in respect to the Senses, any one would sooner lose the Sense of Smell rathci' than that of Sight. And who would not prefer losing the talent of Music, &c. rather than that of reflection and reasoning j and one sentiment rather than another. Now it is quite evident that the faculties com- mon to Man and Animals, are less important than those which are proper to Man j because they are certainly in the class of inferior faculties ; and as I have mentioned already, that inferi )r faculties are subordinate to superior ones, it follows that the faculties proper to Man, ought to govern and di- rect all inferior ones. And it is hkewise evident t * 32 that all motives are not equally important ; for the motives which result from the faculties common to Man and Animals, indicate no Morality, siTppose no idea of conscience or duty, and consequently no idea of Sin, as every one is well aware that no Animal is susceptible of these feelings. Now as liberty begins with the understanding, so Morality begins with the faculty of duty and justice. Hence Moral liberty is, will, applied to absolute con- science. And absolute conscience is simply the effect of the will applied to the motives which re- sult from the faculties proper to Man. Hence ab- solute good or Moral actions result when, will, acts according to absolute conscience, and any action to the contrary is absolute evil. Thus as Man has the greatest liberty because he has the greatest will, it is evident that he alone can possess Moral liberty. Now from what has already been addu- ced upon the subject of Moral liberty, it evidently follows that no accountable ness can take place without liberty ; that liberty, as has been observ- ed, begins with the understanding, or with the fac- ulties of knowing and choosing the motives, and deciding according to them ; that Man has the greatest liberty j and that the faculties proper to him produce the motives which constitute the Mo- rality of his actions. Now as the law of the sub- ordination of the faculties, leads to the considera- tion of ffood pnd evil, it is necessary to consider I' 55 'f» f 11 whether any evil exists, and its origin. Hence under a due consideration of natural events, it is easily conceived that two kinds of evil do exist, namely, Moral and Physical ; of the latter we are naturally convinced from the continual opposition observed throughout aJl nature ; as, Earth, Air, and Water, which present a perpetual scene of de- struction and re-production of pain and pleasure. And it is plain that in the same way as temporal good is distributed unequally, and without personal merit, Physical evil often happens without any cor- responding fault. Thus it is, both with Man and Animals j for what have Animals done which are ill fed and ill treated for their services rendered to Man ? Hence Physical evil does not merely ex- ist ; but it comes to all according to established laws of creation. And it is as evident, that Moral evil exists, and hjis always existed, as well as Phys- ical evil. Hence let us consider the origin and cause of Moral evil ; thus, although as soon as free mil is spoken of, good and evil are supposed, and as Man can never be guilty without liberty ; yet^ free will in itself can give no idea of the origin of the evil. But to what purpose should there be free will if there were not two different things, good and evil, between which the free Man may choose ? It is said that Man abuses his liberty j but by what motives does he abuse it, if there be nothing 34 from witliin to excite him to act badly ? Hence liberty is insufficient to explain the origin of Moral evil. But as it might here be objected, that accor- dingly, among the innate faculties, some of them must be originally bad from creation, it is necessa- ry to observe that on the contrary, nohe of them necessarily leads to evil j but that every f:>culty produces abuses; for particular faculties are no more bad than particular substances ; as Fire, Air, Water, &c. Hence the faculties are neither good nor bad in themselves, but that the evil consists in particular actions; for every faculty is necessary, and none can be destroyed; because the germ contains the faculty of producing all disposi- tions. Now if due attention be paid to the principle of the subordination of the faculties, it will be perfect- ly conceiveable that Moral evil consists in actions, which are not conformable to the whole of the fac- ulties proper to Man ; and Moral good is-what is conformable to them. From hence it follows that Moral evil has also always existed ; because the inferior faculties exist and are inherent in human nature ; and their use is necessary to the preservation of Man : but their energy may go farther than the faculties proper to Man, approve of; and then they produce abu- ses. Thus hunger and thirst will, and have al- Mi i iii N* i w i W i w mm lw n i 35 ways existed. Consequently abuses may ar?se ; as, drunkenness, &c. In this way all the other facul- ties may act with greater energy than the faculties proper to Man could approve of. Hence Faults, Errors, Sjns, et cetera. :Bffi(pii:piii»wi»ii^i®sf< ■' FROM the preceding observations, it is render- ed quite evident that there is a natural relation throughout all orders of Natural Beings — that infe- rior orders are subject to certain laws — that these laws are modified by other laws as we rise in the scale of beings — that the perfeciion of beings de- pends wholly upon an additional organization-^— that the cause of the manifestations of the Mind, must, unavoidably, be ascribed to organization j and con- sequently the Organs, which constitute the Mind, are as numerous as the manifestations — that the Brain is exclusively the Organ of the Propensities, Sentiments and Intellectual Faculties — that no fac- ulty can be manifested without a related Orga.. — that all faculties may be educated — that it is incon- ceivable how, if the Mind were an Immaterial Be- 37 ing, it could possibly be educated or exercised—^ that the plurality of the Organs which compose the Brain is rendered evident from their manifesta- tions — that Animal Life begins with Conscious- ness — that the perfection of the manifestations de- pends upon the more perfect developement of the organization — that were the Brain a single Organ, it would be quite inconceivable how the mind, by means of the same instrument, could manifest one faculty in perfection, and another in a very limited manner — that th^ state of dreaming equally proves the plurality of the Cerebral Organs — that the char- acteristics of humanity, begin with the faculties proper to Man — that the more the actions of Man, are directed by the influence of the faculties prop- er to Human Nature, the farther I ? j.?r removed from Animal actions— that the faculle^ r. Innate because the organization is so — that pi^^^v * *ies or inclinations are not, mil — tbat Man has the great- est freedom because his will has the greatest ex- tent — that, "will is, the decision of the understand- ing according to motives-^that the faculties are susceptible of different impressions j and that each faculty has its particular sphere of activity and pe- culiar function ; as in Automatic Life, each Organ performs its proper function, which is iiccording to natural order, its immediate function j but when an Organ becomes an auxiliary in the performance of any function, this is its mediate function — that 39 ». » the same principle obtains with respect to the func* tions of the Organs of^ Animal Life — that the na- ture of the functions of the five Senses equally cor- roborate with this principle, and go to show the uniformity which nature observes in all her laws ; and it may be rejoined that the mediate functions of the five Senses, are only auxiliary^ and merely contribute to acquire determinate ideas, which are conceived by internal faculties — that their func- tions are always passive when they take place inde- pendent of the will; thus in themselves they are. always passive, and only propagate the external im- pressions to internal Organs, and appear active on- ly when some internal cause employs them to re- ceive impressions, and to propagate them to the Brain ; and that it is probable that the same inter- nal cause which puts only a single Organ of the five Senses in action, is also the cause of single con- sciousness — that it is absurd to ascribe a Material residence to an Immaterial Being — that the action of an Immaterial Being upon the body, and the ac- tion of the body upon an Immaterial Being, are quite inconceivable— that Truth is simple, and that Reason knows no useless or dangerous truth— that the innateness of the faculties, is as self evident as that there is no effect without a cause — and finally, that the various qualities of the manifestations of the Mind, must depend 'altogether upon the Mate- rial condition and developement oi its Organs.— 40 And it may be replied, to any objection to theseJ truths, that whatever is, is ; that as Man is a crea- ted being, is endowed wich faculties for all the man- ifestations, ascribable to Human Nature from the beginning ; and is, like all the rest of nature, sub- jected to the law of cause and eftect. That na- ture and her laws cannot be changed to accommo- date the imagination of any one ; nor would it be much short of ridiculous to transform the Natural Mind into an Immaterial, Je ne sais quoi, to cor- , roborate any contradictory notions merely because such notions carry with them something Immateri- al and marvelous. FINIS. 1 to theses is a crea- the man- fiom the ture, sub- That na- iccommo- ould it be 3 Natural si, to cor- y because Immateri-