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Lorsque Ie documen' est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seui ciich6, 11 est f ilm6 d partir de I'angle supArieur gauche, de gauche i droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant Ie nombre d'images nAcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. by errata led to ent une pelure, Papon A 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 (fltONTISPIICE.) <5t Fig. 1. Aldbrnet Bull. Fig. 2. Almrney Cow. / W) CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARD THH IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE nr NOVA-SCOTIA ; WITH PRACTICAL HINTS ON THK MANAOFMKNT AND IMPROAEMKNT LIVE STOCK, COMPILED PROM VOUATT, JOHNSTON, YOUNG, rETERS, STEPHENS, &c. BY J. W. DAWSON, M. A., F. G. S., &c. Author of " Acadian Gfo/ofry,"" " Handbook of the Geography and Satural lUitory of Nova-ikotia." SEOONl/ ^j3ITI0N, REVISED & IMPROVED. Pnblfihed under a Urant of the legiilature. c Mm HALIFAX, N. S. : |)riutcb bg Hicljarb 25'ugcnt, AMB ••!<» BT ALL B0OXSBI.I.GES, A5D Br ALL •lOSBTABIBB OF AtBIC0LTVBAL ■OCIBTIKS THROCOHOVT 1HB PBOTUTOB. 1866. May il Prac To His Exf^U'iicy Sir J. (Jasparij liEM^ncUAVT, Knight and Knight Commander of ihr Orders of St, Ferdinand, 4c., Lifiutviani (ioi'irnor, (j-c. Mav rr ri.EASK tour Kxcr.Li.ENcv,— In preparing, by command of your Excellency, a new edition of tlio *• Practiciil Hints on Live Stock," 1 have endeavored, by inoorporutini; with it the matter of my prL-viousIy publislied pamphlet, untitled " Scientific Contribu- tionH toward the improvemcMt of A;^ricultiire," to produce a connected elemen- tary treatise on our Provincial llus!)andry. In treating a subject so extensive, many omiwionH ntiHt have occurred ; and I regret that owin^^ to my departiiro from the Province l)efore the printing of the work could be commenced, 1 have been unable to revise tJio proofs, or to make such corrections and additionn an the delay in tlie printin<; and the rapid progri"i8 of agricultural s»cience had rendered detiinil)le. Xotwitiistanditig tlieso defects, 1 trust that tiio largo amount of practical information contairee ,n the work must render it an acceptuble and useful addi- tion to the agricultural literature of Nova Scotia. To young [erRona especially, who may bo desirous of obtaining an acijuaintaneo with the prineiplcs ;:nd most imnroved practice of Agriculture, it should he exceedingly valuable; and I bog lei- .0 to Huggest that for their benefit it sliould l>e largely introduced into tiio Schoolu and School [.iliraries. Tc 1)8 able to contribute, oven in a small degree, toward tlie eucccs.* of your Kxcellency'a enlightened efl'orts in behalf of the most important industrial pur- suit of my native country, will be to me a source of the most heartfelt gratifica- tion. I iuive the lionor to bo, Your Excellency's hnmhia lorvant, McCJill College, Montreal, ^ June. 1.^50 ) J. W. DAWSON. ^^ CONTENTS. |l CHAPTER I. — iNTRODrcTORV lliiMAUKri on the Agriculturo ot Nova Sootia, its cliiniitc ami soil, CHAP. II. — Soils. — Goncral rciuarka on Soil^— various kinds of Soils in Nova Sjotia, CHAP. III. —(ji'.AtN Crujvs. — Wliout. and its enemies, as rust, insect, weevil, kc. L'ho Oat — liyc — Barley — Indian Corh — Buckwheat— lloans* — Peaa, CHAP. IV.— Gkei:n Cr.\.i'S, &c.— Turnips- -Carrots— Man- gel Wurtzcl — tho Potato — (.'lover and Ciraases— Flax, Hemp, and Broom ('orn, CHAP. V. — Rearini; and Manaokmknt oi Cattf.k — Breed? of Cattle — Choice and purchase of Cattle — Breeding — Manugenient of Calves — Draught Jxcn — Feeding and Fattening, CHAl*. VI.- The Dairy. —Qualities and Food of Milch Cows — Buildings — Composition and Properties of Milk — Butter-making — Cheese-making, CHAP. VII. — Farm IIorsks. — Training of Horses— Feeding, CHAP. VIII. — Sheki' — Breeds — Selection and Roaring, CHAP. IX. — SwiNi:. — Breeds — Feeding — Pig Sties& Troughs — Curing tt'Pork and Baec%- CRAP X.— PoiLTRY.- The Domestic Fowl— The Turkey— The Duck— The Coose, CHAP. XI. — Manukes. — Organic Manures — Mineral or In- organic Manures — Selections on the Management of Animal Manures, CHAP. XII. — Orchard and Garden Fruits.— Disciises and Enemies of FruiL Trees, CHAP. XIII. — Rotation of Crops. — Detailed Plan of a Ro- tation suited to British America, CHAP. XIV. — Misci;LLANEOLs Hints on Husbakdky. — Ploughing — E-i-tracts from Johnston's Report-Agricul- tural Reports for Nova Scotia — Hedges, AvPiMDix. — Meteorological TabUs — Instructions on Chemical Analysis, PACK y 1!) 74 121 12G 135 143 154 205 212 225 269 ON Til Agricl other brJ hasaiMf luiportai (•rmen, porderai varied a of this ii a^riculti portance Our a tricts be attempts! approach keep up for if th methods regions, ultimate hand, in oxperira on whic with as method! Novi the ear^ the abl rapid ] Young ation the abl Boardf societii period; jMore ] (IfAITKIl I. I N T R ( ) D U C T R Y R E M A R K S ON Tin; AGRiruLTUiii; of nova hcotla, its climate and soil. Agriculture is more extensively pursued in Nova iScotia than any other braiu'h of industry. Vv'ith a population of 27<>.]^ 7, the province has 5U.»H>4 farmers, while the fishery, the next industrial pursuit in importance, numbers but *Ji)27 men : and a large number of the fish- tn'men, mechanics and lumberers, are also in part farmers. This pre- porderani.'o of agricultural pir'suits, takou in connection with the varied amount of knowledge necessary lor the successful prosecution of this important calling, gives to all efforts in the direction of a sound agricultural eduea';ion for the mass of the peopic an incalculable im- portance. Our agriculture is in a transition state. Tt may in different dis- tricts be found in all stages of advancement, between the first riule attempts of the half-lumbercr-half-farmer of a new country, and au approach to the formal and scientific husbandry which is necessary to keep up the productiveness of old land. It is also in a critical state, for if the farmers in our oI.^er settlements persist in the wasteful methods of culture Avhich almost inevitably grow up in newly settled regions, they doom their soil to a gradual deterioration, which must ultimately impoverish themselves and their successors. On the other hand, in their endeavours to improve, tliey arc liable to be misled ) y experiments made nnd reported without knowledge of the conditions on which their success depended, and by crude hypochesis asserted with as much confidence as if they were the results of careful and methodical in(|uiry. Nova Scotians have not been wholly insensible to these evils. In the earlier days of its agriculture, our province could boast of one of the ablest modern writers on the subject ; and even now, after all the rapid progress of modern agricultural chemistry, every reader of Young's Letters of Agricola must be ast^^nished at his clear appreci- ation of facts and piinciples scarcely thought of, in his day, even by the ablest chemists and agriculturists of Europe. In later times our Boards of Agriculture and their Secretaries and local agricultural societies have laboured in the same great cause; and Agriculturi 1 periodicals and modern scientific books have been widely diflfuseu. More recently still, the legislature has recognised agricultural chem- 10 INTRODrrTOKY REMARKS istry as one of tho hranclios nf a hii^lior school otliication : and the Supi'rintundcnt of education has nidcavorcd to liriiij; tliia valuable branch of prarticiil odiUMtion witbin the iXMfb of ;ill the chiMron of tb«» ]>rovitK;c. Under the onlij^btciicd and aotivp palroiiii^o of our present Tiiou- tenai'L tJovciiior, all tlicse a>;iMicio.s for Aii^ricniltural improvement aro Htinniialed ami extended, and the I'rovineial and local Ivvhibitions, tbp importations (d" improved stock, tlie circulation of a;^ric:il!ural infornnition. and tbe probable connection of an experimental faini with tb(! Normal School now establislied under tbe manageunint of a j^^eu- tleman cijUidly competent atul zealous an an educationist and agrioal- turist, au;^ur an accelerated movement in the progress of our provin- cial a;^rieidturc. lUil tbe (piestion occurs ; Will the climate and soil of Nova Scotia repay these elforts .' and many persons appear to believe that they will not. We propose, therefore, in the lit at place to ompilrc what amount of truth there may be in such molaucholy views. It seems evident, that it is scarcely fiir to compare our country with those parts of America which present vast tracts of forest, and whicli are yearly receiving swarms of emigrants, who are cutting down the woods and exporting a great surplus of grain from the first fertility of the virgin soil. Such countries an; now yielding large supjdies of produce, but their fertility is being rapidly exhausted, and wo have no evidence that when the land becomes cleared and the inllux of new population • ceases, they will be even as ju'oductive as the average t u.e foolish error, that there is any v,\ tie a \ ti tti cl n.ate cr. that there are many not in one way or ancihti su'>, tv.t U) (hfiwhulvs t» cie injurious than those of ours. Since vii'ii^' ilc u'ove. I luive seen a very interesting table of FeriodK i-f vo^ti; ticii ] ii' litl.u. by Mr. Poole, in the Eastern Chron- icle. It ii} ) t. ifj fuTii ilis. tl.i t tl.c average time for sowing wheat at the All A L y ii US tt 1 C yt a: s is May 10th — the average time of reap- ing, Av.^ii.«t 'i\\.h: iljt' i.vt)}i^c number of days the crop is in the ground is 1 . In ^'l'^\ h\ uisATick according to Johnston the average time iii tho ^loui.o ilO dajfei ; in Scotland according to Stevens, for Spring vhcvu, l."l u> IcC. Thest figures fully bear out the state- ments made uLove, and show that the prevalent complaints of our cli- mate hav: but a slender foundation in fisict. Ill I CHArTLR II. 19 Under this head, after some prcllniiniiVj stitoments respecting the mechanical and chemical nature of soils, 1 :^aall arrange the soils of the Province in five great classes, and describe each separately. The mechanical texture of iSoils may vary from coarse pebbles or loose sand to the finest and moat tenacious clay ; and in general, those soils are best adapted for agriculture which consist of mixtures of sand with a moderate quantity of clay and a little vegetable mat- ter. When sand or other coarse matter predominates, the soil is defi- cient in the power of retaining water and the soluble and volatile parts of manure. When clay is in excess, the soil is too retentive of water, is not easily warmed, does not admit of access of air, and consequently does not allow those chemical changes to take place in the soil and manures placed in it which are necessary to prepare proper food for plants. The following classification of soils in refeienco to these points is proposed by Professor Johnston : 1. Pure Clay ; from this no sand can be extracted by washing. 2. Strong Clay, Brick clay, contains from 5 to 20 per cent. sand. 3. Clay Loam has from 20 to 40 per cent. sand. 4. Loam has from 40 to 70 per cent. sand. 5. Sandy Loam has from 70 to 90 per cent. sand. 6. Light Sand has less than 10 per cent. clay. Two methods of improving the mechanical texture of the soil are within reach of the farmer. a. The addition of substances capable of changing the texture. Thus shore sand is sometimes carted upon stifif clays with benefit. In like manner coal ashes, lime rubbish, sandy marl, peat composts, and many other substances ordinarily employed as manures, tend to lighteu and pulverize the ground. On the other hand, marsh and creek mud, and similar substances, much improve the texture of light and gi-avelly soils, by making them more retentive. In applying manures contain' - ing much sandy and earthy matter, it is always to the interest of ^ae farmer to consider the efiFects which they may have on the mechanical qualities of the soil, and to use them on those portions of ground where their effects in this respect will be inost beneficial. 20 SOILS, b. Draining is by far tbe mo8t effectual method of improving the mecharncal quality of land. Covck d drains are those which produce the most beneficial effects, as they draw off moisture froni the subsoil without producing wasteful warning of the surface. The effects of underdraining may be summed up at, follows : It makes the soil warmer, by draining off the water which other- wise would keep the ground cold by its evaporation. For this reason it enables the ground to be worked earlier in spring and later in autumn, and renders the growth of crops more rapid. It tends to prevent the surface from being too much washed by rain, as it enables the water to penetrate the soil, carrying dovnward the substance of rich manures, instead of washing it to lower levels. It thus saves the riches of the soil from waste. It allows the roots of plants to penetrate deeply into the soil, instead of being stopped, as they often are, at the depth of a few inches, by a hard subsoil, or by ground saturated with water, or loaded with substances injurious to vegetation. For this reason, drained lands siand drought better than undrainod, and their crops arc also larger and more healthy. Hence also it often happens, that draining l)enefits ven light lands, if they happen to h'lve an impermeable subsoil. .^ It permits free access of air, thus preventing the " souring" cf the soil, and bringing manures of all kinds into a fit state for absorp- tion by the roots. It prevents injury to the soil JTrom the water of springs and other waters coming from beneath by c>ipillary attraction. It also prevents baking in dry weather, and causes the ground to cinimble more freely when ploughed. It tends to diminish the effects of frost, in throwing out the roots of clover and grasses. In short, it renders land easier and more pleasant to work ; make^j crops more sure and heavy ; prevents alike injuries from drought and excessive moisture ; economizes manures ; and is ecjuivalent to tho deepening of the soil, and lengthening of the summer. The following short summary of the methods of under-draining is taken from " Norton's Elements of Scientific Agriculture." It is to be hoped that its practice will soon be familiar to every farmer in our Province : — " First, as to their depth ; where a full can be obtained, this should be from 30 to 36 inches. The plants could then send their roots down, and find to this depth a soil free from hurtful substances. The roots of ordinary crops often go down three feet, when there is noth- ing unwholesome to prevent their descent. The farmer who has a soil available for his crops to such a depth, cannot exhaust it so soon as one where they have to depei.d on a few inches, or even a. foot of surface, Mcnures, also, cannot easily eink down beyond the reach of pim\*^ Or fine hardwood forests : and in some districts, forest fires have produced an appearance which causes its value to be much underrated. Valuable though these soils are, there is often too good reason to perceive, that by the wretchedly exhausting system of cropping too often pursued, they have been reduced to absolute sterility. In such cases, subsoil ploughing would often do much to restore them ; and it generally happens that lime, gypsum, marl, swamp and sea mud, are not far distant, and if applied liberally with vegetable manures, would do much to restore fertility. 2. Clays, sands, and stony gi'ounds of the carboniferous district. These are light coloured or reddish stiff clays, white and grey sands, and ground filled with flaggy fragments of hard sandstone, or occa- s-ionally with pebbles or other rocks. These varieties of soil are scat- te^ed very irregularly over the carboniferous district, depending on the nature of the neighbouring rocks, which may be shales wasting to clay, soft sandstones, or hard flaggy sandstones and conglomerates. All the?? soils are much inferior to the class last described, though they often occur in its close vicinity, or intermixed with it. JLany of tlie clays of this class, though stiff and cold, are strong and prodiK'tive when drained. Lime, coal ashes, peut compost, and band, or sandy marls, improve them veiy much, and may often bo applied at small expense : attcation to drainage is, however, a main i ooint in their cultivation. The lighter lands of this class are often very poor, and are deficient I in almost everything that contributes to the fertility of the soil. I Nothing, in short, in the way of manure, will come amiss to them ; ithaugh tho farmer must consider wkother it be worth his labour to 80 SOILS. I ii! I ' attempt their improvement. I have, however, known many patches of such light sandy or gravelly land, by the continued application of mineral and vegetable manures, converted into very productive and very early and sure land. The stony soils of this class are often very forbidding in their aspect, and sometimes quite useless. In some places, however, I have ob- served that the stones occur principally at the very surface, and have beneath them good and deep loam. In this case the stones may be built into walls, and leave usually a very sharp and productive soil. 3. Loams, and sands of the new red sandstone. These soils are limited to the country bordering the Bay of Fundy. They occur near Truro, and in a band skirting both sides of Cobequid Bay. They also occur at Salter's Head, Barn-cote, and other places on the northern shore of Hants ; and more extensively in the valley of Corn- wallis, and thence toward Annapolis. They are generally of a bright red colour, and vary from loams, to sandy loams, and light sands — the latter being sometimes of a whitish colour. The red loams and sands abound in oxide of iron, lime, and gypsum, except when run out. They are, however, often deficient in phosphates and alkalies. Hence, while they are admirable for the culture of the apple, potato, turnip, and Indian corn, they are inferior as grain soils to the best soils of the carboniferous and silurian districts. A notable instance of the lightest sandy lands of this class occurs in Aylesford. Such land requires the same treatment with the light sands, of the last described class. The bog mud of Aylesford, if carted on the sand, would do much toward enriching it ; and the bog would be at least equally benefited by a dressing of sand. The lightness, earliness, and great natural draining of soils of this class, in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, — in which latter country they occupy a large area, — make them very desirable to new settlers. It is questionable, however, if — except for the culture of fruit, potatoes, and corn — they are as valuable as much of the heavier land, which is less esteemed. The improvement of agriculture in most countries, adds to the esti- mation in which heavy lands are held. 4. Soil of the trap district. This is confined to the North Moun- tain of King's and Annapolis, and its prolongation in Digby, and to a few isolated patches on the opposite side of the Bay. It contains all the chemical elements of fertility, bears a fine natural growth of timber, and yields good crops to the new settler ; but is said to fail rapidly under tillage. This must depend either on mechanical defects in relation to absorption of moisture, or on wasteful management on the part of the cultivator. It is at least admirably adapted for pas- turage, and its chemical composition shows th"* it is well fitted for grain crops, if its mechanical disadvantages can be'overcome — which is no doubt possible, except where the ground is either very shallow or very stony. SOILS. n tness, earliness, Soluble in Water. as gypsum, Soluble in Hydrochloric < acid. Alluvial Soils. Of these, we have first, red marsh ; secondly, blue marsh, low marsh or corky dyke ; and thirdly, intervale. 1. The red marsh, though varying somewhat in quality, is the best soil in our Province, and much of it compares favourably with the most celebrated alluvial soils of the old and new worlds. The follow- ing analysis of recently deposited marsh mud from Truro, will serve to shew the composition of this kind of soil. Moisture, Organic matter, Chlorine, } •,. o 1 ' > as common salt, boda, ) ' Potash, Sulphuric Acid, Lime, Alumina, Magnesia, ' Carbonate of Lime Oxide of Iron Alumina Magnesia Soda and Potash Phosphoric Acid ^ Silicious saml (very fine) It will be observed that, in the abu\e analysis, all the substances previously mentioned as contained in fertile soils, are present. This marsh mud is not only a valuable soil, hut is carted on upland with excellent effect as a manure. When we take this fact in connection with the circumstance that 87 per cent of th3 wholo is only silicious sand, and that only one and a half per cent of organic matter is pre- sent, we can appreciate the vast importance of the substances con- tained in it. Such soil requires no foreign appliances to render it fertile. It has however one weak point — its small proportion of phosphates ; and I suspect, that if there were not occasionally present in it, fragments of fish bones and other similar organic matters which do not appear in an analysis, this deficiency would appear in a somewhat rapid falling off in its productiveness. It is certain, that the best varieties of this kind of soil will bear continued cropping without manure for a very long period. It is however also certain that it gradually runs out, and the owners of the older mai'shes already have occasion to inquire for the means of restoring its productiveness. Draining is well known to be essential to the fertility of the marshes, and there are in this Province many valuable tracts of this land in a comparatively useless condition from its neglect. Admitting the sea .5 1.5 .095 .115 .013 .073 .061 .085 .094 3.60 2.74 1.20 .11 .8 .09 87.00 82 SOILS, water to deposit new mud, is also a well known remedy in the case of failing, or naturally, poor marsh. It is attended however with th. serious disadvantage of causing the los^ of several crops. It seems probable that in the deeper kinds of red marsh, rfubsoil or trench ploughing might prove very advantageous after the surface has heen somewhat run out. There can be no doubt however, that in the heavier kinds of marsh, it would r3qui:'e to bo accompanied by very thorough drainage. It may also be deserving of inquiry if tile drains would be more serviceable than the open ditches in common use. Tiles could be very easily and cheaply made of the marsh mud itself, and when once laid, would require far less attention than ditches ; and could be laid in any direction, and in any number, without interfering with the work- ing of the soil. Lastly, the composition of the marsh mud indicates, that the appli- cation of bone-dust would probably be attended with the most marked results, particularly, in increasing the certainty of grain crops, and in producing the more valuable kinds of grasses — Guano would have a similar effect ; but a good dressing of bone-dust would be more per- manent in its effects. I would recommend to owners of poor or worn out marsh, to try the experiment, and calculate from the increase of crops, Avhether it would not be remunerative. 2. Blue marffh, sometimes called inner marsh, low marsh, corky dyke, grey marsh. This forms the subsoil of the red marsh, and generally occurs in a belt along the inner margin, next the upland, where the surface is lower than the outer edge, in consequence of the tides depositing the coarser mud near the channels, and tine^ mud in smaller quantity near the upland. In those parts of the Jr'rovincc where the tides are only of ordinary height, all the marsh that exists is either of this kind, or boggy marsh, composed almost eutirely of vegetable matter. The blue marsh usually contains more vegetable matter than the red, and often assumes the character of a boggy swamp. It emits a fetid smell when recently turned up, and iho water oozing from it usually stains the ground with a rusty colour. It has the appearaace of being a rich soil, but, though it produces, in its natural state, crops of coarse grass when broken up, it is of little value. Its chemical composition gives the true reason of its comparatively worthless character, and also suggests a remedy. The vegetable mat- ter present in this kind of marsh, acting on the stagnant sea-Avater, has decomposed the sulphate of soda, of which a amall quainity is present in the tice-water, and has set free its sulphur, in the form of sulphuretted hydrogen, Avhich acting on the oxide of iron in the mud, converts it into sulphuret of iron, and changes its colour from red to grey. The sulphuret of iron remains unchanged, while submerged or water-soaked, but when exposed to the air, it paijses into sulphate SOIL0. 88 3dy in the case of lowever with the rops. marsh, rfubsoil or er the surface has yever, that in the )rapaTiied by very ) would be more 'iles could be very id -vvhen once laid, could be laid in ig -with the work- es. that the appli- L the most marked grain crops, and uano would have ould be more p-jr- 3 of poor or worn 1 the increase of ow marsh, corky red marsh, and next the upland, msequence of the md fine" mud in of the Ji'rovincG marsh that exists Iraost entirely of more vegetable icter of a boggy up, and iho 1 a rusty colour. h it produces, in up, it is of little its comparatively le vegetable mat- gnant sea-water, mall quantity is in the form of iron in the mud, lour from red to while submerged ;ssi3 into sulphate ir • of iron, or ^reen vitriol ; a substance poisonoua to most cultivated crops, except the oat, which can put up with a little of it. Hence the bad effects of disturbing the blue marsh — ^hence also the rusty colour of its water. Land in this state, can be easily tested by dry- ing a small piece of it and making it red hot in the fire ; on taking it out, it will be found to emit a strong sulphureous smell, and on cool- ing, its red colour will be found to be partially restored. The remedy is draining and liming ; and such land will usually stand, without injury, a heavy liming. Draining admits air and takes off the saline water. Lime decomposes the sulphate of iron, and forms sulphate of lime and oxide of iron, both useful substances. The cause and cure of the blue marsh thus involves a series of chemi- cal changes ; the last of which may be represented, as follows : Sulphuric Acid and Oxide ) converted ^ Sulphuric Acid and Lime, of Iron, with Lime \ into / with Oxide of Iron. When the blue marsh is too low tc admit of proper drainage, the only mode of improving it is to dig trenches to the tide channels, and thus admit the muddy tide waters to deposit over it a coat of red mad. Both of these methods have already been employed with success in some parts of this Province. Though the Blue marsh is by itself so unproductive, yet those I varieties of it which contain a good proportion of vegetable matter, I when drawn out and composted with hme or marl, form an admirable top-dressing for upland grass. 3. Intervale or fresh water alluvium occurs along most of our j rivers, in variable quantity and quality ; but is generally a fine and 1 productive soil. It requires the same management with upland soils, I and except where it has a loose gi-avelly subsoil, would often be im- I proved by draining. It is lamentable to see, in the older settlements, so much of this valuable soil almost ruined by an exhaustive system of cropping. It is worthy of notice that ever s: ice the first cultivation of the I alluvial soil of the Euphrates and the Nile, irrigation by running [water has been found to be a most efficient means of promoting and [restoring the fertility of this kind of land. Many of our intervales [are annually overflowed by freshets, and sometimes with very injuri- lous results. But it is a matter deserving of inquiry, whether a regu- Jlar and systematic admission of the water of the rivers and tributary jbrooks, might not repav its expense, by its beneficial effects on the |crop3. Muddy water let in, in this manner, would not only top-dress the soil, but tend to elevate it above the reach of the freshets, and 3ven clear water flowing gently over the surface for a limited time, is mown to be highly fertilizing, though the theory of its operation ia lot well understood. Some useful facts on this subject will be found in Jackson's treatise pa A|(rioaltare and Dairy Husbandry. mmii m SOUS; I nl Hi Bog Soils. These are accumulations of vegetable matter :n low and undrained places. Some of them are covered with natural j^rass, and are called meadows, or stwannahs ; others are clothed with spruces, alders, and other swamp-growing trees ; and others with low shrubs and moss. Meadows are valuable in their natural state ; though most of them would yield better grass if drained and cultivated. Other bog soils may be rendered productive by clearing and burning the surface vege- gation, draining, and coating with sand or soil. When treated in this way, the best of these bog soils are in no respect inferior in produc- tiveness to good marsh land ; and are capable of yielding a succession of good crops without any manure. There are very large quantities of this soil now lying unproductive ; it may, therefore, be wor^h while to noticp, somewhat in detail, the methods which have been successful in reclaiming it. The following is a sketch of the plan pursued by Mr. J. Taylor, of Pictou, by which he has brought into a good state of culture about twenty acres of thib land. His method is essentially the same with that followed by the best reclaimers of bog soils in Scotland. First, the ground is drained by open ditches, 30 to 36 inches in depth, and much sloped on the sides, to prevent falling in. They are placed at distances apart of 80 to 90 feet, and run into a main trunk drain, carried along the lowest level. The material taken out of the drains is, when rotted or composted, valuable for n^anuring the upland. Secondly, the bushes, stumps, tussocks, &c., are piled and burned; and this is one of the most troublesome and expensive parts of the process, — costing, in some jBelds cleared by Mr. Taylor, nearly XI per acre. Thirdly, to supply the deficiency of mineral matter in the peaty soil, sand from an adjoining bank is spread over the surface, at the rate of 600 to 1000 loads per acre. The ground is then ready for sowing with oats, wheat, or grass seeds ; all of which do well, especially oats and grass, and improve after a few years of cultivation. The theory of the process, would induce us to conclude that lime might be beneficially applied in reclaiming/ bog soils ; Mr. Taylor, however, has not found it to produce any appreciable good results ; though he has now in progress some experiments on the subject, which may be more favourable than previous trials. I have no doubt, that in those parts of the Province where the soil naturally contains little lime, that substance should be applied. It should, however, be used only after draining, and along with a larger quantity of sand or loam. It is to be hoped, that the large tracts of bog which are found in our Province, will attract the attention of agriculturists, and that their great capabilities will be more generally put to the test. The above are the principal varieties of soil found in our Province, or at least, occupying large areas. There are a few other kinds, found n SOILS. 85 w and undrained 38, and are called uces, alders, and ihrubs and moss. Th most of them Other bog soils the surface vege- len treated in this iferior in produc- Iding a succession r large quantities •e, be wor^h while ^e been successful plan pursued by into a good state thod is essentially s of bog soils in to 36 inches in ing in. They are into a main trunk taken out of the luring the upland, iled and burned ; isive parts of the ylor, nearly £10 leral matter in the 'er the surface, at nd is then ready )f which do well, irs of cultivation, anclude that lime >ils; Mr. Taylor, ble good results; the subject, which ve no doubt, that lly contains little however, be used J of sand or loam, ich are found in sts, and that their est. in our Province, )ther kinds, found m limited spots, and to which it would scarcely be profitable to refer ; as the remarks made in reference to the soils more generally occur- ring, will in great part apply to them. Other facts applicable to the treatment of various kinds of soils, will be mentioned under the head of Manures. fmm 86 CHAPTER III. GRAIJV CROPS. Under this head "will he noticed the most important of the plants cultivated in our climate, their requirements as to manure and soil, and the blights and diseases to which they are liable. Wheat. Spring -wheat succeeds well in all our first and second class soils, and with care in those of the third class, except in the highest hilly districts, and in the immediate vicinity of the Atlantic coast, where the fogs and sea wirds are supposed to injure it. As already stated however, I am induced to suspect that the failures on the coast are often to be attributed to deficiency of phosphates in the soil, and to defective management, rather than to the climate. Winter wheat has proved itself ve"y precarious, except in some new clearings, where it is sheltered by surrounding woods. Of the varieties of spring wheat commonly cultivated, the Black sea and golden straw are at present most in repute. They are early and hardy, but scarcely so productive and nutritious as some of the old varieties of bald white wheat. Wheat requires to have in the soil a supply of both mineral and organic food in a well elaborated state. Hence it will neither thrive in poor soil, nor in rich soil, containing vegetable matter in a crude or undccomposcd state. It also very readily permits weeds or grasses to grow beneath its shelter. For these reasons, newly burned land, land that has been fallowed and manured with composted manure, or land that has been previously cleaned and manured with a green crop, is most suitable for wheat. On lea land it is very subject to rust, and also to the attacks of the Hessian fly, whose larva? are generally pre- sent in the grass, and destroy the wheat which takes its place. The place of wheat in the rotation of a scientific farmer must therefore be that assigned to it in the ordinary Scottish four-course rotation, viz. after a green crop and before grass, which is sowed with the wheat. The organic part of the grain of wheat consists principally of gluten, albumen, starch, gv* ''ugar, oily matter and the woody mat- GBAIN CROPS. 37 ter of the husk. Of these ingredientg the most important in reference to human food, are the gluten and albumen, which are also the sub- stances whose elements aio least easily obtained from poor soils. They are obtained from the richer kinds of manures ; and tneir nitro- gen, the most difficult of their elements to procure, chiefly from the ammonia afforded by these manures. It is also worthy of remark, that the percentage of gluten varies according to the amount of such rich materials in the soil. Hence the wheat of well manured land is not only more abundant, but yields bushel for bushel, more flour — and more nutritious flour, than that of poor land. The rich and well tilled soils of this Province, produce wheat equal to that of any coun- try in the world. The poor and run out lands furnish inferior grain, milling badly, and yieldmg an inferior flour deficient in gluten. The ash or earthy part of wheat is also of some importance, especially as for this the plant is entirely dependent on the soil, and though this part of the plant is comparatively small iu quantity, yet its due supply is absolutely necessary to its healthy growth. More than one half of the ash ot the straw of wheat consists of silica, an element sufficiently abundant in most soils ; bat it is to be observed that this element can be obtained only by the aid of potash or soda, which must therefore be present in the soil. Potash and soda are also required independently of the conveyance of silica. The ashes of 1000 lbs of the straw of wheat contain 4 J lbs of potash and soda; the straTv contains a much smaller proportion. Wheat also contains in its ash, lime, gypsum, magnesia and common salt, but in small quantity. The ingredient of the ash of wheat, which of all others is the most important, is bone earth or phosphate of lime, of which about TOlbs. are taken by an ordinary crop of wheat from an acre of ground. This may appear to be a small quantity, but it must be borne in mind, tha* his substance is scarce even in fertile soils. It is chiefly the presence of alkalies and phosphates derived from the ashes of the woods, that causes wheat to produce so abundantly in new land. It is also worthy of notice, that wheat sends its roots deeply into the ground ; and therefore prefers a deep soil, or one that has been deepened by subsoiling and under draining. The facts respecting the composition of wheat stated above, indicate that manures containing nitrogen, phosphates and alkalies, are espe- cially suitable to it. Such manures are guano, urine, animal refuse, ashes, and crushed bones. Respecting the uses of the grain of wheat, it is unnecessary to say anything. It is not however very generally known, that the straw of wheat, if cut sufficiently early, and chopped with a straw cutter, is highly nutritive food for cattle and horses, and is much relished by them. In this country, wheat is generally cut too late, and thus the grain is thick in the husk and inferior in flouring qualities, and the straw is comparatively worthless. By cutting immediately after the .;il GRAIN CROPS. ■ '■' grain is filled, and before the straw is wholly dead, both would be much more valuable and nutritious. Wheat, though the most important of the grain crops, has, especially of late, acquired the character of being a precarious crop ; and henco much less attention is devoted to it than its importance demands ; and persons not unfrequently maintain that Nova Scotia cannot produce a sufficiency of wheaten flour for its own consumption. I have already endeavoured to show, that in its climate and soil there is nothing to prevent the successful culture of wheat. It becomes therefore neces- sary to inquire into the diseases and blights to which it is liable. I may therefore consider these in detail, remarking in the first place that none of them are peculiar to Nova Scotia, all of them being more or less experienced in most or all the countries in which wheat is culti- vated. 1. Rust or Mildew — A reddish or rusty substance attached to the Btraw and leaves of wheat, in the end of summer or in autumn. When examined by the microscope, it is found to be a parasitic fungus or mould, \yhose minute and invisible seeds are wafted by the winds, or borne into the plant with the water it absorbs from the soil, and taking root in the cells and vessels of the stem and leaf, weaken or kill it by feeding on its juices. Its attacks are favoured by the following causes. First, damp and cold weather succeeding warmth, at the time when the straw is still soft and juicy ; hence late grain is very liable to rust. Secondly, a deficiency of the outer silicious coat which in the healthy state pro- *tects the surface of the straw, or an unnaturally soft and watery state of the plant. These unhealthy conditions may proceed either from poverty and want of alkalies in the soil, from the presence of too much crude vegetable matter, as sod or raw manure, or from a wet and undrained state of the land, which both causes the crop to be late and fills it with watery juices. Thirdly, it is probable that when the grain of rusty wheat is sown, or when sound wheat is sown in ground in which wheat has rusted in previous years, the crop may be i more easily affected by the disease, because the seeds of the rust fun- gus may be attached to the seed or may be in the soil. f^" The best preventives of rust therefore are ; First, healthy seed ; Secondly, early sowing; Thirdly, draining; Fourthly, abstaining! from sowing wheat in lea land ; Fifthly, preparing the soil in such a I manner that it shall be sufficiently rich, yet not filled with crude vege- table matter. • 2. Smut or bunt — This also is a parasitic fungus, which grows | within the grain, and converts its substance into a dark colored fetid | mass of spores or mould balls, which under the microscope look like rough berries, and are filled with the minute dust like seeds of the Bmut. Its mode of propagation is pretty well understood and easily guarded against. When smutty grain is threshed, the infected seeds GRAIN CROPS. , both would be M, has, espociallj om the soil, and leaf, weaken or lare broken, and the smnt heina of an adhesive nature attaches itself I to the sound grain, and when this is sown, the sporulea of the smut pass upward with the sap, and infect the new crop. In like manner, Iff sound i^rain be put into bags or boxes which have contained smutty grain, or If it bo threshed on a floor on which smuttv grain has been lately threshed, it will be infected. These cau.^ 3 of the disease should I therefore be avoided by all prudent farmers. In addition to this however, the seed wheat should always be washed before sowing, that any particle of smut which may happen to be at- i tached to it may be removed. In this way the increase of the evil may be eflfcctually guarded against. " It is quiie certain, that the disease may be at any time propagated by rubbing sound wheat against that which is infected by the fungus. If then the seed be sown in this condition, the result may be easily predicted. The method also of counteracting the evil at once sug- gests itself It is merely to cleanse the wheat which is about to be sown, from all the smut which may have attached itself to it, by rea- son of its adhesive character. The principle of efFcctinfz; this object clearly must be, to use means to convert the oily matter which causes it to stick obstinately, into a soapy matter which will allow it to be readily washed off. Chemistry here comes to our aid. An alkali will convert oil into soap, and this is the basis of all effectual dress- sing- as it is called of seed corn. Almost every district has its pecu- liar dressing, but the best are merely modifications of this principle. Whatever other ingredients may be used, the effective constituent is some alkaline matter in the form of a ley. Lime, which possesses alkaline properties, has accordingly not unfrequently been resorted to ; it must not however be too much slaked in using, or it loses ' theso properties and thus often fails. Common potash and substances con- taining ammonia, for example, the liquid excrements of animals, have been adopted for remedies. Some persons employ brine, sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), arsenic and other things not possessing alkalino properties. Whenever these methods succeed, it cannot be for the reasons advanced, but it may happen that they destroy the vegetative powers of the seeds of the fungus, though they still remain fixed to the grain.*" It must be observed, that it is not merely steeping but washing that is necessary to cleanse the grain, and the washing process should be aided by some alkaline substance. Solution of potash, ley of wood ashes, and stale urine, are the best washing fluids; and the grain should be stirred in them for some time, and the liquid carefully drained or poured off, after which the grain may be dried by stirring slaked lime, gypsum or Jry wood ashes with it. In this Province blue vitriol is vei*y often used, and experience shows that it. is gene- rally effectual. It may have some chemical effect on the smut destruc- tive of its vitality. • •• Blights of the wheat" — Loudon, t ■'%] ^■^ «-' '■! %;!«' I .i rj V|1 40 OBAIK OBOFS. fl !ihe Bame precautions are nsefal in ^uardine againat the Dtut Brand or dusty smut. This however is less dreaded by farmers, and there is reason to believe, that its svods or sporules are more often present in the soil than those of the true smut, as they are scat- tered about by the winds in autumn. 8. Ergot. This is an unnatural enlargement of the grains of wheat, by which they are converted into a olack spongy substance about twice the length of the ordinary kernel, and of a very poison- ous nature. It is uncertain whether it is merely a diseasou growth or a parasitic fungous substance. Ergot does not usually destroy any large proportion of a crop, but when not attended to, may make it useless or deleterious by its poi- sonous properties. When observed, the grain should be sifted through sieves sufficiently small to retain the enlarged ergot grains. This should be attended to, whether the grain be intended for the mill or *or seed. It is said that low moist lands are most subject to ergot, and that in such landg the disease may be removed by thorough draining. This view, which seems to bo confirmed by experience in this country, deserves the attention of farmers whose fields are infested by this nuisance. 4. The Wheat Midge or Weevil, Cecidomyia Tritici of naturalists, has in recent times been the most destructive of all wheat blights. It is improperly called weevil; the weevils, properly so called, being a tribe of beetles the young of which destroy corn in granaries. It is only by a careful study of the habits of a creature of this kind, that we can hope to counteract its ravages. I therefore give here the substance of a paper contributed by me to the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and detailing the results of experi- ments on the habits and development of the wheat midge. The observations of naturalists in England, where the creature has been much longer known than in Ain erica, have proved that the de- stroyer is the larva or grub of a minute midge, which deposits its eggs in calm summer evenings, on the chaff scales, whence the little grub when hatched creeps inward to the young grain, on whose juices it feeds. The only point on which any uncertainty remains is the manner in which the animal passes the winter — the prevailing opinion on this subject being that it enters the ground in autumn, though this does not appear to have been confirmed by experiment. To determine this point more precisely I made the following experiments. I procured a quantity of the larvse, full grown and in that motion- less and torpid state in which they usually appear when the grain is ripe. A portion of these larvae were placed on the surface of moist soil in a flower pot. In the course of two days, the greater number of them had descended into the ground, previously casting their skins wkioh r«fflained at the sttr&oe. I afkerwurds uoertained that they activity, a The liir turbi'd (lui waterod. Hurtaco, ill and projt'(; uppt-r piivf flew off. of those li of each Ht; The pel brij^ht yd foctly tran anteiiniP o female, an most activ be seen in the female to be gen Howeve cannot wit it has beer food and s shaken fro entering o working tl their wing of adaptat mean time uses in th( It is ev creatures, consume t however s which ma; In Eui Tipuhv, 1 increase, [bably it i j winters, i1 I to suppose GRAIN CROPS. 41 ;ain8t the Dust ded by farmera, lorules are more as the J are scat- of the grains of pongy substance " a very poison- seaseu growth or in of a crop, but rious by its poi- be sifted through >t grains. This I for the mill or >rgot, and that in draining. This in this country, infested by this /ia Tritici of live of all wheat ils, properly so destroy corn in its of a creature ;es. I therefore to the Academy results of experi- idge. the creature has ^ed that the de- bich deposits its whence the little on whose juices 7 remains is the revailing opinion imn, though this . To determine nents. in that motion- hen the grain is surface of moist greater number sting their skins ined that they had penetrated to the depth of more than an inch, and wore of a whitish colour, softer and more activo than they had previously been. I The fact is thus ostiiblishcd, that these apparently torpid larvfc, when they fall tVoin thn ripe wheat in autumn, or are ciirelessly swept out tVi)tn the tlircshin;^ floor into the barn yard, at onco resume their [activity, and bury themselves in tlie ground. The larv.'c thus buried in the f^round, were allowed to remain undis- turbed (lurin;,; wutter and sprin;^, the flower-pot being occasionally watered. Aliout tin; end of June they liegan to reappear alx)vo the surface, in the wingt^l form : the little grubs ereoping to the surface, and projeeting about half their Itoilies above it, when the skin of the upper part burst and tiie full grown winged midgo came forth and flow oft. Tliis coni[»letes th(^ round of changes wbicb each generation of these little creatures undergoes, and we have thus actual evidence of eacli stage of its progress from tlic egg to the perfect insecjt. The perfeet midge is a pretty little creature, its body being of a bright yellow colour like that of the larvic. its two large wings [»er- fectly transparent with iridescent reflections, its eyes black, and its anteimic or feelers long and jointed, the male is smaller than the female, and has its antennic ornamented with hairs. The flies are most active in calm and warm evenings, when they may sometimes be seen in clouds over the wheat fields. British observers say, that the female deposits her eggs within the chaff; but here, they appear to be generally deposited without. However wo may dread the destructive powers of the midge, we cannot withhold our admiration from the singular instincts with which it has been endowed. The female insect depositing her eggs where food and shelter are provided for the young brood ; the larvte when shaken from their summer abode by the storms of autumn, at onco entering on a new and untried life in the soil ; and the chrysalids working their way to the surface in the ensuing summer, to assume their winged state in time for the new crop of wheat, display a series of adaptations which may convince us, that, however annoying in the mean time to us, a creature so gifteil cannot be without important uses in the economy of Providence. It is evident, that if no check were opposed to the increase of these creatures, they must ultimiitely in every country where they occur, consume the whole or nearly the whole of the wheat crop. There are however such checks, some in natural causes, and others in expedients which may be adopted by man. In Europe the larvre of a small parasitic insect, Plntygaster Tipuhv, prey on those of the midge, a!id no doubt greatly limit their increase. I have not observed this cretture in this Province, but pro- bably it may occur here also. In this country, in cold and bare winters, it is probable that many perish ; though it is quite an error to suppose that wet weather can kill the larvae when in the ground. mh iii!,' llli m ;li I! if i< 42 GRAIN CROPS. Moisture in the ground, indeed, appears to be essential to their life. Windy or stormy weather at the season when they arc on the wing, must also greatly interrupt them in depositing their eggs. Accord- ingly they are observed to be most abundant in alwltered situations, and elevated and airy places are less liable to suflfer from their attacks. It appears from what has been said above respecting the habits of the midge, that during the greater part of its existence it is beyond the control of the farmer. He cannot prevent it from depositi^^g its eggs, nor can he extract the larvas from the growing crop ; and in the ground in autumn and winter, they are almost equally beyond his reach. He can however destroy as luani/ of them as he can. koust' with his grain. In this country, as in Britain, the full grown larvic remain in the chaff until the grain is ripe, or until they are shaken to the ground by the first violent storms of autunni. When grain is observed to be infected, it should be attentively Avatchcd and cut so soon as this am be done without serious loss. In this country, Avhoat is often left till it is too ripe ; over ripe grain being much inferior to that which is earlier cut in the (quantity and (juality of its flour ; and when the weevil is present, there is a double gain in early cutting. It would also be advisable, whenever it is possible, to reap, rather than cradle, the grain, in order to avoid shaking out the insects. The wheat should be threshed on a close barn floor which will not allow the larvae to fall through, and when the grain is cleaned all, the chajf and dust separated from it should he burned, or if the chaff be saved for fodder, it should be kejit dry, and none of it allowed to be mixed with tiie litter or thro\;n on the manure heap. This method costs little trouble, it causes no loss, and if faitiifully followed out, w uld greatly diminish if not altogether prevent the losses occasioned by the weevil. It is worthy of attention, even in cases where the crop is only affected to a small extent. The midge often destroys a fifth, or fourth, or even a third of a cro[), witliout exciting nmch attention, and it is only when almost total loss ensues that great alarm is excited, but even these partial losses are not of small importance, and by destroying the larvae in a season in wliioli only a fourth of the crop is lost, we may perhaps prevent a total lost? in the next season. It is true, that when this precaution is neglected. Providence, kinder to the farmer than he is to liimself, m;iy, by some of the natural causes already mentioned, check the incre!it;(> of the destroyers ; but this will not always occur, and certainly furnishes iic excuse for neglecting the means of safety which are phiccd \Yitliiii oiii reach. As an 'Uustration of the saving which can be cftected by dostroyiiii; the larvjB which are housed with the grain, I may mention that the friend who furnished me with specimens for experiment, iiifdrniod mo that from the wheat of eight acres he had obtained ahout four bus li- ds of larvae of the weevil. After making a large deduction for inst ' ]!!■ GRAIN CROPS. 43 mixed with them, this quantity must have contained ahout 150 mil- lions of the insects. If these insects, instead of being burned, had been scattered over the ground, they might if the ensuing season had proved favourable to them, have destroyed the greater part of the wheat crop on the farm. Various otlier expedients for the «lestruction of the midge have been proposed or jwlopted. When the flies are observed to be on the wing they might be prevented from depositing their eggs by kindling fires on tlie windward side of the field, or by agitating the grain by stretch- ed lines carried by men or boys, in the calm evenings when the midges are most active. These however are clumsy and troublesome expe- dients, though, when they can be attended to, they may do mucli good. It is also probable that if the ground were deeply ploughed, after the larva3 had fallen upon it in autumn, they might be too deeply covered to permit of their escape in the spring. In the ordinary sys- tem of rotation however, this could not be done without losing suc- ceeding hay crops ; and it is doubtful if it would be very effectual. Perhaps tlie most effectual remedy ever proposed, is that of discon- tin".ing the culture of wheat for a year, and thus depriving the midges of the necessary food for their larvae. This is however an expensive expedient, ard it i-equires the consent of all the farmers in the district affected. In the great majority of cases, it might be rendered alto- gether unnecessary, if the method of deetroying the larvae already described were generally adopted. The most popular remedy hitherto tried has been late sowing. This however subjects the grain to rust, and necessitates the use of er.'ly varieties of grain, which are not usually so heavy or productive as others. It is also probable that in a few years the habits of the croatuve and the date of its appearance will cliange to suit the late- ness of the (Train which forms its food, and then the late sowing will prove ([uite ineffectual. There is some reason to believe that this change is already taking place in some parts of the province where late sowing has been practised. It is also deserving of notice, that bearded varieties suffer less than the bald, as the awns obstruct the insects in depositing their eggs. The facts above stated may be suuimed up as follows : 1. Tluj insect deposits its eggs on the grain about the time when it is in flower, and usually in the evening. 2. Tlie larva when hatched attaches itself to the young grain and prevents its growth. 3. When full grown it becomes stiff and torpid, and if loft long enough falls to the ground. 4. It buries itself in the ground and thus passes the winter. 5. In July, it emerges from the ground as a perfect insect, in which state, if the weatlier be favorable, it seeks the growing wheat for tlie purpose of depositing the germs of a new brood. 44 GRAIN CROPS. Ii« Lastly, though there are many partial remedies, the only sure one is to cut early and destroy all the grubs found after threshing the grain. To ensure safety, this should be kept up as regularly as the washiuo; of seed Avheat to avoid smat. 5. The Hessian fly {Cecidomyia Destructor^ is a relative of tlie wheat midge, and at one time threatened like it to destroy the culture of wheat. Its ravages have however in late years materially dimin- ished. It attacks the stems of the young or half grown plants, estab- lishing itself at the base of the shoot or in the joints, and when abundant wholly destroys tlie crop. The best remedies are careful tillage and preparation of the ground, and abstaining from sowing on lea land, wheat grown on which is especially liable to its ravages. It is probable that several distinct species of insects are popularly known under the name of Hessian Fly. The total quantity of wheat produced in the Province in 1851 was 297,157 bushels ; of which 88,186 or nearly one third was produced in the county of Pictou, an evidence of the extent to which this crop has been neglected in most of the other counties. The Out. The organic part of the kernel of th-^ oat very much resembles that of wheat. Oatmeal contains 10 tr 18 per cent of gluten or an ana- logous substance, and is in no way inferior to wheaten flour as an article of nutriment. In its inorganic ingredients or ash, it differs f.iom wheat in proportion though not in kind ; and it requires from the soil a larger amount of inorganic matter in proportion to the weight of the ciop. It is Luerefore a great mistake to suppose, that the oat is less oxliausting than wheat, if both straw and grain be re- moved from the soil. The oat however can take nourishment from raw and undecomposed vegetable matter, such as sod, peat &c., from which wheat can obtain little nutriment. As in the case o : wheat, silica and alkalies are the principal ingre- dients of the ash. Both are, however, in larger quantity than in wheat. The oat also carries ofi" from the soil a larger proportion of gyp- sum ; hence it thrives in gypseous soils, or in sour soils which contain sulphuric acid, after they have been limed. The quantity of bone earth required by the oat is nearly the same in proportion with that required by wheat. The above remarks show the proper place of the oat in the rotation, to be that which it usually bears in the ordinary Scottish rotation ; viz. the first grain crop after ploughing up the sward. It is Avell fitted for this not only by its power of extracting nutriment from the decayiiig sod, but also by its dense shade, which prevents to a great extent the groAvth of Aveeds and grasses. The last character, as well as its great demands on the soil for inorganic food, unfit it for sowing with grass seeds, or occupying the place of wheat in the rotation. GRAIN CROPS. 46 m I It is barbarous farming to extract two successive crops of an ex- hausting grain like the oat from almost any soil, or to take a crop of oats and then let the land run out into grass. Nothing but dire neces- sity can excuse these practices, Avhich are unhappily too prevalent. The manure produced from the oat straw, or its equivalent, should in all cases be restored to the soil in the succeeding year for a green crop. If this be done, the soil is improved, rather than deteriorated. Our country is well adapted to the growth of oats, and this applies even to those parts of it in Avhich wheat is uncertain. Oats must therefore always form a prominent object of attention to our farmers ; more especially as we know, that the climate of most parts of the United States is unfavorable to their perfection ; and therefore that there must always be a great demand there for any quantity that can be produced here. I hope to see the time when the quantity of oats exported from Nova Scotia will be greater than the quantity of all other grain and flour imported. All that is wanting to ensure this, is energy and skill on the part of the farmer. Few crops require more frequent changes of seed than the oat. When cultivated for a number of years in the same soil in our cli- mate, it acquires a thick outer husk at the expense of the kernel, and 'tecomes more liable to dust brand. Experience has proved that the best change of seed is that imported from Scotland ; and no oats are superior for this country to the early varieties of that country, as the early Angus, Hopeton and Dutch, &c. They are thin-skinned and heavy, and bear cultivation here for 5 or 6 years, before they acquire the appearance and defects of run-out oats. Indeed for two or three years after importation, they greatly improve in size and appearance, though probably not in actual value. The Black or Tartarian oat is much cultivated in this province, but its only good quality appears to be earliness. It is inferior as a meal- ing oat both in quantity and quality, and though in some quartei-s a preference is given to it as food for horses, there can be no doubt that the white is more nutritious. Much loss is also sustained in this country, by the cultivation of those lean, chaffy and bearded oata, that have been run out by long cultivation and mixed by carelessness with better varieties. The dust brand and the grubs of the Harry-long-legs ( Tipuld) often injure the oat crop, but I am not aware that they have ever become so destructive, as to call for any special attention on the part of the cultivator. The quantity of oats raised in the province in 1837 was 1,384,437 bushels, or far more than the total quantity of all other grains ; Pictou produced more than any other county. M 1 i (!i '»! 46 GRAIN CROPS. Rye. This grain is little cultivated in Nova Scotia in comparison witli wheat and oats, and its culture is as yet almost entirely confined to the western countries. 01,438 bushels were produced in 1851, of which more than one half grew in the counties of King's County and Anna{»olis. The grain of rye does not differ very materially in its composition from that of wheat. It contains however more sugar and less gluten : and the gluten is of a somewhat different nature, at least in its me- chanical properties, and is less fitted for the production of a well raised bread. Rye takes less from the soil than wheat. The differ- ence is principally in the straw, whicli contains less lime, silica and ])one earth than tliat of wheat, but a little more gypsum. The ash of the grain differs very slightly from that of wheat. Rye prefers light soils, and may be nuide very useful in bringing in light ground unfit for the growth of wheat. It also forms a sub- atitut(; for wheat when the latter grain appears to be in danger of being destroyed by weevil ; but in ordinary circumstances, it should not be sown on ground capable of producing wheat, being much in ferior to that grain as an article of food. It is sometimes sown mixed with wheat, but this is a "■ heathenislt'' practice, inimical to cleanly and good farming, and now generally abandoned Rye straAV is of little ov no value as fodder ; but is excellent for thatching, collar- making and basket-making, and makes tolerable hats. I have been informed that rye has occasionally suftered from the wheat fly, but slightly. Its worst enemy is the ergot, a fungus-like enlargement of the grain, which, like the ergot of wheat, renders it black and poisonous. When the ergot is observed, it should be care- fully sifted from the grain before grinding. The principal inducing cause of ergot appears to be toe great moisture in the soil ; and where this is the Ciise, the culture of rye should not be persisted in, when the ergot is found to appear constantly or often in it. Barley. Barley is more largely cultivated in this Province than rye. A larger quantity is produced in Lunenburg than in any other county : there barley is the staple grain crop, and forms a large part of the food of the people. The total quantity produced in Nova Scotia in 1851 was 190,097 bushels. The grain of barley much resembles in its composition that of wheat, but it contains less gluten and r.ore starch and sugar. It is therefore less nutritious, though in .vholesomeness it yields to no other grain. In many parts of the province, barley is little known except for its use as pot-barley, and its value as a material for the aianufacture of intoxicating liqours. Its culture as a bread corn, should, I flavor of certainly also an c; from wee niirably t the same though it Barley is princip therefore rctjuire a The cu precarioui H7.475 bi Aiwiapolii The co: by differe by Nortoi and 12 to give it a stock. Ii good supp of the hil escape of i place of ( which it 1 those of 1 lea land : , cases mar better to liiUs. N nmcli air the seed ] should b( as also cl the west corn ; mi scarcely to which and on tl the corn. In son useful to GRAIN CROPS. 4T I comparison with itirely confined to need in 1851, of King's County and in its coinposition r and less gluten ; t least in its me- iuction of a well heat. The differ- s lime, silica and sum. The ash of iseful in bringing ilso forms a sub- be in danger of stances, it should ;, being much in times sown mixed limical to cleanly Rye straAY is of ;hatching, collar- 3. suffered from the ;ot, a fungus-like Avheat, renders it should be care- rincipal inducing i soil ; and where ersistcd in, when e than rye. A ly other county : arge part of the Nova Scotia in iposition that of -nd sugar. It is it yields to no is little known material for the IS a bread corn, should, I think, be more widely extended. To most persons the flavor of barley bread is very agreeable, and barley-meal pott^igc is certainly superior to that of Indian meal or rye flour. IJarley is also an excellent substitute for Avheat, when the latter is in danger from weevil. It is a very sure crop, and very early ; and suits ad- mirably for sowing with grass seeds. Its true place in the rotation is the same with that of wheat. It may however be sown in lea and, though it is not so suitable for this as the oat. Barley takes rather more from the soil than wlieat, and the excess is principally in silica, bone earth, lime, alkalies and gypsum. It is therefore a mistake to suppose, that a 'good crop of barley does not require a soil in good condition. Indian Corn Tiie culture of maize or Indian corn, is in Nova Scot! somewhat precarious. In 1851 however, which was a very unfavorable year 87,475 bushels wero raised, principally in the co-^'^ties of King's Aniiapolis and Hants. The composition of the gra n of Indian corn is very variously stated by different chemists. According to Salisbury of New York, quoted by Norton, it contains (iO per cent starch, 10 per cent fatty nuitter, and 12 to 16 per cent gluten and analogous substances. Tiiis would give it a very high value as an article of food, especially for fattening stock. In this climate, Indian corn requires a light, deep soil, and a good supply of rich niaimre. Gypsum should be strewed on the top of the hills or drills, both as a direct manure, and to prevent the escape of the annnonia from the manure beneath. The most convenient place of corn in the rotation is as a green crop, since the treatment which it requires and its effects on the soil are not very different from those of the turnip and carrot. Good corn may however be raised in lea land and also after green cr 'S in place of wheat, but in both cases manure is required in addition to that already in the soil. It is better to plant corn in drills like turnips, but farther apart, than in hills. Nothing is gained by having the plants crowded ; they require nmch air and light. In stiff soils they should be well earthed up, or the seed may be planted in the tops of the drills, but in light land it .should be planted on the level. Fretjuent hoeing is very beneficiid, as also cleaning and earthing Avith a light plough or cultivator. In the western part of the province pumpkins arc often planted with corn ; many good farmers however believe, that the gain in pumpkins scarcely repays the loss in corn. This must depend on the degree to which the leaves of the pumpkins deprive the corn of air and light, ;ind on the impediments which the vines offer to the proper culture of the corn. In some parts of the province it is not generally known that it is useful to cut off the feather or bloom, the male flower of the corn, Hj lii 48 ORATN CROPS. ' '11::: after it has served its purpose in fertilizing the ear. This should be done when the beard or tassel of the ear begins to wither but not be- fore, and as few large leaves as possible shor' 1 be cut off with the top, as all the leaves are useful in aiding the ^, owth of the ear. The tops make good fodder, and when deprived of thorn the corn is leas liicely to be broken down by autumnal storms. Corn is subject to the attacks of grubs which burrow in the stalks, after the manner of the larvae of the Hessian fly in wiicat. The easiest remedy appears to be sowing sufficiently tliick to allow spare plants for the grubs. When however time can be spared to pull up and destroy every plant that shows by the fading of the leaf the presence of the grub, the labor will be repaid by the diminished number of grubs in the ensuing season. The seed is also sometimes destroyed by squirrels, birds, kc. This may be prevented by steeping the seed in anything that makes it distasteful to these depredators. Steeping in urine, soft soap or nitre, and drying with lime or gypsum, are said to be serviceable ; but smearing with tar has also been pra<^- tised, and is stated to be more certain. The meal from corn raised in this province, is finer and more deli- cate in flavor than that from Southern and Western corn. This should cause it to bring a higher price ; and should in connection with the prcductiveness of the crop, commend its culture to all formers who have the sandy or loamy soils which it prefers. Even if too late to ripen, it is valuable for fodder, if cut immediately after the frost strikes it. Buckwheat. The extended culture of this plant, cannot be considered as an indi- cation of improved or prosperous agriculture ; since this grain is gene- rally a substitute for others, or a refuge from the want caused by im- poverishment of the ground. Buckwheat, however, is a grain of some value, and, if properly used, need have no connection with bad farming. 170,301 bushels were raised in this Province in 1851, — Cumberland and Colchester producing larger quantities than any other counties. The kernel of buckwheat contains from G to 10 per cent, of gluten, and 50 of starch, with 5 to 8 per cent, sugar and gum {No/ion). li is, therefore, inferior in nutritive power to all the grains previoiisly noticed ; though, still, a very valuable article of food. In Nova Sco- tia, buckwheat flour, of good quality, is not often seen. A portion of the inner husk is usually ground with the flour ; giving a dark color, and bitter taste. When this husk is entirelj removed, the flour is pure Avhite, and so dense as to resemble rice flour, or potato farina , and, either in bread or cakes, is a light and agreeable article of food. Of course, the quantity of this fine flour is much less than that of the coarse kind ; but the refuse is useful for fattening hogs, } and If a j % tended at I Buckw 4j leaves ob 1 requires ] successfu] better on /duces, it : good prep ' I tered seed I some in tl I rope, bucl I by plough \'is thus gii I useful in 1 I The ste: I food for ca I buckwheat |Ooraposted, pent manu: These p [which thei jbest wheat Istances for [important Bind beans polis prodi The Fr reen crop. nd they h otato. T veeds. Tl ibr turnips, |he time of lie ground liable to be The China, br this cli; 'icking the arly. Ki( ogous t The hors ^ench dwa This should be ither but not be- cut off with the )f the ear. The the corn is less ow in the stalks, in Avhcat. The c to allow spare pared to pull up of the leaf the r the diminished 3 also sometimes ented by steeping lese depredators. I lime or gypsum, LS also been pra<;- r and more deli- itern corn. This n connection with re to all farmers Even if too late dy after the frost dered a« an indi- this grain is gene- mt caused by im- ev, is a grain of mection with bad )vince in 1851, — ies than any other GRAIN CROPS. 49 gluten, r cent, of m {Noiion). h grains previously In Nova Sco- seen. A. portion giving a dark elj removed, the flour, or potato asreeable article is much less than fattening hogs, i and If a good article were more generally made, its use would bo ox- tended and its price enhanced. Buckwheat does not make large demands on the soil. Its largo leaves obtain a great part of their nutriment from the air ; and it requires but a small proportion of mineral matter. Honco it can bo successfully cultivated on very poor soils, chough it certainly thrives better on those that are rich. From the dense shade which it pro- duces, it is an admirable exterminator of weeds ; and hence, makes a good preparatory crop for weedy soils or poor grass land. The scat- tered seeds of the buckwheat itself are, however, apt to be trouble- some in the succeeding crop. In England and the continent of Eu- rope, buckwheat is often usefully employed in reclaiming poor soils, by ploughing it in when green. A large amount of vegetable matter is thus given to the soil ; and I have no doubt, this would be f^Dund useful in bringing in light and worn-out soils in this Provic :e. The stems and leaves of buckwheat, cut green, make good summer food for cattle ; but are less nutritious than clover. Large heaps of buckwheat husks are sometimes seen near mills. They should be composted, and applied to the land ; and would be found to be excel- lent manure. Beans and Peas. These plants are remarkable for the large amount of nutriment Iwhich their seeds contain, and which is greater even than that of the [best wheat or oats. Hence, though they cannot in ordinary circum- jstances form so large parts of the crop as the cereal grasses, they are [important objects of the farmer's attention. 21,638 bushels of peas land beans were raised in this Province in 1851. Pictou and Anna^- 3olis produced the largest quantities. The French, or dwarf kidney beans, are very valuable as a reen crop. Their produce is not very large, but is highly nutritive ; id they have the merit of being the best table substitute for the 3tato. They require compost manure., and to be kept clean from reeds. They may very well occupy a portion of the drills prepared Ifor turnips, as the same manure and mode of culture suits them, and |he time of sowing is also the same. French, beans should not be in '"'le ground till the buds of fruit trees are bursting, as they are very Uable to be nipped by late frosts, or rotted by cold damp weather. The China, white Canterbury, or small white Calavanca, are the best for this climate. The imported calavancas are rather late : but by picking the earliest ripe pods for seed, they soon become sufficiently irly. Kidney beans contain 23 per cent, of legumin, a substance lalogous to gluten, and 43 per cfent. of starch {Johnston). The horse bean may be cultivated in the same manner with the rench dwarf, but must be sown early. It is used exclusively, at 7 60 GRAIN CROPS. S! least in the dry state, for the food of animals, especially horses and hogs. It is more nutritious than the oat, and better for working horses ; though at first it is often difficult to induce them to eat it. The small horse or tick bean of England, thrives well in this Province ; though most farmers here prefer the early cluster, or some other variety of the broad horse bean, as being more productive, and ripen- ing equally well in this climate. The straw of these beans, if chop- ped or broken up, is excellent fodder, little inferior in nutritious pro- perties to ordinary hay. Beans, of all kinds, require from the soil a large (juantity of potash and lime, principally for their stems. Manures and composts containing much of these substances are, therefore, especially adapted to them. The Pea approaches very nearly to the bean, in point of nutrition, and perhaps excels it in fattening power ; and its straw, or haulm, if saved in good condition, is stated to be little inferior to meadow hay. The straw of the pea contains a large proportion of lime ; and hence, this substance, or composts containing it, form very prcper top-dress- ings for a pea crop. The pea occupies a different place in the rotation from the bean ; for, though the dwarf varieties may be cultivated in drills as a green crop, it ordinarily thrives very well if sown broad- cast in any tolerably rich land, that is not overrun with weeds. Peas have, in fuct, no regular place in a rotation, and arc somewhat uncertain. They are therefore rather giving Avtiy, in the best farming districts, to the culture of beans and turnips. The pea often suffei'.s much from the pea-worm, which is the larva of a small species of i moth. No treatment applied to the seed can avert the attacks of this creature,* since the egg from which it is produced is deposited by the parent insect in the blossom, or young pod. The best remedy is, to j sow very early ; and it seems worthy of enquiry, whether early peas, , sown in early spring, might not be gathered in sufficient time to per- 1 mit a crop of buckwheat to be taken from the same ground. At all j events, buckwheat might be sown and ploughed in, to enrich tlie| soil. It' 51 CHAPTER IV. i ' 1 •■ GREEN CROPS, ETC. Turnips, CmTots, Mangel Wurtzel, ^c. These, in most of the countries of the northern temperate zone, form staple green crops ; and probably contribute as much to the money returns of the farmer as any other crops. In this country, as yet, their capabilities have been very imperfectly tested ; though there can be no doubt that their culture is largely on the increase. The quantity of turnips raised in 1851, was 467,127 bushels ; the quantity of other roots, 32.325 bushels. In reference to these crops, Johnston remarks, with much truth, " To raise them, the farmer must prepare, must save, and must husband feed his cattle better, and will thus be led to stock crops his manures ; improve his he must breeds of while the better harvests of grain he obtains after the green will make these grain crops themselves more profitable, and therefore objects of more useful attention. The spread of green crops in England and Scotland has been invariably the prelude to agricul- tural improvement, and to an amelioration, not only in the practice but in the circumstances also of the farmers." All these roots con- tain a large proportion of water ; and their nutritive portion is made up of albumen, sugar, gum (pectin), and starch. These substances are present in various proportions, according to the kinds of roots cultivated, the age at which they are taken up, and the nature of the soil and manures. They all require from the soil much potash, soda, lime, bone-earth and gypsum, as well as some vegetable matter ; and the manures intended to afford these substances, should, when prac- ticable, be in the form of well rotted composts. Long manure will rarely afford a heavy crop. The long and severe winters of this province render attention to the cultivation of turnips, and other roots, imperatively necessary to the support and fattening of stock. Without these, except where the farmer possesses tracts of productive marsh, he ie a mere slave to his stock, without deriving from it the profit which ho ought to receive. 'M m t 52 OREEV CBOPB, ETa With a proper degree of attention to their cultivation on the other hand, hay is economised — working cattle are more easily kept in good condition — cattle can be fattened in winter, and milch kine can be kept in a productive state throughout the season ; at the same time attention to manures is encouraged, and a proper rotation is rendered necessary, by which means the grain and hay crops are also improved. Even in Britain, with its milder winters, we are informed that before the extensive cultivation of the turnip was introduced, "it was im- possible to cultivate light soils successfully, or to devise suitable rota- tions for cropping them with advantage. It was also a difficult task to support live stock through the winter and spring months; and as for feeding and fattening cattle and sheep for market during these inclement seasons, the practice was hardly thought of, unless when a full stock of hay was provided, which only happened in a very few instances. The benefits derived from the turnip husbandry are there- fore of great magnitude. Light soils are now cultivated with profit and facility ; abundance of food is provided for man and beast, and by the soil being cleaned with this crop, a bed is prepared for grass seeds, wherein they flourish with greater vigor than after any other prepare tion." Our host colonial authority on the turnip, is Judge Peters, whose account of its culture is therefore inserted entire in this place : Culture of the Turnip. " Buol says : — ' Assuming the average product of hay at a ton to a ton and a half, (which 33 much more than is generally obtained in this Island,) and of Sweile turnips at six hundred bushels per acre, and allowing a bushel and a half of Swedes (901bs.) to be equivalent for farm stock to 201b3, of hay, an acre of Swedes will go as far in the economy of feeding :is nearly three acres of meadow. The three acres of grass are four! to give less than 9,000 lbs. to the dung yard, while the one acre of Swedes gives 36,0001bs., or four times as much as the three acres of grass land.' " Uncil our farmers are convinced of this, and shall cultivate tur- nips as the principal food for wintering their stock and fattening their cattle,W'^ shall find Agricultural improvement advance with tardy steps : wo shall continue to see our markets glutted in autumn Avith beef at two-pen*. 3 a pound, because, for want of turnips, 3very one slaughters his beast then, instead of keeping it until it is in ;^ood condition ; and we shall find the progeny of our fine imported brc eds deteriorating in character, instead of maintaining the valuable properties of their an- cestors. " Tur.iips are generally sown in that part of the rotation which closes one course and commences another ; and in this Island it will in generi'-l be found convenient tp sow them after oats, sown on ley. !< ' OREKN CBOPB, BTO. 58 5n the other kept in good kine can be le same time n is rendered Iso improved, sd that before " it was im- suitable rota- difficult task nths; and as during these inless when a n a very few dry are there- d with profit id beast, and red for grass fter any other Peters, whose place : on and a half, i Island,) and id allowing a for farm stock he economy of acres of grass while the one h as the three cultivate tur- fattening their th tardy steps : y Avith beef at one slaughters jondition ; and eteriorating in of their ixn- 3 rotation which Island it will sown on ley. On new burnt lands there are few weeds, and excellent crops may b« raised with little labour, by merely scattering the seed and hoeing it in ; but with this exception, they should always be sown in drills, under which system three acres can be cultivated with less labour than one acre broaa caat. The land intended for them should be well and deeply ploughed in autumn, and cross ploughed in the spring, then harrowed and rolled to break the lumps. If the iand is foul with couch, have it well cleaned, or the turnip crop will be a failure, or cost more to keep clean than would have cleaned the land before they were sown. Next open the drills : thirty inches apart is the best distance for ordinary culture, as it gives room for the plough and horse hoe to work freely between the drills without injuring the plants. If a prize crop is wanted, perhaps twenty seven inches will give a somewhat larger yield, but they will be more troublesome to clean ; and I am convinced that farmers, generally, will find thirty inches between the most convenient distance. When the drills are opened, then cart in your manure, which should be short, and make it in small piles, so that it can be regularly spread in the drills ; by making the piles so thai they will spread into the three drills in which the horse walks and the cart wheels run, ^ou will spread it more evenly, and with less labor, than from the larger piles, in which I often see it deposited. As soon as the manure is spread in the drills, and before the sun can dry it, split the drills with the plough, which will cover the manure and make a ridgelet over it, then run a light roller length ways along the drills, so as to flatten them on the top, and drill in the seed at once ; it is very important that it should be done as soon as the drills are raised, for the ground is then fresh and damp : whereas, if you leave it, the tops of the drills get dry, and the seed is longer coming up, and the plants grr ^ more slowly. I frequently see persons waiting for days, until the whole of the land is prepared, before they sow. This is a very bad practice, because not only do the drills become dry, but the weeds begin to shoot before the seed is sown ; and when the plant comes up, it finds the weeds up before it, and is consequently smothered, and is much more difficult to hoe and clean. The least you can ?o for the turnip is to give it fair play, and a fair start with its numerous weedy competitors ; and, therefore, make it a rule to sow in the evening, or, at furthest, the next morning, every drill that has been dunged and covered during the day. " Some spread the manure bro;.d cast, and plough it in with the Becond ploughing, and raise fair crops ; but by putting it in the drills, the whole strength of the manure is given to the roots of the turnip, and therefore must promote its early growth more than when spread over a large space of ground. When the manure is ploughed in broad cast, I think it should be done in the fall ; a method which seems to produce excellent crops, and saves labor in the spring, when time is of most value to the farmer. !, * 11 ' ■ 'S I 64 oaxxN o&opB, Eia ''As to the best time for sowing Swedes, there is much difference of opinion ; they may bo sown from the 20th May to the end of June ; they continue to increase in weight until the frost compels us to pull them, and, therefore, the earlier they are sown, the heavier will be the crop. When sown in May, I have always found them escape the fly ; but the best protection against this insect, is thick sow ing — never sow less than three pounds of seed to the acre, and you will sel- dom be without sufficient plants after the fly has done its work. Aberdeen Yellows may be shown from the first to the end of July. " Hoeing and Cleaning. — This is the most important part of tur- nip culture, for manure as heavily as you please, if this is neglected, or carelessly or imperfectly done, you will not have a good crop ; a few days delay, carelessness, or inattention now, will make a difference of hundreds of bushels per acre. There is no crop on your farm which can so ill bear delay at this time as your turnips, and unless you can afford to throw away the labor you have expended, and to forego the benefit of a good supply of turnips for your stock, do this irlien it should he done, and do it well. If you are short handed, let every man, woman and child, who can lift a hoc or pull a weed, go to work in earnest, and the joD will soon be accomplished ; and, what is more, your children will become expert at turnip culture, on which all suc- cessful farming in this Island will, before long, depend : and '"cmem- ber that a good turnip hoer never takes his eye from the ground until called to dinner ; recollect this yourself and impress it on the chil- dren, and there will be no stopping to talk, nor ceasing work to gaze at every passer by, by which so much time is often lost. The method I have found best in hoeing, is this : as soon as the leaves are between two and three inches long, run a plough between the drills, taking away the earth on each side to within about two inches of the plants, this will make a little ridgelet between each drill, aad cover up all the weeds ; and if the horse hoe is run about a week afterwards, they will be found quite rotten and form a good manure for the land ; (some use the horse hoe only, but if there is much yar and weeds, the plough makes the best work.) Then set to work with the hand hoes, and thin the plants five inches apart : do not be afraid of stripping the roots of the plants, as the more they are exposed the better ; when the plants are a good size, and the leaves begin to touch each other, a second hoeing must be given, cutting out every other plant ; this Avill leave them ten inches asunder, taking away at the same time any weeds that are between them. This second hoeing is very quickly done. If the land is very weedy, the horse hoe should be run between the drills, once before the second hoeing, and once after, and this will complete the work. " Besides the manure covered in with the plough, small quantities of stimulating manures, placed close to the seed, are of great benefit to the crop ; a small quantity of ashes run with the land along the GREEN CROPS, ETC. 55 tops of the drills just beforo tho seed is drilled in, will cause tiio young plant to grow more quickly, and get sooner beyond danger from the fly : twelve or fifteen bushels is sufficient for an acre, more than twenty is waste. When the manure is ploughed in tho autumn, if you have a compost of mud and lime, or mud or ashes, to apply U> your turnip land, in addition, the best way of doing it is, afti-r the ground is ploughed in the spring, cart on and spread tweiity to twttnty-fivo loads of tiio compost, then harrow and roll, and then tiirow the land into ridgelets, with the plough, thirty inches apart ; this gathers the greater part of the compost which has been spread into the drills, and within reach of the suckers of the turnip ; then roll the drills and sow the seeds. Night soil and bones are excellent help to the crops — the mode of applying them has been already pointed out. " Pulling. — ¥eyf directions need be given about this part of the business. The tops and tails should be cut off close to the turnips, or they will not keep so well. Some persons atlvise tho tops to be haul- ed off and fed to tlie cattle on other fields. I have tried this, and am convincetl it is a very bad practice. In the first place, as fcxxl, they are scarcely worth the labour of hauling off; they will keep cattle alive, but if they happen to be fat, they will reduce their condition ; and if the milch cows get them, the butter will be unfit for market. But the great objection to removing them is, that it robs the land of what ought to be left to feed the succeeding wheat crop. A heavy crop of turnips is exhau ,ting. In Britain a portion of the turnips is consumed on the land, by sheep. Our climate will not permit this : therefore, as we have to remove the turnips, we should at least leave the tops. If you wish to feed them, and there is time to do sp before ploughing, let them be eaten where they grew ; or if not, plough them in, and, decaying in the soil, they will enrich the land ; whereas re- moving them is not only a waste of labour, but your wheat crop will reproach you for having done so. " Storing. — Some complain of turnips being difficult to keep ; those who find them so, keep them too close : with proper management, there is no difficulty in any quantity. They should be put in piles in the field when first pulled, and covered with tops or straw, and a little earth. Here they will sweat a little. A dry day should be chosen to cart them t- the root house. My root house is dug four feet deep, and then the roof pitched from the earth, and covered with sea weed and earth, well sodded over ; the floor formed of slabs and longers, raised six inches from the bottom, and divided into three div'sions. It will contain about two thousand five hundred bushels of roots, and I generally fill it full, and have never lost any turnips. In the top there is a chimney, which is never shut night or day during the win- ter ; the vacancy below, and the partitions, allow all the confined air to ascend ; and as it is constantly escaping through the chimney, no frost comes down. Any one who will ventilate his root house in this f It » ■> , Il,» : i 66 OREBN CROPS, ETC. way, will find the turnips as sound in June as when first put in. The situation of the root house is a matter of importance ; it should be attached to the bam, and entered from the burn ; this will save a deal of labor in carrying them to the cattle during the winter. Some store them in their cellars, which is the worst place that can be selec- ted, as they are generally too hot and close to preserve the turnips, too far from the barn for convenience, and the gas which escapes from them renders the air of the house unwholesome." Thft following additional hints on the turuip are condensed from Stephens : — Varieties of the Turnip. — No fewer than 46 varieties are enu- merated, of which, however, only a few deserve the attention of the fitrmer. The Swedish Turnip takes the first placo for weight, value of crop, and capacity for winter storing ; and of 18 varieties of the Swede, the Purple Top has long obtained the prefer mce. It is of an oblong form, skin under ground and flesh orange yellow, skin above ground duil purple. The skin is rough — the rhini thick, and the flesh hard and crisp. The largest SwediiS weigh from 8 to 10 pounds, and the largest are the most rich and nutritive, which is not the case with other turnips. A good crop weighs from 30 io 35 tons per imperial acre. The White Globe Turnip is the best for early maturity, sweetness, and gross weight of crop ; out it does not keep so well as the Swede. If of a good variety, its skin will be smooth and white, the neck of the top and tap root small, the leaves long and upright, and it will not emit a hollow sound when struck, as the Tankard turnip, (which i, infei iui* to the White Globe*) does. A good crop of White Globes weighs from 30 to 35 tons per imperial acre. The White Globe is quite equal to the Swede for feeding in autumn and early winter, and Bhould be largely cultivated for that purpose. The Aberdeeyi Yellow or Yellow Bullock Turnip, when of a good variety, is round and >.ider than deep, vrith smooth skin, orange yel- low below ground, and bright gieen above ; the tap root and crown >ire small, the leaves soft and spreading, the flesh deep orange, crisp, und not so juicy as that of the Globe. The Aberdeen keeps better than the white, and not so well as the Swede. A good crop weighs from 80 to 32 tons per imperial acre. The above varieties will be found the most profitable in this coun- try. It must be observed, however, that with culture and manuring, any variety of turnip will be more nutritive in proportion to its weight, than with inferior treatment. " Bone dust is the most important manure for turnips in addition * Tbii refers to the White Tanktrd. The Tellow i<) better. I have been toM by a good flumer that the Tankard will thrive on poorer toil, t nd ii leu injured by fly than other itwnlp*. GREEN CROPS, ETC. 67 )nden8ed from to that produced on the farm. I have tried to raise turnips with drf- ferent quantities of bone dust, varying from 12 to 24 bushels per acre, and found the crop improved up to 16 bushels, but the quanti- ties beyond that produced no greater effect. As good crops have been raised with 8 bushels of bone dust mixed with a quantity of coal ashes, as with 16 bushels. A better method than using bone dust alone, is to apply it in conjunction with farm-yard dung, say ten or twelve tons of farm-yard dung with eight bushels bone dust. The dung, which should be well rotted, is covered in with the drills, and the bone dust sown afterwards along with the seed." "The distance between the rows of turnips has been fixed, con- ventionally no doubt, at twenty-seven inches, which is a very conve- nient distance for drilling up the land in the first place, with the com- mon or double mould board plough, for dunging it with the ordinary tilt cart, and for working the implements employed in turnip cul- ture, such as the sowing drills, and the succeeding scufilers and drill harrows. The distances between the plants should be about twelve inches for Swedes, and nine inches for yellow turnips and globes ; and to insure regular and proper distances, the singling of the crop with the hoe should be regarded as one of the most important opera- tions which claims your attention. For example, 5 lb. turnips at 9 mches asunder give a crop of 57 tons 12 cwt. : whereas the same weight of turnip at 11 inches apart gives only a little tnore than forty- seven tons. Now how easy is it for careless people to thin out the plants to eleven instead of nine inches, and yet by :io doing no less than 10 1 tons of turnips are sacrificed." < "M 1 *i The Mangold Wurtzel Is cultivated in much the same manner with the turnip, but may be thinned to fourteen inches asunder in good ground, and may be trans- f>lanted with greater certainty than any variety of turnip, and is much ess exposed to the attacks of insects. Its large proportion of sugar and freedom from offensive flavor, adapt it admirably for feeding milch cows, though if fed exclusively on these roots their milk it, said to fall ofl. The mangold wui-tzel keeps even better than Swedes. I have icno^vu them to be kept in a cool cellar until the autumn foUowmg that in which they were taken in, and thev are said to improve in quality by keeping. Rich clay loams suit the mangold wurtzel better than light sandy soils. It thrives well, however/ in drained peat bog. " There are several varieties of mangold wurtzel; the long red, the long yellow, and the globe orange or yellow globe; which names truly indicate their respective characters. The globe orange thrives best on light soils, and the long yellow is in a better state for use in the early part of winter th^n the long red. The circumstance of beet ftot being » safe root to give to cattle tiU it hw been some time o^t of 9 ,;• ^ m r\ 58 GREEN CROPS, ETC. U' K. the ground is the only objection to their indiscriminate use."' In Nova Scotia the long red and yellow globe varieties have been some- what extensively tried, and a new variety, the red globe, has recently been introduced. The former does well only on rich deep soils. The latter will thrive on any soil that is fit to produce good Swedish turnips. The seed of mangold wurtzel resembles that of the beet, of which this plant is a variety. It should be sown by hand, and rather more deeply covered than turnip seed. It may be sown at the same time with Swedish turnip, or earlier if possible. The outer leaves may be stripped off mangold wurtzel in summer for food to cat- tle ; but this injures the roots. No farmer who values the produce of his dairy, will willingly be without mangold wurtzel after having once tried it. The Carrol. The culture of this root is usually pursued on a small scale only, but ) .,s high nutritive power, its certainty and good keeping properties, as well as the large crop that it yields, make it deserving of more ex- tended culture wherever there are deep and light soils, or they can be deepened by ploughing or subsoiling. The safest and most productive varieties are the long orange and white Belgian. On the culture of ♦he carrot, Judge Petf^rs remarks : — " Carrots do not require the land to be so rich, but they want it very fine and deep. They seem to succeed best after potatoes ; pro- bably because the ground is then light and friable. After the land is cross ploughed, harrowed, and rolled in the spring, it should be thrown into ridgelets, making them as high as you can, so as to give the plant as great a depth of the soil to grow in as possible ; eighteen inches is widtii enough between the drills ; but unless the land is very clean, thirty inches will be found the most convenient distance. Roll the drills, and drill the seed, while the earth is fresh and moist, in the same way as turnips. If you sow English seed, you will require four or five pounds to the acre, and then not be sure of a crop: but if American seed* is used, one and a half pounds per acre will be sufficient ; as almost every seed grows — at least I have found it so. Eight or ten days before sowing, I mix the seed with fine sand, carefully sifted so that no stones or lumps are left to choke the drill, and keep it moistened with water in a warm room, stirring it up every day. When about to sow, I spread it in the sun for an hour or two, to dry, taking care not to dry it too much, which would injure the seed. I then place a guage. large enough to let a large buck- shot through, in my turnip drill (one of Birnie's) and drill the seed in the same manner as turnips. Seed thus treated is generally up in * Seod produced in the country is probably meant. That from the United States is not nsually better than the Bnglisb ; but both are good irben recently importea from respect able dealers. >i i three or foi They shou plough an( thinned ab carrots are moulded w smallest I then, the 1 admit of fr acre and oi the year b( per acre ; and a quar ned about < drills and i well, and ^ four to fiv( Belgian ar is excellen very fond i as turnips fields ; anc very large land manu not grow t manure, g: ashes seem found this fed on thei I Deserves c I is the onl3i use in earl "Itwil raised on e be precisel requiring should rec four hund) the turnip the setting whenever the drill- rot, requit QRATK CROPS, ETC. 69 3Ut they want it r potatoes; pro- After the land ng, it should he in, so as to give )S8ihle ; eighteen 1 the land is very t distance. Roll ih and moist, in you will require sure of a crop; pounds per acre \st I have found B seed with fine left to choke tlie \m, stirring it up m for an hour or ch would injure et a large buck- id drill the seed 3 generally up in Unitei SUtes is not uportea from reapoul 4 three or four days, and the plants have a fair start with the weeds. They should be sovm in May or early in June. In cleanuig, use the plough and horse hoe, the same as with turnips. They should be thinned about two and a half inches apart. In August, when the carrots are about the size of a man's thumb, they should be lightly moulded with earth, like potatoes. As to the yield per acre, the smallest I have had is three hundred and thirty-eight bushels ; but then, the land being very foul, the drills were three feet apart, to admit of frequent ploughing between them. This last year I had an acre and one-fourth in carrots, on ground which had been in potatoes the year before ; it was dressed in the spring with forty loads of dung per acre : the drills were thirty inches apart ; the yield on the acre and a quarter was seven hundred thirty-five bushels ; they were thin- ned about one and a half to two inches apart, but the carrots split the drills and made room for themselves, and grew large. Work the soil well, and give it an ordinary dressing, arid you will be sure of from four to five hundred bushels per acre. The Long Orange and White Belgian are the most productive. The haulm, or top, of the carrot, is excellent food : cows fed on it give very rich milk : all animals are very fond of it. As they do not appear to be so severe on the land as turnips, the tops may be hauled off and fed on the pasture fields ; and an acre of White Belgians, will, in this way, furnish a very large quantity of rich food in autumn. I have tried carrots on land manured with .sea weed, and also with river mud ; but they would not grow to any size, although turnips in the next (Jrill. on the same manure, grew as well as those on dung. Old well rotted dung and ashes seems the best manure for them. For fattening pigs I have found this root more valuable than turnips, and working horses while fed on them will not require oats." The Parsnip Deserves culture on account of its nutritive properties, and because it is the only root that we can leave in the ground during winter, for use in early spring. "It will grow in a stronger soll\han the carrot, and yet may be raised on even peat if sufficient manure be applied. Its culture should be precisely that ot the turnip and the carrot, being a green crop and requiring a deep soil for the growth of its fusiform roots. Parsnips should receive twenty -five tons of farm yard manure in the drill, and four hundred of guano sown over the drill, as described in the case of the turnip ; and the land then drilled up in the double form or with the setting up double mould-board plough. Parsnips should be singled whenever the plant can be seen, to a distance of eight inches apart in the drill — the stems and leaves spreading more than those of the car- rot, require more room. The after-hoeing and cleaning of the land of M i u • 'Si if tl 1, '!'■ iH (1 1. 1 60 GRBBN CROPS, titd. 1 -in- til ' 'i^m 1) 'a! weeds with the drill grubber, are conducted in the same manner as those for the turnip and carrot. The drill should be set up with the double mould-board plough, to heap the earth as much about the root as possible, as in the case of the carrot. In a dry season it is well to observe that moistening the seed with wet sand or earth, and stirring it daily, to be sown in the first moist weather, will forward its growth a fortnight. The parsnip should be sown as early as practicable." In Jersey, parsnips are sown broad cast on old lea land, the sod and about twenty tons of manure being first deeply ploughed in with a trench plough, the plants are weeded, thinned and hoed by hand. In this way the crop yields twenty-seven tons and upwards per acre, or *' nearly suflScient for ten cows during 1 ^ six winter months."* The Carrot, Parsnip and Mangel Wuxc^sel suiTer little from insects, and are very sure crops ; but the turnip has two very troublesome enemies, the turnip flies (two species of Allica), and the caterpillar of a moth which attacks the leaves in autumn. Against the ravages of the fly, the following expedients may be adopted. First — late sowing, the fly being most destructive in May and the early part of June. Secondly, — abundant seeding, which enables the plants to start more vigorously, gives a better chance of selecting strong plants when thinning, and aflbrds food to the fly without losing the crop. The farmer should remember that the fly makes a point of taking its share first, and consequently he must provide for it if he wishes to have any left for himself Thirdly, — sowing Avhile the ground is moist, immediately after the drills are made, and selecting, if pos- sible, the commencement of moist weather. Fourthly, — watering the ground when the seed is sproutmg, with diluted urine, soap suds, or guano and water, or the drainings of a manure pile. A puncheon with a hole to let the water run out, j laced in a cart with a tight bot- tom, and a narrow slit or a row of notches under the tail-board to spread the water, makes a good watering machine ; and in dry wea- ther the benefits in promoting growth and driving off" the fly will well repay the cost. Fifthly, — sprinkling lime, wood ashes, soot or guano over the young plants, or on the drills when the plants are appearing. By adopting these methods, or*buch of them as maybe practicable, a crop may always be secured ; and if any vacancies occur, they can be sown with white turnips until the beginning of August, or they can be supplied with plants of mangel wurtzel, a bed of which is very useful for this purpose, as they will stand transplanting in any wea- ther. Various dressings for the seed have been recommended, but these do little to protect the leaves, and I have known some of the liiost offensive of them — as for instance, codfish oil and sulphur — to fail entirely in driving off" the insects. It may also be observed for the encouragement of those who wish to extend their turnip culture, that large fields usually suffer less than small patches, for a very obvious reason. *L« Coutflur. aRElSN CROPS, ETC. 61 i?he worln, or caterpillar, has been found a difficult enemy to deal with, as it sometimes attacks the turnip (chiefly the white and Aber- deen varieties) in immense numbers, and devours them very rapidly In England, nocks of young ducks turned into the fields have been found to destroy the grubs, and it is likely that watering with soap- suds, ley, lime water, &c., would do something towards diminishing their numbers. The Potato. The Potato contains in its tuber a larger proportion of nutriment than the turnip or carrot, and this chiefly in the form of starch or albumen. It requires the presence in the soil of potash and lime in considerable quantity. Much more than one half of the ash of the stem of the potato consists of these substances, and the latter forms more than one-half of the ash of the rout or tuber. Potash is con- tained in the stable manure usually applied to the potato ; and in soils containing Ihuf . as those of Cornwallis, and in the vicinity of some of our lime qui.i.ies, it thrives well, and is less liable to disease than in others. Some persons suppose that the application of lime and wood ashes cause the potato to be scabbed. This, I believe, is a mistake ; but salt and door manure seem to produce this effect. Though the potato will thrive, when otherwise in a healthy state, with raw stable manure in contact with its roots, yet there can be no question that it grows better with roiled manure well mixed through the soil. It is probable that much of the efficacy of sea- weed, which is much used as a manure for potatoes on the coast of this Province, depends on the soda which it contains supplying the place of potash. The sea ma- nure is thus very useful on the slaty soils ; and on the granite soils which contain much potash, the lime, afforded by the sea-weed, is probably of more importance than the soda. Animal manures afford- ing nitrogen, are also very important to the vigorous growth of the potato, as to most other cultivated plants. As in the present state of the potato, the rot or blight is the most important subject of inquiry, I shall insert here an abstract of an article submitted by the writei to the committee of the Legislature of Massachusetts appointed to inquire into this subject, and which was favorably noticed as embracing the conclusions which seemed to be best supported by the facts of the case. In this paper, with respect to the nature of the disease, I remarked — "1. The general diffusion and simultaneous occurrence of the dis- ease over extensive regions, is a remarkable fact ; and the exceptions arising from the differences of soil and other causes, are also very in- structive in suggesting remedial measures. Some of these exceptions will be considered subsequently. " 2. The disease has usually attacked the crop at that stage of th« growth when the tops are fully formed, and the formation and I , .H |! A • u H' m 1 ■ u*< 62 GREEN CROPS, ETC. filling up of the underground tubers are most rapidly proceeding. Yet early potatoes often pass this critical period in safety, while those which are late are attacked ; showing that the weather or temperature sicts with or against the predisposition at this particular stage of growth, and modifies its influence. *' 3. The disease has usually first made its appearance in the leaves, and descended from these to the stems or roots. In the leaves and stems, it appears in the form of death and decay of the tissues, very similar to that which results from frost, or the application of any poisonous substance. In the tuber, its progress can be distinctly observed, and is somewhat curious. The tuber consists of a vast number of little cells, or bags, filled with a fluid containing vegetable albumen and other substances in solution, and having small grains of starch floating in it. There are usually several of these starch grains in each cell. Through thia cellular tissue pass long strings of vessels or tubes communicating with the eyes or buds on the surface of the potato. The disease usually commences at the surfece, immediately under the skin, and usually near the eyes, and penetrates inward along the bundles of vessels. From these it spreads to the walls of the cells, and the fluid they contain becomes decomposed and black- ened ; and after all the rest haa been reduced to a brown putrescent mass, the starch grains still remain entire. It has been observed in some instances, that in proceeding from the stem to the roots, the dis- ease appeared first in the tubers nearest to the stem. The best gene- ral view that can be given of such a disease is, that it is a mortifica- tion of the tissues of the plant, proceeding from something which has diminished its vital energies in such a manner as to allow those changes to go on which ordinarily would take place, only after the death of the plant. As to causes, two important truths, deducible from the facts already stated, at once meet us. 1st. A disease so general and widely spread, probably primarily depends on some great, and generally operating, predisposing cause. 2ndly. Notwithstanding this, it is locally induced or prevented by the action of a great number of secondary causes, which favor or arrest its developement, and which yet cannot be considered as the primary causes of its appearance. Let us inquire first, into The inducing or secondary causes of the disease and remedies or ■palliatives founded on their study. Most of these causes it will be necessary merely to name, as the greater number of practical men are well acquainted with them. The principal are wet and "undrained soils, wet seasons, wet weather after warm, dry weather, when the tops are fully grown ; chilly nights succeeding hot days, rank manure in contact with the sets, want of attention to keeping the crop well tilled and free from weeds, run-out seed long cultivated on the game farm. These and similar causes ORBBN CROPS, ETC 68 tnd remedies name, as have evidently had an important influence in locally developing the disease, but none of them, can bo its ffenernl cause, since t!ie disease often appears where all are absent, and thase causes were quite as general as now, in former times, without producing any such conse- quence as the potato blight. Some valuable hints, however, as to the best palliatives or temporary remedies for the disease, can be derived from these causes, in connection with the experience of farmera. Of these, the following are very important temporary remedies or pal- liatives. 1. iEarly planting, and planting early sorts ; because this gives greater probability of avoiding the effeots of autumnal chills and rains. This remedy has been found very effectual in Nova Scotia. 2. Change of seed, especially from poor and cold localities, to richer and milder situations. The Scottish low country farmers have obtained excellent results by importing seed potatoes from the bleak and poor highland districts. 3. Selecting those varieties which liave proved least liable to the disease ; and these will generally be found to be such as have been recently introduced, or lately procured from the seed. 4. Planting in dry soils, and underdraining more moist soils, if necessary to plant in them. The dry, sandy uplands of King's County, have almost entirely escaped the disease, when the crop has been put in early. 5. Applying well-rotted manure, and plowing it in, instead of putting it with the seed in the drills. Gtiano and composts made with liquid manure, have proved themselves better than stable ma- nure. This and the two last remedial agents act by giving the plants a greater degree of healthy, general vigor, than they could derive frpm run-out seed, in wet soil, or in contact with rank manure. 6. Planting in new soil and the use of mineral mam t res. It is generally observed, that the potato has been most healthy when plan- ted in new, virgin soil, before the unskilful agriculturist h»z extracted from it the stores of alkaline and other mineral manures remaining in it from the ashes of the forest. The composition of the ash of the potato at once explains the reason of this, as the following table, taken from Johnston, will show : — Ashes in 10,000 lbs. of the roots and stems of the potato. Potash, - Soda, Lime, Magnesia, Alumina, Oxide of iron, Silica, ROOTS. TOPS. 40.28 81.0 23.34 0.0 3.31 120.7 3.24 17.0 0.50 • 0.4 0.32 0.2 0.84 49.4 ,1 64 ORBEN OROPfi, BTO. .*: Sulphuric acid, Phosphoric do. Chlorine, 5.40 4.01 1.60 4.2 19.7 5.0 II 82.83 308.4 Here we have very large proportions of lime and potaah ; the latter forming nearly 60 per cent, of the ashes of the roots. Now these substances, potash especially, are plentifully supplied to the soil by the ashes of the wood, and are usually deficient in exhausted lands. Hence, if we apply to run-out, or long cultivated soil, line, wood- ashes, gypsum, (sulphate of lime), common salt, (chloride of sodium,) bone dust, (phosphate of lime) we supply it with some or all of the more important substances in the above table, and thus assimilate it to the virgin soil in which experience proves the potato to thrive best. I have found, by experience, that healthy potatoes (though not a large crop,) could be obtained by planting with no other manure than a pint of unleached wood ashes in each hill, in seasons when potatoes planted with ordinary manure were blighted. For the same reasons it is, of course, unwise to raise successive crops of potatoes on the same soil. Whenever, on old land, a proper rotation of crops is not attended to, there is much greater likelihood | of failure. 7. Storing in dry cellars is of the first importance, when the orop j 18 infected. I have found that potatoes in which brown spots of dis- ease were already formed, had the progress of the change arrested by j being kept dry ; and that the diseased spots dried up and lost their | putrescent character. 8. Where there is no hope of otherwise saving a crop, the rotting! potatoes may be grated or ground up, and the farina or starch saved. With a little extra washing, it will be nearly as good in quality, though usually less in quantity, than that from sound potatoes! Every farmer should have a grater or grating machine for potatoes,! and in autumn should prepare a quantity of tarina. It is excellent j fo"' children's food, puddings, to mix with flour for bread, &c., and itj will keep for several years. All the above, and probably other expedients, have been alreadji approved by experience, as useful palliatives. In short, anything thatj tends to place the plant in a natural and healthy condition, appeani to give it a much greater power of Resisting the cause of disease, what- j ever that may be.* None of these secondary or partial remedies, however, can be e,v| pected to eradicate the disease. They may temporarily prevent itj or, when present, mitigate its violence, or diminish the loss resulting * To thie I xat^y »dtd ibat crben tbe diae&s^ h obierrcc) in tbo stalki, tbe pototoM abouUl fc? dng fti csflf , If tb>y roust U Uii in tlj« |fonnd, tbi itftlki ibouW b» pwUod e«V m « aREEN CROPS, ETC. t6 from it. But I shall presently show that we have no reason to sup- pose that any, or all of them, can eflFect a perfect cure. We proceed then, in the next place, to inquire into the Primary or predisposing cause of the disease, and its remedies. Almost every fact that can be collected seems to indicate that there must be some general cause of this nature, which began to operate only in modern times ; and which has, during the last few years, been almost universally active, but modiRed by the influences ot the secon- dary causes above referred to. The ordinary popular resource in seeking for the origin of wide- spread epidemics, is to refer them to the atmosphere. " It is in the air," appears often to be thought a satisfactory explanation. If we ask for proof, none can be obtained either from chemistry or meteor- ology. If atmospheric, then the cause of the evil is likely at once to be beyond our cognizance and control ; besides, we are at a loss, on this hypothesis, to account for the apparently almost entire limitation of the disease to one cultivated plant. On the contrary, every point in the nature of the disease, and the means hitherto found useful in counteracting it, indicate that the de- fect is in the plant itself; that from some cause, its vital force has been weakened, so that putrefactive processes lay hold on the sub- stances which, ill a healthy state, it could retain unchanged ; and that these putrefactive changes can be airested only when the circumstcji- ces are in all respects healthy ; while unfavorable circumstances, which in former years produced no effect, are now speedily fatal. Is there, then, anything in the past history or present condition of the plant, likely to produce such an effect l I have long thought that there is such a cause, and shall now proceed to explain it, in connec- tion with the only means of counteraction which have suggested themselves. Of all our crops, the potato alone has been continuously propagated by natural or artificial division of the plant. I may remark that the sugar cane, which in the south is cultivated by division of the roots, has, like the potato, run out and become diseased. The tuber of the potato is a sort of underground stem, with eyes or buds intended to produce young shoots in the year following the formation of the tuber, and with a store of starch, albumen, &c., to nourish these yOung shoots in the early stages of their growth. These tubers, then, in the natural state of the plant, must serve to continue its existence from year to year, and to extend the individual plant into a group or bed of greater or less extent. But this process is not intended to be perpetual. The longest-lived forest tree must eventually die, and so must the group or stool of the potato, which, originally founded by a •ingle seed from a ball, is only one plant increased in extent by a 9 M in 66 QREEN CROPS, ETC. n! spontaneous division of its roots into detached tubers. It gradually exhausts the neighboring soil, and its own vital energy diminishes, and at length it will die out ; f i if a new plant occupy its place, it must be a seedling produced fro. ;he balls which have fallen on the spot. If then, since the potato was introduced into Europe about 250 years ago, we have been continuing its cultivation solely by division or separation of the tubers, we have been perpetuating the life of one individual plant ; and ve must have now potatos that are the descen- dants of those imported by Raleigh, not by natural generation through the seed, but by indefinite division of the plant, a sort of infinitesimal fractions by a perpetual division of that now extremely aged indivi- dual potato. Have we a right to expect that such plants should be healthy 1 We may not know the minute changes which bring about the debility of age, but we know that such debility does overtake plants as well as animals. Fine varieties of carnation propagated by cuttings or layers, in a few years degenerate, and must be abandoned by the florist. The same happens to other florists' flowers, though in some more slowly. Grafting and budding fruit trees, is but continu- ing the lives of individuals, and despite the vigor of the ucav stock, grafts from very aged trees of old varieties, show the debility of the parent. Hence, most of the finest fruits of a century or two ago, have degenerated and become less worthy of cultivation, and have been replaced by new varieties from the seed. This seems to be one of the great laws of vegetable life, and accordingly, even those plants which, like the potato, have been furnished with tubers to provide for the continuance of individual life, have also been provided with seeds to produce new individuals, and thus permanently continue the spe- cies. Taking this view of the matter, we should rather wonder that the potato has lasted so long, than that it now fails. We can, in trutli, account for its long duration, only by taking into consideration the varieties of soils and climates in which it has been cultivated, the fre- quent changes of seed, and the occasional raising of new varieties from the ball. If, however, this cause has had any real influence on the plant, why has it not merely run out or died of old age, instead of contract ing a malignant and fatal disease. In answer to this, I may remark, that the disease in question is, in fact, merely the death and conse- quent putrefaction of parts of the tissues of the plant. Further, the analogy of other vegetables leads us to believe that plants do not always simply die out, under the influences of degeneracy or old age. The worn-out carnation loses the size and brilliancy of its flowers : the old varieties of fruit trees lose their vigor of growth, degenerate in their fruit, and become very liable to the attacks of parasitic fungi and animals ; the ancient forest, its trees decaying at the heart, and cnces, is moi i:{W i'n ■ ^ ;r' m |9H m ■ it T^ E! a- ^Iu| • ORVBN CROPi, BTC. 67 overgrown externally with lichens, mosses, fungi, and excrescences, naunlly perishes by tempests or fires, before it undergoes the slow process of natural death. So with the potato. Under high cultiva- tion, its afanchy and albuminous parts, those which are valuable for human food, have been increased, while, by constant reproduction frcm the roots, the vitality of the living buds has been diminishing. The [totato, at one time the most certain and hardy of crops, haa gra- dually become tender. The "curl" and "dry rot" began twenty years ago to cut off the young shoots and the planted tubers, appa • rently because there wsis not sufficient vegetative life to enable the living bud to control and use the abundant nutriment for it in the cells of the tuber. This difficulty was overcome in part, by changes of seed, planting the whole tubers, and other expedients ; and the life of the plant was protracted a little longer, as might have been expec- ted, to be attacked only by some worse disease. And now we have to contend with a mortification of the tissues, not in the infant stage, but in the period of the plant's fullest vigor and strength. It may be objected, that even renewal from the ball has not been effectual, the seedling varieties having suffered as well as others. It must be observed, however, that seedling varieties have generally resisted the disease longer than others, and that there seems good reason to believe that the disease, like most others that originate, whether in plants or animals, from long exposure to debilitating influ- ences, is more or less contagious. It is quite probable also, that the seed of plants which have already contracted the disease, may be itself tiot quite free from hereditary taint. Renewal from the seed cannot, therefore, be assumed to have been fairly tried, unless the seedlings have been, at all stages, completely separated from the old varieties, and unless they have been derived from healthy plants, or are separa- ted, by a sufficient number of removes, from their unhealthy progeni- tors. I come now to the method which the above views would lead us to consider the only certain one, with a view to the final extirpation of the disease, and it is one requiring the means at the command of the government of a state, or some public body or institution, devoted to agricultural improveniont. // is to cultioate the potato from the ball, for several genera- lions continnously, until the hereditary taint is removed, and then (() distribute the healthy tubers to such agriculturists as will pledge themselves to abandon entirely the culture of the present exhausted and diseased varieties. To succeed in the experiment, it should be conducted on a well managed model farm, or horticultural garden, from which the culture of the old varieties should be entirely excluded, and seed should be obtained from the balls of the most healthy potatos. The ground should be light and dry, and manured with a mixture of old compost, lime, gypsum, and wood ashes. 4 i ' 't xv ''1: 68 •RIBK OROFI, ITC. Th« seedlingB should be carefullj tended and kept very clean from weeds, and any plant, in which the first signs of blight appear, should be at once destroyed. A part of the seedlings should be carefully covered, and allowed to remain in the ground all winter. The remainder should be carefully packed in dry sand, in a cool cellar, keeping the various sorts sepa- rate. In the second year tho same precautions should be used as to the culture of the best varieties obtained in tho first year, and some of the plants should have the soil washed away from their roots, and the young tubers picked off, in order to ensure the production of tho balls. After picking off the tubers, the plants should be carefully earthed up again. The seed from the balls of the second year should be sown in the third year, and the whole process repeated, as before The tubers obtained from tho first sowing should not be distributed as seed pota- t08 ; but those from the second sowing might, if no disease had appeared in the course of the experiments. If disease had appeared, the process should again be repeated. The writer has planted in the {►resent spring (1865) potato tubers, the produce of balls from seed- ings themselves the produce of seedlings, and he intends to pursue the process. The best varieties obtained from the produce of the third or second sowings, should be planted out, to furnish seed tubers, with the same precautions as to manure, &c. The sound tubers should be given or sold to farmers, who would pledge themselves to cultivate no other varieties, so as to secure them against contagion. A national nursery for new varieties of potatos, on the above plan, should be kept up in every agricultural country, so as continu- ally to supply new and sound varieties. Independently of the pros- pect of gradually restoring the potato culture, the improvement of the fiorts cultivated would amply repay the expense. In the same farm, or garden, experiments might be tried in the culture of wild varieties, obtained from the native country of the potato. The above suggestions are submitted as probably far superior to any founded on the belief of any one method or substance being eftbctual as a cure. Such partial remedies, though they may be temporarily successful in particular soils or seasons, never can eflfect tin general or permanent removal of the evil. Clover and Grasses. In a country where the winter is long and severe, these must always be important crops ; though, as already hinted, when treating of the climate, it is certain that the extended culture of root crops, to service, or fo •Miv 0»ort. nt. ep clean from gar, should allowed to e carefully sorts sepa- uA to the oine of the and the f the balls, earthed up iown in the rhe tubers seed pota- lisease had 1 appeared, nted in the from seed- to pursue d or second ;h the same who would secure them the above as continu- f the pros- ment of the same farm, Id varieties, erior to any ng effectual temporarily • 'general or I f i these Djust len treating ot crops, to b* fed to cattle and hones in winter, would very much lessen the pre- sent difficulties in this respect. I have already quoted the opinion of Professor Johnston on this subject, and now give an additional extract on the former and present state of Scotland m this respect : " The same state of things as now exists in New Brunswick existed m Scotland, in connection with this branch of husbandry, about a hundred years ap). Cattle wore killed at the end of summer, and sal- ted for wmter u^ie, because the stock of hay at the farmer's command was not sufficient to keep them through the winter months. The beef these cattle gave was so poor that it took the salt badly, was hard and mdigestiblo, and kept badly in the brine. Now, the cattle are not killed in the autumn more than at other seasons. The present modes of husbandry provide winter food for all the stock the farmer finds it convenient to keep. When killed, the beef or mutton are now of ex- cellent quality ; large qu; itities of both are forwarded, all the year through, to the soutliern markets ; and it can be cured for the naval service, or for any other use." It appears to me that, in the present state of our husbandry, the most important points to be considered, in reference to hay crops, are, m the first place, the injurious practice of cutting hay off the same ground for a great number of years in succession ; and secondly , the best modes of promoting and ensuring the growth of clover. To thest) subjects, therefore, I shall devote the remainder of my remarks under this head. The skilful farmer should never forget that run-out hay land is in every respect unprofitable. It costs almost as much per acre for fen- cing, mowing, and raking, as better ground ; and yields little, and that little of very inferior quality, possessing little nutritive power. In dry seasons, also, it cannot be depended on. Hence, one acre capable in a good season of yielling three tons, or two tons in a poor season, is far more valuable than 6 or 7 that in a good Peason may yield, perhaps, one ton per acre, and in a poor season fail altogether. Hay land should be sown out in good heart, and then not more than two crops should be taken, at least without some fertilizing top dres- sing ; and even with top-dressing, not more than three or four. After this, if it cannot be broken up, it should be left for pasture. Circum- stances may render necessary partial deviations from this rule ; but the principle should be considered as settled; that every deviation v/ill entail loss in the end. Every farmer, on ploughed land, can at least apply this principle to a part of his land — and the larger that part the better. In connection with this, it must be remembered, that good summer pasturage, independent of more direct benefits, does much to aid good winter keeping. Hay culture, without impoverishing the land, is, after all, not so difficult as may be imagined ; for the liquid and solid manure of the animals that consume the hay contains nearly ■li \ w V .11 It, 70 eHBEN CROPS, SIC. if k all that the hay took from the soil ; and if saved and restored, no im- poverishment results. On the other hand, the grand secret of hope- lessly and rapidly impoverishing the farm and the farmc*^ is to crop the land in hay till it will bear no more, and then let the manure go to waste, c sell off the hay. The following anecdote should m-ke some of us ashamed of the manner in which we treat the much abused soil of Nova Scotia : "I vibilcd the farm of a most intelligent gentle- man, one of the bett farmers in his neighborhood, and, I believe, most desirous to improvt -, who informed me, that after one dressing with mussel-mud, from the sea bank not far from his farm, he had taken one crop of potatos or turnips, one of wheat, and eight successive crops of hay ; and he seemed to think the land had used him ill in not giving him more. For the first four crops, from such an application, a British rent-paying farmer would have been thankful and content ; and in taking these, he would have been thought rather hard upon his land, too." {Johnston.) The timothy grass (Herd's gniss) usually cultivated in this coun- try, is one of the best of grasses in every respect. It is, however, often treated with injustice, by being allowed to remain too long be- fore cutting. Where there is a large crop to be cut, and few hands, mowing should, if possible, be commenced before, rather than after the flowering of the head, — which is the time wf.en the grass contains the largest quantity of nutritive matter. Tt is true, however, that few grasses will bear late cuttin better than herd's grass. Even when left to ripen its seeds, it is worth more as food than many of the light grasses of worn-out lands. The substances which timothy re- quires to be present in the soil, are very much the same with those needed for grain crops. Its favourite ground is a moist and deep soil. Clover is a most valuable adjunct to timothy, especially in the lighter soils ; but the conditions necessary for its successful culture are as yet very imperfectly known in this country. The ashes of clo- ver contain large quantities of potash, lime and gypsum. These sub- stances must therefore be present in the soil. Clover in fact loves a calcareous soil, and hence it is observable that in those soils which, from the vicinity of beds of lime and gypsum, are naturally ricli in calcareous matter, clover thrives without any trouble. I place first, thurefore, among the requisites for the successful culture of this crop, the presence of lime and gypsum in the soil. If not naturally pre- sent, they must be supplied artificially. The next requisite is a deep and dry soil. Clover sends its roots deeply into the ground, and will not thrive in shallow wet soil. To fit it for clover, such soil should be drained and subsoiled. Thirdly, the leaves of the clover must not be destroyed by the scythe or by cattle, in the autumn of the year in which it is sown. These leaves ought to be employed till the frost kills tliem, in preparing nourishment for the growth and strengthening GREEN CRO?S, ETC. 71 of the root ; and if cut arly wth the grain, the plant is so enfeebled that it has little chance ^ standing in winter. In reaping, the wheat straw should be cut so high that the scythe or sickle shall not touch the clover leaves. This high stubble will also shelter the clover in winter. Of course, no cattle or sheep should be allowed to enter the stubble fields in autumn. Fourthly, the ground should be rolled in spring to press in the clover roots. Fifthly, after clover has been sown several times, in the ordinary course of successive rotations, the land becomes "clover-sick," as it is termed, and the crops fall off. In Britain, pasturing for several years has been found to cure this ; and manuring with wood ashes, lime composts, and urine, have also been found beneficial. Neglect of these facts, is the principal cause of the two great evils complained of in this Province in respect to clover, vie : the winter- killing of tlie roots, and the too early ripening and death of the top in svmimer. These losses are often attributed to particular varieties of seed ; but they depend far more on the nature jf the soil, and treat- ment, — though of course some unfavorable seasons occur in which no management is altogether effectual ; and aa the natural life of red clo- ver does not extend beyond two or three years, it cannot be expected to remain permanently in the land. Shallow undrained poor soils, which do not allow the roots to becdme large and strong in the first year : destruction of the leaves of the first year in autumn ; deficiency of lime and alkalies ; and neglect of rolling, — are the principal causes of winter killing ; and the same causes, with the addition, in old farms, of clover sickness, cause the crop to ripen prematurely. Juckaon, in his Agricultural and Dairy Husbandry, states, that clover may be very successfully sown with flax. This fact may be useful to some farmers. The expense of clover seed tends to pi'event the poorer farmers from using it more freely, and hence the land has generally too little seed to give a good crop in first season. There seems no reason to prevent the seed from being more extensively cultivated in this Province. The directions usually given for this are, to allow cattle to eat down the leaves in early spring, or to cut the leaves very early, and then to protect the second growth, and allow it to ripen its seed. The process for cleaning the seed may be seen in many agricultural books. This is a subject deserving the attention of Agricultural Societies, which might usefully give premiums for the best and largest samples. Fla.v, Hemp, find Broom Coi'ii. 'i 'H I; ■ « ■ V ;■' :* .•if*. ■ O; 1 1 ;1 i»' 1 H ■ fl I The culture o^ flax has of late been much recommended ; and there can be no doubt that it might be made the means of securing a profi- table article of export, as well as of establishing domestic manufaetureis. 72 GEBBN 0R0P8, BTO. •v., ; On this subject, I shall content myself with giving^a few hints, foun- ded on the composition and habits of the plant. Flax requires verj frequent changes of seed. Sowing seed raised in another country, gives a remarkable stimulus to its productiveness. In Britain, Ame- rican and Dutch seeds are imported and sown, and flax growers always prefer this foreign seed, or that which is but one remove from it, to their own. In this country, where farmers sow seed raised on their farms year after year, short crops must necessa> .ly be the result. Flax prefers well elaborated manure, and must, of course, have clean land. Its proper place in a rotation is^ therefore, after a well- tilled green crop. A dressing of lime, or wood ashes, sown with the seed, or after it is up, will be found very advantageous. I have already stated that grass and clover may be sown wiui flax ; and I may add, that the Belgian farmers are of opinion, that the young grass and clo ver are not injurious, but, on the contrary, beneficial to the flax Flax has usually been considered an exhausting crop ; but the success of clover after it shows that this is not strictly true. The fibre and seed of flax probably take less from the soil than the grain of a wheat crop. The greater part of the inorganic matter taken from the soil is contained in the refuse of the dressing ; ard if this be composted, or otherwise saved, and restored to the soil, no exhaustion will result If clover succeed the flax, and Jbe ploughed down after the second crop, its roots will replace most of the organic matter abstracted by the | flax. Hemp is also worthy of the attention of farmers, and is largely I cultivated in climates similar to ours. It requires good soil, and is said to clear the ground of weeds. Grain and grasses thrive well after it, which would indicate that it it is not a very exhausting crop. The | plants are male and female, the latter of course alone producing seed; but the former, which is smaller and more delicate, producing the! best lint. The seed of both sexes must be sown together, and both | may be dressed logether, but it is advisable to have a separate patch from which most of the male plants have been thinned out, for seed. I The crop when ripe, which is known by the disappearance of the farina or bloom of the male plant, and the partial withering of the! leaves, is pulled like flax or cut near the ground, and its subsequent treatment resembles that of flax. After being broken on a hand- 1 brake, somewhat stronger and larger than that used for flax, it maj be sold to the manufacturers without further preparation. An acre! yields from 6 to 10 cwt. of prepared hemp, which is worth about $5 per cwt. The breaking of hemp furnishes a good employment for idle! hands in winter. It would probably thrive well on our dyked marshetj and intervales, and on the deeper loamy uplands. A very particuiarl account of the mode of preparation, by the Hon. H. Clay, is given ill Fessenden's American Farmer. I Broom Corn is recommended by Johnston, to the farmers of Ninl ( I OREEN CROPS, ETC. 73 Brunswick. The early varieties would probably ripen in this Pro- vince. The stalks or their upper parts sell profitably for broom- making, a branch of manufacture which might be carried on in this country as well as in the United States. The seeds are said to be equal in value to a crop of oats. It requires rich manure, and clean- ing with the hoe ; and its general culture resembles that of Indian corn. It is, no doubt, an exhausting crop, as it grows to a great height, and a considerable part of its strong woody stalk is sold off the farm. Full directions for its culture will be found in the American Agricultural bookL"'. Fine specimens of Broom-Corn raised at Bridgetown, Annapolis, and also a broom prepared from the native corn, were shown in the Industrial Exhibition, 1854. ; ;U n >'.{.. (■■• ' -, ::i' &rmerft of N*v| 10 mi 1 i'.l .»^? m iHi; ■ ,U CHAPTER V. If i BEARING AND MANAGEMENT OF NEAT CATTLE. The matter under this head is almost entirely selected from Youatt's Grazier*, with some condensation and explanation, where these ap- peared necessary. 1. Breeds of Domestic Cattle. This being a most important point in the improvement of Stock, the following summary of the characters of the several breeds, as ascer- tained in England, should form a part of the practical knowledge of | every farmer. Tne Devonshire Breed (Figs. 3 & 4) is found in its purest j state in North Devon. Its qualities are thus described by Mr. Van- couver, in his Agricultural report on that district. "Head small, clear and free from flesh about the jaws ; deer-like, light and airy in its countenance ; neck long and thin ; throat free I from jo^l and dewlap ; noseand round its eyes of a dark orange color ; ears thin and pointed, tinged on the inside with the same color that is | always found to encircle its eyes ; horns thin and fine to their roots, of a cream color tipped with black, growing with a regular curve up- wards, and rather springing from each other ; light in the withers, resting on a shoulder a little retiring and spreading, and so rounded I below as to sink all appearance of its pinion in the body of the ani- mal ; open bosom, with a deep chest or keel; small and tapering! below the knee, fine at and above the joint ; and where the arm begins to increase, it becomes suddenly lost in the shoulder ; line of the back! straight from the withers to the rump, lying completely on a level with the pin or buckles, which lie wide and open ; the hind quarters seated high with flesh, leaving a fine hair-ham tapering from the hock to the fetlock ; long from rump to buckle, and from the pinion of the! shoulder to the end of the nose ; thin loose skin covered with hair of j a soft or furry nature, inclined to curl whenever the animal is in| good condition and in full coat, when it also becomes mottled witlij * 9ih £!diii9n, London, 19&3. RXAIIINO AND MANAdEMBNT OF NIAT CATTLS. 75 ^ii darker shades of its pennanent colour, which is a bright red without white or other spots, particularly in the male A white udder is sometimes passed over, but seldom without objection." This fine looking breed of cattle has, however, some defects in ex- ternal form, as — " The sudden retiring of the vamp from behind the huckle to a narrow point backwards ; the great space between the huckle and the first rib ; a flat-sided appearance, and an awkward cavity between the keel and navel." " The North Devon Cattle are highly esteemed both for feeding and draught, but are not so much valued for the dairy ; yet their milk, though deficient in quantity, is of such excellent quality, that as much butter can be made from that yielded by a North Devon cow, as from that yielded by the breeds which are esteemeed better milk- ers. For all the purposes of labor, whether for activity^ docility, strength or hardiness, this breed cannot be excelled, and the quality of the meat is unrivalled by that of any other breed." The North Devon breed merits tue attention of farmers in this country, whose object is to rear cattle for draught or for fattening. The Sussex Breed — differs from the Devonshire by being larger and coarser. When pure, they are invariably of a dark red colour. They are thus described by an eminent breeder, (Mr. EUman :) " Head thin ; jaws clean ; horns long, pointing forward and upward ; eye ftill ; throat clear and no dewlap ; neck long and thin ; shoulders wide and deep ; barrel round and straight ; space between hip bone and first rib very sma'^ " " The true Sussex Cattle are large hardy animals. They are pri- zed for their labouring powers more than for anything else. Few of the cows are good milkers, nor do the oxen fatten at an early age. The Hereford Breed is a variety of the Devon and Sussex, but is larger and weighter than either. The prevailing colour is reddish browU; and the face white or mottled. The hair fine and inclined to curl, and the skin soft and elastic. " In the true bred Hereford cattle there is no projecting bone in the point of the shoulder, but it regularly tapers off. They have a considerable breadth before, and are equally weighty in their hind ([uarters. There is a great distance from the point of the rump to the hip bone ; the twist is full, broad and soft ; the arm as far as the pas- tern joint, tapering and full, but thin and tapering below the joint. The animal handles remarkably well, and is especially mellow on the rump, ribs, and hip. The quality of the meat is not hard, but fine as well as fat. There is little coarse flesh about them, the offal and bone being small in proportion to their weight ; while their disposition to fatten is equal if not superior to that of any other breed in the island ; they are not, however, calculated for the dairy. They arrive early at maturity, and there is a great disproportion in size between the cows and the oxen. ' t i \ H A'm 11J ■'• f 76 REAEINO AND MANAGEMENT OP Ji'IW '■ Hi .' I The Herefords are considered to be unrivalled for fatting stock, and might be very profitable on the marsh lands and richer grazing farms of this Province. It is very questionable if they would thrive on our ordinary upland farms. The Short Horned Durham or Yorkshire Cattle (Figs. 6 and 6) are a mixed breed, having several varieties, the best of which is that of the " improved short horns" or proper Durhams. "This breed was introduced about sixty years ago, by Messieurs. Ceilings, of Darlington, and has rapidly risen in public estimation. They are of good size, beautifully mottled with red spots upon a white ground ; their backs are level ; the throat clear ; the neck fine but not too thin, especially toward the shoulder ; the carcass full and round ; the quar- ters long and the hips and rump even and wide. They must not stand too high on their legs ; they handle very kindly, are light in their bone in proportion to their size, and have a very fine coat and mellow hide. They possess the valuable property of fattening kindly at an early age ; indeed the feeding propensities of the Durhams are unequalled ; but they are not good milkers, and are rarely used for agricultural purposes." " There is a variety of the Durham breed, known as the Yorkshire polled cattle. They are without horns, and are in considerable esti- mation among the London cow-keepers, as being capital milkers, and at the same time maintaining their flesh in a state nearly fit for the shambles." To enable them to do this, however, very high feeding must be necessary. The Durham Cattle, aa well as many crosses of them with other breeds, are now pretty well known in this Province, and much es- teemed for fatting cattle, though their deficiency in milk is a great drawback to their general introduction. The following remarks ot Prof Johnston in his Report on New Brunswick, are worthy of attcn tion : — "For early maturity and a speedy manufacture of beef for tlw butcher, my own experience has lain chiefly among the short horns. and I am inclined to recommend this breed. At the same time, where the production of human food only is concerned, the viillc-yieklins; is much more valuable and productive than the bccf-making quality. A good cow will give from the same quantity of vegetable food a much larger amount of food for man, in the form of milk, than a tat beast in the form of beef, however early he may arrive at maturity. In respect to this quality the Ayrshire generally exceeds the short horn;, so that where milk is wanted, experience is in favor of the former lu-eed. For profitable use among small farmers, therefore, and as a manufacturer of food for his family, the Ayshire is the more sure ; for the 1)eef raiser and rich manure maker, the short horn is the more generally useful. It is at the same time true, that some strains of blood in either breed combine both of these qualities or kinds of fitness in thi same animal " >j i Though producers, of the fines kinds: '"J milch cows head is fii which 8ho\ fat and mii black spotg ders thin ; and withou cious, the flat ; tail s the tail to and sometii thin, but tl large and i broad as to Milburn quarts of n week. Tb there fed ir with "t re^ is supplied two gallons as nine qua may theref The Loi Dishley L straight br their belly and are chi most valua are hardy i to keep in weight. 1 horns, in e The Ga; known in them and o " Back broad ; ho< pare favor; out not br( ribs is less tance, for NEAT CATTLE. 77 m Though the Durham short-horns are by no means celebrated aa milk- producers, there is an allied Yorkshire Breed which produces some of the finest milkers in existence. Milbuvn thus describes the finest kinds : "The Yorkshire cow is of much larger size than most other milch cows, and when fat will weigh from sixty to eighty stone. Her head is fine and somewhat small ; there is a serene placidity of eye which shows a mild and gentle disposition, tending alike to produce fat and milk. The horns are small and white, the muzzle without bljwik spots . the breast deep and prominent, but that and the shoul- ders thin ; the neck somewhat narrow, but full below the shoulders and without loose skin : the barrel somewhat round ; the belly capa- cious, the milk vein large, back perfectly straight, rump wide and flat ; tail small, and set on so that there is almost a straight line from the tail to the head. The prevailing colour is roan or red and white, and sometimes white, with the tips of the ears red. The thighs are thin, but the legs are straight and rather short. The udder is very large and muscular, projecting forward, well filled up behind, and so broad as to give the cow the appearance of a waddle in her walking." Milburn states that these cows have been known to give thirty quarts of milk per day, and as much as fifteen pounds of butter per week. These cows are much valued for the London dairies, and are theio fed in such a manner as to produce the largest quantity of milk with "t regard +o quality. Mr. Laycock in his London dairy, which is supplied by Yorkshire cows, retains no cow which does not yield two gallons of milk per day, and the average of his dairy is as much as nine quarts daily.' These cows are also said to fatten well, and may therefore be considered as in all points a very profitable breed. The Long Horned Cattle. — " The finest of these, known as the Dishley Breed, have long and fine horns, small heads, clean throats, straight broad backs, wide quarters, and are particularly light in their belly and offal. They give less milk than some other breeds, and are chiefly valuable from their aptitude to fatten early, on the most valuable points, and the superior quality of their flesh. They are hardy and capable of thriving on ordinary pastures, and are said to keep in good condition on less food than other cattle of equal weight. This breed is, however, rapidly giving place to the short- horns, in every part of England." Tlie Galloway Bheed or Polled Scot.s, (Figs. 7 & 8,) arc well known in some parts of this Province, as are cross breeds between them and other varieties. Mr. Mure thus describes the pure breed : — " Back straight and broad, and nearly level ; barrel round ; loins broad ; hock bones not projecting. In these respects they Avill com- pare favorably with any breed. Quarters and ribs long ; chest deep out not broad in the twist. The space between the hip bone and the ribs is less than in most other breeds — a consideration of much impor- tance, for the advantage of length of carcase consists in the animal ■'if 1 *.'■ 'a r> 1 i % ■fipiBH c»»^ •mmmMBHb^ '^Ulti^M*^ 78 RBAMNa AND MANAGEMENT OF ' 'ti* 'id being well ribbed home, or as little space as possible lost in the flank. Leg short and moderately fine in the shank bones, with a hardiness and disposition to fatten. No breed is so large and muscular above the knee, with room for a deep and capacious chest. The neck is thick almost to a fault." ' ' Tho Galloways are a hardy race, subsisting on the coarsest pas- ture, and increasing rapidly when removed to more favorable situa- tions. They fatten kindly ; their flesh is of the first quality ; and the joints being of moderate size are more suitable for consumption in private families, than those of the larger breeds." These qualities will fit tliem for many parts of this Province ; but it must be obser- ve<^ tha'« ciosses between the Galloway and other breeds have rarely hi 'Vti'' advantageous; and heiico where this breed is adopted, it is K ' 3m, J 1,0 adhere to it alone.'' One cross breed, however, that with .lO l)ui"'"' n bull, has been very' advantageous ; and the polled Suffolk, a viiViety or cross of the Galloway, is celebrated wr its milking qualities. The Highland Breed includes two varieties, the Wesi and North Highlanders. The former are the larger and finer, and are found in great perfection in Argyleshire. • " The horns are large, sharp pointed and up- turned ; and the color generally black, though sometimes brindled and dun. The hides are thick, and covered with long soft hair of a close pile. In other res- pects they are not unlike the Galloway breed, many of whose best qualities they possess, and particularly their hardiness of constitution, beautiful symmetry, and finely flavored flesh. Their straight and level backs, their round and deep carcases, and the quantity of good meat which they yield in proportion to their size, are most valuable points." The Ayrshire Breed, (Figs. 11 & 12) is deservedly celebrated for its milking qualities ; and has been found by experience to thrive in this Province, and to form good crosses with other breeds pre- viously iu the country. The characters of the pure breed are thus given by Mr. Aiton : — " Head small, but rather long and narrow at the muzzle ; the eye small but quick and lively ; the horns small, clear, bent, and the roots distant from each other ; neck long and slender, and tapering towards the head, with loose skin below ; shoulders thin ; fore (quar- ters light and thin ; hind quarters large and capacious ; back straight ; broad behind, and the joints and chine rather loose and open ; carcass deep, and the pelvis capacious and wide over the hips, with fleshy buttocks ; tails long and small ; legs small and short : joints firm ; ud(^er capacious, broad and square, stretching forwards and not fleshy, low-hung nor loose ; milk veins large and prominent ; teats short, pointing outward, and distant from each other ; skin thin and loose ; hair soft and woolly ; head, horns, and other parts of least value, small ; and the general figure compact and well proportioned," NEAT CATTLE. 79 )ent, and the The Alderney Breed, (Figs. 1 & 2,) which is peculiar to the Island of that name, and the neighboring Islands of Jersey and Guern- sey, is believed to have entered largely into the old stock of this Pro- vince ; and it has recently been again introduced in a state of purity. I)y the bounty of His Excellency Sir J. Gaapard LeMarchant. These cattle are thus described by Youatt : — " The cows are small, but the oxen frequently attain a bulk and stature quite disproportionate to that of the female. Their colour is either light red, dun or cream, mottled with white ; the horns are short, grace^Uy curled, and the bone fine. They are chiefly valued for the dairy, not on account of the quantity of milk which they yield, but the richness of that milk, and the -proportionate quantity of but- ter that can be obtained from it ; but they are not good feeders, and siUloin make much flesh. The best milch cows are observed to have a yellowish circle round the eye, with the skin at the extremity of the tail of a deep yellow color, approaching to orange." " Althr>ugh the breeds throughout the Norman Islands are nearly similar, yet the cattle of Jersey are said to be better .:ian those of Guernsey. They are certainly smaller and more deiijat and so anxious are the inhabitants to preserve them in the' natv*: purity, tliat there is an Act of their Legislature which prohibits the importa- tion of all foreign neat cattle, even from the neighboring Islands, un- der severe penalties of fine and confiscation, including ue destruction of the animal itself, which in such cases is ulaught- ed and distributed among the poor. When exported, the same Ad directs that they shall be accompanied by a certificate of their being natives of the Island ; but it is not easy to procure those of best quality. As fat- tening cattle, the produce of these Islands have few good points ; but tlieir flesh is finely grained, highly coloured, and of excellent quality. The cows are rich milkers, and both on that account and because of a certain neatness in their appearance, they command high prices. There is a prevalent notion that they will thrive on any kind of land, and they arc consequt^tly kept on bare paddocks, with the assistance of hay in winter. Like all light cattle, they certai ily do not require the same support as larger animals, but their na'ive pasture on the Island is of the richest kind ; and it is partly owin-; to the less nutri- tive herbage, on which they are frequently fed in "England, that the quantity of their milk becomes not equal to its quality. In Jersey they are partly fed on parsnips, which are found to improve the quan- tity and quality of the milk." Comparative Merits of Breeds. On this subject I may observe that experience in this Province and the neighboring colonies and states, in so far aa I am acquainted with it, indicates ; ^at for fattening stock on marsh or rich upland farms, '^■!ll| I _: I 80 REARING AND MANAGEMENT 07 tlie Durham short-horn takes precedence of the other imported breeds. The Herefords have also been tried, but not with the same success. The Devon has, in this country as in England, proved excellent for draught, but inferior to the Durham for early fattening. For dairy purposes the Ayrshire and Aldernoy must take the highest place. The Galloway and Highland cattle are not now to bo found hero in a state of purity, and there can bo little doubt that the introduction of good specimens of these cattle, as fattening stock for upland farms, would be very useful. As dairy cattle, the Yorkshire variety of the short-horns, and the Suflblk polled, appear to deserve a trial. Many individuals of the mixed breeds which prevail in this Province, and have long been naturalized in it, are of excellent quality ; and by attention to the points and treatment mentioned under subsequent heads, and by judicious crossing with the imported breeds, herds may be secured equal to those of any country, arid well adapted to our cli mate. Our native cattle have suffered much from want of care in selecting the best animals to breed from, insuflScient food when young, and bad winter keep ; but many of them still possess some of tne most important characters of good animals, and will show them under good treatment ; while on the other hand, with careless management, tho best foreign breeds will become unprofitable and degenerate. The following facts relating to the comparative weights and produce of different breeds in Great Britain, are given as data for comparison with the results obtained in this Province. Fatterung Properties. " The Durham Ox (of the short-horned breed),, a son of Charles Ceiling's Favorite, weighed 187 stone 2 lbs. The Yorkshire Ox, bred by Mr. Dunhill of Kewton, near Doncaster, weighed when killed 264 stone 1 3 lbs. These are weights of 141bs. to the stone, and shew the capabilities to accumulate fat and flesh possessed by this extraor- dinary race of animals." (Milburn.) " At about three years old, the Durham short- horns often weigh from 80 to 100 stones. The celebrated "Durham Ox" of Mr. Col- ling (already mentioned), weighed, when alive, at ten years old, 270 stones ; and after a two months illness, occasioned by dislocation of his hip-bone, he weighed as follows : — Stone. Lbs. Four quarters - - - - 166 12 Tallow - - - - 11 12 Hide - - - - - 10 2 187 12 {Youati.) M. i NEAT CATTLE. 81 mported breeds. i same success, ed excellent for ing. For dairy ghest place. )o found hero in ho introduction r upland farms, e variety of the a trial. ,n this Province, quality ; and by ider subsequent eeds, herds may ipted to our cli- want of care in lod when young, some of tne most hem under good aanagement, thu lerate. ;ht3 and produce 1 for comparison son of Gharlea Yorkshire Ox, hed when killed stone, and shew by this extraor- rns often weigh :" of Mr. Col- years old, 270 ^ islocation of his f Lbs. I 12 I 12 1 2 ^ " The relative estimation of tho flesh of the principal breeds at Smithfield market, and tho average differences of price for tho best qualities of each in January, 1853, wore as follows : — Scotch Oxen, 4s. 8d. per stone of Slbs to sink the offal. Leicester, Hereford, and ^ ^ ,. i . r j j fine shirt horns, [ ^'- ^^- *« ^'' ^°- ^^^ Coarse inferior beasts, 8s. Od. do. do. — {Yonatt.) "A bullock of the GnfJovmy hroe<\, well fattened, will weigh from 40 to 60 stones at 3 to 3 J years of age ; and some have been fed to more than 100 stones imperial weight, at five years old." — ( YouatL) "The V/c.*' fiighhtndcrs will weigh, with amazingly little care, from 48 to oO stones ; and some have been said to reach aa high as 70. Tho " Doddics" or polled cattle of Aberdeenshire, will weigh from 70 to 80 stones ; and will even reach as far as 100 stones when five or six years of ago. The tendency of tho flesh in all the hardy Scottish cattle is to form on the back." — {Milburn.) " The Suffolk polled cattle, though as already stated, good milkers, fatten with rapidity. Tho cow is easily fattened to forty or five and forty stones (600 to 600 lbs.), and tlio ([uality of her meat is excel- lent. These Suffolk cattle arc believed to have sprung from the Gal- loway." — ( Yonalt.) The following are experiments made between Devons and West Highlanders and Galloways : — "Twenty Devons and twenty Scots were bought in October, 1822, and wintered." " Ten of each sort were fed in a warm straw -yard upon straw alone, but with liberty to run out upon the moor." " Ten were fed in a meadow, having hay twice every day until Christmas." " They afterwards lay in the farm yard, and had oat straw and hay, cut together into chaff. They were then graied in different fields, equal proportions of each sort being put in the same field." "Those that lay in the warm straw-yard with straw only, were ready as soon as the others^ although the others had an allowance of hay during the winter." " Sixteen of each were sold at different times ; March 24th, 1824, being the best sale. The Scots were ready first and disposed of be- fore the Devons." The Scots cost ^7 12s. lOd. each, or X122 5s. 4d. They sold for X235 18s. 6d. ; gain by grazing, £113 13 2 The Devons cost <£7 68. 6d. each, amounting to X117 4s. and sold for X250. Deducting X18 14s. 6d. for the longer time in feeding, there remains .£231 5s. 6d. ; gain, 12 {Youati.) Balance in favor of the Devons, 11 X114 1 6 8 4 1 ■A' 82 RBARINQ AND MAMAOBMENT OF "The remaining four of each breed were kept and stall-fed on tur- nips and hay. Tlio Scots sold at £15, and the Dcvons at j£84 ; tho account of which will be as follows :- 4 Devons, cost X-JU Os. sold for X84— gain j£54 14 4 Scots, cost X30 lis. 4d. sold for £75— gain X44 8 8 jtlO 5 4 i^Youatt.) Milking' Properties. " The Long Horned or Dishlev Stock are now chiefly valuable as dairy cattle, and principally for cheese-making ; and some eows will furnish from 400 to HOO lbs. of choese each in the season." ( Yonatt.) " The SiiU'olk Duns are .said in the London dairies to give as much as 8 gallons of milk a-day, after calving, and six during a great part of the season." — (//>.) "In tho Epping district, where no particulan attention is paid to the selection of stock, and where there is an indiscriminate mixture of Devons, Suffolks, Leicesters, Holderness, and Scotch, the calculation in a well managed dairy amounts to 212 lbs. of butter, viz : — t) lbs. per week during 26 weeks, 156 lbs. 4 " do. during 14 do. 56 lbs. 212 lbs. "Mr. Alton's calculation is, as we have already seen, 250 lbs. per annum, for the Ayrshire breed." — Ih. " It has been calculated that the herbage that will add 112 lbs. to the weight of an Ox, will enable a dairy cow to yield 450 gallons of milk, which will give in butter and cheese a greater return than that afforded by the meat." — lb. " The Highland Cow will not yield more than a thii*d part of the milk that is obtained from the Ayrshire ; but the milk is exceedinglj ' rich, and the butter procured from it is excellent." — lb. " Five gallons daily for two or three months after calving, may he considered as no unusual average for an Ayrshire Cow. Three gal Ions daily will be given for the next three months, and one gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. This would amount to 850 gallons per year, but allowing for some unproductive cows, 600 per annum may be a fair average. This milk may be estimated to yielJ 257 lbs. of butter or 514 lbs. of sweet milk cheese per annum." — \lb.] "The Galloways are not considered good milkers, but their mill is rich in butter. A cow that gives 12 or 16 quarts per day is con- sidered very superior, and that quantity produces more than a pounJ and a half of butter. The average, however, of a Galloway cow, can- not be reckoned at more than six or eight quarts per day, during the c g NKAT CATTLE. 88 the calculation fine gummer months after feeding her calf During the next four months, she does not give more than half of that (H'.untity, and for two or three months she is dry." — (/A.) ■' The following ohscrvations were raiido hy Mr. Calver, of Bramp- ton, on the quantity of hutter yielded by one of his short-liorns. The milk was kept and churned separately from that of the other stock, and the foHowing is the number of pounds of butter obt-^iiied in each week:— 7, 10, 10, 12, 17, 13, 1:{, i;j, 15, IG, ir,, 12, 18, 13, 13, 14, 14, 13, 12, 12, 13, 11, 12, 10, 10, 8, 10, U, 10, 7, 7, 7. There were churned 373 lbs. of butter in the space of 32 weeks. The cow gave 28 quarts of milk per day, about Midsummer, and would average about twenty quarts per day for 20 weeks. She gave more milk when pastured in the summer than when soiled in the house, in con- sequence of the very hot weather. She was lame six weeks from foul in the foot, which lessened the quantity of milk." — (/Z».) The produce of the Aldcrneys is thus noticed by Milburn : — • '■ The produce of these small animals both in milk and butter is very great, and may be taken in fair specimens at twenty if.tarts of milk daily and ten pounds of butter in the weok, during t'.ie months of April, May, June, July and August. Inst.inccs are recorded of cows giving 26 quarts of milk in twenty-four hours, and yielding as much as fourteen pounds of butter per week ! Fourteen quarts of the milk being capable of producing a pound of butter, the same quantity would give a pound and a half of cheese ; and the whey or drainings of twenty pounds of this cheese would produce four pounds of butter, somewhat inferior for toast, but quite adequate to the making of pas- try." 2. Choice and Purchase of Cattle. The above description of the several breeds will be useful in this respect ; but there are a number of subordinate points well deserving of attention, and which can be reduced to the form of rules. The following are copied almost veVbatim from Youatt : — " The first object of attention is to consider the proportion between his stock and the quantity of food that will be necessary to support it. The nature, situation, and fertility of the soils that compose his farm I are equally worthy of notice, as well as the purpose for which he de- ! signs more particularly to rear or feed his cattle ; and chiefly, whe- I ther for the dairy or with the view of supplying the markets. It will j be expeu *"nt to observe the greatest exactness in these proportions ; because ii. case he should overstock his land, he will be compelled to resell before the cattle are in a fit state for market, and, consequently at certain lotsd ; "while on the other hand, he will incur a diminution of his profit if he should not stock his land with as many cattle aa it will bear." . ''iK i':l in %ii i im 84 RBAKINU AND WAMAOBMENT OF " He shonld next endeavor to procure thoroughly good male ani- mals ; an extra ten oi twenty pounds is always well bestowed thus : and he should decide on the breed or breeds he intends to keep ; by purchasing and breeding from various different breeds indiscriminately, he will never have a gooii animal, and eventually his herd will be mongrels. Nf ither must be pursue the in (w.d in. system to any ex- tent, or ho win fiiv^ his stock deteriorate rapidly.'' As point? deserving of careful consideration in the purchase of cat- tle, especially those intended for fattening, the following are enume- rated : — (1.) Benuty or symmetry of shape. (2.) Ut'dity of fonn. — The head should be fine and small, ta- pering toward the mouth. Few good milkers or feeders are without this fineness of muzzle. The neck should also be fine, but may thicken rapidly toward the shoulder. The chest should be deep and broad, and tlie back broad and level, and the animal ribbed almost home. The loins should be wide at the hips but not prominent ; the thighs full, long, and near together ; and the legs short. The bones of the legs hould be small, the hide mellow but not loose — every- where coveiod with hair soft and fine, but not effeminately so. (3.) The Flesh — of course varies with age and food. It should, however, be marbled or intermixed with fat and lean ; and when alive, should fuel firm and mellow or elastic, and not hard or flal)by. (4.) Cattle front ricuer or better ground should not be purcha- sed for poor or medium farms. The farmer should select such ani- mals as have been found to suit the soil or keep he has for them. This last, however, should be improved if possible. (5. ) Docility of disposition is an object of great moment. In- dependently of its other advantages, tame boasts require less food to rear, support, and fatten them. Gentle, kindly, equable treatment will most (^ffef'tually conduce to this end ; and stock so treated are more valuable than those that have had their tempers spoiled by bad treatment. (6.) Hardiness of constitutvm^ is a matter of some importance. Cattle with arched ribs and wide chests and backs, are more likely to prove hardy than those that have their fore-quarters narrow. (7.) Early maturity is also valuable, but it can only be main- tained by feeding young cattle in such a manner as to keep them con- stantly in a growing state A good breed well fed in an inter, will thrive more in three years than in five with insufficient food in win- ter. It seems to be a generally received opinion that small cattle have a stronger disposition to fatten than the larger breeds, and will produce more meat per acre. (8.) The Age of Cattle may bo estimated by the teeth and horns: " Neat cattle cast no teeth until they are turned two years old, when they get two new teeth. At three they get two more ; and in every su are called in renewal, "When but at thre( added even ago may be away. Th sometimes sure indivjal another f 'e and unsigh which falls On this " The I teou month! Young *^ull j^onora'ly s in the hon > heifers. N with the CO' often spoili Wherever t being avoidi times for th loose box Vt day, and as animal muc bulls are ns " Althou end of eighl put her to 1 Much, how* tution of th the bull as mother or cautious br( longer." " The m superior sb females nea of both app; It NEAT CATTLi) 85 in every succeeding year two more, until five years old, when they are called full-mouthed ; though the two corner teeth which arc last in renewal, are not fully up until they are six." "When two years old, the horns are without wrinkle ut the base, but at three years old a circle or wrinkle appears, to wliich anot^her is added every year, so that by adding two to the number of rings the ago may be ascertained, unless the rings have been scraped or filed away. These circles must not be confounded with other ringlets sometimes ^ound at the bixso of the horns, and which are a tolerably sure indication that the animal lias been ill-fed during its growth ; another f 'etjuent consoqucnco of which is that the horns arc crooked and unsightly. There is also a tip at the e.\tremity of the horn, which falls off about the third year." reeds, and will 3. Breeding oj Cattle. On this subject, Youatt gives the following hints : - " The Hull generally attains the age of pul)crty at twelve or ft)ur- tcoii months, and may be used moderately at that age without injury. Young ^uUs that have been suckled on a cow in the pasture, will generally 3 irve cows more readily at an early age than those reared in the ho'ijC. It is not advisable to put old or heavy bulls on young heifers. Neither is it well to allow the bull to run iu the pastures with the cows, and especially is this practice injurious to young bulls, often spoiling their tempers, besides doing them other harm. Wherever the situation can be by any means made to admit of its being avoided, this should never bo permitted. As it is desii-able at times for the bull to have exercise, he should bo allowed to have a loose box when young, and should be regularly rubbed down every day, and as he gets older led out occasionally. The temper of the animal much depends on tho treatment he receives, nevertheless some bulla are naturally far more vicious than others.' "Although the Cow may be supposed to arrive at puberty at the end of eighteen months or even earlier, it is not generally advisable to put hor to the bull before the ago of twenty-two mouths or two years. Much, however, depends on the breed, tho treatment and the consti- tution of the heifer. Some breeders hold that cows may be sent to the bull as early as one year ohl, but this is injurious either to the mother or offspring, and is generally considered injudicious. Some cautious breeders on the other hand defer it for three years, or even longer." " The most judicious method of breeding is to employ males of superior shape, but yet of suitable size, and to couple them with females nearly as largo if not larger. The nearer the other qualities of both approach to perfection, the better it will bo for their progeny, 1^ ^^» m» it mmm i r < \»im * » in m i . » iim»^.««-. 86 REARING AND MANA»1M«NT OF ii but it is material that even in their best points there should not be too great disparity. Gradual improvements will always be followed by certain ultimate success, while violent attempts to effect a sudden change will invariably disappoint expectation." " The period of time during which cows are allowed to run dry previously to calving, is by no moans settled. By some graziers they are recommended to be laid dry when they are about five or six months gone with calf; but repeated and successful experiments prove that six Aveeks or two months are suificient for the purpose : indeed cows kept in good condition are sometimes milked until within a fort- night of calving. This, however, is a practice not to be recommen- ded ; for if a cow springs before she is dry, serious injury may ensue. " As cows are very subject to Abortion when improperly treated during gestation, they ouglit to be watched with more than ordinary care during the whole of that period, and particularly the latter por- tion of it. The principal causes of abortion are violence or accidents, too good or too poor condition, hereditary predisposition, some epidemic or atmospheric influence, and lastly contagion or a tendency to slip the calf being propagated from one cow to another, from the irritable imagination of the beast. It is therefore a matter of prudence or almost of necessity to separate the cow tliat has slipped her calf from the rest of the herd, and it should not be forgotten that cows that have once slipped their calves are more liable than others to a recurrence of miscarriage. For about a m >nth or six weeks before the time of calving, it will be advisable to turn the cow to grass, if in the spring ; but if in the winter, she should be fed with the best hay and some turnips, potatos, carrots, or other winter fodder, or a mixture of bran and oats or ])ean meal. Should these not be at hand, the mere boil- ing of a portion of the hay, and giving it with the water, when cool, will be found to keep her body in a healthy state for calving, and also improve her milk. It is not desirable that she should be fattened, be- cause the fatter a cow is the less milk she gives ; and yet if she is too poor, there is danger lest she should drop in calving." In ordinary circumstances, the cow should, in calving, be left to nature ; but if any accident happens, or is likely, some experienced person or a regular farrier should be called in. '' After the cow has calved, she should be left quietly with her lit- tle one ; it is cruel and dangerous to separate them. A warm mash should be given, and her water slightly warmed. In fine and dry weather she should be Avatched attentively, in case she sh'/ald require aid, but no artificial means used unless she evidently needs assistance. On the following day she may be turned out about noon, and regu- larly taken in during the night, and this for three or four successive days.'' After th« calf is produced, it will sometimeb be neceseary to aasiet |4 the natural after birth, might beco womb, and will immed terial incon to remove i retention, is never kn contrary it " It raa^/ for two or \ hard. The iiousc ; or i it being car for if the U( danger of 1< teats becom niedy will 1 The sele( calves, and " After it by lickin after its bii be the best vided by m. nourishing '" There run about ^ wean them former met those distri " Wheth fattening, supply of considerabl The tim< different loi modes :— " In sev' for about taught to d med milk NBAT CATTLE. 87 four successive eseary to assiet the natural functions of the animal in removing the secundines or after birth, provided in the uterus for nourishing the foetus, and which might become putrescent and produce considerable irration in the womb, and probably fever. There is no danger, however, that this will immediately take place, and a few days will pass before any ma • terial inconvenience will ensue. No attempt should be made hastily to remove it, unless there is evident inconvenience or danger from its retention. Cows will often eat this substance with avidity^ and this is never known to be prejudicial to the health of the cow. but on the contrary it is believed to act as a medicine." '* It may be necessary to milk the cows three or four times a day, for two or three days, especially if they are full of flesh and the udder hard. The calf should be suffered to suck as frequently, if in the huusc ; or if in the field to run with tha mother and suck at pleasure ; it being carefully observed that she does not prevent it from sucking, for if the udder or teats arc sore she will probably drive it away, and danger of losing both animals may be incurred. Should the udd^r or teats become hard, knotty or tender, the most easy and effectual re- medy will be to let the calf derive all its nourishment from sucking." 4. Managemeyit of Calves. The selections under this head relate chiefly to the rearing of young calves, and to fattening them for the market. " After the calf is produced, the cow should be allowed to cleanse it by licking. It is a very bad practice to give the calf gruel soon after its birth , the biejtmgs, or first milk drawn from the cow, will be the best thing that can be administered to it. It is seemingly pro- vided by nature as the first aliment of the young animal, and is both nourishing and medicinal." '' There are two modes of feeding calves : one is, to permit them to run about v. ith their mother during their first year ; the other is to wean them when a fortnight old, and bring them up by hand. The former method eventually produces the best cattle, and is adopted in those districts where fodder is abundant and cheap."' " Whether calves are intended to be raised for breeding, labour, or fattening, they should have a suflBcient supply of good food : for if the supply of it is scanty at first, the animal will rarely if ever attain a considerable growth." The time of weaning and early treatment of calves, vai*y much in different localities. The following are selected as examples of the best modes : — " In several counties of England the calves are left with the cow for about ten days or a fortnight : and being taken from her, are taught to drink first new milk for a week or two, then new and skim- med milk mixed ; and if after a month or so the calf seems thriving, "mm 88 RHARINO AND MINAOBMEVT 03" P skimmed milk only is given, with oat or hvAey ri'^ar or crushed lin- seed, at first iii small quantities imd gradually ivxrcaf'd m '.roportiou 1,0 his ago and growth. Small wisps «;£ fine ?ia*^ are il en placed within their reach, which they begin by suckinj.' ana gradunuy become induced to eat. Turnips chopped small, or carrots an*' good sweet hay, may then be given to them, and when they eat well, linseed cake or Oat cake are added. They should be liberally kept for the first six or eight months, and well housed and kept warm and clean. " About three (quarts of new milk daily are sufficient for the sup- port of a young calf It should be given regularly at stated hours, and he should be kept as quiet as possible, for rest wi^l materially improve his growth." " In Ayrshire, calves intended to bo reared for dairy cows, are fed for four, five, or six weeks, ond rJlowcd four or five ([uavts of new milk at each meal. Some farmers give no food but milk until they begin to eat grnss, &c., which is generally about the fifth week. The milk is wholly withdrawn about the end of the seventh or eighth week. If reared in winter, the milk is continued longer. Others feed with meal aftor the third or fourth week, or gradually introduce some now whey with the meal, and afterwards ^.ithdraw the milk. Hay tea, linseed jelly, oat and wheat meal porridge, treacle, &c., are sometimes used with advantage, but milk when it cap be spared is by far the best, as it is the most natural food." " Even young coavs," says Alton, in treating o*' the Ayrshire dairy husbandry, " intended for the ilairy, should he fe^l from the time they are calves on food suitable for milch cows, an<] treated nearly as their dams. Such food and treatment have the greaitest tendency to form the milk vessels of the young cows, and iear them with dairy quali- ties. It is by such treatment that a calf is fornnni into a dairy cow, and those who wish to rear and keep a dairy breed in any thing like perfection, must provide them with an abundasM.'i' of such food as is suited to thf^ production of milk, when they are young, when they are full grown, when thfy v in miik, and when they are yell.^^ There ear be littlv 'v% )t that the Ayrshire breed owes much of its :'xcellence to the pracuce of this rule, and it will be found impossible to rear first rate animals if they are starved when young. " In Devonshire, the calves are permitted to suck as much as they like, three times a day, during the first week or ten days ; after which they are suckled by hand, and fed with warm new milk for three weeks lunger. They are then fed for two months, twice a day, with as much warm skim milk as they can drink, in which some feeders mix a small portion of finely })Owdercd linseed cake or meal. After this the nu;als of milk are gradually abated, and at the end of four months the calves art. wholly weaned, and fed on hay, chopped roots, oatmeal, dstc, until thej' go to pasture." The following Amorioan methods aro more economical, though pro- bably not oo well calculated for rearing superior animals ; — •Mr. E calves whe: by therasel two thirds receive a q the followi] water, boil tie up a bu eat by degr to lick occa or three mc above mixt "Mr. CI three days ( the animal not drink, 1 until the yc with new ix with the lal mixed, and most advan six or sever to make as an the oil oi •Thesu| pend on th mon practic the morning quan&n.y as organs are : tainted witi whereas by equidistant they will b condition." "Whate' change it si strength be or thrive id lowed as and the ani or the subsl partly conti that providt .'iiid after ♦^^li >Hre, and k :i- NEAT OATTLB. 89 r crushed lin- . in '^.roportiou B x\ en placed f, dun i ly become f k' good sweet ) 1, linseed cake ■ ur the first six lean. it for the sup- t stated hours, n^\ materially J cows, are fed (quarts of new lilk until they he fifth week, rentli or eighth mger. Others iially introduce Iraw the milk, reacle, &o., aro be spared is by Ayrshire dairy n the time they nearly as their ndency to form th dairy quali- a dairy cow, any thing like such food as is , when they aro yeir wes much of its )und impossible IS much as they ten days ; after 1 new milk for hs, twice a day, in which some 1 cake or meal. I at the end of n hay, chopped cal, though pro als ; — V' '• Mr. Budd, of Boston, pursues the following mode : — take the calves when three days old, from the cows, ami p ii them into a stable by themselves ; feed them with gruel, composed of one-third barley, two thirds oats, ground together very fine and siftjd. Eacii calf b to receive a quart of gruel morning and evening, which is to be made in the following manner : — to one quart of the flour add twelve of the water, boil half an hour and let it stand till milk warm. In ten days tie up a bundle of soft hay in the middle of the stable, which they will oat by degrees. A little of the flour put into a small trough for them to lick occasionally, is of service. Feed them thus till they are two or three months old, increasing the quantity. Three bushels of the above mixture will raise six calves." "Mr. Cleft, of New York, takes the calf from the cow at twc or three days old ; he then milks her, and while the milk iS warm teaches the animal to drink by holding its head into the pail. If the calf will not drink, he puts his hand into the milk and a finger into the mouth, until the young one learns to drink without the finger. After feeding with new milk for a fortnight, the cream is taken from the milk, and with the latter an equal or larger portion of thin fiax-seed jelly is mixed, and the whole given milk warm. Thus, as the spring is the most advantageous season for making butter, he is enabled, during the six or seven weeks that the animals are kept previously to weaning, U) make as much butter as they are worth." This is a good method, ;i~ the oil of the linseed serves instead of the cream of the milk. ■ The successful rearing of calves," says Youatt, " very much de- l»end on the regularity and frequency of feeding them. The com- mon practice is to supply them, with food twice in the day, viz : in tlie morning and at evening, when they generally receive as large a (juai as will satisfy their ci-aving appetite. Hence the digestive ugau? are necessarily impaired, and too many animals either become minted with disease, or perish from the inattention of their keepers ; whereas by feeding them thrice or even four times in the day, at equidistant intervals, and allowing them suflficient space for exercise, tlioy will be not only preserved in health, but greatly improved in condition." " Whatever food is allowed to calves, care should be taken not to change it suddenly. A calf should have attained a cer dn degree of strength before it can dispense with the food most natural to its age, or thrive without the aid of milk ; this fluid should therefore be iillowed as long as possible. Even when that has been withdrawn, and the animal has begun to eat grass, hay or artificial food, the milk or the substitutes that have been employed in lieu of it should be partly continued until he prefers the pasture. It is a common notion, that provided voung stock acquire size, their condition is immaterial; ;ind aftei- *,he iirst winter tliey are often turned into the roughest pas- ture, and kept '' KEAT CATTLE. 91 Touatt Bums up the best condition for fattening calves as follows : " The best wa^ is to keep them in somewhat dark places, in pens, lest thev should fatigue themselves bj sporting too much in the light; and to feed them on milk, with the addition of bean, pea, or barley meal, during the last few weeks. Cleanliness should be particularly atten- ded to. For this purpose the pens should be elevated to such a height that the urine may pass freely, and litter should be supplied every day, in order that they may lie dry and clean. A large chalk-stone suspended over the pen is useful, aa by licking it the acidity of sto- mach from which calves are apt to suffer is corx-soted." To produce the very finest veal, it seems established by experience that the calves should be fed on milk alone ; and this in such quantity and quality as to make them fit for the butcher, in from six to seven weeks. " The district of Strathaven in Scotland, is celebrated for the excel- lence of its veal. The calves are fed on milk alone, and are fed by hand. At four weeks old the calves receive the entire milk of one cow. At six or seven weeks each calf receives the milk of two cows, The best feeders disapprove of eggs and meal, which they say darken the flesh." At the price procured for the veal in Scotland, the far- mers calculate that they receive for the milk used, at the rate of about 2d. per quart. The low prices procurable in this country will rarely warrant so large an expenditure of milk. 5. Draught Oxen. Under this head will be found some remarks on the training of working cattle ; and facts bearing on two questions much agitated in this country — the best mode of yoking oxen, and the comparative merits of horses and oxen. " In training the ox, the only method by which success can be at- tained is patience, mildness, and even caresses : compulsion and ill- treatment will irritate and disgust him. Hence great assistance will be derived from gently stroking the animal along the back, .and pat- ting him, and encouraging him with the voice, and occasionally feed- ing him with such aliments as are most grateful to his palate. When he has thus become familiar, his horns should be frequently tied, and after a few days, a yoke put upon his neck. After this, he should be fastened to the plough with an old tame ox, of equal size, and em- ployed in light work, which he m-ay be suffered to perform easily and slowly. The youngster will thus be gradually inured U labor. After working in this manner for a certam period, the steer should be yoked with an ox of greater spirit and agility, in order that he may learn to quicken his pace and by thus frequdntly changing his com- panions as occasicfk may allow, he will in the course of a month or six weeks be capable of drawing with the best oi the stock." 92 RBARIWO AND MANAGBMENT OF " Another circumstance of essential importance in breaking-iii young oxen is, that when first put to work, whether at plough or in teams for draught, they should not be fatigued or over-heated, until they are thoroughly trained ; therefore it will be advisable to employ them in labor only at short intervals, to indulge them Avith the rest during the noon day heats, and to feed them with good hay, which, in the present case, will be preferable to grass. In fact, while oxen arc Avorked, they must be kept in good condition and spirit." '•'The general character of the ox is patience and tractability. If young steers sometimes prove refractory and vicious, it is in most in- stances the rejn'it of defective management, or of bad treatment when first broken for the yoke. When an o;c is unruly or stubborn, it will be advisable to keep him until he is hungry ; and, when he has fasted long enough, he should be made to feed oat of the hand. On his re turning to labour he should be tied with a rope. If he at atiy time becomes refractory, gentle measures should always be attempted, in order to bring him to work readily and quietly."' In working oxen to advantage much depends on the mode of har- nessing them, and the (juestion — " whether it is most advantageous to yoke oxen by the head or collar," haa occasioned nmch discussion, and is even yet undetermined. In Britain they are yoked by the collar, and this mode prevails in our Province. In Spain and Portu- gal, as well as various other parts of Europe, they are yoked by the head, and draw by a cross beam of wood, which lies across the back of the neck, immediately behind the horns, and is uecured by strong straps or ropes passing over the foreliead. In the county of Lunen- burg this method is in general use, having been introduced by German settlers. Comparative trials, which it is not necessary to occupy space by detailing, have been made in England and elsewhere, ami the results seem to show that oxen may be trained to do their work about equally well in either mode. My own observation inclines mo to believe, that while for heavy loads and slow work, neck draught may be preferable, the head harness is better in other circumatanccs, It seems natural to the ox to use his power by the head and neck, by lowering and raising his head he can suit himself to the inclination ot the ground, and he appears to move with much greater freedom and ease than when hampered by a neck-yoke. It would appear, ho^v- ever, that in Britain, the use of proper harness for oxen, as for hor- ses, is now preferred to the ruder method formerly in general use. They are also very commonly shod, which is effected by aid ot the trevis or by casting them, or by accustoming the animnl from his youth to have his feet handled and hammered. The comparative merits of draught oxen and horses are very va- riously estimated in different parts of the Province. The advantages of the ox are its smaller cost, its greater steadiness, and its value for fattening. These advantages must always recomi. end it to new set- NIAT CATTLE. 98 tiers, and for breaking up new land. On the other hand, horses are quicker, an inestimable advantage in our climate ; they can be used to advantage for a considerable term of years without changing, or tho trouble of breaking in new animals ; they suit a greater variety of work ; and can perform extra labour in proportion to the extra cx- p«nsc of ti ir keep. For these reasons, the improvement of agricul- ture is accompanied in most counties by the gradual abandonment of the ox as f labouring animal. On this subject, Youatt remarks : — " Some trials have shewn that three oxen, if highly fed, are equal to the work of two horses ; but tho additional exjxinse thus created of superior keep, destroys the supposed advantage of economical food. It must also be observed, that oxen if worked to the extent of their power, will become of little value to the grazier ; for they cannot stand liard worL ar.d maintain high condition ; and if once reduced, it is afterward? extremely difficult to restore them. Experience has in- deed pn ,ed that, keeping in view the profitable sale of oxen and working them accordingly, four will b' required to perform the labor of two horses." Professor Johnston, in his Report on New Brunswick, expresses .i very similar opinion : '' Of the qualities and prices of yoke oxen I have little experience, and I doubt the profit of using them in what may be called pure farm- ing. For ploughing among stumps and stones, and for hauling timber in the woods, they may be superior to th« less patient and (quicker horse ; but the farmer who owns an extent of cleared and stumped land, and attends only to his farming business", will not find time in the short seasons of New Brunswick to wait on the laggard footsteps of such oxen as I have seen at work in the Province. I have been told in the State of New York that oxen are to be had with a stop nearly as quick as that of ordinary farm horses, and Avhich will do nearly as much work. But such cattle, to do the Avork, require to bo fed nearly as well as the horse, so that the alleged economy in feeding oxen, in comparison with horses, in this case disappeai's ; and tho advantage of feeding them into bad beef at the end of eight or nine years, and selling them for six or eight pounds to the butcher, is nearly all ihat remains to compensate for the loss of time which, with the l)est of them, the farmer must always experience. Whei-e wages are complained of as being high, a very small amount of this time will exceed in value the price obtained, after a series of years, for the worn out ox." 6. Feeding and Fattening' of Cuttle. This subject may be divided into three departments of grazing, soiling and stall feeding : (1.) Grazing. — There can be no doubt ;hat the important subject 94 RlAKIire AVD MIKAAEMENT Of of pasturage merits more attention than it receives from most farmers. Early spring pasturage, and good green food for the dry months of autumn, are especially worthy of consideration, as much of the sti 'k suffers seriously from being turned out early on insufficient pastures, and being allowed to subsist in Summer on scanty, coarse, and dried up vegetation. It is to bo hoped that increased attention to the rota- tion of crops, and the proper condition of hay land, will enable farm- ers to lay out hay lana, after the second and third crop, to pasture in good heart ; and that land will be sown with grass and white clover lor permanent pasture on a larger scale than at present. B'>«'.ingp ilt maintains that permanent pasture affords more nutriment ♦nati grass land of any other kind. Stephens, on the contrary, while admitting the successful use of permanent pasture in England, states that Scot- tish practice is in favor of having no permanent grass land, on farms which the plough can make arable. These differences probably depend on soil and climate, and it is certain that only dry or well drained soils in good heart, are fitted for this use, excepting of course the pas- turage obtained on marshes or natural meadows. Youatt remarks :— " In stocking lands, as the proportion of beasts must depend upon the fertility of the soil, it will generally be found that local custom will afford the surest guide. In the counties of Somerset and Devon, one acre or one acre and a half of the better kinds of land are allotted to one ox, to which a sheep is sometimes added. The best grazing land in Lincolnshire, we are told will, under favorable circumstances, support one ox and a sheep on an acre during the whole summer ; and the former will gain 20 stones or 280 lbs., and the latter 10 lbs. a quarter, or 40 lbs." " In order to graze cattle to advantage, it is profitable to change them from one pasture to another, beginning with the inferior ones and gradually removing them to the best. By this expedient, as cat- tle delight in variety, they will cull the uppermost or choicest part of the grass ; and by filling themselves quickly, and lying down fre- quently, will rapidly advance toward a proper state of fatn -, while tne grass that is left may be fed off with laboring cattle, and lastly with sheep. Hence it is advisable to have several enclosures, and abundantly supplied with Av'^olesome water. When cattle are turned into fields of clover or rich grasses, they are liable, by too great eager- ness in feeding, to become blown or hoven. This may be prevented by feeding them well before they are turned in, to diminish the cra- vings of appetite." In this Province, large fields are often allowed to run out into natural grass^ after being cropped or cut for hay for a series of years. By this wasteful practice, a large surface of poor pasture, scarcely wortb fencing, is produced. If land is worth cropping, it should pay for seeding down to pasture with grass and with clover ; and if so sown, it would not only furnish better pasture, but would far more rapidly ' ! regain some broken up fi heart , and i to remain in should he \i through a rt fit it '• pasi table state a with any kit muck, raarsl tering over 1 the ranker v found useful Every pa? for protectioi sheds are oft of bushes pn They may h farm, and nc (2.) 8oili conveyed to farms ; and i ed. Its adv saving of Ian aa f iasture — \ ment in the tered — the i saved. You "The fact of soiling, disadvantage as the additi vegetables hi are more tha by the incres by the thrivi having reser objected, ths considerable waste. Sue it may to a ' to the stori; consumption "It has stall-feeding summer moi NBAT CATTLE. 95 most farmers. Iry months of 1 of the st'ick sient pastures, irse, and dried :>n to the rota- 1 enable farm- to pasture in i white clover ii'>«vingp jlt ant 'iiat) grass lile admitting ites that Scot- land, on farms robaliiy depend or well drained course the pas- itt remarks :— Bt depend upon it local custom sot and Devon, and are allotted le b(j3t grazing circumstances, e summer ; and latter 10 lbs. a table to change tie inferior ones cpedienfc, as cat- choicest part of ying down fre- f fatne'-"^, while ittle, and lastly ^ enclosures, and |:.| attle are turned i too great eager- ly be prevented iminish the cra- i out into natural of years. Bv I I, scarcely wortni should pay for fe and if so sown, 'ar more rapidly! regain some degree of fertility. As a general rule, land should be broken up for cropping only when it can ne sown down to hay in good heart , and after cutting for hay for a few years, it should be allowed to rnmairi in pasture till required again in the regular rotation. If it should b(j necessary to break up land for cropping without putting it through a regular course with manure, it should at least receive seed to fit it • pasture. Where tracts of land in this neglected and unprofi- table state already exist, thoy may be much improved by top-dre.ssing with any kind of animal or vegetable refuse, ditch cleanings, swamp muck, marsh and creek mud, lime, gypsum, ashes, &c. Even scat- tering over the surface the manure that cattle leave on it, and cutting the ranker weeds, and leaving them to rot on the surface, will be found useful. Every pastnro should have some shelter, to which cattle may resort for protection Iroui cold Avii'ds and the burning sun. In England, sheds are often erected for this purpose ; but hedges, trees, or clumps of bushes preserved or planted for the purpose are better and cheaper. They may be in such positions as to improve the appearance of the farm, and not to interfere ^ ith cultivation, (2.) Soiling of Cattle — or feeding by means of green food cut and conveyed to them, has msny advantages, especially on small and rich farms ; and in part at least it may always be advantageously follow- ed. Its advocates recommend it on the following grounds : — the saving of land, one acre of good grass being equal to two or three used as pasture — the saving in quantity of food consumed — the improve- ment in the health and comfort of the cattle, by being constantly shel- tered — the increase of manure obtained, the summer manure being saved. Youatt thus sums its advantages and defects : — "The facts and inferences above stated, fully prove the advantages of soiling. It ought not, however, to be concealed that there are some disadvantages attendant on the soiling and stall-feeding of cattle, such aa the additional labour and expense of cutting and carting the green vegetables home to the sheds, both in winter and summer ; but they are more than counterbalanced by the saving in food that is efifected — by the increased productiveness of the land and the diminished waste — by the thriving of the cattle — the making of the dung under cover, and having reservoirs in which to preserve the urine. It has also been objected, that where large quantities of food are accumulated for a considerable time, they are liable to fermentation, and of course to waste. Such is the case with cabbages, turnips, and other roots, but it may to a very considerable degree be obviated by paying due regard to the storing of the various vegetable crops, and their economical consumption." "It has likewise been objected by the opponents of soiling and Btall-feeding, that the cattle are heated by being confined during the •ummer months, and that their health is injured ; but this will not be IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ■ JO m ^ m 1^ u^ |22 12.0 M 1.25 III 1.4 III 1.6 < 6" ^ /2 /: ^'' > ■^'^ y /A Hiotographic Sciences Corpc»raiion 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 145S0 (716) S72-4S03 o v" ^A- w ^ 96 BEARING AKD MAKAaXMBNT 07 t tr ' ' U .1 the case where atalb are bo constructed as to admit a regular circula- tion of air, and at the same time afford shelter from the attacks of flies. The cattle may also be allowed the freedom of an open yard ; indeed in that season fold yards, with open sheds, are by many pre- ferred to stalls. This is the practice in Yorkshire, where the manage- ment of stock is well understood ; indeed there is no scientific grazier who is not a strong advocate for perfect ventilation, even during the inclemency of winter. Plenty of good and wholesome air is indispen- sably necessary to the preservation of the health and the fattening of animals." (3.) Stall and Box Feeding. — In fattening cattle, stall-feeding shoula commenco when the animals are half or three parts fat, a con- dition to which tbey can attain on good pasture. Of course, however, the remarks under this head apply to the method of soiling already mentioned, as well as to the winter feeding which forms so important a part of the farmers' cares in this country. " Of all vegetable pro- ductions, good hay is undoubtedly the best for fattening cattle ; in ordinary circumstances, however, it is necessary to have recourse to other things in combination with it, as cabbages, carrots, turnips, beets and other succulent plants. Barley, rye, oat or pea meal, if mixed together, with the occasional addition of a small quantity of bean meal, may likewise be given to advantage, in the proportion of a quarter, or at most half a peck to each beast, along with hay. Of hay it may be observed, that that which is salted, even if of somewhat inferior quality, is preferable to that which is unsalted." The com- parative value of the different roots, &c., will be mentioned under another head. Various kinds of prepared food are in use for cattle, the principal of which are the following : — Flax seed when crushed and boiled to a jelly. There is probably nothing equal to this for rapidly fattening cattle. Three parts bean ; pea, oat, or barley meal, with one part of lin- seed meal made into a jelly, form an excellent tbod. Turnips, carrots, m»ngel wurtzel, cabbage, &c., when boiled and mixed with flax-seed . i*' xl, form another useful variety. The following is stated to be a daily allowance of one of these com- pounds : — 3^ gallons water. 2 lbs. linseed meal. 5 lbs. barley meal. 10 lbs. chaff. The following admirable hints are well worthy the careful study of every farmer : — " A most important object in the feeding or fattening of cattle is that such arrangements should be made, and such a supply of food provided for winter consumption, that the grazier may be enabled to VIAT aJLTTLM. 07 of these corn- keep them throaghout that trying season, and sell them when meat brings the highest prioes, yii., from the beginning of Febroarv to the end of May. Thus he will not only obtain more for diem than the aatamnal markets will produce, but his stock will go off freely, and every market be in his fiivour. He will tJso obtain a considerable quantity of manure, and consequently be enabled to conduct his busi- ness to the greatest profit. " Whatever articles of food may be given, they should be appor- tioned with as much regard to rt^larity of time and quantity as is practicable ; and if a portion of it is at any time left unconsumed, it should be removed before he next meal, otherwise the beast will pos- sibly refuse or loathe its food. " In stall feeding it is too common a practice to give a certain allowance every day, without regard to any circumstance ; but it is well known that a fattening beast will eat with a keener appetite on a cold day than in warm damp weather; and his food should be propor- tioned accordingly. By giving the same quantity every day, the ani- mal may be cloyed. His appetite will become impaired, the food will be wasted, and several days will pass before he reeds heartily a^n. Three periods of the day^ and as nearly equidistant as possible, should be selected as the fvieding hours, when only such an allowance should be given to each animal as it can eat with good appetite. As it fattens, its appetite will probably become more delicate, and it will require more frequent feeding, and in smaller quantities ; thus the beast will improve progressively and uniformly, while only a tij- fling quantity of the food will be lost. (It will be useful, if conve- nient, to weigh the animal occasionally, to ascertain how it thrives on the kind of food given.) Of equal importance with regularity in feeding is cleanliness, a regard to which is admitted by all intelligent breeders to be essential to the health and thriving of cattle. The mangers and ;. talis should be kept as clean as possible ; and the for- mer, if they cannot be washed, should be cleaned every morning from dust and filth, which may easily be effected by a common bricklayer's trowel, or similar instrument. They otherwise acquire a sour, offen- sive smell, which will nauseate the cattle, and prevent their feeding. What is called box-feeding, consists in enclosing the cattle in close stalls or boxes, 8 or 10 feet square and 12 feet hish. The lower part is sunk in the ground, so as to form a sort^of tank in which the ma- nure is suffered to accumulate, and is said to be more effectually saved than by any other mode. Fresh straw is scattered over the surface every day. The cattle are not tied in these boxes. This appears a filthy mode, and at best is only suited for the latter part of the pro- cess of fattening cattle for the butcher. Cattle are said to thrive suf- ficiently well in the boxes, and the manure when thus trodden into a mass and then mixed with urine is more valuable. " Under all circumstances, however, a good and sufKcient bed of litter is indispen- 13 ! . ri i, Ili. M IBAUVa Am lUKAaBMSVT Of Mble" to th« health and ooxofort of feeding cattle. The nrfkea aA least of their bed diould be clean and dry. Under this head I place the following extracts from Prof. Johnston, on the subject of prepared food for cattle : — "The use of wnat is called prepared food, is also a means of im- provement which deserves the serious consideration of the New Brun- swick farmer. The oily seeds, such as linseed, are a most valuable food for animals, and an admixture of them, with the other fodder, is not only beneficial of itself, but enables the farmer also to use up easily and profitably the straw of his grain crops in sustaining his cat- tle, and to convert it at the same time into more profitable manure. '* In the present condition of Agriculture in New Brunswick, I do not recommend the Provincial farmer to pvirchase linseed as the Bri- tish fanner does, for the purpose of feeding or fattening his stock, and for the production of a rich manure for his com fields. But the srowth of a small proportion of flax upon his farm, besides yielding the fibre upon which in the winter season the members of his housenold may employ their leisure hours, will furnish them with a quantity of seed which will greatly benefit his stock, and which will enable nim to adopt with profit the more artificial system of feeding to which I am now referring. To give an idea of this method, and of the prac- tical results obtained from the adoption of it, I make the following extracts from my published Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry : — " The methoa adopted is, to crush the linseed, to boil it by a steam heat for three hours, with two gallons of water to each pound of the seed, and then to mix the hot liquid with the chopped straw and tail corn, in the -following proportions : Linseed, - - - - - - 2 lbs. . Cut Straw, - - - - - 10 lbs. Ground Corn, - - - - - 5 lbs. This quantity is given to' each full grown beast per day, in two messes. The liquid is poured upon the mixed corn and straw on the floor of the boiling house — is turned over three times at intervals, and at the end of two hours is given to the cattle. They have two hot messes a day, and are fed punctually at the same hour. "The times of feeding are, turnips at six in the morning, prepared food at ten, turnips at one, and prepared food again at four in the afternoon. The allowance of turnips is sixty pounds of Swedes per day, or seventy-five lbs. of Hybrids, or one hundred and twelve pounds of Globes. Under this system, the cattle thrive remarkably, are still and quiet, lie down the greater part of the day, and though they cause a large outlay at first,, in the purchase of linseed, they amply repay it in the value of the dung, and in the higher price they return for the turnips and for t^e tail corn than could be obtained in any other manner. KBAT OATTLB. 99 " It is not necessary, in adopting this method, that the precise de- tails above given should be follow^ out — that the same quantity, or proportions, of the several kinds of food should be employed — or that the crushed linseed should be boiled by a steam heat. The principle of adding turnips to the hay usually given to the cattle and sheep, and to both a certain quantity of linseed, boiled long enough to form a jelly when it cools, mixed up with chopped straw, and Brought to the stock either cold or hot — this is what the farmer may, in nearly all circumstances, profitably adopt." Judge Peters thus states his experience : — " I have tried flax seed in fattening two or three cattle, but having no means of crushing it, I boiled it for two hours, and mixed the jelly and seeds with crushed barley, oats, or Indian corn. I gave one pint of seed and two quarts of meal, thus prepared, every day to each beast ; its effects were soon visible in the silky appearance of the hair, and the more thriving condition of the animal." Respecting shelter, he says : " There is another point connected with cattle, which requires attention. There are generally no yards to your barns ; there should be high close fences, or sheds, inclosing a space for a yard to shelter the cuttle ; all, however, cannot afford to make them, but all can fence in a small space adjoining their barn, to keep in their cattle, and prevent their wandering about the roada in winter, by which a pa t of their droppings is lost. Again in the coldest wea- ther you see the cattle out all day, exposed to the cutting winds, and half perished with the cold. In mild weather, it is well to let them out in the yard ; but on severe days they had much better be in the stable, unless your yard affords very good shelter for them. The sta- bles can easily be made warmer, by nailing up side longers, or slabs, inside to the posts, and filling the space W'+h set weed, moss, straw, or tan bark, well stuffed down." The following additional fact, and hints on English feeding are from Youatt : — " Brewer's grains are sometimes given to cattle in an acid state ; but distillers' grains differ from th( m in having a proportion of rye frequently mixed with the malt, rendering them more than naturally sour. Acid mixtures, however, can only be considered as preparatory to the more forcing and essential articles of dry food, without which it is impossible that any bullock can acquire the firmness of muscle and fat, which is so deservedly considered as the criterion of excel- lence. " The wash or refuse of malt remaining after distillation, which was formerly applied exclusively to the feeding of Swine, has of late years been used with some success in the stall-feeding of cattle. It is I oouveyed from the distillery in large carts, closely covered and well j'^inted, in order to prevent leaking. The liquor is then discharged liato large vats or other vessels ; and when these are about two-thirds ' 1 ii ;J •s ■•I m ■4 ii ' ' ''.' \ '>M H ■ ■',;'■ wjK^ ' : n m\ * Vl ■ ' l>. tfl I. t'H.;^ '^iW^^ '' lls'i i T« 1 f'fi r 100 &1ABXN0 UTD MAirA«IMB>T Of full, a quantity of sweet hay, preyiooslj out small, in immersed in it for two or three days, in order that the wash may imbibe the flavour of the hay before it is used. « One of the most successful instances of this mode of fattening cat- tle that has occurred within our observation, ia that of Messrs. Hodg- son &; Co., the proprietors of Bolingbroke House Distillery, Battersea, near London. Between October and April, which is their regular working season in the distillery, they &tten about 450 cattle, having generally about 850 in the house tied up at one time, and 100 in an adjoining orchard, which are taken in to replace those that are sold off! From ten to sixteen weeks is the usual time of fattening, and the cattle are found to gain urx>n the average the extraordinary quantity of from two to three sto. .os per week. Their food is wash, grains and hay — sometimes meadow and at others clover hay, — and occasionally alternated with oat or barley straw, which is sometimes, though not regularly, cut into chajflf. Hay and straw ar<) given to them twice a-day, in order that they may ruminate; and they have as much mrains and wash as they can eat. In general they readily take to ttiis kind of food, but some are four or five days before they lose their aversion to it. According to their quality, the cattle are supposed to pay from ten to twenty shillings per week." "The relative proportion of food consumed by fattening animals necessarily varies according to the size of the animals, and the nutri- ment afforded by the respective vegetables. It haa, however, been found that an ox will eat nearly one-sixth per diem of his own weight of cabbages. Fattening beasts require half a hundredweight of tur- nips-daily, besides an adequate allowance of dry meat to counteract the superabundant moisture of these roots. For middle-sized animals a bushel or a bushel and a half of distiller's or brewer's grains will be sufficient, if combined with an ample portion of dry meat, given in the intervals of the distribution of the grains. Bullocks varying from forty-five to sixty stones, consume about eight or ten stones of carrots or parsnips per day, besides an additional quantity of dry provender, that is in the proportion of one-sixth part of theu- own weight ; and as an acre of good carrots will yield 400 bushels or 22,400 lbs., it would support such au animal 160 days, a period sufficiently long for beasts to be kept thut nave had the summer's srass. If they are half- fat when put to carrots, an acre would probably be sufficient to fatten two such beasts. Of potatoes, small cattle — such as those of Wales and Scotland — eat every day about a bushel a-head in a raw state, with the allowance of a truss of hay divided between four beasts. To an animal of 80 or 100 stones, about 10 to 15 lbs. of pulverized oil- cake are given daily, with at least a stone of cut hay during seven or eiffht weeKS ; the allotment of cake is then usually mcreased to 15 or 20 lbs., until the animal is sufficiently &t for sale. Whenever it can NUT OATTLI. 101 be conveniently arranged, the animals should not be confined to one sort of food. To mingle the food judiciouslj, benefits the beasts and flavcs tho farmer money ; for an animal vrill thrive better and cost less if fed on hay, turnips and oil cake, given in the proportion of one part cake, four parts hay and seven parts turnips, than he would if suffered to eat the whole amount in one only of these matters. '* It has been found that forty-five oxen, well littered while fatten- ing with twenty waggon loads of stubble, have made two hundred loads, each of three tons, of manure ; the greatest and most valuable part of which would have been lost, had it not been mixed with and absorbed by the straw. Every load of hay and litter given to beasts fattening on oil-cake, yields at least ten tons of dung ; and on com- paring the dung obtained by feeding on oil-cake with that of the com- mon farm-yard, it has been found that the effects produced by spread- ing one load of the former on an acre considerably exceedea those of two loads of the latter. The value of the manure will invariably be ibund to be in proportion to the nutriment contained in the aliment. It is an old and true proverb, ' No food, no cattle ; no cattle, no dung ; no dung, no corn ; or indeed any other good crops.' " Oil-cake cannot ordinarily be obtained in this count-y ; but flax- seed is of course more fattening, and may often be easily procured. It should be either bruised in a machine .jr the purpose, or well l)oiled. It is the oil contained in the flax-seed or oil-cake that gives them their fattening property. Hence it has been proposed to mix cheap oils, for instance, cod-fish oil, with the food of cattle, in small quantities ; and there can be no doubt that, in moderate quantity, mey will produce this effect ; though there can be as little doubt that, in excess, they will injure the flavor and quality of the beef. (4.) Driving Fat Cattle to market. — The following tests are given by Youatt as showing the fitness of the animal for the butcher, and his capability of standing the journey to market : " The general appearance of the animal ^ows high condition, and each bone is covered with flesh in the manner required to constitute as perfect symmetry as can be attained by a perfectly fat animal ; the hips and huckle bones are round, and the ribs, flank and rump and buttocks well filled up, and his scrotum or purse largely developed and round. The ends of the fingers should be pressed upon him in various parts, as the ribs, hips, rump and purse. If there is an evident ela^sticity of these parts, and they spring back when the fingers are removed, that mingled firmness and softness well described by the term mellowness exists, and this is a sufficient assurance that the flesh is cf thoroughly good quality." Such bemg the condition of the animal, his journey to market, when there are not such facilities as railways or steamboats, should be performed in the following manner : — \u ' • a U-'.t W. II 102 RBABINO AND MANAOBMBNT Of NBAt OATTLB. " Some preparation Bhould always be made for the journey, whea the animals have to be driven far. Their food shonld underco some change. The green food should be diminished, and the dry rood in- creased, in order to prevent looseness on the road. They should b« loosened from their stalls a short time twice in the day, for two or three days previous to their setting out, in order to accustom them a little to exercise, and prevent that giddiness by which they would pro- bably be attacked after being so long confined, and also to prevent any of the dangerous pranks which they may be inclined to play on the road. That farmer would be wise who put them in the trevis and had them shod, for on long joumeya several of every large herd are usu- ally left behind and become expensive, or are sold to disadvantage, on account of their hoofs being worn through by the roughness of the roads. They should start slowly, and during the first t vo or three days should not be driven more than seven or eight miles per dav. In winter they should be put into a court oi shed at night, and m summer turned into a pasture ; gradually the day's journey may be increased to twelve or fourteen miles, but it will be dangerous to ex- tend it beyond that distance. Plenty of time should bo allowad for its completion ; for if the cattle are hurried on the road, even il' thej do not exceed the number of miles above mentioned, they will be dis- tressed and off their feed, and the foundation may be laid for serious disease. It is scarcely credible how different will often be the state of droves that have performed their journey in the same number of days. There will be a stone difference in the weight of each beast, and double the value of that in the quality of the meat. It is impos- sible to estimate the mischief when cattle have been over-driveu, and he who is acquainted with them will be very cautious how he pur- chases animals having that appearance." For information on the diseases of cattle, I would advise the reader to consult Colons *• American Veterinarian," a very valuable little work, which should be in the hands of every farmer. iii :i CJHAPTER VL THE DAIRY. Under this head will be noticed the food and management of Miloh CowB, and the making of butter and cheese. 1. *' Cows of the same and of the best breeds will not always yield the same quantity of milk ; and the milk of chose that yield the most is not unnrequently difif;rent in richness. These pomts, however, ^hich are of great importance to the dairy, may be easily determined i by keeping the cows on the same food, Veighing the quantity consu- med by each, measuring their milk, and then keeping and churning it a few days separately. Comparisons of this kind are not frequently made, for farmei^ usually purchase whatever stock they can most con- Iveniently or most cheaply obtain, and are then conte: l to keep them las long as they turn out tolerably well. This nevertheless, is ex- Iceedingly bad economy, for an indifferent cow will eat as much and require as much attendance as the best, and occasion a daily loss that rill soon exceed any saving in the original price. The man who kes the pains to acquire a good stock; and has the sense to keep it, ays a sure foundation for doing well."* In illustration of the truth of the above remarks, I quote the fol- lowing from a late volume of the Marsachusetts Agricultural Tran- lactions : — A few years since, one of the committee had a farm, which was leased on snares, appropriated to dairy purposes, on which 25 cows »ere kept, which were owned in common by himself and the tenant. Accidental circumstances induced a comparison between a cow which Tag considered the most valuable in the herd, because she yielded a rga supply of milk, and a cow which had been purchased at a small irice. Repeated trials were made by the lactometer, and the result m that the milk of the cow which had been held in high estimation lorded cream of only 4-10 of an inch in thickness ; and the same aantity of the jnilk of the low-priced cow gave cream of the thick- •Yguatt. t '\\' '!!■ li .-VI -■ m, ^%% m 104 TMM tlXKt. S6M of 1 and 4-10 of aa inch, tnd of ft mueh jollower colour thu t]iat of the othor. The cheap cow was in reality the most valuable animal. The cow which had heen no highly esteemed had been in the dairy two years o- more." " Dr. .Ajiderson, the distinguished Scotch writer on the dairy, men- tions an instance of one cow, from whose milk no butter could be made. She was purchased of a farmer who kept a large dairy, by a person who had no other cow, and thus the discovery was made. Thrown into the general mass, her milk had been useless, and her keeping a dead loss to the farmer. Hence the Doctor judiciouslj recommends the setting, in a separate pan, the milk of every cow, to ascertain its quality, that such as give meagre milk may be fattened and sent to the slaughter-house. And we would urge it upon overj farmer to test all his cows, both as regards the quality and quantity of milk they severally yield, confident as we are that by this simple process, ana disposing of such cows as he thus finds cannot be profita- bly kept, the profits of his dairy will be increased, and the character of his cows be transmitted with more certainty to their offspring." The following general remarks on the qualities and treatment of dairy cows are quoted from the American Patent Office Reports : " The qualities of a dairy cow are of still greater importance than her shape. Mildness and docility of temper greatly enhance the value of a milch cow : one that is quiet and contented feeds at her ease, does not break over fences, or injure other cattle, so much as those that are of a turbulent cast. To render them docile, they ought to be gently treated, frequently handled when young, and never hun- ted with dogs, beat, or frightened. A moderate degree of hardiness, life and spirits, with a sound constitution, are desirable qualities in a dairy stock, and all these are found in the Ayrshire. Some have mentioned it as a valuable quality when a cow subsists on a small portion of food ; but that will depend upon the quantity of milk which one so fed will yield. If any cow gives much milk on a little food, it is one of the best qualities she can possess ; but of this I en- tertain doubts, which forty years' experience, inquiry and observation have served to corroborate and confirm. I have heard it asserted that some cows will yield as much milk, and fatten as fast, when fed on coarse, as others will on rich food ; but I never met with, nor do I ever expect to see, such cows. The old adage, so common in Ayr- shire, that ' a cow gives her milk by the mou',' has always held good. so far as I could perceive. It is of the greatest importance for dair; cows to be fed, from their earliest days, on food that has a tendency to produce the milky secretion, and even to be fed on that description oMood when not giving milk. It was common in former times to rear young cows for the dairy on moors and healthy ground, and only to lay them on better pastures and dairy food when they came intu milk ; but this has been found to be an improper mode of rearing » I'-ii .^ TBI DAIR7 106 dairy stock, and they now fare much bettor in thoir youth than they (lid in former times. Whoa young cows of the dairy hreeii are rcarei on moors or bad pasture, and get only iw much fodder as keeps them alive, they grow up what in Ayrshire is termo> 7il J lOH Tni DAIRY. u " In pnAturing cow«, it id tushel of chaff with 8 or 10 Swei weed has of late years l)ecn given to cows in Scotland as a substitute for turnips, and is said to be very nutritious. The common ruck weeds are used, and arc g'ven in the first instance boil«d, and afterwards raw. Each cow receives, once or twice a-day, as much of tlie weed as a person can conveniently carry at once between his hands." I am not aware that this has been tried in this Province, but it might be a useful resource in times of scarcity. Salt is highly recommended as an addition to the food of milch cows. It improves the digestion, renders inferior food palatable, increases the quantity of milk, and is said to remove the disagreeable flavor occasioned by turnips. " The following bill of fare of the cows kept in the county of Mitl- dlesex, for the supply of milk to London, will astonish many persons in this country, but it may be useful as showing how much food may be profitably given to large and fine breeds of milch kine : — " 3 o'clock, A. M. — Each cow a half-bushel basket of brewer's grains. 7 to 8 o'clock. — Two half-bushel baskets of Swedish turnips and one-tenth of a truss of good hay. (The cows are then turned out into the air, and are tied up again at 12.) 12 o'clock. — Half-bushel basket of grains. 3 o'clock. — Feed of turnips and hay, same as in the morning." The following plan of feeding adopted by Mr. Ralston, of Fineview, Scotland, one of the largest dairy farmers in that country, is mi*e applicable here : — *' Until the grass rises, and afforJs a full bite, the cows are kept in their houses, but are then sent to pasture. In hot weather they are ;f .ei ,, ' !( 'm I 'I 108 THE DAIRY. r>.f I' , ■■ I: ['. ir iMit F'M'. fed on cut grass in the houses, from 6 in the morning to 6 in the even- ing, and are out at pasture all night, as the soil is dry and sandy. When rainy weather comes, house-feeding is discontinued. In har- vest when the pastures begin to tail, the cows are fed partly on second clover, and partly on turnips scattered over their pasture. As the weather becomes colder in October, they are housed at night, and in severe weather during the day, slso receiving at night cut straw and turnips. These roots are partly stored, and the supplies of them managed so as to protract the feeding. When they fail, Swedish tur- nips and potatoes (to which in this country mangel wurtzel and car- rots may well be added) follow with dry fodder. Chaff, oats and potatoes aie boiled for the cows after calving ; and the calves get rye- grass and clover hay, in the latter part of spring. The cows employ- ed are of the Ayrshire breed." Steamed Chaff may bo given to cows with great advantage. Mr, Curman used a steam-boiler containing 100 gallons, on each side ol' which were fixed three boxes containing each 11 stones of chaff, (cut hay and fjtraw with the husks of grain,) and this by being steamed gained more than one-thiid of its origmal weight. The steam w:i3 conveyed by various stop-cocks ipto the lower parts of the boxes, which were mounted on wheels to be drawn to the place where it was intended to be used ; but the chaff required to stand for twelve hours before it could be eaten. Mr. Curman estimates the daily cost of food for each cow as follows : — Chaff, 2 stones, in 2 meals, and steaming, Id, Oil-cake, 4 lbs., - - - - 4 Turnips, 1 cwt., _ _ - 4 Wheat straw, - - - - 1 lOd. " The average of milk on a stock of 36 milch cows was nearly thir- teen wine quarts for 320 days ; sold at 2d. per quart. The calves brought from £.2 to j£5 when reared. The produce is stated by Mr. Cuiman to be nearly half clear profit, estimating the manui'e as eaual to the calves. The cows were never turned out ; and to prevent leir becoming lame, their hoofs were properly pared, and they stood with their fore feet on clay. One great advantage attending this method, was, that most if not all the milch cows were in such condition tliat with a few weeks' feeding after they were dry, they became fit for the shambles, Avith very little loss." " As an occasional subst.'tute for chaff and oil-cake, Mr. C. recom- mends cut hay, which, when steamed, would make a much superior food, and greatly augment the milk, as well as benefit the health and condition of the animals. There can be little question that this is superior to straw ; for straw, or even the husk of grain which is said to contain more nutriment than straw, can add but little to the product THB DAIRY. 109 of milk. It may keep store animals from starving, but it will never improve their flesh ; and it may be received as an axiom, in feeding all animals, that the value of the food is in proportion to the nutritive matter contained in its component parts. Bulk is necessary to sustain the action of the stomach ; but it serves no other purpose." " Mr. Curraan gave cooked food from October to ane — nearly eight months out of twelve — and his plan of treatment was adopted by several farmers in diflFerent parts of the kingdom, with the most com- plete success. It is pai-tially practised in the Isle of Man, where the cottagers have long been in the habit of pouring boiliue water on the chaff with which they winter-feed their cows. It has also been adop- ted in sonio parts of Scotland. There are, however, many practical and scientific men wlic still decidedly o1>ject to cooked food of any kind, and particularly roots, being given to milch cows." Pea Meal is given by some of the Scotch dairy men, by whom it ii said that no food is found to produce so much profit. The following method of preparing it, combined with chafi'and tu'-nipsj, s customary at Kyle, in Ayrshire, and which we copy from a recent publication, seems to merit particular attention : — " Take a bushel of chaff and eight or ten sound yellow or Swedish turnips, having the tops and tails carefully taken off, and boil them together four or five hours. Add as much water as will cause the hand to move freely through the mass. Squeeze down the turnips and add three pounds of pea meal. Give this to a cow in the morn- ing and the same in the evening, with as much sweet hay as she will eat up clean five times a day ; and without much expense her butter will be as rich and of as fine flavor as can be produced in winter. Should the peculiar flavor of the turnip be detected, which is not likely, a small quantity of saltpetre put to the cream will remove it." 3. The Building for the Dairy should be convenient, but not exposed to effluvia from the cow-house or farm-yard ; and it should be maintained, as far as possible, at an equal temperature. A pump or spring of water within, is a most valuable addition to it. In Britain, such buildings are constructed of stone and brick, v,'ith walls of great thickness ; and great care is taken to secure cleanlines?- and to exclude excessive heat or oold. In this country, in cases where convenient and cleanly underground cellars cannot be employed, buildings of wood, filled in with saw-dust, eel-grass, or dry tan bark, will answer the purpose well. Where possible, the combination of a dairy with an ice-house, is very desirable. The following extracts are given, not as being especially adapted to this country, but as shewing the care em- ployed in the construction of these buildings in Britain, where the extremes of temperature are so much less than with us : — " If it can be managed, it should be well sheltered by trees, or the lituation of the ground. The grand principle of construction should ba •II ,*•■'' Mil 4-^ ■■')«' ■ 1= 'I !|. m ',5 i \i -i- 4* J-A no THE DAIRY. m m mm^ I fS i4 to preserve an equable temperature in winter and summer. A pum|) should always open into the dairy. The walls should be thick, so iu to preserve, if possible, the proper temperature, or from 50° to 55® of Fahrenheit's thermometer. Some have recommended double walls, with a space of one or two feet or more between the wall and the latli and plaister. Mr. Marshall advises walls six feet thick, one foot on the inside to be brick or stone — the outside of earth and sod. Tiie roof should be of thatch, and three feet thick, and should project over tlii walls. The floor may be sunk a few feet below the surface, but must be quite free from damp. The dairy shouii fi" n.u 5. The Making of Butter — being a very important part of dairy husbandry, and the qualities produced by different makers being very different, I give here an abstract of some of the best methods in use in Britain and America, with some preliminary hints on milking and creaming : " In milking, if a cow is roughly handled, it is not only painful to her but will caupe her to withhold a portion of her milk, whereas if it is gently drawn, she will yield it freely. It is ot importance that it should be drawn to the last drop, for the last part is the richest ; and whatever milk is left in the udder is liable to coagulate and injure the udder as well as lessen the subsequent ' meals of milk.' It sometimes happens that cows are restless and fidgetty ; but they should by no means be harshly or severely treated at such times. If the udder is hard or painful, it should be fomented with lukewarm water, and gently stroked, tv which simple expedient the cow will generally be brought into good temper and readily yield her milk. It is also prO' !'?( THE DAIRY. 118 p«r to feed the oows at the time of milking, for while eating thejr give out their milk with greater freedom." " It is a well known fact that cows, when milked thrice in the day, yield more in point of quantity, and milk of as good if not better qua- lity, than they will under the common mode of milking them only morning and evening. " Very particular directions should be given that the cows are driven slowly to the place of milking. If they are hurried in ever so slight a degree, the oreaaiing of the milk will not so readily or per- fectly take place. In like manner, milk should never be much car- ried about or allowed to cool in the pails, before being put into the milk pans." " The milk should be poured through the strainer into the milk- pans, which should not exceed three inches in depth. The milk-pail sbould then be rinsed with about a quart of cold water, which also may be poured through the sieve into the milk-dish. If any flavour of turnips, Ac, is apprehended, add one-eighth part of boiling water to the milk, or a few drops of a strong solution of saltpetre.'' ' Thick milk diluted with water, produces more cream than if not diluted, but of inferior quality. Thick milk produces less cream than thin, but of supreior quality." '* It is best to put the milk of each cow into the cream-pans sepa- rately, or at most the milk of two or three cows together. By these means unnecessary agitation will be avoided, and it will be possible to know the different qualities of the milk of different cows. To make butter of extra fine quality, the milk of those oows that ield a poor quality, should be rejected, and also the milk first drawn rom each cow." "The cream having separated, in about twenty or twenty two hours, may be removed by skimming, or the milk may be let out by taking out a plug in the bottom of the pan. When collected, the cream should be placed in a deep covered vessel, and stirred every time a fresh quantity is added. If the cream from each milking haa been kept separate, it may remain from two to four days in warm weather before being churned ; but if sweet cream is mixed with that which is sour, they ferment and become putrid if the churning is de- lajred beyond three days. This may be in some degree prevented by rtirring, but it is generally considercrl best to keep the cream from ^ach milking apart, and thus allow each to become sour by itself " In some Countries the separation of the cream is not thought to be sufficiently complete by this mechanical process : but after the milk has remained from twelve to twenty-four hours in the pan, it is put over a slow fire, where it remains until the first bubble raises the suv- face of the cream. The pan is then taken off, and put away for «'ghteen or twenty-four hours to cool. At the end of this time, if the quantity of milk is considerable, the cream will be an inch or 16 vie froi 1 "^m m A VM "-.:. .( '■■■i:. m Ml M i ■ j* 114 THE DAIRY. i'^' ill I 'I St Mi ' ii^ Mfv'i tri'm more in thiolmess. Tt is cut with a 1ru8h, und wiped dry. In a couple of hours after this, It is scoured all over with sweet whey batter ; which operation ia afterwards frequently repeated ; and lastly, it is deposited in the cheese or store i-oom, which should be moderately warm, and shelter- ed from the access of air, lest the cheese should crack, and turned every day until it has become sufiiciently hard and firm. These cheeses reauire to be kept a long time ; and if not forced by artificial means, will scarcely be sufficiently ripe under two or three years, Much of what is called Double Gloucester and Cheddar Cheese is made by the following simple process : — " When the milk ia brought home, it is immediately strained into a tub, and the rennet added, in the proportion of about three tabk spoonsful to a quantity sufficient for a cheese of twenty-eight pounds ; after which it remains undisturbed about two hours, when it becomes curdled, and is then broken to pieces. That being done, three parts of the whey are warmed, and afterwards put into the tub for about twenty minutes. The whole whey is then again placed over the fire, made nearly scalding hot, and returned into the tub, in order to scald the curd for about half an hour longer, after which part of the whey is again taken out, and the remainder left with the curd till it is nearly cold. The whey is then taken out or poureil off, the curd bro- ken very small, put into the vat and pressed ; it remains there nearly MS hour, and is then taken out, turned, and put under the press again until the evening ; when it is turned again and left until the next in a cuarHC TBI DAIRT. 119 morning. It then finally leaves tho press, and is salted once a dajr for twelve days." " Dunlop Cheese is made in the counties of Ayr. Renfrew, Lan- ark, and Gallnway, of siscj from twenty to sixty pounds. After tho milk is brought to a proper degree of heat it is mixed with the cream, which had been previously skimmed and kept cool. The milk is then poured into a large vessel, where the rennet is added to it, and the whole is closely coveree f'jund in Ste- phens' Farmer's Guide. The latter is prepare«/', or capable of doing a hard day's wcik. There aic no doubt many persons who keep their teams expensively for the mere vanity of having them in good condition, while there are othcrd who obtain continuous service from their fai-m horses under a very different regimen." " Mr. Reid, in his adrairabk; essay on the '■ Management of Farm Horses," gives the following nnalysi.s of tlic component parts of difier- ent substances used as food for horses. He clussifios them under the beads Qiazotised or flesh-forrners, and non-azoilsod or fat-formers :-^ QtgiiW raattor Aiotisod. Non-Azotisod. 100 lbs. of Oats contain 80 11 69 **;:" Peas, 80 80 60 '' " Hny, 76 8 68 " Potatoes, 25 2 28 " .^. Barley Meal, 82 14 68 " >£ Turnipg, 10 1 9 " >.■ Beans, m U ■52 FARM HORSES. 128 He alao gives the following; formulae as guides for winter feeding. No. 1 is for a moderate sized horse, and No. 2 for a larger animal, ptr week : — No. 1. 7 pecks oats, (70 lbs.,) 8 " chaif, 2 " bran, 120 lbs. hay, 7 " beans, 3 1 3 d, 6 6 6 8 6 No. 2. 7 pecl's oats, (70 lbs., J 1 " beans, crushed, 8 •- chaff, 2 " bran, 140 lbs. hay. 8. 8 1 1 S d. 6 6 6 6 10 " In order to reduce still further the expenso of horse-keeping, various trials have been made of the nutritive powers of potatoes, Swedish turnips, carrots, and other esculent root^, all of which have been found sufficient for the support of the cattle during moderate work, and when given with p^-jnty of hay. They have even been found to answer the purpose when given with straw only, but in that case the work must have been very light, for horses should have food of a quality proportioned to their work, and if that is considerable, some com is absolutely necessary. In fact, bulbous and esculent food is, especially when given with bruised corn or barley meal, better adapted for bringing norscs intended for sale into condition, than for maintaining them in working order. The quantity of azotised food may indeed be diminished by the aid of roots, and straw may be sub- stituted for h&y ; but, in every instance, the quality of the food must be in proportion to the required exertion, or the horse will be injured to a degree which the saving effected in his keep will not repay. Theorists adduce instances to the contrary, but every practical farmer knows that hard work can bo sustained only by good feeding. This, however, may be carried to excess; and although farmers cannot generally be accused of being too lavish of corn, yet the allowance of hay is often far too profuse. It is indeed a common practice to cram the rack with an unlimited quantity of this fodder, the consequence of which is that gross feedeh stand eating all the night, instead of lyinff down to rest. Their stomachs become unnaturally distended, ana many serious disorders are generated that might have been avoided by a more regular and limited allowance. Nor is t' i ; the only loss this system causes the farmer ; quantities of the fodder are pulled down, trampled under foot; and utterly wasted. The great secret of feeding well is to feed regularly at certain hours, and in certain and sufficient auantities, and not to allow any intennediate eating. A full meal liould not be given immediately after a horse has come in from a hard day's work ; let him have a little food to take off the edge of his appe- tite then, and the remainder an hour or two aflerwards, when he hat rested." . /?. ft I 124 FARM HORSES. '' Of the esculent roots, sliced potatoes and carrots are those most commonly given ; and it is a singular fact that though the former con- tain the greatest proportion of nutritive matter, horses thrive best on the latter. When potatoes are steamed and deprived of their water, they form a tolerably substantial food ; but the trouble and expense of steaming them are great objections to giving them in this way, and, when raw, carrots are preferable. Horses > re fonder of them ; they have a visibly good effect upon their coat ; they arc found advanta- geous to the wind ; and they correct the binding effect of dry food. But too many given raAV are apt to produce evils of other kinds, and horses which have been fed on them for a short time, often become sn fond of them as to refuse other f(X)d.'" " In some parts of the North, the refuse oats, or any other refuse grain, are mixed with wheat chaff' or cut hay, and boiled ; and of this mess, after it has become cool, almost a pailfull and a half is given to each horse once a day, generally when his work is over. This is a judicious and economical practice, as very light corn is often swallowed whole when given dry. When horses are kept partly upon straw, it is an excellent mode of keeping their bowels in order ; but when put to hard work and fed on hay, its constant repetition would perhaps be too relaxing." " Mr. Spooner, in his Prize Essay on the " Management of Farm Horses," gives, from his personal knowledge, the following estimates of the cost per week of feeding farm horses. From the mid(l'2 of November to March, when the work is light, they receive : s. d. Oats, 1^ bushel, 4 G Straw, if cwt., at 2s., 3 6 Swedes, 42 lbs., 4 8 4 Oats, 2 bushels, Beans, 1| peck, Hay (not clover), 1 cwt., 4 G 2 -6 * 12 3 " This second allowance is given as the spring work comes gradu- ally on. When barley and turnip sowing are over, and green food becomes abundant, the corn is reduced to — s. (L 1 bushel, costing, - - - a o With green food, worth, say, - - 5 8 "As the autumn work approaches, the spring' feeding is again given," * The prices a'ltaohed to these estimates are giron, because, tfaongb different from pricei here, they form ai element Id the writer's ideatif economy. FARM HORSES. 125 ocnt of Farm In the summer feeding of horses, three methods are commonly practised in England : " Ist, to turn them out on pastures ; 2ndly, to teed them on the field or artificial grasses, either cut or grazed ; Sdly, to soil them on green food in the stable or yard," In the second method the liorses must be tethered, or confined by temporary fences to a small portion of the ground. In the third method, they are con- stantly kept in the stable and farm-yard. These two last methods liave many obvious advantages, and will no doubt become more general here, as arable fiirming extends, and summer tillage by horse pow^er becomes more constant and general. 'Cooked food is now much used by farmers; and. under proper management, with gi'eat advantage. Steamed or boiled potatoes, tur- nips or carrots, are given ; and the two former, and especially turnips, with great success. Boiling is preferable to steaming. About 40 lbs. of turnips is the average allowance for each horse, and this should be given warm, but not hot, and with the admixture of bran, chaffer ground barley, and about a handful ofsn.lt. The food must be cooked as it is wanted, for if kept any time it becomes acid and ferments, and in this state is exceedingly injurious." " Experience has also demonstrated the advantage of crushing and bruising grain, and even grinding it, and cutting or chopping fodder : these processes facilitate digestion, by bringing the nutritious portions of the food more completely in contact with the stomach, and thus enabling them to pass with greater case into the system, and afford the animal more sustenance, while to the farmer they are a means of effecting a considerable saving — considerable if we only regard tlie actual amount of hay, straw, &c., which is wasted when these matters are given in their natural state ; considerable, if we look at the quan- tity of undigested grain voided in the excrements of the horse ; and still more considerable when we mark the difference in the condition of those horses which are fed on crushed, chopped, and cooked food, and those which get their allowance in its natural and crude state." b ; '.t ..'i Serent from pricei CHAPTER Till. SHEEP. f ^fi 1. The breeds of Sheep are numerous, and differ from each other in size, hardiness, readiness to fatten, and length and fineness of wool The following rable from Youatt gives a general view of their qua- lities : — IS I 5^ ■VHm . Jf M ?3 ?1 n ^^ « ««• ■«»< -'.i-ei-«.«»H« jisd sje^a^ Jt' '•" 121 S 2 ri ri CI IN O) ?» S-^ 1-1 I?) i-i i-i r-i i-i .-^ 1-1 i3; S? ^ g - - 1 J3 g >;; 3 p; j; 'rt f^ *■• __f .r^ •-^. ■2 8 n 2, « 2 s I bu I s 1: o I* o o <" s s . ^ c >* i<0 & ?b I 6 6 I'd 'o o £5 ^ <5 'a (S d^ *i ^2 ^3 ^^ ^^ ^^ o &- II I I I t M .2 « S? * J3 5 rt*«j-o'^".5 "a-M^T .,&! SHAH*. 127 from each other fineness of wool w of their qua- '.'I -t?" -« -«i -«i '»< •V M ^ O r o CO o o 00 to ■J oi CO « c^ i-i n f ? d o 9 cJ ^ L. , bs M d d d d 5 s » e §?-^ddS a o I— » Of the above varieties, the followi.'g merit a more particular notice : (1.) The Heath or Black-faced are distinguished by their black faces, with, in the pure breed, a lock of white wool in the forehead. They are Lardy, with short and firm carcass, and " long, open, coarse and shaggy wool." Extensively roared in the notliern counties of England and Scotland, and would suit well here in exposed situations, and where long coarse wool is dcoircd. (2.) The Exmoor — arc shorter wooled and yield finely flavoured matton. They are especially noted for their power of resisting the injurious effects of damp. (3.) The Dishley or New Leicester — is a large breed, with ex- cellent flesh, and fattening readily. The wool is both long and fine. I am informed that attempts to introduce this fine breed into the east- era part of this Province have not been very successful, as it has proved too delicate in winter. (4.) The South- Dov^n. — These sheep belong, originally to the chalky short pastures of the South Dowofj, in Sussex, and are a valu- able and hardy breed. They have been successfully intro), used for flannels, medium cassimeres and satinets, and low-priced broad cloths, 'M cents ; No. o De Laine, used for Mousselin Do Laines, and other combing purpo- ses, 32 cents ; No. 2, adapted to fine fancy cassimeres and medium broadclothd, 35 cents ; No. 1, used for similar purposes, J>1) cents ; Prime, 44 cents ; E. tra, 50 cents ; Super, 00 cents ; anotlier qua- lity may bo selected from the Super, called Super-super, worth 75 cents. These high grades are used for the finer (|ualitie8 of cassimeres and broadcloths. The difference between Nos. V> and 4, and tho De Laines or combing qualities of the same Nos., consists in length and strength of staples, and not in the fineness of the fibre >» 1 will not em- The general management of sheep, in relation to food, shelter, atten- dance, shearing, &c., is a subject so complicated, and depends so much on climate, the breed of sheep, and tho purposes for which the flocks arc reared, that it would be hopeless to attempt giving a connected summary of it. I may remark, however, that the position and phy- sical character of our province lead to two very digtinct kinds of sheep husbandry. Along the southern or Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, and in the numerous small islands in its vicinity, sheep may be kept with very little expense and trouble. In Brier Island, for instance, at the southern entrance of the Bay of Fundy, which is inhabited chiefly by fishermen, and has scarcely an acre of ploughed land on its surface, though it can boast of the neat and thriving little town of Westport, large flocks of sheep are kept. They run wild all the year, and in summer find plentiful pasture on the uninclosed surface of the Island. In winter they derive niuch of their subsistence from sea weed ; and even in summer may often be seen scrambling along tho rocky shorea in search of it. They receive scarcely any attention, except at shear > si I ! 'Afe 184 HHEEP. •ing time, or when required for killing. They are of course small and hardy animals, but their mutton is said to bo excellent. Large portions of the southern coast of our province would support sheep in the sarao manner; and I have no doubt that ultimately almost the whole of these rocky coast districts will be turned into sheep farms, and that the boM and swamps will bo made to yield hay lor their winter keep. There can be no doubt that in the comparatively mild climate of these districts, a fmc; and valuable quality of wool might be produced, suitable for exportation or for the domestic manufacture of the better class of clotln. In tho inland or moro properly agricultural districts of the pro- vince, fine and large breeds of sheep may be raised, but their winter keep will bo more expensive than in the shore districts, and more dif- ficulty Avill bo experienced in providing them with extensive and unobstructed ranges of pasturage. In these districts, as yet, sheep husbandry is generally limited to comparatively small flocks, produ- cing mutton and wool for domestic use only ; and the latter in suffi- cient quantity to furnish tho greater part of the outer clothing of the agricultural districts, of better and moro durable material than the imported cloths. It .should, however, now form a subject of consider- ation Avith farmers, whether the production of fine wool for the manu- facture of the finer fabrics .in this country, or for exportation to the United States or Great Britain, might not be deserving of their attention. I ': CUAPTER IX. SWINE. Perhaps no kind of livo stock is raoro profitable, in proportion to its cost, and tho labour required, tban swine ; and it is equally im- portant in this as in other kinds of domcatic animals, to have good breeds to operate on. Tho following arc said to be tho characteristics of a good hog : — " Small muzElo ; narroAV forehead ; large cheeks ; eye quick and bright ; ears short and thin ; neck almost us bi-oa'l as chine, and that of equal breadth nearly to the tail ; belly alinv, . louching tho ground from the hind logs to the fore ; thighs larj^o bolli inward and outward, and division between them large ; legs stiiall and shovt ; feet firm and sound; bones small ; joints fine; hair long and thin; few bristles; tkin loose and mellow." 1. There are numerous varieties of tho ITog, which aro continu- ally increasing by crossing. Probably tho most important breds are the Chinese and j3erkshiro, which are thus described : — " The Chinese Breed is small, fine limbed, round in the carcass, thinly bristled, and thin skinned. Tlierc aro two varieties, tho white and black ; the former being better shaped than the latter, but more tender and less prolific. Both breeds are tender, susceptible of cold, and difficult to rear ; yet, from their early aptitude to fatten, they are in great esteem with those who rear only young porkers. If fed on farinaceous food their flesh is very delicate, I)Ut it becomes coarse and oily when offal and animal substances aro given ; it is not adapted for bacon, and is deficient in lean meat ; and their hind quarters being flmall in proportion to the body, they cut up to disadvantage when intended for haras." The great merits of this breed, arc its compact form and the readi- ness with which it fattens on a comparatively small quantity of food. On these accounts the (Chinese breed is very useful for crossing with our larger and more slender native breeds, to which it communicates in a greater or less degree its round fonn and tendency to fatten ; though it also gives a more delicate constitution and a diminution of number in the farrows. The Berkshire Breed is esteemed tho best English variety of the hog, the only other sort which equals it in the opinion of the best 136 SWINE. ¥. .If'**''-- m iiv authoi'ities, being the improved Essex breed, which appears itself to be descended T/om the Berkshire, and rr lembles it in many of its qua- lities. The Berkshire hog is thus described by Youatt : — " Sandy or white colour, with b'own or black spots ; sides broad; body thick, close, and well formed ; legs short ; head well placed; ears large and sometimes pendant over the eyes. Another distinctive mark of this breed is that the best of them are without bristles, and the hair long and curly, and curiously feathered about the ears. The skin is thin, the flesh well flavoured, and the bacon superior. Hogs of this breed have been known to reach the weight of 11'} stones of 8 lbs." " Lord Weslern's Essex' Breed ai'c apparently descended from the Berkshire stock, and may be reckoned among the finest breeds in the country. They are black and white, short haired, fine skinned, with smaller heads and ears than the Berkshire ; broad and deep in the belly, full in the hind quarters, and light in the bone and offal. The sows are good breeders, and have litters of from 8 to 12, but they have the character of being bad nurses. Lord Western describes them as feeding remarkably quick, grooving fast, and being of an ex- cellent quality of meat." Youatt thus sums up the comparative value of the best breeds : — *' Each of the breeds wc have mentioned has its advocates ; but as their respective value docs not depend on soil or situations, those dif- ferences of opinion can only bo ascribed to want of sufficient compara- tive experiments, or to prejudice. A ary competent, and apparently !i very candid judge of the merits of the principal kinds, gives it a^ his decided opinion, that the Berkshire, rough-haired, feather-eared, curled pigs, are superior in form and nosh to all others." " His opinion of the relative merits of Chinese and Berkshire pigs must have been based on fair experiments, and due consideration of their respective values ; for he mentions having fattened a Chinese sow to the weight of forty stones of 14 lbs., at three and a lialf years old ; and the quality of the bacon of each kind fattened and cured, was decided by a party of gentlemen at Lord Conyngham's table, in fiivor of the Berkshire. In this Ave unhesitatingly coincide ; but wc are inclined to think that tlie improved Essex breed may fairly com- pete with either, for it can be brought earlier to maturity by three oi' four months — it makes finer and more delicate pork, especially for pickling- -good bacon and hams. and the sows arc good breeders." 2. The Feeding of Hor>-s necessarily varies in different coun- tries. The following account of the most approved English practice cannot, however, fail to afford useful hints. " With regard to sows in pig, it is obvious that they should be well fed, that they may be enabled to supply their young ones with the ncceesary quantity of milk ; but while cave ig thus taken to keep their iwTjn^ l«T in good condition, equal caution la necessary that thev do not becomo too fat. For those that litter in spring, tares and cabbages, with the butter-milk and wash of the house and dairy, may be employed with advantage ; or if the supply from the dairy is not adequate to the de- mand, a wash may be prepared with oat, barley or pea meal. For those that litter in the autumn, lettuces have been found wholesome and nutritive, in addition to the wash ; and in the winter season, pota- to«3, Swedish turnips, parsnips and other roots, previously prepared by boiling, should be added." The Young Pigs, after being weaned, may be fed in the same manner as the sows ; but the addition of pea soup, made by boiling a bushel and a half of peas in about sixty gallons of water, until they are thoroughly broken and dissolved, either given alone or mixed with butter-milk or whey, will very materially improve their condition. No species of food has been found more fattening than barley meal, especially when mixed with skimnicd milk. It is also an excellent addition to steamed potatoes. "Whatever may be the food, young pigs should be kept warm, for they will never grow or thrive well wnen exposed to cold. During the weaning, especial care should be taken to supply them with plenty of clean straw, and to keep the pigs as clean as possible. The want of this cannot be compensated by the most plentiful allowance ot food." In summer the Store Pigs may be allowed to pasture in a well enclosed field, or may be fed with green food brought to them. The latter is better where th-^ labour can be spared. In the former case " it will be proper to have them well t inged, in order to prevent them from breaking into grain fiel'^.s ; and that operation should bo perfor- med as early as possible. Mr. Tubb recommends, instead of ringing, the paring oflf with a razor or sharp knife the gristles on the tips of the noses of the young pigs. The wound soon heals over, and they are thus rendered incapable of rooting in the fields."' For Pork, pigs are xxmaWj fattened from six to nine months old ; for Bacon from nine montlis to a year and a half ; and store swine at the same period or rarely beyond two years ; the latter, however, is the preferable age for substantial bacon for farmers use, and for which purpose the bacon should be made perfectly fat. For porkers, butter- milx, whey and barley-meal are preferable ; for bacon hogs, equal parts of fresh pollard and pea meal have been recommended. Gene • rally speaking, a hog in good conditioji, when put up and intended to be fattened to twenty score, will consume six or seven Winchester bushel:! of peaa. They are generally given raw ; but some ei.peri- ments tend to show that they might be more advantageously used when foiled to the consistence of thick soup." " Indian corn ground, barley, oat and pea meal, Swedes, parsnips, mangel wurtzel, carrots, flax seed, green clover and green corn, and cabbages, are some of the best and most nutritive matters that can be 18 188 8WINE. P f' 11 "J vt IH used in fattening swine." Roots and vegetables are more useful vrhen cooked than raw, but pigs cannot be fully fattened on these alone. The best and firmest bacon can be made only by the use of grain and pulse for at least a considerable part of the food." " Swine when fattening should be kept warm and clean, especially in cold and damp weather, and they should also be supplied with plenty of litter, the cost of which will be amply repaid by the increa- sed proportion of excellent dung thereby obtained. They should also be supplied with abundance of water." " Not only should these animals be kept warm and dry when fat- tening, but they should also be confined if possible by themselves ; or at all events there should be as small a number in the same sty, and as much out of the hearing of the cry or grunt of other pigs, as prac- ticable." "A practice has been introduced in the county of Essex, though not yet generally followed, of fattening pigs in separate stalls. These are so constructed as to admit of only one pig each, and just allowing him room for him to lio down, but not to turn. They are built with the floor in a sloping direction, to carry off" the filth. The food given is usually barley and pea-meal, and water or whey, and they are said to fatten far better in these sties than in the common ones ; this is attributed to their being more quiet, and having only to eat and sleep Instances have been known in which a hog half fat when put into one of these cages, has gained fifteen pounds a week in flesh " " Regularity in feeding should likewise be especially regarded, as it has great influence in facilitating or retarding the fattening of swine: hence it will be proper to give them a full allowance of food three or four times, or at certain otlier stated intervals in the day, as conveni- ence or other circumstances may allow. If any animal should have surfeited itself by eating too largo a propo'-tion of food, it will be advisable to administer half an ounce of sulphur in some wash, once or twice in the course of the day, and on two or three successive days." " In buying and sellipg swine, both in a fat and lean state, it has been calculated that every twenty pounds of live weight will, when killed, produce from twelve to fourteen, the advantage being in favor of large hogs ; so that if a farmer or breeder weighs the animals when alive, he will be enabled to calculate the net profitable weight when dead. By weighing the hogs every week, he may also judge of the best time for selling them to advantage ; for as soon as an animal ceases to acquire that daily increase which makes it beneficial to feed him, the best step that can be taken is to sell or slaughter him, with- out further delay." It may be interesting to farrae: 3 to know something of the methods by which the immense quantities of pork annually exported from the Western States are produced. I therefore give the following extracts SWINE. 189 to eat and sleep from the last Washington Patent Office Report, The two first extracts refer to the State of New York ; the others to Ohio and In- diana, the head-quarters of cheap Western pork. " I still hold to the Berkshire as the best ; the cheapest arc those produced from the dairy refuse, finished off with the soft corn." " With us along the Hudson River, who cannot compete with the West in producing heavj pork, where grain is cheap, there is a pre- ference for a breed of hogs that mature young. Our cheapest method of making pork is by feeding sour milk, apples, roots, bran, &c. ; pork made by feeding grain is less profitable." "We can boast of being able to produce pork as cheap as can be done almost anywhere. The grazer, from his disposition to fatten at any age, has the preference. The cheapest method of producing pork is to graze all hogs, six months old and upward, from May till July, on clover, without grain of any kind ; then put them on rye six weeks or two months : after which they will require but little feeding till ready for market. Spring pigs are frequently put into heavy market ; but this needs closer attention and more grain, as it requires also a plenti- ful supply of rich swill all the time. Older hogs thrive better, and yield a better profit from fall feeding, if grazed in summer." " Best breeds — Bedford, China, By field, Russia, and Sussex ; all have their admirers. The cheapest method of making pork is to give the pig the run of clover and stubble fields, and of the fruit orchard that abounds in the best sweet apples, peaches, etc., until he has nearly attained his growth ; then put him up in a close pen, and feed on corn meal. If cooked or fermented, all the better. Pork for bacon should be well rubbed all over with salt, and packed in bulk ; coarse salt is best ; a small portion of saltpetre should be added. After lying two weeks, should be overhauled, again rubbed with salt, and repacked. At the expiration of five weeks after first packing, provided the pork is not large, wash clean, hang up, and, before the surface is quite dry, completely saturate the whole volume of air in the smoke-house, with quick-lime. This may be done by violently stirring or throwing very fine dry lime in the smoke-house. This will effectually prevent injury from skippers, bugs, etc. Smoke well with sound hickory wood. Let your bacon hang as long as you please." "In regard to the question — how many pounds of moat one hund- red pounds of corn will make — it has been well tested that twenty-five bushels of corn will, with three months' pasture of clover, make two hundred and fifty pounds of pork." " Where labor is so scarce as often not to be had for love or money, the following is believed to be the cheapest method of making pork, and is generally adopted : — Pigs that come through the season are fed through the winter on corn in the ear, and, about the first of May, are turned on clover. If rye and oats are raised for them they are turned into a rye field whea :ft- Jl ■'i M < ; i ,. 140. tfWTIlfB. mi 1 ■HI iSffr V^l ■ il ' ! ti ^i:ir mi P^; • n. :K/^ t)K» grain is in th« dough state. From thenod they go which he names the Algerine, and ivhich appear to be allied to the Spanish. They are remarkable for their excellence as layers, but are of small size. They very early arrive at maturity. The Spanish fowls are said to attain to the weight of from 8 to 12 lbs. 6. The Shanghai or Cochin China Fowls. — The first is the proper name of those birds, the true Cochin China being a smaller and more elegantly shaped fowl. The Shanghai fowls are very large, sometimes weighing fifteen pounds, and clumsy in their form. Their color is ginger brown, sometimes with a blackish mark on the breast. Some varieties, however, are white or black, and a white variety with feathered legs is much esteemed. The flesh of these fowls is very delicate, and the eggs, which are not large, are of a pale chocolata color, and of excellent flavor. Fine specimens of the white Shanghai or Brahma poutra have recently been imported by Mr. Downs. The Shanghai hen sometimes weighs 10 lbs., and the cock as much as 12 to 14 lbs. The hens have been known to lay five eggs in two days. — Dickson. 7. The Poland Fowls are elegantly formed birds, with a tufted crest, while the comb is small and in front. There are many varieties in color, some of which are much esteemed by tho curious. Tho Poland fowls are remarkably good for the table, and produce very large finely flavored eggs, but they are bad sitters. * The above are the principal varieties of useful fowls, deserving of attention on account of their value for the table or as layers. There are, however, many other sorts, as the Lark-crested, the Hamburgh, the Bantam, the Dw^arf, the Runikin, the Frizzled, the Silky, tho Negro, the Russian, and the Barbary. as well as innumerable inter- mediate kinds produced by crossing, affording abundant scope to the tastes of fowl-fanciers, and many of them no doubt capable of being profitably reared. Persons who rear poultry for profit, will not "find it desirable to confine themselves to one breed. Crosses between the best imported breeds and the best specimens of the ordinary fowls, as well as among I mn m 19 * tUchion and Menbr^y, on FovUrjr. 146 POULTRY. i the imported breeds themselves, will often be found more profitable. It is not generally dcairable to attempt crosses between breeds that are very dissimilar in form and qualities ; but on the other hand, contin- ual breedinj^ in and in tends to degeneracy. Crosses between the Shanghai anmaciated state. Pullets whicli have been hatched in March, if constantly high fed, will lay plentifully through the following autumn, and way be fattened for table in I'ebruary. " Instead of giving ordinary or tail corn to my fattening and breed- ing poultry," says Mowbray, " I have found it most advantageous to allov,' thy heaviest and the best ; thus putting the confined fowls on a level with those fed at the barn yard, where they arc sure to get their share of the wei^lilicst and finest grain. This high feeding shows Itself not only m the size and flesh ot the fowls, but in the size, weight, and substantial goodness of their eggs, which in these valua- ble particulars will be found far superior to those of fowls fed upon ordinary grain or washy potatoes ; two cms of the former going far- ther i)i domestic use than three of tlie latter. The water given to fowls should often be renewed, and kept fresh and clean ; indeed fowls that have been well kept will turn with disgust from ordinary food or dirty water." The following summary of the value and effects of food of different sorts, is selected from Dickson and Moubray : — Grain of all kinds occupies the first place. Nearly the same mea- sure of oats, buckwheat or barley, will be found sufficient for a fowl per day. A fourth part less of wheat will suflSce, and still less of Indian corn or rye. The taates of fowls, however, differ somewhat, and they will ordinarily consume more and thrive better where they have a choice of food. Most fowls prefer boiled grain to that which is dry : and in the case of Indian corn and barley, there is a con- siderable saving by boiling the food, but this does not appear to be the case with other grains. Bran and Pollard mixed into a paste with water, are good food ; but fowls leq^uire about twice as much as they do of dry grain. Peas a? are better Potatoe, and given Carrots on evening may be cut Grefn J subsistence are of con vegetables diet. Eve will be fo Fat is also too fat to Layinq^ of the year mer; indie wild birds, healthy fov the process taken adva; lay only or every day. China and eggs in one " The Of no more ca the hens, v " The la of summer because all feathers, ai rest. Eac sequently, to lay."* " The p( ened by a ; usual food, food is to I Too plentif number of The moa laying is t< (I fowin. 149 lins: and breed- food of different Peas and Beans are good food, and as nutritioaa an grain. The/ are better boiled than raw. Potatoes arc useful along with grain, but should always be boilod and given to tho fowls warm. Carrots, Turnips, Parsiiins, i5*<^., when boiled, may be given aa on evening meal when grain nua been given in tho morning, or they may bo cut into small pieces and mixed with bran or oatmeal. Grern food and kitchen scrap may form a considerable part of the sii'jsistcnco of fowls; crumbs of bread, fragments of puddings, &c., are of course about cqu;il to grain ; parings and portions of giecn vegetables arc useful as a variety, but not good as a staple articio of diet. Every scrap of meat or fish, and bones with pickings on them, will be found acceptable to poultry, and will promote their laying. Fat is also raucS. relished, but, if given in large quantity, renders thcra too fat to contin 10 to lay. Laying and hatching. — " There seem to l)0 naturally two periods of the year when Ibwls lay — early in spring, and afterwards in sum- mer; indicating that fowls, if left to themselves, would, like several wild birds, produce two broods in a year. In warmer climates, young healthy fowls most usually begin to lay in February, but cold retards the process in colder climates, and tho knowledge of this fact has been taken advantage of to anticipate the natural iiod. Some hens will lay only one egg in three days — some evtiy other day, and others every day. It is told of some ancient varieties, as well u? the Cochin China and other m lines the inside of the egg; nor should any of the chickens be taken away as they are hatched, for this will only disturb the hen and the otaers. She should be left quite alone, till she comes chuckling from her nest with all her little ones about her." " The proprietor may not wish to have too many broods of chickens running about at the same time. If there is not more than a day or two dittbrence in their age, he can select the last that hatched her chickens, or he can take the most careful and best mother, and give her the whole of the broods. If the other hens are then placed at a distance, they will give over chuckling in the course of a day or two, and begin to lay eggs again." " The best food for newly hatched chickens is shelled oats boiled for a minute or two ; to this may be added a little hard boiled eerg or crumbs of bread. The mother will provide them with plenty c f insects and other food. Every one who has much to do with poultry should have a brood basket, in which he can carry the hen and her ciiickens ri POULTRY. 151 ?;■■§«■ to different parts of the yard or farm. The wicker-work will allow the chickens to go out, and they will pursue and pick up all the larvae, insects, and other cieaturcs, destructive to the crop. When one space is cleared, the basket may bo moved, until the greater part of the ' field is gone over. After about a week, the heu may be suffered to run about with her brood. Her health Avill be improved by this. She will teach them the most suitable kinds of food ; and by her habit of scratching she will procure them much that would otherwise be lost." " For chickens that are intended to be fattened, the grain, during the first week or perhaps longer, should be steeped in water or boiled for a few minutes. The hot liquor may bo thickened with oat or barley meal to a firm or almost solid state. Pea meal or boiled potatoes, given Avarm, and light corn, or almost any food of this kind which is most convenient +0 the owner, and which does not excite purging, may be substituted. In the course of ten or twelve weeks the chickens will have become sufficiently grown to send to market." The following practical directions for breeding fowls, are extracted from Bennett's poultry book : — "When the object in view is to perpetuate distinct varieties of un- contaminated blood, the first requisite is to procure fowls known to be of pure blood, and possessing all the necessary characteristics of their kind. Labor is lost unless the fowl selected is a perfect speci- men of his variety, for whatever imperfection exists is likely to be perpetuated in the progeny. Regard should be had to plumage, to size, and to fcrm, in making a selection either of a cock or of a pullet, and those are preferable which are hatched earliest in the year. The age of the fowls is a matter of considerable importance ; and though it is true that a fowl will lay the greatest number of eggs in her first year, yet it is believed that the chickens which are hatched from the second year's eggs are more vigorous and healthy. Old hens are preferred to pullets generally as sitters, on account of their more sedate and matronly character. A young cock, though more active in his earliest days, and likely to bestow his attentions on the hens with less reserve, is not, however, best for use in keeping a breed. The eggs impregnated by him after his first year are likely to produce the strongest chickens. It is an error to suppcao that his pro-creative power is 'locaycd or vitiated, us is often represented, after three or four years. On the contrary, a 1 -althy, vigorous coci:,, if not allowed to walk with too many hens, may be valuable and useful in the poultry yard for a longer time. An error is often committed by giving too many hens to one cock, and the result is a weak and otherwise deteriorated progeny. Not mnre than Jive hefis should ever be allowed to associate with a single cock where the quality of a breed is a matter of interest. Three ii^ imm II '> ' 'I f 152 POULTRY. 1; W Iv:- ■would bo the bettor limit of restriction, but five is the furthest limit which can bo safely assigned." "Most persons in obtaining a single vigorous cock and hen of a desirable variety, find their anticipations more than realized in tho production of a fine progeny. Tho plumage is brilliant, and the chickens are of increased size and remarkably strong and healthy. This happy state of things continues so long as the cock is restricted to a small number of hens. So soon, however, as his harem is en- larged, different elTectd are manifested, and a deterioration in the Btock is clearly observable. This is not to be attributed to close breeding, but to the increased disproportion of females to the males." I am indebted, for the following additional hints, to Mr. A. Downs, of Halifax. They merit special attention, as the results of experi- ence in this province, by a person accustomed to observe in natural history : — " The Poultry House should be in a dry position, with a south aspect, and should be made as warm as possible in winter. It should have a large window to ndmit the sunlight. It is better to have no floor, as this harbors rats, but it should be swept out once a week and strewed with some litter, which will make good manure. It should be well whitewashed inside and out ; this tends *o destroy lice or ticks. Hens prefer a darkish place to lay in. Boxes for this purpose should be placed in the floor or against the wall, with a board over them to prevent the fowls from dirtying the nests." " If the fowls have not tho run of the premises, give them as largo ft yard as you can. They should havo grass, pounded oyster shells or old limo, gravel and clean water. They should have access to dry earth to dust themselves. If kept under cover, it will always be suflSciently dry. A yard with rich earth will furnish them plenty of worms You cannot rear fine chickens unless they get worms. A brood of young chickens in a garden are of as much use as a man, by freeing it of insects. Confine the hen in a coop, and allow the chickens to run around." *' Food. — The cheapest in this Province is barley and oats, with grass or vegetables in summer. In winter, they should have, in ad- dition, potatoes or turnips boiled and mashed up with meal or shorts, with occasionally a little animal food. The pot liquor that meat has been boiled in is good to mix their meal and potatos with. Curds and meal are the best food for you jg chickens. It is well to confine the hen near the kitchen door, and allow the chickens to run about." Choice of Stack, <^c. — Always* pick out the best and healthiest fowls to breed from. If this is attended to, I do not think that breed- ing in and in is detrunental, at least for a long time. Fowls that have been liberally fed, and have a warm house, will lay during the ■winter. Pullets are the best for this. Fowls two years old are the best to broe years old, as will ensure r "Kinds ( Speckled Dt bat one kind for tho firm pounds and t large and pi tho pure brc are easily r Capons of tl " The Bl by any other are very apt very ccld we want to sit for that purp ''Cochin i for their size if prevented 80 larM in ■ fire quite har they make, h and these cr flesh." " The Br tail edged \ resembles tb have just re( qualities ns ilnghind, wh " The Bl with black, good layers, Had some pu Bolton Gi'ey but if you hens." " The G of a bri^^ht 3 MO smaller vrish to sit.' ''TheAl Prussian sh grey or yol irthest limit nd hen of a ilized in tho vnt, and the and healthy. ; is restricted harem is en- ration in the uted to close the males." r. A. Downs, ts of expcri- ro in natural •with a south ir. It should er to have no 56 a week and It should be lice or ticks, urpose should over them to them as large yster shells or access to dry rill always be ;hem plenty of et worms. A B as a man, by md allow the and oats, with 1 have, in ad- neal or shorts, that meat has with. Curds veil to confine to run about." and healthiest nk that breed- Fowls that ay during the irs old are the poiamT. 158 best to breed from. Thoy should not be kept after they aro four years old, as they do not lay so well. Six or eight hens to ono oock will ensure most of the eggs to hatch strong healthy chickens," '^ Kinds of Poultry suited to this Province. — The Orey and Speckled Dorkings are the best kind of fowl, where you wisli to keep but one kind. They lay well, sit well, and mako an excellent stock for tho fivrm or market. When full grown, tho pullets weigh livo pounds and the cook eight. Their meat is fine and juicy ; they havv> large and plump bodies, with a broad, full chest, like the patridgo ; the pure breed have five toes ; they are very hardy, and che young are easily reared, a matter of great importance in this oil mate. Capons of this breed weigh from 10 to 12 lbs." " Th9 Dlark Spanish is not surpassed either in utility or beauty by any other of the poultry tril^ ; tho oomb and wattles, however, (ire very apt to get frozen in this climate ; they should be kept in iu very ccld weather. The hens lay very large white eggs ; they never want to sit If you wish to breed them you must employ other hens for that purpose." ^^ Cochin Chiu'.i or Shangfiai. — The cgi^s of these breeds ai'c small for their size, and of a brown color ; they frequently wish to sit, but if prevented they will recoramenoe laying ; they do not appear to grow 80 lar^o in this climate as in more southern lattitudos, though thoy are quite hardy ; the flesh is coarse, and they want depth of breast ; thoy make, however, a good cross with almost any other kinn of fowl, and these cross breeds have a better shape, larger Qg ^^H • '«HH y ^^H ^'ip :' '1 W li" I i i 100 UXVTOLU. 11 > manar^. It was in early spring, and wo found ioareely one bam that had not ill largo manure heap perfectly exposed to n j weather, and with a dark stream oozing from its huso into tho roa ido ditoh, or down the nearest slope; while there was evidently contrivance whatever for saving the liquid manure of cnttle. Here was direct evidence, that a large proportion, probably not less than one third, of the soluble port of tho solid manure, and the whole of tho liquid ma- nure, which all agricultural chemists think to bo at least equal in value to the solid pivrt, wns being lost. In ether words, each farmer was deliberately losing between one-half and two-thirds of the means of raising crops, contamcd in his own barn-yard. What would we think of a tradesman or manufacturer, who should carelessly suffer one half of his stock of raw material to go to waste ; and the case of such farmers is precisely similar. The results of chemical analysis will enable us to form more precise ideas of tho nature and amount of this waste. Compcsition nf Solid Stable Ma- nure (Aichardson.) Onrbon, 87.40 Hydrogen, 5.27 Oxygen 25.52 Nitrogen, 1.76 Ashes, 30.05 100.00 Composition of tho Ashes of Stable Manure (lb.) Potash, Soda, Lime, Magnesb, Sulphuric Acid, Chlorina, Silica, 8.221 CO o 2.70 c* 84 2: 0.26 > ^. 3.27 8.15 0.04 I Composition of Liquid Maniiro i (Bossaingault.) ' Jlorso. Cow. I Urea, 81.00 18.48 iHipurateofPotash 4.74 16.51 i Lactate of Potash, 20.09 17.16 i Carbonate of Mag- I nesia, 416 4.71 ' " of Lime, 10.82 0.65 I Sulphate of Potash 1.18 3.60 i Chloride of Sodium 0.74 1.52 i Silica, 1.01 i Water, &c., 910.76 921.32 Phosphate of Lime, 7.11 " of Magnesia, 2.26 " of Ox. of Iron, 4.68 Carbonate of Lime, 9.84 " of Magnesia, 1.63 Silica, 27.01 Safid, &c., 84.96 g-co CO 100 00 I 1000.00 1000.00 i Urea, the principal orcanio ingre- , dient of U-.-ine, consists of — i Carbon, I Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, 100.0 It ja, therefore, very rich in Nitro- gen. In decomposiDg, it ohangca into carbonate of ammonia, whioh rapidly osenjwtf, unless prevented by gome ab- Borbent matoriaJ, as gharcoal, ov by tho choinioal action of aulphu^'^o &ci4 ct gyp«am. JIANUllES. 161 In tlio above table, wc see thnt tlio lir|uiil manure contains large quantities of potash anil soda; ami that a larp;o portion of it is urcn, a substance very rich in nitrojicn, nnd. in ('net, fjuito similar to tlia rii'hoKt iiigrodionls of ;^nano. Joliiiston CHlimatos tlio value of 1,000 gallons of the urine of the cow, to bo et[\v\\ to that of a hundred- weight of j^uano. The farmers of I'^landors, — who save all this iniinure in tanks,- consider the annual value of the urine of a cow, to be .'^lO. 0.00 1000.00 7 ricli in Nitro- Tn the solid manure, we perceive that there is little nitrogen. This clement, so valuable I'nv producinj^ the richer nutritious jmrts of i:;rain and root crops, is principally found in the litpiid manure. The little that is present, however, in the solid manure, is soon lost, in the form of ammoniacal vapoi's, if tiie dun|^ be allowed to ferment uncovered. 'L'lie other organic matters are less easily destroyed, unless the dung bo allowed to become " fire-fanged," in which case tlie greater part of it is lost. In the ashes, or inorganic part, wc find all the substances already referred to, as constituents of fertile soils; and many of the most valuable of them are, as the manure decom- ])oses, Avashed away, and. along with a variety of organic matters, appear in the dark-colored water which flows from exposed dung- liills. It is not too much to say. that the loss of the volatile and soluble parts of manures, on ordinary ui>land soils, cannot be repaid by any amount of outlay in the purchase of other manures that our farmers can afford; and wo can })lainly perceive, that the prevailing neglect in this one particular, is sufficient to account for the deterio- ation of once fertile farms. How, then, is this waste to be prevent- ed .' In answer to this, I shall merely indicate the principles ou which the means adopted for saving manures should be founded, with a few genei'al hints on the best modes of carrying them into effect. 1. The solid manu.'-c should be covered by a shed, or roof, suffi- cient to protect it from rain and snow. Its own natural moisture is sufficient to promote, during winter, a slow and beneficial fermenta- tion. Snow only prevents this from going on : rain washes away the substance of the fermented manure. 2. The ground on which the manure heap rests, should be hoi lowed, and made tight below with clay or p'anks; and in autumn, a thick layer of bog mud, or loam, should be placed on it, to absorb tho draiuings of the manure. o. When the manure is drawn out to the field, it should bo cov- ered as soon as possible, either in the soil, or, if it must stand for a time, with a thick coating of peat or loam, — a pile of which should bo prepared in autumn for thi.^ purpose. All unnecessary exposure should be avoided. 4. Where gypsum can be procured cheaply, it should bo strewed 21 162 MANURSd. f ii il about tlic stables, and on the manure heap, for the purpose of con- verting volatile uinmoniawil vapors into fixed sulphate of ammonia. This >vill also render the air ol" the Ht.i'ilc.^ more jturo and wholeeome. 6. It must be borne in mind, that the richcHt manures are the most easily injurvd. For exinnplo, many farmers think horse manure to be of liltk) value. The reason is, that uhen exposed it rapidly enters into a violent fermentation and decay, and its more valuable part? are lost. Such manures rec^uiro more care than otherg, in protection and covoriii};. so ;is to moderate the chemical changes to which they are so liable, and to save the volatile luid soluble products which result from th(?ni. 6. The lif[uid manure should be collected, either in the jiit or hol- low intended for the other manure, or in a sejiarate pit prepared for the purpose. Tho latter is the better method. If a tight floor can be made in tho stable, it should be sloped from the heads of tiie cattlo, and a channel made, along which the urine can flow into the pit. If tho floor is open, tho pit should bo directly beneath it, or the ground below shouhi bo so sloped as to conduct the liquid into the pit. In whatever way arranged, tlie pit should be tight in the bottom and Bides, and should be filled with soil, or peaty swamp mud, to absorb tho liijuid. Gyjisura may also be added with great benefit; and the urine pit may very well form a receptacle for door-cleanings, litter which may accumulate about the barn, and every other kind of vege- table or animal refuse. These additional matters may occasionally be protected, by adding a new layer of peat or soil to the top, The pit for lifiuid niaiiuro shouhi be roofed over. A methoil much followed in Britain and tlie continent of Europe, is to collect the urine in a tank, and add sulphuric acid to prevent waste of ammonia. When used, the liquid is diluted with water, and distributed to tho crop by a watering cart. This is too expensive for most of our farmers; but when it can be follow:ed, it Avill be found to give an astonishing stimulus to the crops, especially in the dry weather of spring. Gypsum may be put into the tank, instead of sulphuric acid. This subject is, in all in its details, deserving of tho careful study of every practical farmer. For further information on it. I may refer to the Letters of Agricola, Johnston's Lectures, .] udge Peters' Hints. Jackson's Agriculture, Stephens' Book of the Farm : and, indeed, to modern agricultural books generally. Other Organic Manures. — The remaining organic manures may bo arranged under the following heads : 1. Those which, like peat, bog mud, leaves, spent bark, saw dust, straw, &c., consist principally or exclnsiA'ely of woody fibre. These substances decay but slowly in the soil, and do not yield large quan- tities of tho more rare and valuable of the substances required by '^f ■pose of con- of ammonia. il wholesome, aro the most c manure to apidly enters aluablo part? in protection which they ofjucts which le pit or ho]. prepared for ht floor can of tho cattle. ;o the pit. If or tho ground tho pit. In le bottom and lud, to absorb lefit; and the eanings, litter kind of vegc- ij occasionally the top. The method much to collect the te of ammonia, rj bated to the r most of our nd to give an iry weather of i of sulphuric 1 careful study it, I may refer Peters' Hints, and, indeed, to ■ manures may 3ark, saw dust. 7 fibre. These 3ld large quan- js required by MANURES. IflS cultivated plants. They aro useful, however, in two points of view. Thev renew the supply of vegetable matter in tho soil, and thereby ameliorate its texture; and they afford, by their decay, .subfltanoe*^ useful in enabling plants to build up the ti.ssues of their .stenm and leaves. They are also admirable absorbont.s for tho richer partsi of putrescent manures ; and ))y mixture with those substances, they are themselves more rapidly tlecomposed. Thoir use, therefore, is, a« already indicated, to fill tho urino pit, to form tho basi.s of tho dung- hill and tho cover of composts, and ,o serve as littor in the stable and cattle-yard. They may also bo used in top- dressing grass, — which they not only nouri.sh, but protect from tho fro.sts of winter. For this latter purpose, straw has, iu sonio parts of America, been spread over the fields of winter wheat in autumn ; and there can be little doubt that, with a good covering of straw, winter wheat might suc- ceed here. 2. A second class consists of the rapidly decomposing remains of animals and plants, — as dead animals, blood, night soil, fi;jh olfdl, parings of hides, green succulimt weeds, .sea weeds, Lc. The animal manures of this class, aro of groat value, being almost entirely com- posed of tho materials which are most wanted for tlie production of the most nutritious parts of vegetables. Tho vegetable manures of thia class, though less valuable, ailbrd, in addition to their wotxly fibre, much alkaline matter, and some nitrogen ; and aoiiie ol' tliem contain animal substances, which ad'erc-\';. Light and sandy soils, on the other hand, may bo injurct. •:/ a a'-'-'i wliich would be much too small for clay land. To these circumstaiuos, therefore, attention must be paid, as well as to the proportion of lime naturally present. Since limo gradually disappears from the soil, it is necessary that the supply should be renewed at intervals ; and it is plain that a more uniform effect will be secured by adding small (quantities frequently, than by using large doses at long intervals. Tlio practice of farmers, has, however, varied very much in this respect, according to their various circumstances. In some parts of Scotland, forty bushels of shells per acre are applied every five or six yearo ; in others, two hundred to three hundred bushels are used oiicc in nineteen or twenty years. In Flanders, ten to twelve bushels are applied once in three years, or forty to fifty bushels once in twelve years. In many parts of England, lime is applied once in every rotation of three or four years. The difiierent length oC the intervals in these cases does not appear to be of very great importance, and may be varied by every farmer to suit his own convenience. fcmaU applications, at short intervals, are, however, evidently safer and more clhcacious than large doses seldom rei)eated. Enough has now been slated to show tho Uaos of lime and their rea- sons, and to prevent us from being deceived hy the hasty assertions respecting its utility and inutility, frequently made by persons whose views on the subject are only parti;il. The result of an enlightened view of v.-hat is known with lespect to this valuable manure, may be summed up as follows : — 1st. Limo has idtimalely the same effect.-; v^hether it be applied in the quick, air-slated, or mild statu : it should lie well mi.wd with the soil, but kept as near the surface as pcssible ; and it should be re- newed at intervals of a few years. 2ndly. The mechanical eflects of lime in opening and loosening the soil, are always beueficinl on heavy soilS; cxce])t where these aro very wot and undrained ] and, en the ether 'land. they arc sometimes irijiv rions to vory light and dry ground. mantheb. 178 m tlif^so n.ro very tmotimes ■jrijM-< Srdly. The chemical effects of lime, when properly applied, are, affording a necessary part of the food of crops ; bringing into activity the inert vegetable matter of the soil ; and decomposing some mineral compounds which are injurious to vegetation, and others whose con- Btituents are of great utility when sot free by its action. By these means it tends to discourage the growth of moss and many other use- less plants in pastures and hay fields, and encourage that of valuable grasses and clover ; to increase tlio quantity and improve the quality of grain and green crops; and to augment the benefit of vegetable manures. 4thly. When applied to land already abounding in lime, or very deficient in vegetable mould, it may produce no benefit ; and applied in too large quantity, or when not accompanied with sufficient sup- plies of vegetable manures, it may be highly injurious by exhausting and impoverishing the soil. 5thly. Just as some cultivated plants cannot thrive without a good proportion of lime, there are some wild plants native to poor non-cal- careous soils which are destroyed by liming. Hence, liming and sowing with grass are sometimes sufficient to replace the most useless plants by nutritious grasses. Some varieties of limestone contain a large proportion of magnesia, ^hich, when added to the soil in largo quantity, produces an injurious effect. I am not aware that any limestones in this province are highly raagnesian, except the ferruginous limestone found in connection with iron ores in the nills of Londonderry and a few other places. 2. Gypsum. — The uses of this substance have already been often referrfid to. 1. Gypsum supplies sulphate of lime to crops, and, in general, is the cheapest form in which the sulphuric acid — shov^n by analysis to bo present in the ashes of cultivated plants — may be obtained by the farmer. For instance, 1000 lbs. of dry clover and timothy hay, contain from 3^ to 4^ lbs. of sulphuric acid ; or we may estimate the quantity of sulphate of lime, or gypsum, required by a moderate hay crop, at 20 to 30 lbs. per acre When gypsum is natu- rally deficient in the soil, great results may be expected from its application, especially in the growth of those crops which contain large quantities of this substance. 2. Gypsum possesses great value, from its property of decomposing the carbonate of ammonia, — one of the most valuable products of the decay of animal substances. This action may be represented thus : Ctu'bonate of Ar.amonia ) C Sulphate of Ammonia and :■ := < and Sulphate of Linio \ ( Corbonate of Lime. The carbonate of ammonia rapidly passes off in vapour ; but the sul- phate rera'iins in the soil or the manure. Hence the importance of this change to the farmer. The iniluence of gypsum is thus very different frora that of lime or If. , ; V 1T4 MANTTRES. ?iB "^1 nifirl. It does not tend either to waste or render available the vege- table matter of the soil ; nor docs it remove the sourness and coldness fif heavy soils, On the contrary, it rather tends to give bofly to light soils. Fts uses, however, are very important ; and in a country where gypsum ia so abundant as in Nova .Scotia, it is singular that it is not more extensively employed. This may W' attributed, in part, to thp following causes : In the vicinity of the sea, experience has shewn that gypsum is loss useful than further inland ; apparently becausp the sea sjtray carried by the wind supplies to the soil a small quantitj? of sulphate of soda, Avhich serves the place of gypsum. Again, many soils In this Province, especially those in the vicinity of the gypsum bed.s, arc already well supidiod with this substance ; and some soils in the slaty districts, though deficient in gyj>8ura, receive supplies of sulphuric acid from the sulphurei of iron containeago, or grass, or leaves. 7 times, with cow dung. 9 do,, with pigeon's dung 12 do , with human urinu. 12 do,, with sheep's urine. 14 do., ivith liuman dung ur bullock's blood "It cannot bo too ofien repeated, that in no way are m.anurc3 mort wasted than by constant exposure to tlie sun, air, and rains ; heuoc various expedients have been resorted to in order to prevent this losa Among these are — the mi.xing it with dry earth, pulverized or burnt clay, charcoal, dry or charred pi-at, or other absorbent substances which will, in a great measure, prevent this inconvenience ; the crec tion of sheds over dung heaps ; the covering of these heaps with turf sods, (tho grassy side downwards), where ilie dung is kept until it is old; and the formation of tinka and reservoirs." Mr. Prideaux rccommemis '• a .'ituunch pit, rather deep than wide, being ma'1e to receive the draining? : a bed of humous c;.rth may be fiiist laid down, inclining toward the pit. Upon this spread hard stalks, etc., which are slow to decay, tlion a layer of dung, mixed, from the oow-housc.^, stables and stior*, sprinklcl with salt; next a layer of vo- getablo matter, as weeds, roots harrowed up, hedge clippings, fallen leaves, and other recent herbage, ot the same thickness, dusted with MANURES. 181 ;n uo manure ago, or grass. slaked lime; upon this a lour-ineh layovof peat, bark, saw-du^.t, sods, ditch or pond pcourings, scrapings of the roads, or coal ashes ; tlion, beginning again with the salted dung, and adding the vegetable and 4mmou8 layers until the heap is tbiu or five feet high, ahvaja kocpir;"' the limo from coining in contact uiih tlio dun.3. Then pour over it the liquid drainage, till all is soaked through, and continue to repeat tho layers, pouring the drainage upon every lour feet of tliickncss. — A3 the fluid passes through, it will dissolve the salt and lima, and carry the juices throughout. Slope the top of the heap, and cover it with straw, to carry off rain Have g;\tter,^ to carry off the iiaid to the liquid manure heap — and, in six monthpi. the heap will bo ready for use.'"' ''In addition to the liumevoua articles enumerated in the r)eceding chapters, ^-e would obseive that, before tho winter or fodder season ammences, the surface of the cattlo-yard may be raised by spreading thereon fern, leaves, refuse straw, poat, and similar vegetable raattei*a. Every previous arrangement being thus made, tlio cattle should bo kept within their yards thi'oughout the winter season : but the greatest care must be taken to keep them dry, which will be difficult if tho manure bo allowed to accumulate : therefore, where thev -vce nuraer- ous, tho surface litter of the yards may be removed to tho dung-racers, and fresh laid down, as already mentioned. A common method is to have tho centre of the yard covicuvu, eo as to receive the drainage from the surrounding sheds and stables — wliich, being covered with litter and trodden by the cattle, sooii becomes fit for the dung-heap. This, — so far as tlio manure is concerned — is an 'excellent method : but, as che health of tho cattle i.s also an important consideration, whenever the litter has been completely saturated, it should eitlier b.j covered witTi dry straw, or removed." " Agriculturists are by no means agreed as to the point of allowing their beasts litter to lie on, tmd *hus consnm-ing their whole stock of hay or straw ; or arranging the floors in such a direction that they may bo kept clean by sweeping only, and litter rendered unnece=>sary The latter practice was at one time doptcd by the late eminent breeder, Mr. Bakewell, and sanctioned liy many agricultnrist-j It would — at first sight — appear obvious that the largest quantity of dung must he produced by the straw and coarse food being consun.ed by lean beasts— while tho richer and more succulent is eaten by tho fatting beasts — whether neat cattle, sheep or lambs. Mr Bakewell, liowever, scema to have found that such was not the result, for ho afterwards modified his system, and used a portion of the straw as litter, in which stato it absorbs the urine, and does not permit any part to be lost. Urino is generally admitted to be of lar more value than straw that has been merely masticated and digested, without being combined with richer food. Liebig says : — ' With every pound of urine wtCStcd, wo lose (k pound of wheat' " f 182 MANOIUIal. ilil "The augmen'. '.tion of manure neosaarily- diipcnds ou the nature anu applicfi^ Ion of the i'^'l given to animala Wo have already pointed Out t^;.,' »'ari'>us articlcii of the vegetable kingdom, as well as the artiGcial ioods that are best calculated for feeding and fattening cattle; and have endeavored to evince the superiority of soiling, l)oth as respects tlie economical consumplion of food, and also the ])roductiou of man- ure. The quamity of manure produced by a far-n, may also be increased, by having strtndlnq sheep folds. For this purpose, in Flanders the ground is marlvod out, and spread with dry sand four or five inohes thic'' ; on this are erected slight sheds, in which the sheep are housed at niglit, a small quantity of dry sand — for which drj peat, &.G., may bo substituted —being laid in, every evening. This is cleared out once a Aveek and carried to a dunghill, or spread upon tlie s?oil. The manure thus produced is well calculated for fertilizing almost every kind of ground, and makes an excellent drcssin'i; for cold and stiff soils. Dry stable litter, from which the dung has been shaken out, may also be advantageously used in folds." Dung Sieads may be tended and the manure augmented at differ- ent times, when no ether business of greater moment stands in tlia way. They should bo guarded from being to-'a or spread about by the scratching of poultry, or Ijy swine, and therefore when in or neu; the farm-yard, should be surrounded by fences. If the heaps do not ferment, the process may be accelerated and assisted by watering thee with the yard drainage, or with a solution of bones dissolved in sul- phuric acid, and then covering them closely with earth or sod- Bleacher's lye and gas water have also been recommended for im purpose, and whore they can eitlicr bo cheaply or easily obtain'.;d, t-hould be used. It frequently happen.?, hov/ever, that fermentadori proceeds too rapidly for the purpose of the farmer, and thus iorue '< the most v..\luable properties of the manure are lost, and tho quantity also becomes seriously reduced. In such case the heaps should h immediately turned and mixed with moul 1. ^"d thi.'i opertition should be repeated often enough to p)cvcnt tho h : looiting process from ever proceeding farther tl an may be necessary i-jv the destruction of the seeds of weeds, and tho decomposition of the fibre of the vegetable matter contained in thorn. Where stable dung i.s used, it will geui;- rally be found that when the straw has become so far rotted a.s to admit of being cut through with a spade, it is fit to be carried upon tho land, and if allowed to remain longer in the heap, its substanca and value will daily diminish. From what some farmers call ' rotten dung,' all the fertilizing properties are so completely drained awa/, that it is of little other use than to loosen the soil and retain nioia- lure.'' " The following method of making dungliillg, as practised in Mid- dlesex, has r. just claim on the attention of agriculturists. All tb scraping ot iOads, mud of ditches and ponds, and top mould of gravel mCc-y layers MA-NTRES. 182 13 purpose, in p, its substanca nd retain mois- pits, se spread in convenient spots ns bottoms for dunghills. On tiieay layers is carted all the dung produced on the furrn, or which C!tr !)C obtiiiued fVom London, etc. ; and lo these are occasionally added chalk, ashes, soap boiler's rubbish, etc. In this state the heap continues till wiibiii a month of the time of manuring the land, when it is thoroughly turned, the clods broken, and the drier parts thro^vn into the coiitre." " !^ir. Thomson, of Kirby Hall, recommends, ' to have a pit dug in the earth, into -which to throw m^anurcs : the bottom of the pit is water tig! t, and has a slope toward the centre, where a tank is placed so as to receive the draiuings of the manure, which draining is frequently poured over the manure so as to keep up a regular but not excessive fermentation.' He has all the vegetable refuse of the farm spread over the bottom of the pit, and on this the manure is carted. When ^ranted fur immediate use, the manur;? if^ lightly thrown to^etlicr, liiid, after being soaked with the tank-liquor, covered with a thin layer of soil. If it is to be kept for si.c moptbo or more, it must Ixs pressed together, and thickly covered with soil or peat, so as almost CLtirely to exclude air." " The most proper -ituations for dunghilU are contiguous to stables, etc., to which may be idded others near the house and piggery. The dunff mecr or pit adjacent to the house, may bo composed of various jngredicnts besides dung. Scrapings of the yard, earth, straw. weeJs, dung of fowls, soot, ashcij, shells, lime and bones, kitchen sweepings, dirty Avatcr. suds, brine, urine, etc., etc., all contribute to its richness. " The dung heap contiguous lu the barn and outhou.se:;, may be .augmented by soil, mud, weeds, etc. In every case, however, it will bo proper that those ingrer,.''.nts should predominate which are best, calcuhiied for the land in wnich it is to be laid, and which will fer- ment and decompose a;^ nearly a.s pos.^iblc at the same time ; for other- wise, one portion may be losing its most valuable qualities, while ano- ther is only slowly proeeeding towardi decomposition, or the whole process may bo improperly chec!un off lo tlie noaicst brook. This u a common error. To pre\\:.t it. the place wli!.!io the manure is thrown out should bo d'.ig out so as to form a pit two. three, or four feet deep, according la ,5 situ-uion ; if the but toin will not hold water, it shouli be puddled with cl..v ; ouring the sujuDier. or in the fall. Uii most con- venient, one oj- two feet ( f Ijog mud, if it can be got. or earth iVomtlio road side, should bo laid "O the bottom of the pit — the manure, uheit thrown out, Avill then rest on this mud or earth, which will absorb tbc juices as they escape and bccoiue as good mauure as the dung itself; and what the mud :r earth docs nvi goak up, will remain in the pii MANURES. 185 saturotini^ the lower parts of the dung-heap. This will be found, on trial, .an improvement on the present system. But there is a further improvement, viz. : the erection of a shed against the side of the stable or cuttle-house over the pit, so as to cover the manure when thrown out: this will piovent its being mixed with snow in winter, or washed by rain in spring. It is of great importance in tlie manngoment of barn-yard manure, that a n-ttifle fermentation or heatimi; slwuld bo constantly going on in the heap — first, because a certain extent of decompo-sitiou is necessary to i-ender the litter it contains fit food for pl.tnts ; secondly, because by this heating, seeds of noxious weeds are destroyed. If tlio dung is mixed with snow and frozen, no decompo- sition goes on in winter, and the seed.s of every weed whicli grew on the farm are preserved and carried out Avitii the mainire, and are thus re-sown in the ppiing. By having the manure covered with a shed, this evil will be avoided, as — though ten or twelve inches of the top of heap tiius covered may be frozen— yet, even in midwinter, tho interior of the heap will maintain sufficient heat to destroy the vitality of the seeds, and, gradually, to decompose the litter. If, on tho other hand, manure which has not been covered, be left till late in tho spring, the heat of the weather soon causes it to heat so rapidly, that it becomes too hot ; a strong smell will be found coming from it. This is a gas called ammonia, which — though invisible — is the very best part of the manure, and, if preserved. Avould produce the farmer bushels of turnips, wheat and oats. On opening a heap whicli has undergone this excessive fermentation, a great part of it will often be found " fire-fangcd," — that is, having a dry, mouldy, appearance. — Maniare reduced to this state is of little value ; but where dung, by being under a shed, has undergone a gradual decomposition during the winter, this excessive heating, and consequent loss, will be avoided. Boussingault, page 260, on this subject, says : — ' ■ The loss of ammonia from dung-heaps in the course of regulated fermentation, must not be estimated too highly ; when the decompo- sition is oarcfulbj conducted, the loss i.? really very small, the gentlo fermentation then raised has characters which diifer essentially from those that accompany the rapid puti'efaction, which never fails to take place when matters arc not well managed. As an example of the rapid and injurious iei mentation of which I speak. I may cite that Avhich- frequently takes place in piles of horse-dung. Every one must have seen- such dung-hills left to themselves, acquiring a very intense heat in the course of a few days, and even heard of their taking fire. I have seen piles of this kind reduced to their m<-re earthly constitu- ents; such arc never the results of the motkrate and gradual decom- position, which farni-yuid dung ought n^-'-'r to exceed. '^\'henthe pit a- stance is emptied- — in which a 3lo^v ami equal fermentation has taken place — the upper layer is seen to be very nearly in the same .-tato in ^vhichit was when it'was piled, the layer imno^^difntly bi^neath this onf) 24 .11 h ! I' * 186 manuhes. is chnngcrl in a greater rlcgrco, and sometimes exhales a slight, ammo- niacal odor; in llic lower strata the rnorlificatio.i ia yot greater; the str;;w L;is lost its consistency, it is fibrouS; and breaks into pieces with the grcutflst eaio ; the mass is also jrioportionully diikcr in color as we go {locjitr, and — on tiie ground-- is black. There is no doubt bat that tic slate in uliich the properly managed dung heap is found in the end, is due to tiiij circumstances in which it has been plac.Ml and kept during the v.holc time of its preparation; its constituent elomenta would havo ;^-'in<;) through a totally diiTcrcut course in the jirogress of their modiii;:ation. h;id the ; been lo'i ov.-osed to the open air.' " " TIk^ urine of cattle, horses, pigs, kc, is a most powerful manuio.' "' The urine .saved from a single cow is considered worth ton dollars per annum in Fl-inders, wlierc agricultural practice has reached ahi^h etijtoof iulvancoincnt. The urine of a cow for a year will manure one and a (juartor acres of land, and is more v.iluablo than its dung in the ratio by hulk of seven to six, and. in real value, as two to one. How importiKiL, tlieii, tliat every particle of it Ixi carefully husbanded for the Ciop?"," — AUcvis Farm Book, p. 6-1. And yet this most valu- able manur.-; is very ^wneraliv wasted in this IsLiud. There are seve- ral melhod.i of saving it. Ono generally practised is to excavate tho earth under or near the stnbles or sUdls, and place it in a tank, either made of Avood or bui't of brick, arid grouted so as to hold water — ani fi'Om vhich the liquid is pumpod into a puncheon placed in a cart, or on wheels, and then allow it to run off as the cart is driven over the fields ; various contrivances being used to sprinklo tho liquid evenly over the p^mund. A simphi and efFt-ctivo one is to place a board in tho tale of the cart, with notches cut in tlie under edge — by letting tho liquid run ir >:rL tho puncheons into tho cart, it will bo equally distri- bnte Jl find it moj>3 convenient to let it empty into the pit from spout's undur or over the sill, because, as the liquid should flow into it over the top of the mud or earth, the pit will the?i hold a suflicient quuntity wiih- out being juado so deep .13 it would require to be where the liquid first runs through the flour. Jiy "leans similar to the above, the writer la3t year obt;iined 220 loads of manure from tlio urine of hid stock — seven cows and three horses — independently of the manure made from their dung. The following extract from the Farmer's Tr&asnr*, page 175, both points out the mode of saving the urino, and strikingly illustrates ita value as manure; — " A letter from Charlcd Alexander, near Peebles, in Scotland, addressed to Sir John ,'jiuclair, in 1812, contains muoU valuable information on this subject. This intelligent furraer liad long been impressed with the great importance of the urine of cattle us a man- ure, and he sot about to dijcover, hj a long and vrc>l-cnndii.cted series of experiment.'?, th.o best mode of cullecting ar;d applying it. Tie began by digging a pit contiguous to the feeding stall, but distinc^ altogoUicr from that which was appropriated for tlie reception of the dun-^. The dimensions of the pit were tliirty-six feet square, and four f(?et deep — suriounded on all sides by a wall — and tlio solid content-} were 192 yards. Having selected the nearest spot Avhero he could find loamy earth — and this ho always took from the surface of some field uadar cultivation — he proceeded to fill it, and found that with three men and two horses, he could easily accomplish twenty-eight cubic yards per day. When the \York was corajdete, he levelled the surface of the heap in a lino with the sewer which conducted the urine frOM the interior of the building, on purpose that it might bo distribiUed with regularity, and might saturate the whole, t'l-om top to bottom. Tho urino was supplied by fourteen cattle, kept there for five months on fodder and turnips. The content.? of thj pit produced 288 load.s — allowing two cubic yards to be taken out in three carts — and he spi-ead forty of these on each acre, so that this urino, in five months, produced a compost sufEcient for the fertilization of seven acres of laud.'' He states, further, that he had tried this experiment for icn years, juid had indiscriminately used — en the same fiehl — either the co>v dung or the saturcfted earth, and, in all stages of the crop, ho had never been able to find any perceptible difference. Jiut, what is still more wonderful, he found liis compost lasted, in its effects, as many years as hir, best manure. It appears, then, that in five months each cow discharges urine which, when absorbed by loam, furnishes manure of the richest (quality and most durable effects, for half an aero of jrround. Tho pit which contained all the dung of the fourteen cattli, as Avell as the littor employed in bedding them, and which was kept separate for tho pur- pose of the experiment, only furiiishad — Juring the samo period — 240 lgid3, and theie, at the S-imii rate, could only mduure six acresjt .IT w MASt'IlE*. l'-^**'«( f m From thesd facts, it is evident that tha urino which the farmers in this Island wAste, is actuall\' wovtli more than tlie dung which they save — a conclusion which should certainly load to an alteration in then present practice. Tlie dung is often drawn out to the fields in March and April, and formed into heaps, where it reniaina until it is wanted. This is neces- sary to forward the spring's work ; I'Ut it is generally loft uncovered, and heats before it is carted out for spreading, and thus a great portion of the ammonia — the best of the manure — is lost. Agrleola ob.serves : — ''A skilful agvieukurist would no more think of allowing a violent fermentation to be "oluif on in his dunghill, unmi.xed with eavtli or matter U) fix and secure the gas, than the distiller would sulVor his apparatus to be set to work without surmounting his still with the worm, to cool and condense the rarified spirit wiiich iiscends in evapo- ration ; in both, the most precious matter is that which escapes in a gaseous state ; and to behold it escaping with unconcernod indill'or- euce, is a demonstration of the most profound ignorance.'' The Furmer's Trcusitrc. page T-J, gives the following direc- tions : — "When it is found necessary tu cart the manure away in order to forwaril the Imsiness of the season, ])revious tu the oommenccmenl of the work, a quantity of peat or soil should )>e collected on the spot intended to receive the dung. The f<;iindatiou of the heap should be laid with such material, about six or nine inches thick, according to the nature of the dung to be laid upon it, and it should be rather inclined to the centre, so as to retain as much as possible of the soak- uge of the heap — the sides should be kejit uprigh't, and the top level. At the coiiclusion of the hauling, the two ends should be In'ought up to the general level of the heap, and the whole surface — including the top, sides and ends- -.should be well coated with the niuuld, ur uthi;r material provided for the purpose.'' In this Island, the ground being frozen in March and part of April, earth or mud cannot tiien be got ; but the farmer should look aliead— he can make a heap of mud or earth during the summer or autumn to cover his manure witli in the spring ; the lieap should b(; placed in the lee of a bush or fence, where the snow accumulates, or surroun- ded with a, few bushes or hurdles to catch the snow. 1 generally pre- pare a heaj) of bog mud in this way to ciner iny muMire lieups in tha spring ; I find it then onsily got at, as the I'rost seldom penetrates the heap more than five or six inches. This nnul being coated twelve or sixteen inchts thick over the sides and top of the dung hciip, retains the ammonia, and becomes as good as the dung itseli", and greatly in- creases the quantity of manure. Whether the manure be spread over the ground to be ploughed, or put in drills, it should be covered as soon as possible after it is spread, MANTREl, 139 because by oxpoaure tr> tU«} sun, iu luoisturo I'a «vfiporftte>l, anrl Um tlung is loft parched and dry. and doett not rot so ijiiickly in tlie soil uH when it is ploughed in damp. con3ei|Ucntly the crop remains a long time without receiving henefit iVoin it. f frciiuently see duni; sprciul two or three days before it la ploughed in. It* it were old, well-rotted dung, it might not mutter su much; hut with half-rotted dung, math; only the winter helore, it is a most wasteful ])ractico ; correctly speak- ing, the plough should follow the spreaders ; hut our practii.-e must he adapted to our oircui.i stances : and few of our farmers can command suflicient hands to dt) tliis, hut ;dl should reni-'iiiher. • Ihaf evrry insfinif it lies tTposrd to tliv iiii\ it is ie evident, and will be found durable. IJut to make it produce [irompt and immediate eil'ect, it should bo mixed with manure, or lime, or aslies, Avhich may be done in various ways. In mixing it with manure, the plan I pursue — suggested to me by Fessenden's Complete Farmer-is this : I first form a bottom of mud fifteen feet wide and eight or ten inches doop ; then lay on a layer of manure about six irichei* deep ; then eight or ten inclies of mud ; then six inches of manurC; and so on, alternate layers of mud and manure, till the heap is about four and a half feet high ; tho sides, - Is and top art; then coated with mud ten or twelve inches thick ; the manure and mud should be thrown on from each side, and no one allowed to tread on tho heap, because, if it is packed too close- ly, it will not heat so well. The dryer the mud tho less manure will be required to causo the whole to heat. I generally make the com- post in August or September, and use about one load of inannre to three of mud : if not made up till October, 1 use a larger proportion of manure, as more is then i-equired to produce heat than when the weather is hotter. Early in the spring the heap is tu^iied ; it then heats slightly again, and is ready for turnips or other crop, and a cart load of it will be found equal to a cart load of farm yard manure. In mixing it with lime, I have found twenty barrels of roach lime W ^ \'^ ^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.1 I^|2j8 |2^ ■50 ^^" niH ^ U£ 12.0 L25 i 1.4 % 7 y Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 VyiST MAIN STREr WEBSTER, N.Y. MStO (716) 872-4S03 I9t) MA.NTmE!5. sufficient for one hundred cart-loatl'i of raud The lime uhould be slacked beside the mud, and mixed wiib it while it is hot ; it should remain a year i;s compost, and bo two or ihreo times turned. Ashes serve the same purpose, and in manj parts of the Island aro more easily obtained than li;iie. Dr. Dana, of Massachusetts, recom- mends eiglit bushels of unleached vood ashes to be mixed with one cord of njud, which, ho says, is equivalent to pure cow dung in value. I have found the following method of preparing thii mud cheap and effective : — I draw out the nmd and dump the loads noar tho bog, making tho heap about thirty feet wide, leaving it just as it falls from the cart, without levelling ; then haul the roots thrown out in digging the mud, and pile them on tho heap ; then haul out the moss which has been pulled off tho bog "n getting at the mud. and pile it on the heap over the roots ; m this w^y it soon dries. I then burn it, and the ashes cover the mud ; I then throw in about five feet from each side of tho heap, and put on a fresh layer of mud ; then pile on more roots and moss, and burn again, and uo on, till tho pile is as high as I wish it ; then turn tho whole, and let it lay over the winter. I have treated about five hundred loads of mud in this manner, which seems to mc as good as that prepared with*lime, while the cost cf the lime is saved. Spi'eading this mud in the barn yard, or cattle pen, where it receives the droppings, and is trodden by the cattle, is a'eo a good mode of preparing it ; but then it is advisable to make it up in a heap for a month or two before it is used, that it may heat. (3.) Agricola on Manv.res. — " When a country advances, in the progress of improvement, fi-om pasturage to tillage, the various sources of manure arc investigated and sought after with an avidity comraen- surato to the fervent spirit of enterprize. Tho attention which is paid to this branch of management, indicates with certainty tho state of tho art; and, wherever wc discover little or no exertions made in it, in order to accumulate, by artificial means, the aggregate heap beyond the ordinary supply, no further proof is requisite of the svate of debase- ment in which agrJ'":.Uuro lies. On the other hand, when a vigilant and persevering in«... .try is ever on the alert ; when numerous expedi- ents aro tried to enlarge the quantity as well as to improve tho quality of manures; when composts — diversified both in the ingredients and proportions— become objects of curiosity and experiment; these aixj the first symptoms of returning life and vigor, and may bo hailed as the precui-sors of more flattering and auspicious prospects. The ardor of agricultural pursuit in England was ushered in by these beginnings — and, at the present day, there is no subject of more paramount inter- est than tho augmentation of tho dung-lull. Every kingdom of nature has been ransacked, to find out substances endowed with the principle of fertility ; science has come in to tho assistance of art ; philosophy MAIfTRES. 191 has stooped from her dignity, and joined in the general research ; and the public interest — instcid of having flagged with the very am[>1e success which hitherto has .'ittended the inquiry — has only been roused to more spirited and ;idvcnturou5 efibrts. The compost middens of Lord Mciidowbank, the mixture of tlie soil with decoinposablc matter, the uni'.'ersal npplication of lime, find tlic late introduction of burnt clay, iu-e ^tops in that great race in which all men — as if stimulated by ono common impulse — seem to have engaged. Tndoed, unless other means arc resorted to in order to replenish the waste of vegetation than the simple contents of the barnyard, Grent Britain could not sustain the half of her popul.-.tion, nor dra^v from her own territorial domains that exhaustless uhun iance which provides materials for her commerce, and ministei-s to the necessities, comfortd, and luxuries of life. This cxuberuDCe of supply m-iy all be traced tu the improved and skilful methods, not of cuItiv;ition 30 raucji as of multiplying tho efficacy of putrcscible manures. There was i;, period in her history when, like this Province, she was more " a grazing than a oorn country ;" and wlien buloher-mcat bore no sort of relation in price to wheat and other grain When we review this pttrt of her history, avo are struck with the palpable blunders Hho once coraniittcd, and trc/ce — bet^vecn thera and our own — a striking and reraarkabhj analogy. Tho manures then in uso were the tiraple excremcntitious matter of the cattle on tho farm, unaided by tiiose ccrai'Ound ingredients which have been since intro- duced, and wliiob may l;o considereur«i, ^^hich fV^Vftsl, *^lth ffe** J3!5«QUaH3, ihrwjb^ut nhq viiUvla m'oviiftfif) r-\i •^fciih ha^ t meal 192 MANURE?. pernicious influence on our agricultural progression ; and I shall pre- scribe the reracilies which the case sug;2;ests, and which are practicable under existing cirounistancos. I observe in the first j>hi'c, that we have iilniost no pits dug upon a regular pltin for the collection and preservation of the dung, which from time to time is \\ heeled out of tlie bam Sometinios it is spread out on tiic green sward : pometimcs cast careIe^'sly in a cnurt. or ad- joining yard : but seldom in an oxcavalion mn. This is no more, how- ever, than half of the evil. The exhalations wliich ari.se from tiio ardent influence of a summer's SUM. and from the natural activity of fermentation, are pcrmittofj to escape Aeat or layer, to imbibe the nutri- tive moisture. The dung, too, is sufl'ercd to rot without any attention whatever tn the degree of heat ; antV I sliould startle my readers, were I to tell them that the fermentation should never be urged beyond 100° of Fahrenlieit's thermometer. At a much lower heat, cjirbonic acid) carburetted hydrogen, and the other ga.ses of that family, ascend as elastic fluids, and are dill'used and lost in the atmosphere. The dung- hill becomes what is called fikk-fax(5ED, and the principles of ferti- lity arc expelled by the action of those chemical laws which regulata a)jd pervade the minute and subtle particles of matter. If the dung be injudiciously treated, the urine discharged by the cattle is squandered, and indeed altogether lost. This is owing to the construction of the barns which generally prevails throughout the province, and which cannot be alteiod without some little outlay of capital. JJcing formed of wood, they are mostly raised and propped on a foundation : and a floor of plank is invariably laid. The whole urine of tlie cattle, except what is absorbed by the dung, finds its way through the scams, and either oozes into the earth, or forms beneath the barn a fetid and noisome pool of standing water. Tlie essential elements of vegetable matter with which it is surchinged, assume- quickly the gaseous form, and cither mount up through the floor or escape by the sides of the building. At all events, their fertilizing qualities arc turned to no a'-count. and the loss, from this single cir- cunistanco. is ruinous beyond calculation. It ma^' be ncce.^sarv. in some Uiuai-iiic, to ar.ecrtaiu the amount of tliis mi.schief, that we may «iCl about correcting an evil of such formidable magnitude, with a MAITUREfl. 198 rigorous and resolute energy. I should bo afraid to haxard my cha- racter with the public, by stating in round and iinqualif ed lanp^uage, tho value of this rich juice which is literally wasted, and thrown ftway ; and, therefore, I shiill proceed willi caution, and give a detail of factS;— conclusive in their bearings — and substantiated by the best authority. They arc contained in a letter* from Charles Alcxnnclcr, near Peebles, in Scotland, and arc addressed to Sir John Sinclair, iu 1812, for publication. This intelligent farmer had long been impres- sed with the great importance of the urine of cattle as a manure ; and ho eet about to discover, by a long and well conducted scrie.? of expe- riments, tho best method of collecting and applying it. lie began, by digging a pit contiguous to il;o feeding stall, but distinct altogether from that which was appropriated for the reception of dung. The dimensions of this pit, according to his own account, were 8G feet square and 4 ^eet deep, surrounded on all sides by a wall ; :vnd the solid contents v,ere 392 yards. Having selected the nearcjt spot where ho could find lo.amy earth, and ihis he always took from the surface of some field under cultivation, he proceeded to fill it, and found th.at, with three men and two horses, he could easily accomplish 28 cubic yards per day ; arid the whole expense of transporting the earth did not exceed ^4 16s. When the work was complete, he levelled the surface of tho heap, in a line with the mouth of the sewer, which conducted tho urine from the interior of the building, on purpos< that it might he distributed with regularity, and might saturate the wliolc from top to bottom. Tlic quantity conveyed to it, he estimates at about 800 gallons ; but as this calculati> n was foun- ded partly on conjecture, for he measured not tlie liquor, it will be bett*ir and more instructive to furnish and proceed on data, that are certain and incontrovertible. The urine was supplied by 14 cattle, weighing about 34 stone each, and kept there for five months on fod- der and turnips. The contents of the {.. ^)roduce<-l 2S8 loads, allow- ing two cubic yards to be t .ken out iu 3 carts ; and he spread 40 of these on each acre, so that this urine in five months, an I from four- teen cattle, produced a compost sufficient for the fertilization of seven acres of land. He states further, that he bad tried this experiment for ten years, and had indiscriminately used in the same field cither the rotted cow dung or the saturated earth ; and in all the stages of tho crop, he had never been able to discover any perceptible differ- ence. JJut what id still more wonderfL.1, he found that his compost lasted in its eftects as many years as his best putrescent manure ; and he therefore boldly avers, that a load of each is of equivalent value. Conclusions of vast importance are deducible from this statement, and I cannot resist the feeling of plachig them in a strong and advanta- geous light. They speak a volume of instruction ; and if we are willing to learn, they must lead to a very material alteration in the Farmers Magazine, vol. 13, p. 78. 26 1 "^1 ¥n idi MANUREik oonstrnction of our barns. It appears, then, thrit in five months each cow discharges urine which, when absorbed by loam, furniahcs manuro of the richest quality, and most durable cffcotg, for half an aero of ground. The dung pit, which contaiRcd all tlio cxcrcmcntitious matter of the 14 cattle, as well as the litter cmp'oycd in Bidding tliem, and which was kept separate for tlio purposo of the experiment, only furnished during tlie same period 210 luads, and these, at the Bamo rate, could only manure six acres. The i:ggie;;ato value of the urine, therefore, when compared with that of th'j dung, was in the ratio of 7 to 6 ; so that wo are borne out by these premises in this extraordinary inference, that the putrcocible liquor wiiich in this pro- vince, and under the rornagement of our fanucra, is wasted and anni- hilated as far as regards any useful purpose, is intrinsically worth morp than the dung, as an efficacious and permanent drcsiing ; and if we take into consideration that this latter manuro is not ticatcd with any skill and judgment, it will not seem surprising that the culture of ■white crops has never been carried hero to any extent since we huvo despised and neglected the only means of creating them. Thcje defects call aloud for amendment. No country is entitled to be styled agricultural, where the fundamental maxims of the science are so outrageously violated, and where tlio prevailing practijo sets at saugbt the simplest rules of the art. Giazing draws tbrth no energies of the mind ; it is compatible with indolence, stupidity, and a gross ignorance of all principle ; the Arab in tliu desert can tend hii Hocks and herds, and leave their multiplication to the instinciivo appetites of nature; it is only the first step from the savage life, and, in placo of hunting for the prey which ho devours, man tames and domesticates the lower animals, but leaves their increase, their subsistence their diseases, to the unguided agency of natural causes. 'Tis the j)lou;^h which awakes his dormant faculties; and stimulitcs to industry'. Like the Sovereign of tho Creation — he commands, and is obeyed ; ho speaks, and it is done. The weeds, which are the natural inmates of the soil, disappear -^t his bidding ; tho grasses spring up, and form a carpet for his feet; the corns arc Bulgcctcd to liis power, and wave their loaded oar around his dwelling ; tho forest gives up its fruit trees, to load hi^ table with their luscious products; and the features of a rugged and forbidding territory are transmute*:! into tho beautiful and sublime, and soften under tho influencu of his transforming siniie, This Province it st'.ll in a rude and unsubdued stale ; and its husbandly partakes of it« general charatter. For this, it is not difficult to account. Emigrants of all trades, of all habits, and of all ranhs of society, land ou this foreign strand in quest of eubsistcnco. Manu- fiiotaros are tho offipring of civilization, and of tho accumulation of wealth ; and cannot find their way but into an old country, abounding with resources and papulation. Here we have none, and cannot have them, for a century. The unfortunate strangor — driven fro.u the only KAWUU. 196 stnyon which hiahopo rc«;tc(l — socVs refugo from despair by plunging intu the forcat and culiivatini^ the soil, to answer tho cravings of indig* nant natuvo. Without skill, without capital, without tho benefit of inslruciion, lie bccoaios a self taught farmer, ready to run into every blunder whidi ifrnomncft has invfiitcd. and to >yhich the vicious culture of iliu coniitiy lurs lent tlifi sanction oP authority. His hut, his barn, ^ hi3 iinplcniciiti of hu^'iarulry. hii seed, iiis stOL-k, are all chosen with- out knowledge, and continued in use without the least exercise of thd understanding. H'! !m3 no landlord to exact a rent ; no government to levy tnxQi ; no rival to animate industry. He soon rises above want ; ihu spontuneous j)roduction3 of tho soil yield him a scanty 8ub- Bistcncc; tho luxuries of life are scon oidy at a dim and indistinct distance ; and hi.^ faculties, thus lulled asleep by surrounding circum* Btanjes, fill into a stato of torpid lethargy. He must be stirred ".p, aroused, and forced into a-jtion This i-j tho province of superior and exalted characters, who, fi'om their elevated rank in society, preside over his destiny. To tlnm a rich reward of gratitude is due; and their memory shill descend to posterity embalmed by the blessings of a present generation. Wo arc approaching an eventful epoch ; tho public attention is e.\cited ; wc are prepared to count over the catalogue of our past errors ; wc aro panting after knowledge ; and a new age- full of promise and pregnant with impr cment— is arising on our dcsol.ite and forlorn prospects. During this stato of puMic feelini;. tho evils which I have pointed out in our treatment of decomposable manures, cinnot long remain without coircction The remedies arc not only simple, but accessible to every firmer of niodtu-ate c ipital ; and the whole expense of the improvement will bo compensated by the first, or at moat, the second year's savin<^, 1st. With respect to tho formation of a dung pit, I would recom- mend that a place be chosi-n near the barn, whiclx should be dug about three feet deep, and of a size proportionate to the stock of cattle usu- ally kept by the farmer. It is not necessary that it should be built round with a wall, or have a perpendicular descent, as it may slope gently inwards, and deepen gradually towards the centre. After it ie thus boll wed out, tho texture of the bottom should be examined, and if found firm, impervious, and capable of containing the juices, no further trouble is requisite, and the work is complete ; but, if open and porous, it should bo coated v/ith clay, and lined with large and coarse flags. Into this pit, earth from some neighboring field, should be first brought and strewed over the bottom and sloping sides, to the thickness of from 9 to 12 inches Thus a safe depository will be pre- pared for the cleanings of the barn, for »vaste strav.- and weeds, for the sweepings of the kitchen, for the stems of peas, beans, cabbages, pota- toes, and in short all vegetable matter of woody fibre, as well as for the dung of tho feeding cattle. After a complete layer of putregcible ^1 'n 19« llANURES. matter has been spread all over, and when the symptoms of an active fermentation have becomo visible, the cxrth, which was thrown out of the excavation, may be slowly returned and scaliered on the surface of the heap, to catch the exhalations which are ascending Hither, too, the mine should either bo conducted by a drain, or carried by buckets : for it is an unpardonable waste to lose tlie benefit of thij rich invigorating manure. The earth which lies at tho bottom will freedily drink up the urine and the vegetable juices, and thus gain a irgc accession of nutriment and value. So soon as the pit is filled up in the mnuner herein described, it should bo emptied of ail its eon- tents ; and these should be carted to the field where they are meant to be afterwards applied, and there laid dowr.. in some convenient cor- ner, to he mixed up and sorted into a profitable compost. The pit, adjoining the barn, may be again lined with :nould, and the formei operations repeated in pi-ocuring and augmenting its contents. According to this plan, every farmer, at the first opening of next spring, shoulil cart out his dung, an*l form it at once into a composite pile, which, if skilfully managed, will gather heat, and undergo the process of fernientaiion before it will bo needed in seed tiir.e. He should then instantly set about the digging of his pit, and the other alterations on the barn which are indispensable to iho successful col- lection and preservation of his future manure. During summer this pit should bo emptied twice or *hrice according to circumstances ; and its fermcntiibic and earthy materials transported to the ground which they are destined to fertilize, and there su'yected to a new process. Towards tlio fall, which l)y its length and mildness makes amends for the alvantiiges of move favoured regions, all those compost heaps as well as thu dung about the biiruyard., should be spread on the land, which is meant to be immediat>^'ly ploughed. In tJie mean while, an additional stratum of mould should be distributed along the bottom and sides of the pit bclore the approach of winter, and during that rigid season the dung may be accumulate.! without any extraordinary care, as the intensity df the cold is unfavorable to putrefaction, and little loss will bo sustained from the dissipation of the gasecas matter. Such farmers as may cboose to take the trouble, and have suitable convenience of covered sheds, may pile up beforehand a quantity of dry earth, which may be scattered over the dunghill in the depth of whiter, on such places as indicate a strong fermentation. 2nd. These remarks and general reasonings will have prepared ray readers for the sentiments I must express regarding the construction of our barn floors. They are the objects of my unqualified condem- nation as an agriculturist, of my sincere regret os a friend of the country, and of bitter and deep bewailing as the anxious promoter of our future and rapid advancement. Reform here cannot bo effected without considerable cost ; and I anticipate adherence to existing errors, notwithstanding the soundness of the conclusions, and the III UAsruaBS. 19T manifest utility of a change. I must, however, cling to llio hope of reoeivini at least a limited and paitial obodienco ; and I request my vrell-wiahcrs, who have animated mo in my courao, and homo up my spirits in the midst of dilBculties, to listen to the call, and set the first yielding example. The increase of valuable manure will he incilcu- lably great ; and the solid benefits will vastly outweigh the troubb and expense. I seo only one p'i;n by which this evil may be cfTiC- taally obvisto. rises to the level of the present floor, and it should be beaten down by a heavy mallet, till it is completely consolidated. A stratum of clay sliould be next laid over tiac wholo surface, by which the moisture may 1>e retailed and hindered from escaping tu ough the earth. After dividing the interior into its i'cepecti"o compartments, the arrangementg must proceed according to the use for which each part is designed. The stalls for the horses and cattle claim a distinguished share of attention. The fore feet of the animal should stand on hiirher ground than the hind, and tliere should bo in every stall a gradual declivity backward, terminating in a gutter, in order to carry off all liquid matter. To this gutter an easy descent should bo given oat- ward, that all the urine may flow towards the pit ou the outside of tho building, which J have described as the great reservoir of tliis putres- cible stream. T.ie floor of each .separate stall, as well as tho gutter, may be laid with plank while the clay is soft and yi.dding, and every Beam and interstice may be closed up by the same substance. These planks, thus pressed and imbedded in tho clay, may be nailed and secured to transverse beams running along the length of tho barn, and so adjusted as to preserve a sloping direction in tho feeding stalls and flutter. But in every case Avhere stones are within the reach of tho armer, they aro decidedly superior in firmness, durability and useful- ness ; and paving the floor with tliera, although perhaps a little moro expensive in the first instance, will in the end much better answer his expectations. The stalls should be laid with them exactly in the manner in which Water -street here has been lately improved ; and tho gutter may bo formed either of similar materials, or preferably of imooth flag stoues, like thoae our foot pavements. 198 MANURSft. Tho ndoption of these improvcracnls in the disposition of our bnrns ■will give a mighty impulse to agriculture ; the uiino nnd vegetable juicei, which are now lost and dissipated, would multiply the powers of fcriility; and the extended cultivation of white ciop'^ lioin tlio ■wonderful increnao of putrescent manure, would bo propelled with a celerity proportioned to the ardent hopes of the countiy." " Young, in his letters of Agricola, was tho first writer who dircc ted the attention of farmers in this province to itic use of ptrit or Bwamp muck in tho preservation of composts. His niothod, whi.h Juu been successfully practised by many farmers, well deserves to be re- published. •'It would be unjust to deprive Lord Meadowbank of tlic well* earned honour of having been the first who investigated and abccriaiu. cd, on scientific principles, thojmmcnso value of this spocicii of ma« nure. That learned judg^*, perceiving that the peat was entirely co:n» posed of vegetable substances endowed with an antiseptic virtue, or "a capacity of resisting putrefaction," instituted a philosophicd inquiry into the nature of this singular quality, and tho manner in whicii it might be overcome. From liis extensive chemical knott*. ledge, and his diligent and painful researches, ho found that this ami. septic power owed its origin to the acids, and the astriiigent piinciijlo of tan ; and as those were reduced, in succulent and frcah vc';ji'tablc3, by the hot fermentation to which they were exposed in the lull circcr of putrefaction, he wisely concluded that tho same cause would pro- duce in peat the same effects. After varying his experiments in tlio course of six ye;irs, he published the results in a pamphlet. Avhich ho distributed gratis, and thus acquired to himself an immoi tal n;imo ia the records of Scotch Agriculture. Tho compost midilens of Lord Meadowbank will be known and recollected by tho latest posteiity, when the decisions which he passed on tho Bench, of wliioii he w.ia tho prop and ornament, shall have worn away by the corrosive touch of oblivion. The pc.t to be used, according to his lordship's directions, may be taken, either from tho top or bottom of the bo^ ; but tho turfy parts ought to bo laid aside, as most unsuitable for the opera- tion. Alter being thrown out of the pit, it should lie for some weeks till drained of its moisture, and then be transported to the field where the compost midden is to bo formed. The proportion of the ingre- dients should be one ton of dung to three of moss ; but although tlicso were the proper quantities with tho materials which his lordship em- ployed, it has been found from experience that other proportions may be safely and judiciously adopted. In fact, tho mixture should de- pend on the nature both of the dung and peat which are to be com- pounded. Horse dung produces a more violent fermentation than that of cows, and will therefore suffice to decompose a larger quan- tity ; and its power in this respect will also be regulated by its own gtage of putrefaction : for, if fresh, the hMit will be more rapid and MA^mnzs. 199 much stronger than if old and rotten. The nature of the poat, too, xnuBt also bo taken into account in assorting the ingredients. Some is a pure vcgctiiblo botly, free of extrancoua matter, from its being for- med on un clcvatctl situation ; other, again, contiiins a mixture of earth, which renders it brittle, inudhesivo, and putrcscible; because it has oii;:iiiate(l in a patch of low land, or in the corner of some raca- tlow, liable to be occasionally overflown from the hij^h grounds. When it accumulates in sucli hollows, its texture is broken by the primitive earths suspended in the turbid waters, with which it in Hooded ; and in place of exhibiting a matted and org.mic structure, it rcnomblca the consistence of paste, and is more fluid tlian a solid body Such peaty matter may at once bo carted to the arable fitdd, and used us a manure without any preparation ; and if thrown into a compost middeu, six loads of it wiil bo easily fermented with one of (lung. But peat h'. not generally of this ciiaractcr ; and rules of compost- ing mi'ist be laid down as applicable to this substance, commonly found of a tou;^h and indestructible contexture. Aw soon as it is dug from the pit it should bo spread out to dry, but not to harden in the sun ; for if, by exposure to drought, it changes into a firm, adhesive lump, fit for fuel, it is almost imjwssible, by any knov". means, to induce afterwards the putrefactive process. When it is, tnereforc, about half dry, it should bo carried to tho midden, and first of all laid regularly along tho bottom six inches deep, to constitute tho first stratum. This should bo succeeded by ten inches of dung. ;hcn six of moss^ four of dung, and so on, till tlio latter is exhausted. Above the whole, a layer of moss should be spread to raise the middeu to tho height of four feet ; and all tho materials, from tho very beginning, should bo piled up in tho loodcst state, to encourage an incipient fermentation, which comos on, sooner or later, according to tho state of the weather, and that of the component parts. It is at this time that tha principal skill nud cuo of tho operator arc called for, to mark and ascertain the pro:;vcs2 of the compoit ; for so soon as it approaches to blood heat, it ought to bo watered and turned over, with a new mixture of grass, to prevent tho disjipation of tho useful gases. After the temperaturo li;i3 sub.iidcd, tho whole mass should bo broken up, commencing at tho one end, chopping with the spado all the bulky niatcriaU, and ini.ving them in tho most perfect manner. A new hill, exactly resembling the huit, should be formed on the samo principles, cither adding raobs or dung as tlie state of the fermentation indicates ; and after a ficcond licat \u6 bccti generated, which in a few days will become apparent, the heap bhould bo suffored to cool, and it will be instantly ready to app'v to tho ground; but the longer it remains in the midden, tho flecomposilioa will bo more perfectly elfocted, and tho elementary priniipliis of vegetation more freely disengaged. In summer, tho whole prcp.vration may bo finished in eight or ten weeks ; but in win- r %t ;^ 4' lit 200 MAinJIlZS. tcr, no injury irill bo sustained by keeping the materinls in eompoel till tho opening of the spring. Three tons of nmss to one of dung "wou'il in this eountry, I fear, form nn unfernicnluhlo compound, from the superabundance of cow-excrement, ^vhich is of a cooling nature, onil less lial)'c to violent beat ; niid on tb;it nccount I would deprt n little fiom tlio onliimry rue, and lecoir.mciid two loads of dung to live of moss, wbich I do wiih some diflidence, os I nm not in possession of any cxpcriintnt of tbo kind that lias been tried in tbis province, a'ltliOu-U it ia cUnrly deduciblo fioni llu piinciples laid down. It cannot, however, be a difficult task to discover tbo just proportions of the ingrcvill very soon instruct our fairaers in the due medium ; and us I have been at pains to set forth tho governing prinoiples of the art, the plainest dictates of the understanding will be 4 pufficicnt guide in all cases of compostinr^. It will not, I believe, bo unacceptable to my readers to insert here an extract fiom the small treatise of tho learred judge, which vua printed and distributed very extensively for behoof of tho Scottish peasantry ; and I do this the rather, bccau.^o the subject, on account of its novelty and repugnance to common i.leas, may be received with some distrust, unless convoyed in tho vciy words of tho author. * Let the peat moss, of which compost is to bo formed, bo thrown out of the pit for some weeks or months, in order to lose its redundant moisture. By this means, it is rendered tbo lighter to caiTy, and less compact and weighty, when made up with fresh dung, for fermen- tation ; and accordingly, less dung is required for the purpose than if the preparation is made with peat taken recently from the pit. Tho peat taken iiom near thq surface, or at u considerable depth, answei-s equally well ; and the more compact the peat, and the fitter to pvow» good fuel, so much the moro promising it is to be prepared for ma- nure. ' Take the peat moss to a dry spot, convenient for constructing a dunghill, to servo the field to be manured. Lay the cart loads ot it in two rows, and of the dung in a row betwixt them. The dung thus lies on the area of the compost dung hill, and tho rows of peat should bo near enough each other that workmen in making up tho compo^^t may bo able to throw theni together by the Gpado. In making up, let the workmen begin at ono end ; and, at tho extremity of the row of dung, (which should not extend quite so far at the end as tho rows of peat on each side of it do,) let them lay a bottom of peat, six inches deep and fifteen feet wide. Then throw forward, and lay about ten inches of dung above the bottom of peat ; then four or five of dung ; MANUKE8. 201 and then cnvcr it over with poat at the cii'l where it waa bc,^un, at the two Hides, and above. 'I ho cotxjpoat shouhl not he raised above four ft'ct and a hu'Vhi^^h, otherwise it is apt to presa t dunghill is thus enlarged, there U little occasion to cacu 1 luu pi .[.orti'Mi of dung recommended for making up to prepare in the milder pe;'.son, especially if a covering of coarse vegetables of any sort, such m wute hay or straw, rushes, broom, or furze, or brushwood of e orgrcvjiu, ici thrown over the dunghill. In fact, a covering of this sort is scarce less useful in summer to prevent liie escape of moisture, than in win- ter to exclude cold. * To every twenty-eight cart-loads of the compost, when made up, it is of use to throw on above it a cart-load of ashes, either made tVo.ni coal, peat, or wood ; or, if these cannot be had, half the quantity of slacked lime may l)e used, the more finely powdered the better. But these additions are nowise essential to the general success of the com- post, provided a sudiciency of time is allowed to the prepai'ation to compensate for tho want of them. ' The (hmg to be used should eith.T have been recently made, or kept fresh by compression ; ns by the treading of cattle ^': swini., or by carts passing over it. And if there is little or no litter in it, a smaller quantity will serve, provided any spongy vegetable matter is added at making up the compost, as fresh weeds, the rv.'^bish of a stack-yard, potatoe-shaws, sawing.^ of timber, etc. Arid as some sorts of Uvmg, even when fresh, are more advanced in decorapo; Itiou than 26 I-' i. 202 MANURES. others, it is material to attend to this ; for a much less proportion of such dung, especially if abounding in animal matter, as is less advan- ced, will serve for the compost, provided care is taken to keep the mass sufficiently open, either by a mixture of the above-mentioned substan- ces, or, if these are wanting, by adding the peat piece-meal, that is, first making it up in the usual proportion of thiee to one of dung, and then, after u time, adding jin equal quantity, more or less, of peat. The (lung of this character, of greatest quantity, is shamble-dung, with which, under the above precautions, six times the quantity of peat, or more, may be prepared. The same holds as to pigeon-dung, and other fowl-dung ; and to a certain extent also as to that which is collected from towns, and made by animals that feed on gruins, refuse of distilleries, etc. • The compost, after it is made up, gets into a general heat sooner or later, according to the weather, and the condition of the dung ; in summer, in ten days or sooner ; in winter, not'perhaps for many weeks, if the cold is severe. It always, however, has been found to come on at last, and in summer it sometimes rises so high as to be mi«>chievous, by consuming the materials, (fire-fanging.) In that sea-sou, a stick should be ke^'t in it in different parts, to pull out and feel now and then ; for if it approaches to blood heat, it ehould either be watered or turned over ; and on such an occasion, advantage may be taken to mix it with a little fresh peat.* The heat subsides after a time, and with great variety, according to the weather, the dung, and the perfection of the making up of the compost ; which then may be allowed to remain untouched, until within three or four weeks of using, when it should be turned over, upside down, and outside in, and all lumps broken : then it comes into a second heat, but soon cools and is fit to be taken cut for use. In this state the whole, ex- cept bits of the old decayed wood, appears a black free mass, and spreads like garden-mould. Use it weight for weight, as farm- yard dung, and it will be found, in a course of cropping, fully to stand the comparison.' Hitherto I have treated the subject as if excramentitious matter alono possessed the power of effecting and accelerating the putrefac- tion of moss ; and it was this view which Lord Meadowbank chie / impressed at first on the public attention ; but many other substances, he afterwards discovered, are endowed with this same capacity. Here my general theory of putrescent manures receives a collateral end happy confirmation ; for it is now found, from a thousand repeated triak, that all animal and vegetable substances which are capable of being converted by decomposition into the food of plants, are also capable of operating on peat earth, of dissolving the charbi of its ^-In Jane, 170G, a ootnpost was formed onl v 2 j peat to 1 dung ; it heated in Juljr beyond the moaaure of a thertnometer graduated at ilO ^ . Part waa tiltowed to R^n.nd, b^ft turned orer with a half laore mog«> Throe weeks after (18th August) thk hbat of lk% rofM«r Ha4 desMadad to 84 ^ > while tliftt of Wat latter had g^t to above 110 * i fil MANURBS. 203 incorruptibility, of expelling its poisonous and antiseptic qualities, and of transmuting it in a most efficii.it manner. Hence putrid water, the juices of the dunghill, the expressions of the cheese-press, the washings of milk vessels, soap suds, the oils and juice° of green flax, urine of all descriptions, succulent vegetables and we ci, dead animal bodies, refuse of fish, night soil, sea weed, are all invested with the property of generating heat, and assisting the fermentation of peat ; and composts may be formed with all these different ingredients. The carcass of a dead horse which is often suffered to pollute the air by its noxious effluvia, has been happily employed in decomposing twenty tons of peat earth, and transforuiing it into the most enriching manure. This wonderful discovery has exalted the swamps and fens into some degree of agricultural importance ; and promises a new era in the multiplication and production of white crops. The fertilizing virtue of dung is increased quadruple by blending it with thi^ ipert matter ; and Lord Meadowbank, after a long and watchful expeij .rce, declares that the powers and duration of this species of compost, ii every diver- sity of soil, have given returns no wise inferior to the best barn-yard dung applied in the same quantity, and states expressly that it is equal, if not preferable, in its effects for the first three years, and de- cidedly superior afterwards. There are several other views of this subject highly interesting to the farming class, upon which I dare not at present enter, as my let- ters on putrescent manures have already swollen much beyond my orginal limits, and I must leave the additional matter to some future day, when I may retrace this path of inquiry. I shall deduce one or two practical observations. 1. In a country like this, where there are no large towns, except the capital, whence the farmer can draw manure, our swamps and bogs offer an inexhaustible supply of this useful and indispensable article. (Compost middens form an object of prime importance ; and wherever they have been adopted as part of farm management, they have been followed by results of a most flattering and profitable na- ture. They tended to multiply the productions of the earth, to elevate the hopes of the husbandman, and to give a new impi;Jse to his useful labors. Here they would not only be productive of all these effects, but they would arrest the progress of our morasses, by subjecting them to a waste gradual and constant ; and they would introduce our farmers to an acquaintance with more successful modes of augmenting manure, so essential to the extended cultivation of white crops. 2. According to the practices which have obtained in this Pro- vince, we have not above one ton of manure applied to our fields for ten which, from the same stock of cattle, are produced in England ; and of course we are not able to cultivate here, with the same means, above one acre in ten which are there under the plough. To such as have given due attention to the previous details, this conclusion, which 11 i 204 MANUREI. looks SO violent and extravagant, can be established by the most am- ple evidence ; and is quite irrefragable, without denying the premises which have been built both on facts and philosophy. First of all, the one half of our putrescible matter is lost entirely by the waste of the urine ; anu the other half — the dung — is grossly mismanaged either by the escape of the rich nutritive juices from the dunghill, or by suffering ihe putrefactive process to be carried to an extreme length. This is not all : that dung, if composted with peat, would in most cases ^0 . igmented four fold ; and the quality and duration of the mixture are superior, at all events equal, to the principal original compound. Four tons of manuic, then, may be produced from one of dung, and four tons also may be formed from the urine discharged by the caille in the same given time. In a course of experiments by James Arbuthnot, Peterhead, he found ' that 300 cart loads of moss could be decomposed by drenching it with 440 gallons of cattle urine. The founni.tion of the dunghill was laid one foot deep with moss, and 150 gallons of the liquor thrown upon it. The fermentation came on instantanccusly, attended with a hissing noise ; the other two layers were then put on, the one after the other, sprinkled each ".ith the urine, and the same effect was produced. Eight days after the mid- den WIS Lui-P'^ \ and to all appearance super-alkalized."* It would seem then that both the urine and dung, discharged in any given time, are of equivalent value ; that each of them, if separately applied to p«*fvt, or moss, as it is expressed by Scotch writers, would prepare a quadruple amount of rich and valuable manure, and consequently, as the one here is lost from the construction of our barns, a load of dung is all vre have for eight of compost, which cuuld be produced from the combined efficacy of urine and excremeiicitious matter. If we take further into account the putrefactive qualities of sea- weed, of dead bodies, either horses, cows, or sheep, of common weeds, and of many other substances : I say if we take into account the power of these in decomposing peat-earth, my general statement will not appe;a- ex^^ ^gerated, that in this Province we have not above one load in ten, which might be procured to replenish the exhausted ener- gies of vegetation. But taking it for granted that, with a view to str-^ngthen my argur^ent, I have magnified the amount of our loss, and that -ve could only increase our manures six times above the pre- sent quantity, this concession calls loudly foi- reform, and explains, to the satisfaction of every common understanding, the mystery of our agricultural poverty. AVe fling away contemptuous'y the blessings of Nature and of Providence, and instead of blaming our own ignorance and neglect, w-^ curse the climate and the soil, sit down contented with our present dependent situation, and despair of elevating that country on which we tread, and which imparts to us the pleasures of existence, to its proper rank in the scale of national importance." Farmer's Magaziuo, vol. IC, p. 428. The culture CHAPTER XII. ORCHARD AND GARDEN FRUIT. Orchard Culture. The culture of fruit trees is largely and skilfully practised in the western part of the Province, especially in Annapolis, King's, and Hants counties ; but in the east, it is little attended to. There can be no question, that wherever soil and circumstances are favorable, it well deserves attention, on account of its market value, ..-nd its contribution to fa.Tiily comfort and the beauty of the farm. I shall, under this he''d, notice a fev requisites for a good orchard, not sufficiently atten- ded to in some parts of the Province ; and the remedies for the more destructive blights and diseases to which fruit trees are liable. It ir of the first importance to have a suitable soil and exposure. The apple prefers deep loams, or sandy loams ; — the red loams of various parts of the Province, and the deep shingly soils of the inland hills, are especially adapted to it. The pear does well in .-;imilar soils. The plum does not object to a stiff clay, and will not grow luxuriantly in some of the lighter soils, in which the apple flourishes. The cherry, on the contrary, prefers a light dry soil. Much can be done, however, by proper drainage and manuring, to render all ordi- nary soils suitable to these and other fruit trees. A good exposure should be selected ; and where there is not natural shelter, belts or rows of trees should be planted on the sides exposed to the cold winds. Cherry trees suit well for this purpose ; so do spruces. The butter- nut tree has also been recommended ; and, indeed, any rapidly grow- ing tree, suitable to the soil, will serve the purpose. The ground should be well tilled, drained, and manured. It is folly to plant valuable trees in a poor, ccld, undrained soil ; and it is folly to plant worthless or inferior trees j.t all, when good sorts can b*^ procured. Trees should be lifted with care, so as not to injure the roots, as these are all required to nourish the tree. They should be planted with like care, — spreading out the roots in a natural form, and trim- ming off some of the young shoots from the top. Holes for planting should be made both larger and deeper than is absolutely necessary ; and the surface-soil, with compost or rotted manure, should be turned i ii 206 ORCHARD AND GARDEN FRUIT. into the bottom of the hole. If the soil be deep and dry, the tree may be set pretty deeply ; if cold and shallow, the tree should be nearer the surface. The earth should be carefully pressed around the tree ; • and a little straw, or a few sods or some eel-grass, laid on the surface, to preserve the moisture of the soil. Bones, parings of hides and horns, hair, and similar animal matters, are excellent and permanent manures for young trees. After planting, the ground should bo kept clean, and regularly manured with old compost, ashes, ditch clean- ings, or animal matters ; and on no account must it be allowed to become covered with a tough grass sward, especially in the case of apple trees. Trees are often seen growing in old grass pward, regu- larly mowed, and seldom or never manured. Such trees must even- tually become unproductive and diseased. Trees extract large quan- tities of matter from the soil, and require plentiful manuring, espe- cially when another crop is being taken from the same soil. Hence it is a good plan to plant orchards very op'en, and to cultivate and manure the ground in regular rotation ; taking care not to damage the roots unnecessarily, and not to leave the land long in grass. The apple is much benefitted by frequent stirring of the soil ; — stone fruits require less of this, and are more apt to be injured by wounds inflic- ted on their roots. When it is desirable to plant out trees before the ground is pro- perly prepared, or when it cannot be tendod as it requires, seedlings or slips may be planted out, instead of grafted trees ; and such of them as become strong and vigorous, may afterwards be grafted with good sorts. In like manner, farmers who have young trees of wild or inferior kinds, may have them headed down and grafted upon ; — if skilfully done, the grafts soon come into bearing. In planting, abun- dance of space should be left for air and light. When early produce is desired, the trees may be plantc 1 at half the proper distance apart, and each alternate tree may be forced' into early bearing, by free pruning. These trees may afterwards be cut out, when they interfere with the others. Pruning is a most important part of orchard management. Trees should be kept open, and trained symmetrically, so as not to permit tlie branches to interfere with each other, and to present the greatest possible surface to air and light. There are various modes of prun- ing, but all depend on this principle ; and wall, espalier, round, oval, or conical training may be preferred, just as one or other may appear, in the circumstances or situation, to be more or less adapted to pro- mote access of air and light. The perfection of pruning, is to study the growth of the tree, and cut out as early as possible every twig that interferes with the intended plan, or with the symmetry of the whole. When it becomes necessary to cut out large branches, more or less permanent 'njury to the tree is almost unavoidable. The cut- ting off of a large branch is somewhat analogous to the amputation of a limb in an ani whole system, twigs may be fr< dangers cf sprin greater in stone ( >n the subjec refer every begi Book, a cheap a very numerous and curious. Ii results of my ov possible that 1 1 to other persons 1. The Scab not rapidly dest the tree. It is scale attached tc of locomotion, inner bark, to a brown colour, ber of whitish e{ the approach of to the younger acquire a scaly c branches should tjie young from attaching thems time, the tree s and the loose ou lime is applied, case of small tr( 2. The Tern kinds of fruit tr posits its eggs i: autumn or wint trees should ali little cobweb cu bitants crushed out injury to tl mop, or bitom, 3. The Can mentcd with lor CftterpiUarD { as ORCHARD AND OARDEX FRUIT. 207 a limb in an animal, and more or less deranges the circulation of the whole system. Large limbs should be pruned in summer ; small twigs may be freely cut in spring. Experience has shewn, that the dangers of spring pruning, in the case of considerable limbs, arc much greater in stone fruits than in applet and pears < >n the subjects of grafting, and selecting of sorts of trees, I may refer every beginner in orchard culture to Cole's American Fruit Book, a cheap and excellent Utile work. The diseases and enemies of fruit trees should be carefully studied, both in books and in nature, by every fruit cultivator. They are very nuraorous and troublesome, though often sufficiently interesting and curious. In the following remarks, I shall give principally the results of my own observations in this Province ; and it is, of course, possible that I may have overlooked some pests of the orchard known to other persons. 1. The SrMle Insect {core its) attacks* the apple tree, and, though not rapidly destructive, much impairs the vigor and productiveness of the tree. It is a small whitish creature, residing under a greyish scale attached to the bark, and is, in its adult state, quite incapable of locomotion. It appears to subsist by sucking the juices of the inner bark, to which, when very numerous, they give an unhealthy brown colour. In autumn, the adult deposits under the scale a num- ber of whitish eggs, and dies. In spring, the young are hatched on the approach of warm weather, usually in May. and make their way to the younger twigs and branches, where they fix themselves, and acquire a scaly coat, like their parents. To destroy these insects, the branches should be washed with lime in early spring. This prevents tjie young from extricating themselves from the old scale, or from attaching themselves ; and they conse([Ucntly perish. At the same time, the tree should bo well manured, to give a vigorous growth, and the loose outer bark should be scraped from the trunk before the lime is applied. In this way a cure can be easily effected, in the case of small trees. 2. The Tcni Cfilerplllur, or web-weaving caterpillar, attacks all kinds of fruit trees. It is the larva of a moth, which in autumn do- posits its eggs in a ring surrounding a branch. When observed in autumn or winter, these deposits of eggs should be removed. The trees should also bo carefully examined in early spring, and every little cobweb curtain that is observed, should be cut off, and its inha- bitants crushed ; or if it be too large to permit this to be done, with- out injury to the tree, the web and insects may be brushed off Avith a mop, or. bi'bom, dipped in a strong solution of soft soap. 3. The Ca;nkor-n'orm is a caterpillar of gay colours, and orna- mented with long tufts of black hair. It is the most beautiful of our ^^terpillari) { aad, singularly enough, in its perfect state, it is one of i^H km; 208 ORCHARD AND GARDEN FRUIT. the plainest of grey moths. The female is an unsighily wingless creature, remaining motionless on the spot where she emerges from the hairy cocoon in which the fill grown caterpillar envelopes itself, when about to enter on its torpid or pupa state Attached to this cocoon, she deposits a mass of eggs, enveloped in a hard spongy whitish varnish, intended to protect them from the rains and storms of winter. Owing to this circumstance, the eggs are easily observed ; and when seen in autumn or winter, attached to limbs of trees. fences, or buildings, tlioy should be brushed down and destrovecl. When the caterpillars are hatched, if abundant, they soon strip a tree of its leaves ; and means should at once be resorted to for their destruction. The best method is to drench the tree with a solution of whale oil soap, or soft soap, common soap-suds, or weak potash ley. This may be sprinkled with a mop of rags^ or, better, with a garden syringe Small trees may be suflSciently sprinkled with a garden watering pan. Soap applied in this way, is a useful remedy for the attacks of all kinds of caterpillars. Much injury may also be prevented by smearing the lower part of the trunks of trees with tar in 8[)r'ng ; as oome kinds of caterpillars, and the canker-worsi among the rest, are occasionally hatched on fences, outhouses, A'c, and make their way into the trews by climbing the trunks. A good plan is to tie a sheaf of straw around the trunk oi -he tree. This ap- pears to be an efl'e(itual barrier to the ascent of caterpillars, and does not injure the tree, which tar is by many supposed to do. American books say, that the canker-worms may be shaken down from the tree, and destroyed on the ground. I have not found this to be the case with the species common here, as it clings very tenaciously to the limbs. Some other kinds of caterpillars, may, however, be shaken down. 4. The Apple worm, the larva of a species of moth, burrows in the apple, devouring a part of it, and causing it to fall prematurely. On arriving at maturity, the grub creeps into a crevice, or sheltered place, and spins a neat whitish cocoon; within which it remains till it comes forth in the perfect state. The best remedy is to pick up and destroy all the fallen apples ; hogs are sometimes allowed to devour them. If this be attended to, the numbers of the apple- fform will speedily be diminished. r>. The Black Wart attacks plum trees, and sometimes cherry trees ; and if allowed to proceed unchecked, is a fatal disease. It seems to be a fungus, analogous to the " spunk"' and other dry fungi often found on forest trees ; and it probably diffuses itself by spcr o . or dust like seeds, carried by the wind. Every '-iffectod branch should be cut off 60 soon as the disease is observed, uud should be burned, or carried to a distance from the orchard. In the case of plum trees, aalt, or pckle — which, in moderate quantity, is by no means injurious to these trees— should be eoattered around thorn ; and though it may I close tliii . Fruits : Red and and useful in the attacks o turely. Who 0]MHABI> AND OA&D^ TBITXT. 201|< not wholly present tho back wart, it will much mitigate its de^truo-' tive eiFects. ^, The Plum Weevil (curctilio) is a small beetle, which deposit* its eq^gr in the young plum. The grubs prey on the fruit, and cause . it to fall prematurely ; after which they burrow in tho ground, and come forth in the next sejison as perfect insects, which creep or fly into the tree. The remedies which have L^en found useful, are : 1. Manuring with salt, which is said to render the fruit distasteful to tho grub. 2. Picking up and destroying the fallen fruit. 3. Put- ting a girdle of c jtton wool or tar around the trunk, which arrests tho ketle? in their ascent. 4. Treading the ground hard aiuud tho tree, which tends to present the grubs from burrowing. Plum trees, in light soils, are more liable to be attacked by these insects than those in stiff soils. 7. Plant Lice, and Mites. — These creatures are often injurious to fruit trees, espccialiy to the plum, and sometimes kill them. A little red mite, and two or three species of green and black plant lice {aphis) have 1>oen especially troublesome in this Province. The best mode of destroying these creatures, is, to drench the tx'ee with soap-suds, or ley, or to smoke it with tobncco. The larvaj of tho common littlo red lady bugs, are great devourers of aphides. They are hedious-looking large-headed grey caterpillars, which, when dis- turbed, erect themselves on their tails with a jerk. Their good oiH- ces in --lestroying plant lice, enticie them to rank as true "farmers' friends." 8. the Chetnj Slug is a small limy dark-coloured caterpillar, the lu. va of a little blackish fly. They often appear in cherry trees, in couoiderable numbers, without doing much injury ; but when very numerous, they should be destroyed, by dusting the leaves with wood a^hes or lime. 9. It may be remarked, in general, with respect to all the enemies of fruit trees, that the orchardiat should encourage all tho insectivo- rous birds, — robins, swallowSj fly-catchers, titmice, wrens, v.arblora, kc, — to frequent hjs orchard. Some of these birds commit occasional depredations ; but. in tiic main, they are admirable assistants in the destruction of noxious insects. They sliould be pro^"r*,tcd >'nn injury ; and tho cultivator would do well to iraitato tbcm, an the.r activity, vigilance, and prying search foi- every living thing that sheltcu Izsc'S .'U bark, leaf, or linib. 1 close this subject, by a few remarks on the smaller Garden I . Fruits : Red and 'chite Currants, of good and large varieties, are f :ettr»- and useful iiuits. They ofteB fail in this country, in con.«eque; :o cf tho attacks of plant lice, which cause the leaves to fall oflf pi ;ma- turely. Whon the leaves arc observed to be a little puckered and 27 3f; 210 ORCHARD AND OARDEN TRUTT. discoloured by tht^c insects, the bushes should be watered with tobacco juice, cr soap suds or should be smoked with tobacco. Cur- rants should be well manured annually ; and the red and white varie- ties should have all the tops of the young twigs pruned oft" every spring. The Bhti'k Currant does not require pruning of the young wood, but is rather injured by it. The diffevenco, in this iespect, between the black and the red, is caused by the circumstance, that in the latter, the fruit is produced by the new annual shoots, as in the rasp- berry ; while in the former, it is produced by the wood of last year. The black currant should, however, have old and decaying branches cut out, and it should be well manured. The Goosehcrry requires a good soil, and not a very sunny situa- tion. They should be trained on one stem, in the manner of fruit trees, kept open by pruning, and woll manured every spring. The advice given in some American books, to train them in bushes, like currants, is very bad, as they are usually very unproductive in that form, at least in this climate. I have bushes trained on one stem, now over twenty years old, and still bearing well. In planting out slips, the tops should be cut off, and all the buds, except one or tvo at the top, shouid be nipped out. This tends to produce a clean stem and round top ; and care should be taken to cut out all young shoots from the root. When gooseberries are infested with maggots, the bushes should be shaken, and. the fallen fruit collected and destroyed. The hairy varieties are less liable to the attacks of worms, than the smooth. If planted in a cool soil, properly trained and pruned and well manured, milldew, which is often very destructive to the fruit, need not be dreaded. The large varieties of garden Sirawberries may be very profitably cultivated in the neighbourhood of towns. They may be planted in rows, and kept clean with the plough and hoe. The strawberry soon exhausts the soil around its roots ; — for this reason, the plants should be frequently manured with old compost ashes or guano ; and every two or three years they should be transplanted. The following easy method is pursued near Boston : " The vines are usually transplanted in August. The rows are formed eighteen inches or two feet apart. The runners during the first year are destroyed In the second year, they are suffered to grow and fill the intervals ; and in the autumn of that year the whole old rows arc turned under with the spade, — and the rows are thus shifted to the middle of the space. The same pro- cess is repeated every second year." The Oranberry might also be made a profitable object of culture, where there are peatty soils which can be drained, or are naturally dry. The method followed successfully in the United States, is as follows : Drain the bog ; take out any brush that paay be growing on it ; cart on some beach sand, and plant cranberry sods at the distance ^ ^ ORCHABD AND GARDEN I^RUIT. 211 of four feet apart ; — the planting is usually performed In autumn. In three years, tha ground will be covered. The berries are gathered with a cranberry rake, and ^ man can thus gather 20 to 50 bushels per day. One farmer in Massachusetts is stated to have raised 400 bushels in one year, the value of which was !jt400.* * AmeriowQ Orobardist. Sir I i'5' 1 profitably planted in berry aoon mts should and every iwing easy ansplanted feet apart, icond year, autumn of jade, — and same pro- of culture, naturally •ates, is as growing on be distance X • n* •iMiii •aiu.iAU U/iA (ijiAii:. li iM 0.« ISii «> ■.VVi. CHAPTER Xlli. ROTATION OF CROPS. The following is extra^Jtcd from Potcrs' Hints to tho Farmers of Princo Edward Island : — •* Lotaiion of crops is to grow different kinds of crops in succession, on thi sunie field — such as roots, grain, and grass. To lay down any particular course, to bo followed by all, would be absurd, for, ad obsor red hy Allen, the proper system of rot ttion any farmer should adopt must depend on all the circumstances by which h. is surroun- ded, iiad must vary according to those varying circi rnstancc.?. Though the chief object in introducing the subject here is to point out one great and common error in our present system, yet, as the reasons which rcnrler it necessary, and the principles which should gi'ide the farmer in selecting his rotation, should bo understood by all, they may be licre briefly adverted to. It has been discovered that every cr',) takes away from the soil certain quantities of nutri- tious mat ev. without which there Avould certainly be no crop ; and that no U: . difwrent crops a' ^ tract these nutritious matters in the same proportions. For iustance, the turnip tnkos away from the soil a lar^o t^uantity of one kind of nutritious matter — wheat a large quantity of a different nutritious mutter, and hay a large quantity of nutritious matter different from both turnips and wheat ; therefore, though a field may give a sufficiency of that kind of nutriment which is principally required by one crop, yet if aaother of the same kind immediately follows, there will bo a deficiency for it ; but if a differ- ent crop succeeds, there will be found enough of all the materials it needs iuUy to manure it ; and when a third crop of another descrip- tion follows, which requires nourishment different from either which have preceded it, the soil may be in a condition to yiell a good crCj) of the last also. But as every crop takes away more or less of all the nutritious mattera which the soil contains, ' if a succession of crops, (no m itter how different the kinds which succeed each other may bo) are gathered and carried off the land, without the occasional addition ROTATION OF CBOP0. 218 3 surroun- of manurea, they will bo found gradually to diminish in quantity till they reach a point (which, under the same system, many firms in this Island have long "inco reached) when they will scarcely pay the expense of cultivation.' But tho great error here, t^.nd to which I desire particularly to direct attention, is the cutting hay for years in succession on the same land ; it is tiiis practice which has ruined half tho lands of tho Island, iind will impoverish the faTm of every man who perseveres in it. It seems generally laid down in these countries where great science and groat experience have combined to ascertain what is best, that on light soils, such as this Island, two successive crops of hay should not bo cut on the same field ; or if a secotid crop is taken, tho field should receive a top dressing tho previous autumn or spring. I know the danger of saying this. Many will exclaim : It is impossible for us to do it — where can we get manure 7 and if we had it, how can we dress so much land ? what would we do for hay to feed our cattle ? what folly to recommend a system which the cir- cumstances of tho country will not permit the people to follow ! and under this impression will, perhaps, throw away the book, determined to persevere in the present ruinous system. But withhold your con- demnation for a moment. I am aware that even a bad system cannot, without inconvenience— perhaps loss — be entirely changed at once ; it would not be prudent to attempt it, and I do not advise you to do so. There is no harm, you must admit, in showing what othrr coun- tries, with soils similar to our own, have found best, nor is tho diffi- culty of at once adopting it an v reason why we should not make gra- dual approaches towards it. And let us see whether the difficulties are really so insurmountable as they may at first appear. First, as to where you are to get manure, I would refer you to the first chapter, and a\ you if you are guilty of the neglect, or jjerrait any of the waste there pointed out ; if so, correct it before complain- ing on that head. Secondly, I wouM urge you to recollect that ono acre in good heart will yiehl iia much hay as three in bad ; the labor, therefore, of giving a li'.Tht dressing (say twenty to twenty-five loads) of mud and ash^s, or maa and lime, or mud and urine, or dung com- post, would not be so great, when you have to go over only one acre instead of three. Thirdly, consider whether you really require so large a quantity of hay. If you cultivate a large breadth of turnips, you will have a large quantity of straw from vim succeeding grain crops ; straw and turnips will keep cattle as well as hay, and much better than the red top and natural grass which forms a large part of the hay cut on worn out lands. It will also suggest itself to you, that by turning the field to pasture before it is exhausted, the herb- age will be greater in quantity and richer in quality, the cows givo more milk, the dairy yield more aud better butter and cheese, the young cattle grow more vigorously, attain their full size earlier, and jxudce more beef, the mutton bo fatter, and both draw more mouey ;i^^ 214 ROTATION OF CROPS. from the butcher ; and, though lost, not least, your land will be im- proving, instead of getting worse. These advantages should bo fairly placed to the credit of the new system, before you resolve to continue the old. The remarks of Professor Johnston in his report on tlic Agriculturo of New Brunswick, are bo applicable to this subject, that I cannot do bettor than transcribe them here. He says : — ' As regards his crops, the New Brunswick Farmer follows a sya- tem, which, even where regular manuring is practised, would injure the land, and which is therefore condemned and avoided by all good farmers ; but which, combined with the waste of manures and neglect of manuring, is certain to entail an early exhaustion. I mention par- ticularly the repeated successive crops of hay which are taken year after year from the fields.' * This custom, which is characteristic of these North American Provinces, and has been naturally fallen into in consecjuence of the necessity of providing a large supply of winter food for the stock, is very injurious to the land. This, I believe, is generally acknowled- ged ; but the plea of necessity is urged as an excuse. It is not neces- sary to cut hay ofiF the same land year after year, without returning to it any manure ; neither is it necessary to feed stock altogether upon hay. I infer that the land of this Province, when fairly treated, must be prone to produce abundantly, from the large returns whicli the farmers expect, u,nd actually rob the soil of, after once manuring. I visited the farm of a most intelligent gentleman, ono of the best i'ann- ers in his neighborhood, and I believe most desirous to improve, who informed me that, after one dressing with mussel mud from the sea bank, not far from his farm, he had taken one crop of potatoes or tur- nips, one of wheat, and eight sucressive crops of hay — and he seem- ed to think that the land had used him ill in not having given hira For the first four cropj from such an application, a British more. farmer would have been thankful and content ; and in taking them, he would have been thought rather hard upon his land too.' ' The repeated succession of crops of gram is open to similar reprobation. In remote districts of Scotland and England, the prac- tice may be found still lingering ; but it brings on ultimately a spe- cies of exhaustion, which is exceedingly difficult and expensive to repair.' ' The want of a rotatioti of crops is evident wherever the above- mentioned practices, of taking successive hay or grain crops, prevail. But generally, throughout the Province, the neglect of a proper and profitable rotation must be reckoned among the defects of the prevail- ing husbandry ; wherever the system of regular and copious manuring takes root, as an indispensable means of melioration, a well considered rotation of crops must accompany it, if the full benefits of good manu- ring are to reward the farmer's labors.' ROTATION OP CROM. 216 Tho rotation in general best adapted to this Island — varied, of course, according to circumstances — would seem to bo after lea ground is broken up : first year, oats ; second year, turnips, carrots, par- snips, potatoes, or Indian corn, with manure ; third year, wheat or biirlcv, with grass eoeds : fourth year, hay ; — if the hind is top-dres- sed the previous spring or autumn, but not otherwise, fifth year, hay also ; sixth, seventh, and eighth years, if rc((uired pasture ; and then l)reak up and commence again — with oats ; when tho ley is old and stifl", oats are often taken the second year also, and tho second crop is often better tha)\ the first, owing probably to the cold in winter not allowing the sod to decay in time to give full nourishment to tho first crop. This practice, though contrary to the general rules of good husbandry, may, under tho peculiar circumstances, properly form an oxcepti )n to the general rule : it should, however, bo cautiously fol- lowed, and ncvcr atlopted unless the sod be old and stiff, and then it would bo better to follow tho oats with rye — a crop which should bo more generally cultivated, as it does not require strong land, and, if wheat fails, will furnish the farmer with excellent bread. Grass seeds, particularly red and white clover, should be liberally sown with grain, else both the subsequent hay crop and pasture .will bo deficient. No one should sow less than 6 lbs. of red clover, and two of white, in addition to timothy, per acre — and double the quan- tity will do no harm. Red clover takes a great deal of its nourish- ment from tho atmosphere, and its large roots, when they decay, tend greatly to improve tho soil ; and without white clover, pasture will not be what it ought." The following admirable plan for a rotation of crops by a farmer in the district of Montreal, is worthy of the careful study of every far- mer. It is reprinted here, from the translation by Dr. Robb, pub- lished in New Brunswick in 1851 : — Extracts froji " The Geneaal Management of a Farm in Lower Canada." — by a Scottish Farmer. 1. Requisites of a good system. Ist. It ought to be economical, and not require more capital than the actual system, or rather than the present absence of system, re- quires. It is undoubtedly of great advantage to apply capital to the land, but this advantage is in general beyond the reach of our farm- ers, as their means are not sufficient. 2d. It ought to restore fertility to the soil, and maintain it by the products of tne land itSelf. Manures got from other quarters than the farm itself, are always expensive, and, at a distance from town, are often not to be had at all. 8d. It ought to be simple and of easy application. 4th. Finally, it ought to have experience clearly in its favor. I 2M RotAVidir ov otiorg. 2. Experience of the writer. I caroe to the country thirty years «go, and burdened with a debt of SAO ; I leased a worn-out farm in Lower Canada of eighty-four acres, in the midst of a French population, and at an annual rent of j£46. Well, in the space of 21 years, I have paid my original debt, and saved enough to enable me to purchase in the same neighborhood a much better farm than the one I rented. The owner of the farm which I bought, was going on every year from bad to worse, until ho was forced to sell it, whilst I, the tenant of a less productive farm, and paying rent all the while, was enabled to buy him out, as just said. What was the reason of this anomaly? The Canadicu was stronger than I was, had equally good health, and had no rent to pay. The reason was that he had np.sygiein ; he let his laud become exhausted and full of ^^ eeds ; he let his stock starve ; he wasted his manure, the gold of the farmer, and let every thing go to ruin for want of method ; but when I had got hold of this .feame farm, and had 'applied the system which I am about to describe, the whole was brought gradually, field by field, into goo-d condition by the end of six years; since then, the condition of the land has steadily improved, and that by resources drawn wholly from within itself. The system to which I allude, is known to all good farmers every where as the ba&is of all improvement, I mean that of 3. A rotation of Crops. There ai*e two sorts of reasons in favor of this plan of rotation of crops. 1st. Because different plants draw from the soil different sorts of food, so that one plant will grow freely in a soil which is worn out as regards another. 2d. Because the crops being various, the occasional failure of one is not BO much felt, seeing that the othere furnish subsistence suffi- ciently without it. The cultivation of a fair proportion of all the varieties of crops which Providence permits to grow rapidly, ought therefore to be con- sidered as the best means of adverting a tamiue ; and what intelligent farmer, with the case of Canada and Ireland before him, would wish to be limited to the culture of wheat and potatoes only ? 4. Plan of the Rotat'mt. Divide the ai-ablc portion of the farm, whatever may be its size, mto six parts, as equal as possible, with a direct communication from the barn yard to each field, and from one field to the other, so that ROTATIOI? or CBOM. zir dd. 4th. 5th. 6th. the cattle may pass from oue to the other when required. This divi- sion into aix fields, maj require on most farms new fencing, and it will he proper, beforehand, to see how this can he done with the least possihle cxpence. I shall now suppose the farm pr pared to receive the application of this system, and that is the one which I have found the best foi* even the poorest settler. Ist Root crops, such as potatoes, cairots, beets, parsnips, &c., [turnips and also flax], and in cases where the land is not su^cieutly open xor a crop of this kind, the field must be left in fallow. 2d. Crop of Wheat or Barley. Crop of Hay. Pasture. Pasture. Crop of Oats or Peas. In beginning the application of this system, that field of the aerim which is in best condition for a Root crop, should be called Field A The best for Wheat or Barley •• * - ' - That which is actually in Hay, , _ _ The Pasture Fields - - - - D & E That which is best for Oats or Peas, - - - F Each field for the first year ought to be appropriated to the crops above mentioned, and after the fashion now in use among the farmers of Lower Canada, except in the case of field A. By this plan, they will at all events still get as much from their five fields as they get at present. The culture of field A and of crop No. 1 come up together for the first year, and ought to be the object of special attention, as this is, m fact, the key to the whole system ; for the good culture of this field has for its object, and ought to have for its efiect, not only a good crop the first year, but also to improve the land for the five other years of this Rotation of Crops. In the following year, the cultivation of the difierent crops will be according to the following order : •• Crop No. 2 in the field All B Do. " 3 " B Do. u 4 " C Do. " 5 " D Do. " 6 " E Do. " 1 « F and so on, changing each year until the seventL, when crop No. 1 will come back to field A^ and the whole will then be in a good state of fertility, and free from weeds. The above system has been pioved to be capable of restoring old land, and extirpating all weeds.* In order to render the thing more simple and easy of comprehen- sion, I shall suppose myself to be again obliged to take a worn-out « Jofirnal New Bnmewick Society, p. p. 26, 46. 38 |! •is 218 ROTATION OK CKOP.S. farm in the autumn of 1849. The first thing that I should do, would be to divide the land into six fields, by proper fences, to prevent the cattle going from one field to the other ; and I would then take for field A, that which appeared best for green crops or root crops ; I would collect all the manure which I could find in or out of the barns, I would take up the flooring of the cow-house, stable and pig- gery, and I would take out as much of th<. soil underneath as I could get, for this soil is the essence of manure, one load of it being as good as four or five loads of common dung. The portion thus removed ought to be replaced by an equal fjuantity of ordinary soil, or, if it be possible, of bog earth, which might be removed when necessary after- wards. The dung and other manure thus collected, should be placed on the field A, in September, or the beginning of October, spread with care (as far as it will go), and covered up in a shallow furrow. Manure aids the decomposition of straw and the weeds of the soil, and frees it from these plants, which thus help to keep the soluble portion of the manure, until its juices become necessary for the crops of the suc- ceeding years. The greater variety there is in the crops of this field, the better it will be, provided the soil is suitable for them. Thus, this field ought, as nearly as possible, to look like a kitchen garden. 5. Crop \st. — Root or Green Crop. Under the actual circumstances of the country, I would particu- larly call the attention of the farmers to the cultivation of the Carrot as being one well adapted to our soil and climate. The land which has been manured in the fall, as above described, ought to bo ploughed at least twice in the spring, the one furrow across the other, and both as deep as possible. It is then to Ije har- rowed until it is properly mellow. You then make with the plough two furrows, distant two feet, or two feet three inches from each other, taking care to raise ttb soil as much as possible between each. You pass the roller over this ploughed portion, and then with the corner of a hoe, make a small furrow or drill along the top of the rows ; drop the seed into this furrow, and psiss the roller over it again : this last operation will cover the seed sufficiently. If you can get a seed sower, that will simplify matters consider- ably. A roller is essential in the culture of root crops which spring from small seeds, but it can be readily got by all farmers. A log of twenty inches diameter, and five feet long, with a pole fixed at each end, will do the business admirably. Cfxt-rot eaeda (and you may tjuy the wme of the other ccwds,) ?>uglit t« be !39uH«tt ih irthi. oi* gyft ^atijt'i unUl ihsy *t« «!*hyui ^ epifSttit »ind m?r» 4'«ll^d in ^«l«k4iujf unlit tk malm? i^ra Af^ tHyuah m K% sti^ ^9 8tifi)t mhsi^ Wl'tjR mn k m lime, W9«^i ^^%i m\ i% iis w?}!, ROTA Til A' OF CROPS. 219 A pound of seed, if it be good (aiul you ought always to try it before • sowing,) will be sufficient for one acre of land. By the above plan, the young plant will come up before the w^eeds, so that it will be easy to distinguish the rows of carrots before the weeds appear : this ren- ders the cleaning comparatively easy, since it may be done (except the thinning) by means of a cultivator. This cultivator is an instru- ment which every settler ought to have, and which, like those already mentioned, is extremely simple in its construction It is made of three bars of wood joined in front, and separated behind, according to the width of the furrows which you wish to clean. This instrument, called the Horse-hoe or Drill-harrow, or Cultivator, is drawn by one horse, and has handles to it like a plough, only lighter. A man or a boy may guide it, so as not to touch the rows of Carrots or other crops, btit only to raise the soil to a greater or less depth, at plea- sure. As soon as the weeds appear, you draw this harrow between the rows, so as to bring the soil as close as possible to the young car- rots, but without touching or covering them. This process will keep the plants sufficiently clean until the time for thinning them and lea- ving them four or five inche? apart from one another ; soon afterwards you may plough between the rows thus harrowed and raised. These operations do good to the plant, by permitting air and moisture to have access, and by facilitating evaporation. My plan for gathering the carrots in autumn, is to pass the plough along the right side of the plants as close as possible, without injuring them : this frees them on one side, and the stem is strong enough to allow us to haul up the roots by it afterwards. This method of culture requires a good deal of labour, but the re- turn is more than enough to recompense the farmer. When we consider the large amount of nutritive matter contained in this root, and its general application to all the living things on a farm, its culture cannot be too strongly recoraraended, besides it is relished by all animals, especially by working horses, to whom it may be given instead of oats. 1 have dwelt particularly upon the culture of the carrot, because the same method^pplies to the culture of all the root crops, which can be advantageously grown in this climate, such as Parsnips, Beets, Mangels and Turnips. Parsnips will grow in a close soil, almost in clay, and do not re- quire cellars, since they will remain uninjured all winter in the ground. In ithis case you will have them in the spring, affording a new and succulent food, at a time when it is most necessary. Every animal will eat parsnips with relish, and cows fed upon them yield a very rich milk. Beets and Mau^ :a havo the saiae value as a crop, and as food for milk cattle ; but I do not consider them to be so good for fattening cattle. pm 220 llOTATION OF CROPS. [In spring, all the manure made during the past winter should be carted to the field, placed in a heap, and twice turned. All bonea should be gathered and broken up with a hammer, all coal and wood ashes, Hcrapings of sewers, the dung from the fowl house, and the contents cf the privy, should be collected and made into a compost, with dry loam or bog earth. The above manure may be used for that portion of the field devoted to cabbages, potatoes, and turnips. It should be put in tho bottom of the drill on which the above are to be planted or sown. When the ground is properly ploughed and harrowed, and a suffi- cient quantity of sound seed sown, — say, at least, four pounds to the acre, — the Turnip crop is as certain ao any other. The sowing of turnip seed should be commenced early in June, and may be continued up to 20th July. If the fly takes the first sowing, a second will be likely to succeed. The turnips, when well up, and getting strong, should bo thinned out to a foot apart, and tho hoe and cultivator passed through them at least twice before they meet in the drills.] If the land is too heavy for root crops, beans and green peas will suit for No. 1, taking care to sow them in drills, and to prepare the land as above described for root crops. If it be thought absolutely necessary to summer-fallow, — that is, to plough without sowing, — which only happens when the soil is so hard and heavy that it cannot be pulverized in any other Avay, you ought not to spread the manure on the land in the preceding fail ; but plough the land, and ridge and furrow it with as much care as for a crop. You need not touch it again before the month of June ; when you must plough it again, and harrow it, so as to render it even, and destroy the roots of the weeds. You may then draw the furrows in a straight line, giving them a uniform breadth, and so as to facilitate drainage. About the middle of July you must plough it again, and sow it with plenty of buckwheat. At the end of September, plough it again, having previously spread it with dung. In this case, the buckwheat is ploughed under with the manure, and serves greatly to increase the latter. The land thus prepared, ought to be sown with wheat in ilui ensuing spring, and you may add a little timothy and clover. A bushel of timothy will suffice for four or five acres, and three or four pounds of clover to each acre. By following the method above described, you will have, in the year 1851, quadrupled, or more than quadrupled the fertility of the •oil. 6. Succeeding Crops of the Rotation, X have now done all that I can for field A. I have weeded and maoaurodit as well as I can ; and after having taliea the crop of roots, ROTATION OP CROPS. 221 le soil ia so and the crop of wheat or barley next year, I leave this field to rest until the other fields have been improved in the same way, andacoord« ing to the method above described. When this shall have been effected — that is to say, in the space of six years, or in the year 1856 — the worst will be over, and the battle may be considered as gained. The fields will then be in a clean and fertile condition, and their value wi 1 consequently be greatly increased. The farm of seventy or eighty acres, which in 1849 only sustained three or four miserable cows, and perhaps no more than an equal number of sickly sheep, will be capable, in less than ten years, of furnishing an abundant subsistence for tea or twelve cattle, and other stock in the same proportion. One of the great advantages of this system of rotation of crops is, that the pastures, which in summer furaish summer-feed for the stock, are in due proportion to the quantity of roots and hay destined to winter-feed them, and in due proportion to the straw which the grain* crops yield for their bedding. I will observe here that farmers — except those who live near towns, where they can easily procure manures — ought never to sell a single load of their hay, straw, or roots ; since the whole ought to be consumed on the farm, with the view of procur» ing a sufficiency of manure therefrom, whereby the fertility of the soil is to be sustained. But if the farmer is not to sell hay, or straw, or roots, what is he to sell 7 I answer : the third of the land being, under this system, appropriated to grain crops, he will always be able to sell a large part of them. The half of the farm being in hay and pasture, will allow it to produce a large quantity of butter, cheese, butchers' meat and wool ; and to sell a considerable part of these, after having supplied the wants of the family. Tt may be said that six years is a long time to wait for the renovation of the whole farm ; but I will reply, that I know of no other means by which it may be done in less time, from its own resources ; and it is worthy of observation that the land is improving every year. The produce is larger, even for the first year, under this system, than it is under the present mode of culture ; and, from year to year, the land is improving, field by field, and is producing more and more, so as to pay the farmer better than it docs at present, and to recompense him doubly afterwards, when the whole shall have been improved under a system ot rotation. It may be objected, that two years of pasture is a long time of rest for the land ; but you will observe that the land does not remain unproductive during this period of repose. This plan not only contri- butes to re-establish the almost exhausted fertility of the soil (and it will be admitted that this is the only one now practised by the Cana- dian Habitant), but it is also the best means of furnishing the farmer with the first necessaries of life, and the articles which, so to speak, will most readily find an outlet in our markets — such as beef, lard, mutton, butter, cheese, wool, and other products already named. MaauroB are of the first importanoe to the farmer, and he must do m P ji ^ 1 222 ROTATION OF CROPS. evcrytliing in his power to increase their amount. The system here proposec', is calculated so as to increase the quantity of manure in pro- portion as the soil becomes improved. As already said, the farmer ought not to sell a particle of his hay or straw, because these are the principal materials for manure : and, consequently, it is infinitely worse t ) sell the manure itself. The manure thus economized, will suffice each year for the field which is to receive the root crop, (No. 1.) After the crop of oats, (No. 0), the land is not yet exhausted, and might even yield another grain crop. It is better, however, to preserve this fertility, than to be obliged to bring back continually this degree of fertility. In this short treatise it is impossible for me to mention one hand redth part of the means which we have of increasing our stock of ma- nure. I shall content myself with alluding to the rich deposits ot bog-mould which we possess, and the limestone, which can be had everywhere. The very weeds, even, which are the curse of our fieldS; may be converted into good manure. C. Siock. As for the sort of stock which ought to be kept, I would advise a regular proportion of all the animals which prosper with us ; because one sort may be fed on the food which another will not touch. For instance, sheep eat greedily and get fat upon French beans, which no other creature but man can use. The Canadian breed of cattle, is, perhaps, the best for the country, and the best to yield milk, butter, &c., provided care be taken to select, the best bulls and cows to breed from. Too much care cannot be given to this point ; and the calves must bo supplied with good and abundant food. If it be desirable to cross the breed, so as to increase the quantity and quality of the milk, this can only be done with the Ayrshire breed, — seeing that the larger breeds do not do so well for the country, at least in the present condition of its pastures. [By keeping a thorough-bred bull, and changing every three or four years, and rearing only the best heifers, the stock would gradually be brought up, nearly approaching the breed of the sire.] A gooc'i Canadian cow will, in my opinion, give more milk for the same allowance of food, than any other breed which I know. [The profits of the dairy depend almost entirely on the care taken of the cattle during winter. Cows warmly housed and well fed through the winter, and put on good pasture in summer, will yield much more than sufficient to pay for the difference of keep. In the Province of New Brunswick cows are generally fed on dry hay in winter, kept in cold stables, and are pastured in the woods, or on fields which have been impoverished by excessive cropping. The consequence is, that, ROTATION OF CKOI'S 223 aa reported by the Farmers themsoWes to Professor Johnston, the average yield per cow, for the season, fs only 8!> pounds Butter, or 1 10 pounds Cheese. In Ayrshire, as reported by Mr. Colman, Commis- sioner from the United States, the yield is per cow '500 pounds But- ter, or 500 pounds Cheese. To ensure a similar yield, the followin<]; treatment is re(|Usito : Select good, well-shaped, healthy cows. In winter provide for them a warm stable on the South side of the barn. Water them in their stalls. Boil regularly for them a mixture composed of turnips, man- gels, or carrots, with chaflf or cut hay, and a small allowance of barley, oatB or linseed : of this let them have two pail-fulls each daily — and as much oat-straw or hay as they require. In summer, turn them into fields where they can have as much grass as they can consume. The cows should calve in April : the calves to get the milk for a month, and afterwards to bo weaned off with skimmed milk and boiled linseed.] The Leicester breed of sheep is the best to give large and fat sheep ; but it is not so advantageous as regards wool, which is, perhaps, the principal object for which sheep arc kept. That breed which would possess a combination of the two qualities of fat meat and fine wool, and a vigorous constitution withal, would be the best for Lower Can- ada. To attain this object you might cross the common sheep of the country, first with a Leicester ram, so as to get a large breed, and then mix the product of the first cross with a Cheviot ram, so as to gut a finer wool — or first with a Cheviot and then with a Leicester ram. In this way I have procured hardy sheep, any one of which will yield six or eight pounds of fine wool, and from twenty-two to twenty-five lbs. of mutton per quarter. In breeding, the greatest care must be taken always to choose the finest rams, and to preserve the finest lambs ; and on no pretext ought the finer individuals to be disposed of. As the keeping of sheep is of the greatest importance, and but little known, I will add a few remarks — which will be excused, since this has been the busirtess of almost my whole life. Sheep ought not to be allowed to run from field to field ; as this gives them wandering habits, which injure them the whole summer through. When sheep arc well fed and well treated, they will follow the person who has charge of them wherever he pleases ; and if they arc taken and enclosed in good pasturo, they will give less trouble in looking after them than any other Bovt of stock. It is also of the greatest importance to smear sheep about the middle of November : for which purpose, I have made use of tue following mixture, which succeeded wonderfully well The quantitio? hero indicated, will auf- for twenty sheep i ikelft) » 8 • • * J »W' Cemmen Oil » > ■ I ^iHlSi 1i uiftt i 224 K0IATI0I7 or CROPS. The oil ought to bo heated to the melting point of the rosin, and the butter then added, after the oil has ceasea to boil, which is a point requiring attention The whole ought to bo stirred until they be- come thoroughly mixed ; and should tho composition prove to bo too thick to be used, buttermilk or cream may bo added, taking care to mix well. This ointment is to be smeared on the skin of the sheep in parallel linos, distant one inch from each other, and for the whole length of the cicaturo. This application destroys vermin, invigorates the growth of the wool, and protects tho animal against cold. This precaution is absolutely necessary, if we wish to secure a good flock of sheep. Another thing of great importance is, never to shut up sheep in a close ill-ventilated place. It would be better to pen them up in come corner of the barn, rather than to treat them so. Tho sheep can naturally endure a considerable degree of cold, but it cannot do with- out fresh air ; consequently the fold ought always to bo well ventila- ted. It is a very bad practice to let tho rams walk with the sheep in autumn, because that is the reason why the ewes drop their lambs too early in the spring. The ram (and a single one will be enough for five fai-mers,) ought to be kept apart from the 16th of September till the 22d November ; and if at this latter period he bo allowed to go to the sheep, the lambs will appear about the 17th of April, and tho ewe will not have had time to get worn out with suckling before going out again to the pasture. The best breed of pigs for the country is that called the Berkshire, or Chinese ; and as many as possible ought to be kept upon every farm, (that is, as many as will consume all tho milk and other re- mains of the dairy,) and which may bo fattened in the fall. That lean, hungry, long-legged, long-nosed animal, stvled tho Canadian pig, ought to be for ever banished. A good breed will produce dou- ble the lard, with half of the food. Tho Chinese, or Berkshire Boar, crossed with the breed of the country, for three or four years, will effect the necessary change. CFTAPTER XIV. I:' MISCELLANEOUS HINTS ON HUSBANDRY. 1. Ploughing. Next to the natural fertility of a soil, and the manuring which it receives, the tillage bestowed by the farmer, is the most important ele- ment in the production of heavy crops. The thorough stirring of the ground by deep ploughing and subsoiling, deserves far more attention than it has received in this Province. The following remarks on these subjects are extracted from Stephens and Judge Peters : — "When all the particulars which ploughmen should attend to in executing their work, in having their plough irons in a proper state of repair, in tempering them according to the kind of ploughing to be executed, in guiding their horses, and in ploughing the land in a methodical way, are considered, it ceases to surprise one that so few ploughmen become first rate workmen. Good ploughing requires great- er powers of observation than most young ploughmen possess, greater judgment than most will take time to exer 'se, more patience than most will bestow to become familiarized with all tnese particulars, and greater skill than most can acquire, to use them all to the best advantage. But want of attention is the great bar to young men becoming good plough- men ; and if they do not acquire the art when comparatively young, they will never do so in an advanced period of life. It is want of attention at first, that makes some ploughmen bunglers all their days, and the great majority exhibit mediocre attainments. The latter class, no doubt, is preferable to the former, because the injurious effects of bad plough- ing are obvious ; but the effects of mediocre compared with first rate ploughing, though not so easily ascertained, must also be considerable. ' It is well known,' says Sir J. Sinclair, ' that the horses of a good ploughman suffer less from the work than those intrusted to an awkward and unskilful hand ; and that a material difference will be found in the crops of those ridges tilled by a bad workman, when compared with any part of the field where this operation has been judiciously performed.' The truth is the young man desirous of being a good ploughman, ought to be taught, day by day, by an oxperienoea workman, to temper the irons, aud guide the plough aooordiag to hii itrengtb." 29 226 MISCELLANEOUS HINTS "A good ploughman will temper the irons so an there shall be no tendency in the plough to go too deep or too shallow into the ground, or make too wide or too narrow a fim'ow-slice, or cause less or more draught to the horses, or less or more trouble to himself than the work requires to be performed in the best manner ; and ho will also temper them so as to hold tlie plough with case to himself, have plenty of leisure to guide the horses aright, and execute the Avork in a creditable manner. The proper /orw and pn.si/ioti of the furrow-slice are essen- tial requsites in good ploughing ; the furrow-slice should always be of such dimensions and laid in such position that f/i>; iiro exposed fans in a series of slices slutll be of eit once in such soils might run the risk of injury to the scanty (juantity of soil naturally existing. But it \a to be observed of soils of this kind, that the subsoil has always a tendency to jtan : and if such does exist, deep ploughing alone in the form o( sitAioi/ i>htii[rlii)i<^^ will destroy the pan, the fro- <|uent cause of sterility in soils, by breaking it up and exposing it to the air, a way of ameliorating both soil and subsoil." The following hints are worthy the attention of judges at ploughing matches, in which, hero as in ]Jritain, neat and uniform, rather than deep and thorough ploughing, arc often preferred : — " The primary ol)jccta of t4ie institution of ploughing matches must have been to produce the best examples of ploughmanship, and by the best must be understood not only that which shall serin to be well done, but that which is thoroughly and properly done. To be particular, the award should be given to the plough that produces not only a proper surface finish, but e.Khibits along Avith that the power to cut and turn over the irrrtif/st (/ntiiifi/i/ of soil in the most opproi'ed manner, fjct a code of rules be instituted to guido the judges of ploughing matches, in delivering their awards. Lot those rules direct the land to be thoroughly ploughed to the bottom of the furrow, as well aa satisfactorily to the sight. When such rules shall bo promulgated, wo may hope to seo ploughing-matches exceed their pristine integrity, doing good to every one concerned in them, and restoring the confi' denco in them which is at present on the wane." Judge Peters strongly insists on deep ploughing, which is as much neglected in Prince Edward Island as in Nova Scotia, and from a similar cause, that desire or necessity to go over a large surface quickly and with little labor, which is so injurious to every branch of agriculture in new countries. " The deeper tho soil is, the nearer together can plants bo made to grow, and the greater number of them will obtain perfection, and, consequently, the larger will be the crop. A deep sou also suflfers less from drought and from moisture, than when it is shallow ; when a great deal of rain falls, the water sinks into a soil loosened by deep plough- ing ; such a soil absorbs a ([uantity of moisture, proportionate to its depth, before it suffers any to return to the surface. This is the reason why garden ground, which is well tilled with spade labor, never suffers from excess of humidity, even when the surface of shallow soils would bo drenched with moisture. So long as the water does not stand on the surface, it does little or no harm to the plants. Deep lands retain the moisture which they absorb for a considerable time, and communicate it to the surface, when that becomes parched and dried up. £28 IfOBLLAVIOUf RIWTf Nor if tWi all. Crops of grain grown on deep soil sufTer much low from sudden changes of temperature, or from drought or from heat ; because their roots, being able to penorato further, feel changes in the weather less. During very hot weather, it is evident that the planti) are much fresher in deep than in shallow soils. Lastly, it has everywhere been remarked that grain grown on deep soils is much less liable to be laid, even when very rank in growth ; this is doubtless owing to the greater degree of strength which the depth of the roots gives to the lower part of the straw — a strength which grain growing on shallow soils can never attain, because then the fresh shoots put forth by plants growing closely together, cannot find sufficient nutriment to enable them to retain their full vigor. But if we would have a soil attain all these advantages, and perra:i- nently possess them, it is requisite that fiom time to time it should be ploughed to the very bottom of its vegetable layer, turned over, loos- ened, and every part submitted to the beneficial action of the atmos- phere ; unless this is done it will, if merely ploughed shallow, gene- rally lose all those advantages of which we have been speaking. From repeated treading of the horses feet while ploughing, a hard crust, or pan, will be formed immediately beneath the sphere of the plough \s action, which cuts the earth beneath it from all communication with the atmosphere, and no root can penetrate it. Thaer says : '* Experience has convinced me that it is not necessary that this deep ploughing should take place every year, but that it should be repeated once every six or seven years, especially if, during the inter- val, the depth of thev ploughings given to it are varied, for nothing contributes so materially to form the crust spoken of as repeated ploughings of equal depth. Land ought, therefore, to be ploughed every seven years to the bottom of its layer of vegetable soil, and the intervening ploughings may be more or less superficial and varied in their depth, according to the purposes for which they are bestowed.' There can be no doubt that the shallow plou-^hing generally adop- ted in this island is a most erroneous practice. There may be some cases where the vegetable soil is very shallow and rests on gravel or sand, where the farmer cannot plough deep without injury, but most of the soil of this 'sland may be ploughed eight or nine inches deep with the greatest advantage. Take most of the worn out lands of the island and plough them Avith a furrow of six honest inches deep, and they will at once yield a better crop than they have given for the last ten or fifteen years, because the soil which would then be brought to the surface haa not been exhausted. Some will try this experiment, and find what I say correct ; but do not imagine because you see this worn out land all at once give a good crop, that it will continue to do BO ; its fertility is caused by a little fresh earth, from which certain substances necessary to the growth of plants have not been taken, and ON HUSDAHDRY. 299 ent that the it will «oon be exhausted if you crop it without ntinurinj^, therefore HOW it with buckwheat and plough it in, and treat the land fx& recom- mended in the chapter on green maiiuring. Two years ago 1 had an opportunity of testing the advantages of deep ploughing. A field of about four acroa, which had been very much oxliaustcd, Avaa intended Ibr fUrnips an-lieat crop on the deep ploughed land also maintained the superiority. I mention this as an instance of the benefit of deep ploughing, but by no means recommend any one to follow my example of deepening so suddenly ; the deepening should be gradual, that i.s, going an inch and a half to two inches deeper at each ploughing, until you get eight or nine inches turned up. Thaer remarks : — ' In the gi'cater number of cases in which it is desirable to plough the land to a greater depth than has before been attempted, it is best not to add above two inches in depth of virgin earth at a time to the vegetable soil, more than this quantity cannot be properly ameliorated and mixed with the upper layer.' And this deep ploughing which brings up the new earth, ought to be done, if possible, in the summer or early in the autumn, so that the newly turned earth may be exposed to the air for the longest pe- riod of time. The air acts on certain substances in this new earth, and fits it to sustain plants, which in many cases it would not do when first turned up ; an example of this may bo often seen in earth (lug from cellars ; when first taken up, plants would not grow in it, but by being spread on the grass lands it absorbs the gases from the atmosphere, and its mineral substances are prepared by the action of the air for the plants, and thus the spots on which it is spread become more fertile. In the same manner new earth turned up by the plough enters into contact with the atmosphere, and every particle of it becomes saturated with atmospheric substances, and the new earth thus increases the fertility of the field. Make it a rule to plough your lea land five or six inches deep, but let the deepest ploughing be given when the land is intended for tur- nips, carrots or other roots. I would not recommend new earth to be i ii 230 MISCELLANEOUS HINTS brought up in jiloughing land whicL has been in turnips or other roots, and wliich is intended for wheat or barley, because the manure which has been applied with the roots will then be turned too deep. 1 think that by thus turning up new soil when ploughing turnip land for wheat, my wheat crop hasg^een injured, which is easily accounted for. Land from which turnips or other roots has been removed, must bo plouglied late in the fall and sown with wheat very early in the spring ; and the new earth, not having been long enough exposed to the gases and have its mineral substances fitted for assists the crowth of the wheat. the air^to lU^c. ^ ^.. the plants, cliecks insteaiLof assii 1 have no doubt many will say the horses here could not carry so deep a furrow as I recommend. If they arc badly fed they cannot, but let farmers kecp.J'ewer and feed them well, and siny of our Island nags wUl.bc able for tlie gradual deepening recommended ; and when once tl* givjuiiT i^cfl^Btirred to eight or nine inches deep it is easy to plough to tjiaf (Icptl^^ttojwrtlg." * ^- 2. Rcrommrmhif.fons sclctncd Jmm Profrssor Johnstone's Report on the Agricidfnrc of New Brunsioick. " After what has been said in the preceding chapters on the subject of individual practice, it will be unnecessary for me now to touch upon many things Avhich would otherwise have naturally found a place in the present chapter. " By an improvement in practical agriculture, I understand a change in practice, which will enable the farmer to raise larger and more valuable crops from the same extent of land as before, or to produce e(iual crops at a cheaper rate, without permanent injury to the land. To the practical man, therefore, I wish to recommend nothing which, if rightly performed, will not, in my opinion, bo the means of putting more money in his pocket. " What 1 have said in my suggestions to Agricultural Societies, in regard to draining ; deep and subsoil ploughing ; green manuring ; the use of bones : the saving of waste materials for the manufacture of manure ; the covering of manure from the action of the rains and snows in the fold yard, and from the washing of the rains when laid upon the field ; of the use of lime ; of an earlier cutting of the grain crops ; of improving the breeds of stock ; of a better housing of the cattle ; of the growth and use of green crops, linseed, and prepared food, during tho winter monilis ; of more diligent and more extended fall ploughing ; of the value of agricultural journals and books ; all this is intended as special advico also to the individual farmer. Each man can exercise a far more direct and beneficial influence : beneficial to himself and the Province — over his own practice, than societies, however zealous they may be, can be expected to do over that of the district in which they arc placed. The improving farmer, indeed, ON HUHliANDRT. 231 docs good in two ways. lie not only puts more money immediately into his own pocket ; but, by the influence of his prudent and success- ful example, he induces others around him to follow in his steps, and to put more money in theirs also. Thus the agricultural improver, — the judicious, not the hasty and imprudent one, — is a most valuable member of society ; and it is for the best interests of every country, to support, encourage, and honor him. There are only a few additional topics on which I think it necessary to a win er. 12th. Providiiig warm but well ventilated housing for them. 13th. Feeding them plentifully, that they may be in jp;jod condi- tion when the sp' ing arrives. 14th. Growini turnips and linseed, with the view of adding to the quantity and enr 'hing the quality of the food he has at his diaposal. l6th. OoUeoti) | oawifttlly, imd pr«6Firvin;5 rmdflr <»ov«r, all the ma* mm B«d9 b/ hio 4tQ9k im&g th« wiavsf) tiiAi he tM^ h»v« ii Mn- ON HUSBANDIWr. 235 dantly and in good condition for his potato and green crops when the time of planting or sowing comes. 16th. Manuring annually, by top-dressing his worn out hay lands, when the land is not stumped, and therefore cannot be ploughed up. 17th. Collecting carefully all waste bones, breaking them, and applying them to the land ; especially the use of bones is to be recom- mended Upon land which has been worn out by over-cropping with com. 18th. Sowing down always with artificial grasses, when land, after a corn crop, is to be left ^vith a view of its producinj^ hay. 19th. To provide shelter, by fences or plantations, for his fielda and stock." 3. Agricultural Rsports for Nova Scotia. It may be asked, why has not a collection of the methods of the h' *■■ Agriculturists in Nova Scotia been incorpor? ed "'ith the matter c .- tained in this pamphlet 7 To form such a co. action would, at present, be very difficult ; but the writer is fully convinied of its utility, and would respectfully suggest the following simple method, by which the best agricultural experience of our country might be treasured up for the general benefit : — At all Cattle Shows and Agricultural Exhibitions, let it be announced that every Exhibitor must hand in to the Judges a writt' n statement of the processes employed in the production of the article or animal exhibited by him ; and let the practicability of the method, as a profit- able means of production, be taken into consideration in rewarding the premium. Let the statements of the successful competitors be forwared to the Central Board of Agriculture, and published and circulated in their Annual Report. This practice is extensi ^ly adopted in the United States ; and I find in the preface to the last volume of the Agricultural Transactions of Massachusetts, that its still more general adoption is strongly recommended. "It is clear," says the Secretary of that State, " that from these reports and statements, the agricultu- ral community derive no inconsiderablj benefit ; and that from them are to be drawn such general principles and deductions as will aid the progress of agriculture. It is only by thus recording and publishing facts and experiments that they become available to all. The advan- tages of such a practice would seem to be so obvious, and the obligation to observe it so imperative on the societies receiving the State bounty, that it is a matter of regret that any society should fail to adopt it. * * * But we could go even further than this ; such returns should be made compulsory, under penalty of a forfeiture of the annual gra- tuity given by the commonwealth." I observe with much pleasure that a number of ttatements of this fi!' !'^»■ 'j^l'H ^s-- %<2 ^Z ►.^-a-g-aS^ OJ5 ►.'5 ^S J £ o .5 "- d f *'<50'«34S'«1^ ,i •-, 3? Si S ►^ .^ •< S "H »-i r* r» »-« r^ r- -< gl r< ,-1 t-< ,H eC r-4 i-l fH 74 ^ fM ■0 rj JS .O "S 3 ' O *< » a^a ►^^O o* ^ A. ^4 Q. D.*^ » ^ ^j WJ ::^ !«::-' Wft ^w-^ ■ •N -* i»< _j ws * ► tN *> p*4 >>^ «j o,' ;s 'M«D«-<'^-l>. •e _g^ 42 1-^ -. •=• TSM * fi. e^H INiN U5 O IN OS ^ "^ la ■N eO rH r- CO ■^ l5 uS t*» ^ CO '^ T^iNcvao .^.|2S.^1s>.sf,:^S^& l^e.l^-e^S^s 5"i V> •— 2" 1^ •" 3 I M. fe-fl bSPS^o'S 5 !5'°fc55-2^i>>»s >»o ►^•S * S a-a^ J?i a. jsa * fl •*! 0"«i ,3 o °- « o«i:a'i^^^o.^H;aoo O M^O i» eiS(N00!NtOIN00INUSWCOt-(7lb- O CO CO M* rH th c^ o ?o I-* a ^ cu o 00 ■e'<4 I S ^ '«j>?-«!»?^a->i-«jo-«isa»?-^-tja j8 *3 00 M o o ■»»< 00 ?»< (NWeOC^lN .-I (N I 71 «0 OS O SOS-* 1— I rH T-l M (N 05 eo w 9 _ .?'?^< I a 9 _ 3<{ 2 'O IN CO t e "8 O fC ^- '^ o o T-I ' -»< o o eft !■) .-, ^1 « ,_( r^ to ^) 5| a «'S ?2 g-ri 2 I i -so;! «^ Oi eo «£ 4) «2 *-H p Q^ •2 »^ a 4> u CO ■-< rt ■^ a r-t ^ U5 j^H£1j-t I a 9 >^ V 41 9 0,0 9.2 «J3 -s * ii i-s a o ^ t- "•' <0 1(5 f- 10 r- "M ^ >-< >-< C5 CO 00 s CO VO CO 00 i?^2 3 C-l »^ rH 00 eo 1- r-< C-1 Cl 09 5*22 00 'f o ^_ i- H c- a-«j I. «0«5 ® W -71 W »-^ CO ^ O t-i CO CO »^ fH 1-1 V * IS •^ ^! 9 O IN O »-« iQ W CO >-l 1f< r-t C^ »-« i2 « « So-" J>b I CO '^ CO I iNffloo « 2«» a " ». 9 <), CO < BOO-" CO^OO -H 0> CO »-< CO »-< ^ ao^a C4 O a a s eo 9^ g ♦'So IN O I CO (N a.'. , 9 CO t^-^ 7? p t~ cud 00 IN s5|s I -N t— O M r-tlO a 9 T-i W t-( f-i TO CO [£2 Ik4 242 APPKNDIX. IS o is oo IS. oo oo 00 ^ I CO J» H a > 00 © S 5 1 "l'^. <£i >ii ^ (^ i^i — at o» O e^ t^ tfi t^ O) '' Of-l'T'a ; ^ ) to to CO "> kO 2>o o o Q at c-i 1-; o» to Tf re Q »0 «p '#1 lo • © lO >io »o « •* <0 <0 00 U7 tO 00 CO kO «) urj eo r-1 ^ »0 'O O iC >o u? ©Q O© to »OiO©^0» I- Ol^QO h^'^OJ ' >c u) o "^ i-H CO t 00 00 «rt ' o IP 55 APPENDIX. 848 oi s 'S 2 . 9 O ^Ti « e- groun tempo greeso a » a> -€^£ «0 • ••• I 8 .s I at ocJ ^ as ltd A4 I 5 a *<1S oosSaoS ^ CO ^M vO 03 iS 5P o "? S 'aci «o CO «o ?i S o> 1-1 ^ M i5 8*88 ^g «0 CO 1-1 lO 3! 8» fi.iM 5 , rHtoeo'^'M'O ago <0 rl C^ i-«lN »0 00 ?2 CO o w ■^ © 35 SB ^SP 3S -< o "5 £5 •! -^ ■-< rH oo «© r~ i-< ^ 9 ►vbO„ ^ c44 els.® I V ■ ■ 't ( 244 APPENDIX. RAIN AT THE ALBION MINES, upon an average of nine years, from June 1843, to June, 1852; divided into two seasons, for the information of the working iivrmer : — Nights. Days. Quantity in Inches December, 5.5 12 4.8198 Janut y, 5 11 3.3814 February, 4 9 3.2G73 Marnh, 1 la 4.3903 April, 4.3 8.3 2.G500 Total for five non-working months Nights. Days. Quantity. 22.8 50.3 18.514i May, June, July, August, September, October, November, 5 5 Nights. Dai/s. Quantity. 4 9.5 2.8976 9 2.1338 10 3.0052 5 9 4.5000 4 8 3.1520 9 5.6010 4.5 11 4.3984 Total for seven working months Do. for the whole year 33.5 05.5 25 0892 56.3 115.8 44.2040 It does not commonly rnir> for the whob day ; »o tliat I do not think the farmer is prt»'e*.'ed from pursuing the irork of the season. at any time for ir-.o o than three tiays in any one month. 51^ The above tabic, if yrojjcrly stuci'ed by farmers, will give them a fur more accurate idea of the amount of fine weather they have to expect in each month, than the oracular predictions in tlic alma- nacks. 2. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. The analysis of soils in a tedious and diiTicult operation, requiring, on the part of the operator, not only a large acquaintance with chem- istry, but much skill and practice, pure chemical testa, and somewhat, expensive apparatus. Neither the farmer nor tiie teaclior can, there- fore, in ordinary circumstances, be an analytical cliemist. Since, however, it may sometimes be desirable to ascertain, in a rude way, the general composition of soils and manure, I give here the following simple processes, principally from Professor Norton : The mechanical texture of a soil is ascertained by simply wi^shiug with water. Dry the soil. Weigh a portion, say a pound or hall' APPENDIX, 24§ pound. Boil in water, and stir thoroughlv. The sand will settle first, and, when it is at the bottom, the liquid alone — ^holding the clay, &c.. in suspension — may be poured oflF into another vessel. A few repetitions of this Avill leave nothing but clean sand and gravel, if the soil contain any. This may be dried and weighed, and the quantity will indicate to which of the classes already referred to, (loams, clays, & c. , ) the soil belongs. An examination of the small stones and coarser grains of sand, to ascertain whether these be granite, trap, sandstone, kc, may be useful in forming an estimate of the qualities of the soil. The following course may be adopted, in case more information is desired, regarding the especial constituents of a soil : — 1 . Take a weighed half pound or pound of the soil, and boil it in water for some hours ; rain water is purest. Then pour it upon a filter of coarse, porous paper, of the kind that druggists use for their filtrations. The mode ot managing this operation may be seen in any druggist's shop. If the liquid does not come through clear at first, it must be refiltered till it is quite clear. The solution thus obtained is evapoiated to dryness, and the solid residue burned. It will blacken at first, by the burning of its organic matter, but afterwards will become white again. a. It may now b3 weighed on a small apothecaries' balance, and the weight gives the per-centage of inorganic matter soluble in water, that exists in the soil. b. T'ais portion consists, in many soils, for the most part, of gul- phates or carbonates of potash and soda. There is also commonly pre- sent some chloride of sodium, or common salt. These are all valuable constituents of a soil ; and hence, when an experiment of this kind shows such soluble matter to abound, it may 1)0 inferred that th^ soil is well supplied with an important portion of its requisite substances. r. The part soluble in water is commonly not large ; it amounts to not more than* from one to three per cent, in many excellent soils. 2. Take another weighed portion of soil, or the same which has already been boiled in water, and heat it with some muriatic acid, (hydrochloric acid), ailuted by two or three times 'i-s bulk of water. After standing a few hours, put this also upon a iilter, and wash the acid liquid through. a. Wash the residue upon the filter, with successive portions of cl>3ar water, until it no longer tastes acid; it may then be burned until all of the organic part is consumed, and weighed when it is cool. Th?8 weight gives the per-centage of insoluble silioious matter in the •oil. />. To che filtered acid solution is first added ammonia (common aqua ammoniie), till it is no longer acid but alkaline; a flocculent t m\ i 246 APPENDIX. precipitate then immediately falls, being iron and alumina. If it is of a deep red color, then iron predominates, and the contrary, if it is nearly white. If the precipitate has a whitish green color, and red- dens when exposed to the air, then the soil contains the protoxide of iron, in place of the peroxide. The first, it will be remembered, was spoken of on page 28, as injurious to plants. It is, for this reason, important to know which oxide is present. If it is shown by the above test to be the protoxide, the solution must be boiled again, with the addition of a little nitric acid ; this will convert all of the iron into protoxide, and it will thus remain upon the filter ; the protoxide would have been partially washed through. Another filtering is now necessary. This should be done as soon as the precipitate has settled, and while the liquid is warm, so that it may filter more rapidly. The whole operation should be done in the shortest practicable time, and the liquid covered, as far as pos- sible, from access of air. From the apparent qur.ntity of the iron and alumina, as weighed after burning, may be juuged with tolerable accuracy the proportion present in the soil. c. If the soil contained much lime, an effervescene would have been seen at first, when the acid was added ; this is supposing the lime contained to be carbonate, or in combination with carbonic acid, that being the most common form. If it is not present aa carbonate, or if this is in so small quantity as not to show any action with acid, there are still means for its easy and certain detection. To the solution previously rendered alkaline by ammonia, and already filtered to separate iron and alumina, is to be added a little common oxalic acid. If there be even the smallest wcighable quantity of lime pre- sent, a white, powdery precipitate will begin to fall , from the quantity of this may be estimated, roughly, the proportion of lime in the soil. All of the above important points, it will be noticed, may be determined without any necessity for expensive materials or apparatus, by a person of ordinary intelligence. Easy as those things seem, however, in the description, so many difficulties will be found in prac- tice, as will give the operator some conception of the care and study involved in a complete and detailed analysis ; one by which it is intended to ensure the greatest possible degree of accuracy. I hare not mentioned any tests for the presence of phosphoric acid, and other of the loss abundant substances ; because their detection and separation are so difficult, that the inexperienced beginner would only run into every description of error, while looking for them. It is not a hard maaer for the farmer to arrive at the probable value of a marl, with quite a tolerable degree of accuracy. A weighed portion must be taken, and diluted muriatic acid added, from time to time, until all effervescence has ceased. The mixture is then boiled, APPJINDIX. 247 or at leaat well heated, and thrown upon a filter. The insoluble resi- due which remains upon the filter, must be washed clean from acid, dried and weighed ; this is chiefly silica. Its weight, subtracted from the original weight taken, will, in most cases, give nearly the amount of carbonate of lime that has been dissolved out by the acid. Small quantities of other substances have been dissolved at the same time, which have been mentioned in a previous chapter, as important to the value of the marl ; but they are only to be separated by an instructed chemist." The presence of gypsum in a marl, &c., may be ascertained in the following manner: — Stir a portion of the substance in water, and allow it to stand for a few hours. Then filter off the water, and add a few drops of solution of nitrate of baryta. If gypsum be present, a white powder will fall to the bottom, and the quantity of gypsum pre- sent may be estimated from its amount. " The foregoing instances are of a nature so simple as to be easily understood, and are sufficient so show that the farmer, v,ithout becom- ing a chemist, may still make some valuable experiments for his own satisfaction, and this with such means as are to be found in any country village. " I might multiply cases of the same nature to an indefinite extent ; but, as this is not an extended treatise upon analytical chemistry, the above illustrations are sufficient for the present purpose. " One great end will be attained by all who go through such exam- inations as these, or who experiment upon the various substances men- tioned in the previous portions of this essay. They will soon familiar- ize themselves to such an extent with chemical phenomena and terms, that they will be able, far more readily and perfectly than ever before, to comprehend the writings and discoveries of scientific men, and to draw from them truths profitably applicable to their own pursuits." APPENDIX B. The substance of the following extract, which it is thought may be of general interest and utility, is from a report made in 1853, to His Grace the Duke of Newcastle, then Secretary of State for the colo- nies, by His Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor, Sir J, Gaspard Le Marchant, " on the State, Resources and Capabilities, of the Pro- vince of Nova Scotia." As its republication is designed to convey the latest information, it has been modified m accordance with subsequent changes or altered circumstances. Its original epistolatory form has been abandoned. It contains interesting facts, and comparative statements, which will serve to illustrate the actual condition of the colony. i lilt i I 1' 248 AFPIKDIX. u II In Canada, the ad valorem duty on imports is 12]^ per cent. ; in New Brunswick it ranges from 7^ to 80 per cent. ; but in Nova Sco- tia it is only 6| per cent, on a large proportion of the articles to which the preceding rates refer. The following is a comparative statement of our revenues from 1850 to 1854, inclusive, viz : In 1850, - - - - £76,417 Sterling. 1851, . - - - 86,501 1852, . - . . 88,000 " 1853, - . - - 100,000 1854, - - - - 126,400 Pablio debt of Nova Sootia, Slst December, 1854, (on interest, at 4 per cent,) Sterling, -..-■_. ££(, 00 ProTinoial paper afloat, not paying interest, ... 66,889 10 £112,089 10 Expended on GoTerament Railroads, up to Slst December, 1864, £41,000 Thme are forty-seven Free Ports in Nova Scotia, at which Officers are appointed, and which enjoy equal privileges for conducting domes- tic and foreign commerce. Tables hereafter referred to, exhibit in detail tha extent and value of the trade of each of them with Great Britain, the British North American Colonies, the United States and other countries, for the year 1854. The abstracts of that trade are as follows, viz. : — COUNTRIES. Great Britain, - - B. N. A. Colonies, British West Indies, United States, Other countries, VALUE OF IMPORTS. sterling. £636,885 329,612 • - 30,133 575,288 ■ - 219,164 VALUE OF EXPORTS. Sterliv!^. £117,844 413,026 270,750 318,676 127,872 Total, - - - - £1,791,082 £1,247,668 The following are comparative totals of above trade, for the last three years, viz : — VALUE OF IMPORTS. VALUE OF EXPORTS. For 1852, - - £1,194,175 £970,780 1853, - - 1,417,086 1,078,707 1854, 1,791,082 1,247,668 276,888 Total increase in 1854 over 1852, 596,907 The preceding do not include " Ships exported," the value of which in 1853, amounted to £153,121 sterling, and in 1854, to £148,503 sterling. The addition of these sums would make the total amount of exports, for 1853, £1,231,828, and that for 1864, £1,391,171. J^v APPENDIX. 249 The subjoined tables, A an,427 Delaware, 8,015 Kentucky, 10,097 Maryland, 103,671 Missouri, 23.(541 District of C'oiiunhia, 378 Iowa, 52,51(; North Corolina, 10,704 Wisconsin, 79,878 South Carolina, 283 Minesota Terr itory 515 Florida, 55 Utah u •' 332 Alabama, 348 New Mexico (i KM) Mississippi, 1,121 BARLEY. liarley raised in Nova Scotia. in 1851,-190,097 bushels. liUi/ith. lius/t^ Maine, 151,731 Louisiana, New Hampshire, 70,250 Texas, 4,770 Vermont, 42,150 Arkansas, 177 Massachusetts, 112,385 Tennessee, 2,737 Rhode Island, 18,875 Kentucky, 95,343 Connecticut, 19,090 Michigan, 75,24!» New Jersey, 0.492 Indiana, 45,483 Pcrusylvania, 165,584 Illinois, 110,795 Delaware, 50 Florida, Maryland, 745 Missouri. 9,301 District of Columbia, 75 Iowa, 25,09:', Virginia, 25,437 California, 9,712 North Carolina, 2,735 Minesota Ten itory, 1,210 South Carolina, 4,583 Oregon (1 Georgia, 11,501 Utah 2,979,975 375.855} 058,'l30 2,319,574 l,854;i04 Iowa, Wisconsin, California, Minesota, Oregon, Utah, New Mexico, Lhs. 1,933,128 8SH,S10 705 1,100 211,734 74,064 101 CHEESE. Cheese made in Nova Scotia, in 1851,-642,009 lbs. llhodo Island, New Jersey, Delaware, iNIaryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina. Us. 296,748 500,819 3,137 3,925 434,850 95,043 4,810 Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Lbs. 40,3! )1 18,824 30,423 20,314 1.148 92,018 POTATOES. Potatoes raised in Nova Scotia, in 1851, — 1,986,789 bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Rhode Island, 661,029 Arkansaa, 193,832 Delaware, 240,642 Tennessee, 1,067,844 a»f APPUNDIX. BuMhtk. Ruiheh. Marjland. 764,938 Kentucky, 1,492.487 Columbia District. 28,292 Missouri. 989,00t) North Ciirolina, (i-J(l,:;iH Iowa, 270,120 (South Carolina, i;u;,494 Wisconsin, • 1,402.077 Georgia, 227,879 California, 0,292 riorida, 7,H2H Mincsota territory, 21,145 Alabama, 240,001 Oregc.'i It 91,880 Mississippi , 2(;i,4H2 Utah, 2.487 276,1 20 1,402.077 0.292 2I,14A Vtl.JJHH sricii, which. I (/'ape Raj, the indenta- en thousaiifl there is the II, raacknrcl, 1, by treaty JO fisheries ; ibuiidunce — I the part of orts, tree of •eductions of )ri3e of our the citizens nter, it may jret the con- ch advance*! Canada and institutions. 3edent3. In The press is check unfa- ) public ser- ial practice ; the,!,Queen's of able nieji lischarge the >nal exercise TABLES REFERRED TO IN THE FOREGOING STATEMENT. 83 258 APPENDIX. "S VT e o o e © © o o o © o © c « o o O O © © o © o e c (£> <» Ol ••ji o 1- ta Cf) 1ft 1' W> CD 2 o lO -f •—4 «- — !>• CO o -t< © t — c 1- » I* 0) 1- >» » — ^ J3 J« P ~ © © o sp . o c ©©CO© ©' © © "o O 3 O © O © o ir©~ s _ © © © o © © © o «)0©0 o©o© «. -. -_ o o d 2 *tf £ 'T> ?o p- oo -* _a o »^ -1< M lA eo Of) Ji tf5 —>/)(» M rt 2 ** iM I.'? ift cr « . . ci QC "t iM I-- 00 crj fT-! yi IM — < -*< •H t/, i'- .^ cr> -41 C^ T." (?i O 1- «5 « ■T tc ^/J c^ c cn t£( -. .1 (>. 11 m^ rx e>4 vH © o n Ci ri « »-1 l-n t^ 1- -" © O P^ t- •* C^ . 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Fig. 4. DivoN Cow •^ ' A>V>t.Jif^ I I 271 Fig. 5. Durham Bull. Fig. 6. Durham Heifer. # n m 278 I i'ig- <.. ( MAO-svAY ]}|;i,L .3? 'i-.«'-.:%.r-' :-^ Fig. H. Galloway Cow, 35 liM 276 Pig. 9. PoLLBD Suffolk. Bull. Fig. 10. PoLLBp Suffolk Cow. "''v. :Mki i 277 Fig. U. AvRsHiRic Bull. Pig. 12. AYRiHittE Cow. INDEX. Aclraal rofane as Mannra, Aches as iMnnuro, Aribijfis of Soil?, Ayrehire Cmtle, Aidiraey CHltle, Ago of Cattle, to determine, A};ricultural Reports, Agriccila (>n Manures, Alluvial boils, Bog Soils, iroprorement of, Barley, culture of, Buokwtieat, culture of, B bng, culture of. Broom Corn, culture of. Bone Manure, Bog Mud as Manure, Breeds of Cattle. ■ ■ ■" Sheep, Bwine, — Poultry, Breeding uf Cattle, Butter, making of, " ' Salting of, Box Feeding, Bacon, to cure, Buildings for the Dairy, Bibok-faoed Sheep, Berkshire Hog, Climate of Nova Sootla, Corn, culture of, f Carrot, culture of. Clover, culture of, Cttterpillars, &o., to destroy. Currant, culture of, Cranberry, culture of, Coal Ashes us Manure, Cnurning, Cuttie, Breeds of, Choice of, Breeding of, — — Feeding iind Fattening. — — — Dnvincr to market, Stall Feeuiug, — — Soiling, Calves, management of, Cheese, making of, Cbethire Ctioese, to nuisn, Cheviot Sbeop, ChioeseiJog, fAOB PAM 163 De'on Cuttle, u 165 Durbar do., Tt 344 Dishley do.. 77 78 Dairy, management of, m 79 Dncks, rearing of, Ac, IM 85 Dunlop Chocse, 11» 236 DishUiy ohoep. 127 190 31 Dateb of bowing and Qatberlng, 341 Ergot in Wheat, 40 34 46 48 Exmoor Sheep. lit Ply on Turnips, eo 49 Flax, culture of. 11 72 Fruit Trees, culture of, SI 164 Diseases of, 189 Fattening of Cattle, 80,93 74 FowlB. 143 127 135 Gooseberry, culture of. no 143 Gypsum as M&nnre, 17S 85 Qalloiray Cattle, 77 112 Gocse, rearing of. HO 115 Gloucester Cheese, to make, 118 97 Grazing, 98 141 Guano, 166 109 Hessian Fly, 44 127 Hemp, culture of, 71 135 Hair, &e., as Manara. i«i Hedge--, i3B 9 Hereford Cattle, 7S 47 Highland Cattle. 78 68 68 207 Horses, training and food of, m Intervale Soils, 33 2o;> Johnston, Prof., snlectioue from. 230 210 170 Liquid Manures. 163 114 Liuie us Manure tio 74 Long-horned Cattle, 7T T9, 83 85 Marsh Soils, at 93 Mangold Wurtiel, St 101 Manure, ut 'JO Mali as Maaai culture ot, .iO I'at turagc, 93 I'ftcrg on JIan'jros, IH\ I'ertods of vcgctatio!!, 21',^, it;i Hust ill Wheat, ilyt.', uultum of, Vuit in tho I'otato, }kitation of Ciops, [■^oiJs, texture and comiiosition vt, Classification of. Fioils, kind.^ of, in Nora fiootU, Suiut in Wheat, Strawberry, culture nf, i^ussfijt Cattle, Htall fRoding, Sidling, Sheep, breeds of, ,'^olcotion and rearing of, Shearin/; and Wool, Swino, breedn of, Fecdiuj;, Do. in United Stat«J, Sties for, Salt'.ng of Butter, Siv'ra Cheese, Sea iManure, Subsoil rioughing, Stateuieul of reveuueii, Turnip, culture of, Turkey, rearing and trealmeat ol. ;!H Wheat, culture of, ifi ' Weevil in Wheat, f'\ \ Wool, sorts and value 'iVZ \ Weight of Swine, |_ Cattle, JO I 10 ' Yorkshire Cattle, rx9u U IS Sltt 75 9S 95 126 127 130 135 ine r>8 ui 115 110 163 227 MS 52 lU 36 40 129 138 80 77 • J«.«V"«« ERRATA. PaKe 3o —For Alumim read Alumina. •' 27 — For Sulphvraff: rend Su/phnff, " 20 — For or other rocks read o/" other rocks. " ."(I — For Draining read Drainage. " ',V2 — For Sulpliatr of Sdi/o read ^ulphalex nf J,ime and Magnesia, 25 SA 310 75 96 95 126 127 im n% ins 141 115 IJO 163 227 248 S2 1-U 36 40 I'JO }:\H «0 77