A \ Hr'- CHAPMAN'S OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF CANADA INCLUDING ALL THE PROVINCES OF THE DOMINION. :m AN OUTLINE OP THE GEOLOGY OF CANADA: BASED ON A SUBDIVISION OF THE PROVINCES INTO NATURAL AREAS. BY E. J. CHAPMAN, Ph.D., ll.d. PROFESSOR OF MINERALOGY AKD OEOLOOY IN UNI.ERSITY COLLEOE, TORONTe, AND CONSULTINO IIININQ ENGINEEU. WITH 12 PLATES AND MAPS. TORONTO: COPPT CLARK & CO., 47 FRONT STREET EAST. 1876. cs PREFACE. This work was drawn up, in the first instance, to serve as an index or extended syllabus to the author's Lectures on the (Jeology of Canada, in eoi> nection with the Natural Science Department of the University of Toronto It has been thought, however, that the work may prove acceptable to a wider circle of readers — to all, indeed, who may desire to obtain a general knowledge of the leading geological features of the Dominion, without caring to incur the labour and trouble of gleaning this from the able but necessarily complicated and somewhat fragmentary Reports of our Geological Survey and other detached sources of information. The present essay is, in fact, the only work in which a condensed and systematic view of the geology of the entire Dominion has been attempted. In order to render it more useful to the general reader, the main portion of the work is preceded by a brief geological introduction ; and twelve lithographed plates, containing figures of the more common or characteristic fossils of our Silurian and Devonian formations, with outline maps of the Provinces, have been added. These maps are, of course, on too small a scale to admit of detailed information, but they serve to show with sufficient accuracy the various subdivisions adopted in the text. Many of the statements embodied in this outline have been taken, neces- sarily, from the Geological Reports and from other published sources of infoimation enumerated on pages ix-xi ; but these details, carefully sifted from extraneous matter, have been compared in numerous instances with the author's own observations, and have been grouped after his own views. For the generalizations and leading geological subdivisions, adopted in the book, he is, therefore, alone responsible. Umiversitt Colleqe, Toronto, September 30, 1876. -i'" CONTENTS. PAIJf.. OEOLOfttCAL Literature of Canada ix Ontiuio ; Mauitdba ami North-vvost Tenitory j Britiwh Columbia; Quebec ; Now JJruuswick ; Kova Scotia j rriuoo iMlwaiil IhIihuI. INTRODUCTION. 1. Rock. Formatfons GENERALtv. Geolooical Tkriodh xiii 1. Auciout rock maasca identical in origin with modern rock deposits. 2. Forces or agencies concerned in tlie formation of rocks generally. 3. Binary chiHsilication of rooks resulting from these agencies. 4. Synonyms of surface-formed or Exogynous llocks. 6. Synonyjns of subtcvraneau-formcdorEndogynous Uocks. G. Normal and crystalline conditions of rocks. 7. General formative i)roccsse8, in reference to exogynous rocks. 8. Elevation, folding and denudation of these rocks generally. 9. Entombment of organic bodies in lacustrine and marine sediments now under process of deposition. 10. Organic bodies of former epochs thus preserved and fossilized. 11. Subdivision of the earth's history into periods and ages. 12. Sequence of strata ; local absence of formations, how explained. 13. Variable composi- tion, &c., of contemporaneous strata. 14. Gradual interpassage of consecutive periods : sharp breaks in formations, local only. In. f late appearance of the higher organisms ; moditication of structural condi- tions, IC. Azoic and Eo/.oic AtiES. 17. Palj;ozoic A«e. 18. Mehozoic Aob. 19. CAiNozoio Age. 20. Glacial and Existing Periods. 11. Rock Formations Present in Canada xx 22. Laurentian series. 23. Laurentian formation, proper. 24. XJpper Laurentian or Labrador F. 25. Huronian series. 26. Silurian (or 0am- brio-Silurian) series ; Table of formations. 27. St. John's F. 28. Potsdam F. 29. Calciferous F. 30. Quebec group : Levis, Lauzun - and Sillery formations. 31. Chazy F. 32. Trenton F. 33. Utica F. 34. Hudson Paver F. 35. Medina F. 36. Clinton F. 37. Niagara F. 38. Guelph F. 39. Onondaga or Gypsiferous F. 40. Lower Helderberg or Eurypterus F. 41 . Devonian series : Table of forma- tions. 42. Oriskany F. 43. Corniferous F. 44. Hamilton (or Lambton) F. 45. Portage and Chemung P. 46. Carboniferous series. 47. Lower Carboniferous F. 48. Middle Carboniferous F. 49. Upper Carboniferous F. 50. Permian series. 51. Triassic series. 52. Jurassic series. 53. Cretaceous series. 54. Cainozoic series. 55. Glacial series : 56. Drift or Glacial F. 67. Post-Glacial deposits. 68. Eecent geriea. CONTENTS. OUTLINE OF OKOLOGY OF CANADA. Paok. Area of thu Domiiiiuu — Wuaturn and Ka»turn ProviuuvH 33 PROVINCK OF ONTARIO. I. TiiK Lower Ottawa Dihtukt 34 lldimdivrios ; Surfnuo fwiturtis iiiul cloviition ; llock formations ; I'ots- (Imn v.: i'rotichiiituH and (JliiniictiulinitcM iniprusHions ; (^ivlciforouH F. ; C.iftzyK.; Tronton F. ; IJtic.v K.; HiulMon IlivorF. ; Drift iiml Post- (iiuciiil deposits; Fish-roinains, &c., of oxiBting spcciua ; Sholl-marl and L'uat ; K'Mtnoniiu rouk-inattura gunurally. II. TOK («ANAMO(iUE AM) NORTHERN ToWNHUIl'H DISTRICT 36 General charaotcr and boundarios ; Average elevation ; Laurentian strata ; Cryntalliue liiuoHtones, iron ores, and phosphate deposits ; Bouider-claya aud Puat-GUuial foruiatiuuii ; Economic niiuuruls geuor- ally. III. The Lake Ontario District 39 Boundarios and surface-features ; Principal Rivera ; Average eleva- tion ; Rock-formations ; I'otadara F. ; Trenton (including Black River) F. ; Utica F. ; Hudson River F. ; Medina F. ; Clinton F. ; Glacial, Pust-Glacial, and Recent formations. IV. The Erie and Huron District 43 General character and boundaries ; Average elevation ; General ab- sence of lakes ; Principal rivers ; Rock-ftjrmationa : Anticlinals ; Niagara F. ; Guelph F. ; Onondaga or Gypsiferoua F. ; Lower Heldcr- berg or Eurypterus F. ; Oriskauy F. ; Corniferoua F. ; Hamilton (or Lambton) F. ; Purtage-Chemung F. ; Glacial, Post-Glacial, and Recent formationa. V. The Manitoulin District 61 Area ; Surface features ; Lakes, bays, anticlinal undulations ; Rock- formations ; Huronian outcrops ; Chazy F. ; Trenton F. ; Utica F. ; Hudson River F. ; Clinton F. ; Niagara F. and escarpment ; Guelph F. , Drift clays ; Algoma sands ; Petroleum. VI. District' of the Upper Lakes 53 General area and boundaries ; Surface features and elevation ; Rock- formations ; Laurentian F.; Huronian F,; Upper Copper- Bearing series, and overlying traps ; Mineral Locations ; Glacial and Post- Glacial formations. PROVINCE OF MANITOBA AND REGION OF THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. I. The Eastern or Laurentian District 67 Area, surface-features, elevation, and strata. II. The Eastern Prairie or Lake Manitoba District 57 Area, surface-features, and elevation ; Lower Silurian strata; Devonian strata ; Brine Springs and Petroleum ; surface deposits. III. The Central Prairie District 58 Area, Surface-features, and elevation ; Cretaceous strata ; Cainozoic strata; Lignite beds. CONTKNTS. Vll Paor. IV. The RnoKV Mountain DtsTRtcT 59 Areii, Surfjico-foaturoH, imd i-levfttiou ; Rock-formationB ; Shingle terraci;a. PROVINCE OK HRLTISH COLUMBIA. I. The KvsTErtN MoIINTAI^f District 60 Area, pliynical iiliaractorM, and (.5eiieral elevation ; Heights of principal Mountains ; Rock-formations, &c. II. TlIR DtSTlUCT OF THE CENTRAL TaIILE-LaNH 60 Area, elevation, and aurfaco-foatures ; Rouk-formations ; Auriferou» gravelH, &e. III. The Coast and We.stern Mountain District 61 Position and general elevation ; Claeiera and liorda ; Roek-formationa. IV. TuE Isi-ANi) District GI Area ; Mountain Ranges ; Crystalline and altered strata ; Coal-Bear- ing Jiirassie and Cretaceous strata ; Supertieial deposits and Aurifer- ous river-sau'k. PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. I. The Laurentide District G3 Boundaries ; Laurentide Mountains ; Rivers ; Lower Laurentian formation ; Upper Laurentian or Labrador formation ; Silurian Out- liers ; Glacial and Post-Glacial deposits ; Glacial atriue. II. The Upper St. Lawrence District 65 General character and boundariea ; Rock-formations ; Potadam P. ; Laurentian outlier of Mt. Calvaire ; Chicot Fault ; Calciferoua F. ; Chazy F. ; Marblea of St. Lin, &c. ; Trenton, Utica, and Iludaon River formations ; Upper Silurian outliers ; Trachytic and Trappean formations ; Riga^^d Mountain ; Montreal Mountain ; Montarvdie Beloeil ; Monnoir or Mt. Johnson ; Rougtmont ; Yamaska Mountain Trap dykes of Lachine, &c.; Glacial and Fost-Giacial formations. Glacial striae ; Boulder ridges ; Leda Clay ; Saxicava Sand ; Bog Ores and Ochres ; Peat beds. III. The Appalachian District 68 General character ; Boundaries ; Line of Fault ; Average elevation ; Lakes ; Priacipal Rivers ; Rock-formations ; Potsdam F. ; Quebec Group : L^vis F. ; Lauzun F. ; Sillery F. ; Gasp6 Limestone P. ; Gasp^ Sandstone F. ; Bona venture F. ; Eruptive Rocks ; Trachytic Moun- tains of Brome and ShefFord ; Granites of the Megantic Mountains, &c. ; Trappean Mountain.3 of Eastern Gasp^ and the li&y of Chaleurs ; Post-Cainozoic formations ; Auriferous deposits ; Boulder-clay ; Leda Clay and Saxicava Sand ; Bog Ores ; SheU-marls and Peat. IV. The Anticosti District 72 Area; (General character; Calciferoua, Chazy and Lower Trenton strata of Mingan Coast and Islands ; Hudson River F. of Anticoati ; Middle Silurian strata; Post-Cainozoic deposits; Kaiaed Beaches; Drift Clays and great Peat hods of South Anticosti. PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. I. Wkstkrn and Southern District 74 Western Division. — Area ; Surface features and elevation ; Principal K^ CONTENTS. AO)ns ; Laivrentiau an in Dawson's "Acadian eology ; " that of the Saskatchewan region in Hind's Report ; and numerous others. A useful reproduction, in separate sheets, of the large map of the Survey, has been given in the Atlas of Tackabury, compiled chiefly by Mr. H. F. V> ailing, and in the New Standard Atlas of Walker and Miles. These atlases contain also brief notices of the Natural History, Geology, and Mineral Resources of the Dominion, contributed mostly by officers of the Geological Survey. GEOLOGY OF CANADA. INTRODUOTIOISr. ROOK FORMATIONS GENERALLY— GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 1. — Apart from the primary origin of their materials, of which nothing oei-tain is known, the rock-masses which make up the soliil portion of the earth have been formed by the same natural forces or agencies as those by which similar or closely related rocks are now being formed at various localities. 2. — These forces are of two general kinds : Surface Forces — seen in the action of rain, frost, streams and rivers, moving ice-masses, sea-waves and currents, organic growth and decay, &c.^n operation at the earth's surface ; and SuBTEKUANKA!* FoRCEs — amongst which heat undoubtedly plays the chief part — acting beneath the surface of the earth at unknown depths. 3. — The rock masses, thus produced, are consequently of two general kinds also : Surface-formed or Exogynous Rocks, and Subterbanean-formed or Endooynous Rocks.* 4. — The surface-formed rocks are essentially stratified rocks, although in aome of their representatives, as in the Lower Drift-clays more especially, distinct marks of stratification may be wanting or obscure. They are also essentially so.di.nen.ary rot'.ks, made up for the greater part of sediments pro- duced by the mechanical action of surface -forces on other rock-matters ; but consisting in some cases of matters produced by chemical precipitation, or derived from animal or vegeta1)le structures. As these sedimentary matters, moreover, are obtained or at least collected together and deposited by the action of water, the resulting rocks are also frequently knovra as aqueous rocks. 5. — The subterranean-formed rocks are essentially unstratified rocks — occur- ling in irregular masses, veins and dykes. They have been driven upwards for the greater part in a fu&ed or more or less heated condition, through cracks and fissures in overlying rocks, and they are thus often known as eruptive or * The terms Exogynons and Endogynous were first applied to these classes of rocks by Hum- boldt. The term " Subterranean.formcd " simply implies that the rocks of this class have been brou|jht into their present form by the action of subterranean forces. XIV GEOLOGY OF CANADA. iffneous rocks. Whilst the igneous origin, however, of many eruptive rocks, ordinary lavas for example, is undoubted, the actual mode of formation of other rocks of the eruptive series is altogether unknown. Hence the term "igneous," formerly applied to all ui stratified rocks, is now but little used. 6. — In both the stratified and unstratified classes of rocks, two distinct con- ditions are present ; a normal and a crystalline condition. The latter in some instances, and very probably in all, is not an original condition, but the effect of alteration or " metamorjihism. " This latter condition connects the two classes of rocks, as shewn in the annexed table : I Normal (e.g., oandstones, ordinary liniestoncs, &c.) Surface-formed Rocks -c ( CCrysinlUne or Altered (e.g., gneisH, inioa-scliists, urystalllne < liiriHStonos, in'.) ( {CrysUdline(fi.g., granites, syenites, 4e.) Suhlerranean-formed Rocks J. (Normabie.g,, traps, traeliytes, lavas, So.) 7. — The outer portion of the earth is principally made up of surface-formed rocks. These, viewed generally, have been originally depositeil (in the con- dition of detrital, chemical, or organic sediments) in regular beds or laj'ers in river estuaries, or over the floors of lakes and seas. Hardened or consolidated l^y the slow lapse of time, by the binding eflFect of their ferruginous or calcareous components, by pressure or other agencies, the strata thus formed have been subsequently elevated, by subterranean forces, above the level of the sea. The formation of rocks of this kind is seen, at present, in the enormous delta- accumulations under continuous increase at the mouths of many rivers ; in the constant wasting of many sea-coasts by the action of the waves, and the deposition of the detritus, so obtained', over the adjacent sea-floor ; and in the calcareous-mud deposits forming by organic agencies over vast areas of the open ocean. Also in the daily formation of bog ores, peat, calcareous tufas, salt deposits &c. With regard to the conversion of sub-aciueous deposits into dry land, it is now a well established fact that parts of the earth's surface are undergoing slow movements of elevation, whilst a gradual depres- sion is taking place at other spots. At many localities, the land must have been elevated to considerable heights within a comparatively recent period. Shells of marine moUusca of existing species (evidently in their original beds or sandy burrows) are thus found at various elevations above the present sea- level — as on the Montreal Mountain, and at hundreds of other spots in widely separated regions. 8. — Stratified rocks have not only been elevated above the seas, estuaries, or lakes, in which, in the form of sediments, they were originally deposited, but in many cases they have been subjected to repetitions of upheaval and depression. In many cases also, they have been thrown out of their original horizontality, and have been fractured and displaced, and also folded or corrugated, by dis- turbin orces.* Partly also, during their elevation above the waters, or their * For technical details of this kind, see the ordinary text-books. Also Part III. (pages 152 to 168) of the writer's " Minerals and Geology of Canada." INTRODUCTIOK. xr Buhsequent depreasion, and partly by tho slow but continuous action of meteoric agencies, thuir surfaces have been more or less denuded aiul worn away ; and, In this manner most of the valleys and lessor inciiualities of the earth have been produced. 9. — In the sedimentary accumulations now forming at river mouths and in lakes and seas, tho sliells of mollusca, l)ones of vertelirates, and hard parts generally of other animals —togi^ther with many sea-weeds, and tho leaves and stems of land plants — ^are constantly enclosed. 10. — The remains of many of the plants and animals which lived upon the earth or in its waters in former ages, became entombed, in liice manner, in the sedimentary accumulations then under process! of deposition ; and those remains have thus to a great exttmt been fossilized and preserved, although Very commonly in the form of casts or im^jrossions only. 11. — 'By reference partly to super-position aud other characters, but chiefly by the aid of tho organic remains thus preserved in many strata, the latter generally (with their associated eruptive-roclc)) have been subdivided into gi oups or formations, representing successive periods in the history of the V jrth. The geological periods made known to us by tliese formations, how- ever, must undoubtedly have been preceded by others belonging to the earth's azoic time (see sec. 1(5), although no indications of these have been preserved to US, unless we see them, as still very commonly assumed, in some of the crystalline strata referred to the Eozoic age. With this understanding, the ages and conventionally-adopted periods of the earth's history may be tabulated as follows : — Androzoio AOE. Existing Period. Glacial Period. Cainozoic AOE. Pliocene Period. Miuvione Period, Eocene Period. Mesozoio AOR. Creta^ieous Period. Jurlls.^ic Periotl. TriiisHio Period. PAL.BOZOIC AOB. Permian Period. OarlwniferouB Period. Devonian Period. Silurian Period. Cambrian Period. Eozoic ., AND ■ . AZDIO AOES. Huron ian Period Laurentian Period. Azoie, or Pre-Laurentian Periods. <':'.:;.^':'i.'' -t ■■ 12. — As the collective thickness of the rock-formations visible to us in the Outer portion of the earth, at diflferent localities, exceeds many thousands of feet, it is evident that a complete series of these formations can never be XVI GEOLOGY OF CANADA, exhibited at any one locality. But thoir relative order of succession is known by their observation at various s[M)t8. No departure from this order is ever exhibited : that is to say, a formation of the Devonian period, for example, is never found to underlie one of the Silurian period, nor a set of Cretaceous strata to occur below beds containing Jurassic or Triassic fossils, (iiips in the sequence are of common occurrence, however. Thus, at many spots, particular sets of strata are altogether wanting, lower and higher formations alone appearing : the latter conseciuuntly resting directly on the former. Gaps or breaks of this kind may have been occasioned by the elevation of the spot above the sea-level during the period to which the absent strata behmg ; or thj missing beds may have been removed by denudation ; or the spot may have been situated beyond the area of deposition to which the sediments then forming, extended, 13. — The strata of a given period necessarily vary, as regards mineral characters, in different localities. At one spot, the period may be represented by limestones, and at another by sandstones or beds of sliale, &c., or by alternations of strata of different composition : just as in the seas of the present period calcareous sediments are being deposited in some localities, whilst accumulations of sand a,nd mud are forming at other places. The names by which certain geological periods are unfortunately known, are thus, strictly considered, of local application only. The latter portion of the Mesozoic age is made known to us over a large portion of Europe and Asia by strata of chalk, whence the term "Cretaceous," bestowed upon the period generally. But chalk beds, even in Europe, do not make up the entire series of the known strata of the period ; and on this continent, although "cretaceous strata" (as recognized by their fossil forms) occupy comparatively wide areas, no true chalk is found among them. 14. — Although each group of fossiliferous strata is characterized by special forms — i.e., by organisms which do not appear in ei^'.er lower or higher groups — no strict lines of demarcation can be drawn between the periods which these strata represent. The strata themselves are often separated by abrupt transitions, both physical and organic; but phenomena of this kind are purely local. Each period evidently merged gradually into that which followed it, as an ordinary historic or literary epoch is found to blend insen- sibly with preceding and succeeding times. The extinction of successive groups of organic forms, although partly to be accounted for by physical causes, is probably in chief part due to the slow action of a law of change and decay inherent in the type — as in the individual — at its birth or earliest origin, .■ ■. ,,.:■.;/..-, -,. ^ ■ - , ; l&'^^garded broadly, the higher strata contain the higher organisms ; and many structural conditions, present as adult or permanent characters in early organic types, become embryonic or transitory in later forms, or are retained only in a rudimentary, useless condition. These and other concurrent facts point incontestibly to a progressive outcome or evolution from lower to higher INTRODUCTION. XVU forma — jirrested nt many stages, but contiimiug in unbroken dovolopment along divurguut lines. 16. — It is very generally assumed that the component matters of the earth and other cosmical bodies existed originally in a diffused nebulous condition, and gradually beoamo condensed or solidified after passing through a state of igneous fluidity. And it is assumed, further, that this early molten conditicm of the earth is still rotaincresontativo8 of tho ertrlier portion of thti Paln'ozoic ago — comjirining onliiiiry Hhvtoa, Handstoncs, lirncMtoncs, &c. — -arri olifiractorizud, more cHpt'i-'ially, i)y tlic jmiKonco of graptolitciH, cyHtideaiis, and triio))iteH, a«8ociatcd with t.ihidiitod c(»riiU, a great aluimliincc of liracliiopodg (inuhidiiig species of the still surviving genus Ihiijiilil), and ninny examples of orthoceras— an extinct eephiilopod with straight shell, and mniplc, unlohcd Bepta. These earlier Paheo/oic fnrniatimis arc also distinguished, negatively, by the general absence or extn^inj rarity of land j/lants and vertpearance, and thus foreshiulow tho advent of the more elaboratelydobed tyi)es of tho suc- ceeding ago. Of tlio higher vertobi-ates, manunalia and birds are entirely unknown, and reptiles all but absent — the only imdoubttvl examples of the latter occurring in Permian strata. The remains of labyrinthodont amphi- bians, on the other hand, occur throughout the Carboniferous and Permian formations. 18. — Tho succeeding strata, of Mesozoic age, are characterized essentially by the remains of immorous extinct tyjres of reptilia of remarkable organi- zation, including the i)addle-fo(rtod Ichthyosaurians and Plcsioaaurians, the winged Pterodactyls, the Dinosaurs, and many others. Those strata are also especially distinguished by the ammonites and other genera of tetrabranchiate cephalopods with highlydobed or foliated septa, which first appear in them, and which are altogether unknown in higher formations. Of these, the ammonite (as a genus) ranges throughout the entire Mesozoic series ; the eeratite is confined to Triaasic strata ; and the bcicidUe, acaphite, ancylocerast crioreras, turriUte, &c. , are entirely Cretaceous forms. The be/emnite, a genua of the dibranchiate cephalopoda, knoWn by its conical (internal) shell, is also eapecially characteristic of Mesozoic strata. Among tho representatives of fish-life, homocercal forms appear } an'l in the higher or Cretaceoixs portions of the series the rapidly-diminishing ganoids become almost entirely replaced by teleosteans of modern tyjie. Vertebrates, higher than reptiles, are exceedingly nu'e ; but some bird remains of apparently reptilian obaraoter, referred to the INTRODtK^TIOX. XJX extinct guniiH AirlufDitfirifr (ili)ttini{uishtMl l>y iiii uloii^jiittMl Horitm oF cnutlnl vortohr;i' : im iiuhryoiiii; typo of Mtnn^luro as iuj»'en found of Into yoarH in •luraHniu Hlriita ; ninl n fuw Hiiirill jiiwM iiml ti't^tli, liuloii^ing raont |)ri>l).'i)>ly to iiiai-Mii|iiikl iniiniiiialH, aio hIho itiiowu ixn Mcso/oic forum. In thu vup'tntioii of tlio am', cyrriilM jiinl (umiforH hIjiikI out w iloiiiiiuint tyix'S — ospeciftlly in it8 oarlior aiul iniddlu poricnls ; Ijut monocotyledons uro hIho rupro- auntitd tliroiighout ittt nuriuH of strata, and diuotyludonu appuarcd alnindniitly boforo itH clo«o. 10. Tlio organic romaiiia cntoinlxMl in r'ainnzoic- ntrata prcaent, cnlloctivcly, a niiirlted ri'sunihlancu to tliosc of tiio nxiating opocli. Angiosjiurnia, except under local conditioim, evidently formed, a.s now, the ])revailing vegetatii»n of the ago ; hut among the dieotylodonouH types, gamopotala, a» compared with ptdypet.da and aputala, were apparently less numerous than at present. In the aiiinii.l worlil, thu crinoids, hracliiopods, clianii>ereil ci^phalopodn, ganoid (ialies, and other typfs eminently characteristic of Mosozoic and Paln'ozoic periods, were no longer predominating forms, hut were reduced to a few com- paratively unimpnrt vut represeutiitives. The n^ptilian characteristics of the Mesoziiic age had also given place to higher moilitications of vertebrate struc- ture and org miz.itiuu. Placental mammals formed the leading or more char- acteri.stic ty|»e», and were al)Uiidantly represented. All Caiuozoic orders still oti'er representatives : but many Cainoziiic genera, and practically all the apociea, have become extinct ; and two orders at least, tho Kdontata and Proboscidua, exhibit marked decaileucy. 20.— 'During the Paheozoio anil Meaozoic ages, and the earlier epochs of the Oainozcic age, tho entire surface of the globe appears to have possessed a %virm and comp:iratively uniform temperature, resembling that which now prevails in intertropical regions. This view i« amply sustained by fossil evidence. The rem irkible plant-remains, s(t abundant in the middle or higher Palaeozoic strata, exhibit in widely separated regions the same aspect and char- acters. Tho.se of Mc-sozoic formations, and also the characteristic reptilian and other types of the Xlesoz(»ie periods, exhibit the same law. The broad ili.stiuctions, due to geographical position, which now prevail, were absent also throughout the greater portion of the Cainozoic age, or only l)ecame indicated towards its close. Not only do we linil, for example, iu the Cainozoic strata of Northern Kurope, and other comparatively high latitudes, the shelle of <»ttulariie, nautili, and similar warm-sea moliusca, but these strata contain also many palm-fruits, with the remains of large ophidians, and the teeth aiid bones of mammals allied to the existing tapir, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, girafl'e and other genara, now limited, or nearly so, to intertropical habitation. As time passed on, however, a great climatic change appears to have crept slowly over all th'J northern portions of both the eastern and western conti- nents, and to have been experienced also in the extreme south. Under ita influence, the once warm climate gradu-vUy gave i)lace to all the rigours of an arctic winter. This remarkable change was evidently accomp.anied, and prob- aW/ iu chief part produced, by great alterations in the previously-existing XX oroLooY or Canada. IttvcU of liincl find Roa. All tlio hij^hor IuhIh iippfiir to have boon covorecr LdUirntinn Fo/'wi/io/t. — This is reprcsonted chielly by I)ed8 (more or loss obscurely HtratiHod)t)f feldi])atliic and aiigito-fcldspathic rock,! associated in several places with lar^o dci»o»it8 of titaniferous iron ore. It has been hitherto only recognized in detached areas in the I'rovince of Que- bec, north of the St. Lawrence, wliere it overlies the Laurentian formation, proper. (See UJidcr tho " Laurentido District," iu tho description of that Pro- vince. ) IIITRONTAN SERIRS. 25. — The strata of this series, although presenting in places an estimated thickness of over 18,000 feet, are referred to a single group or formation. It is oven probable that eventually they will be regariled as forming merely the higher portion of the Laurentian series ; but at present their true position, in relation to tho so-called Labrador or Upper Laurentian formation, is not positively known. The II uronian formation, viewed generally, is made up of evidently altered strata, but these present on the whole a less crystalline con- dition than the underlying Laurentian representatives. They consist, for the greater part, of hard siliceous slates and slate-conglomeratus, commonly of a dark green or gray colour and occasionally striped ; quartzites and quartz- or jasper-conglomerates ; and beds of limestone, mostly of semi-crystalline aspect. No traces of foasila have hitherto been discovered in Huronian strata. In some localities the formation is broken through by vast dykes of trap or greenstone, * In most of the Reports of the Ouologioal Survey of Canada, crystalline homblendic i-onkB, wliether stnitilliMl or unutrntifled, are cimunonly rofirrod to as "syenites." This term should properly be restdittcid to an eruptive or unstratilleil rock of essentially homblendic composi- tion and granitie aspect ; but In many roses the stiatifluation of these crystalline metamorphic rocks is exceedingly obssure, and tliu trim nature of tho rock, in consequence, becomes some- what doubtful. In c.ises of tliin kind, however, it would be better to use the term "syenitic rock" tlian that of syenite, ahme. Much of the so-called "syenite" of Nova Scotia Is un- doubtedly a syenitic gneiss, or a related hornblendic-rock ol' nou-eruptive origin. t For fuller descriptions, see under the respective Provinces in the "Geological Outline" following this " IntrodiictiDn." See also, as regards the discovery of the Eozoon (a sup- posed Furarainifeva or related Protozoan type), tlie note to sec. Iti. These rooks are often known as " anorthosites," from the character of their component feldspar. The latter is chiefly the triclinic lime-species or Labradorite, but it sometimes consists of a mixture of various triclinic species. XXU GEOLOGY OF CANADA. ; ,, and its beds are interstratified also with trappean bands. They are likc\vise traversed by qiiartz-veiiis carrying copper pyrites and other metallic ores. The formation is chiefly developed on the north-west sliore of Lake Huron, and over a large extent of country between Lake Huron and Hudson's Bay ; but it occurs also in belts and patches about Thunder Bay and elsewhere in the Lake Superior region ; ami doubtfully in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. (See the geology of these Provinces in the succeeding " Outline,") SILURIAN (OR CAMBRIC-SILURIAN) SERIES. 26. — This group of strata is largely developed in Ontario and Quebec, and partially in Manitoba and in the Maritime Provinces. Its lower portion is separated, by many geologists, under the term of the Cambrian series ; but the limits of this division are still undettned, and hence in the present work — in conformity with the practice of the Canadian Survey — the entire group is regarded as Silurian only. Its subdivisions, as recognized in Canada, are as follows :* Upper Siluiian j Lower Helderberg or Eurypterus formation. Series. | Onondaga or Uypsiferous formation. fGuelph formation. Niagara formation. Clinton formation. Medina fonnation. ' , ' je»«f Hudson River formation. » Utica formation. Trenton (including Black River and Bird's Eye) formation. Chazy formation. Sillery formation ) - . ^ > - Lauzun formation j- Quebec group. " ; ': Levis formation ) •'■ ■ Calcif erous formation. _ , Potsdam formation. ' ^ St. John's formation. 27. — The St. John's formation consists essentially of black slates with some interstratified sandstones. These contain fossils of "primordial" type — species of Agnostm, Paradox'ules, ConocephalUeii and other related trilobites, with various lingitlce, dlscince, &c. ; but the formation has only been recognized, with certainty, in Southern New Brunswick (and in Newfoundland). 28. — The Potsdam formation is represented typically by fine or coarse quartzose sandstones, the latter passing into conglomerates. Fossils, as a rule, are not abundant in its strata. The more characteristic comprise : The brachiopod, lingula antiqua (distinguished by the triangular outline and.broad margin of the shell) ; and certain supposed crustacean tracks, but some of ♦ Many of these subdivisions, it siiould be understood, aro little more than groups of oou- venlence, of local value only. But as they have been adopted by the C inadian Survey and by Canadian geologists generally, they are neoessarily retained in tlio present " Outline." For topographical details, economic products, and otlier Iftcal characteristics in connection with these conventionally-adopted formations, the reader is referred to the descriptions of the separate Provinces in the body of the work. Lower Silurian Series. INTRODUCTION. XXUl the latter are probably the impressions of long sea-wccds, in part resembling the arthrophijrHn of higher strata. On their assumed crustacean origin, they are known as Protichnite/t and Cliinactic/initen impressions. (See Plate I. ) These Potsdam beds are developed cliietiy in the Province of Quebec and eastern part of Ontario, as explained under these Provinces. 29. — The Culciferoua forinatUm is composed essentially of sandy and dolomitio limestones. In many i^laces it can scarcely be separated from the underlying Potsdam beds. It is chiefly developed, with the latter, in the ui)per St. Law- rence district of Quebec, and in the lower Ottawa district of Ontario. Chaiac- teristic exposures, &c., are given in the description of these districts under the Provinces in question. Some of the more common fos.sils comprise : Lhii/ula Mantelli, distinguished by its narrow uniformly-oval shell ; Ophileta compacta ; and OrtluH'.eras Lanuircki, es^jecially characterized by the salient bands or ridges around its shell. [Sec Plate I.) 30. — The Liivis, Lamun, and Sillerif formations comimse, collectively, a series of more or less altered and disturbed strata, known as the Quebec Group. They occur principally in the Eastern Townships, and on both sides of the St. Law- rence arouild Quebec, as described under the "Appalachian District" of that region. The Levis formation is composed mostly of black slates containing numerous graptolites, us OrnptoHthiu' 'jotjani, G. Jtejcilis, &c., and species of the leaf -like genus PliylloijraptaH, as P. typus and others. (See Plate I.) Various brachiopods, and trilobites of somewhat "primordial" aspect are also present in these L(5vis slates. The Lauzun, or middle formation, is chiefly made up of altered strata, amongst which magnesian-schists and serpentines predominate. It is essentially a metalliferous formation, and is especially characterized by its copper ores and chromic iron ore. The Sillery formation is mainly composed of red and greenish shales and dolomitic beds ; but is represented by altered strata in some places — being at these spots scarcely separable from the Lauzun division — and by dark (L^vis-like) slates in others.* It is comparatively destitute of fossils. 31. — The Chazij formation is represented for the greater part by thin-bedded sandstones and hydraulic and other limestones, some of the latter yielding ornamental marbles of good quality. Many of these strata are highly fossil- iferous. Some of the more characteristic forms comprise : L'mgnla Lyelli, distin- gOished by the comparatively quadrate shape of its shell ; lihynconella plena, a small species, exceedingly abundant; and Camerella variatis, with ribbed markings on the lower portion, only, of its shell. (See Plate I.) The coral Stenopora fibrosa, so abundant in the Trenton and higher strata, with species • If a separation of Cambrian from Siiarinn formations be desirable, tUe separating line should apparently be drawn here, and tlie St. John's, Potsdam, Calciferous, and Quebec formations be given to the Cambrian series. With i-ega.'d to the divisions of tlie Quebec Group, something has yet to be learnt. Tlie nietalliferous Luuzun strata form undoubtedly the middle portion of the group, but owing to the disturbed and eomplicaled character of the district in which these rocks chiefly occur, the relative positions of the other 8trata-^or of some of the beds referred to them — seemaomewttatquestioaable, XXIV GEOLOGY OP CANADA. of pletirotomaria, &c., and various trilobites belonging to IllcBnun, Ampyx, Asaphua and other genera, occur ajao in those beds. The formation appears chiefly in the Lower Ottawa district of Ontario, and in the Upper St. Lawrence district of Quebec. 32. — The Trenton formation is made up essentially of both thick-bedded and thin-bedded or shaly limestones, mostly of a dark -gray colour, and highly fossiliferous. It is often subdivided into three series or so-called formations, comprising (in ascending order) the Bird's Eye and Black River formations, and the Trenton division, proper. Certain fossils are more abundant in the lower, and others in the higher portions of these strata ; but the subdivision of the latter into distinct formations is quite arbitrary, and practically unneces- sary. In its typical condition, the Trenton formation is largely developed in the region north of Lake Ontario and around the city of Ottawa ; and also in various parts of Quebec, as around Montreal, &c. (For instructive exposures, &c., see the Lake Ontario and Lower Ottawa districts in the "Outline of the Oeology of Ontario," and the Upper St. Lawrence district in the " Geology of Quebec") Some of the more abundant or characteristic fossils comprise: The Stromntopora riufosa,* probably an extinct foraminiferous type, allied to the Laurentian Eozoon(?); the Corals: Tetradium Jihraium, Columnaria alveolata* J^avistella stellata, Stenopora fibrosa, S. pHropolitana, and Petraia corniculvm ; the Brachiopods : Lbujula quadrata, Orthia testudinaria , 0. pectinella, 0, trke- naria, 0. lynx, Strophomena alternaia, Lepttena serlcea, and JihynconeUa incre- heacena; thePteropod: Conularia Trentonensis; the Gasteropods : Murchisonia gracilis, M. hellicincta, Subulites elongatus, and others ; the Heteropods : Maclurea Logani*, and species of Belhrophon, as B. bilobatus, &c. ; the Cephalopoda : Orthoceraa bilineatum, 0. pi'oteiforme, 0. Bigsbyi ■ , &c. ; and the Trilobites : Trinucleus concentricm, Asaphus platycephalua, A. megistos, and Ceraurua pleurexanthemua. (iSee Plates IL and III. ) 33. — The Utica formation is made up almost entirely of black or dark-brown bituminous shales. It occurs in the Lake Ontario district in the form of a narrow band running from Whitby to the vicinity of Collingwood on Georgian Bay, and from thence through the Great Manitoulin Island. It outcrops also, here and there, around Ottawa. In the Province of Quebec it is seen around Montreal, Longueuil, Lachine, &c., as well as at Beauport, and elsewhere below Quebec city. Its most characteristic fossils comprise : Oraptolithua priatia : Lingula obtuaa (distinguished by the rounded outline of its shell); cjid the trilobites, Aaaphiia Canadensis and Triarthrua Beckii. (See Plate III.) 34. — The Hudson River formation consists essentially of shaly thin-bedded sandstones, mostly of a greenish-gray or light-brown colour, but weathering rusty-brown. It occurs around Toronto on Lake Onturio, and largely on Georgian Bay, west of Collingwood ; also in the Lower Ottawa district, as * The species distinguished by an asterisk are more especially abundant in the lower (or Black River) portion of the formation. The list in the text does not of course give a tenth part of the species recognized in the Trecton strata of Canada, but it includes all the common or generally occurring forms. INTnODUCTION. XXV descnbed under the "Geology of Ontario; " and on both sides of the St. Law- rence in the Province of Quebec. Many of its fossils are identical with those of tlie Utica and Trenton strata, these three forraations constituting, properly* a single group. The more common comprise : GraplolUhus bkornis ; Stenopora Jibrona; LepUrna sericea ; Stropliomena alternata ; Ambonychla radiata, Uodio- lupsh modlolarhi ; Cyrtolites ornatiis ; OrthoceraH cre':rlKVONIAN SERIES, 41. — This series of strata is developed somewhat largely in the Erie and Huron district of Ontario, and also in Manitolm. It has been recognized, likewise, in the North-west Territory and British C(duml)ia ; and eastwards, in the Eastern Townships «)f Quel>ec and Gaspe, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia (?). In the latter provinces, the strata occur in a more' or less taltered condition. In Ontario they are subdivided (in descending order) as follows ; !. : : Portage and Chemung formation, : -;'■ i . 'v . Hamilton or Lambton formation. 1' f v. ^^ j Corniferous formation. ". : Oriskany formation. 4t2--'The Oriskany formation, at the base of the Devonian series, is very slightly developed in Canada. It is composed essentially of beds of chert and sandstone. These, collectively, do not exceed eight or ten feet in thickness, The principal exposures occur in Bertie, Dunn, Cayuga, and adjacent town» ships, on Lake Erie. The Cayuga beds yield good mill-stones. Fossils are somewhat abundimt. They comprise many well-known Middle and Upper Bililriiui sjieciert, (isHocirvted with f'ornifcrous and other essentially t)eVoniail tyi)u3. Fdro^i/cs UollildudiCd., Z'Ainva convexa, Si/riittjopora MndurH (with coarse oell-tubes), >S'. Ilisiimcn (with tubes of narrow diameter), find the simple horn-shaped tyjics, ZnphiriitiH prolijica, and Z. (fiijantca ; the Brachiopods : Slvopkoinvna rhomhoidaliH, Alnjpa reticu- laris, Siiiri/er f/rennriiie, S. miicronatus, Spiriyera roncentrica, and Stricklniidia plonr/afa — most of which occur also in higher Devonian strata. The trilobite Phucops hvfij is alsd a eomjnon Corniferous type. (Sen I'late VI. ) The forma- tion occupies two extensive areas in the country between Lake Erie and the more southern portion of Lake Huron. Certain altered strata in the Appa- lachian regiim of Eastern Canada, and some of the "Oaapc aandstones " are probably also of the same agei AA.—The. Hamilton (or Lamhtonjformdtlon is named from Hamilton iii the State of New York. It occupies a much higher geological position than that of the strata around Hamilton in Canada.* With us, the formation is made up of calcareous shales and beds of encrinal limestone. It lills a broad depres- sion between the two Corniferous areas mentioned above, and is principally exposed in Lamb ton and adjacent counties. The main fissures or subterranean reservoirs from which the petroleum of Western Ontario is derived, appear to lie near the base of this formation, or in the still lower Corniferous strata, as described under the Erie and Huron district, in the " Geology of Ontario," in the body of the present work. Fossils are abundant in the Hamilton shale beds, but are identical for the greater part with Corniferous speciesi The following brachiopods, however, are met with more especially in this forma- . tion : Spijnf'er mmronatus, Spirigera concentrica, Atrypa reticularia (running upwards from the Middle Silurian series), and Or^liis Vanuxemi. (See Plate VI. ) 45. — The Portage-Chemung formation is represented in Western Ontario by dark, bituminous shales, holding large calcareous concretions and much iron pyrites, in places. It appears to extend over the country adjacent to Lake St. Clair and the southern extremity of Lake Huron, but is almost entirely concealed by over-lying Drift and superficial deposits. The only exposures are at Cape Ipperwash or Kettle Point, and at one of two spots in the town- ♦ When the geolojjical formations of Canada were first traced out, the names bestowed on the same formations in the States were naturally adopted. Hence the " Hamilton formation," from Hamilton village, in Maddison county, New York. This name, however, as applied to our Canadian formation of the same horizon, has occasioned much misconception. It is constantly Supposed to refer to our city of Hamilton, at the head of Lake Ontario. The writer has there* fore been accustomed for some years to designate these strata as the Lambtou formation, after the county of that name* in which they are largely developed, in Western Ontario; XXVUl OEOLOQY OP CANADA. Bhips of Brooke and Warwick. At these localities, the shales contain impres- eiona of a long narrow calamite (C. inornatm), and some indistinct fish-scales. CARBONIFBBOUS SERIES. 46. — Strata of Carboniferous age aro unknown within the Province of Ontario ; and in Quebec they are seen only in the form of a partial development in Eastern Gasp6, where some of their lower beds, under the name of the Bonacentiire formation, extend for considerable distances along the coast. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, on the other hand, the scries is largely developed. Carboniferous strata appear also to occur within the Rocky Mountain ranges, but the great coal deposits of our Western Provinces belong to a much higher geological liorizon. In the Eastern Maritime Provinces the series presents three more or less distinct divisions, comprising (in ascending order) the Lower, Middle and Upper Carboniferous formations. 47. — The Lower Carboniferous formation consists very generally of thick strata of limestone with associated beds of gypsum, interstratified with con- glomerates, red and gray sandstones and argillaceous shales ; but in some localities the limestone and gypsum beds are either absent or but sparingly represented. The calcftreous strata contain many corals, brachiopods and other marine fossils of well-known Carboniferous genera ; and the shells and sandstones contain ganoid-scales and coal-plants generally. Beyond a few unimportant traces, however, this Lower Carboniferous group is destitute of coal ; but in some localities it contains workable beds of highly bituminous shale, known as "oil shale; " and in Southern New Brunswick (see under the "Geology" of this Province) a remarkable deposit of a similar bituminous character, but compact in texture and of vitreous aspect, fills a broad fissure in strata of Lower Carboniferous age. This substance, under the name of " Albertite," is largely worked as a gas-material. 48. — Tlie Middle Garhomferoua formation includes the coal-measures proper, and is thus commonly known as the productive portion of the Carboniferous series. In many localities its lower strata consist of thick 1 )ed8 of conglomerate, sometimes classed apart as the " Millstone-grit formation." This is succeeded by other conglomerates, sandstones, and argillaceous shales, interstratified with seams of coal and fire-clay, and containing numerous plant-remains. The fire-clay layers are commonly known as "underclays" — a layer being found under almost every seam of coal. The coal seams of this division in New Brunswick are of comparatively slight thickness, one only, of those at present discovered, averaging eighteen or twenty inches. But in Nova Scotia many seams exceed five and a half or six feet ; and in the Fictou district two are of great thickness, one averaging over thirty, and the other over twenty feet. The principal coal areas of the latter province, as described in the body of the work, comprise the Cumberland and Pictou areas of Nova Scotia proper, and the Sydney area of Cape Breton. 49. — The Upper Carboniferous formation is made up essentially of sand- stones, conglomerates and shales, and thus closely resembles in its component INTRODUCTIOK. XXlX strata the Middle formation, but it is practically destitute of coal. It occura both in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and is seen also in some slight exposures on Prince Edward's Island. In the great central and eastern car- boniferous area of New Brunswick, the unproductive lower and upper divisions, as pointed out by Professor Bailey and Mr. Mathew ("Geological Survey of Canada : 1870-71 "), are very generally characterized by the rod or purplish colour of their strata, whilst the productive beds of the middle division are for the greater part of a gray colour. Tiles'? distinctions, however, are of local application only. PERMIAN SERIES. , 50. — Permian strata are of very doubtful occurrence within the limits of the Dominion ; but it has been conjectured that some of the red sandstones of the Bay of Fundy and Prince Edward's Island may perhaps belong to the series. TRTASSIC SERIES. « 61. — The strata of this series consist essentially of soft red sandstones, associated in places with a few thin beds of limestone and some calcareous conglomerates. They make up almost the entire surface-area of Prince Edward's Island, and occur also on the shores and some of the islands of the Bay of Fundy, where they are overlaid, for the greater part, by enormous masses of columnar and amygdaloidal trap. These Triassic strata arc practi- cally destitute of fossils ; but a few coniferous and other plant remains — with the lower jaw and teeth of a Dinosaurian {Bathygnathua borealis, Leidy) — have been found in the red sandstones of Prince Edward's Island. JUHASSIC SERIES. 52. — ^This series is also of doubtful representation in Canada, but the fossils of some of the coal-bearing strata of Queen Charlotte Islands (British Colum- bia) are apparently related to Jurassic types, whilst other fossils from the same strata are regarded as Lower Cretaceous forms. These strata are thus looked upon as probably indicating beds of passage between the Jurassic and Creta- ceous series. {See Appendix II., by E. Billings and J. F. Whiteaves, to W. Richardson's "Report on the Coal Fields of Queen Charlotte and Vancouver's Island: Geological Survey of Canada, 1872-73.") CRETACEOUS SERIES, .. ; -■■.-..,■- '.^-'^ 63. — Strata of Cretaceous age are largely represented in the North-west Territory, and in the Pacific Islands of British Columbia, but under a some- what abnormal form as compared with the typical Cretaceous strata of Europe. Nothing in the shape of ordinary chalk occurs amongst them, but they consist mainly of sandstones and marly clays (with occasional beds of lignite-coal), as regards the North-west Territory ; and of sandstones, shales, and con- glomerates, with coal seams and ironstones, in Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands. At the latter localities, consequently, these western Cretaceous strata present a very close resemblance to the ordinary coal measures ; but their Cretaceous age is rendered manifest by the presence in them of species of JtX)t tJROtoOY OV OANAftA. Aiiiiuonitcn, liar.iilUci, licliinnil'H, Intx'cninnin, ami otlicr clianiotoristlc tyju'ri of Crctttcuous or lJi)i)or Momizoic clifiractor, togctlier witli cXiUiiplcs of jwigiosporiiw ami otliur plniita unknown in luvvur Htriitti. CAINOZOIf 8EIMKS. 61. — This series, like the last, is oonliiiod to the more Western regions of the Diiininioii. It has been recognizoil, iirineiiially, as iin lorlying a large portion of the central jirairiu lauds of the Xortii-w'est Tenitory, and the ftdjaoeut country along the eastern slopes en* foot-iiills of the Iloeky Mountains. In this region, it is represented, generally, l>y horizontal or nearly horizontal beds of sandy clay, with intorstratilied l-tyPM of ironstone and lignite, nnich of the latter being of a coujparatively dense and com])act ((uality, and thus closely resembling ordinary coal. Those beds rest conformably «»n the under- lying cretaceous strata, and the two series appear to merge into eacli other, both stratigraphically and paheontfdogically, without the occurrence of any intervening break or sti'ict line of demarc.ition. These lignite-bearing beds Would thus seem to belong essentially to the Eocene or lower boundary of the Cainozoic series ; but the subdivisions of the latter, as recognized elsewhere, are probably of very obscure separation in this region, and they have not yet been definitely traced out. Glacial series. 55. — This series, originating at the close of the Cainozoic age, or commence' toent of the present period, subdivides itself, although with no sharply-defined line of separation, into two sub-series or groups of formations, comprising the Drift or Glacial foimation proper ; and the Post-Glacial deposits. 56. — The Drift or Glacial formation, properly so-called, consists essentially of beds of clay and gravel, with boulders of crystalline and other rocks. These deposits extend, more or less generally, over the entire Dominion. They form two sub-foimations : the Lower or UriHtratified Drift, made up of beds of boulder- holding clay, devoid of any clearly marked stratification, and the Upper or ■Stratified Drift, also consisting of boulder clays and gravels, but occurring in distinctly stratified beds or layers. The harder rocks beneath these Drift accumulations are very commonly found to present a smoothed or even polished fiurfaoe, crossed by fine lines or grooves, running, in the great majority of cases, in a direction not far removed from north and south. The associated boulders have also been derived, with few exceptions, from northern sources. They con- sist of rounded masses and pebbles of gneissoid and other rocks ; and they are often smoothed and striated, like the rock surfaces on which they rest. They are regarded as having been transported southwards by the agency of ice; in Bome cases by floating icebergs, during the general submergence of the land; and in others, by glaciers. The Upper or Stratified Drift^the "Erie Clay formation " of the Geological Survey-^has been extensively denuded in many places before the more recent Post-Glacial beds were deposited upon it. During the glacial epoch, generally, a great elevation of Arctic landti appears to have taken place, with a corresponding depresBion of adjacent regions to the south, by INTRODUCTION. XXxi which the latter hecAtnd coveretl for the greater part by ice-laden seas, whilst huge glttciorH formed around thuir higher points. SubBcciuently, the more nortiiern lands appear to have been again lowered, whilst the groun. mm OiD ^^ ^" o '-' "W o r^ ' 03 r - :s: CD ?. •O/D C ► $ ^ (U ^^ _c CO p. o "^ ^ ^ 1 1 ^ $ ^i § ^ 1 1 ■| ^ s ^ ^ a S2 ;;^ N ^ te? s I s AN OUTLINE or Till GEOLOGY OF CANADA, INCLUDING ALL THE PROVINCES OF THE DOMINION. ^♦♦" Tho Dominion of Caiuula may bo rogavded as practically identical Vfith tlio wide domain of Britiuli Noi'th America, although tho iHland of Nowfouudlaud and Hoino of tho unsettled portions of this vast territory have not yet been formally included within itn nde. It may thus be viewed as extending, in a general east and west dii'oction, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans; and northwards— from about the parallel of 45° in the east, 42° in the centre, and 49° in tho west — to tho shores and islinuk of the Arctic Sea. Upwards of three millions of Square miles ai'e comprised within those limits — an area nearly equal to that of Eurojie. The Dominion contains at jM-esent Beven Provinces : three Western Provinces — Ontario, Manitoba, (with the North-west Territory provisionally attached) and British Columbia ; and four Eastern Provinces — Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. In the following summary of their leading geological features, these Provinces are taken in the above order. PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. This Province extends westward along the north shore of the St. Lawrence and great lakes, from within a few miles of the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivera, to about the meridian of 45° W. ; and in a northerly dii-ection, it ranges to the belt of high land which forms the water-shed between the lake regions to the south, and the streams which flow northwards into Hudson's Bay.* Tt admits of a subdivision into six natural areas, more or less distinct in their physical and geological characters. These areas or districts * Tho actual liiuits of Ontario in the west and north-west are still undetermined* 34 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. succeed each other from east to west in the following order : — (1.) The Lower Ottawa District ; (2.) The Gananoque and Northern Townsliips District; (3.) The Lake Ontario District; (4.) The Erie and Huron District; (5.) The Manitoulin District; and (6.) The District of the Upper Lakes. ■..■■., ;? . (1.) The Lower Ottavia District. — This is essentially an agricultural ' area, underlaid by Lower Silurian formations in comparatively undis- ♦.nrbed stratification. It occupies the country between the right bank of the Ottawa and the left bank of the St. Lawrence, extending to the Province boundary near the junction of these rivers. On the west, it is bounded by a line extending roughly from Brockville to the vicinity of Perth, and from the latter point to the Ottawa a little north of the mouth of the Madawaska. It presents a generally level surface, although some bold escarpments, in part connected with faults, occur within its limits, especially around Ottawa city, and in the townships of Cumberland, Alfred, L'Orignal and Hawkesbury. The height above the sea at the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers, is about 60 feet ; and at the foot of the Ohaudi^re Falls, about 118 feet. From these levels, the district rises near its north-west boundary to about 400 feet, and its average elevation may be placed at from 250 to 300 feet above the sea. In some parts of Cumberland and other townships, extensive swamps occur, but viewed generally, the district is well timbered and of good fertility. The Rideau Canal passes through its central portion, and a large part of its more southern area is drained by the South Nation River, which rises near the St. Lawrence in Edwardsburg, and flowing north-east, &]ls into the Ottawa, in the township of Flantagenet. A broad synclinal, with an intermediate fold, forms the floor of the coimtry between the main rivers. The strata of the district belong «ntirely to the Lower Silurian series, but they are overlaid in many places by Drift deposits and more recent accumulations. The Lower Silurian beds comprise representatives of the Potsdam, Calciferous, Chazy, Trenton, Utica, and Hudson River formations,* The Potsdam strata are mostly sandstones and quartzose conglomerates, with a few interstratified beds of dolomitic limestone. They form a more or leas continuous belt, of no great width, curving from the St. Lawrence below Brockville, north-west to the township of Bedford, and &om *Ft>rcharacteriatlc fossils, Ac, seethe brief "Introdaction" attached to this Oatliae. PROVINCE OP ONTARIO. 35 thence, in a general north-easterly direction, to Packenham on the Ottavs^a. Instructive exposures may be seen between Prescott and Brockville; at Charleston Lake, in Escott township; in the vicinity of Perth, (where the Protichnites and Climactichnitea impressions [see "Introduction"] occur); at Otty Lake, in Drumniond, and in the townshio of Nepean. The calciferous stmta, which consist chiefly of dolomitic and arenaceous limestones — the " bastard limestones " of the country parlance — extend over a considerable area along the inner edge of the Potsdam belt, more especially in the counties of Leeds, Gi'enville, Lanark, Carleton and Russell.. Exposures occur near Pres- cott, on the bank of the St. Lawrence; at Smith's Falls, «fec., on the Rideau Canal; and at various points in Packenham, Beckwith, and adjoining townships. The Chazy formation, which follows, is composed, in this district, for the greater part of light-coloured, thin-bedded, sandstones, succeeded in places by gray or dark-browu limestone, largely employed in the manufacture of hydraulic cement. The formation occupies a zone of several miles in width on the east or inner margin of the calciferous area, but it is much concealed by overlying Drift deposits. Some of the more characteristic exposures are seen in the vicinity of L'Orignal, on the Ottawa, and at points in Hawkesbury, Cornwall, Huntly, and Nepean. Outlying patches of small extent occur also in the county of Renfrew, as at Pembroke, posits contain also calcareous nodules inclosing well-preserved examples of the capelin ( MaUotus villosus), lump-sucker (Cyclopterus lumjms) and other small fishes of existing species, with occasional impi'essions of modern leaves, as t])ose of the populua balsamnifera, &c. To still more recent formations belong the deposits of shell-marl and peat, indicating the sites of ancient ponds and swamps, which overlie the surface rocks of the district in Cumberland, Plantagenet, Clarence, Gloucester and other townships. Several of these peat deposits are of wide extent. In addition to good building-stones, the more important economic products comprise : The white sandstone of the Potsdam formation of Nepean, available as a glass material ; the dolomitic limestone of the Chazy formation of the same township, which furnishes the celebrated " Hull Cement ;" the " shell limestone," also belonging to the Chazy strata, which is largely dressed at L'Orignal for mantel- tops, tombstones, &o. ; and the great peat beds referred to above. (2.) The Gananoqite and Nortltern Township^ District. — This geological area, lying immediately west of that just described, is of a very diflTerent character. The limestones and other unaltered and more or less horizontal strata of the Lower Ottawa coimtry, are here PBOVINCB OF ONTARIO. 37 replaced by hard crystalline rocks, inclined, for the greater part, at high angles, and contorted or otherwise disturbed. These rocks belong essentially to the Laurentian series, but at one or two locali- ties (see below) they are overlaid by small outlying patches of Lower Silurian strata. The dist'-rct forms a narrow belt of rocky land extending along the St. Lawrence between Brockville and the vicinity of Kingston, but in 'ts northern and north-western extension it widens rapidly and covers a large area. In its southern prolonga- tion beyond the Province boundary, it crosses the St. Lawrence River into the State of New York, and, again expanding, spreads over the wild region of the Adirondacks between Lake Ontario and Lake Champlain. North of the river, it extends over Leeds and Renfrew, and embraces the back townships of the counties of Frontenac, Addingtop, Hastings Peterborough, Victoria, and Simcoe — its southern boundary striking Georgian Bay near the mouth of the Severn. From this point it forms the shore of the baj' to beyond French River. Its north-western boundary is to some extent a con- ventional line running from the latter spot to Lake Temiscamang. Strictly, perhaps, the district should not be separated from that of the Upper Lakes, but for descriptive purposes it is convenient to keep the two distinct. They present, moreover, certain points of difference. Both consist essentially of crystalline mineral regions; but in the lower district the gneissoid rocks are interstratified with many bands of crystalline limestone, containing various silicates and other minerals (apatite, graphite, &c.), whilst these limestone bands are lapparentl'y wanting in the more western country. In both regions iron jores abound,; but those of the lower district are frequently titaniferous, whilst those of the upper district are as a rule practically free from titanium. Again, the overlying Huronian and Copper-Bearing rocks of Lake Huron and Lake Superior, with their associated beds and dykes of trappean rock, have not yet been definitely recognized within the present region, although some of the higher strata of North Hastings are thought to rest unc()nformably on the lower beds, and thus to represent Huronian equi\ alents. The average elevation of the district is about 800 feet above the sea. Lake Nipissing, its highest body of water, lies at an elevation of 640 feet, but the ground to the south and east of the lake is con- siderably higher. The maximum elevation is' probably about 1,000 feet Numerous smaller lakes occur within its area; and an almost 38 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. continuous chain of these extends along its southern border. The' surface generally is of a broken, hilly chaiucter, vast masses of gneissoid rock standing in many places high above the ground. The entire region, however, is more or less densely wooded. The crystalline strata of the district, occupying practically its whole area, consist of micaceous and hornblendic gneiss, and various gneissoid rocks of allied character interatratified with subordinate beds of quartzite, crystalline limestone (or dolomite), and oxidized iron ore. These, as stated above, are mostly tilted at considerable angles, and are corrugated or contorted at many spots. The iron beds are occasionally in the condition of hematite, but consist generally of magnetic oxide. Gold-bearing ])yrites and mispickel frequently occur in their vicinity. The crystalline limestones and dolomites are comparatively abundant. Some are of ooarae, and others of fine granular texture, but their employment as marble is very commonly affected by the presence in them of crystallized silicates (pyroxene, phlogopite, tourmaline, zircon, wemerite, sphene, &c.), accompanied by other minerals, among which graphite in scales and plates, and apatite, in distinct crystals and crystalline masses, are especially frequent.* In some localities, however, these lime- stone bands are comparatively free from foreign substances. At spots on the Bonnechere River in Renfrew, and around Pembroke^ on the Upper Ottawa, in the same county, the gneissoid rocks of the distiict support small outlying patches of Chazy and Black River or Trenton strata. The Chazy beds are represented essentially by the light-coloured sandstone of the formation, and these, at Pembroke, furnish, building stone of superior quality. The lower layers, which rest directly on gneiss, as seen especially at the AUumette Rapids, contain dark nodular masses of impure phosphate of lime mixed with shells of lingulse, &c. These are thought to be copi*olites. Black River limestones rest in places on the Chazy beds, and extend (in the Province of Quebec) over AUumette Island and across the river. At Paquette's Rapids they contain silicified fossils in great abundance. These Black River limestones appear also in * The apatite crystals are of some intorcst in frequently presenting a complete terminot pyramid : the basal plane, so characteristic of apatite crystals generally, being entirely suppressed. Similar combinations occur in the crystals obtained from the phosphate beds and veins on the Quebec side of the Ottawa. Pointed apatites of this kind have hitherto been known only in the " moroxite " flora Arendahl in Norway, and the "Bpaigelstein " ftonx the moiintains near JumiUa in the south-east of Spain. » PROVINCE OP ON'^ARIOV 3& the outliers on the Bonnechere; and they occur in a few small patches near the southern border of the gneissoid region, in the vicinity of Madoc in North Hastings. Over many portions of the district, unstratified clays with boulders, and higher or Post-Glacial sti-atified clays and sands, are distributed ; and Glacial stripe are seen on exposed surfaces of many of the harder rocks. In some localities, as in most parts of Renfrew, the striw have a very general south-easterly direction ; whilst in more western sites, as about Lake Nipissing and Georgian Bay, and in the northern p.irts of Hastings, Peterborough, and Victoria, the pi'evalent direction is towards the south-west. Although not favourably adapted, as a rule, for agricidtnral occupation, the district contains valuable economic minerals. The principal of these comprise : The iron ores of McNabb, Bedford, Crosby, Sherbrook, Madoc, Marmora, Belmont, Limerick, Minden, Snowden, etc. ; the auriferous mispickel of Mai'mora and adjacent townships ; the galena of Frontenac, Galway, etc. ; the apatites of Bui-gess, Elrasley, Bedford, Ijoughborough and Storrington ; the mica of Burgess ; and the marbles of McNabb, Fitzx'oy, Barrie and Elzevir. (3.) The Lake Ontario District, — In this district we come again upon an agiicultural area, underlaid by limestones, shales and other sedimentary rocks in compai-atively undisturbed stratification. It ranges along the entire nor oh and west sides of Lake Ontario. Its east:>rn and northern limits ai-e bounded by the crystalline region described above. Its western boundary is the high escarpment which runs from the Niagara Biver near Queenston, at first in a general westerly direction to the back of Hamilton, then northwards by Diindas, Georgetown, Belief on taine, and Orangeville, to the northern part of Nottawasaga, and from thence north-westerly by the "Blue Mountains," &c., to Cabofs Head on Georgian Bay. From the latter point eastward the district forms the shore of the bay to a short distance beyond the mouth of the River Severn. It thus includes portions of the counties of Frontenac, Addington, Hastings, Peterborough, Victoria, Simcoe, Peel, Halton, Went- worth, and Lincoln; with the whole of York, Ontario, Durham, Northumberland and Lennox. Numerous lakes, of which Lake Simcoe is the largest, lie within the district, and especially along its northern edge. The Trent, which rises in the Laurentian country ta 40 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. the north, and flows through a series of small lakes into the Bay of Quintd, leading to Lake Ontario, is its most impoi'tant river. Among other sti'eams flowing into Lake Ontario, the principal com- prise the Salmon, Moira, Humber, and Ci*edit. In its surface features the district presents but few marked inequalities of level. The ground rises gvudually from Lake Ontario (232 feet above the sea) in a sei'ies of ridges or terraces running in a general east and west direction. These ridges are composed of Drift materials, mostly sand and gravels filled with boulders of various kinds, brought down from northern sources during the Glacial and Post-Glacial epochs, probably by floating icebergs. The highest ridge in Albion and Kiag town- ships has an elevation of from 700 to 750 feet above Lake Ontario, but becomes gradually lower in its eastern extension. Near the village of Stirling, in Hastings County, it averages 515 feet above the orainary level of the lake ; and a few miles east of this spot it merges into the general levels of the country. Lake Simcoe to tho north is 704 feet above the sea, and Balsam Lake (the north- em part of which lies within the ciystalline area already described) is still higher, its elevation being 820 feet above the sea. Belmont Lake and Rice Lake are each nearly 600 feet, and Scugog Lake (in the mi^lst of the Drift ridges) nearly 800 feet above the sea level. The strata of the Lake Ontario District consist essentially of Lower Silurian formations, overlaid by Glacial and Post-Glacial deposits ; but in its extreme western limits some of the lower beds of the Middle Silurian series, comprising tho Medina and Clinton formations, occupy the ground. These strata, apai't from a few subordinate anticlinals, exhibit a slight inclination only towards the west or south-west; and they are altogether free from intrusions of trappean or other eruptive • rocks. In ascending order, and succeeding each other in successive outcrops from east to west, they comprise representatives of the Potsdam, Black River and Trenton, XJtica, Hudson River, Medina, ^ and Clinton formations. r^::,.:\'^:\._.:_^,y'^:r,,^:j'>^:i.,^..,,y The Potsd am form ation is very sparingly represented. It occura in the form of a thin band (or in broken patches) of sandstone and conglomerate lying along the south-western edge of the crystalline gneissoid region in the townships of Loughborough and Storrington. Exposures occur on Loughborough Lake and on Knowlton and Eel Lakes. Some of the beds in Storrington are readily friable, and yield a refractory sand employed as a lining for iron furnaces. • PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 41 The Trenton formation (including its lower or ** Black Kiver " beds) is i-^'useiTted essentially by dark gray limestones and limestone shales, in places exceedingly fossiliferous.* Some of its beds yield excellent building stones ; and towards its lower portion a band of lithogi'aphic stone mns from the vicinity of Kingston through Mar- mora, &c., to Geoi'gian Bay. The thickness of the formation in this district averages about 700 or 750 feet. The northern boundary runs from the St. Lawrence, a little east of Kingston, through North Hastings, Peterborough, Victoria, Ontario, and Simcoe, to near the mouth of the River Severn in Georgian Bay — a chain of small lakes indicating its coui'se thi'oughout the greater part of the distance. North of these lakes gneissoid Laurentian rocks occur in highly tilted beds, whilst the Trenton (or Black River) strata, to the south, occupy a nearly horizontal position. The southern boundary of the formation constitutes the coast of Lake Ontario from Kingston to a little west of Cobourg; and from the latter point it turns towards the north-west, and passing across Durham, Ontario and Simcoe, comes out on Nottawasaga Bay a few miles west of CoUingwood. The intermediate country, however, is more or less thickly overlaid by Drift and other superficial deposits. Characteristic exposures are seen at the following spots : Kingston city and environs, wheVe the limestone beds contain in places crystallized examples of celestine, gypsum, &c. ; Crow River, near Marmora ; Shannonville ; River Moira, near Belleville ; Ox Point, Bay of Quints ; Rednersville, on the southern shore of the bay ; Trenton, Healy's Falls, and other places on the Trent River ; environs of Peterborough ; lake shore at Cobourg ; Balsam Lake, south shore ; Fenelon's Falls ; River Scugog near Lindsay ; Lake St. John and north-east shore of Lake Couchi- ching. The Utica formation is made up almost entirely of dark brown or black bitTTtSiSlBus shales. These weather light gray, and yield by atmospheric disintegration a very fertile soil. The formation ranges along the lake shore from near Cobourg to the township of Picker- ing, and sweeps from these points towards the north-west, coming out on Nottawasaga Bay ; but in the intervening district it is con- cealed by overlying Drift deposits. The bast exposures occur near Whitby, and under the "Blue Mountains" west of CoUingwood. The formation averages in thickness from 80 to 100 feet. *For oharacteristio types, Ac, 6ee the " Introduction." '42 GEOLOOY OP CANADA. Tlie Hudson River formation is essentially represented by greenish- gray and brown shaly sandstones. Its total thickness in the district is about 750 feet. It forms the shore line of Lake Ontario from the River Rouge to the River Credit. From these points, although much obscured by overlying Drift and more recent deposits, it extends to the north and north-west, and forms the shore of Notta. wasaga Bay in the townships of Collingwood, St. Vincent, Keppel and Albemarle. Instinctive expo3ui*es (from most of which fossils may be collected) occur on the banks of the Huraber, Mimico, Etobi- coke atid Credit ; also at Point Boucher on Nottawasaga Bay, and at Cape Rich, Point William, Cape Ci'ocker, and Point Montresor, further west. The Medina formation is chiefly made up of red marls and soft red sandstones,~aosociated with some red and green arenaceous shales, and capped generally by a bed of gray sandstone. The latter, known as the "gray band," is extensively quarried for building purposes in Nottawasaga, and at Dundas, Hamilton and elsewhere. The forma- tion extends westward from the River Credit to the escarpment at Hamilton, and forms (with the less developed Clinton beds) the strip of country lying between the escarpment and the lake as far as the Dominion boundary on the Niagara River. Northwai'ds it passes through East and "West Flamborough, Nelson, Caledon, Mono, Mul- mur and Nottawasaga ; from whence, turning westward, it continues along the base of thf escarpment towards Cabot's Head. Good exposures occur at Queenston and in the vicinities of St. Catharines, Hamilton, Wellington Square, Dundas and Georgetown, and at the Dinnis quarries in Nottawasaga. The Clinton formation is mostly represented by green, red and gray shales^ Tiighly ferruginous in places, with some interstratified dolomitic limestones. Its thickness varies from a few feet on the Niagara RiVeV, to about 180 feet on the south shore of Georgian Bay. It follows the general course of the great, escarpment, as given above : and exposures occur more especially at the following places : on the Welland Canal near Thorold ; in the vicinity of Hamilton ; in road cuttings about Dundas ; in the gorges of the Noisy and Mad Rivei-s in Nottawasaga ; at spots on Beaver River ; in the cliffs near Owen Si und and along the Sydenham River; and at Cape Commodore, Cape Chin, etc., on Georgian Bay. The celebrated Thorold cement is manufactured from a hydraulic lime- stone of the Clinton formation. PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 4$ As already stated, the greater portion of the Lake Ontario District is overlaid by clays, sands, and gravels of the Glacial and Post-Glacial periods, by which the underlying rocks are much concealed. Be* neath these deposits the limestone strata, especially, are found very generally to be striated and polished by glacial action. The striae run in some places towards the south-west, and in others towards the Bouth-east ; and the same rock-surface frequently exhibits both S.W. and S.E. stviations. Many fresh- water shel's, identical in sjjecieB with those now living in our lakes and streams, occur at various levels in the succeeding Post-Glacial aocumulai/ions ; and their pres- ence in these deposii-s apparently indicates the former union of our lake waters into one vast freshwater sea, held up on the east by a greater elevation of the gneissoid belt of rook which crosses the St. Lawrence between Brock ville and Kingston, and expands into the wild district of the Adirondack Mountains in the State of New York; or perhaps by an enormous glacier descending from this elevated region and extending northwards into Canada. Bones and teeth of the beaver, wapiti, and other existing mammals are also occasionally found in these higher deposits, together with at least two extinct types: the mammoth, an extinct species of elephant; .and the mastodon, a related, but entirely extinct, proboscidean genus. Both the Glacial and Post-Glacial accumulations are often overlaid in places by dei)osits of still more recent origin. The piincipal of these, in the Lake Ontario district, consist of beds of shell-marl, a white or light-coloured calcareous deposit containing minute shells of fresh- water mollusoa. This substance occurs at numerous localities, mostly around small lakes and swamps. It consists entirely of carbonate of lime with intermixed sand in variable proportions. (4.) The Erie cmd Hu/ron District. — This section of country- occupied throughout by comparatively undisturbed limestones and other Silurian and Devonian strata, with overlying Drift clays and sands, and more recent superficial deposits — is essentially an agricul- tural area, and oneof gre«.t fertility. It lies immediately west of the Lake Ontario District, and is separated from the latter by the edge of the great Niagara escarpment, which runs, as stated above, from the Niagara River — -by Qneenston, Thorold, Grimsby, Hamilton, Dundas, Georgetown, &c. — to Cabot's Head on Georgian Bay. On the south, th^ district is bounded by Lake Erie ; and on the west, 44 oeoLooY OP cakada. by Lake Huron. Tho greater portion of its area forms an olovated table-land of from 1,000 to. 1,200 feet above tho sea. Along its north- eastern edge the ground rises in places to an altitude of nearly 1,600 feet ; but it slopes gradually towards Lake Erie on the south (505 feet above tho sea), and towards Lake Huron (578 foet above the sea-level) in the west. Its surface, except where cut by river-valleys, 'm generally oven ; and the district presents a marked contrast to the ?ower region of Lake Ontario by the almost total absence of inland bodies of Water. It is traVersotl, however, by many important rivers, and especially by the Grand River, flowing into Lake llrie; the Thames, flowing into Lake St. Clair; and the Maitland and Saugeen, flowing into Lake Huron. The eastern and north- eastern boundary, along the great escarpment, is also cut through by numerous smaller streams. These enter the Lake Ontario District, consequently, through deep ravines, many of Which are of a very wild and picturesque character. The strata of the district consist, in its more eastern poi'tions, of Middle and Upper Silurian representatives, -with various Devonian formations in tho West. They follow each other (in ascending order) from north-east to north-west, generally, and comprise : The Niagara formation (with some Upper Clinton beds) and the Guelph forma- tion, of the Middle Silurian series ; the Onondaga or Gypsiferous, and the Eurypterus or Lower Helderberg formations, of the Upper Silurian series ; and the Oriskany, Comiferous, Hamilton or Lamb- ton, and Chemung-Portage formations, of Devonian age. These strata, although practically undisturbed, are afiecfced by several moderate anticlinals running across the more central part of the district in a general east and West or south-west direction ; and it is thought that the petroleum of this part of the region has been brought towards the surface by fissures resulting from these anti- olinals. A transverse or nearly noi*th and south fold, forming a trough or synclinal filled with higher Devonian strata (of the Hamilton or Lambton formation), also occurs in the south-western portion of the district between Lake Erie and the south point of Lake Huron. The Niagara formation, in this district, is made up of dark gray cal- careous shales and thick-bedded limestones, both of which are more oi" less magnesian and bituminous. Its lower limit is regarded, conyen' tionally, aa indicated by a magnesian limestone holding shells of thtf PRdviKcfE or ontarw. id l:/rttcliiot)oortion of the cliff is Composed of thlck-l)edded limestones. Along the gorge, the shales are mostly concealed by the slope or talus of dotrital matt^OT which rests against the cliff face ; but they may be seen on the side of the steep rood which loads from the old feiry to the Clifton House, and at severral other Spots, Some of the beds of this formation yield excellent hydraulic lime, much of the " '^horold cement" being manufjtctured from the lime obtained from them. The foi*mation extends a few miles westward from the edge of the great line of escarpment — already described as running from the Niagara River, by Hamilton, Oeoi'getown, &c., to Cabot's Head on Georgian Bay — and then passes under the succeeding Guelph formation. It thus marks the eastern and northern limits of the table-land of which the Erie and Huron district largely consists. Good exposures occur more especially at the Niagara Falls and on the adjacent banks of the river (where the limestones are overlaid by terraces of fresh- water clay and sand of Posi^Glacial age); also on the Welland Canal near Thoi-old; along the upper part of the escarpment or " mountain " by Grimsby, Hamilton, Dundas, Ancaster, Rockwood, &c. ; on the River Credit in Caledon, as at Bellefontaine and elsewhere, and on the Nottawa and Beaver Riveiia, where it forms high and precipitous cliffs ; at Various other points in Midmui', Nottawasaga, Artemisia, and Eu- phrasia ; about Owen's Sound ; and at Cape Paulet, Cape Chin, and the upper part of Cabot's Head. In the immediate vicinity of Rockwood, some large caverns occur in a dolomitic limestone (thickly interspersed with crinoid stems) belonging to this formation ; and deceptive) veins and strings of galena have been noticed in the same township (Eramosa)^ as well as in the Niagara strata of Mulmur and Clinton. The Guelph formation is repi'esented for the greater part by tvhite or lightooli^^'liolomites of a peculiar semi-crystalline or granular texture, containing, among other fossils, large casts of a lamellibi-an- * See Figures 61 and 62. Lists of cliaractoristic fossils, belODging to the various fonnation» 0f the district^ are given in the " Introduetion." J 46 OBOLOOY or CANADA. «liiato mollusc, tho MeycUotmtt Canadeiutis. {See Figure G8.) The forinntiuu exbeiuls ovor u cuiiHideriiblo arua, chiefly in the couutioH of Waterloo, Wollingtou, and Oroy, but it is greatly concealed by overlying Drift and other HUi>erticial depOHitH. The principal ex- poHures occur on the River Si)eed in tho vicinity of Ouolpli ; at Elora, near the junction of the (irand and Irvine Rivera, wiiore the Htrata form high ulifl's ; aUo on other parts of the Grand River, «8 at Fergus, Preuton, and Gait ; near Uespeler, again, on tho rail- way between Guelph and Bi-antlbrd ; and on the Rocky Saugoen River in Bentinck. At mont of thoHo localities excellent building- atones are obtained. The Onondaga or Gypsiferous formation (with which tho Upper Silurian series is assumed to commence) consists, in Canada, of thin- bedded dolomites of a yellowish or pale gi-ay colour, associateil with greenish calcareo-argillacoous shales, and with large masses or irre- gular buds of gypsum. These deposits appear to have been largely formed from pi*eoipitates thrown down in ancient salt- lakes or bays in which an active evaporation was going on. They contain only a few obscure traces of organic remains; but hopper-sha[)ed and prismatic casts, derived from crystals of ordinary salt, soluble sul- phates, &c., are not uncommon in some of their beds. The gypsum is mostly of an earthy or granular texture, and is always more or less mixed with carbonates. The formation enters Canada a short distance above the Falls on the Niagara River, and includes the whole of Grand Island in this portion of its area. From thence, it follows the general outcrop of the Guelph formation to the vicinity of the Saugeen Rivei on Lake Huron. It thus includes portious of Welland, Haldimand, Brant, Oxford (north-east corner), Waterloo, Perth and Bruce ; but throughout muoh of this area it is covered by Glacial and other superficial deposits. Exposures m^^y be seen near Waterloo village, Bertie township, ou the Niagara River ; along the Grand River between Cayuga and Paris, and near the Don Mills ; on the Upper Saugeen, near Ay ton and Neustadt, in Normanby township ; around Walkerton on the Saugeen, in Brant, and at various points down the river ; as at the elbow in the south-west corner of Elderslie, a little below Paisley. The gypsiun or "plaster" deposits are chiefly quarried at Cayuga, Indiana, and York, in the township of Seneca ; at Moiint Healy ahd elsewhere in Oneida; largely around Paris; and at various places in \ PROVIMi'ial for thn inamifactiii'ft of hyl)taiiM!«l in the vicinitioH of Uodorich, Hmiforth and Clinton, by duup boringH th'.ougli ovrlyiiif^ dopoHits — is eH.sontially dcu-ivcd. Tlio Ijowdi Holderijorjj or Eiii"ypt«!riiH formation, as occnrring in this (liHUioi,. icpreHoni/H merely a Hmall portion of the "Lower He'derlx'!*;,' j^roiip " of Now York. It i» made np of a few tiiin- bcddod do'o'uitfs, with some intoi-stratified shah^s and a brectiutod bod (coiUpOKod ehiotly of dolonjitatche3 of Utica shale. The Bigsbj^ Thessalon, and other rocky islands farther west, and a large part of Cam])ement d'Ours and St. Joseph's Island, belong to the same series. From the La Cloche group of islands these Trenton sti'ata extend across the intervening channel, and crop out in several places as a fringe along the north coast of the Great Manitoulin. They show princi])ally in the Mani- towaning headland, and also between Little Current and West Bay. Southwards, the dark bituminous sliales of the Utica fonnation come up, and range entirely through the island. Good exposures occur at Shequenandod village (where the shales incline against an outcrop of Huronian quai-tzite), and at Cape Smyth. At the latter spot the formation is capped by a considerable thickness of arenaceous shales and sandstones, very rich in fossils, belonging to the Hudson River series. This latter formation ran<»Bs also entii-ely through the Great Manitoulin, and extends over Barrie Island on the north. It is fol- lowed along its southern boi^der by a series of stitita holding Clinton fossils. These strata consist mostly of light-coloiu-ed dolomites capped ; by a bed of red marl — the best soil on tlie island, according to Prof. .V,, . Bell, resulting from the disintegration of the latter. South jf these ' • Clinton beds, a steep escarpment of Niagara limestone runs through the central part of the island, facing the north, and following in its PROVINCE OP ONTARIO. 63 stiike the same east and west direction as the other formations of the district. From the top of the escarpment, the limestones extend in 8 series of steps to the south shore, wliero they become covered in places by patches of semi-crystalline dolomites l)elon;Lj;ing to the Guelph formation. The southern portion of the Great Manitoulin is thus occupied entirely by these Middle Silurian strata, and bi'oad shelves of bare limestone-rock form large poitions of its surface. A continuous outcrop occurs along this south shore ; but the bust ex- posures are seen in the lower beds along the line of escar])meut, raoie especially about Lake Manitou and L-ike Wolsey (and iutervenipg country), and around the sotith shore of Bayfield Sound. Cockbui n Island, immediately west of the Great Manitoulin, is also underlaid tliroughout its whole extent by Niagara limestone. The other formations recognized within the district consist of Drift clays and higher sand deposits — the " Algoma Sand " of tlie Geological Survey. The clays appear to belong essentially to the lower or unstratified Drift. They occur in great thickness upon St. Joseph's Island, and are overlaid very generally on Cockburn Island by the higher Algoma sands. Both divisions are also seen on the Great Manitoulin and elsewhere throughout the district. Detached boulders, mostly of Huronian rock, occur likewise in many places ; and glacial striai and furrows are seen on almost all the exposed rock- surfaces. The stria) have a general south-westerly direction, but vary from a few degrees west of south to about S. D0° W. Petroleum springs occur both on the Great Manitoulin and on some of the other islands of the Manitoulin group. The petroleum appears to come from the Utica shales ; but although the formation has been peneti'ated and even traversed by several wells or borings, no permanent supply has hitherto been obtained. (6.) The District of the TJiyper Lakes. — This region may be described in general terms as extending over the entire north-western portion of Ontario, from Lake Tern iscamang and French River, on Lake Huron, to the boundary of the Province be^^ond Lake Superior. It forms for the greater part a densely wooded but rugged and moun- tainous region, broken up by numerous bodies of water, and underlaid throughout its area gener-ally by hard crystalline rocks of the Lauren- tian series. The surface of Lake Huron is 578 feet, and that of Lake Superior 600 feet above the sea. From these levels the ground rises 54 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. moro or loss abruplly to an average height of from 1,000 to 1,500 foot, witli occasional points of still greater elevation. The recognized rock formaiionscomin'ise representatives of the Laiii*enl ian, Huronian, Upper Copp(3r-Bearing, and Chazy (?) series, with many eruptive Granitic and Trappean rocks, and overlying Glacial and Post-Glacial deposits. The L lurentian i^ocks are composed of vast beds of micaceous and hornblondic gneiss, quartzitos, and other crystalline strata ; but bands of crystalline limestone, so commonly associated with these rocks in eiistern distriots, are here apparently wanting. These Lanrentian stnita are mostly inclined at high angles, and are variously folded and contorted by undulations. In places also they are broken through by vast masses of granite. They form a great i)art of the north and east coasts of Like Superior; but along the north shore of Liike Huron they are mostly overlaid by Huronian strata, although forming the coast-line from the River Thessalon to a short distance esist of the Mississagui. In the back country of both lakes, however, they extend over almost the entire surface of the i-egion. The Huronian sti-ata are com[X)sed mostly of green and other slates, quartzites, quartz and jtusper conglomerates, and limestones of semi- crystalline aspect. They are intei-stratified also with trappean bands, and are penetrated l)y numerous dykes of ti-ap and greenstone. In many places likewise, they are traversed by quartz veins carrying ores of copper and other metals. They form a broad belt iimging from Lake Temiscamang to Lake Huron, west of French River, and along the lake shore to the River Mississagui. They re-appear again on the coiist west of Thessiilon River, and occupy a large area between Like George and the country around Echo Lake. They occur also on the east and north-eixst coast of Liike Superior, and in a band at the back of Thunder Bay, as well as in several other bands farther west and north, where they appekr, according to Pi'of. Robert Bell, to occupy synclinals, in folds of Laurentian strata. Their more important economic minerals comprise: The copper ores of Lake Huron (worked at the Bruce and Wellington mines); the iron ores of Echo Lake, Michii)icoten River, Pic River, ifec; the antimony oi-e of Echo Lake country ; the silver bearing veins (opened at the 3 A mine, &o.) of the Huronian belt of Thunder Bay; and the gold-bearing veins of the Lake Shebandowan country. ": / The strata known conventionally as the Upper Copper-Bearing Rocks of Lake Superior, overlie the Huronian formation in some PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 55 places, and I'ost diroctlv on Laurentian rocks in others. They belong to three series : a lower s(!ries, composed mostly of dark slates, beds of chert, and greenish gray sandstones with intei*stratified beds of trap or hardened volcanic mud ; a middle or second series, consisting chiedy of red and white marls and calcareous sandstones, also with in- terstratified belts of trap or volcanic mud; and a third division, consist- ing of an enormous overflow of trap, resting uncomformably on both the lower series. The first or lowermost division occurs along the coast between Pigeon River and the eastern extremity of Thunder Bay, and it is capped by the third division, or so-called crowning overflow of trap, in many places, as, more especially, at the bold promontory of Thunder Cape, at McKay's Mountain, at Pie Island, and elsewhere. The red and white marl and sandstone series occui-s principally be- tween Thunder Cape and Nepigon Bay, and is also capped by masses of trap belonging to the crowning overflow. Grand exposures of these sulj-coluinnai" traps are seen at Thunder Cape, Pie Island, St. Ignaco, the Nepigon River, and elsewhere on the north-west coast of Lake Superior. The red marls and sandstones appear also to occur at other points on the north-east and eastern shores of the lake. Both the first and second divisions are penetrated by quai-tz veins carrying various metallic matters, as native silver, silver glance, galena, zinc blende, nickel ore, copper ore, &c. ; and many of these minerals contain small amounts of gold. The Silver Islet, Thunder Bay, Trowbridge, Duncan or Shuniah, Jarvis Island, Spar Island, and other mineral locations lie on the lowermost series ; whilst the North Shore, Cariboo, Enterprise or Black Bay, Silver Lake, and other locations, belong to the second division. The age of these rocks is still a subject of controversy. By some observers they are regarded as Triassic, a view based chiefly on mineral aspect. Sir William Logan, on the other hand, stoutly maintained their Lower Silurian age, regarding them as probable equivalents of the Potsdam and Calciferous formations of eastern localities, or, at least, as occupying a lower geological horizon than that of the Chazy forma- tion ; and the weight of evidence at present is cei-tainly in favour of this view. Ciirtain sandstone beds, commonly known as the Ste. Marie sandstones, are seen at points east of St. Mary's River (as on the Island of Campement d'Otirs, &c.) to underlie fossiliferous lime- stones of the Trenton (or Black River) formation ; and these same sandstones, at points on the eastern side of Lake Superior, overlie 66 • * OEOLOaY OF CANADA. strata with bcfUled traps, &c., apparently bolongiufj to the second Copi)er-Beai'ing series. The Sanlt Ste. Marie sandstones must, at least, be as oUl as the Chazy series of strata, if not older ; and conse- quently, if the rocks on the east side of L.ike Superior belong really to the Copper-Bearing group, the latter cannot bo far removed from the base of the Silurian series. Over the floor of crystalline rocks by which this vast region is essentially underlaid. Drift clays and boulders, and Post-Glacial clays and sands, with other recent accumulations, arc spread in mafay places. Glacial furrows and strise also are seen in numerous locali- ties. The prevalent direction of the strise is decidedly towards the south-west, although some run nearly south, others east of south, and others, again, almost east and west. Where comnionly seen, two or mora sets of striae occur together, and thus intersect each otlior. Drift clays are seen in m-iny of the river channels, and boulders are of very general distribution. The latter are accumu- lated in some places in long ridges or moraines at the opening of valleys, or along the lower slopes of the hills. Whilst many of these boulders are of essentially local origin — and thus consist on the north shore of Lake Huron of jasper-conglomorate, quartzite, and other Huronian rocks, and of Laurentian and Copper-Bearing rocks about Lake Superior — numerous examples of limestone boulders, containing Middle or Upper Silurian and Devonian fossils, occur throughout the region. These latter must have come generally from the northern country which lies beyond the height of land and extends towards Hudson's Bay, although small patches of fossilifei'ous limestone are said to have been seen near the head waters of the Pic River, and others may perhaps be found as the region becomes more thoroughly explored. The Post-Glacial deposits of the district consist in their lower beds of stratified clays and sands, referred by the Survey to the ** Saugeen " division ; and in their higher beds, of ridges and widely spread accumulations of fine sand only, refen-ed to the "Algoma " series. The stratified clays (of gray, i"ed, and buff colours) are seen in places on the north shore of Lake Huron and St. Mary's River, and prominently in the high terraces around the Sault, as well on the Pic River, and in the ancient banks of the Kaministiquia and other rivers of Lake Superior. The higher sands are also displayed in the Kaministiquia banks, and more or less throughout the Nepigon country, where they form in places hills and MANITOnA AND NOUTII-WKST TICFIIMTOIIY. S7 riclf,'('H of considcniblo (flcvation. AIho on tho Pic lliver, and liu'<,'«'ly iironnd Mi(;lii[»i(M)ton Hmhour, and on tlio Ooulais Kiv(n- ; un KEGION OF THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY. Tlio geology of this vast area — oxt^nding from tlio wostfrn l)Oinidaiy-lino of Ontario (not yot pormanoutly ('stablisliod) to the Rocky MovnitaiiiH — is only known at ]»r(>s(!nt in its l)roador or more general features, but it appears to indicate a natural subdivision of the region into four leading districts. These comprise ; (1) The Eastern or Laurentiaii District ; (2) Tlie Eastern Prairie or Lake Manitoba District ; (3) The Central Prairie District ; and (i) Tho Rockv Mountain District. (1.) The Eastern or Lanrentlan District. — This forms an elevated rocky region, moi-e or less densely woodcnl ; a continuation of tho Lake Superior country, described, \inder tho District of the Upper Lakes, in the geology of Ontario. It includes all the country lying between tho boundary-lino of Ontario (not yet definitely settled), and tho Winnipeg Ptiver and Lake, with ju-obably a wider extension of area towards the north-west. It is occupied essentially by Tiaurentian strata of micaceoiis and syenitic gneiss, quai'tzite, «fec., with overlying belts, in various places, of micaceous, chloritic, and liornblendic slates, and slaty conglomerates, of Huronian age. These Crystalline strata form the surface in many parts, but in others, and especially on the south-east shore of Lake Winnipeg, they are covered by thick dejjosits of Glacial and Post-Glacial clays and sands. The average altitude of the district is about 1,200 feet — the ground rising in places to 1,500 or 1,600 feet above the sea, but descending to 107 feet at Lake Winnipeg. (2.) The Eastern Prairie, or Lake Manitoba District. — This sub- division comprises the country immediately west of Lake Winnipeg, Deer Lake, Lake Arthabasca, kc, and the entire area around Lake Manitoba, Lake Winnipegosis and connected series of lakes, with the valley of Red River and the Lower courses of the Assiniboine, B8 OROLOGY OP CANADA. Swan Rivor, and SaHki'.tchowan, Tt forms osHontially tlio " Fiint Praii'io Stepp*'" of tli»! nortli-VvoHt, and o(;ciipi('san (thtvation of al)out 750 or HOO foot al)ov«) tlio Hea, Htrotchiii^ to tint baso of tlio Hocond jn'airitj along tho lino of hilly country dotiniHl by tho Poinhina, Riding, Duck, and Porcupino Mountains, and tins liascpiia Hills, it iH underlaid in its more easttu-ii portion (including Foi-t (ilarry, the lower coiirso of Rod River, tho wtsstia-n siiores of liako Wiiuiipeg, Cedar Lake, ikc) by Lower Silurian strata, belonging (\ssentially, if not wholly, to tho Trenton formation, and consisting clii(!tly of dolomitic limestones in horizontal or ncsai-ly horizontal beds. The more western and north-western portion (including Lake Manitol)a, Dauphin Lake, the west shore of Lake Winnip(!gosis, Swan Lake, «kc.) is underlaid by Devonian strata, consisting most probably of tho higher portion of tho series. Numerous brine s[)rings, and, here and there, outilows of petrohnjm, ajjpear to mark the Devonian area generally ; but tho surface of the district is almost entinsly covered by Glacial and Post-Crlacial do[)osits, mostly in tho form of stratified marly clays. (3.) The Central Prairie District. — This is essentially a prairie region, but interspersed with patches of woodland, and forming on the whole a rolling and often hilly country. It comprises the second and third prairie-stepi»es, rising in the east, above the lino of elevation between Pembina Mountain and the Ba.squia Hills, to an altitude of about 1,600 feet above the sea, and in its more western extension on the third prairie (west of the Grand Coteau, Eagle Hills and Thick- wood Hills) to from 2,000 to over 4,000 feet. It encloses many sterile tracts, but over a large i)oi-tion of its area the soil appears to be of good fertility. Ranging west of the Pembina, Riding, Porcu- pine, and Basquia Hills, it extends over the vast region travei-sed by the Qu'Appelle Rivei', the Upper Assiniboino, north and south branches of the Saskatchewan, and the ui)per course of the Artha- basca, and rises gradually into the eastern sloi)es of the Rocky Mountains. The eastern section — and probably the greater portion of the entii'e district — is occupied by Cretaceous strata, consisting mostly of sandstones and shaly clays in generally horizontal beds, overlaid more or less by sands of Glacial or Post-Glacial age ; whilst towards the west, but without any strongly marked lines of demar- cation, these Cretaceous strata are succeeded by Cainozoic deposits. MAVlToriA AKD NoRTK \Vi:hT THHUiToUY, §0 Tli«i liittor coiiMiMt tliii'tly of Himdy cIiiyH, w'itli iiHWH'iiitud ImmIh of ii;{Mit4< Hiid iroiistono. Li^nitu uccui'N uIho in tlio CretHrtiouH Htmtu of the (liHtrict. In iiniiiy of its ImjiIh, oh in tho Cju'Appoliu viilloy iinil Houtliwiirdrt ^(•ncrally, it priwrntH thly dituunnou8 coal. (4.) The Rocky Afonntnin JJlutrict includoH tlu» foot-hills and east(?ni ranj^oH of the llouky Mountains, and oxtendw wowtward to the boundary-line of British (Jolunil)ia. This eastern portion of the llocrky Mountain chain ent(!r.s the North-west Territory in the form of several distinct ranjfcs which curve towards the north-west, and appear gradually to interniinglo. Southwards, the mountains present an average elevation of about 8,000 feet above the sea, with occasional points of higher latitude ', but in their northern extension — as seen in the transverse valley of the Peace Kiver and elsewhere towards the Arctic Ocean — their lUtitude becomes gi-eatly diminished. They are composed essentially of dolomites, limestones, and sandstones, apparently of Devonian, or of Devonian and Carboniferous age. Probably, older Paheozoic and more recent formations will eventually be found amongst them. In some few places their uplifted strata still retain their original horizontality, but as a rule they occur in highly-tilted, broken and contorted beds, with dee})ly escar])ed faces fronting abruptly on the east, and strong westerly dij) towards the central part or axis of the chain. Gneissoid rocks and crystalline Bchists — which make uj) the main mass of the Rocky Mountains in New Mexico and Colorado, and which occur almost immediately west of the chain in British Columbia — appear to be altogether wanting in these eastern ranges. Finally, it may be pointed out, as a char- acteristic feature of the district, that, along the base and gorges of the mountains, terraced accumulations of gravel and limestone-' shingle are seen at varying elevations; and in many cases these shingle terraces or beaches extend along the river-valleys far into the pmirie region to the easti GO GEOLOGY OP CANADA. rROVINOE.OF BRITISH COLUMBIA. This Province — extemling westward from tlie boundary-line of the North-west Territories in the Rocky Mountains, to the Pacific coast and outlying islands — admits of a convenient and more or less natural subdivision into four areas. These may be named as fol- lows : (I) The Eastern Mountain District; (2) The District of the Central Table-land; (3) The Coast and Western Mountain District; and (4) The Island District. (1.) The Eastern Mountain District. — This 'includes the western rangea of the Kocky Mountains projjer, and the adjacent ranges of the Selkirk, Gold and Cariboo Mountains. Physically, it consists of a number of roughly-parallel chains, running in a general north- west direction, and presenting an average elevation of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet abo/e the sea, with niany isolated points of greater altitude. Among the latter, some of the more striking in the main chain include Mount Sabine, Mt. Forbes (13,460 ft. "?), Mt. Balfour (U, 43 1 ft. 0, Mt. Murchison (16,000 ft. ?), Mt. Hooker (15,700 ft. '(), and Mt. Brown (15,1)90 ft.?). Several points in the Selkirk Moun- tains also exceed 12,000 feet; and glaciers occur in the higher valleys or gorges of both chams. Tilted and contorted strata of limestone and sandstone, ap]»arently for the greater part of Devonian and Carboniferous age, occur on the western as on the eastern slopes of the Eocky Mountains proper, and terraced accumulations of gravel and limestone-shingle are seen at various elevations. The Selkirk, G jld and Cariboo ranges, which are only separated from the western flanks of the central mountains by compai-atively narrow valleys, appear, on the other hand, to consist largely of talcose and micaceous schists. It is through these ranges, therefore, rather than along the line of the " Kocky Mountains " as defined on maps, that the core of the great chain would seem to be continued to the north. (2.) The District of the Central Table-Land. — This district com- prises the great plateau which extends from the Selkirk and other mountain i-anges, on the east, to the Cascade and Coast Mountains on the west. It lies at an average elevation of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea, and presents for the greater part a more or less mountainous character. Numerous lakes occur upon its surface ; and it is traversed by the Columbia, Fraser, and other rivers, flowing mostly in deep-cut channels or canons. In many places it is thickly PIjATE DC. PROVINCE OP BRITISH COLUMBL\, SKETCH MAP. Shewing Geological Areas. 1. Kasteru yfouiiia'ui DiWfricl iralao^oir i ]\l('tanioj-phir:) Jl. Centml or laM- Land District (Mct^f Pa/froxf OhinfrKfiVo/ra/tic.) MCoasi and IVasier/i Mr Diytrict (Mifaniorpfiic i Volrauic.) 117 r^laiid District (CJiicf/i/ fpper JIeso\(fir : Coal heariiiq.) E.J.C.del Copp, Claflf & Co La&:.ToTcnt4 ■■;*• : BRITISH COLUMBIA. Gl wooded ; but gravelly and comparatively sterile tracts prevail over considerable areas, and swamps are also numerous. So far as known at present, its lower rocks appear to consist of granitic, talcose, and micaceous formations (more or less tilted and contorted), succeeded by slides, conglomerates and limestones of Middle and Upper Pula-ozoic age, or by more I'ecent sti-ata of alternating seaks, or ai'e travei'sed by broken ranges — northern outliers of the "Sea Alps" of California, and thus undoubtedly composed in part of volcanic rocks — of com2)arativoly high elevation. In Van- couver Island, amongst other elevated points, the Beaufort Eange exceeds 5,000 feet in altitude) and Mt. Arrowsmith is 5,970 feet, Victoria Peak 7,484 feet, Mt. Albert Edward G,<.)G3 feet, and Mt. Alexandra G,395 feet above the sea. In the Charlotte Islands, the ranges are apparently of corresiwnding height. In both of these island groups, however, comparatively level tracks, well adaj^ted for agricultural settlement, occupy extensive areas. The geology of the distir'ot, so far as at present known fi'om tlie Reports of Mr. Richardson of the Canadian Survey, j\Ir. Bauerman, Dr. Brown, and others, may be briefly summarized as follows : The smaller islands lying more immediately along the coast consist principally of crystalline honxblendic strata, associated with beds of semi-ciystalline limestone, and holding in some localities — as on Texada Island, more especially — valuable beds of magnetic iron ore. Rocks of a similar kind occur upon the flanks of the mountain ranges in Vancouver and other islands to the west — these easterly and westerly exposures seeming to form the edges of a long trotigh, or series of troughs, filled with coal-bearing Cretaceous strata. The semi-crystalline limestones contain in places many imperfectly preserve' fossils of Carboniferous or Upper Paheozoic types. The coal-beaiing strata consist mostly of alternations of sandstones, conglomerates, and shales (the first gi'eatly predominating), with layers of iron-stone nodules and seams of coal, the latter varying from a few inches to about five or six feet in thickness. These coal strata are characteiized by the presence oi many well-known Mesozoic types — Ammonites, Belemnites, &c. Those of the Queen Charlotte Islands to the north, apparently indicate Lower Cretaceous deposits, or beds of passage betAvoen Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous formations, whilst the fossils of the coal strata of the Vancouver group are clearly Upper Cretaceous. The coal of the northern islands is more or less anthracitic in character, but that of Vancouver Island is of ordinary bituminous quality, identical in all essential respects with the coals of the Coal Measures proper. These Cretaceous strata are covered very generally by thick deposits of sand and clay, forming high cliffs in many places; and over a large portion of Vancouver Island, the latter '■^r -.,. ^ ■;»• ;!: 'f"- >- ^ ■s. Nn. ■v: ^ <: N- •^ ,^ 'J- -?: ■». > ■^ ■<, == <^^ y- ^ ;^ ■< > f^ >• .5: < ^Jk- ■^ ■-c- 1 t 1 1 K^ te^ ^' =;' PnOVtUCB OP QUfiBEC. 68 deposits arc again overlaid by a dark vegetable soil, holding, here and there, layers of inai-ino shells belonging apparently to existing Bpecics. Brine springs occur on one of the islands of the Vancouver group ; and the sands of Leech River and other streams have yielded consideniblo amounts of gold. PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. This Province may be subdivided geologically into four principal areas, comprising: (1) The Laurentide, or Northern Crystalline District; (2) The Upper St. Lawrence, or Western Palaeozoic Dis- trict ; (3) The Appalachian, or Eastern Metamorphic District; and (4) The Aiiticosti, or Eastern Palajozoic Area. ( 1 . ) The Laurentide District. — This is essentially a i-egion of ancient crystalline strata — rocky and mountainous in character : an ea.stward extension of the Laurentian districts of Ontario, but with ceiiiain special features of its own. It comprises the wide expanse of terri- tory lying between the Ottawa River and Labrador, with tho oxcejition of a comparatively narrow strip of country (occupied by Lower Palajozoic formations), extending along the St. Lawrence from the junction of the two great rivers to a point a short distance below the city of Quebec. It is traversed by the Laurentide Mountains, proper, which form within it several broken ranges curving roughly parallel with the course of the St. Lawrence. The more southern of these gradually approach the river, and run closely adjacent to it along the lower part of its course. The average height of the Laurentides, generally, is from about 1,200 to 2,000 feet, but at one or two points they reach an altitude of nearly 4,000 feet above the sea. Numerous rivers rise amongst them. Some of the more im})ortant comprise : the Riviere du Moine, the Gattineau, the Riviere du Lievre, the Riviere Rouge, and the Riviere du Nord, flowkig into the Ottawa; and the I'Assomption, Chicot, St. Maurice, Batiscan, Ste. Anne (Portneuf), Jacques Cartier, Montmorenci, Ste. Anne (Montmorenci), Murray, Saguenay, Moisie, and other eastern rivers, flowing into the St. Lawrence. The locks within this region consist mainly of Lower or typical Laurentian strata, overlaid in some few localities by feldspathic rocks of the Upper Laurentian or Labrador series. The Laurentian strata^ proper, are composed essentially of vast beds of micaceous and syenitic gneiss, hornblende rock, and quartzites, with interstratified 6 64 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. bands of crystalline limestone and oxidized iron ores. Valuable deposits of the latter occur, especially, in the townships of Hull, Templeton, and Grenville, on the Ottawa. As a rule, these Lower Laurentian strattv are more or less strongly tilted, corrugated, or otherwise disturbed. They are also very generally traversed by granitic or syenitic veins, and ai"e broken through in places (more especially in Wentworth, Chatham, and Grenville, on the Lower Ottawa) by enormous masses of ei'uptive syenite and greenstone. The crystalline limestones very commonly contain numerous examples of diopside, phlogopite, zircon, sphene, and other crystallized silicates ; and they are associated in many places Avith workable amounts of graphite and fluo-phosphate of lime, as in the townships of Buckingham, Portland, Lochaber, Grenville, &,c. The Upper Lanrentian .or Labrador formation is represented principally by thick beds of anor- thosite or feldspar rock, with associated feldspatho-pyroxenic beds and interstratified gneissoid rocks. Titaniferous iron ore is a fi-equent accompaniment of these higher strata, and in some localities, as at Bale St. Paul, it is present in large quantity. Whilst the Lower Laurentian strata occur throughout the district generally, the upper series has been recognized only in detached areas of comparatively limited extent. One of these is seen in the counties of Argenteuil, Terrebonne, Montcalm, and Joliet, in the western part of the district ; and others occur in the vicinity of the Montmorenci Falls ; in the country about Bale St. Paul and Murray Bay; in the vicinity of Lake St. John on the Saguenay ; and on the River Moisie, in the east. In addition to these crystalline formations, a few outlying patches of Silurian strata, consisting mostly of Trenton limestones and Utica shales, occur here and there withjn the Laurentide area. The largest of these Silurian outliers is seen around Lake St. John on the Upper Saguenay ; and small exposures occur at one or two spots on the shore of the St. Lawrence, below Quebec, as at the Montmorenci Falls, Murray Bay, &c. Glacial boulders, clays, and gravels, with Post-Glacial sands and other superficial deposits — among which the titaniferous iron sands of the Lower St. Lawrence may be especially mentioned — are distributed more or less generally through- out the region. The glacial strise of the district run most commonly either towards the south-east or south-west ; , but in some few localities their direction is almost north and south, and in others, not far removed from east and west. PROVINCE OF QUEBBO. 6& (2.) The Upper St. Lauyrence District. — Thin is essentially a Silurian area, occupied — apart tVdin some isolated eruptive-masses — by sand- Btones, limestones, and other strata, which retain their original sedimentary aspect, and occur, for the greater part, in undisturbed beds. It extends along both sides of the St. Lawrence from the western boundary of the Province to the neighbourhood of Quebec. In the west, it includes the counties of Vaudreuil and Soulanges, lying in the point of the triangular space immediately west of the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivera. From the county of Vaudreuil, its northern boundary crosses the Ottawa, and then, keeping entirely on the north side of the St. Lawrence, runs along the southern edge of the Laurentide district already described, and gradually approaching the river, strikes it a short distance below Quebec. Its southeni limit runs from the south-west corner of Huntingdon (south of the St. Lawrence), along the l)oundaryline between the Province and the State of New York, to a little beyond the River Richelieu at the northern extremity of Lake Champlain ; and east of this, the district is bounded by the disturbed and metamorphio area of the Eastern Townships — its actual limit in this direction being a remarkable line of dislocation, with accompanying fault, running (as fii-st traced out by Sir William Logan) from near the north-west end of Lake Champlain to the vicinity of Point L6vis, and from thence around the City of Quebec, along the nox*th side of the Island of Orleans, and down the river to near the mouth of the Magdalen, where it enters and runs along the Gasp6 shore. The rock-formations of the district belong to three distinct series. The stratified rocks, proper, consist of representatives of the Potsdam, Calciferous, Chaay, £lack River and Trenton, Utica, and Hudson Biver (Lower Silurian) fonuations — with some small exposures, south of the St. Lawrence, of strata referred to the Middle Silurian, Medina group, and a few outlying patches of Upper Silurian strata (belonging to the Lower Helderberg formation) in the vicinity of Montreal. These formations are broken through in places by large enxptive- masses of trachytio and trappean rock, forming a series of picturesque mountains, which rise abruptly from the generally level surface of the district in the more southern and western portions of its area; and in addition to these Silurian and eruptive rocks. Glacial and Post^Glacial accumulations, with deposits of comparatively modem origin, occur throughout the district generally. . v < -s C6 OEOLOQY OP CANADA. Tlio Potsdam betla coTisiHt of coarso conglomoratos and finn-jyrained Bilicoous HaiidHtones — tli(! liitt«!i" in many localitios sntKi'ijuitly purtf for glaHH-nianufactui'o and for tin? hcartliM of furnaces. Tho formation is largely displayod in Henimingford Mountain, and ovor large poliions of Huntingdon, Clmteauguay, and Beauharnois, from whence it crosses the St. Lawrence, and spndids over a largo f(art of Soulanges and Vaiidreuil ; and from thence, passing across the western erld c" the Island of Montrwil and Isle Bizunl, it wraps around a large outlying uuisH of Laurentian gneiss (forming Mount (jalvairo on the north shore), and continues uninteriM»[)tedly along the'edge of the Laurentido district as far east as the River Chicot, where the continuity of the strata is broken by a fault, and limestones of the Tfenton formation are let down against the Potsdam beds. East of this point, the formation only appears at one or two places — notably on the St. Maurice, where it exhibits a slight thickness of nearly horizontal beds of conglomerate and sandstone, resting iipon gneis's. Throughout its range, as far east as the Chicot, it is accompanied by sandy and dolomitic lim -stc^nes of the Calciferous formation, and these cover large areas south of the St. Lawrence, and in the country aroitnd the junction of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa. East of this fox-mation, on the south side of the St. Lawrence, limestones of the Chazy and Trenton series, and dark bituminous shales of the Utica formation, with succeeding sandstones and arenaceous shales of the Hudson River formation lai'gely prevail — the lat^^er, especially, east of Richelieu River. These formations cross the St. Lawrence, and range in regular sequence along the north shoi-e between the Calciferous outcrop and the river bank. The intervening Island of Montreal, Isle Jdsus, Isle Bizard, &c., consist essentially of Chazy, Trenton, and Utica stmta — the Hudson River beds coming up fartlier east. The Chazy limestones of Caughnawaga and St. Domenique on the south shore, those of Ste. Gendvi6ve on the Island of Montreal, of Isle Biza^'d, and of St. Lin on the north shore, yield marbles (red-spotted or uniformly red) of good quality. • East of the River Chicot, which enters the St. Lawrence on the north shore, near the upper or western extremity of the expansion known as Lake St. Peter, the comparatively naiTow strip of coimtry between the Laurentian gneissoid rocks and the river margin is occupied almost entirely by Tiienton, Utica, and Hudson River strata — one or two small exposures of the Potsdam formation on the St. Maurice and at St. Ambroise alone representing PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. 67 tlie lower hedn as Hoen went of the Chicot fault. In this eastenn |)ortion of the distrid;, the Htrata aro tiltod in many places at con- siderable angloH, a8 near Pointo aiix TroinblcH, Montinor«Mici Falls, ^0., and th(ur continuity at these Hj)ot8 in more or less disturbed by- minor faultH. As stilted above, the Siltirian strata of the more southern and western jiortions of the Ujjper St. Lawrence district are broken through in places by trachytic and trappean masHes, forming a series of isolated mountains which rise above the generally level suiface of the country to elevations of from GOO to 800 feet. Most of these occur apparently upon a single line of lissure traversing the district in a general soutlM»asterIy direction. They comprise : (1) the Moun. tain of Rigaud in Vaudreuil, composed partly of a i)urely foldspathic, and partly of a dioritic or hornblendic trachyte, porphyritic in places ; (2) the Montreal Mountain, composed essentially of angitic trap or dolerite, but traversed by d;,'ke8 of compact and granitic trachyte ; (3) Montarville or Boucherville Mountain, also essentially trappean in composition ; (4) BeUfiil, a dioritic and micaceous trachyte ; (5) Monnoir or Mount Johnson (south of Beloeil), of the same mineral character ; (G) Rougemont, in Roiiville County, a trappean mass like that of Montreal in genei-al composition ; and (7), the Yamaska Mountain, essentially a micaceous trachyte. The Mountains of Brome and 8h(!fford belong to the same eruptive series, but lie within the raetamorphic district to the east. In addition to these principal masses, many dykes of similar character traverse the surrounding strata; and some of these in the neighbourhood of Montreal and Lachine are interciUated with the soft shales of the Utica series, which have become more or Itiss worn away, leaving the associated trap bands in the form of projecting ledges. Most of the rapids in this part of the St. Lawrence have been thus produced. The superficial deposits of the district comprise Glacial boulders and related clays and gravels, with Post-Glacial and recent accumu lations. Drift or Glacial deposits, propei-, are of genei-al distribution ; and in some places, as on the Rigaud Mountain, the boulders form roughly parallel ridges of several feet in height. The Glacial strise of the country have two prevailing directions — south-west and south- east respectively. The Post-Glacial deposits belong chiefly to two series, as first determined by Dr. Dawson of Montreal : a lower deep- sea formation, known as the " Leda Clay ;" and a succeeding deposit, 68 OEOLOOY or cakada. a|)|)arfliitly a Hlinllow-Hn:i or Hhoit^-lino acciitniilation, known as " Haxicuva Sand." Tliewe occur widoly within tlin (lintrict, and at variouH elevationH. On the Montreal Mountain, ImhIh of Saxicava sand, for Pxatn|do, fornt a Huritw of tcrraccH, ono of which Ih at an altitu(h) of nearly 500 foct alK)Vo the pitwont sea lovel. Ii<'aui)ort, beh)W Quebec, iH anothttr locality at which these depohitH ai'c wc^ll expoHed ; hut they occur also, and ovfu* laifife areas, around MiiiTay Bay, as well as on the Lower St. Mauiice, and elnewhei-e. The more recent formations of the district comprise, principally, the bo^ iron ores and ochres of the St. Maurice and other localities on the north shore of the St. Ijawrence ; the jjreat peat-lxMls of Ijiinoraye, Lavaltrie, St. Sulpice,tfec., on the same side of the river; and those of Slu'rrinf^ton, Longueuil, and St. Dom^'ni(pie, with othei-s, on the south shore. Most of those peat beds overlie doj)osit8 of shell marl. (3.) T/ie Appnlfichiati District. — The term '* Appalachian region " was first bestowed on this part of Canada by Dr. Sterry Hunt. Tlie district forms, indeed, a prolongation into Eastern Caniula jf the Appalachian region of the Uniteil States : the Appalachian chain, with its tilted, contorted, and in great i)art metamorplu)8t!d, systcnn of rocks, being continued into the Orford, Sutton, and other moun- tains of the Eastern Townships, and from these into the Notre Dame and Schickshock ranges of the St. Lawrence and Gliisp6. The district is essentially a Palteozoic area, but disturbed and altered over most of its extent by metamorphic agencies. It includes the section of country known as the Eastern Townshiiis, and also the i)eninsula of Oasp6 and intermediate country. It thus comprises all that portion of the Province which lies east of the line of dislocation and fault, referred to under the j)receding district. This line of fault extends from the nortli-east extremity of Lake Champlain in a general north- easterly direction, to a short distance west of Point L6vis, from whence, crossing the St. Lawrence, it curves round the back of Queb«jc, runs along the Island of Orleans, down the bed of the river to near the mouth of the latter, and finally tiuvei-ses the north coast of the extremity of Gasi)4. The stratti along the outer edge of this line of fracture — in tlie Up|>er St. Lawrence district, described above — belong essentially to the Hudson River formation. They show (except on the Gasp^ coast) no actual signs of disturbance ; but on the east side of the line, an uplift has brought older strata (of the PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. 69 CalciforotiH or QiieW; wirieH) in Hoomlngly conforniftblo straiincation agaiiiHt their fliinlcH ; and luuico it liaH Ixtnn coni(H;tnro(l, in explana- tiuii, that tho HndHon Hiv(U' IxmIh havo Ixtun brokun and partially rcvorHnd along tho fanlt by thin upward movornont, thu older Htratu overlapping them, and ho following dnceptivtily without any viHible broilk in the He(pience. The dlHtrict in thuH ))ouneninHula is about 1,500 feet, and that of the othet portion of the district probably about 1,000 feet above the sea; but several peaks in tho Schichshock ranges of Gasp<5 up[)roach 4,000 feet in height, and the summits of some of the mountains in the Eastern Townships are apparently over 3,000 feet. Many lakes, but none of large si/e, occur within the latter portion of tho district. Among those. Lake St. Francis lies at an elevation of 81)0 feet, and Lake Memphramagog at an elevation of 7G0 feet above the sea. In Ga8p6, Lake Temiscouata and Lake Matapedia lie, respectively, at altitudes of 470 and 480 feet. The district abounds in rivers. Some of the princijjal comprise the Yaniiiska and St. Francis (as regards their upper courses), tho Chaudi6re, with its tributaries, the Famine, Des Plan tea, *kc., and the Etchemin, in the more western portion of the district ; and the Kamouraska, Rivi6re du Loup, Trois Pistoles, Rimouski, M(5tis, Matanne, Chatte, Ste. Anne, York, Cascapediac, Matai>ediac, and otlier rivera of the Gaspd peninsula, most of which flow in deeply excavated channels. The rock formations of the district belong to three general groups : (i.), a series of Paljeozoic strata, more or less altered in most locali- ties ; (ii.), a series of eruptive, trachytic, and gi-anitic rocks; and (iii.), a series of Post Cainozoic or superficial deposits. The altered condition of many of the Palaeozoic formations, and their disturbed condition generally, renders the determination of their exact age somewhat doubtful; but they appear to consist of representatives of Lower and Upper Silurian, Devonian, and Lower Carboniferous, formations. The Potsdam formation has been recognized at points on the St. Lawrence, between the Chaudi^re and the Trois Pistoles, in Temis- J^ GEOLOGY OF CANADA. couata ; and a strip of the Hudson River formation, represented by a series of contorted windstones, dolomites, and bituminous shales, occurs along the coi\st of Gasp^, between the River M rsonin and Anse k la Tierce. The more important strata of the district, however, com- prise repi-esentjitives of the Quebec giwip (see below), with the over- lying Ga.sp6 limestones and sandstones (Ui)i>er Silurian and Devonian formations), and the Lower Carbonifeix)us Bonaventure formation of South GaspC'. The Quebec group of strata occupies, app irently, a position between the Calciferous and Chazy formations of other localities, or otherwise represents the two series combined. It is subdivided into three formations, comprising, in ascending order : (i.), The L^vis formation, made up pi-incipiilly of black gi-iiptolitic shales or slates, containing numerous graptolites and other fossils ; (ii.), the Lauzun formation, consisting in part of red and green shales, sandstones, and dolomites, but composed mostly of metamorphic strata, among which ttilcose and other magnesian rocks (chloritic schists, serpentines, &c.) largely pi-edominate — the lower and upper portions of the series contiiining many bands of copper ore and other metalli- ferous deposits; and (iii.), the Sillery formation, consisting chiefly of red and green shales, sandstones, and dolor ites, but including, in places, altered rocks in the form of crystalline schists and epidotic and gneissoid strata. The Levis formation occui"s pi'ominently around the City of Quebec and Point Ldvis, chiefly in the form of hard bhick shales dipping at high angles ; but it is also seen around Richmond, on the St. I'rancis, and in the neighbouring townships, as well as around Phillipsburg, on the boundary line, and, again, east of the Chaudi^re. It is of much palaeontological interest from tlie great number of graptolites obtained from its strata. The altered and metalliferous Lauzun division occurs more or less throughout the Eastern Townships, or between the north-east shore of Lake Cham- plain and the Chaudi^re River, generally. It is especially rich in copper ores ; but contains, also, chromic iron ore, magnetic iron ore, si)ecular iron schists, gold in quartz bands and '"?ins, galena, serpen- tines and serpentine-marbles, roofing slates, aiid other economic sub- stances. Its strata, as a rule, are much folded and disturbed, as well as altered chemically. The Sillery formation follows in most places the outcrop of the Lauzun beds, and the altered portions of its strata cannot always be sharply separated from the latter. In its unaltered state, it occurs, in the form of red and green shales, micaceous sand- PROVINCE OP QUEBEC, \f% stones, and dolomitic beds, at Sillery Cove and Cape Rouge, near Quebec ; and on the south shore, between the Chaudi6re and the vicinity of Point L6vis, and still more extensively in the country east of the Chaudi^re. The "Gaspe-Lin.estone formation" is regarded as mainly equivalent iri. position to the Lower Helderberg series of western localities. Although composed chiefly of gray limestone strata, it is partly made up of a lower (perhaps Middle Sihirian) series of black shales and slates ; and some green and red shales are interstratified with its calcareous beds. The lower part of the formation occurs principally in the Eastern Townships of Orford, Melbourne, Westbu':'y, &c., where it contains workable beds of slate, and is seen in places to overlie the Sillery formation unconformably ; whilst the higher or more ciilcareous portion is chiefly developed in Gaspe. • On the extreme eastern coast, as at Barry Cape, the Perc6 Rock, and else- where, the limestones pi'esent bold cliffs and pinnacles of rock, worn and hollowed by the action of the sea. The " Gaspe-Sandstone formation," as shown by its fossils, is of Devonian age, repi-esenting most probably the Ori.skany, Har.iilton (or Lambton), and Chemung formations of western districts It occurs in Dudswell, Burford, and other sections of the Eastern Town- ships, in the form of light or dark-coloured limestones or dolomites (rendered crystalline in places by metamorphism), which appear to merge more or less into the underlying " Gasp^-Limestone " beds. In Gaspe proper, where the formation occurs in its more typical aspect, it consists essentially of interstratified sandstones, shales, and con- glomerates, holding in places many fossilized plant-remains. A thin seam of impure coal occurs also in these beds at Little Gaspd Cove ; and petroleum springs ooze through the strata at Douglastown and elsewhere. The " Bonaventure formation " represents the lower portion or base of the coal measures, but is entirely destitute of coal. Its strata are chiefly composed of conglomerates, with associated sandstones and red and greenish shales, some of which hold carbonized plant-remains ; and in many places they ai'e penetrated by trap dykes. They rest unconformably on strata of the Gasp6-Sandstone series. The forma- tion is seen pi'incipally on the eastern coast of Gasp^ '•id on the opposite Island of Bonaventure, and still more prominently along the coast of the Bay of Chaleurs, where its average thickness was estimated by Sir William Logan at no less than 3,000 feet. /2 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. The more important of the eimptive rocks occurring within the district, comprise: — (i.),'Tlie trachytic mountains of Brome and Sheiford, agreeing in character with most of the eruptive mountains of the Upper St. Lawrence district, and belonging to the same linear series ; (ii.), the granites of the Great and Little Megantic Moun- tains, and other granitic masses around Lake St. Francis, with those of Winslow, Herefoi'd, Stanstead, Weedon, and other portions of the Eastern Townships' arja ; and (iii.)> various trappean exposures of Eastern Gaspe and the Bay of Chaleurs. Most of these latter occur as interpenetrating and overlying dykes ; but at some spots, trappean (or ti-achyticl) masses form mountains of high elevation, as seen in the " Conical Mountain " of the Cascapedia, and in others of similar character in the country between the Matapedia and the Restigouche. The third series of formations i-ef erred to as occurring within the Api)alachian district, consist of Post-Cainozoic deposits. These com- prise : — (i.), Beds of auriferous gravel and magnetics and ; (ii.), boul- der-clays, or drift deposits, proper ; (iii.), beds of Leda clay and Saxi- cava sand ; and (iv.), sundry superficial deposits of comparatively recent origin. The drift clays in many parts of the Eastern Town- ships and adjacent areas, are underlaid by (and also partially mixed with) layers of gravel and black magnetic sand, containing, very generally, fine gi-ains, and occasionally small nuggets, of free gold. These auriferous deposits have been recognized in the beds of most of the sti'eams and rivers which flow through thi- section of the Pro. vince, and especially in the St. Francis, Chauwi^re, Famine, Riviere des Fiantes, Etchemin, Gilbert, Metgermet, and Riviere du Loup. The Leda clay and Saxicava sand deposits are largely displayed on the Trois Pistoles, Cacouna, Riviere du Loup, Ste. Anne, Matanne, M^tis, and other rivers. On the M6tis (in Gasp6) a bed of Saxicava sand occurs at an elevation of 245 feet above the present sea level. The more superficial deposits of the district include the bog iron ores of Stanbridge, Farnhani, Simpson, Ascot, Stanstead, Ireland, St. Lambert, St. Vallier, Yallery, Cacouna, and other sites ; the ochres of Durham ; the shell-marls of Stanstead, New Carlisle, &c. ; and the peat beds of the Uivifsre Quelle, Riviere du Loup, Metis, Rimouski, and Madawaska. (4.) The Anticosti Distinct. — This division includes the large Island of Anticosti, in the St. Lawrence Gulf; the group of the Mingan PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. 75 Islands on the opposite northern shore ; and a narrow strip of the latter lying around the mouth of the Mingan River, and extending eastward for several miles. It should also include, strictly, the strip of land along the Gaspe Coast, lying north of the line of dislocation described under the preceding division. It is essentially a region of unaltered and compai'atively undisturbed Silurian strata. The Island of Anticosti extends in a general north-west and south- east direction, with a length of about 150 miles, and a breadth, in its broadest part, of about 35 miles, gradually tapering at the extremi- ties. The northern coast presents bold ranges of cliffs, from 200 to 400 feet in height, cut through in places by deep water-courses. The interior of the island is thickly wooded, but is destitute of lakes and important streams. It appears to consist of a series of plateaux or broad terraces, gradually descending to the south shore. The latter, although showing in places high cliffs of drift clay, is mostly of a low and swampy character, and this part of the island is especiaily characterized by the presence of extensive beds of peat. The Mingan Coast consists of arenaceous limestones and dolomites of the Calciferous formation, and similar strata on the islands are succeeded by Chazy beds composed of reddish and pale-gray lime- stoies, with interstratified arenaceous shales. On the principal islai d (Large Island) of the Mingan group, light-colouretl limestones, hold.ng characteristic Lower Trenton or Black- River fossils, overlie the ' Jhazy beds — the whole dipping, at a slight angle, southwards or towards the Gulf. The next exposm-e (in the regular sequence of Lower Silurian formations) occurs along the opposite north coast of Anticosti, and consists of grayish and other coloured limestones, with interstratified shales and conjjlomei'ates, having an inland ot southerly dip of very slight amount. Tliese beds belong to the upper part of the Hudson River formation, and it may thus be legitimately infeiTed that the intervening area of the Gulf is occupied uninter- ruptedly by other Hudson River beds, with Utica and Trenton stnita cropping out successively from beneath them. In some of these Hudson River strata, examples of" the curious stem-like corals (Beab'icea undata), resembling the petrified tninks of large trees, occur in considerable abundance. The succeeding area of the Island to the south, is occupied by argillaceous and other limestones, essen- tially of Middle Silurian age, the equivalents apparently of the Medina, Clinton, and Niagai-a formations of the West; but char- 74 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. acteristic Niagara fossils 8''e asociated in some of these strata with Hudson River and other Lower Sihxrian tyi)es. The other rock-formations of the district consist of Post-Cainozoic deposits. Raised beaches, in the form of a series of terraces, extend- ing to a height of about 100 feet above the sea, occur on some of tlie Mingan Islands ; and other evidences of elevation are seen in the pillared rocks left hero and there upon the surface, at heights of fifty or sixty feet above tlie present sea-level. Drift clays, holding limestone pebbles, overlie the calcareous strata of some parts of Anticosti, especially on the south-west coast, where they form clifl's of consider- able height. But the more remarkable of the Post-Cainozoic forma- tions of Anticosti are the great peat-beds, which cover large areas on the southern part of the Island. One of these extends in a narrow band along the south-east coast, between Heath Point and South Point, over a length of nearly eighty miles. PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK. The geology of New Brunswick, notwithstanding the numerous reports already published nijon it, still remains, in a great measure, to be worked out. Viewed, however, in its broader or more general features, the Province may be looked upon as including two essentially distinct geological regions. These comprise: (1), the Western and Southern district, occupied for the greater part by granitic, and more or less altered rocks — the latter mostly of Pre-Silurian and Silurian age — with a few limited exposures of higher strata ; and (2), the Eastern or Carboniferous district, occupied exclusively, or practically so, by subdivisions of the Carboniferous formation. If a line be drawn from near Bathui*st, on Nipisiguit Bay (an inlet of the Bay of Chaleurs), to Lake Oi'omocto, in the south-east corner of York C-mnty, and another from this point, in an easterly or north-easterly direction (roughly parallel with the Bay of Fundy), to Chepody Bay, in Albert County, the two districts will be marked out with sufficient accuracy for general pux^JOSf s. All the country west and south of these lines will belong to the first district ; and the great triangular area extend- ing east and north of the lines to the Gulf shore, will form the second or Carboniferous district. , ,, .:.. (1.) The Western and. Zouthern District. — 'Hie geological structure of this region is of a very complicated chai-acter. Most of its strata PliATKXI. PHOVIXCK OF NKVV BKrXSWICK, SKKTCH MAP, Shewing Geological Areas. /"/f-A* llhihr// and SoiitJwm nistnct. II Kmtcrn Curlxnnrrroihv Distrirf . EJC.lel Cqpp.aark Sr CcLitli Tcron'x. ■S NEW UfttTNSWICK. 75 Ave in an altereil or metamoii^hic condition, and ai^o more of less broken up, contorted, and intermixed ; whilst faultings and overturn dips are of frequent occtUTence amongst them, thus adding, in many cases, to the general obscurity of their age. In the present state of our knowledge, the district is most conveniently described under two subdivisions, as below : (i.) The Western Division. — Tliis may be assumed to include the Countiy lying west of the lino described above as running from Nipisiguit Bay to Lake Oromocto. It thus includes the Counties of Histigouche, Victoria, and Carleton, with the chief part of York, and the north-west portion of Northumberland. Its surface consists very generally of extended plains, cut by numei-ous river- valleys, and heavily wooded throughout. The avci-age elevation alx)ve the sea is, probably, under 500 feet, but isolated mountains in its more norfhem limits attain to elevations of from 1,500 to over 2,000 feet. The principal rivers compi'ise the heixd-watei-s and upjjcr course of the St. John, with its numerous tributaries, including the Tobique, the Beccaguimic, &c. ', and the upper portions of the Miramichi, Nipisiguit, and Ristigouche. The rock-formations within it consist principally of a series of micaceous and other slates, with quartzose and argillo- Calcareous strata, dipping at high angles and greatly contorted in places; whilst over a broad tract of country, extending from Grand lake on the Province boundary-line, in a general noi-th-easterly direction to the vicinity of the Bay of Chaleurs, they are associated with long belts of gi-anitic rock. The slates, quartzites, and other altered strata, are regarded mainly as Upper Sihxrian formations, from a few characteristic fossils discovered in some of their beds, but older formations (as seen in the Southern Division of the District) may perhaps occur among them. The granites are probably in chief part; if not wholly, of Devonian age. Copperpyrites, and beds of slaty hematite, occur in these altered strata in the neighbourhood of Woodstock ; and veins of antimony ore in the parish of Prince William, between Woodstock and Fredericton. The only other formations— apart fi'om superficial deposits — recognized within this westdm section, consist of sandstones, shales, and conglomerates, with subordinate beds of limestone and gypsum, of Lower Cai'boniferous age. These occur as outlying portions of the great carboniferous district of the east. T^he most important of these outliers, none of 76 OEOLOQY OP CANADA. wliuth, however, contain any coal, occuj)io8 a comparatively lar^je area on the Tobiquo Kiver ; and a Htnaller one lies on the St. John, botween Fretlerioton and Woodstock. (See "Survey Reports," by C Kobb : 18G9-70.) (ii.) The Southern Division. — This geoloa^ical area, althou;^h forni- ing properly a portion ot the Western Division described above, presents certain points of dilFtu'ence in the apparently more complete series of rock-formations contained within it, and in the still greater signs of disturbance to which the older of these formations have been subjected. It comprises the region lying immediately along the north shore of the Bay of Fundy, and extends over the entire areas of Charlotte and St. John Counties, over part of Queen's County, and over large portions of the counties of King and Albert. The I'ock- formationa recognized within its limits are as follows : First, a series of gneissoid strata, with succeeding dioritic and chloritic slates, qiVo,.. u/.ioes, ard related metamorphic beds, associated veiy generally with high belts of granitic and syenitic rock, and for the greater part, in a much disturbed condition. These ci-ystalline and semi-crystalliue strata are Pre-Silurian formations, and are regarded as of Laurentian and Huronian age ; but the associated granites and syenites are probably Devonian. Elevated areas of this character occupy large portions of Charlotte and St. John Counties, and others occur in Queen's, King's, and Albert County — as seen in the Nerepis Hills, the Porcupine and Bald Mountain Ridges, the Quaco Hills, and elsewhere. Many of these granites and syenites are por- phyritic; and some of them, especially the red varieties, furnish ornamental building-stones of much beauty. A second series, composed of dark slates associated with beds of sandstone, forming a collection of strata known as the St. John's Group or Formation. These strata overlie ciystalline beds of th© supposed Huronian series ; and they contain examples of Fai'udoxides, Conocephalites, and other trilobites of so-called " Primordial " type, with brachiopods, &c., characteristic of the same geological horizon. They are thus regarded as forming the extreme base of the Silurian series — including under this term the Cambrian strata of many geologists. As a rule, they are greatly folded and contorted, and they appear to be destitute of economic minerals. Outcrops occur, more especially, within and around the City of St. John, and in the valleys of the St. John, Kenuebecasis, and Kerepis Rivers. NEW BRUNSWICK. • 77 A third series, consisting mostly of gray shales and limestones, and siliceous conglonioratos, with associated fclilspatliic and dioritic beds, containing in places some obscure fossils of Middle and Upper Silurian type. These higher Silurian strata occur chiefly on Foye's Island and the adjacent coast, on the shores of Oak Bay, &c., and along the granitic slopes of the Nerepis Hills in King's and Queen's Counties. A fourth and higher series, composed of Devonian and Lower Car- boniferous strata, represented essentially by shales, sandstones, and conglomerates, and characterized for the greater part by the presence of numerous fossil plants. The Devonian beds have been divided into five groups, known, in ascending oi-der, as the Bloomsbury, Dadoxylon, Cordaite, Mispec, and Perry groups — the latter regarded as Upper Devonian. The lower and middle groups are princij)ally developed around Carleton and other points on the west side of St. John's Harbour ; at Mount Prospect and elsewere in the valley of Little River ; and also in Lancaster Parish and around Leprean Basin, where a thin seam of slaty anthracite has been observed in one of their beds. The Upper Devonian or Perry strata also appear at Point Lepi-ean, but are chiefly exposed around the City of St. Andrews, where they extend over a comparatively large area, The beds recognized as Lower Carboniferous are entirely destitute of coal, and in this southern part of the province they occur only in the form of detached outliers, of comparatively small extent — as on the west side of Grand Bay on the River St. John, the south side of Kenne- becasis Bay, and around Quaco, on the Bay of Fundy. (See "Survey Reports," by Prof. L. W. Bailey and G. F. Mathew: 1870-73. A fifth series,, composed of a few strips and patches of Triassio strata, essentially in the form of soft, red sandstones, but associated in places with a few layers of conglomerate. These strata occur sparingly near Quaco Village and elsewhere on the Bay of Fundy, and also on the north shore of the Island of Grand Manan, where the characteristic red sandstone of the series is overlaid by a light- gray siliceous bed holding copper ore, with an immense overflow of columnar trap covering the whole. Finally, accumulations of boulder clay and gravel, with sands and other recent surface-deposits, are spread very generally over this southern portion of the district, which appears, moreover, to have beea largely denuded and otherwise affected by glacial agencies* 78 GEOLOGY or CANADA. Thn nioro important of tlio rec.-eiit formations am tlio poat bogs of tlio Mispcc l?ain!ns and MuHcpiaHh Bay, in St. Jolin's (Jounty, and tlioHo of Mttoo's Bay and othor localitios in Clmrlotto County, fur- ther west. (2.) The Kantern &)' Carbon l/eroug District. — •This goolofjical region Occupies the central ami oaHtcrn portions of New Brunswick, forming a largo triangular area, the sides of which converge, respiictivoly, from Ni|>isiguit Bay, on the Bay of Chaleurs, and Salisl)Ury Covo, on Chi- necto Bay, to a point in the vicinity of Oromoctoo Lake, near the boundary-line of York and Charlotte Counties. It presents, as a rule, a flat or gently undulating surface, drained princi[)ally by the Miramichi and branches, in its more nortliern and ctuitral jjortions \ and by the St. John, witli the Nasliwauk, Salmon, Washademoxe, and other tributai'ies of the St. John, in the south. Its average height above the sea is probably about 400 feet. Its strata consist essentially of sandstones, calcareous and other conglomerates, and argillaceous shales; and they belong to the lower, middle, and upper* subdivisions of the Carboniferous series. Seams of coal are conlined entirely to the mitMle division — as elsewhere in the Carboniferous formations of the Maritime Provinces — but those hitherto discovered in New Brunswick are of comparatively slight thickness, the most important seam scarcely exceeding a couple of feet, whilst the greater number present a thickness of a few inches only. The Lower Carboniferous division is made up principally of sand- stones, shales, and conglomerates, characterised by a very generally prevailing I'ed colour. Apart from outliers, it is confined, practically, to the inner edge of the metamorphio area wliich borders the i)resent district on the east and south ; and its strata in many places are folded among the raetamorphic formations, and are also more or less broken Up by faults, or are otherwise disturbed, as below Long Island, on the River St. John, and elsewhere. Coal, except in unimportant traces, is apparently altogethei absent. In some localities, however, abd notably in the parish of Hillsborough, in Albert County, the remarkable bituminous substance known as " Albertite " occurs in these Lower Cai-boniferous strata, in the form of undoubted veins. This substance is a kind of solid bitumen — black, brittle, and highly lustrous. At the Hillsborough mines, it traverses — and for the greater part at a high angle of dip — calcareo-bituminous shales containing NEW nRUNSWICK. 79 remains of fosHil fislioM (J«'lon;^iii^ to Paliuoniscua, Holoptycliius, and otlmr g(tn(M'a), with overlyiiifi; j^niy and rod ronj^IoiiiuratoH, iiitoicalatctd with hcds of linu'stoiio and ;,'y|»suii'.. At other h)caliti('H, as at Mai'k- hanivilh^ in IJphani Parish, Kinj^'s County, and near Shrpody Moun- tain, in Albert County, tho Lower CarhonifcrouH Ktrata contain important dcpcsitH of pyrohisito or bhick inanj^aneso ore. Finally, at Clarke's and McLeod's IMountains, north of FrcMlerickton, and at Bald Mt)untain, near Cranberry Lake, and some other spots, the strata of this lower division are broken through by eruptive nuisses of traj)- pean or traehytic rock. The Mid(ll(( (Jarboniferous sti'ata consist essentially of sandstones, sandy shales, and conglomerates, of a prevailing gray colour. The series may be subdivided into two groups : a lower group, made up of rocks of a more or less coa'-se textui'e, destitute of coal — the efjuiva- lent of the millstone grit subdivision of Nova Scotia; and a higher gi'oup of conglomerates and sandstones of finer texture, intercalated with coal shales, layers or partings of clay, and thin seams of l)itumi- nous coal, n^presenting tin; produclive portion of the coal measures proper. The strata of both groups occur, as a rule, in nearly hori- zontal beds, or dip only at very modei-ate angles, rarely exceeding four or five degrees. Most of the coal seams hitherto discovered are under five or six inches in thickness, but one seam, known as the " surface seam," averages eighteen or twenty inches, and, in places, exceeds a couple of feet. It has been worked somewhat extensively as a source of local supply. These Middle Carboniferous beds appear to extend over the entire portion of Eastern New Brunswick, between the Gulf on the east, and the border of Lower Carboniferous and Meta- morphic rocks on the south and west ; but in some places the lower rocks have been exj)Osed, by denudation, over limited areas ; and at other spots, the beds in question liave been covered by red and pur- plish shales, &c., of the Upper Cai-bonifer-ous series. The strata of the Upper, like those of the Lower, Division, are essentially composed of shales, sandstones, &c., for the gi-eater part of a red or reddish purple colour, and destitute of coal. They oveidie the Middle Series conformably, and appear to be associated more or leas genei-ally with the latter throughout the greater portion of the district. 6 80 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA. This Province, as regards its more salient geological features, is diviiiible into two broad regions, comprising: (1), The Southern Metamorphic District, occupied essentially by crystalline and gi'anitic formations ; and (2), the Northern Carboniferous District, in which a number of Palaeozoic, and for the greater part Carboniferous, areas, are separated more or less by belts and mountain I'anges of syenitic and other related crystalline rocks, (1.) The Southern Metamorphic District. — This forms a long but comparatively naiTow area, extending over the country along the entire southern coast of Nova Scotia proper, from a point between Yarmouth and Cape Sable, in the west, ^o Cape Canso and the south shore of Chedabucto Bay, in the east. Gradually contracting in width between these points, it includes small portions of Digby and Annapolis Counties, the whole of Shelboume, and large portions of Yarmouth, Queen's, Lunenburg, Halifax, Hants, and Guysboro'. Its coast-line is deeply indented, and its interior, for the greater part, of a wild and rocky character. As regards its geology, it is essentially a metamorphic region, occupied by crystalline strata, with consider- able areas of unstratified granitic rocks, the latter, apparently, of Post-Silurian age. The crystalline strata appear to consist in part of Laurentian forma- tions, and in part of altered higher beds, ranging into the Silurian series. They are composed mostly of gneiss, fine-grained in some localities and porphyritic in others, with associated mica-slates and quartzites, succeeded in many places by black or bluish-black argil- lites with well-marked slaty cleavage. These strata, as a rule, occur in highly-tilted or otherwise disturbed beds. Thin layers (or bedded veins 1) of quartz, for the greater part anriferous, are present, more especially, in the middle and upper portions of this metamorphic series. The gold is mostly distributed through special zones or so- called *' streaks," or " pipes," in these quartz deposits, and it occurs chiefly in the free state. In some places, however, it is also present in arsenical and common pyrites.* These quartz layers, as a rule, are under a foot in width. They are very commonly situated on anti- * streaks or pipe-bands of this character are not uncommon in ordinary mineral veins. As regards Western Canada, the writer has pointed out their occurrence in certain lead veins in vthe township of Oalway, in Ontario. NOVA SCOTIA. 81 ^linals, with high angle of dip ; and in many cases they are sharply corrugated — the enclosing rock presenting, necessarily, a correspond- ingly convoluted structure. The more important localities, or '* dis- tricts," in which these gold deposits have been recognized, are as follows : — (i.). The Lunenberg district, including the Ovens area, &c. ; (ii.), the Waverley, Oldham, and Renfrew district, north of Halifax ; (iii.), the Uniacke district; (iv.), the Tangier district; and (v.), the iSherbrooke and Stormont district, including Wine Harbour, Country Harbour, &c. The granite areas lying within this southern metamorphic region have not yet been thoroughly explored, so that eventually many apparently isolated masses will probably be found to constitute con- nected bands. Those at present recognized occupy the following sites : The country around Barrington and Shelburne, north and north-east of Cape Sable; the more southern portions of Digby, Annapolis, and King's counties ; the Aspatagoen promontory between Mahone Bay and Margaret Bay ; the country around Halifax, especially north and west of the city ; the low ^r portion of the Musquodoboit valley, and adjacent country to the e .st ; the south shore of Chedabucto Bay and the country westward to the vicinity of St. Mary's River. (2.) The Northern Carboniferous District* — This region extends along the Bay of Fundy, and throughout all the northern, central, and eastern portions of Nova Scotia, including the Island of Capo Breton. In its general features it presents a number of detached Silurian (and Devonian?) areas, separated for the greater part by ridges and mountainous masses of syenites, and surrounded by areas of Car- boniferous strata. The Silurian and Devonian rocks are mostly tilted at high angles, and are altered more or less by metamorphic action. The surrounding Carboniferous strata belong partly to the Lower division, but chiefly to the Middle or Productive portion of the series, and in many localities they contain important beds of bituminous coal, some of the seams being of unusual thickness. In addition to these strata, some comparatively narrow strips of Triassic sandstone, associated with vast trappean overflows, range along the Bay of Fundy and the shores (in part) of Cobequid Bay. Boulder * The names given to these districts must not be talien in too limited a sense. The present region is named as above, because it is especially characterized, when viewed generally, by the presence of Carboniferous strata. 82 OEOLOQY OF CANADA. clays and Post-Glacial deposits are distributod also throughout the region generally. Although regarded in the present outline aa forming a single geo^ logical district, characterized aa above, this northern i)ortion of the Province may be provisionally subdivided, for descriptive purposes, into twelve subordinate areas. These follow each other, roughly, from west to east in the following order: — 1. The Annapolis and North ]\Iouutains area, mostly Triassic and Trappean ; 2. The New- port and Truro ai-ea, essentially Lower Carboniferous and Triassic ; 3. The Cobequid Mountains area, essentially syenitic and slaty ; 4. The Cumberland ai'ea, Middle Carboniferous (coal-beaiing) ; 5. The Pictou area. Middle Carboniferous (coal-bearing) ; 6. The Egerton, Arisaig, and Porcupine Mountains area, essentially syenitic and slaty) 7. The Antigonish area, essentially Lower Carboniferous; 8. The Guysboro' area, Lower Carboniferous ; 9. The Southern area of Cape Breton, essentially syenitic and slaty ; 10. The Western Cape Breton area, mostly Lower Cai'boniferous, with some overlying coal-bearing beds; 11. The Sydney Cape Breton ai-ea. Middle Carboniferous (coal- bearing) ; 12. The Northern area of Cape Breton, syenitic and slaty. 1. The Annajyolis and North- Mountains ^rea.-— This division ex tends along the south shore of the Bay of Fundy. It includes the North Mountains and the valleys of the Cornwallis and Annapolis Rivers, and is limited inland by the gi'anitic slopes of the South Mountains. The strata which rest against the latter, consist essen- tially of altered and partially-altered slates of Ui)per Silurian or De- vonian age. They dip away from the gi-anite mass, and they are traversed generally by transverse cleavage-lines. Towards the north, as in Kentville and New Canaan, they are but little altered, aad numei'ous crinoid stems and other apparently Upper Silurian fossils occur in their beds at these sites. A thick bed of granular iron ore on the River Nictau, farther south, also contains fossils. A few miles south of this stream, the continuity of the strata is interrupted by a granite spur, but beyond this, the slates reappear, although in a more altered condition, and extend broadly to the sea-coast, south of St. Mary's Bay. North of this granite spur, or along the valleys of the Annapolis and Cornwallis, the slates are bordered by a narrow strip of red sandstone country, apparently Ti'iassic. The sandstone is mostly in the form of thin and slightly-inclined layers. These NOVA SCOTIA. 83 rest in places on highly-inclined strata of the Carbonifi^rous series, but the latter are of (juite subordinate occurrence in this area. Im- mediately west of the Triassic country, a broad belt of columnar and amygdaloidal ti-ap ranges continuously, in the form of a bold line of cliffs, along the shore of the Bay of Fundy from Bryer's Island to Cape Blomidon, with outlying patches in Partridge Island, &c., and at Cape d'Or on the opposite coast. A layer of tufaceous material marked by green cupreous stains, arising from the decomposition of imbedded bunches of copper-glance, occurs very generally between the sandstone and the overlying trap. Zeolites and other character- istic ti'ap minerals are abundant in the latter at many spots. 2. The Newport and Truro Area. — This subdivision occupies the country around Minas Basin and Cobequid Bay, extending north- wards to the Cobequid mountain range, southwards to the northern edge of the Atlantic mefcaraorphic region, and eastward to the slopes of the syenitic ranges in the south-east of Colchester County. It thns includes the country around Windsor, Newport, Walton, Mait- land, Truro, and Parrsborough, with the valleys of the Kennetcook, SL ubenacadie, Stewiacke, and Musquodoboit rivers, more especially. Its strata belong, for the greater pai-t, to the Lower Carboniferous .series, and consist of red and other-coloured sandstones, dark shales holding numerous coal-plants and lish remains, marls, and limestones. The latter strata contain an abundance of Carboniferous brachiopods and other fossils ; and in many places, as in the vicinity of Windsor, in the cliffs of the St. Croix River, at Newport and Walton, along the Shubenacadie, &c., they are associ.ited with beds (and occasional veins) of anhydrite and gypsum. A few comparatively limited patches of Middle Carboniferous strata overlie these lower beds here and there along the edge of the Cobequid Range, and in places in the valleys of Kennetcook and Stewiacke, but they appear to contain merely thin seams of coal, of value only as a source of local supply. Both the north and south shores also of Cobequid Bay are bordered by soft red sandstones and conglomerates of assumed Triassic age. These rest unconformably on the prevailing Lower Carboniferous formations of the country ; and in places, as at Gerrish's Mountain and elsewhere, they are ovei*laid by masses of amygdaloidal trap. 3. The Cohequid-Mountains Area. — This section of the Province forms a wild but thickly-wooded mountainous district, of an average 84 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. ' » ' elevation of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet above the sea. It rangesy roughly, from Cape Chignocto in the west, to the CarbouiferouH tlis- trict of Pictou in the east. Southwards it is bounded by the New- port and Truro ai-ea, and northwards by the Cumberland coal region. The Cobequid range is comi)osed essentially of syenites and related crystalline rocks, probably of Pre-Silurian age, with slates, shales, sandstones, and quartzites, dip])ing at high angles on its southern flanks. These latter formations are regarded as altered Silurian strata. Tn the township of Londonderry (Colchester county), more especially, they are traversed by veins of brown a.nd red iron ore and ankerito.* One of these is remarkable for its continuity over a length of several miles. It is filled principally with ankerito, but cai-ries large quantities of fibrous and botryoidal brown iron ore in some places, and micaceous red ore in otliers. The ankerite averages in metallic iron 11|%, the brown ore 56%, and the red ore nearly 69%, as deduced from a series of analyses by the writer. These ores, moi-e- over, contain very little rock matter, and they are practically free from titanium ; whilst sulphur and phosphorus are present in them in traces only. ; . •, , 4. The Cumberland Area. — This is one of the leading Carboniferous districts of the Province. It occupies in the County of Cumberland a lai'ge extent of country between the Cobequid Mountain Range on the south, and the Straits of Northumberland on the noi-th. West- ward it runs into the Carboniferous area of New Brunswick ; and in the east it merges into the Pictou area. Its strata consist of the Lower and Middle (or Productive) Cai'boniferous divisions. The latter hold numerous seams of coal, but most of these are of slight thickness. Workable seams occur, however, within the area, more especially in the Springhill coal basin, near the slopes of the Cobequid Range. The strata here dip northwards, or away from the mountain flanks ; but in the central and northern, or north-western, portion of the area, they dip towards the south, thus forming a more or less regular trough or basin. On a portion of the noi'thern edge of this, trough (the strata dipping nearly S.S.W.), the celebrated "South. Joggins section " occurs. This is exposed along the eastern shore of Cumberland Basin, a continuation of Chegnecto Bay. It exhibits a continuous series of Lower and Middle Carboniferous beds, dipping ■* See Dawson's " Acadio'j Geology." Also a detailed notice^ With worlcing plan, by Mr. Selwyn, Director of the Qeol. Survey, in the Report for 1872. NOVA BCOTIA. 85 S. 25°W.,at an average angle of 19°, througliout a thickness of 14,50U feet, and containing soventy-six soaiua of coal, nearly all of which rest upon stigmaria under-cluys. These coal seams for the greater part, however, average, individually, only a few inches in thickness ; but two are of workable dimensions. One of these is the " Joggin's Main Seam," consisting, really, of two scams separated by a thin layer of shale, but worked -"iS a single seam. It averages nearly five feet in thickness. In the associated sandstones and shales, upright and prostrate trunks of sigillariaj and lepidodendra — with other coal plants, shells of fresh water mollusca, and numerous fish scalas — occur throughout the section. In these rocks, also, the remains of an extinct amidiibian — the Dendrerpeton Acadianum of Owon and Wyman — belonging, apparently, to the perrenibranchiate section of the Urodela — were discovered by Dr. Dawson, in 1852 ; and reptilian tracks have been discovered subsequently. Some of the lower beds of this locality yield grindstones of high reputation. On the southern margin of this area, where the general dip of the strata is towards the norfch, seams of greater thickness have been recognized. These lie east of the River Macan, in the Springhill coal country. Several seams of workable thickness have been discovered by trial pits. One exceeds 13 feet, and another 1 1 feet in thickness, the others ranging from 2 to G feet. The coal is a bituminous or gas coal, of excellent quality. 5. The Pictou Area. — This is the most important coa. area of Nova Scotia proper. It lies directly east of the Cumberland Carboni- ferous district and the Cobequid mountain range, and thus comprises the country around Pictou Harbour, generally. It extends, how- ever, southwards and eastwards to the older Palajozoic and Syenitic mountainous country, which ranges from the eastern borders of the Truro area through Egerton and Maxwelltown, and continues to the north coast in the Antigonish and Arisaig Hills. On these southern and eastern borders the area is occupied generally by various conglomerates, dark gi'een and other-coloured slates and shales (many of which become opaque white by weathering), and some dark quartzitea — all Pre-Carbonifei'ous, but otherwise of doubt- ful age; and these are followed towards the north or north-west by gray and red sandstones and conglomerates, with a few limestone and gypsum beds, belonging to the Lower Carboniferou'H series. These 86 GEOLOGY OF CANADA. lower foriTuitions are more or less tilted and disturbed, and they exhibit nearly opposite dips in diflerent localities. The central and northern |)ortions of the area are occupied by succeeding strata of the Middle or Prmluctive series, with overlying bods of the Upper series in places along the coast. The general dip of these strata is north- wards — i.e., a little west or east of north — or towards Northum- berland Stmits ; but they ai-e afiected, over the more southern portion of their limits more esj)ecially, by a series of faidts, by which their relative jwsitions ai^e somewhat disturb Antimony ore, 54, 76. » ^> Apatite, 37, 38, 39, 64. > ' : Appalachian Dist., 68-72. Aqueous rocks, 13. Argenteuil Co., 64. Arisaig Area, 87. Arisaig Hills, 85, 87. Arsenical pyrites, 38, 80. Artemisia Gravel Fn., 31, 60, 61. Artemisia T., 46. Arthabasca Riv., 67, 58. Arthrophycvs Harlani, 26. ' Asaphus Canadensis, 24. A. platycephalus, 24, 26. Ascot T., 72. Assiniboine Riv., 57. Aspatagoen Pt., 81. Aspy Bay, 91. 7 Assomption R., 63. Atrypa reticularis, 27. Auriferous mispickel, 39, 80. Auriferous sands, 61, 63, 72. Ayton, 46. Azoic and Eozoic Age, 15, 17. Baculites, 18, 30. Baddeck, 89. * BaieSt. Paul, 64. Bald Mts., 76, 79. . v .. ' Balsam Lake, 40, 41. ' ! Barrick Hill, 35, 36. BarrieT., 39. '•■ Barrington, N. S., 81. ' Barry Cape, 71. Basquia Hills, 68. •,;'.' Bathurst, 74. Bathygnatus, 29. . v -. . Batiscan Riv., 63. Bay of Chaleurs, 71, 72, 74, 78. Bay of Fundy, 76, 77, 81, 82, 83. Bay of Quint6, 40, 41. Bayfield Sound, 53. Beatricea, 73. Beaufort Range, 62. Beauharnois, 66. Beauport, 68. BeckwithT., 35. Bedford T., 39. Belemnites, 18, 30, 62. Belceil, 67. < Beifontaine, 39, 45. Bellerophon, 24. Belleville, 41. Belmont T., 39. Bentinck T., 46. Bertie T., 46, 47, 48. Bigsby I., 52. Bizard I., 66. Black Bay Mine, 66. Black River Fn., 24, 35, 38, 41, 52, 66, 73. Bloomsbury group, 77. Blue Mts., 39, 41. ' .>^*!\ 96 INDEX. Bog Iron Ores, 14, 68, 72. Bonaventure Yn., 28, 71. Bonnechere R., 38. BoaanquetT., 48, 49, Boucherville Mt., ; 7. Boulder Clays, 30, 36, 50, 56, 64, 72, 77, 92. Boulardrie I., 90. Brant Co., 46, 48, 50. Brantford, 46, 50, 51. Bras d'Or, 88, 89, 90, 91. Bridgeport, 91. British Columbia, 60-63. Brockville, 34, 35, 37, 43. Brome Mts., 67, 72. Brooke, T., 49. Bruce Co., 46, 48. Bruce Mines, 54. ' . Bryer's I., 83. Buckingham T., 64. BurfordT., 71. ., • . " - Burgess T., 39. Cabot's Head, 39, 42, 43, 45. Cacouna, 72. Cainozoic Age, 19. Cainozoic strata, 30, 58, 61. Oalcareous tufa, 32. Calamites inomatus, 28. Calciferous Fn., 23, 35, 66, 73. Caledon T., 42, 45. Calumet I., 17. •Calvaire Mt., 66. C'alymene Blumenbachii, 25, 27. Cambridge T., 35. Cambrio-Silurian series, 22. (Canseau, Gut of, 87, 89. Camerella varians, 23. Oampement d'Ours, 51, 62. • French R., 37, 53. Frontenac Co., 37, 39. Fundy, Bay of, 76, 77, 81, 82, 83. Galena, 39, 45, 55, 70. Gait, 46. Gallas Pt., 92. Galway T., 39. Gananoque and Northern Tov.'nships Dist., 36. GasptS 65, 68, 69, 70. Gasp^-Limestone Fn., 71. Gasp6-Sandstone Fn., 27, 71. Gattineau R., 63. Geological Ages and Periods, 1 5, 17-20. Georgian Bay, 37, 39, 41, 46. Georgetown, 39. Gerrish's Mt., 83. Glace Bay, 91. Glacial Period, 19, 30. Glacial Fn., 30, 36, 39, 40, 43, 60, 66, 58, 64, 67, 72, 77, 92. Glacial furrows, 30, 39, 43, 53, 56, 64,67. Gloucester T., 36. Gneissoid strata, 21, 37, 38, 64, 67, 63, 64, 76, 76. Goderich, 47, 48. 9& iKDEt. Gold dopoaits : Untariu, 39, 54, 66. Quebec, 70, 72, Nova Scotia, 80. British Columbia, 61, 63. Gold Mts., 60. Goniatito, 18. Governor I., 92. Granites, 14, 21, 51, 72, 76, 80, 81, 82. Grand Bay, 77. Grand Coteau, 58, Grand I., 46. Grand Manan, 77. Grand Riv., 44, 46, 51. Graphite, 64. Graptolites, 18. G. bicornis, 25. G. liexilia, 23. G. Logani, 23. G. pristia, 24. Great Manitoulin, 51, 53. Green's Creek, 35, 36. Grenville T., Q., C4. Grenville Co., 35. Grey Band, 2J, 42. Grey Co., 46. Grimsby, 45. Guelph, 46. GuelphFn., 26, 45. Gulf, St. Lawrence, 72, 73, 79. Gum Beds, 49. Guysboro' Area, 88. Guysboro', N. S., 88. Guysboro* Co., 80, 88. Gut of Canseau, 87, 89. Gypsiferous deposits, 26, 46, 75, 79,88. Gypsiferous Fn. , 46. Hasmatite, 21, 75, 84, 88. Haldimand , 42, 43. Nipiniguit Bay, 74. NipisMing, Lako, .37, 39. Nord, du, Riv., 63. , Norfolk Co., 48. Northern Carl)oniferous Dist., N. S., 81, 82. Northern Crystalline Dist., Q., 63. Northumberland Co., Out., .39. Northuml)erland Co., N. B., 75. Nortlmmberland StraitH, 84, 86. Northern Capo Bret )n, 91. North Mountains, 82. ,. NorthPoint, P. E. I., 92. . . Notre Dame Mts., 68. .■ ' ' Nottawasaga T., .39, 42. Nottawasaga Bay, 41, 42. Nova Scotia, Province of, 80-91. Oak Bay, 77. Ochres, 22, 51, 72. Oldham Gold Dist., 81. Oneida T., 46, 47. Onondaga Fn., 26, 46. ,, Onondaga limestone, 47. Ontario Co., 41. Ontario, Dist. of, .39-43. Ontario, Province of, 33. Ontario, Lake, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42. Ophileta compacta, 23. OrfordT., Out., 49. OrfordT., Q., 68, 71. Oriskany Fn., 26, 47. Orleans, Island of, 65, 68. Orangeville, 39. Oromocto L., 74, 75, 78. Orthis elegantula, 25, 0. lynx, 24. 0, pectinella, 24. 0. testudinaria, 24. 0. tricenaria, 24. O. Vanuxemi, 27. Orthoceras Bigsbyi, 24. 0, bilineatum, 24. 0, crebriseptum, 25. 0. Lamarcki, 23. O. proteiforme, 24. OsgoodeT,, 36. Ottawa, 34, 35, 36. Ottawa Riv., 34, 63, 64. INDEX. 101 Ovenii OoM Arcn, 81. Oweu Hdund, 42. Oxford Co., 4(5, 48. Ox I'oitit (liulluvillo)41. PaiHluy, 40. Fakuuhuiii, 3.5. Fala'ozoic Age, 18. Po^piuttu'H itu|)itlH, 38. I'ariidoxideH, 'i'J. I»ari8, Out, 40, 51. Parrsbonnigh, N. S., 83. Partridgo 1., 83. Peace Kiver, Ctd. Peat Bc(Ih, 30, 51, 68, 72, 74, 78, 92. PeelCo., :«>. rcml)ina Mts., 58. Pc'iihroke, 3"*, 38. PcntuniuruH ohlciugufl, 25, 45. Perc»5 Kock, 71. Perth, 34, Xh Pennian strativ, 29, 91. Perry (troup, 77. Peterborougli, .S9, 41. Petraia corniculiun, 24. Petroleum, 27, 44, 49, 53, 58, 71. Phacops bufo, 27. Phillipsburg, 71. Phosphate of lime, 37, 38, 39, 64, Phyllograptus, 23. Pickering T., 41. Pic Riv., 54, 56, 67. Pictou, N. S., 85, 86. Pictou Coal Area (N. S.), 85-87. Pie Island, 55. Pigeon Riv,, 55. Plantagenet T., 34. Plaister Cove, 89. Plumbago, 64. Pointe-aux-Trembles, 67. Pointe du Lac. Point Boucher, 42. • -■■'.. Point Leprean, 77. 1' « Point L^vis, 65, 68, 71. Point Montresor, 42. Point Rich, 42. Point William, 42. Porcupine Mts., N. S., 87. Porcupine Mts., Man., 68. Portage Chemung strata, 27. Port Albert, 48. Port Frank, 50. Port Hood, 89. Port Stanley, 50. Port Talbot, 50. Portland T., 64. Post Glacial period and deposits, 20, 31, 40, 43, 45, 50, 61, 56, 58, 64, 67, 72, 92. Pot««Um Fn., 22, 34, 40, 66, 69. Preacott, 35. Primordial types, 22, 76. Prince Kilwanl iHland, 91-9.3. Prince William Pariwh, N. B., 75. Protichnitt'8, 23, 35. Qu' Apitollo Hi v., 58. (juaco Hills, 76. Quaod ViUage, 77. Quebec, 65, 68, 70, 71. Quebec (Jroup, 23, 69, 70. Quebec, Pr(»vinco of, 63-74. Queenston, 39, 42, 43. Queen's Co., N. B., 76, 77. Queen's (Jo„ N. S., 80. Queen Charlotte Islaiuls, 61, 62. KainhamT., 48. Kecent formations, 32, 43, 50, 78, 93. Rutlnersville, 41. Red River, 58. Renfrew Co., 35, 38. Renfrew Cold Dist., N. S., 81. Rhynconella iucrebcaceus, 24. R. i)lena, 23. Rice L.akc, 40. Richelieu Riv., 6.5. ' Richmond Bay, P. E. I., 92. Richmond Co., C. B., 88. Richmond, Q., 70. • Rideau Canal, .34, 35. Riding Mts., .58. i Rigaud Mt., 67. Rivers : . ' Annapolis, 82. Anso i la Tierce, 70. ' ; Arthabaska, 57, 68. i ■ '' Assomption, 63. Aasiniboine, 57, 68. Batiscan, 63. Beaver, 42, 45. >■ ■ Black, 88. Bonnechere, 38. Cacouna, 72. Cascapediac, 69. Chatte, 69. Chaudiere, 34, 69, 70, 72. Chicot, 63, 66. Columbia, 60. Cornwallis, 82. Credit, 40, 42. Crow, 41. Des Plantes, 72. Du Liisvre, 63. Du Loup, 69, 72. Du Moine, 63. Du Nord, 63. East, 86. Etchemin, 69, 72. IM INDEX. Rivoni (rmtinned): Etohicok.), 4'2. FftinJno, m, 72. Fraiitr, fi(), CI. French, 37, 53. Gattinuiiu, 03. GiUxsrt, 72. (irniid, 44, 40. Ooulnifl, 57. Hunilier, 40, 42. Irvino, 4(J. Jac(iuca Cartiur, <>3. KaininiHtiuiiiu, 50. KnnHiiiniHKa, H!). KciHlcl)fCHHiH, 70. Koiiiittcook, H3. Lcccli, i>3. Little, C. B., 89. • Macan, 86. Ma.l, 42. MailawnHka, 34. Magdalen, (>5. Maitlanil, 44. Margarie, 8». 90. MarHouia, 70. Matanno, 09, 72. Matapediac, 09, 72. Metis, 09, 72. Mct^'ermet, 72. Middle, 87. Michipicoten, 64. Mimico, 42. Miramichie, 75. Mingan, 73. Mire, 88. MiMsiHsagiii, 64. Moira, 40. Moisie, 63, 04. Montmoronci, 63. Murray, 63. Musquodoboit, 83. Nashwauk, 78. Nepigon, 55. Nerepis, 76. Niagara, 39, 42, 46. Nictau, 82. Nipisiguit, 75. Noisy, 42. Nottawasaga, 42. Ottawa, 34, 63, 64, 66. Ouelle, 72. Peace, 69. Pic, 64, 66. Pigeon, 65. Pomket, 88. Qu'Appelle, 58. Red, 57. Beatigouche, 72, 75. Rivem (crmtinnfil): Kichelieii, 06, HinioiiHki, 09, 72. Ilouge, Ont., 42. Houge, Q., 03. SliuJ)enaca. Shcrhrookc (Jold Dist., 81. Sherrington, 68. ShickBliock Mts., 08, 09. Shingle Terraces, ,59, 61. Shubcnacadie 11., 83, 87. Shuniah Mine, 56. Sillery Cove, 71. Sillery Fn., 23, 70. .Silurian strata, 22-20, .34-36, 38, 40-47, 52, 53, 58, 65-67, 71, 73. 75, 70, 82. Silver, 56. Silver Islet Mine, 55. SimcoeCo., 37, 39. Simcoe, Lake, 39. Simpson T., 72. Smith's Falls, 35. .• SnowdenT., 39. Soulanges Co., 65, 66. South Joggin's Section, 84. South Mountains, 82. South Nation Kiv., 34, 35. South Pt. (Anticosti), 74. Southern Dist., N. B., 76. Southern Area, C. B., 88. Southern Metamorphic Dist., N.S.,80. Spirifer gregarius, 27. Spirifer mucronatus, 27. Spirifer Niagarensia, 25. Spirifer radiatuR, 2A. Hpirigcra coiufiitrioa, 27. Springliill Coal himix, 84, M. S<|iiirnl Cre.k. I'. K. I., 92, Htanltridgi! T., 72. HtanBt."a.l T., 72. Htellarite, 87. Stowiacko Kiv., 83. Mtcnopora tilinma, 2.3, 24. Stt'M';icluroi, 27. Talcosc scliists, 70. Tangier Gold Dist., 81. Tellma (irmnlandica, 31. Temiscamang, Lake, 37. Templeton T., 64. Terrebonne Co., 04. ' Tetradium libratum, 24. • • Texadal., 02. Thames Uiv. ,44. Thessalon Uiv., 54. 'v< Thickwood Hills, 58. Third Prairie Steppe, 68. Thorold, 42. . -V Thorold cement, 45. Three A. mine, 64. Thunder Bay, 54, 55. Thunder Cape, 55. Tobique Uiv., 75, 70. Trachytes, 14, 07, 72. Trap dykes, 21, ,')4, 67, 71, 77, 79, 92. Trentiliv., 39, 41. Trenton Fn., 24, 41, 52, 58, 64, 66, 73. Triarthrus Beckii, 24. Triassic strata, 29, 82, 83, 91, 92. 104 INDEX. Trinucleua concentricus, 24, 25. Troia Pistoles, 72. Truro Area, 83. Underclays, 28. Uniacke Gold Dist., 81. Unstratified Drift, 30, 50, 53. Unstratified rocks, 13. Upharn Parish, N. B., 79. Upper Copper-bearing rocks, 54. Upper Carboniferous Fn., 28, 79, 91, 92. Upper or Stratified Drift, 30, 50. Upper Lakes, District of, 53. Upper Laurentian Fn., 21, 64. Upper St. Lawrence Dist. , 65. Upper Silurian series, 22, 26, 46, 71, 77, 82. Utica Fn., 24, 35, 41, 52, 64, 66, 67. Vallery. 72. Vancouver I., 61, 62. Vaudreuil Co., 65, 66, 67. Victoria Co., Ont., 37, 39. Victoria Co., N. B., 75. Victoria Co., C. B., 89, 91. Victoria (Ross) coal seam, 90. Victoria Peak, Vancouver I., 6?. WainfieetT., 51. Walkerton, 47, 50, 51. Wallace Mine, L. Huron, 54. WalpoleT., 48. Walton, N. S., 83. Warwick T., 49. Waterloo Co., 46. Waterloo Village, 46. Waverley Gold Dist., 81. Weedon T., 72. Welland Canal, 42, 45. Welland Co., 46, 48. Wellington Co., 46. Wellington Mines, 54. Wellington Square, 42. Wentworth Co., 39. WestburyT., Q., 71. Western Area, C. B., 89. Western Dist., N. B., 75. Western Palteozoic Dist., Q , 63, 65. West Point, P. E. I., 92. Whitby, 41. Windham T., 47. Windsor, N. S., 83. Wine Harbour Gold Dist., 81. Winnipeg, Lake, 57, 58. Winnipegosis, Lake, 67, 58. WinslowT., 72. Woodhouse, 48. Woodstock, Ont., 48, 50. Woodstock, N. B., 75. Yamaska Mt., 67. ' Yamaska Riv., 69. '^ , > Yarmouth, N. S., 80. . * York Co., N. B., 74, 75. ; '■ Zaphrentis gigantea, 27. '• Zaphrentis prolilica, 27. • Zone T., 49. ADDENDA. The names of Mr. J. W. Salter and Professor Rupert Jones, as authors of descriptions of fossils in Decades I. and III. of the Canadian Survey Series, should be inserted in the lists, given under the Geological Literature of Canada, on pages ix-xi. The following paragraph should also be added to page xxii of the Introduc- TIOK, at the close of the Hurouian Series : — HIGHER SERIES OF LAKE SUPERIOR. This series — commonly known as the Upper Copper-bearing Series of Lake Superior — is placed here provisionally, as its exact period of formation is still unsettled. It has been regarded as Triassic by some observers ; but its true position (as explained at page 55) is most probably at or near the base of the Cambrio -Silurian Series, or below the Chazy horizon. It is seen to overlie tiie Huronian strata (or in the absence of these, the underlying Laurentian rocks) in places on the north shore of Lake Superior. Its rock representatives belong to two, or, more properly, to thit .; distinct formations. These comprise, in ascending order : (i), a series of black slates, with subordinate beds of chert, greenish-gray sandstones, &c., and interstratified bands of trap or hardened volcanic mud; (ti), a series of red and white calcareous sandstones and marls, with some jasper conglomerates, &c. , and interstratified trappean layers ; and (Hi), a great overflow of sub-columnar trap (in places, amygdaloidal) resting unconformably on both the lower series. The dark slates and other strata of the first division occur chiefly between Pigeon River and Thunder Cape. They are traversed by numerous veins holding native silver, galena, copper pyrites, and other metallic ores. The rocks of the second division outcrop chiefly to the east of Thunder Cape, and are seen, more especially, in the Black Bay and Nepigon areas. They are also traversed by metalhferous veins containing silver, lead, copper, and other ores. See, more fully, under the District of the Upper Lakes, in the Geology of Ontario, pp. 53-57. ERRATA. P. zvi, bottom line — ^for " iacontestibly " read "incontestably." P. xxi, prefix the sign " + " to the last note. P. xxiv, under Utica Formation — for " Lingula obtuaa " read "Lingula eurta P. 55, line 7 — for " uncomformably " read "unconformably." P. 67, line 7 from bottom— for " 107" read "710." P. 59, line 15— for "latitude" read "altitude." EXPLANATION OF PLATES. ERRATUM. P. 57,line7fKmibottom-for "107" r«»d "710. PLATE I. Lmgula acuminata (Conrad) =L. antiqua (Hall). A brachiopod. Pots- "tlom Formation. ' 2. ) Protichnitea and Climactichnites. Supposed tracks of crustaceans, 3. ) but perhaps fucoidal impressions. Potsdam Formation. 4. Lingula Mantelli (Billings). A brachiopod. Calciferous Formation. ^ 5. Ophileta compacta (Salter). A gasteropod allied to Euomphalns. /M^alciferous Formation. . ^ 6. Orthoceras Lamarcki (Billings). A tetrabranchiate or "chambered" / eephalopod. Calciferous Formation. r Levis (Quebec) Formation. Extinct types 7. Oraptolithua Logani (Hall). I of doubtful classification. Probably, 8. G. flexilis (Hall). 9. Phyllograptus typus (Hall). horny Coelenterates allied to Sertularia ; but perhaps Bryozoons. The figures copied from Hall. 10. Lingula Quebecensis (Billings). A brachiopod. Levis Formation. 11. Lingula Lyelli (Billings). Chazy Formation. 12. Bhynconella plena (Hall. A brachiopod. Chazy Formation. 13. Camerella varians (Billings). A brachiopod. Chazy Formation. 14. Orthis borealis (Billings). A brachiopod. Chazy Formation. 15. Bolboporites Amerioanus (Billings). A Coelenterate (coral). Chazy Formation. 16. nioenus globosus (Billings). A trilobite ; an extinct crustacean. The example is in a " rolled-up " condition. Chazy Formation. r^ V ' yi<£^ ^''^ S X Jf^^"*^^^ ;•■, ' ^ 11 13 15 J.C.dei. Cqpp.GIarlrftCo.Liih.Tca'cntQ, PLATE n. 17. Stromatopara rugosa (Hall). A Protozoan of (lou])tful position. Black River and Trenton Formations. 18. Tetradiiim fibratum (Safford). A Ca'lontorate (coral). Blaclt River and Trenton Formations. 19. Columnario alveolata (Ooldfuss), ) Ocelenterates (corals). Black River 20. Fayietella stellata (Hall). l and Trenton Formations. 21. Stenopora fibrosa (Ooldfuss). f Coelenterates (corals). Chazy For^ 22. Stcnopora petropolitana (Pander). ) f'**'"" *° ^"^'^'*= S"""^" ««"«"• { inclusive. 23. Fetraia corniculum (Hall). A Coelenterate (coral). Trenton Forma- tion. 24. Lingula quadrata (Eichwald). A brachiopod. Trenton and Hudson River Formations. 25. Orthis testudinaria (Dalman). A brachiopod. Trenton Formation to Middle Silurian scries. 26. O. pectinella (Conrad). A brachiopod. Black River and Trenton Formations. 27. 0. tricenaria (Conrad). A brachiopod. Chiefly in Trenton Formation j but ranging through the Lower Silurian series, from the Ohazy Formation upwards. 28. O. lynx (Eichwald),T=:Delthyris Ijmx of old American Reports. Chiefly a Trenton fossil, but ranging into the Middle Silurian series. J 29. Rhynconella increbescens (Hall). A brachiopod. Trenton and Uiioar / Formations. 30. Conularia Trentonensis (Hall). A pteropod (?) Trenton Formation. ^^ji31. Murchisonia gracilis (Hall) : shell and internal cast. A gasteropodi ^^r«inton and Hudson River Formations. 32. M. bellicincta (Hall) : internal cast. Trenton Formation. 33. Subulites elongatas (Conrad). A gasteropoda Black River and Tronton Formations. PLATE n. m r;" ^=« dB ^^3 "?':', ^p?3 Wm. ^p i^S Kr*- M 1 H n w M ^ 31 L Gc(pp,a«rk& CbLifln, Taronto, JCdel. PLATE in. 34. Maulurea fiOgaiii (Salter), with its o()erculuia. A suppoHuil licturii< ■ Xpod. Black River and Treutun Formations. / / 36. Bellerophon hilobatuH (Howerby). A hotcropod. Trouton P'nrmatioii / to Middle Silurian aeries. 36 Orthoceraa bilineatum(Hall). A tetrabranchiate cephaloiKHl. <.'hazy(r) Trenton, and Hudson River t<'onnatinns. 87. Orthoceraa proteiforme (=Endocera8 proteifonno, Hall). Black River and Trenton Formations. In the figure, a portion of the shell is broken away, ■hewing a projecting cone of calcareous matter. The latter was secreted in the lower part of the large siphuncle, probably as a counterpoise to the buoy- ancy of the shell at that extremity. 38. Asaphus platycephalus (Stoke8)=Isotelu8 gigas of older American Reports. A trilobite ; an extinct form of cnistacea. C'hazy to Hudson River FonAtions, but especially abundant in Trenton strata. 39. Ceraurus pleurexanthemus (Oreen)=Cheirurus of European authors. ', A trilobite : an extinct form of Crustacea. 40. Trinucleus concentricus (Eaton). A trilobite. Trenton, Utica and Hudson River Formations. Utica and Hudson River Formations. ^ 41. 42. 43. tions. 44. 45. Oraptolithus pristis (Hisinger) Graptolithus bicomis (Hall). Extinct types of uncertain classifica' tion,but probably Coelenterates allied to Sertularia. Lingula ourta (Hall). A brachiopod. Utica and Hudson River Forma- Asaphus Canadansis (Chapman). A trilobite. Utica Formation. Triarthrus Beckii (Eaton). A trilobite. Utica Formation. E.J.G.del Cojp, Clark-A GalithTcronfa PLATE IV. ■^ 46. Leptaena sericea (Sowerby). A brachiopod. Trenton Formation to Middle Silurian scries, but chiefly characterictic of Hudson Kiver strata. 47. Strophomena altemata (Conrad). Chiefly in Hudson River Formation, ut ranging from the Chazy Formation into the Middle Silurian series. 48. Ambonychia radiata (Hall). A Lamellibraneh. Trenton Formation to Middle Silurian series ; but especially abundant in Hudson River strata. 49. Orthonota parallela (Hall). A Lamellibraneh. Hudson River Forma- tion. The lithographer has departed from the author's drawing, in this figure, in not keeping the outline of the shell sufficiently straight. 50. Modiolopsis modiolaris (Conrad). A Lamellibraneh. Jfudson River Formation. 51 . Cyrtolitea omatus (Conrad). A heteropod. Hudson River Formation. The genus is closely allied to (if not identical with) Bellerophon. 52. Orthoceras crebriseptum (Hall). A tetrabrancliiate cephaloijod. Hud- son River Formation. 53. Calymene Blumenbachii (Brongniart). A trilobite. Trenton to Middle Silurian series. ; i ; . 54. Arthrophycus Harlani (Hall). A sea-weed. Medina and Clinton Formations. 55. Rusophycus bilobatus (Hall). A sea- weed. Medina and Clinton Formations. 58. Favosites Gothlandica (Goldfuss :=F. Niagarensis of early American publications). Hudson River to Devonian series. Chiefly characteristic of the Niagara Formation. 59. Halysites catennlatus (Linnaeus :=Catenipora escharoide^ of early American writers). A Coelenterate : a tabulated coral. Chiefly characteristic of Upper Clinton and Niagara strata. E. J.C.del. Copp.QarVa-Cc Lith-.T^t-jniro, I ■'■;^. PLATE V. ^ 60. Fencstella elegans (Hall). A bryozoon. Niagara Formation, .^-j t Pentamerus oblongus (Sowerby). A brachiopod. Clinton and / go ) Niagara Formations ; but regarded in Canada as indicating, caseu. ' tially, the latter. Fig. 62 is an internal cast). €3. Orthis elegantula (Dalman). A brachiopod. Niagara Formation. 64. Spirifer Niagarensis (Conrad). ) Brachiopods. 65. Spirifer radiatus (Sowerby). ) Niagara Formation. 66. Homalonotus delphinocephalus (Green). ) Trilobites. 67. Dalmannites limulurus (Green). ) Niagara Formation. -j- 68. Megalomus Canadensis : internal cast (Hall). A Lamellibranch. <7uelph / Formation. 69. Euryptenis remipes (Dekay). A crustacean allied to the Ldmulus. ' Lower Helderberg Formation. The figure is a restoration : about one-third natural size. 70. Aulopora comuta (Billings). A coral (Coelenterata), Corniferous Formation. Copied from Billings' figure. 71. Alveolites cryptodens (Billings). A coral (Coelenterata). Corniferous Formation. Copied from Billings' figure. 72. Michelinea convexa (d'Orbigny). i Corals (Coelenterata). ^ 73. Syringopora Maclurei (Billings). > Corniferous and Hamilton Forma- 74. Syringopora Hisingeri (Billings). ) tions. y PLATK V E.J.C.del. Cqpp. Clark &• CaLiQi.Toronto. PLATE VI. 75. Zaphrcntis prolifioa (Billin|{s). A coral (C'uilentorata). Coroiferous and Hamilton Formations. 76. Strophonieua rhoni))oi(UliH (Wahlenberg). A brachiopod. Corniforoui and Hamilton Formations. 77. Atrypa reticularis (Linnaeus). A brachiopod. Especially abundant in Corniferous and Hamilton (or Lambtou) Formations, but ranging from th* Middle Silurian series upwards. 78. Spirifer gregarius (Hall). A brachiopod. Corniferous Formation, 79. Spirifer mucronatua (Conrad). A brachiopod. Corniferous and Hamil- ton Formutiona ; oapecially abundant in the latter. 80. Spirigera conceutrica (Von Buch). A brochiopml. Corniferous and Hamilton (Lambton) Formations. 81. Stricklandia elongata (Billings). A brachiopod. Coniiferoua and Hamilton (Lambton) Formations. 82. Lucina proavia (Hall). A Lamellibranch. Corniferous and Hamilton (Lambton) Formations. 83. Conocardium trigonale (Conrad). A Lamellibranch. Oriskany, Cor- niferous and Hamilton (Lambton) Formations. 84. I Phacops bufo (Green). A trilobite. Corniferous and Hamilton 85. \ (Lambton) Formations. 86. Heliophyllum Holli. A coral. Corniferous and Hamilton Formations. 87. Orthis Vanuxemi (Billings). Corniferous and Hamilton (Lambton) Formations. 88. Fucoides cauda-galli. A sea-weed. Portage-Chemung Formation. 89. Calamites inomatus (Dawson). A swamp plant, allied to existing Equisetacete, Portage-Chemung Formation, E.J.C.deI Copp Gkrka Co Ltfti.Tor'-nb'-.