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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 HANDBOOK OF CANADA :e i t • ^^rtN*..) — • '-n, t.-vjvtaatt f *H '»*; Tlu' F.'iiiihiir.t^li Cicng'rRplLit-al Ln.Ttituxe ation Handbook ■/ ^"" vJr:<-'& c>Vpr- ^-^.'-^ , ^ \ \ \ V /\?/ / ■>r- V ; / \ \ \ N ■ .. / t / ■ au ^y 13?(>59 ICnterud tu'cordiiig to Act of I'ailiamont in the Deinirtinont of Agiicultuie, Ottiiwii, in the yeai- eighteen hundred and niiiety-Meven, hy R. Ramsay WuKiHT, as Chairman of t- o Publication Coniniittee of tlie Local Executive, in Toronto, of the British Association. 9 CONTENTS. i;nt Lll'l t- e to, I>.V>''''^"'vey, by Win. J. Stewart, Otlicer in charge of (^anadian Hydrographic Survey . . .• 01 Chapter II. — The Climate of Canada, by Robert F. Stujjart, Director of the Meteorological Service, Domin- ion Observatory, Toronto (>7 Chavter III. — Cleneral Sketch of the Zoology of Canada, by 11. Ramsay Wright, M.A., B.Sc, Professor of Biology in the University of Toronto 80 Chai'TER IV. — Sketch of the Flora of Canada, by I'rofessor John Macoun, Botanist of the Geological Survey, Ottawa 90 PART II. HISTORY AND ADMINISTRATION OF CANADA. Chapter I. — Ethnology of the Aborigines, by A. F. Chamberlain, Ph.D. , Clark University, Worcester, Mass., U. S. A 105 Appendix A. — Note on the Ethnical Affinities of the Present Inhabitants of Canada, by Pro- fessor James Mavor 12" Appendix B. — Note on the Settlement of New France, by Benjamin Suite, F.R.S.C, Ottawa. 131 VI. (•ON TENTS. PA(!E. CiiAi'TKii II. — A SUftcli of the History of Ciiniula, liy (ieorge M. Wrong, M.A. , I'rofessor of History in the Uiiivt'isity of Toronto I'H CiiAiiKK 111. -An Outline of the ( '()nstitutif)n;il History and System of (jlovernnient (KiOS- IS'.tT), l»y •!. PART III. THE KCONOMICAL KKSOUIICES, TRADE AM) POPULATION OF CANADA. CnAi'TKR I.— The Fur Trade, 1)^ Sir Donald A. Smith, (i.C.M.(J., High Commissioner of Canada, London ; and Chairman of the Hudson's Bay Company ... . '2'u Cmavtkr IL — The Fislieiies of Canada, by Professor E. E. Prince, 15. A., E. L. S., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa -<>+ CiiAi'TEK IlL — The Forests of Canada, with their Di.stribution, by Professor .loliu Macoun, IJotanisl of the Geological Survey of Canaihi 27') Appkndix. -The Lumber Industry of Canada, l)y Archibald H. Cami)bell, dr., B.A., Toronto .. '2'M CiiAl'TliK IV. — The Mineral Resources of Canada, by A. P. Coleman, M. A., Ph.D., Professor of Mineralogy in the Sciiool of Practical Science, 'I'oronto . , 30(5 CiiAi'TER \'. — The Chenucal Industries of Canada, by \V. Hodg- son Ellis, M. A., Professor of Ap))lied Chemistry in the School of Practical Science, Toronto . . 'S'2'A C 1 1 A i-TKH V I. — Agriculture. Sec'TIOX 1. — General Account of the Agriculture ^ of Canada, by William Saunders, Director of the Dominion Experimental Farms '.VM Section' 2. — Experimental Farms, l)y William Saunders IM.'i Section 3. — The Work done by the Legislatures of the various Provinces in assisting Agricul- ture, by C. C. James, M. A., Deputy Minister of Agriculture for Ontario .'J.lS Sectiox 4. — Notes on Agricultural Eut ip feature of PHYSICAL OEOOUAPnY AND OEOLOOY. tlio country is moro important, wlictlior liistorically or ofM)frrapliically. than ilic jjfr(\at IcTv^jtli ami volunio of its principal \vatoi'Conrs(^s, and tlic ninnnor iti which those intoi'look ami penetrate alniost every part of its aren. RcsiilcM the St, Lnwi'enee, with its di-ainafje hasin of yAOOOO s(|ii)ir(' miles, to which allusion hur- alirndv heen nuile. thci-e arc three more rivers of the tirst class, of which the watersheils are wholly or in Arctic Ocean, drains not only most o\' the northern part of the interior plain of the continent, hut also considerahle portions hoth of the Rocky Mountain rerrion and the Laurentian plateau, with a hasin of about (177.000 s(piare miles. Next to the St. Lawrence, it is thi; lonfjest river of Canada, heinor not less tlum 1,S00 miles from its source to its mouth. The Yukon, discharujin!;^ into the northern part of IVhriuii' Sea, unwaters a ijfreat tract of the noithei'u pnvt of the Cordilleran reo-iou comprise, it is n.'pi'esente*! by the Gi(>en and White Moun- tains, and its main line runs on, though with much decreased elevation, tlirough the south-eastei'n part of the Province of Quel)ec, under the name of the Notre- Dame Mountains. Not far below the City of Quebec it appi'oaches the St. Lawrence, and thence continues ]>arallel with that river and its great estuary, all the way to Gaspe, on the open gulf. In the Gaspepenin- .sula it is known as the; Shickshock Mountains. Con- siderable ])arts of these mountains I'ise well above S.OOO feet, but the Notre-lJame range seldom exceeds l,000()i- },!){){) feet, and its elevations resemble rolling and broken hills and ridges, ratbei' than mountains properly so called. The whole length of this main contiiniation of the Appalachian system in Canada is about i)0() miles. Subordinate and less continuous elevations, nearly parallel to the main range thus outlined, occur in New Brunswick, chiefly along two lines, one of whieh strikes the Bale des Chaleurs below its head, the other, some- 10 PHYSICAi. GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. il'! what divergent in direction to the eastward, bordering the southern shore of the province along the Bay of Fundy. The rocks of all these ranges are in the main older than those of the Carboniferous system, and be- tween the two last-mentioned ridges, in New Bruns- wick, lies a broad triangular area of nearly horizontal beds referable to the Carboniferous formation. Besides this large level area, there are many others of lesser size and numerous large valleys, comprised in what has been designated the Acadian region, in Quebec and New Brunswick. These often afford excellent arable land, or sujiport valuable forests. The character of the soil varies greatly, chiefly in conformity with that of the subjacent rocks ; but it has also been considerably affected, as in almost all parts of Canada, by the nature and amount of the deposits due to the glacial period. Though lying at some distance to the south-eastward of the main line, the peninsula of Nova Scotia may best be regarded as a tnember of the Appalachian sys- tem of uplifts, with which it is j^arallel. Its elevation nowhere exceeds 1,200 feet, and is in general very much less. A broad range of broken hills and uplands extends along the Atlantic coast of the province and into the island of Cape Breton. The Cobequid Hills are next in im))ortance to this, running to the north of that arm of the Bay of Fundy known as Minas Basin, and joining the last at an angle, near the middle of the province. The Atlantic coast range is chiefly composed of old Cambrian rocks and granites, with little land of agricultural value, but rich in gold- bearing veins, which occur in all parts of its length. With the disturbed area of the Cobequids, rocks as new as the Devonian are largely involved. The best arable lands of Nova Scotia are situated towards the Bay of Fundy, and along the northern side of the peninsula generally. Here also, and in Cape Breton, the important coal-fields occur. In the general and inclusive sense in which the a. M. DA.WSON. 11 iering 3ay of i main nd bc- Bruns- izontal besides 5ei' size at has ec and arable cter of til that derably ) nature riod. istward tia may |ian sys- evation lal very uplands Ince and lid Hills e north Minas middle chiefly s, with 1 gold- length. •ocks as 'he best Irds the of the Breton, lich the term "Acadian region" has been employed, this has thus a width of about 350 miles, between the outer coasts of Nova Scotia and the St. Lawrence estuary. Followed to the south-eastward, this belt of country embraces the New Enoland States and part of New York, all with very similar physical characters. In the opposite direction it is interrupted by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but reappears in the great island of New- foundland, still preserving most of its characteristic features, although somewhat modified in appearances by differing climatic conditions. Throughout this reorion, includinrj Newfoundland, the geological struc- t re is alike, the formations represented are nearly the same, and, both in composition and from a jiaheonto- logical standpoint, they often I'csomble those of the opposite side of the Atlantic more closely than they do those of other parts of North America. Before speaking of the geological features of the Acadian region in Canada, two exceptional areas within its limits may be referred to. In the semi- circular bay formed by the coasts of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, separated from the mainland by Northumberland Strait, is Prince Edward Island, a province by itself, although not much more than 2,000 square miles in area. This lies opposite the Carboni- ferous and Permo-Carboniferous lowlands of eastern New Brunswick and northern Nova Scotia, and con- sists entirely of undisturbed and unaltered Permo- Carboniferous and Triassic red sandstones and shales. Character fs tie fossils of both formations have been found, but the circumstances render it difficult to draw a line between them. The surface of the island is for the most part fertile and highly cultivated, nowhere exceeding 500 feet above the level of the sea. The second area of an exceptional character, is that of the island of Anticosti, lying in the wide estuary of the St. Lawrence, and 140 miles in lenijth. This again consists of nearly flat-lying rocks, chiefly of the 12 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. Silurian with some of Oambro-Silurian or Ordovician age (Hudson River) alone; its northern side. The island evidently represents part of a submerged and undisturbed Cambro-Silurian and Silurian tiact of the northern pai't of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the rocks of which differ in some res))ects from their representatives further to the west. The island is oenerally wooded, :\,ijd is at ])i'esent very scantily inhabited. The geological scale is well represented in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, from the Archa'an to the Triassic, but thereafter ensues a long gap, during which no deposits appear to have been formed, pro- bably because the area in question then existed as land, exposed to denuding agencies alone. Closing this unrepresented lapse of time \ve find only the clays and sands referable to the glacial ])eriod, with still more recent deposits, such as those of the fertile marsh lands of the Bay of Fundy. With the exception of the fiat-lying tracts between the several axes of elevation the wide Carboniferous area in New Brunswick and marginal developments of rocks of the same aoe along the northern coast of Nova Scotia and in Cape Breton, the region must be considered as one of exceptional geological disturbance and complexity, which, notwithstanding the large amount of investigation it has received, is still but imperfectly understood. One cause of difficulty lies in the existence, at several horizons, of thick mas.ses of strata composed of ancient volcanic materials, generally without organic remains. This is a character common to the rock-formations of most parts of the Appala- chian region of North America, which has been at many times the theatre of great volcanic activity. The occurrence of similar rocks in the south-eastern part of theProvi?ice of Quebec has been the cause of much of the uncertainty attaching to the understanding of the " Quebec group " there. The region is not a typical one for the Archaean (}. M. DAWSON. 13 3vician . The ed and , of the ocks of itatives Yooded, 1 Nova iuan to , during ed, pro- isted as Closino- he clayss rith still le marsh between jniferous [opments coast of must be iirbance lie large still but julty lies glasses of enerally common Appala- at many ,y. The 1 part of much of Icr of the LichcTean rocks, but areas ot" crystalline schists, referable to this time occur. Most of these have so far been mapped simply as pre-Cambrian, for no separation into groups has vet been effected. A larm; tract of the kind occu- pics tlie northern part ol' Cape Jh'eton. In the southern higlilands of New Brunswick, particularly in the vicin- ity of the city of St. John, the Archu'an is better char- acterized and bears a resemblance, almost amounting to identity, with the typical developments of these rocks in Quebec and Ontario. A Lower Laurentian series comparable with the " Fundamental gneiss " is found, with an upper series composed of crystalline limestones, quartzites, etc., like the Grenville series. Newer than these is a ma.ss of strata composed chiefly of volcanic materials, breccias or agglomerates, greenstones and felsites, which is referred to the Huronian system. Further areas of the same kind occur in central New Brunswick. Forming the backbone of the peninsula of Nova Scotia and boi-dering its whole Atlantic coast, is a belt characterized by granitic masses and old stratified rocks assii-ned to the Lower Cambrian. This belt is widest in the south-west part of the province and narrows gradually in the opposite direction. The granites date from about the Devonian period, and it was probably in connection with their intrusion that the bedded rocks wero thiown into the ureat series of jjarallel, sharj) flexures, in which they now lie and which bear so intimate a relation to the systems of gold- bearing veins. The disturbances incident to this period are, in fact, those which have chiefly given form tu the Maritime Provinces. All the older rocks are involved in them, while those of the Carboniferous remain comparatively unaffected. These Cambrian rocks consist of a lower ([uartzite belies and an upper clay-slate or argillite series, the latter generally dark in colour. It must be added that 110 really characteristic fossils have yet been obtained i*"- —■■■■■!■ ':^sai iii'i 14 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ANi^'GfiOLOGY. from these f^old-beaiini; rocks. JJistinctive Cambrian faunas liave been found only in a few places in Cape Breton. In the vicinity of St. John, New BrMnswick, a re- markably interesting and complete section of Cambrian rocks, well characteri/etl by fossils, occurs. This may now be regarded as typical for the eastern part of Canada and Mr. G. V. Matthew, to whom its elabora- tion is chieliy due, remarks particularly the resemb- lance of the fauna to that found in rocks of the same age around the Baltic sea, rather than to that of the interior of North America. In time, the series runs from the Etcheminian (older than the Olendlus zone) to the highest Cambrian. Bocks of Ciuidjro-Silurian (Ordovician) age have also been determined in the locality just referred to, and sparingly in other parts of New Brunswick. In Nova Scotia, the oidy fossils of the kind come from a single place in Cape Breton, but considerable areas supposed to be of tiiis age, chiefly com})osed of volcanic materials, occur in other parts of the province. Silurian (Upper Silurian) rocks, are widely spread in northern New Brunswick, and in adjacent portions of (Quebec, occupying the greater part of the area which drains to the Baie ties Chaleurs. They recur in the southern part of New Brunswick and in the northern part of Nova Scotia, and although comprising lime- stones, sandstones and shales, are often greatly inter- mixed with contemporaneous volcanic materials, indi- cating, it will be observed, a third important volcanic interlude in the history of this part of the continent. In Nova Scotia, important bedded iron ores (hasmatite) appear in this series. The geological horizons repre- sented, as compared with those of the New York scale, range Irom the Clinton to the Lower Uelderberg. In the rocks of Devonian age, occurring in that por- tion of the Appalachian region covered by Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, the Gaspe peninsula of Quebec, and G. M. DAWSON. IS ibrian Cape a re- [ibrian ^ s may art of abora- ' jsemb- 3 same of the ; s runs s zone) ' J have 1 rrcd to, ; ik. In .( tiom a areas olcanic 1 read in 1 ions of 1 which m in the 1 Dithern ^ f lime- irJ r inter- n s, indi- olcanic .4 tinent. uatite) '} i repre- \ork erberg. ■4 at por- Scotia, '^ 30, and -■■■■ ■! a part of the adjacent State of Maine, a remarkably full representation of the flora of that ancient period is found, from which more than 125 species of land plants have been catalogued l>y Sir J. VVm. Dawson; while at Scaumenac, on the IJaie des Chaleurs, rocks of this age have yielded many interesting fish remains, investigated by Mr. J. J^'. Whiteaves, which com- pare closely with those of the Old Red Sandstone. Further west, in beds of the same period in Ontario and New York, the fossils are chief!}'- marine molluscs, with comparatively little evidence of the existence ot adjacent land. The lower part of the Devonian of the Maritime Provinces holds a similar fauna, and contains in Nova Scotia bedded fossil iferous iron ores. The geo- graphical extent of the Devonian rocks in Nova Scotia andNcw Brunswick is comparatively limited, but in the Gaspe peninsula of Quebec it becomes somewhat im- portant. The Carboniferous system, both from its extent and because of its economic value, must be considered as one of the most important features of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, although there is reason to believe that much larger tracts of this formation still lie beneath the waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic. Its total thickness is, in some parts of Nova Scotia, estimated at 1G,000 feet, but it is very irregular hi this respect and over the greater part of New Brunswick is comparatively thin. At the Joggins, on the nortli arm of the Bay of Fundy, is a remarkable continuous section showing 14,570 feet of strata, including more than seventy seams of coal, which has been made the subject of investigation by Logan, Lyell, and Sir J. W'm. Dawson. From beds in this section numerous specimens of a land -inhabiting reptilian fauna have been described. The flora of tlie period is well represented in many places, particularly in Nova Scotia, and includes that of several distinct stages, beginning with the Horton group at the base r^ 16 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPTIY ANf) fJEOLOGY. (coin))anil)le witli the " calcit'orous sandstone " of Scot- land and tliu lower part of the sub-CaJ)Oiufer()iis of Ohio, Tennessee and West Virginia,) and at tlie top containing so many forms referable to the Permian, that the name Permo-Carboniferous has been applied to this part of the section. Several local unconformities have been determined in ditierent parts of this great succession of beds. With the marine limestones, important deposits of gyj)sum are found. The workable coal-seams occur in what is called the Middle Carboniferous, and some of these, in the Pictou district, are of unusual thickness. Coal mining is actively in progress in Cumberland and Pictou counties and in Cape Breton, the total annual output being between two and three million tons. In New Brunswick, the productive area for coal appears to be small, and the seams so far found are of incon- siderable thickness. To complete this very brief review of the geology of what has been called, broadly, the Acadian region of eastern Canada, it now only remains to add a lew words concerning that main line of uplift and dis- turbance, the course of which was first ti'aced tlirouoh the Province of Quebec, from the vicinity of Lake Champlain to Caspe. This structurally complicated belt of country has been the subject of much contro- versy, and [)ossesses now a literature of its own. It is bounded to the north-westward by an important dislo- cation or break, known as the St. Lawrence and Champlain fault, which may be traced from Lake Champlain to Quebec City, and thence follows the estuary of the St. Lawrence, probably running to the south of Anticosti. To the west of this line are the Hat-lying Cambro-Silurian strata of the St. Lawrence plain, chiefly limestones, and doubtless resting upon a strong shelf of the Laurentian nucleus at no great depth. Against this stable edge, the eastern sti'ata have been folded, faulted and ridged up by the forces a. M. DAWSON. X7 )f Scot- rous of the top erinian, applied 3rmine(.l s. With gypsum whiit is [,hese, in s. Coal iiid and 1 annual ous. In appears )i: ineon- geoloo-y n region n a lew and din- hi'OUi>li of Lake plicated contro- It is t dislo- icc and ni Lake )ws the g to the are the [iwrence upon a o great strata e forces which produced the Appalachian range. Were this all, a careful study of the beds on the two sides of the lino would readily show their identity ; but, it appears, that previous to the great epoch of disturbance the original physical conditions themselves differed. To the west, a sheltered sea came into existence about the close of the Cambrian period, in which Cambro- Silurian strata, in large part limestones, were laid down. To the east, sedimentation began much earlier, and the circumstances of deposition were dif- ferent and more varied. Even the animal life present in the two districts was largely dissimilar at the same period, probably as a result of different temperatures in the sea water. Thus it was not until 'much study and thought had been given to the problem that Logan was enabled to affirm the equivalency of a great part of the strata on the two sides of the St. Lawrence and Champlain fault. To those on the east, differing in composition and fauna from the rocks of the typical New York section, he applied the name " Quebec group." Regarded as a local name attached to the Atlantic type of the lower members of the Ordovician, and distinguishing these from rocks of the same date deposited upon the Continental plateau, this term may still be employed with advantage, expressing as it does a most important fact. Subsequent investigations have shown, however, that in the ridging up of this part of the Appalachian region, not only are some very old Cambrian rocks brought to the surface, but considerable areas of crystalline schists which are evidently pre-Cambrian, and very possibly referable to the Huronian, These were originally included in the "Quebec Group," under mistaken ideas of meta- morphism, but their elimination from it, now rendered Pv, jsible, does not detract from the merit of the original discovery, Vior does it impair the value of the term " Quebec group," as a descriptive one, if properly limited. .1. 18 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. I In this folded and disturbed repjion of south-eastern Quebec, copper ores, asbestos and chromic iron are among the more important minerals of value. Silurian 7'ocks and some of ])evonian aore rest in places uncon- formably upon the older corrugations. Some facts respecting the glacial deposits of the Appalachian region are given on a later page, with general statements relating to this period in eastern Canada. Lowlands of the St. Latvrence Valley. The tract of country which it is found convenient to include under this name, comprises but a small part of the hydro- graphic basin of the great river, which in all is about 530,000 s(jua*re miles in extent. Nor is it altogether uninterrupted, although clearly enough defined in a general way by the edge of the Laurentian plateau on the north, the Appalachian highlands to the south- east, and on the south, furthei- west, by the line of the St. Lawrence River and the lower members of the sys- tem of the Great Lakes. It may be described as extend- ing from a short distance below the city of Quebec to Lake Huron, with a length of over 600 miles and an area of more than 35,000 square miles, all of which may be regarded as fei'tile arable land — the greatest connected spread of such land in eastern Canada. These lowlands are based upon nearly horizontal strata, ranging in age from the latest Cambrian (Pots- dam sandstone) to the Devonian. On a geological map its limits are readily observable ; but in order to un- derstand its character, it is necessary to consider it somewhat more clearly, and under such scrutiny it is found to break up naturally into three parts. The first of these is divided between the Provinces of Que- bec and Ontario, running west along the St. Lawrence and its great tributary the Ottawa somewhat beyond the 76th meridian, or to a north-and-south line drawn about twenty-five miles west of the city of Ottawa. It is here interrupted by a projecting, but not bold, '1. a. M. DAWSON. 19 -eastern ron are Silurian 5 uncon- ^ of the ore, with L eastern tract of le under 3 hydro- 1 is about 1 together fined in a lateau on ic south- ine of the |f the sys- s ex tend - uebec to and an ,f which greatest .da. orizontal an (Pots- ;ical map ir to un- insider it Itiny it is its. The Is of Que- ^awrence beyond le drawn Ottawa. Inot bold, I I spur 0; the Laurentian plateau, which crosses the St. Lawrence at the lower end of Lake Ontario, fornnn<]f there the Thousand Islands, and runs southward to join the large Archauin tract of the Adirondacks in the State of New York. Tliis Eastern division, with an area of 11,400 scjuare miles, constitutes what nuiy be called the St. Lawrence plain proper, parts of which were aniono- the first of those occupied by the early French settlers. Much of its surface is almost absol- utelv level, and it nowhere exceeds a few hundred feet in elevation above the sea, althouf^h a few bold trappean hills stand out in an irregular line, with heights of 500 to 1,800 feet. Mount Royal, at Mon- treal, is one of these, and from it all the others are in sight, while the Laurentian highlands may also be seen thirty miles to the north, ami to the southward the Green Mountains and Adirondacks, forming the bound- ary of the plain in that direction, are apparent on a clear day. Beyond the projecting spur of ancient crystalline rocks above referred to, from the lower end of Lake Ontario, near Kingston, to Georgian Bay of Lake Hur- on, the southern edge of the Laurentian plateau runs nearly due west, with a slightly sinuous line, for 200 miles. Between this edge and Lake Onta)"io on the south, lies a second great tract of ]dain, the lowest parts of which may be considered as level with Lake Ontario (247 feet) but of which no part exceeds 1,000 feet above the sea. This plain is naturally bounded to the south and west by the rather bold escarpment of the Niagara limestone, which, after giving rise to the Falls of Niagara between Lakes Ontario and Erie, runs across this part of the Province of Ontario to Lake Huron, forming there a long projecting point and con- tinuing still further west, in th(j chain of the Manitou- lin Islands. The city of Hamilton lies close under a part of this escarpment. The area of this second tract of plain is about 9,700 square miles. It is scarcely f 20 PHYSICAL QEOaUAPHY AND QEOLOQY. more varied in its surface than that to the eastward, and most of its extent is a fertile farming countr}'. The tliird and last subdivision of th(5 lowhmds of the St. Lawrence valley, is an area of tiifingular form included between the Niagara escaipmeiit and Lakes Erie and Huron. This constitutes what is generally known as the Ontario peninsula, and its south-west- ern extremity touches the 42nd parallel, the latitude of Rome. The area of the Ontario peninsula is 14,200 square miles, and both in soil and climate it is singu- larly favored. Grapes, peaches and Indian corri, or maize, are staple crops in many districts. 'J\) the north, some parts of this tract are high and bold, but most of its surface varies from 500 to 1,000 feet above the sea. The geological features of the lowlands of tlie St. Lawrence valley are comparatively simple. The rocks flooring the region lie either horizontally or at very low angles of inclination upon the spreading base of the Archa3an mass to the northward, the crystalline rocks of which have frequently been met with in deep bor- ings. The formations represented correspond closely with those of the New York section, which had been rendered typical by the researches of James Hall and his colleagues, before any deHnite examination of the geology of Canada was begun. Hall's nomen- clature has been adopted for the series, which, begin- ning with the Potsdam sandstones, continues upward without any marked break, to the Chemung or Later Devonian. In the first or eastern subdivision of this region, the Potsdam sandstone, although strictly speaking refer- able to the Upper Cambrian, physically considered is really the basal arenaceous and conglomeritic member of the Cambro-Silurian (Ordovician) series which fol- lows. The several members of the Cambro-Silurian occupy almost the entire surface, diversified merely by a few light structural undulations, which to the south 0. M. DAWSON. 2t istvvard, try. anonil'»'roiis hasinof'tlu) Micluj^'aii |)('ninsuhi. Th«^ Siiuiian and hcvonian .strata aro aflocted only i)y .slight and low uiuluhitions, hut tlioso an; important in coinu'ction with tho ex- ploitation of the oil and ^as of tht^ r('<,d()n. In i\w two (Mistci'n sulMlivisions of tho lowlands of tlie St. LawrciKH! valhiy, with tlu; exception of struct- ural materials, sueh a.s stone, lime and clay, minerals of economic value are scarcely found ; hut in the third or westernmost subdivision, in addition to these, Ljyp- rium,salt, petroleum and natural |L,'as have beconu! im- poitant products. The jj^ypsnni and salt are derived from the Ononda^^a formation of the Silurian. 'I'ho salt is obtained in the form of brine, from deep vvells, but beds of rock-salt are known to occur at consider- able depths. At CJoderich, two beds of very pure salt have been proved by boiinj^ to exist at a depth slight- ly exceeding 1,000 feet, with an agij^rej^^ate thickness of over GO feet. Petroleum is chieHy (lerived from the Corniferous limestone of the JJevonian, and natural <^as is obtained from several horizons both in the Devonian and Silurian. The Ldurent'uui Pldteau. The great region thus named, composed of very ancient crystalline rock.s, has an area of over 2,000,000 square miles, or more than one-half chat of the entire Dominion of Canada. In a 1 "se-shoe-like form, open to the north, it surrounds turee sides of the comparatively shallow sea known as Hudson Bay. Its southern part is divided between the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario, its eastern side expanding into the Labrador peninsula, while the western runs, w^ith narrower dimensions, to the Arctic Sea, west of tlie great bay. In geographical extent it is thus very important, although somewhat monotonous in its physical and geological features. It contributes little to the fertile i (}. M. DAWSON. t\ with in ich, they in of tho )cvoni»iu ulations, til(i ox- hin«ls of )t' struct- miiuMals tho thirtl ie.se, i;yp- icome iir»- derived iaii. The eep vvells, consider- pure salt )th .slight- iL'larts, it carries forests of <;reat value, antl its mineral n-sources are already known in some places to be very important. It itl constitutes, larf. 25 lOiihtain- ,000 feet, [hese ave y part of tional in ed to the of Baffin led is, at , of Lake cross the to reach rt of the ibove the plateau is ; swampy outh-west ant spread h, and the r uniform- ing a good of value, ble to the lateau are tervening natural ee line to joth sides iventually jlone, con- America. }ked with •ts, and to i Indian Thus, lue diffi- culty, it has already become a much favoured resort of the sportsman. The name by whicli it is found convenient to refer to this region, although derived from that of the Laurentian system of geologists, must not be supposed to imply that the rocks attributed to this system occupy the whole area. There are, besides, several wide and many narrower bands of Huronian rocks, as well as outlying areas referred to the Lower Cambrian, and more such exceptional areas of both kinds doubt- less remain to be discovered. It must be understood, too, that in employing the name Laurentian for the most widely represented member of this great Archaean plateau, this is done in a very general and inclusive manner ; the term " basement complex " is adopted by some geologists in nearly the same sense. The results of late investigations, particularly those of Dr. F. D. Adams, seem to prove that in the Laurentian, as thus understood, there is a distinctly stratified series of limestones and other sedimentary rocks, all now highly altered and crystalline, as well as another series of more massive gneissic rocks, of which the apparent bedding is really a foliation due to pressure, and which frequently pass into granites by impciceptiblc grada- tions. The first of these is known as the Grenville series, and the second as the Fundamental Gneiss ; but even where most closely studied it has been found impossible completely to separate the two series, except quite locally, and thus, for the purposes of a general geological map, both must of necessity be indicated by a single colour. The complication alluded to is further increased by the frequent occurrence of true eruptive masses of granite or syenite of much later date, as well as by that of numerous great areas of anorthosite, a rock of the gabbro family, composed principally of plagioclase felspar. The Huronian rocks are as a rule darker in colour and more basic in composition than those of the PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. I |; ii i! ml ' i 11 1 I Laurcntian. They arc often still distinctly bedded, although very t'lXMjuently in the t'onii ot' scliists in which no true bedJinsx is now distiniiuishnblo, and some of CD O ' which have evidently resulted from the crushing ot eruptive rocks. Over gi'eat areas the original material of the Huronian has clearly been in large part the result of volcanic eruptions of the time, but elsewhere, as on the north shore of Lake Huron, and in the Sudbury and Lake Teniiscaming districts, it comprises thick masses of argillite, quartzite and quartz or jasper conglomerate. The rocks composing the Fundamental Gneiss often assume the physical relations of erup- tives, of later date to the Huronian, along the lines of contact ; but in how far this may really be the fact, and in how far this appearance may be attributed to a certain amount of re-fusion of previously existing basal rocks, has not been determined. The Cambrian outliers date from a time subsequent to the main era of foldinji and crushing of the sub- jacent rocks, in comparison with which they are little disturbed. In the Labrador peninsula, they charac- terize considerable areas, and they form a border, tilted against the edge of the Laurentian plateau on the east side of Hudson Bay. These areas appear to repre.ient the Animikie series of the Lake Superior section ; well seen in similar relations in the vicinity of Port Arthur. These rocks are evidently separated by a vast period of unrepresented time from the Archa3an below, and it is assumetl that they may be attached with greatest probability to the base of the Cambi'ian, although no distinct fossils have been obtained from them. To the west of Hudson Bay and far to the north, are other outliers, largely composed of sand- stones, conglomerates and traps, which resemble the Keweenawan or Nipigon of Lake Superior, somewhat later in age than the last. These also are provisionally classed as Lower Cambrian. The Nipigon rocks are well shown along the line of the Canadian Facitic rail- way to the east of Port Arthur, O. M. DAWSON. 2? )e(klc2nd parallel, it is very greatly narrowed, and is broken by echelon-like flanking ranges of the Rocky Mountains, but still further north- ward it again expands, and appeal's to have a width of nearly 300 miles, where it terminates on the Arctic Ocean. The southern part of this great plain is not only the most important from an economic point of view, but is also that about which most is known. It includes the wide prairie country of the Canadian west, with a spread of about 193,000 square miles of ojien grass-land, an area more than twice that of Great Britain. Beyond the G. M. DAWSON. 81 on of th of but el. Ing bh- of Itic Ihe is Ibe lad rea Ihe North Saskatchewan Rivor, the plain becomes essenti- ally a reinent buildi!i«j;s, trees and hills cut in. Next in ortler, after these stations are ])lotted, comes the soundinij, which is usually oat soundinLj is most conveidently carried on from whale boats, with four or six men to row, a man to sound from the bow, and an oHieer, who has with him a soundin*^' sextant, station pointer, and a plan show- ing- all the stations in his locality properly plotted, and lin«'s drawn parallel to one another at convenient distances apart and at rij^dit angles to the general trend of the shore. The soundings are taken as fast as the man can sound and only shoal or representative sound- ings recorded b}' the oflicer. 'J'he position of the boat is fixed from time to time by stopping and measuring two anorles to three stations ashore. These an^fles are laid ofi* on a station pointer and the ])osition plotted on the plan, in the boat, so as to kee)) as near the ruled lines as possible. This boat sounding is carried out from shore to a safe depth so that the steamer may move in safety. Ship sounding is the work in deeper water and further removed from shore. The soundings are taken from the deck (there being various appliances to obtain these without .^topping the steamer each time, as would be necessary if we only had a measured line). 64 CANADIAN HYDllOGRAPHIC SUUVEY. The sextant ancflos (to fix the sounclinpf) nre taken on (lock by two oHicors at tlio instant tlui lead drops. Tho fixinj^j is ut once plotted on tlio sheot and tlio vessel kept as nearly as possible; upon parallel lines, which run out as far as it is possible to iix. Fixin<^ sounding's out of si;,dit of laud rcMjuiros much care and can hardly ])e lixplaincd hcic. No such work has yet been attempted by us on the (Ireat Lakes ; occasional lines carried by us across the lakes reveal no shoals to lequire any very extended examination of the lakes out of si<»ht of the land The examination of suspicious casts is the important work to which all the rest is preliminary. The lines ^dve cross sections of the bottom, and we expect the lines to cross some jiart of the shoals of which we thus ff(it a warning', by liavin<^ a cast more or less shoaler than the one on each side of it. These casts are all inked in ujion the bout plans, a i)oat visits tlie locality, drops over sujull buoys, as tlie officer finds necessaiy, crosses and recrosses the suspected jj^rouml till he is satisfied he has found the least water K)n the shoal, which he fixes. This shoal hunting is a very tedious task, and re(|uii'(!s no end of patience and a consider- able amount of skill both in the othcer and sounder. The shoals located, it is the business of the survey to give when })ossible " leadinuf marks" to assist sailors in avoidint' the danjjers. The natuie of the bottom is obtained by examina- tion of a small (juantity brou«,d»t up by a priming of tallow upon the end of the lead. At times, with a difi'erent apparatus, larger (|uantities of the bed are obtained, but nothing of any great interest has been obtained. The marine interests are usually served by knowing whether the bottom is hard or soft ; the fishing interests require a little more knowledge, such as gravel, solid rock, boulder, sand, clay or mud bottoms. The chnrt is now made up, the shore line is in and the soundings taken ; next comes the graduation. All WM. J. .sriiWAUT. oi charts are coriHtructofl on tin; splu!ri«;ul projiiction, ami Hourly all arc rtMlniwn, oii^'ravud ami piintud upon Mcrcatoi's projection. Upon tin; lakes the change is hanlly necessary, but n[)oM larger sheets of water courses are more readily taken honi Mercator's than the other. For the graduation th^ latitudes and longitudes nnist he obtained of two points near the extremes of the sheets. TIm' latitudes are obtained as explained; the longitudes must be derived from meridian distances or by tile use of signals, the former being the method most usually adopteil on llydrographie Surveys. The errors of the chronometers carried »^«3-»f05-H-»fiO •(7 »pcopoor>ccf« ^ > lb -^ op '^ 1!5 Tt< ^ »-< 00 1 CO '^ t"-. Q dc t^ O ^ •4' ^ 05 1 -3 CO CO • t» OO C*5 05 0> OO 05 ip CO p CO p X X r^-t ^ ° 1*0 «b "^ 00 ifS I- l-^ o -^ i X ^ CO CO 10 ••=>05 fi ^ w t 00 « 05 C5 CO Oi > Q 00 t- s — t-- ^ ■»*< -H COCO ^ -^050 ^ CO CO ^H coojj^p Zi ^ cc ■^ F-H CO • p g> >p 7- 0(M 1- ^H CO tH !;>. q^l CI 05 Its Ifti s " 03 4l Ci CO ift -^ •*< --H I'.fM CO CO »li (fj ^ O; X oi >rti ^ o C0-^«0 r^ 00 »n WOS'-P'^O-'OSOl rf r^ p 1,- i OICOOl •^ w >'c -^ t^ O ^ 'O -H xeo >o ^H i'- CO r^ o «^^i5 H M CO -^ >0 01 05 (N , O >p M

p r- «p t^ X o CO < o Oi 05 05 05 QQ CO CO 6 05 O ^ 00 05 CO CO ^ '* Tt< O -H I>.»OCO (N CO 10 i « ip «p 7^ 05 l-CO 't 1^ p p 1_- l!0 X 10 ift ^ 05 oj a> o 00 CO ^ o *o OS coco ;^ CO -t iO OJ l-iOCO (M CO 1^ 'A CO w ip 1.-- " I'fs i>. i i>. CO CO CO ODCO lO lO CO 05 Ol lO CO (M Oi 05 00 X -H CO ►1 50-t IC ^ CO ■* W5 CI 1— 1 in •< cp 7< 00 ip O) O OS c-i P 00 p 17H 10 00 1 >^ -rt* C) r« 00 coirs f— 1 CI -^ CO i) C0«5^ S CO ■* «5 i-< CO -l* 10 -H F-H C5 5^ I- W p "<*< -^ ■* o l-H rjj CO t^ p »C do CO CO CI XOTt* n ■^ 05 I— >f5 t^Ol l- ©1 X (M CO ,J5 -< lOCC ■<** OH »o CO -^ rt l- l>» < ^ p CO 'p 00 O l^ ip PPP -H -# CO CO ■* ■ O OCC CO COIN CO i\ 01 >b ^ l« CO -4 -< •^^^ih s JO CO •* ^ CO X , 00 p I'- (N O CO OJ lO ipt^poo-^iMO-icd ' CO CO 00 o CO I- CO Cfi ^v-^^ CO 7®cb T*< coco >-i ^ CO CO l-H 1 CO Oi • ^-. 1^^ (N P CO fH I- l-H p 01 p t- r^co(M (M J >-< (M l^ OS »o 1 t- lO 1'-^ OD 00 05 ^CO^ h^ ^ CO CO CO 01 CO 1 • • • 2J ^ ^ i'^ •ITS • 3 2P ■^-»i 3 • • 3 M M j^ s It O > 4. . - . g= I, g i - - - ^ « 2 >* » - s. 1 3 <3 <1> - ^ ©•- 4 w ROBERT F. STUPART. 71 0> O ifl O -- t>. ^ »f5 'i i i - 2 *' '^ - i(? « -^ c-i I -^ 00 OJ ■^ !?j fc ao t^ (N - SC -^ (N I -N eo -H ^1 ©< M — 5 ■p "f CO ^« O (fl -^t '"'"' o 1 w ■^ C-l IC I -- p -- — I ec — CO M cc Jc o ^ *^' fI* »0 W •»*» (M !>• •.o -^ -H O r-. — (M o 05 »f I-" IC fH CO •^ ifs ff^ 05 lo r- -I* CI p irj c^ r- o CO ^ ^ -I CO M ifl 01 (M 05 -< CC (M lO (M (N r- o -^ -^ <^ "P CO « Ut OI CO »^ oco«'tr--.05cc>o X »o 3*1 CC X O O O -H (M 6 'f CI I'o ^ " 6 « -^ cow M !_■- 7S CO X fC »♦< Tft cio IC CI 'N -^ ^ O t^ •* CO JC 05 o: CO X cc — j; I'- ■ ci -^ X x 2 '*"* . X»ft COCl CI CO CI X O -t X CI cc — CO ■* -t ^^ ^ O oo ^ CO re cc ip Oi X x r- CO O t'- CC Cl o '*' ^ X 't CO CO o: CO a> eco5cO'+-ift'^ r-. "* CO c-i "^ "" t>. t CO C) 05 O OJ ^ i-H 'f 35 X 't* CI X -I ^ -^ O I- -t >C CO >o ■^ Tf — « CO r»» CO CI "t X X — ^ --« t-'^ C C4 OS 5^0 00 C5 o -^ SCO 'f X ■1 C) CO OCl CI o n-i o c; t-i m >f5 dCOXOSCOCOO-"* X .C i (N ==^ "^ "^ A. CO -* i-C CI 05 CO CI CO CO i« lO -;*. is CI o ^ <^' - CO CO O CI X r- CI 7H Ift; --t" (M ip OS CO X CO ^" '^"* O LC CO •>* CI <7H p p Ol 05 "* p X — «c «b '"'" o 10 CO Tft 01 CO ^ P 7- CI X « -^ ■^ o CI -^ X *' .1^ CO ■«*' »« CI X I-. >c p CI CO CO CO A- « ira -^i CO '^ "^ 10 CO ■»f CI I'- CO -Hfh— (005 1COCO 05t-XCl^ I '"6 t CI CO 01 CO X p X p >0 CO CI W CO -^^ — ^ I o 't CI CO CI T* 7^ T' p p — ' >p CO -t <0 CI OS I © Tf CI CO CI «o p«CO'<*"*I-.t^S CO -< Cl -H 1 CO X CI X >f5 lO i cs 00 lb "^ 7 '-' '« — CI "H 1 p p 1;- CO 7< * cr^ X 1- X X *i' .^ CO — C4 — 1 U5 1 CO CO CO CO r- CI 1 '• cr. .■oci4t<'-'=^"''^ 01 -< CI rt 1 p t- X CI CO « i) ■^> — -^ "^ 7 '-' CI '-> CI « 1 p T* p i_C ■^ — ip X CO 6 '- C " CI CI -< CI ^ 1.- 1 93 Mean highest " lowest ...... " temperature.. " daily range . . Absolute highest . lowest Per cent . of cloud . . Precipitation u hj < T. ■r. Mean highest " lowest " temperature.. daily range . . Absolute highest . . " lowest Precipitation 7. < ■A Mean highest " lowest *' temperature.. *' daily range. . Absolute highest . . lowest , . Precipitation 1 ii 72 THE CLIMATE OF THE DOMINION. The saliont features of tlie climate of the Canadian North-West Tcri'ltories are a clear liracint; atmosphere flnrinf]f the p^roator pnrt of the year, cold winters and warm summeis, and a sinrdl rain and snowfall. As shown hy cliart No. 2, the mean temjicratni'c for July at Wimiipecf is 00°, and at Prince Albert 02^ Tlie foiiner tem])eratnr(> is hitween the same isotherms as the greater ]K)rtion of France, and after a protracted autumn, winter sets in again before December. The mean annual tempera- ture of Montreal is 41 8, and of St. Petersburg, Russia, 38°7 ; a comparison of the annual curves of the two places is interesting. The mean for Jnnuary at Mont- real is o*" lower than at St. Petersburg ; in February it is but r lower, and then the Montreal curve rises steadily above the other until in August it is 6^ higher; after this the two curves draw together, and by Deceniln r are coincident. In the peninsula of Ontario, or tliat portion of the '-M w 74 THE CLIMATE OF THE DOMINION. province which lies east of Lake Huron and north of Lake Erie and the western i)ortion of Lake Ontario, the winters are by no means severe and the summers are seldom oppressively hot; this being due to the tempering influence of the lakes l)y which this portion of Ontario is surrounded. In the western counties the April mean temperature corresponds nearly to that of southern Scotland, and in May the mean temperature of the whole district is slightly higher than for the south of England. The temperature conditions during the summer months may, as in the Ottawa and St. Lawrence valleys, be compared with those of France ; the normal temnerature for July ranging between 66" and 72°. Sep c.nber and Octol)er are generally de- lightful months and seldom does snow remain on the ground until well on in December, except on the high lands of the interior counties. That portion of On- tario which lies immediately east of the Georgian Bay, the District of Muskoka, at an elevation .of 740 feet above the sea, abounding in small lakes, possesses a wonderfully bracing atmosphere which with a very high percentage of bright sunshine and a pleasant temperature, has made this region a summer resort much frequented by people from the cities and towns further south. The annual ])reeipitation of the entire province lies between thirty and forty inches, which is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year ; in summer, however, the rain generally falls in thunderstorms and cloudy and wet days are of rare occurrence. The summers in the south-western part of Quebec are as warm as in the greater part of Ontario ; in July the 70° isotherm passes not far south of Montreal, the 65° line passes through Quebec city, and most of tho Gaspe peninsula has a mean temperature somewhere below 60°. The winters throughout the province arc cold, and between December and March the ground hus usually a deep^covering^of snow. 5 ROBERT F. ST U PART. 75 The importance of the covering of snowrluring the more severe winter weather cannot be over estimated, as it protects tlie roots of trees and herbage, and be- sides tliis enables those engaged in the Uunbering trade in the noithern parts of the piovinces to get the timber from tlie bush to the banks of tiie streams by which tlie liu<;e loi;s are floated down to the mills when in the early spring the ra]»id melting of snow and ice causes a flooding of all water courses. The opening of spiing in the Maritime Provinces is usually a little later than in southern and western Ontario and the North-West Territories, and somewhat earlier than in the Lower St. Lawrence valley ; on the other han 2^ . I ^ S e 1 iS "a -^ II S o E -c; en V a ... s of ad « ip '>! O C ».■' — I* '•^ « ? ;^ oS '?,» ^ "C 71 -«" — 9* — l- - >;. jc 1'- cc 2 * "i 1-: cc -f — a. "7 X a. ?-. 08 p ^ — ft ' C5 1"-: Ti M CI '' ' ■ w (M » <7I _ m 'Y fC I." p p X ?' ?0 ip ■t c; 1 ' -t" -t — '-^ 1(5 Pi — iM — lit "Y > o 71 71 71 w ?i ^ « 'Jl t^ 'p 05 CI O 'p ' (N C i CI « i ' "* -^ l(? -f. ^ « 1 , ffl CI X p ■^ p ^ «2 7J p « X -r ci cc ^ i?5 ec -f — 1 - CI td ■r. '"5 ' cc 05 ;o -t CI f ^ cc •-O ■* ift — < CO w ^ X CI X p p CI ^ 1- X ir 10 -H X cc X (CI P p CI X p >-t< p X i^t^^ CI CI ^ PC «> -f >0 CI Cs PC X r- cc — w X 1 ' p -f 1- li 1'- in '"^ w CC •«< — •- CI •^f P 1 - p ?c> 05 X 'i 'i i'" "^ -♦• «f CI PC — 1 - 0^ cc p 1- cc "C T' :♦ p — i ec It CI "*■ CO cc >-« CI — •'i "Y ip X 1- 1- p X -N P P X •':•-♦< 05 '■* 1'^ M ?i CI 'H lO 1 u u. fC p -T- fC I.', y^ X CI ' >'o r>. i X i ^ "^ cc Cl « — < 'T "^ — PC CI .■- 2 '" -f PC — CI — '!? "7 •< Cl — X p '.' — S p«7ipxp'y>cip c PC CI 1'-. -if "2 ''^ PC ^ CI ^ >o 1" CHARLOTTETOWN, P.E.I. II lltKi lilltKl |. . - g: ::« ^ |. _ g: I'l ROnERT F. STITPART. W >fi « 9 «p w I.' 'P 'y ts i- o -Jc 'Jo I' s '■'^ M Vi —-.»««? •'9 9 « I-'.""?! 71 '13: «*£''?*" CO ^1/5 T T '."• ^ '2 T nn -f o •ff 05 ' ' -f 1 ' ifi « CI Oi €C c. ^ -f 9 ift CI 9 tj I ■ 1(5 -f -O «- i X '* M l-O -5 CI ?. M I 3) >t O S 41^^^ 9 cc .B CIC5 9 — 'C 9 -c «p c fc i c 1 '^ fo •^ CI X cc C19 « O f^ "t" 1H -* ~ -t 3H <^ fC 1 - ■^ X CI ~ cc — -t" ''• -r •c CI jr. CI 9>r Ci CI O) O r]H C» X X « -^ »f5 cc — ^cii.'r.-^S^ (r» — «,ci ^ o en "^ l^^l irs "■* .'fs '^fW W SI as t X T- cc »^ 'C CI i 5 '^•' cc -«'ii J^M CO "^ ^ ivfl CC CI CI -#■ 1- -»• 1" . 5S » CI ^ 9 >o •>© xn 'S X •" X .• 1 » •^ ^ li S ^. '' *^' 6 M M 1^' is 2 T^ i " s 9 ?2i 4* • :-: : IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ^ .t 1.0 I.I |^|28 |50 '""■■ u m Sir 1^ 14 2.5 2.2 [2.0 1.8 1-25 1.4 ||.6 « 6" ► s V] <^ /a ^l. o^ > > V'y > y /J. Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ,\ iV s •s? \\ 9> \w O ^4 % i i J: 'i' n 1' i } ■• ; iiU 78 THE CLIMATE OF THE DOMINION. The Great Lakes never freeze over ; but usually most of the harbours are closed with ice by about the middle of December, and remain frozen over until the end of March or beginning of April. The average date of the closing of navigation on the St. Lawrence River at Montreal is December IGth, and of the opening, April 2Lst. Harbours in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are like- wise closed by ice duiing the winter months, but on the Bay of Fundy and coast of Nova Scotia they are open all the year round. A very casual inspection of the following table (III.) showing the normal percentage of bright sun- shine in various parts of the Dominion as registered by Campbell-Stokes recorders will render it very obvious that Canada is a country of clear skies. There are few if any places in England that have a larger normal annual percentage than 3G and there are many as low as 25, whereas in Canada most stations exceed 40 and some few have as high a percentage as 46. In England at but few places does the normal of summer month exceed 45 per cent. At German tions the Auffust maximum averaixes under 50 cent, and in a few cases reaches 52. In the south much higher values are obtained, Vienna 54, Zurich 57, Trieste 66, Lugano 67, Rome 75, Madrid 84. These figures show that it is only the southern parts of Europe that have more sunshine in the summer months than Canada. References : — " The Reports of the Dominion Me- teorological Service ; " " Geological Survey Reports ; " " Report of Cruise of H. M. S. Challenger, Vol. II, Part v.; " " Reports of the Meteorological Olace, Lon- don." any sta- per '1 ;i 1 i . 1 1 1! HL ;& ROBERT F. STUPART. 79 per south h 57, hese n s 01 ths Me- •ts ; " II, Jjon- ;k c 3 09 CO bC .9 8 a o pq to H -2 &o > -^ CO C'l •-£ -f 01 -f X -H l^ CO -f I- .cc (M ■* -t ■* ■* ■4- CO "* cc -t -T ec a . o« "t — l^ (M -< C) t- O ® O '.O 05 o-i;— 1 -HJCCCMOIfM-Hfji — eCCCi-1 > o !<5 o^OI — 01 fC (Tl 01 Ol 01 fO Ol Ol CO 0^ O oXeO CCTCOCOCO-fCO-tCO-^rJiCO oKCO OICOfO't'Oir5-*'^*lOl!t-<*Tt( o-^iQ -f »0 lO ?0 K3 lO >0 O Ift lO O Tt . „WOC5XXI^0050C005'HOO o^irs M< o •?: m ire :o »o 50 i-'5 lo ITS -hS (4 . of^ >rex'*o«o-«fiO'>*Tfxt--i o^"* CO »o o -^ m >re lO lo »re ire ^ Tt< < V oO 05 >re CO -^ t- X »* 1- ?o P-. ffl CO Oh v^ o'N I-" l^ l^ O O Cl O UO O Ol t^ CS oKCO 0|Tj(Tjre t -*« 1 1- CO ^ -f -t 6X04 O)"rtre -t i^ CO o -H oKOJ 04 0) >* ■* 0^ 01 CM 01 1-H CO -"t CO : :^ : : : : : :^ : : . • •. B -en • O •P' fl • • • • - :^ • fiiiiiiiiiiii g,5S^ 3 fl'« o-S cJ^'c'S o I'! 1!. .iU 1 1 .' lit ■I- 1 •■ ! Si! ' 1 111 Ii .] ; i: i1 CHAPTER III. Sketch of Canadian Zoology. Prof. Ramsay Wright, University ok Toronto. IT seems desirable within the limits allotted to this sketch to remind the naturalist who has not prev- iously visited Canada of the interesting forms of animal life which he may meet with, and to indicate some sources of information* as to these rather than to at- tempt a survey of the Canadian fauna fi'om a zoo- geographic standpoint, especially as the data for the latter are stiil very incomplete. It may be premised, however, that recent students of the distribution of life on the North American continent concur in recognizing two provinces, a noi'th- ern and a southern, the greater j)ortion of the former being situated vidthin Canadian Territory, of the latter within the United States. Dr. Merriam^" distinguishes these as Boreal and Austral respectively, and observes, apropos of his conclusion that the southward distri- bution of northern forms is determined by the mean temperature of the hottest part of the year, that the southern boundary of the Boreal province corresponds to the isotherm of 18° C (64'-4 ¥) for the six hottest consecutive weeks. This is not substantially different from the isotherm of 65^ F for Julv laid down on Mr. Stupart's Chart, No. 2, and it therefore follows that the most northerly (or transition) zone of the Austral *.Joi'dau"s Manual of the Vertebrates of the Northern United States, Chicago, 1888, is also very convenient for the student of Canadian Zoology. , fNat. Geog. Mag. VI. R. RAMSAY WRIGHT. 81 province advances beyond the international boundary line in three regions, viz., in Ontario as far north as the Georgian Bay, in the western plains chiefly in As- siniboia and in British Columbia. In these regions consequently there is a certain infusion of southern types into the Canadian fauna. There have further been recognized within the Boreal province three zones, Arctic, Hudsonian and Canadian, and Dr. Merriam is inclined to assign the isotherms of 10' C (50° F) and 14' C (57° F), as the southern bound- aries of the first two, and, as has already been indicated, 18° C (6-i'-4° F) as that of the last, [t has been as- certained that the distribution of the mammals agrees fairly well with the temperature zones thus marked out, but the data as to other groups are insufficient. a. hi 'i !:■.( I mean lat the sponds lottest fterent n Mr. at the ustral United Llent of Mr. J. B. Tyrrell* has published a convenient list of tlie mammals of Canada, in which he has incorporated a good deal of information as to the range of various species accumulated by himself and other members of the Geological Survey, as well as references to the liter- ature of the subject. The list contains over 120 species, more than a third of which are rodents, as one would expect from the great development of this order in North America. Among these are some of the commonest forms of manmials which the visitor is likely to make acquain- tance with. Perhaps the little I'ed squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus) and the striped chipmunk {Tamias stria- tes) will first attract his attention, but he may also meet with the extremes of diversity of habit within the Sciurida) in the flying squirrel (Sciuropterus vol- ant) which is widely distributed, and the Prairie ground-squirrels (Spermophilus) of Manitoba and the western plains. If he has observed the Alpine mar- mot in some lonely Swiss pass, he will hardly recog- :i'!i r '-M ■ f 1 Tl ■ ill 'Traus. Can. lust., Toronto, 1888. 6 p 1 i : 1 1 1 i l| 1 82 SKETCH OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY. Ill '' nize its oonpfener, the soUtary wooclohuck (Arcfom.yf( onovax) wliich is overvwlicre common in the wooded hanks of streams. Tlie lar^-er species from the northern Kocky Mountains (A. calviain^), on the other hand, appears to reseinhle tlie Eui'opean foi-m more closely in its habits. A very chnrncteristic rodent of the western plains is the northern pocket fjopher, a member of the sin- gular family Geomyidjv. This, as Dr. Merriam has shown, is a p'onp of Mexican orioin, which has pushed up into British Co]umV»ia and the plains of the Saskatchewan, IxMncj represented there by the species Thomomys tidpoidea. They are subterranean crea- tures, forminf]^ mounds over their burrows and carrying,' off the surplus roots and tubers on which they feed in the cheek pouches from which they receive their name. Of the aquatic rodents the musk-rat (FU)er ziheth- icAifi) is everywhere common, but the beaver is no longer to be met with in the vicinity of civilization, although the preservation of Algonquin Park appears to have resulted in increasing their number there. Among the larger members of the order is the Canada porcupine {Erethizon dorsatui^), which extends northwards to the limit of trees, and is still common in the less settled districts. Lastly, the Leporida^ are well represented, the com- monest forms being the wood-hare or cotton-tail {Lepus sylvaticus) the varying hare (L. americanus), and the jack-rabbit of the western plains {L. caw,- peMris). The Carnivora contribute almost a quarter of the mammalian fauna, and the chief proportion of the valu- able furs, such as those of the mink (Putoriufi vison), the skunk [Mepliitifi mephUica), and the otter (Lutra hudsonica). The Insectivora likewise are numerous, including some twenty species, of which the moles are particularly interesting on account of the forms theni- (\ \\\ in \v 1( ( T. E. RAMSAY WRIGHT. 83 selves and their freo^jraphical distribution.* Tiie same remark applies to the bats,-f- of which six species occur in (Janada. Of special interest to the sportsman are the various species of Unoulates. The characteristic genus of the Cervida^ is Cariacus, represented by the common and widely distributed Virginia deer ((7. vlrginianiis), and in the west, by a nearly allied form ((J. leucuruH), as well a.s by the mule deer (0. macrotU), marked by its long ears and dark dorsal stripe. The remaining genera, Cervus, Alee and Rangifer, are all European as well. To the first genus belongs G. canadensis, the great Canada stag, erroneously called the elk in America, and according to Mr. Tyrrell not the wapiti (as it is now very generally styled), but the waskasew of the Indians. The true elk or moose (Alee aloes americanas), and the carib(ju {Hangifer tarandus caribou and (jvdiri- landicus), are probably oidy varieties of the European elk and reindeer. The moose, which had been becoming scarce in the northern forests of Ontario, has been considerably com- moner since a five yeai's' protection was afforded to it. It is now also pushing its way further towards the north-west boundary of the Dominion. The two sub-species of reindeer are known as the woodland and barren-ground caribou, the latter con- fined to the treeless districts west of Hudson Bay, the former extending from Newfoundland to the Pacific coast. Our species of Bovidw are decidedly less accessible. They include the pronj/'horn {Antiloca,i)ra ameri- cana), which is in reality a southern form which pushes northward on the western plains, and the two characteristic forms of the northern Ilocky Mountains * True. Revision of the American Moles, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. Vol. XIX. t H. Allen. Monograph of the Bats of North America. Bull, U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 43. «..: ; i V : V; m I I! \b' ■I- -4 t,i 84 SKETCH OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY. ^|. ' 11 lii 'i i . n ¥ I' ■' '(I 1 1 1 i i 1 .^1 'A' ■I 1 1 — the mountain sheep and goat (Ovis montana and Haplocerus inont(tnut-i) Finally, the musk-ox (Ovlhos onoschatiis), the only exclusively American of the Arctic mammalia, still abounds in the barren grounds, while the bison {Bos amerlcanus) is practically ex- terminated, although a few "wood butialo" are sup- posed to exist near the head waters of the Mackenzie River. It is natural that Ornithology should have received more attention than Mammalogy, and that its litera- ture should therefore be more extensive. Mi'. Mon- taofue Chamberlain's catalojLjue of Canadian birds* has for its scope the whole Dominion, and the same author's edition of Nuttall's Ornithology f devotes special attention to Canadian forms. There exist, however, special faunistic worlcs of great interest for the more limited regions with which they deal. Such are the Birds of Ontario, by Thomas McIlvvraith,:J: Les Oiseaux de Quebec.j:} by C. E. JJionne; and the Birds of Manitoba, by Ernest E. Tliompson.'F Professor Macouii has devoted special attention to the avian fauna of the great North-west, and ma}' be expected to give some of the results of his wide experience at the B. A. meeting. Ornithologists who are especially interested in oology may be glad to know of the extensive collec- tions of Mr. Walter Raine of Toronto, who has published an account of his "Bird Nesting in North-West Canada."!! *Saint John, N.B., 1887. tBoston : Little, Brown & Co., 1891. :|:Hamilton, Ont. gQuebec, 1889. IfProc. U.S. Nat. Mus. Vol. XIIL, 1891. llToronto: Hunter, Rose & Co., 1892. th the firt( wh of in ((}/> /i/ii) tlic hrr r/ii ti sirfdi hhn R. RAMSAY WRTfJTIT. 85 The reptiles occmrinEf vvitliin the Dominion chiefly helonf,' to tlio Ophidia and (,'helonia, a f \v lizards of tlie jjjcnera Eumcccs and Sceloporus extendinfj beyond tlic international boundary lino in the west. Sonio fifteen species of Cohd)ri(l}i^ occur in the east, for which alone data ai'e obtainable, and the commonest of tlicso are, in tlie ordei- in which tliey arc described in Professor Cope's lecent revision,* tlic milk-snake {Ophibohisdolifttiis triangulus), the ring-neck [Diado- pliis puvctafu,^), the grass snake {lAo'pcUis vcriialis), the racer {lUiscdiimm const ridor), the fox-snake (Colu- hcr vvbplnus), the pig-nosed snake {Hdervdon platy- rliinus), vai'ious garter snakes {Kiitamid, especially E. sirt((lis), various species of Natrix and Storeria (N. I (her is and rigida, N. Jdscifda sipcdoi}, S. dekayi and occiintomaculiUa.) Two species, finally, of rattlesnakes occur, but their area of distribution is much more limited than for- merly : these are Crotalus horridus, and Crotaloj)hovus catenahis tevf/eininus. Four families of Chclonia are represented in the Dominion ; the Emydidas by the common pond-turtle {Chrysemys pida), as well as by the less common spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata), geographic turtle (Graptemys geographica), and box-turtle (Cistudo [Terrapene) Carolina) ; the Chelydrida3 by the com- mon snapping turtle {Chelydra serpentina), the Kino- sternidpD by the musk-turtle {Aromochelys odorata), and the Tryonychidfe by the more southerly soft- i shelled turtle (Platypeltis spinifer). Canada contrasts very strongly with Great Britain in its abundant Amphibian Fauna. One of the most [interesting members thereof, the Menobranch or Mud- [Puppy {Nedurus maculatus Raf), is common in the * A critical review of the characters and variations of the Snakes [of North America: Washington: Proc. U. S. Nat. Mub., vol. XIV, •"* ,' '^S? m ■'I • - T r TT-r '■, 'I 1 1* 1 1 i iH ■'■I 86 SKETCH OF CANADIAN ZOOLOOV. caste, n portion of tlio Domiiiion, wliilc the Britisli newts are repnisented hy a lari((; series ot salamanders sonic of them cliaracteristic of tlie Atlantic, others confined to the Pacitic slope ; of tlie foinier the commonest are the little spotted newts (Dic/niijr.fi/Ivs viridescenH Haf.), but species of And)lystoma, Plethodon and Desnio- gnathus are widely distributed. One of the Ambly- stomas connnon in the western plains {A. tUjrinum) rivals the Mexican AxolotI in tlu- size which it fre- (juently reaches before undergoinuf its metamorpliosis. In spring and early summer the lakes and ponds are rendered vocal by the numerous species of frogs and toads, as many as eight distinct species of Rnna and four or five H^'lida; contributing to the concert. From an ichthyological standpoint the Dominion presents many interesting features, especially in the great development of certain fantilies of phy.sostomous Teleosts, which the vast iidand seas have favoured. The Siluroids, represented in Europe only by the " wels " of the Danube, here furnish some of our com- monest species like the small horned pout {AmeiuruH nehulosus) and the great forktailed cattish of the lakes {A . lacustrifi), which may weigh over 100 lb. Again, the carps are replaced l)y a curious series of suckers or catostomids, which in spring ascend the rivers in vast numbers, but are of little use for food purposes. The herring and .salmon families exhibit a tendency to develop land-locked forms. Completely fresh water clupeids are the hyodons or moon-eyes and golden eyes of the great lakes and the North-west, while the shad {Alosa sapidissima) and alewife {Poniolobus i^seudoharengus) penetrate from the coast far into the interior and may in the case of the latter be completely land-locked. Like the large European bodies of fresh water, our lakes contain certain characteristic coregonids, which, 11. RAMSAY WriKJIIT. sr lik(! their Swiss coiiLfonors, otrer comparatively un- stal lie spi' citic cliaracters. One of tlie coiiiinouest, as well as the most valuaMo commercially, is the wliitetish ((7. cl}ii>cl/or})i.is) of the ^M'eat lakes, which <,aves place to the Tullihee in the Lake of the Woods atul Ajanitoha, and in the North-west to less known species like the Inconnu. From both the iltlantic and Pacilic, sal mon pene- The Atlan- trate far into the interior at spawnin<^ time tic salmon (S. ^alar) were at one time almndant in Lake Ontario and have given rise to a land-locked variety in Lake St. John, Qnel)ec, the Ouananiche, which is much souL,dit after hy anglers. Almost in- credible are the accounts of the vast numbers of salmon {()n<;uylt)juchus iicrka and qiiinuof) which ascen 1. . :kl yield not only tlio \iU''^Q and small inoutho(l Mnck hass {Mifro])f("t IIS (lo/oinicii and .salrnohlcs), but also the smaller siinlisli ainl rock-ltass. Tlio Kuropcan pike-perches, or sanders, are repre- sented l)y two H|)ecies whicli attain considerable com- mercial importance, and ai'e known as pickerel or dore (Stizosfedion vitreuni and cdnadevse), the perches pro- per hy the common yellow perch (P.jhrvcscens), and by a host of brilliantly coloured darters, and tlio mai-ine Sciamids by the Lake Huron drum {Ildploiilonohis). Certain forms of the allied marine Serranid;i3, the white and sti'iped bass {lioccus cli isopa and lincatus), are valued as food fishes. The former occurs in the Great Lakes, the latter ascends the rivers of the Atlantic rjoast for spawning purposes, and may penetrate far inland. Most characteristic for the inland waters are the three genera of ganoids, Acipenser, Lepidosteus and Amia. The hake sturgeon (Acipenser rubiandus), is common in Lake Erie and the Upper Lakes, while the garpike (Lepidosteus osseus), and the bowfin (Amia calva), are less abundant, but widely distributed. No attempt has been made to touch upon the rich marine vertebrate fauna of the Dominion, nor is it possible to do more than refer to the investigations of Sir J. W. Dawson and Mr. Whiteaves on the inverte- brate fauna of the Gulf of St. Lawrence — perhaps the best explored part of our coasts. Along with Ornithology, Entomology has claimed a large number of students. One of the most important serials devoted to this branch of American Zoology is the Canadian Entomologist, the organ of the Entomo- logical Society of Ontario, which has appeared regu- larly for the last thirty years, and contains many valuable papers on the insect fauna of Canada. The il H. IIAMSAY WIIKHIT. 8d 1^' rich is it )ns of erte- the society, u'lilcli lias its lu'}i(](Hi.'ii"t(}rs at Loudon Out., owns the most coniplcti! collection of ('jumdian insocts. Udier divisions of Z()oI(><'v liav(* likewise had their dcv(ttees, as a i,danc<^ throni;h the iJi'oeeedinu^s of the various Iearne(| soci(!ties, such as the (.^anadian Tnsti- tute of Toronto, the Natuial llistorv Societies (»f Montreal, Halifax and Victoria, the Field Naturalists' VAwh of Ottawa, etc., serves to show. Peiha|)s less attention has been given to the lake faunas than might have heen expected in a country so intersected everywhere hy small lakes, besides being part possessor of the largest bodies of fresh water in the world. But the interest in these, recently awakened by the establishment of fresh-water stations in vjirious parts of Europe and America, nuiy be ex- pected to leatl to more comprehensive .studies than have yet been attempted. It may be well to state for the convenience of the sportsman, that the regulations affecting game in the various provinces of Canada and in the various states of the Union vj'iW be found in a convenient form in the Book of the Game Laws, published by the Forest and Stream Publishing Co., New York City. I ^ Ml' -)«. ' '■'! ■ ■■, I, il ,|ir,i ,T CHAPTER IV. Sketch of the Flora of Canada. By Professor John Macocx, Naturalist to the Geological Survey of Canada. IN a general sketch of tlie flora of the Dominion of Canada, the whole northern portion of the North American continent must be considered, including New- foundland on the east and Alas^ka on the west. This immense region, extending from Cape Kace, the most easterly point of Newfoundland, to Behring Straits on the west, is in round numbers 3,.50() miles wide. On the south, the forty-ninth parallel forms the boundary from the Pacific Ocean eastward to the Lake of the Woods, from thence to where it cuts the forty-fifth parallel, it follows a tributary of Lake Superior, the great lakes, and the St. Lawrence River itself. The northern boundary of New York, New Hampshire, Vermont and Maine, form the southern boundary to the sea at St. Stephen, New Brunswick. The chief features of the northern and eastern sec- tions extending westerly to the Mackenzie River, are its plains, lakes, rivers and forests, and the paucity of its flora as regards species, the greater number of which are identical with those of northern Europe, or very closely related to them. The south-western or prairie region has a flora which is quite distinct both in origin and appearance from that of the forest region to the north and east. South-western Ontario has a flora that in greater part has a southern origin, and which in very many respects differs from that of all the other parts of the Dominion, and includes many P . i JOHN MACOUN. 91 species of shrubs and trees that do not grow naturally outside of its limits. The whole of the Dominion east of the Rocky Mountains may be called a plain, as it rises at no point into anything that could be called a chain of moun- tains. The only chain of heights are the Laurentides, extending up the St. Lawrence and along the Georgian Bay and Lake Superior. West of Quebec city to the Rocky Mountains there is no point above 2,000 feet until the high plains become an elevated plateau, but altoijether destitute of mountains. The source of the St. Lawrence (Lake Nipigon), 1,900 miles from the sea, is less than 800 feet above tide water. The Rocky Mountains, extending in a north-westerly direction from latitude 49*^ to the Arctic Sea, are both a barrier to the western extension of the prairie flora and a means of extending the distribution of the Arctic, for many species found on the Arctic coast are found in the Rockies at altitudes ranging from 7,000 to 9,000 feet. British Columbia consists of a series of mountains, plateaus and valleys, that have a very varied herb- aceous vegetation, and as a consequence we have on the mountain summi^js an Arctic flora with a marked change to Alaskan species as we ascend the Coast Ranfje and the mountains on Vancouver Island. On the dry region about Kamloo])s, Okanagan, and Spence's Bridge, there are many species that have their home to the south in the dry districts of Wash- ington. On the other hand, the coast flora, and especially that of the vicinity of Victoria, has much in common with northern California and Oreoon. From the foregoing it may be seen that our flora is made up of a series of fragments that have had, each, a different origin ; the more northerly and high moun- tain species being circumpolar or derivatives from those of northern Europe and northern Asia. The species in the coniferous and poplar forests are also of l\\ ■ "I ,.i i 02 i" If I SKETCH OF Tin<: FLORA OF CANADA. Imt those in tlic deciduous-leaved find ( )ntario ai'o and lifive a Genera that Desmodiwiii, northern orijj^in, forests of tlie eastern provinces nndoubtedlv cliaracteiistic of America inucli greater (h.>ve]opnient to tlie soutli. are characteristic of tliesc forests are Uvuldvia, Trillium, Podopliyllnm, Hydvdstis, Phlox, Dicentra, Savfjuinaria, Mrdeola, and many others. In the prairie provinces tlic species are of a south- westerly origin, though many are identical with the mountain species of tliat legion of the United States. Eastern species of herbaceous and woody plants extend far to the west in tlie stream valleys and wooded ravines, and do not finally disappear until the more arid districts are reached. In the foot hills of the Rocky Mountains many western species find a home, and they too descend to the plains and spread themselves east- ward until stopped by the light rainfall of the prairie. The European botanist when first landing on our shores or entering the country by any of the United States railways will be struck by the similarity between the plants he meets with and those of his own country. This seeming resemblance only extends to the road- sides and cultivated grounds. What he sees are immigrants, and it is only in the forest he will see indi- genous plants. In trying to get a knowledge of the native flora no person should collect anything along the roadsides or in cultivated fields, because not ten per cent, of the species he sees are natives. Our native species seldom become weeds, as they were chiefly forest species, and with the forest many of them disappear. Lying between Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St. Law- rence is the extensive tract named Labrador, the interior of which until lately was quite unknown. The area of this peninsula is over 500,000 square miles, and the paucity of its flora may be learned when it is known that the flowering plants and ferns that occur in it number less than 1,000 species. It is only on the coasts and the more elevated mountains that the true iilL •:t JOHN MACOUN. 98 Arctic flora is found, and even this only in the north- eastern part where the Arctic ice is forced on shore. The characteristic Arctic species found here are lianuncu- Ins yygmceus, Wahi, and R. nivulif^ L. ; Papaver nudicaulis, L. ; Dvaha alpina, L., D. steUata, Jacq. and D. aurea, \Vnhl. ; Sllene acdulis, L., Lychnis (dfiiia, L. and L. apetala, L. ; PotentUla macnlata, Poir. ; Saxi- fraga oppositifolia, L., >S. rivularis, L., S. cernua, L. and S. nivalis, L.; Sedmn rhocUola, Db.; Erigeron un- ijioruin, L., Antennaria alpina, Gaertn.; Campanula unitiora, L. ; Ledum paluHtve, L. ; Rhododendron Lap- ponicum, Walil,; Dlapens'ia LAipponica, L.; Pedicidaria Lapponica, L. P. hirsuta, L., and P. jiammea, L. Numerous willows, sedges and grasses which are Arctic or mountainous in their ircneral distribution are to be met with, but the bulk of the flora is identical with that of the sulj-arctic or boreal zone of the forest belt that extends to the Mackenzie River. None of the enumerated plants have been obseived in the interior of Canada, but all with one or two exceptions are to be found near the snow line in the Rocky Mountains. Prince Edward Island has nothing peculiar about its vegetation except that both the seaweeds around its shores and its land flora indicate ccreater warmth in its coast waters than we find on the coasts of Nova Scotia. There is a marked absence of species indicating a boreal or frosty summer climate, while there are undoubted indications of a moist and cool one. One summer spent on the island revealed very little of botanical interest, but showed that Prince Edward Island was climatically the " Green Isle " of the Dominion. Owing to the position of Nova Scotia it has more the characteristics of an island than a continental mass, and hence a number of species are found there and on the coast of Newfoundland that are never met inland. The general flora, however, is seen to be in general the same as that of the Provinces of New Brunswick, Quebec, and the greater part of Ontario. I '3 I 1 ' H 1 1 M 4 Jl i m ■in- ^j1 '■I r! i t ill! I M i^i h 94 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF CANADA. ill I I' liilinil!!* m A few notable species are Calluna vulgaris, Salisb, Alchemilla vulgaris, L., Rhododendron, maximum, L., Hex glabra, Gray, Hudsonia ericoides, L., Gaylus- sacia dumosa, T. & G., and Schizcea j^usilla, Pursh. Passing to New Brunswick we find a marked change in the flora, which now takes on a more ex- clusively American t'acics, and as we pass westward this becomes more marked until scarcely a trace of the European flora can be detected except on the higher summits. Gradually the eastern species drop out and are replaced by immigrants from the south or the advance guard of the western flora. In the deciduous- leaved forest many species are found that are rare or absent in Nova Scotia but which are common in Western Quebec and Ontario. Owing to the position of Quebec its flora varies greatly, for while on the shores of the Gulf and the lower reaches of the 8t. Lawrence many Arctic and sub-arctic species may be found, the conditions have so changed when Quebec city is reached that the Wild Grape (Vitis riparia) and the Silver Berry {Ekegnus argentea) giow luxuriantly on the Isle of Orleans, and the valley of the St. Lawrence westward shows a constantly increasing latio of southern forms. Along the shores of the lower pai't of the river the wi^i^ei has collected Thalictrum alpinum, L,, Vesicaria arctica, Richards., Cerastium alpinum, L., Arahis cdpina, L., Saxifraga ccespitosa, L., and S. opjiositi folia, L. ; and on Mount Albert, one of the Shickshock Mountains, Silene acaulis, L., Lychnis alpina, L., RJiododendron Lap- ponicum, Wahl., Cassiope hypnoides, Don., and many others. On the summit of this mountain at an altitude of 4,000 feet were collected Vaccinium, ovalifol- ium, Smith, Galium Karntschaticum, Steller., Pelloia densa. Hook, and Aspidium aculeatwiu, Swartz. var. scopulinum D. C. Eaton. The two latter have no other known stations east of the Pacific Coast Range and the other two are western species. JOHN MACOUN. 95 Montreal Mountain, on the other hand, may he said to he an eastern extension of the soutliern flora, as hero we have the first assemhlage of the representative Ontario flora. No otlier province of the Dominion has such a diversified flora as Ontario, caused by the great influx of soutlicrn forms in the south-western peninsula bordering on Lake Erie, and the extension of the pro- vince w^estward to Manitoba and northward to James Bay. To speak in general terms, that part of Ontario north of the Canadian Pacific railway and north and west of Lake Superior, has a flora in no respect differ- ent from that of the boreal sections of Quebec and the Maritime Provinces. Along the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence, from Montreal westward, the country gradually im))roves in climate, and corresponding to this change the flora takes a more southern aspect and trees, shrubs, and all herbaceous plants not hitherto seen become common. In the vicinity of Toronto a marked change takes ]ilace and Scarboro' Heights and the Humber Plains seem to be the gathering: 2f round for many species that do not occur in a wild state farther to the east. Yonge street, which was the great northern highway 100 years ago, is still a divisional point for various reasons, but in none more so than in a botanical sense. West and south of this line a new forest wnth new shrubs and herbaceous plants meets the eye of the botanist and tells him wdth unerring certainty that he has entered on a new field for his labors, and if he be a practical man he will soon see that the capabilities of the country increase with the change. Any botanist desirous of collecting many rare Canadian plants in a small space must not fail to visit the Humber Plains and High Park, Toronto, Queenston Heights, the Niagara River and Falls, Hamilton and the district in that vicinity, and any other localities from Point I I fi I' ill 1 i I 9G SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF CANADA. Edward at the foot of Lake Huron to Fort Erie at the head of the Niagara River. All points are interesting to the botanist, but none more so than from Kingsville to Sarnia, taking in Pelee Island, where vineyards rivaling those of Europe are seen in perfection. Am- herstburgh, Windsor, Chatham and Sarnia are easily accessible, and at all these places rare and beautiful species can be obtained. Should the general flora of the northern forest be desired or the water-plants (Potamogeton) of the country there is no other place so advantageously situated as the Muskoka Lake district, where the diversified scenery of lake, river, rock, and forest-clad promontories will delight the heart of any one, and where botanists of all grades can load themselves with treasures by very little efibrt, and at the same time suffer neither from fatigue nor lack of first class hotel accommodation. While the shores of Lake Erie are clothed with veg- etation that needs a high winter temperature, the east and north coasts of Lake Superior have a boreal vegetation that shows that the summer temperature of this great lake is quite low. It was the boreal species along the cliffs and near the water that led the early travellers and Agassiz to carry away such erron- eous impressions of the Arct^'! climate of the Lake Superior region ; a region whica we now know is not climatically unsuited to agriculture. It may not be uninteresting to know that the Great Lakes have, with the exception of Lake Superior, a much earlier growth in spring on the north shores than they have on the south. Passing out of the forest region, we enter on the vast expanse of natural meadows which constitute the prairie region of the travellers and the Provinces of Manitoba, Assiniboia, Alberta and part of Saskat- chewan. The eastern border is abouc thirty miles east of Winnipeg, and the western border, the foothills of the 'jllil JOHN MACOUN. 97 Rocky Mountains 900 miles to the west. This vast re<(ion has in many respects a tloia quite different from that of the east, nortli or west in which sjiecies of tlie forest zone preck)minate. As mentioned in another place, the eastern llora extends westerly in ravines and river bottoms for 150 or 200 miles, but finally dis- appears, and the true prairie flora is found everywhere excG^)t in a few localities where the conditions are favorable to the fj^owth of a few moisture-lovinc herl)aceous species of the forest region. The advance of northern forest species is checked by the encroachment of the prairie caused by fires in former years, and the intermingling of species peculiar to prairie and forest is well shown in the district be- tween Prinqe Albert and i]dmonton. On the west the advance of jii'airie species on the eastern slopes and foothills of the Rocky Mountains is no less marked, and the day is not far distant when the whole eastern slope and many interior valleys will be given up to pasturage and the gi:owth of hay for the innnense herds and Hocks that will feed in summer on the higher slopes and find food and shelter in winter in the valleys. Much has been spoken and written about the nutri- trive quality of the grasses of the foothills in Alberta, but the same may be said of the whole prairie region. The same species are common over nearly the whole area, and indeed the only coarse grasses of the dry prairie Festtoca ovina, L., and F. scahrella, Toit., have their greatest development in the foothills where they, with certain species of Danthonia, are cut in large quantities for hay. Pai'ts of six seasons spent on the prairie, collecting natural history specimens, give as the grasses of the prairie no less than forty-two genera and one hundred and fifty-six species. Of Ayropyvuni, Elymus, Stipa, Bromus, Agrostls, Gcdamagrostis, and Poa, the best hay and pasture grasses, there are fifty - nine species, so that without the aid of cultivated or 7 ' t 1 4 ■'i 4 ' 1 ■ "1 1 ^ i i i' , ! I 1 i i' .IS 1 \ T ■ I! ' !l 98 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF CANADA. foreif^n species, witli the aid of im^^ation, wo can have hny and ])asturaL,'o for all purposes. Tlie ^(enus Carex fiiniislies niucli oi tlie siinuner food of the ritive ponies, and one species C. aristnta, R. Br. lias always been tlicir summer foi^d wlien Indians and lialf-l)reeds were on tlie maich. Besides the i^rasses the prairie pro- duces many Lei,niminous plants that aie valuable for pasture, especially of the nenei'a Astrdnala^, Vic'ia, (Wild Vet<,-h), Lathyrui^ (Wild Pea), of which we have twentv-ei<4lit species. The Rose Family is well repre- seiited and many species of Prunus, Fr((;/- the Rinn- l^illed (jiull that winters on the Athmtic coast. In boggy ground near Crane Lake a species of Down- iiif/i(f, is found in profusion. If not new, it has no relatives nearer than California. In the same boef the Californan Grebe was breedinfj in numbers. Still more extraordinary, on Sheep Mountain, close to Waterton Lake near lat. 49°, at an altitude of 7,500 feet, was gathered a mountain poppy which, when submitted to experts at Kew and Washington, was pronounced to be Pa'paver Pyrenalcum. How did it get there ? Leaving the prairie let us turn eastward to the At- lantic coast and follow the forest belt from lat. 40*^ north-w^esterly to where lat. 54*^ strikes the Rocky Mountains, and we will find a flora that does not vary ten i)er cent, in the species that inhabit either forest, swamp, lake or stream. In this distance of 2,500 miles the hygrometric conditions seem the same and the '-* up un roi sh. .SO hi; Tf JOHN MACOITN. 99 apparently severer winter of the west is oft'set by the universal coverini; of snow. It nii<;ht be as well to remark here that accurate nictcorolooieal data have shown that Eihnonton, in noitliern Alberta, in iat. 5S^ .SO', has almost the winter climate of Ottawa in Iat. 45" 2.r. It is then no fiction to state, as I did in bS72, that the climate of the wooded portion of the North-west is very much like that (jf northern Ontario. Ao time passes and this forest belt gets broken u]) and drained it will be found to be subject to less extremes of cold, heat and drouj^ht than the prairie to the south, and the term "fertile licit" will be ag'aiii applied to the banks of the Saskatchewan as it was in foiiner years. The mountain region may be said to include all British Colund)ia, and may be described generally as a high mountain plateau studded with ranges of isolated peaks. The eastern i-anges are included in the term . Rocky Mountains, and in th«'se we have most ofc" our higher summits. The vegetation of the elevated prairie (alt. 4000) near the eastern base or foothills of the Rocky ^lountains is exceedingly rich and consists of a very varied and most luxuriant growth of herbaceous plants, including a number of rare and intei'esting Um- bellifers. As the slopes are ascended the species of the plain gradually disappear and at G,0()() feet many boreal plants show themselves, and as gi'cater heights are attained the vegetation becomes more Arctic, so that from 7,o00-0,00() feet in the Rocky Mountains nearly all the species are either identical or closely related to those found on the " barren grounds " and along the Arctic coast east of Mackenzie River. To obtain a fair knowledge of the flora of the Rocky Mountains a few days' collecting at Banff, in the mountains around Devil's Lake and at Lake Louise, is all that is neces- sary. At Banff there is a local herbarium in wliich there is a complete representation of the mountain ■■^1 "''■V il ;.: i i; 100 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF CANADA. ih I' 1 m flora and with its aid and tlio ascents of a few moun- tains vvliicli can Ixj done vvitliout niucli lultour, consider- able knowledge of the mountain Mora can be aciiuiied in a few days. The Peace River ve<:etation differs verv little from that of Quebec and the noithern prairies, and as far north as hit. Gl^ these species picdondnate and appar- ently all the country needs is drainage U) give it a climate suitable for all kiniis of crops. The western slopes of the Rocky Mountains begin to show a mixed flora and both herbaceous and woody growths have a noticeable increase of western forms. Both the valley of the Columbia River and the mountain sides borderinu: it show bv their flora that we have passed from a comparatively dry climate into a damp one, and the corresponding change in both the flora and avian fauna becomes apparent. Any one now enterinu' the woods alonascans. VII. Kootenays. VIII, Salish. IX. Kwakiutl-Nootkas. X. Tsimshi- ans. XI. Haida. Esl'imo (from a word in one of the eastern Algon- kian tongues, signifying "raw Hesh eater"). The Norsemen came to Greenland in the tenth centurv, and found there the Eskimo, this being the first known contact of the American aborirjines with visitors from Europe. The extent of Norse voyages and explora- tions has been unwarrantably exaggerated by certain writers, for outside of Greenland the influence of these early immigrants from the old world is imperceptible. Within the last few years the researches of Rink and Holm in Greenland, of Packard and Turner in Labra- dor, of Boas in Baffin Land, of Petitot in the delta of the Mackenzie, of Dall, PetrofF and Murdoch in Alaska, have shed a flood of light upon the migrations, arts and inventions, languages, customs and beliefs of this roving maritime people, whose numerous settlements have occupied the littoral of the Arctic from Green- land to Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, besides the coast of Labrador down to the Straits of Belle Isle (with occasional incursions into Newfoundland and north-eastern Quebec), and the extreme north-east of Siberia as far as the river Anadyr — the Eskimo (Chukchi) of the last mentioned region being the only aboriginal American intruders into Asia, so far as is known. The most reasonable theory (Boas) makes the early home of the various Eskimo tribes — whose ALEX. F. CHAMllERLAIN. 107 similarity in speech, and especirally in mythological fond, is striking — to have been " in the lake regioF» west of Hudson Bay," whence one branch wandered by way of Baffin's Bay to Greenlard and Labrador, otheis northward and north-westward. 'J'he former southward range of the Kskimo is still a matter of dispute, but Abbot, Packard and otheis, suggest their descent from glacial man in America, who retiied northward with the retreating ice-sheet. Boyd Daw- kins (and later, Lubbock and Beddoe) seek to connect them, chiefly by analogies of weapons and art in bone, etc., with the men of the river-drift in France. As to the influence of the Eskimo upon the neighboring- Indian tribes not much is known, and no linguistic affinities have as yet been discovered — Herzog's attempt to connect the Eskimo with the Yuma of Southern California, is a type of many useless efforts in this direction. Proofs of physical intermingling, of trans- ference of inventions and of myths are, however, not lacking. Dr. F. Boas sees in the low indices of the Micmacs, and of ancient skulls from New England, evidence of an intermixture of Eskimo blood, while Prof. Putnam arrives at the same conclusion upon archreological grounds, and others, less rightly, from comparisons of myths. In certain archa'ological sjieci- mens from the Algonkian area in Ontario, Eskimo influence has been hinted (Boyle). According to Dr. Boas, the Eskimo have influenced the style of carving of the Tlingit, while the throwing-board of these Indians, like the harpoon of the tribes of the North-West Coast, is of Eskimo origin, though subjected to artistic modi- fications. Upon the Eskimo of Alaska, and those west of the Mackenzie, the Indians of the North-West have exercised considerable influence, as is seen in the use of masks, labrets, wooden hats, patlatches, singing houses, sweat baths, slavery, art of carving, etc. (Boas). It is even possible, Dr. Boas thinks, that the plan of the Eskimo snow^-house can be traced back to some- " m ^1' i i i ; ■ : . ^ .1,. ■ • i! i.'i t \ !( I il '%' n mm 108 ETHNOLOGY OF THE ABORIGINES. thing like the square house of the western tribes. This influence seems to have extended, though but slightly, to the Eastern Eskimo. The use of tobacco and the pipe, the employment of nets in fishing, and the use of the " bird bolas," are due, according to Mur- doch, to borrowinfj from the natives of north-east Siberia. The attempt to make of the Eskimo a race entirely distinct from the other American aborigines, so favored bv certain writers, seems to have been no more successful than the effort to derive them in recent times from the Mongols of Siberia. The Eskimo are a good-natured, imaginative, inventive, artistic people, with a real talent for song and story, and a skill in hunting and fishino- which makes their self-oiven name — Tnnuit, '' -people" — not so unjustified as might seem to be the case at first siijht. The literature in and about their language till the year 18cS7, is described in the late Mr. J. C. Filling's excellent Bibliography of the Eskimo family of speech, while the histories of the Moravian and Oblate missions and the archives of the Russo-Greek church contain much useful general infor- mation, which can be compared with the results of the more exact researches of later scientific investigators. Beothuks (from a word said to mean " red," in the •language of these people). The Beothuks, or " Red Indians," of Newfoundland, are now entirely extinct — the last survivor is said to have died in 1829. All that is known concerning them is to be found in the recent writings of Dr. A. S. Gatschet and the Rev. George Patterson. In arts and customs they seem, in some respects, to have differed noticeably from their neighbors, and, from the scanty records of their speech which have been ])reserved, it is probable that we have in them a distinct linguistic stock, with, however, borrowings from Algonkian, and possibly also, Eskimo sources. Dr. Patterson seems inclined to rank the Beothuk language as Algonkian, but on very insuffi- vm ALEX. F. CHAMliEIlLAIN. 10^ cient grounds. Dr. D. G. Brinton, detects a sliglit resemblance in general morphology to the Eskimo. Tlie history of the extermination of this people by the whites is a dark page in the annals of Nevvfoumlland. Alfjonklns (the name is a corruption of a(/oomegtvn which, in the allied Ojibwa and Nipissing dialects, signifies " other- side-of-the-water people," in reference, probably, to the St. Lawrence). This wide-spread peo- ])le, to whom belong the Naskapis and ScofHes of La- brador ; the iMiemacs of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island ; the Abnakis, Meliseets, etc., of New Brunswick; the Passamaquoddies and kindred tribes of Maine; the Nipmucks, Narragansetts, Mohegans, and related peo- ples of New England and New York ; the Lenrii)e, on the Delaware River ; the Nanticokes and kindred tribes in Maryland and Virginia; in the Ohio region, the Weas and Piankashaws ; on the Tennessee, the Shawnees ; in Illinois and the adjacent ten-itory, the Illinois, Kaskaskias, Kikapoos ; around Lake Michigan, the Menomonees, Pottawattomies, Sacs and Foxes ; about Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Superior, from the Ottawa River to the Lake of the Woods, the Ottawas, Nipissings, Ojibwas (many tribes), etc. ; in the great west of Canada, the Crees ; on the Saskatchewan and Missouri, the Blackfeet ; on the Kansas and Arkansas, respectively, the Arapahos and Cheyennes, — is one of the most interesting and important of all American Indian stocks. The dialects of the Algonkian speech are very numerous ; but the Cree is thought by many to preserve the original mother-tongue best of all, while the languages of the Blackfeet, in the extreme west, and of the Micmacs, in the extreme east, depart most from the jjarent stock. The members of this ex- tensive family have wandered far and often, but emi- nent scholars, from a study of mythology, languages, and archaeology, seem inclined to place the early home of the Algonkins somewhere " north of the St. Lawrence and east of Lake Ontario " (Brinton). As may be seen }i i hi I M 'M ^I'lt:^ •u '■ I 1 '■■ m ' 'I ^ j; M- s- ,1 i: ' !r; tl V'lT 1 I >■ w i'H 110 ETHNOLOGY OF THE ABORIGINES. from the Bibliography of Pilling-, which contains 2,245 titles of hooks, articles, i\nd manuscript^, the literature relating to this family of speech, from lie times of the Jesuit missionaries to the present, is quite voluminous, dictionaries, translations of tlie Scriptures, transcripts of legends and myths abounding, while several syllabar- ies and s])ccial alphabets have been invented to aid in ti'ansliteratioi!. The Algonkins possess a rich mytho- logy, of whieh the demi-god Nanibozhu (Glooskap with the Micmacs, VVisketchak with the Crees, Napi with the Lilackfeet), is the central figure. The " medicine societies" of the Ojibwa, studied b3'' Hoffman, and the sun-dance of the Blackfeet, investigated by Maclean and otluirs, are among the most interesting ceremonial institutions. In their highest religious thought the}^ reached a stage of nature-interpretation akin to that of the Vedas and the Edda (Brinton), and, in connection with tlieir shamanistic rites, had developed picture- writino- to a renuirkablv hifih deii'ree — the Lenane and Ojibwa in particular. Agriculture (the raising of maize, S(juashes, tobacco) was well under way when they first came into contact with the whites, and among their chief manufactures were pottery, mat- weaving, skin-dressing, and the fashitminij of arms and utensils of wood and stone, while their river life and prairie travel made them also traders of no mean sort. Deservinn" (jf closer and more searching investigation are the toteniic sys- tems of the various Algonkian tribes and the history of the Blackfoot confedei'acy. The typical Algonkins are a physically well-developed people, more genial and fanciful than is generally believed, and of great intel- lectual capacity and political abilities — Pocahontas, King Philip, Pontiac, Tecumseh, Black Hawk, Crow- footj Poundmaker, were all Algonkins. The influence of the Algonkins upon the language (more than a hun- dred words, c/ajt)?7iu?i/u, Tammany, sachem, ncugiuumj^, etc., have crept into the popular speech of the United States and Canada from the various Algonkian dialects), nni ah Cr tai "fWI ALEX. F. CHAMHEULAIN. Ill 0, manners and customs, arts (niaple-siigar niakinj,' is of Indian ori<,nn), auric nlture (cultivation of the squash and the use of fish-nianui'e are due to the Indians of Now Enghmd), and amusements (lacrosse and tlie to- hocfgan come from tliese Al^oidvins), of the European inimigrants and tlieir descendants has been consider- able, wlnle intermjirriafjes liave been very frequent, es- pecially with the French of Canada and the north-west- ern States and tlic Scotcli settlers in the Hudson's 15ay region, generally with inqn-ovement on botli parents. The half-l)reeds of Manitol)a and the north-western Provinces still form an inq)<)itant social and political factor in the Dominion. The various tribes of the Al- goidvins have h)ng been more or less under missionary influence, and the settlement of the Mississagas at New Credit, near Branti'oid, Ontari(», is a marked example of what has been done in civilizing the lied Man. Of recent yeai's the best special studies of Algonkian lan- guages, mythology, institutions, and liistory, have been made by Brinton (Delaware); Tooker, (iatschet, Trum- bull (Algonkins of Virginia, Middle and New England States) ; Leland and Rand (Micmac, eb.*.) ; Cuofj (Nip- issing) ; Wilson, Horden, Hoffman ((Jjibwa) ; Horden, Watkins, Lacombe (Cree) ; Sims, Maclean, Grinnell (Blackfoot). Iroquois (the derivation of the name is still uncer- tain). This fandly is perhaps the most remarkable, in intellectual, as well as in physical development, of all the Indian tribes north of Mexico. The j-ecruits they furnished to the Federal troops of the United States during the war of the rebellion, " stood first on the list for height, vigor and corporeal symmetry " (Brinton), and Horatio Hale, a careful and thorough student of these Indians, does not hesitate to say that " their achievements, institutions, and language show them to have been, in natural capacity and the higher elements of character, not inferior to any race of men of whom history preserves a record." The early home of the .' I ' i :S.,;i 1 1 112 ETHNOLOGY OF THE A1$0RIGINES. 1 ' ' 1 1 1 ! 1 t ' ! i 1 ■ ': ; ,i, :i. Iroquois seems to have been "in the district between the lower St. Lawrence anle. 'I'lie fainily in«iuis Carriers (about the region of Stuart's Lake); the Tsilkoh'tin (on the Chilcotin River) — these form the northei'n Dene group (Morice) ; the southern Deii^ are: the Upper Unipquas, the Micfkcpvritnietimne of the Upper (Joquille River, the Chasta Costa, north of Kogue River, the Chetcho, south of Rogue River, and some otlier settlements in this portion of Ore- gon ; the Kwalhioqua, in north-western Washington (Powell) ; the Qaamotene (Smith River Indians), and a few tribes south of Smith River, in north-western Cal- ifornia ; the Wailakki, along the western slope of the Shasta mountains, in the same state ; the Hupa, on Trinity River, California ; the Navaho, in northern New Mexico and Arizona, with oti'shoots in Colorado and Utah; the Apache, in New Mexico (with offshoots 'nto Mexico), Arizona, Colorado, and (recently) Okla- *ioma ; the Lipan (formerly roving from the Red River to the Rio Grande), now in New Mexico and Mex- ico. The contrast between some of the very rude Athapascan tribes of the north and the artistic and progressive Navaho is well brought out by Horatio Hale in his remarkable essay on " Language as a Test of Mental Capacity." Among no other people, perhaps, can be seen so well exhibited the results produced by 'IMii II. ALEX. F. (HAMHEHLAIN. 117 rlifroi'*m«5 onviromncnt. E<|ually strikinpf is tho coritrast l)('t\veoii tlic warlik*' Aiwic'lies (or tlu; Hupu — tlu^ Jioin- nns of C'Ulifoniia, Mr. rowers (jalls tlu-m) and souk; of tilt' tribes of tliojL,'reat Haiiviisof nortli-westoni (/anada. I'filiaps no i)orti(Hi of OiiukIIjim ttiinoloj^'y is so inter- ('stinL,', as tlie stuiiy of tliis nunicnons family, wlioso TH.-iny dialects, extensive rani!;!', and vaiyinu' stages of liarliarisni an not now in evidence. The mytholog}'- of the British Columbian tribes of the coast, forms the subject of a volume published in 1895, bj^ Dr. Franz Boas — a collection of myths and legends, which must long remain our chief source of information on the subject. Equally valuable are the anthropometric data con- tained in the Report of the British Association for 1895 — by the same writer — and his studies of the social sys- tem of the Coast and Inland Salish. K'wakiutl-Kootkas. The language of the Kwakiutl Indians embraces three dialects, the Qfiisla (north of Grenville Channel), the Heiltsuk (from Grenville Channel to Rivers Inlet, both on the north-eastern coast of British Columbia, and the Kwakiutl proper, itl of lie :n i::a ALEX. F. CHAMBERLAIN. 121 spoken further south in the same region, and on the northern portion of Vancouver Island. The language of the Nootkas comprises the dialects of some twenty- two tribes or settlements, chieHy in the west coast region of Vancouver Island (Barclay, Clayoquaht, and Nootka Sounds), and including the Alakah and related tribes in the State of Washington (Cape Flattery, San Juan Harbor, Nitinat Sound). In recent years (Sproat's account of the Nootka, which appeared in 18GS, is still, in many respects, admirable, as is also Swan's treatise on the ^lakah, published in 1808), the Kwakiutl language and people have been studied by Rev. A. J. HlU (whose grammar appeared in 1889) and Boas, the Nootkas by Boas, the latter also furnishinof in the Reports of the British Association for 1889, 1890 and 189G, the best account of the ethnogra])hy and ethnology of both peoples. In the Report tor 1890, Dr. Boas brought forward evidence to show that the Kwakiutl and Nootka belonged to one linguistic f>tock, a conclusion now generally accepted. The same authority considers as of some weight the fact that the Kwakiutl, Salish and Chemakum (of northern Wash- ington) languages, all have pronominal gender (a rare ])henomenon in American aboriginal speech), which, together with a few other structural peculiarities, suggests some remote relationship between these stocks, though no such evidence can be gleaned from the vocabularies. To Dr. Boas we owe our knowledsfe of the intricate social organization, and numerous secret societies of the Kwakiutl, which, like the 'potlaches of the Nootkas and their neighbors, the <]ances of many British Columbia tribes, are fertile fields for further investigation. The same investigator has made a special study of the houses of the Kwa- kiutl — a topic, the careful consideration of which is important for the understanding of the culture-borrow- ings of the peoples of the north-west coast and ■northern Canada. Between the Kwakiutl and the 'ih ^A \ I ■ \ ' WW iBI ' I] i ! I i' W':\ "T^-r I ( 122 ETHNOLOGY OF THE ABORIGINES. } u ill' Bilqula, considerable borrowing o£ words has taken' place, and vice versd. The religious ceremonials of the Kwakiutl have made their influence felt even in Alaska, while, by reason of marriage-customs, " a large number of the traditions of the neighboring tribes have been incorporated into their mythology " (Boas). The literature in and about the Kwakiutl- Nootka linguistic stock, is described in Filling's Biblio- graphy of the Wakashan family, so the authorities of the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington style this people. Worthy of special study are the social insti- tutions of the Heiltsuk and the Kw^akiutl, which differ radically. Tsimshian (the name signifies " on the Ksian'n," i.e., Skeena River). The Tsimshian linguistic stock is composed of two dialects, the Nasqa and the Tsimshian proper, spoken in the region of the Nass and the Skeena Rivers in north-eastern British Columbia. The religion of these Indians is " a pure worship of heaven " (Boas), but their secret societies and shamanistic rites show Kwakiutl influence, while some of the latter have been borrowed by the Haida from the Tsimshian. The best account of Tsimshian ethnology is given by Dr. Franz Boas, in the Reports of the British Association for 1889, 1895, 1896. A study of the Tsimshian lan- guage was published by Count von der Schulenburg in 1894. The Tsimshian, like the Haida and the Tlin- kit, is noteworthy as possessing an ?'-sound, and it is also marked off from the more southern languages by the almost exclusive use of prefixes (suffixes being very rare in occurrence), — its principles of composition dif- fering radically from those in use in the Kwakiutl- Nootka, etc. It is among the Tsimshian Indians that Mr. Duncan has labored so long and so successfully. The story of his mission at Metlakahtla (" The Story of Metlakahtla," by H. S. Welcome, London, 1887), is one of the most remarkable records of colonizing and proselytizing zeal in existence. In 1887, difficulties ALEX. F. CHAMBERLAIN. 123 arose between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities and Mr. Duncan, the result of which was that many of the Indians followed their leader over the border into the United States Territory of Alaska, where, at Port Chester, on Annette Island, a new settlement was founded. Haida (the name really signifies "people"). The dialects of the Haida linguistic stock are spoken on the Queen Charlotte Islands, and part of Prince of Wales Archipelago, Alaska, by five tribes or settlements (ac- cording to the Rev. C. Harrison, there were formerly thirty-nine), at Masset, Skidegate, Gold Harbor, Houkan and Cassan — the last two being in American territory, A good account of the Haidas of Queen Charlotte Island was published by Dr. G. M. Dawson, and a grammar of the language, by Rev. C. Harrison, appeared in 1895. Contributions to the ethnology of this group have alsa been made by Dr. F. Boas, in various Reports to the British Association. Some relationship between the Haida and the Tlingit languages has been suspected. From the Tsimshian the Haida have borrowed several customs and dances, Amono- all the natives of the North-West coast the Haida are most distinguished for their totemic carvings and conventionalized ornamental art. The development and distribution of these forms from the Tlinkit of Alaska to the Makah of Cape Flattery, is a subject of the deepest interest to the ethnologist. A general account of the art of the north- west coast will be found in Lieut. Niblack's " The Coast Indians of Southern Alaska and Northern British Columbia," published by the U. S. National Museum in 1890, and several more recent contributions are due to Dr. Boas. The general ethnology of the Tlinkit, Haida and Tsimshian is treated of by Ni black. The literature in and about the Tlinkit, Haida and Tsimshian stocks is detailed in Pilling's "Proof Sheets of a Bibli- ography of the Languages of the North American 31 i , < ! ;: ■S 124 ETHNOLOGY OF THE ABORIGINES. 11 '^ Indians," published in 1885 — the special bibliographies not appearing since the death of Mr. Pilling, in 1895. Chinook Jargon. Not to be classified with any of the linguistic groups of the Dominion, but more interesting in some respects, than any of them, is the "Chinook Jar- gon, " or Trade Lanouatre cf the Orei-on — Columbia region. This ling mi franca, the rise of which dates from the early years of the present century, owes its birth to the necessities of commerce between the whites and Indians, but has also been adopted as a means of communication between Indians of diti'erent speech to such an extent that it is said there are " few tribes be- tween the 42nd and o7th parallels of latitude" (Powell), among whom some knowledge of it is not to be found, and its influence is to be traced even bej'ond the Rock- ies among the Algonkian Blackfeet and Crees. This jargon consists of words from several Indian dialects of the region (a few Algonkian terms, inti'oduced by the French-Canadian half-breeds, also occur), English, and Canadian-French, many of them very much disguised and chanoed in form and meaninsj — grammar is al- most nil, accent and intonation counting for a great deal. One of the Indian languages which has contri- buted to the jargon is the Chinook, formerly spoken on the Columbia from the Cascades to the Pacific. This linguistic stock has been best studied by Dr. Boas, the jargon by Eells, Le Jeune, Ploratio Hale, and Boas, a dictionary by the third eminent authority having ap- peared in 1892. The literature in and about the Chin- ook jargon and the Chinook language will be found titled and described in Filling's Bibliography (1893). On more than viva voce grounds, the Chinook jargon must be counted amontj the livinof tongues of Canada, for Father Le Jeune, the excellent missionary among the Shushwaps, has published at Kamloops, since May, 1891, the " Kamloops Wawa," a weekly in the jargon, aided by the Duployan system of shorthand, introduced among these Indians by the editor. ALEX. F. CHAMBERLAIN. 125" General Consideratioiifi and Problems. It is note- worthy that among these noithern peoples — Tlingit, Tsimshian, Haida — the custom of compressing the head, which has given a name to tlie Flatheads (Salish) ot Montana, seems never to liave prevailed. Beside* members of the eleven stocks above considered, stray Indians from over the border have passed into Canada occasionally— a few Shoshonees, ej/., from Montana. In the Report of the British Association tor 1895, Dr. F. Boas discusses in detail the physical characteristics of the Indians of the north Pacific Coast i-egion, recog- nizing four types in British Columbia, as follows : Nass River Indians, Kwakiutl, Harrison Lake Indians, and Interior Salish, Okanagan, Flathead, Shushwap, The relation of these to the types of the region from Alaska to Mexico on both sides of the Rockies is not yet clear. The Athapascans probably belong to the North Pacific group, while there are certain reasons for grouping together the Algonkin, Iroquois and doli- chocephalic Eskimo. The inadequacy of the census of some of the northern and western tribes leave somewhat doubtful the question whether the Indians of Canada have not considerably decreased of recent years, as many good authorities believe. A fair estimate of the aboriojines belonofiui^f to the different .stocks seems to be : Eskimo, 6,000 ; Algonkins, 60,000 ; Iroquois, 9,000 ; Sioux, 2,000 ; Athapascans, 17,000 ; Kootenays, 700 ; Salish, 12,000 : Kwakiutl-Nootkas, 5,000 ; Tsimshians, 4,000 ; Haida, 2,500, a total of 1J8,- 200. Dr. D. G. Brinton (in a recent communication to the present writer) instances as perhaps the most important topics in the anthropologj'" of Canada : (1) The ethno- graphic relations of the north-west coast tribes ; (2) The thoroufjh investigation of the emblematic and other mounds of Ontario ; (3) The investigation of the shell-mounds, village-sites, and aboriginal cemeteries of the eastern coast (Quebec, Labrador, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia), with special reference to (a) antiquity m I -!H ■ It I i^:' t ti II. ';: 'I i 1 ' III :"'"■ ^ 126 ETHNOLOGY OF THE ABORIGINES. (palaeolithic man), (b) areas of culture (Eskimo, Algon- kian), (c) relics of Northmen. The first of these topics has been touched upon quite recently by Boas and Mason, who incline, the first from mythological, the second from cultural considerations, to see Asiatic influence in this part of America. No case for Asiatic influence south of Alaska is yet made out, and Winkler, in his Ural-Altaic studies, has recently shown how weak the attempts are to connect the Eskimo with the languages of Northern Asia. The second topic has been treated in the Archaeological Report of Mr. David Boyle (whose investigations form the solid basis of Canadian archieological studies), for the year 1896-7, and now that the " glamor of the vanished mound-builders " has passed away, we may hope for real advancement along this line. The third topic has become increasingly important, but little real work has been done in the lines suggested, though the in- vestigations of Piers and Patterson have been of gen- eral value. The call for unpi-ejudiced students of Can- adian ethnology should not be heard in vain, and the next few years should see many valuable contributions to the solution of these interesting and important problems in the history of American man. lip'' CHAPTER I -APPENDIX A. Note on the Ethnical Affinities of the Present Inhabitants of Canada. Bv Pkofessoh James Mayor. fPHE earliest ininiigrants from Europe into the region 'J now foiuiing the Dominion of Canada weie French. The coming of these is describeil by Mr. Benjamin Suite, in the succeeding note. The French pioneers not only occupied portions of what is now Quebec; but they penetiated very early into the wilderness of the west. Their descendants have formed the bulk of the })opulation of the lower St. Lawrence, Lave contributed to the pioneer settlement of newer provinces in the west, and have migrated in large numbers to the United States. The rapid increase of the French population in Lower Canada, the conse- quent extreme subdivision of the land, and the scanty industrial employment in their native province, have been the principal causes of this migration. The French and othei- pioneers in the west were rather trappers and hunters tlian settlers ; and their mode of life led them to mingle readily w^th the Indian tribes among whom they found themselves. The result has been the growth of a half-breed race known as Metis. These form a proportion of the population of the North- West Territories and Manitoba which diminishes with growth of the white population by immigration and natural increase. While the bulk of the population of the Maritime ^il y I ^ . r' \h il 1 'A 1 1 • .1 ; l- i i 1 " ' : i II 1 ^ 1 ■(■: 'It 11 J 1 ■ 1 HK ■ (■ '- 1 Ri ■ . »f ' '' rl |i Ij m 128 ETHNICAL AFFINITIES OF THE INHABITANTS. i I. .| pi ■' ProvincoH, Ontario, Manitoba, the North-West Territo- ries and British Cohnnbiu, are of British orij^in, yet the |)oj)ulation comprises representatives of numerous races, anein^ 1,400. At Kdna in the same district therc^ is a colony of Anstrians and Soiitli Russians nuniheiin^ "ZTO. Near Wetaskivvin there are 700 Scantlinavians. and in the same re^^ion, ahout 100 Belgians. There also in a colony of Moravians and a small colony of French. TIk' systeni of settlement and the choice of the colon- ists themselves liave so far conspired to isolate those colonies from one another and from the rest of the ])opulation. Sooner or later they will, no doubt, amal- gamate, but at present they have shown little disposi- tion to . rence, menaced tlie Englisli colonics, and servetl ns a port of refuge for French commerce in tlie North Atlantic. At tlie same time France was grasping the wliole interior of the continent. A French fort stood sentinel at the mouth of the Mississippi, By 17-0 there were French traders as far west as tlie present Province of Manitoba and twenty years „ later the Canadian La Verendrye liad made his way across the continent to tlie Rocky Mountains. On th(! Ohio and Missis.sippi a line of French posts was planned to complete a continuous chain from Quel)ec to Louisiana. Under Walpole's long ministry Great Britain's policy 1-44 ^^'^^ peace. The year 1744, however, saw her once more in conflict with France. The first striking exploit of the renewed contest was the capture of France's great forti'ess of Louisbourg in 1745 by New England militia forces aided, however, by a British fleet under Warren. England, by this time, had won command of the seas and France was unable to regain by force of arms what she ultimately secured by negotiation. A hollow peace, made in 1748, restored Cape Breton to France. Great Britain deter- mined, however, to hold Nova Scotia, and she founded in 1749 the city of Halifax, which continues to be her strongest fortress in America. Great inducements were offered to colonists. The French, in alarm, disputed the English advance northward into what is now New Brunswick and stirred up the Acadians against their Pg^ English conquerors. In 1750 there was fight- ing on the Nova Scotia frontier and in other quarters Frarce and England stood arrayed against each other in a time of nominal peace. The French were establishing military posts on the Ohio and the colonies of Virginia and Pennsylvania were profoundly interested in checking a French advance that should 1745. If' ' ■ 'i /III I u r ! ) 144 IIISTUIIY OF CANADA. 11 . t iiri-y. i7r)(;. provoiit En^'lisli expansion wustwurd. Gcor^o Wasli- .-f, in«;t(>n, a youny Virjjfinia colonel of militia, sent out with a party of observation, came into conflict with a French t'oi'ccj near the site of the present city of I'ittshiirnh. There was hloodshed, and Great ihitain, still in a time of nominal peace, sent out to America a stnjnijj force of rei;ular soldiers under Braddock to drive the French from the Ohio valle}'. Advanciy^" throiij^h V'ir^dnia to at- tack the French tort, called J)iiQuesnc after the (lOViM-nor of (.'anada, Braddock fell into an ambush and was killed with many ol his force. The declaration of war, inevitable after such events, came in 175(3. In Nova Scotia the Kn^lish were alarihed lest the Acadians should join the side of Franco and the Governor, Lawrence, determined to send these mifortunate people out of the country. They were seized at various points and crowded into transports. Carf^^oes of the Acadians were landed at the seaports of the Knglish colonies. Mendjers of the same family were in some cases separated antl unable to get any knowledge of each other's where- abouts, and the English colonies gave a cold and some- times a cruel reception to their involuntary visitors. Ultimately, however, a large number of the deported Acadians found their way back to Nova Scotia or to Canada and their descendants in the Dominion now number nearly a quarter of a million. In the war Great Britain at first made little pro- ._-_ gress. In 1757, however, Pitt, though not Prime Minister, became the moving spirit of the administration, and infused new vigour into the American war. Amherst and Boscawen cap- tured Louisbourgin 1758, and the French strong- hold was destroyed. The Knglish closed in on Canada. Wolfe in command of an army, and Saunders in com- mand of a fleet, appeared before Quebec. In other quarters the British slowly advanced. The French 1758. V H OEOUtlj!: .M. WUUiVG. 1-^5 IT.V.l. 1703. were forced to Jilxmdoii tin; jxj.'st on the Oliio tlwit l»ay tli(3 le-cstablislunoiit of tho Frencli civil law, altlioiiLjh En^disb criminal law was introduced, by restoring" to tlie noldesfic their feudal powers, anil to the lionian(.'atbolic(Jburch the privileges she had formerly enjoyed. On the other hand, however, a despotic executive, entirely in the control of the Governor and his council, ruled the country. The Quebec Act excited dissatisfaction in three quarters. The British .settlers in Canada, engaged chiefly in trade, were di.spleascd at being placed on the same footing as the conquered French, with no voice in the government ; the French habitant, to his disgust, saw himself once more subjected to the ])ricst's tithe and to the feudal rights of the seiyneurs ; the neifihbourinn: English colonies, now on the verge of revolt, .saw Oatiiojicism, which they abhori'ed, giv(;n peculiar privileges in Canada, a despotic government set up, and their own expansion \vestwar. Piirkiimirs work «loes not extend beyond the liritii^h Convjuest. Cotfin, The Province oj Quebec and the Amerdan Jierulidion, (Madison, \Vis., 189(5), dis- cusses exhaustively tlie political effects of the (Quebec Act. J I 1:1 ifir' GEORGE M. WRONG. 147 The troops of Congress captured Montreal, and Generals Montgomery and Benedict Arnold laid seige to Quebec in the autunm of 1775. For a time it seemed as if Canada must fall. Geneml Carleton, however, held out hravely against those whom he scorned as rebels and traitors. Montgomery was killed while leading a night attack, and ultimately Arnold raised the seige and the revolutionary troops retired from Canada. When, later, the French joined the colonies against Great Britain, and appealed to the national sentiment in Canada, Washington quietly discouraged a movement that might have resulted in giving Fiance once more a footing in jNorth America. The successful revolt of the colonies profoundly atfected the future of Canada. Many colonists had continued loyal to Great Britain. It is not to be wondered that, at a time when tierce passions were aioused, these loyalists should have been treated haishly. They were loaded with political disabilities and treated as social outcasts. Many sutiered cruel personal indignities, banishment, and some even death, 'i'he property of loyalists was confiscated on an extensive scale, and all this was done without the judi- cial enquiry that should give the accused an oppor- tunity (if defence. When terms of peace were nego- tiated, Great liritain pleaded for mild treatment of those who had remained loyal to her. Upun this point, how^ever, the representatives of the United States were inexorable. The}' declared that the federal government, which they represented, had no jurisdiction in the matter, and tnat each state had the right to deteiniine its own policy in regard to the loyalists. It only remained for Cireat Britain to ileal generously with those who had sutfered in her behalf. Many were given Govermnent posts uv pensioned, and a .sum of about $10,000,000 ^""s distributed in compens- ation for losses. Thousands of the loyalist^ Hocked ■-. s i 1 ■■lil (•,:r 148 lIISTOllY oF CANADA. r^.l"^ into Canadti and were j^ivcn liee land. Accurate .statistics are not available but the total influx did not iall iar .short of one hundred thousand, and the present population of Nova Scotia, of ISew Brunswick and of Ontario is largely descended from them. What is now western Canada was then a part of the Province of Quebec. The newly arrived English .settlers destroyed its exclusively French character and they ere long outnumbered the King's French subjects.* Since the Conquest, government in Canada had been necessarily despotic in type. The loyalists, who now came, had enjoyed, however, almost complete political liberty in the English colonies and soon began to chafe under absolutism. Nova Scotia, the colony later known as Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, and the Pro- vince of (Quebec, were all under separate Governments. In the United States a new federal constitution was being established and some discerning mindssawin 1789 that the British provinces .should likewise be federated in one state. Not for eighty years, however, was this to be brought about. The movement, meanwhile, was towards increased separation. The Province of (Quebec was divided and in 1791 was replaced by ' ■ Lower Canada, of which the po})ulation was chietly French, and Upi)er Canada, peopled mainly by Loyalists. Each of the new provinces was given a legislature which controlled taxation and legislation but, like the Prussian Landtag and the Cerman Reichstag of the })resent day, had no control of the Executive Government. In the mother country Parliament had already secured lull control of the ministry, but under the colonial theory of the time, the legislatures of the colonies might not be entrusted with similar discre- tion in their own ati'airs. *C/. Sabiue, Loyalists of the American Revolution (Boston, 1864, 2 vols.), and Ryerson, The Loi/alists of America and T'heir Times, Toronto, 1880, 2 vola.) II I \ \ ' '9m u GEORGE M. WRONG. 149 1792. Gre.it The year in which this new scheme of Government was establisherl in Canada saw Britain drawn into the lonjx course of war brought on by tlie French Revolution. From 1702 to 1815, she was wholly absorbed in a momentous Euro- pean conflict. When Napoleon rose to power he had plans for striking her in America, but his weakness on the sea made effective action in this direction impossible, though many of the French in Canada saw with sympathy the growth of a great French Em])ire. Canada meanwhile developed but slowly, for the Euro- pean contest absorbed energies that might otherwise have led to emigration. There was, however, a con- siderable immigration from the United States to sup- plement the earlier Loyalist movement. These new settlers came to escape taxation, and to secure new and rich lands then easily obtained, especially in Upper Canada, and their republican convictions helped to cause the belief in the United States that Canada was ready to cast off allegiance to Great Britain. The two nations again drifted into war. The attempts of Napoleon to destroy Great Britain's commerce with continental Europe and the British retaliatory blockade of the ports of France and her allies even against neu- trals, caused great irritation in the United States. This feeling was concentrated against Great Britain by her claimed right to stop and search American ships for British deserters, who were then very numerous in the naval service of the United States. The New England States wished to avoid a conflict, but elsewhere the war cry was potent and in 1812 the struggle began, although Great Bi-itain had already removed the restrictions on trade that had caused the chief annoyance. The war of 1812-14 is the only great contest in which Canada has been involved since there was any con- siderable English settlement west of Quebec, and Canadian patiiotism still dwells with pride upon a 1812. ]l i/fS . I It: f.rti: "I 150 HISTORY OF CANADA. M ll' drama in which it played a creditable part. From Lake Superior to Nova Scotia there was an intermit- tent strufifffle but the chief centre of the war was on the frontier formed by the River Niagara. In 1812, General Brock was in command of the forces in Upper Canada. He won a signal success by the invasion of American territory and the "si2 ' capture of Detroit, including the American general, Hull, and his force. A few months ^ later Brock fell, repelling an invasion of Canada ''jj^j!, ' near Niagara Falls, and a noble monument on Queenston Heights now marks the scene of his gallant death. The in\ . ling force was driven back for the time, but in the second year of the war the Americans secured naval control of, Lakes Ontario and Erie. Toronto, then a tiny capital, was taken and its public buildings burned, an event grimly revenged in the following year, when the British Imrned the public buildings at Wash- ington. Niagara, the former capital of Upper Canada, was also burned by the Americans. The British, under General Procter, were diiven from Detroit back into Upper Canada, and suffered a dis- astrous defeat at Moravian town by the American general, Harrison, subsequently President, and 'isis'' ^^^^ grandfather of a President, of the United Stat(is. Yet, notwithstanding these reverses, the British and Canadian forces under General Drum- mond, small though it was, drove back the invaders before the end of the season, and occupied for a time and ravaired the American frontier aloni' the whole length of the Niagara River. In 1814, the struggle increased in vehemence. At Lundy's Lane, near Niagai-a Falls, a fiei'ce struggle lasted 1 , ,.-,, far into the night, and at its clo.se the British I8T4. 'remained in possession of the field. A British squadron hatl meanwhile secured control of Lake Ontario and finally, in Novemlter, the Ameri- cans withdrew from Upper Canada. 1814. 11 [W GEORGE M. WRONG. 151 In Lower Canada, the conunander of the British forces was Sir George Prevost, the Governor-General, a singularly unfortunate, if not an entirely incom- petent, loader. The French Canadians fought well Q^j. ngainst the invaders. A junction of two Aineri- antl can forces before Montreal was prevented by Nov., victories at Chateaugay, near Montreal, and ^^ ' ' at Chrysler's Farm, on the St. Lawrence. To Lower Canada in 1814, Great Biutain sent out power- ful reinforcements, among them many veterans who had fought with Wellington in the Peninsula, heptein- ^ combi'ied naval and military attack on ' ' ' Plattsburg, an American post on Lake Cham- plain, failed utterly, and ten thousand troops, composed of the flower of thic British army, retreated before an inferior force. Events, meanwhile, strengthened the hands of Great Britain, for Bonaparte had fallen. The chief causes of the irritation that had led to the war with the United States had already been removed, and in New England bitter opposition to the continuance of the struggle was growing. Finally, in December, IjT^Tsii 1^1^' ^ fratricidal war, purposeless in origin ' and almost fruitless in result, came to an end. The close of the great European war brought about new economic conditions in the British Isles and be- tween 1820 and 1837 there was an extensive 1820 emijjjration to Canada. It was now that the 1837 system of govei'nment established in 171)2 was first seriously tested and it was found to be deplorably wanting. Lord Durham, when urging in 1838 that Great Britain should change her policy in regard to Canada, added "The ex])eriment of i^eeping colonies and ^overnini; them well ou^ht at least to have a trial" — a biting (iomment upon two hundred years of colonial activity. The intentions of the Home Government were admirable. The fault w.is in the system and one of its great defects was the want of •' ,,,1111 ::; 1 i '' 1 ■I . 1 m 'l| i! ■ 1 1 J ,1 'i ! £1 :) li 4 It 152 HISTORY OF CANADA. continuity in the policy of the colonial office. The ininistor.s wore ohanf^inpc ceaselosslj-. In tho ten years before the onthreak of rehollion in 18.S7, there were no less than eiLjht coloninl ministers, each with a policy of his own. Canadian affairs wore dependent upon party exifjencies in London, and the needs of Canada were not understood where its affnirs were controlled. The problems to l)e faced in the two provinces were essentially different. In Tipper Canada public affairs were controlled by an official and professional class who stood tof^^ether, surrounded the Governor, and ruled often in defiance of the wishes of the people's repiesentatives in the lej^islature. This class had the faults that irresponsible power begets. The central bureaucracy contiolled the afl'airs of all sections of the country. Notwithstandini/- the hicjh character of .some of its members it acfod selfishly and even corruptly. It monopolized the lucrative posts in the public service and in the Annrlican church. Hufi^e grants of land were made to influential persons and legitimate settle- ment was checked by land monopol3\ Great public works were undertaken to connect Upper Canada with the seaboard and were corruptly administered. Edu- cation was neglected. Municipal liberties and healthy local initiative were checked. An Act of the Imperial Parliament, providing that one-seventh of the public lands should be set aside for the use of a " Protestant " clergy, was interpreted as establishing the exclusive claims of the Anglican church, though other Protestant bodies represented a majority of the population. Roman Catholics were excluded from all share in the woi'k of government. Ardently British in tone, the members of the ruling class yet looked with jealousy upon immigrants from the mother-country and the franchise was given to them on illiberal terms. Pro- fessional men coming from Great Britain were required to serve a long apprenticeship before they vrere allowed to practise in the country. Immigration from the GEORGE M. WRONG. 163 United States, which had been extensive at an earlier period, was also discouranre- a French Re])ublic on tlie batdvs of the St. Lawrence. In Upper Canada tlu; strnuff^le was almost bloodless. An unthinkinuf intrusion by the loyal party upon the territory of the United States nearly provoked a wider conflict. The steamer Caroline, engaged in the service of those in rebellion, was moored on the American side of the River Niacjara and a Canadian force cut her out, set her on fire and sent her over the torrent. The event caused a fierce a<»-itation in the United States against Great Bri*;:iin and thus becaini' the most cons[)icuous inci(hnit of the rebellion in Upper Canada. In Lower Canada there were some bloody skir- mishes at St. Denis, St. Charles and St. Eustache, but only a few thousand badly armed peasantry joined the revolt. The ])olitical lea ler Papineau fled to the United States and his colleague Nelson was soon captured. The struggle was not fi'uitless, however, for it attracted the attention of the mother-country to existing evils in Canada. The otli(;r British provinces in North America had their own grievances. In Prince Edward Island unwdse distiibution had left the land largely in the possession of aVisente*; proprietors ; in Nova Scotia and Xew Brunswick there was the usual strui^iilo be- tween the Government and the representatives of tlie people. The Home Government took decisive action in 1838 when Lord Durham, one of the leading liberal statesmen of tlie day, was sent out as Hisrh Commissioner and Governor-General of all the British Provinces. His conclusions are endnxlied in i masterly I'eport in which he declared that full respon- fli GEORGE M. WRONG. 155 Rible government must bc^Ivpr^ ^c all the North Ameri- can colonies and that, to insure Engli.ih supremacy, the French Province of Lower Canada must he united with the Enrjlish Province of Upper Canada. He ex- prossed a hope for tlie ultimate union of nil the colonies and declared that only when they thus be- came a ojreat state would the Home Government cease to intervene in their ati'airs.* A new Constitution for Canada resulted from the events of LS37-.S8. In 1IS4.1, hy an Imperial Act of Parliament, Upper and Lower Canailo were united into one Province with (me Lefjislature. The union of two peoples in one Legislature, Lord Durham had hoped, would give permanent su|)remacy to the English. In fact, it did Jiot do so. French Canada, known usually after LS41 as C^anada East, was given equal representation with (Canada West. Not until 1847 was responsible Government secured, anrocity treaty with the United States, made throun^li the enerfji-y and ability of Lord Elfjin, Governor of Canada, helped to ])romote rapid conunercial expansion. In 1S44, after the dissolution of the first Canadian Parliament since the l^nion, Mr. John A. Macdonald, a young barristei', had been elected member for King- ston. In IS-i?, he took office in the Government of the day, and almost continuously from that time until his death in LSDl, he was the most conspicuous titjure in the political life of (Canada. Biiliiant, adroit, fond of power, careless of the means or a;.jents he used to effect his ends, passionately devoted to what he con- ceived to be the welfare of Canada, and to Britisli connection, Macdonald combined in an extraordinnry manner the qualities both of the statesman and of tlie politician. The most prominent of his opponents was Mr. George Brown, a Scot of strong religious convictions and determined will and fiercely opposed to religious and class privileges. Brown, who hated Roman Catlio- licism, wished to secure English supremacy by giviiii,' Canada West a larger i-ej)resentation in the legislatnic on account of its increased population. The necessities 1; r\ (I, a lo a iiiirv thV wns tions Tioiis itlio- vini,' tnrc itit's CJEOUGK M. WHONli. 157 ot tln' political situation at last l)r()U<;iit Macdoiiald and IWosvii into alliance. When they united in liSl)4, Ibui- niini.strie.s luul been defeated within tiuce years, and cahiniits \V(!i'*! rapidly heconiin^ as unstable in Canada as they have been in France uiiilcr the Third Republic. It ha[»pened that in IJSG4, a movement was on foot in Nova Scotia, New Ihuns- wiclv and I'rince Edward Islaiul, to promote economy by unitiny the (jlovernments. I)ele<,^ates from Canada were present at a conference of representatives of tlio three pnninces, held at Charlottetown, P. E. I., in September, iMCIi. X year later tliis meeting had ripened ... into a council of dele»^iites from the llritish Noith American provinces, )ield at Quebec, to discuss the (juestion of confederation. When the Canadian ('onfedeiation was outlined the United States iia, iiord l)crl)y insiHlod tliut Uaiuulu islioiiM l>e not a " Kiiij^doin " l)Ul u' l)()iiiiiiion," iiiiii liiiJilly tlio Imperial i'arliainuiit pasNeil tite lii'iti>li North Aniurim Act under which tho Canadian Cun- I'edciution was rstahlisluMl. Kntrance to the Conf'-Mh'Dition was to he vohnilary on tlic pan ''•'•*• oi' the provinces. Witiiin a few years all had entered exce})t Newi'ouiidlnnd. 'J'he territory of Cana< la extended in 1?S71 fioni the Atlantic to the I'acitic, for llie remote Province of liritisli Coluiuhia then entered tile Conledeiation on the eon''ition that a railway should be built across the continent within Canadian territory. Delay in lulhllin<,' this condition caused some irritation in tlie I'acilic province, speeilily re- moved, however, by the completion of the Canadian Paeilic Railway.* Only with the establishment of the l)onHnion of Canada did the Ijritish provinces in North America tind a workable political system. The experience (jf thirty years has vindicated the wisdom with which the Ct)nstitution was planned. 1'he principal politioiil issues since Confederation have ielatento, 1.S8I, 2 Vols.), U a popular history of recent events. l'oi»e's Lij\ oj Sir John Maciloii- aid (Londftn, 1HS)4, '2 Vols.), is really a history of the times. Cf. »\>o Mawkeuzie's LiJ't o/Ueoryt Broivn (Toronto, 1882). ll rjKOKOE W. WRuNfl. I.IO No s(.'i ions conflict lias ilistni'ltt'tl tlir jhui'*' n|' ( ';inii'i"y> which included the present Province of Maiut(»lta, and there was a sli«,dit revolt on the {)art of half-hreed settlers to whom the Dominion seemed an alien State. A second rising of half-breeils followed in hSH'), under the same leader, Louis Kiel, hut it was promptly suppressed l>y the Canadian militia. Relatively to the United States, the ^M'owth of pop- ulation in ( 'anada has Itecn slow. When we ivniem- lici', howevei', that at the time of the IJritisli Concpiest ill I7G.S, the population of European descent in what is now Canada was scarcely l()(),()()(), antl that at {)res- int it is more than ."),()()(),()()(), tiie record is sufHciently stiikin^f. Canada has marly twice as many inliahi- liints as had the thirteen colonies when they revolted ui;fiinst tlie mother-country. 'J'lie Camidian people have developed a political systeni that provides in a icmarUahle degree for full jxMsonal, municipal, and national liherties ; they have no serious griev- iiiices that cannot he remedied hy themselves; they iue conti'uted and faiily prosperous. As DeToc- i|Uevillc foretold, the e(pnility of conditi<'Ms in the new \V(.ild has irresistihiy le \ vinces of Ontario and Quebec. This history may bo properly diviclcfl into several periods, from the time Chaniplain laid tlni foundation of the French colony on the banks of the St. Lawrence, down to the establish' ment of the system of federation. First of all, we have the period when France claimed dominion over the extensive ill-defined territories watered by the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and includin*^' the valleys of the Ohio and the Mississi])pi Rivers. Durinn^ this period, which lasted from 1G08 to 17o9-G0, Canada was under the control for a number of years of piopi'ietary ^governments chartered by the King to carry on trade in the country. By 166.S, however, Louis XTV. decided, under the advice of the eminent statesman Colbert, to take the government of Canada into his own hands. The plans of 1063 were fully car.'ied out in 1(574. The f];overnor of Canada and the intendant were to all intents and purposes, in point of authoi-ity, the same officials who presided over the affairs of a ])rovince of France. In Cfinada, as in Fi'ance, governrofessed to be an imitation of the British system, but failed in that very essential i)rin- ciple which the experience oi' England has proved is aiisolutely necessary to harmonize the several branches "f government ; that is, the responsibility of the exe- cutive to Parliament, or more strictly speaking to the assembly elected by the people. The English repre- sentatives in the Province of Upper Canada soon recog- nized the value of this all important principle of parlia- r 'I Ij j ) 1 j, I . it- ; ; ll. '' i '' I J' 1'inll 1 I i i! ^' ii <■■ \l ht II :f: - ir ny 1C6 CONSTlTUTloNAI^ MISTOUY AND (iOVKIlNMENT. inoiitiiry govorninoiit aceordinin' nstlicy liad exporionco of the pmclical operation of tho system actually in vojfue ; but it is an adinittLMl fact that tlio Frencli Canadian leaders in tlie assembly never appreciated the constitutional system of Knnland in its full sij^aiiti- canee. Tlieir grievances, as fully enumerated in the famous resolutions of liS.*}4, were numerous, but their principal remedy was always an elective IcL^islative council. The conflict that existed durinj,' the last thirty years of this period was really a CDutlict be- tween the two races in Lower Canada, where tho French and elective element predominated in the as- sembly, and the Knglish and official or riding element in the legislative council. The executive govennnent and legislative council, both nominated by tho Ciown, were virtually the same body in those days. The rul- ing .spirits in the one were the ruling spirits in the other. The English speaking people were those rul- ers, who obstinately contested all the (juestions raised from time to time by the j)opularor French party in the assembly. In this contest of race, religion and politics, the passions of men became bitterly intlamed, and an impartial historian nuist deprecate the mis- takes and faults that were connnitted on both sides. In Upper Canada the political difliculties never as- sumed so formidable an aspect as in the French Can- adian section. No diHerence of race could arise in the western provinces, and the ([uestion of the control of supplies and expenditures — the chief objects of con- tention in the lower jtrovince — gradually ai ranged it- self more satisfactorily than in Lower Canada, but in the course of time there arose a contest between ottic- ialism and liberalism. An official class held within its control practically the government of LTpper Canada. This class became known in the parlatice of those days as the " family compact," not (juite an accurate desig- nation, since the ruling class had hardly arly family connection, but there was just enough ground for the i J. a. no u HI NOT. 107 term to tickle the taste of tlie )>«'()|)le for an ei)igrjiin- inaticplim.se. The "clergy reserves" ([iiestion <^a*ew out of the grant to the Protestant ( 'Inircli in Canada of large tracts of land hy the Constitutionai Act, aiui was long a doniinant ([Uestion in the contest of parties. The reformers, as the popular party called themselves, found in this question ahundant material for exciting the jealousies of all the Prcjtestant sects who wished to see the Church of Kngland and the Chuich of Scotland deprived of the advantages which they alone derived from this valuable source of revenue. The history of this period was history i-epcating it- self : the contest of a poi)uIar as^emhly against prerog- ative, represented in this case by tin; governor and ex- ecutive which owed no responsibility to the people's house. All the causes of ditHculty in the two provinces were intensified by the demagoguism that is .sure to prevail more or less in time of popular agitation, but the great peril all the while in Lower Canada arose from the hostility of the two races in tlu' political arena as well as in all their social ami public relations. The British government laboured to meet the wi.shos of the discontented people in a conciliatoryspirit but they were too often ill-advised or in a (quandary from the contlicfc of opinion. No doubt the governors on whom they naturally dependeil for advice were at times too much influenced by their advisers, who were always fighting with the people's repres(;ntatives, and at last in the very nature of things made advocates of the popular party. Too generally they wen- military men, choleric, impatient of control, and better acquainted with the rules of the camp than the rules of constitutional gov- ernment and sadly wanting in the tact and wisdom that should guide a ruler of a colony. The jx^litical tii.icontent was at last fanned into an ill-advised re- bellion in the two provinces, a rebellion which was promptly repressed by the prompt measures imme- diately taken by the authorities. f » r .' 1 , V I Uf ll ' 1 •■ iHi •f» Ki.S (!ONHTITUII(»NAI- IIISTollV AND (inVEKNMKNT. Ill IiO\v(!r ('aiindji tlio constitution was siispciidcil and tlie i«:ov(M*nnK'nt of tlio country from 1(S.'KS-1S4I was administered Itytlic L,^ov(.'rnor and asjiecial council. The most important fact of tliis time was tlie mission of liord Duriiam, a distinj^niislied statesman, to ijujuirc into the stut(M>t' the country as ^overiior-Ljeneral and hii^h-commissioner. His ie])ort was a icmaikahly fair summary of the causes of discontent and suggested remedies whieli I'ecommend tliemsclves to us in tlicse (hiys as replete with political wisdom. 'J'hc tinal issue was tlic intervention of Parliament once moie in the afiairs of Canada and the passage of another Act pro- viding foi" a, very imjiortant constitutional change. The proelai. iJon of the Act of 1eople. The Imperial Government proved by this measure that they were desirous of meeting the wishes of the people for a larger grant of self-gov- ernment. So far from the Act of 1841, which united the Can- adas, acting unfavonrabl}' to the French Canadian peo])le — as their leaders anticipated — it gave them eventually a predominance in the councils of the coun- try and pnjpared the way for the larger constitution of 1807 which has handed over to them the direct con- trol of their own piovince, and afforded additional guarantees for the ])reservation of their language and institutions. French soon became again the otticial lanj^uage by an amendment of the Union Act, and tlu' clause ])roviding for equality of representation proved a security when the upper ])rovince increased n)oie largely in population than the French Canadian sec- tion. The Act was fiamed on the principle of giving full expansion to the capacity of the Canadians for local government, and was accompanied by instructions to w^., J. a. I'.oi'iuNo'i, 1C9 tlio (iovonior-C M'lU'ral, Mr. I'oulctt 'I'lionisoii.aftiMAVunl.s Ijonl Sydenham, vvliich laid tlie fouiidatic i of respon- sil)Io rte(l themselves dciternunedly, and not long after tin; arrival in 1S47 of Lord Klgin, one of the ahlest governors-general Canada has ever had, the people enjoyed in its comphiteness tliat system of tlie responsihility of the cabinet to Parliament with- out wliich our constitution would be unworkable. More tlian that, tlu^ clergy lescrves and other dirficult questions were settled and all the privileges for which the people had been contending during a ([uarter of a century and more, wore concede.sc.s to l\\v (^iiecij, whose .^juictioii was ncfcssary to uiiil«»ily tho vvislii'.s of the proviinM's in an Ini|M'rinl statnto. Jn tlu-caily part of l.SO" lln* Iiinii'ii.il Parliann'nt, without a division, jia^si'd tlic statute known a> the " Ihitish Norlli America Act, IMi?,' which nnited in the first instance tlu^ I'rovince of ( anada, now divi(h'd into Oiitaiio and (^hndx-c, witii Nova Scotia and New liinnswici\. and nuule provisions for the coininiL,^ in of the other I'lovilices ot I'rinee Mdwaid Island, Nuw- toinidlaiid, ihiti^h ('ohnnl)ia, and the achnission of Ruperts I^and and the n^reat Noitli-West. iJetween lS(>7 and I.S7.*{ the provinces jnst named, with tlie exception of Newfonndlaml, which lias per- sistently leniained out of tlie fech-ration, hecame parts of the Domirdon, and the Noith-West Territory was at last aecjuiiid on terms eminently satisfacttory to Canaiia and a new province of <,MeMt piomise, Mani- toha, forn»ed out of that immense ie;4ion, with a com- plete system of parlianieiitary government. In accordance with this constitution, Canada lias now control of the {government of the vast ten-itory stretching from the Atlantic t(j the Pacific to the north of the United States, and is suhject only to the sov- ereignty of the (»)ueen and the Parliament of Great IJritain in such matters as natuially fall under the jur- isiliction of the supremo and absolute authority of the sovereii;n state. If we come to re<.'apitulate tlu; various constitutitjual authorities which now «;overn the Dominion in its ex- ternal and internal relations as a dependency of the Crown, we find that they may be divided for general purposes as follows : — The Queen. The Parliament of Great Britain. The Judicial Connnittee of the Privy Council. The Government of the Dominion, The Government of the Provinces. The Courts of Canada. ! ,Jli: i!U IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) if. 6^ 1.0 I.I [fiM IIIIIM S ■- IIIIIM 1^0 mil 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 |l.6 ■« 6" . ^ V] <^ /2 ^;. "^1 :># > v /A Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 i" c^ i? c?. %^ ^ ^ 172 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY ANJ) GOVERNMENT. While C.^anada can legislate practically without lim- itation in all those matters which do not affect Imperial interests, yet sovereign power, in the legal sense of the phrase, rests with the government of Great Britain. Canada cannot of her own motion negotiate treaties with a foreign state, as that is a power only to be exercised hy the sovereign authority of the em- pire. In accordance, however, with the policy pursued for many years towai'ds sell-governing dependencies — a policy now practically among the " conventions " of the constitution — it is usual for the Imperial Govern- ment to give all the necessary authority to distin- guished Canadian statesmen to i-epresent the Domin- ion interests in any conference or netrotiations — the Fishery and JJehring Sea ({uestions, for example — affect- ing its commercial or territorial interests. The con- trol over peace and war still neces.sarily remains un- der the diiect and absolute direction of the Queen and her great council. The appointment of the Governor- General, without any interference on the part of the Canadian Government, rests absolutely with the Queen's Government. The same sovereign authority may " disallow " an Act passed by the Parliament of Canada which may be repugnant to any Imperial leg- islation on the .same subject api)lying directly to the Dominion, or which may touch the relations of Great Britain with foreign powers, or otherwise seriously affect the interests of the Imperial State. The Judic- ial Committee of the Queen's Privy Council is the court of last resort for Canada as for all other parts of the British Empire, although that jurisdiction is only exercised within certain limitations consistent with the large measure of legal independence granted to the Dominion. As it is from the Parliament of Great Britain that Canada has derived her constitution, so it is only through the agency of the same sovereign au- thority that any amendment can be mad to that in- strument. J. G. BOURINOT. 173 The preamtle of the British North America Act, 1867, sets fortli that the provinces are "federally united," with a constitution " similar in principle to that of the United Kinf^dom." The model taken by Cana- dian statesmen was almost necessarily that of the United States, the most perfect example of federation that the world has yet seen, though they endeavoured to avoid its weaknesses in certain essential respects. At the same time, in addition to the general character of the provincial organizations and distribution of powers, and other important features of a federal sys- tem, there are the methods of government, which are copies, exact copies in some respects, of the Parliamen- tary Government of England. The various authorities under which the govern- ment of the Dominion is carried on may be defined as follows : — 1. The Queen, in whom is legally invested the executive authority ; in whose name all commissions to office run ; by whose authority Parliament is called together and dissolved ; and in whose name bills are assented to and resei'ved. She is represented for all purposes of government by a Governor-General, ap- pointed by Her Miijest}'' in Council and holding office during pleasure ; responsible to the Imperial Govern- ment as an Imperial Officer; having the right of par- don for all offences, but exercising this and all execu- tive powers under the advice and consent of a respon- sible ministry. 2. A Ministry composed of thirteen or more mem- bers of a Privy Council ; having seats in the two Houses of Parliament: holdincr office only whilst in a majority in the popular branch ; acting as a council of advice to the Governor-General ; responsible to Parlia- ment for all legislation and administration.* *The Ministers of the Cabinet are : President of Council, who iresides over the meetings of the Cabinet, and is at present the J'lime Minister ; Minister of Justice and Attorney-General of Canada, .. I .Hi i;, 1 ■ '1 ! 1' 1 'If 1 ! :.! m & '■ Ik \ I 1 1 H \* 174 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. 8. A Senate composed of eighty-one members ap- pointed !)}• the Crown for life, tbongh removable by the House itself for bankruptcy or crime; havino- co-ordinate powers of legislation with the House of Commons, except in the case of money or tax Vjills, M'hich it can neither initiate tior amend; having no power to try impeachments ; having the same privi- leges, immunities and ])owers as tlie English House of Commons when defined by law. 4. A House of Conunons of two hundred and thirteen members, elected for five years on a very libei-al franchise in electoi-al districts fixed by law in each province; liable to be prorogued or dissolved at any time by the Governor-General on the advice of the Council ; having, alone, the right to initiate n;oney or tax bills; having the same privi](\ges, immunities and powers as the English House of Commons when defined by law. 5. A Dominion Judiciary, composed of a Supreme Court, of a chief justice and five puisne judges, acting as a Court of Appeal for all the Provincial Courts ; subject to have its decisions reviewed on appeal by the Judicial Conunittee of the Queen's Pi'ivy Council in England ; its judges being irremovable except for cause, on the address of the two Houses to the Gover- nor-General. who has supervision of all matters affecting administration of justice, and is legal adviser of the Dominion (iovernment ; Minister of Trade and Commerce, who has control of all matters relating to trade, and of customs and excise — the Controllers of which are now in the Cabinet ; Minister of Finance, Avho has charge of finances and ex])enditiires ; Minister of Agriculture, who has also charge of public health ami statistics ; Minister of Marine and Fisheries, who has exclusive jurisdiction over sea coasts and iidand waters ; Minister of Interior, who has management of North-West lands, immigra- tion, and Indians ; Minister of Militia and Defence ; Minister of Public Works ; Minister of Railways and Canals ; Postmaster- General — all of whose duties are obvious ; Secretary of State, who is also Registrar-General, and has charge of correspondence, ])ul)lic printing, etc. In addition to these departmental heads there ate always one oi' more Cabinet Ministers without portfolio. See Bourinot's " How Canada is Governed," 2nd ed., pp. 78-80. J. G. BOURINOT. 175 The several authorities of njovornment in the Pi'o- vinces may be briefly described as follows : — 1. A lieutenant-governor appointed by the gover- nor-general in council, practically for five years ; removable by the same authoi'ity for cause ; exercising all the responsibilities and powers of the head of an executive, under a system of parliamentary govern- ment ; having no right to reprieve or pardon criminals. 2. An executive council in each province, composed of certain heads of departments, varying from Kve to twelve in number ; called to office by the lieutenant- governor ; having seats in either branch of the local legislature ; holding their positions as long as they retain the confidence of a majority of the people's representatives; responsible for and directing legisla- tion ; conducting, generally, the administration of pub- lic afiairs in accordance with the law and conventions of the constitution* 3. A legislature composed of a legislative council and an assembly, in Nova Scotia and in Quebec ; and of only an assembly or elected house in the other provinces. The legislative councillors are appointed for life, by the lieutenant-governor in council, and are removable for the same reasons as senators ; cannot initiate money or tax bills, but, otherwise, have all powers of legislati(m; cannot sit as courts of impeachment. The legislative assemblies are elected for four years in all cases, except in Quebec, where the term is five ; liable to be dissolved at any time by the lieutenant-governor, acting under the advice of his council ; elected virtually on manhood suffrage in all the provinces except Nova Scotia and Quebec, where the franchise, however, is very liberal. *The Executive Council, in all the provinces, comprises an Attor- ney-General, Commissioner or Minister of Mines aiul (Jrown Lamls, Treasurer, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Education (in the majority of cases). Secretary and Registrar. Commissioner of Public Works. The Prime Minister is generally the Attorney-General, Imt not necessarily so. Members of the council are also apnointed witli- O-it office. See Bouriiiot's " How Canada is Governed," pp. 148-152. "1 ., '! 1, KSSI :t I ■ ^^^^■i.' ^^i».. mm ^^^^^^Kv-' ^^^^^^'' ■ '■• fU::, 176 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY AND GOVEKNMENT. 4. A judiciary in each of the provinces, appointed by the governor-general in council ; removable only on the address of the two Houses of the Dominion Parliament.* As regards the tenitories of the Northwest, they have been divided into five disti icts for purposes of government. Keewatin is under the control of the Government of Manitoba, but only until the question of boundaries will be finally settled. The other dis- tricts are governed by a lieutenant-governor and an assembly elected by the people in accordance with the statutes passed by the Dominion Parliament, The lieutenant-governor is appointed by the governor in council, and holds office on the same tenure as the same officials in the provinces ; and while responsible government in the complete sense of the term does not yet exist in the territories, the lieutenant-governor has the assistance of an advisory council selected from the majority in the assemljly. The Teiritories are represented both in the Senate and House of Commons of Canada. Corning now to the distribution of powers between the Dominion and Provincial authorities, we find that they are enumerated in sections 91, 92, 93 and 95 of the fundamental law. The 91st section gives exclusive jurisdiction to the Parliament of the Dominion over all matters of a general or Dominion character, and section 92 sets forth the exclusive powers of the provin- ■j ■* ■ *The courts of Canada are imincroua and follow the titles and procedure of tho.se of England as far as possible, though in Lower Canada the existence of the Civil Code, l)ased on the Roman law and the Coutume de Parif^, has necessitated some ditferences. The courts range from those of the Court of Appeal or Supreme Court, with highest jurisdiction over civil and criminal matters, to the county, district, division, and magistrates' courts with limited powers. Appeals lie to the Supreme Court of Canada and the Judicial Committee of the Queen's Privy Council, with certain limitations made by law. See Bourinot's "How Canada is ( Joverned," pp. 1 7G cJ Kpq. V J. G. BOUKINOT. 177 cial organizations. The classes of subjects to wliich the exclusive siuthority of the Dominion Parliament extends areemniierated as follows in the Act : — The public debt and })ro|)erty. Tiie legulation of trade and commerce. The raising of money by any mode or system of taxation. The borrowing of money on the public credit. Postal service. Census and stat- istics. Militia, militar}^ and naval service and defence. The fixing of and pioviding foi" the salaries and al- lowances of civil and other officers of the government of (^'anada. Beacons, buoys, lighthouses, and Sable Island. Navigation and shipping. Quarantine and the establishment and maintenance of marine hospitals. Sea-coast and inland fisheries. Ferries between a province and a British or foreign country, or between two provinces. Currency and coinage. Banking, in- corporation of banks, and the issue of paper-mone}'. Savinjis-banks. Weiofhts and measures. ■ Bills of ex- change and promissory notes. Interest. Legal tender. Bankruptcy and insolvency. Patents of invention and discovery. Co])yrights. Indians and lands reserved for Indians. Naturalization and aliens. Marriage and divorce. The criminal law, except the constitution of the courts of criminal jurisdiction, but including the procedure in criminal matters. The establishment, maintenance and management of penitentiaries ; and lastly, " such classes of subjects as are expressly ex- cepted in the enumeration of the subjects assigned by this Act exclusively to the legislatures of the provinces." On the other hand, the exclusive ])Owers of the pro- vincial legislatures extend to the followino- classes of subjects : — " The amendment from time to time, notwithstanding anything in the Act, of the constitution of the prov- ince, except as regaids the office of Lieutenant-Governor. Direct taxation within the province in order to the raising of a revenue for provincial purposes. The bor- rowing of money on the sole credit of the province. 12 m M iiiiriH T ' !■ f m 178 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY AND GOVKRNMENT. The establishment and tenure of provincial offices and appointment and payment of pro vincin I officers. The management and sale of the puhlic lands beloner and wood thereon. The establisliment, maintenance, and management of public and reformatory prisons in and for the province. The estal)lisfnnent, maintenance, and manngement of hos])itals, asylums, charities, and eleomos^naiy institu- ti(»ns in and for the provinces otlier than marine hos- pitals. Municipal institutions in the province. Shop, saloon, tavern, and auctioneer and other licences, in order to the raising of revenue for provincial, local, or municipal purposes. Local works and undertakings other than such as are of the following classes : — (a) Lines of steam or other sliips, railways, canals, tele- graphs, and other w^orks and undertakings connecting the province with any other of the provinces ; (b) Lines of steamships between the province and any British or foreign country ; (c) Such works as, though wholly situate within the province, are before or after their execution declared by the Parliament of Canada to be for the general advantage of Canada or for the advan- tage of two or more of the provinces. The incorpora- tion of companies with provincial objects. Solemniza- tion of marriage in the province. Property and civil rights in the province. The administration of justice in the province, including the constitution, mainten- ance, and organization of provincial courts, both of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and including procedure in civil matters in those courts. The imposition of punishment by fine, penalty or imprisonment, for en- forcing any law of the province made in relation to any matter coming within any of the classes of subjects above enumerated. Generally all matters of a merely local or private nature in the pi'ovince." Then in addition to the classes of subjects enumerated in the sections just cited, it is provided by section 93 that the legislatures of the provinces may exclusively T^ 1 J. G. BOURINOT. 179 legislate on tlie subject of education, subject only to the power of the Dominion Parliament to make remedial laws in case of the infringement )f any legal rights enjoyed by any minority in any province — a provision intended to piotect the separate schools of the Roman Catholics and the Protestants in certain provinces. The Dominion and the provinces may also concurrently make laws in relation to immitn-ation and ajj^riculture, provided that the Act of the province is not repugnant to any Act of the Dominion Parliament ; and under section 94, the Dominion Parliament may provide for the uniformity of laws relative to property and civil rights in Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The statesmen that assembled at Quebec believed it was a defect in the American constitution to have made the National Government alone one of the enumerated powers, and to have left to the States all powers not expressly taken from them. For these reasons mainly the powers of both the Dominion and Provincial Governments are stated, as far as practic- able, in express terms, with the view of preventing a conflict between them ; the powers that are not within the defined jurisdiction of the Provincial Governments are reserved in general terms to the central authority. In other words, " the residuum of power is given to the central instead of to the provincial authorities." In the British North America Act, we find set forth in express words : 1. The powers vested in the Dominion Government alone. 2. The powers vested in the provinces alone. 3. The powers exercised by the Dominion Govern- ment and the provinces concurrently. 4. Powers given to the Dominion Government in general terms. The effort was made in the case of the Canadian con- stitution to define more fully the i '.s of the authority of the 'Dominion and its political parts ; but while 'It ' 'iri liiiii ':'r ill 1 i ■■ tit ■ I ■' f\t "' I L I' 180 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. great care was evidently taken to prevent the danger- ou.s assertion of provincial rij^hts, it is clear that it hus the imperfections of all statutes, when it is attempted to meet all emer<^encies. Happily, however, by means of the courts of Canada, and the tribunal of last resort in Kngland, and the calm deliberation which the Parliament is now learnin<,' to give to all (piestions of dubious jurisdiction, the principles on which the lederal system should be worked are, year by year, better understood, and the dangers of continuous conflict lessened. I have now reviewed the leading features of the constitutional development of Canada, and shown in what respects it is based on the American and British systems of government. Englishmen generally will assuredly find some satisfaction in the fact that their greatest dependency has endeavoured to follow so closely the leading princi[)les of the parliamentary government of the parent state. The constitution, on the whole, appears to be a successful elibrt of statesmanshi]), and well adapted to promote the unity of the Dominion, if worked in a spirit of compromise and conciliation. Canada is now governed by a political system whicli, from the village or town council up to the Parliament of the Dominion, is intended to give the people full control over their own affairs. At the base of the entire political organization lie the municipal institu- tions. Each province is divided into distinct muni- cipal districts, whose purely local affairs are governed by elected bodies, in accordance with a well-matured system of law. Still higher up in the body politic is the province with a government, whose functions and responsibilities are limited by the federal constitution. Then comes the general government to complete the structure — to give unity and harmony to the whole. With a federal system which gives due strength to the central authority, and at the same time every freedom to the provincial organizations ; with a judiciary free Sii '■' Vf yiT] J. O. HOUllINOT. 181 from popular influences, and distintjuisljod for character and learning; with a public service?, resting on the safe tenure of good hehaviour ; with a people who respect tlu! laws — the Dominion of Canada nnist haveahright career before her, if her political development con- tinues to be promoted on the same wise principles that HO far illustrate her constitutional history. .Mill 'i' ill ml ''k r CHAPTER III.-APPENDIX. The English Privy Council and the Constitution of Canada. By a. H. F. Lkkrov, M.A. (Oxon.), Bakuistkrat-Law, Toronto. Author of "TirE Law of Leoihlative Power in Canada." THE work tliat has been done durin*,^ the last tliirty years upon the Constitution of tlie Dominion of Canada l)y the Judicial Connnittee of the Privy Council in England, is well calculated to impress the imagination. The conventions of the Canadian Con- stitution — to adopt the distinction so clearly drawn by Professor Dicey — are borrowed from t! ose of the Mother Country, but for its law, so far at least as concerns the formation and powers of the law-making bodies, we have to look primaiily to the Imperial Statute passed in 1807, and known as the British North America Act. That may be termed the written portion of the Canadian Constitution, and there seems to be no reason why it should not prove as permanent as has been the Constitution of the United States. The latter, indeed, cannot be amended except by a concurrent vote of not less than sixty-six legislative chambers in the various States besides that of a two-thirds majority in each house of Congress, while the former might be amended or indeed repealed at any time by Act of the same Imperial Parliament which enacted it. But there is small likelihood of any such Imperial intervention, unless in compliance with resolutions passed in the federal and in all the provincial legislatures in the Dominion, at any rate so far as concerns the respective powers of those legis- A. H. F. LEFKOV. 183 liitui'os. Tn finally sottliii}:, therefore, ns th 5 (Jourt of last resort, the piineiples which should 1)(! ap|>lie(l to the construction of the Jiritisli North America Act, the ,)u>oniini<)ii. At the sunie time tl-j Act in ([uestion by way of com- pensation [)rovided that the lollowing sums should In' paid yearly to the se\eial provinces for the support of their (Jovernments and legislatures : Ontario, .%S(),0()0 ; C^uebec, $70,000; Nova Scotia, $00,000 ; New J:;ruii>- wick, $50,000; and also tljat an annual grant in aid of each province should be made e(|ual to 80 cents [)vv head of the population, as iiseertaitied by the census of 1801, with a special provision in the case of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. This federal grant of 80 cents per head is generally spoken of as the provincial subsidy, and the grant for the purposes of government and legislation is called the specific grant. -» In the case of the Province of Ontario, the two grants have amounted from year to year to $1,190,000. This subsidy and grant together, speaking generally, constitute the most important of the revenues of the provinces. UICHAIU) IIAIiC.'Ol'IlT, 2U Tho (JonlcMlcrHtioii Act ouactcil uI.s«o [irovidcd in this Act that arhitrators should Ik; appointtnl to divide and adjust tin; dehts, credits, liahilities, [)roper- tiu.s and assets of the old provinces ot Upper and Lower L'anadu. An arbitration was held ant I under its findings certain special kinds were allotted to Ontario, anil otheis to (.^uehec. 'J'he special or trust hnuls thus allotted to Ontario aggregated J!5:i,()()U,()00, and on this large capital sum it has received interest, [•aid half yearly, evei' since. The i'rovince.sof Ontario and (.Quebec have very valu- able timber resources administered by their respective Crown Lands iJepartments. The Crown Lane's Department ot Ontaiio ^delds a large though variable yeaily revenue. The receipts vary with the lumber market, and depend measurably on the amount of Umber cut and sold each year. The lessees of the liiubur limits, as they are called, pay to the Crown in llic first place large bonuses for the privilege to cut tlie timber, as well as dues on the amount of timber they cut IVom year t(j year thereafter. K>ince Confederation, the Province of Ontario has received from its Crown Lands Department an average yearly sum of about 551)00,000, and it is not feared that there will be any serious diminution in this source of lovenue for very many years to come. This Province lias also been in receipt each year of large sums in the way of interest on st)ecial funds which the Dominion holds in trust for it, as well as on its own investments — in municipal debentures for example. This interest recei[tt has averaged since Coniederation about %5iiOO,- UUO a year. Both Ontario and (Quebec have received large sums yearly byway of fees paid by liquor licensees. 'Ihis receipt in recentyears in Ontario has amounted to nearly '; ii; |1 I I ii i; ,1 1 111 212 FINANCIAL. K£I OF THE PliOVINCES. {5»J()0,()00 annually. In <^)uel)cc a much larger sum has been received. 8ince 18l.)2 conssitierable sums, amount- ing altogether to i$(i48,{J00, have been received in Ontario as succession duties. This receipt is mainly a Collateral Inlieritance Tax, and is set aside under the Act creating it lor purposes of charity, such as maintenance of asjdums and hospitals. Quebec al.so derives a considerable revenue from succession duties. In Ontario sums ranging from !?o(),U()0 to !:?yO,(JOO a year have been received from the sale of law stamps (paid by the litigants), and from several minor sources there is collected each year under the head of casual revenue, say Ji?70,()()0. The development of the rich mines of gold, nickel and other ores of Ontario, which are now attracting the earnest and constant attention of foreign capitalists, will materially increase the provin- cial revenues. The receipts of f8Ll7 I'rom this source bid fair to be one of the striking I'eatures ol the year's finances. These difierent sources provide practically all the revenue of the I'l'ovince of Ontario, and tlie absence of other sources of revenue arising out of this or that mode of taxation connnonly resorted to the world over is specially noticeable. The avei'age aggregate leceipts of Ontario since Confederation have been about Jj3,000,000. In recent years, say during half of the intervening period, it has on the average exceeded that sum by about half a millioii of dollars. Tlie annual average expenditure of the Province oi Ontario for the last thirty years has been about $3,000,000. For the last lour years it has averaged more than three and a half nullions of dollar.s. The largest single head of expenditure is that of maintenance of public institutions. iS early iif800/)0l) a year is spent i'ov this purpose. The proviiiciul asylums for the insane, the blind and the deaf and dumb are noticeable alike for the substantial character of the buildinos themselves and for the EICHAUD HAllCOUllT. 213 skilful and humane treatment bestowerl upon their inmates. The number of the afflicted classes thus oared for by the province exceeds 4,000. About three- (juarters of a million of dollars is devoted annually by Ontario for educational pur))oses. Its schools, primary and secondary, and its colIei;'es and universities, offer educational facilities unsuipassed in any country. The Public Schools, in which primary instruction is oiven to half a million of pupils, are open to all classes without payment of fees, and the cost of secondary education is noticeal)ly low, Ontario also spends about 8200,000 a year for the promotion of A^^riculture. Tt maintains at consider- able expense one of the best Scliools of Aprriculture and Experimental Farms on the Continent. A like amount is directly cjiven by way of money o-rants in aid of hospitals and charities. This province relieves the county nninicipalities in many ways, for example in the matter of the expendi- tures incident to the administration of justice, the prosecution of criminals, etc. Since Confederation it has paid on the averao-e for this purpose about $230,- 000 a year. During the last eio-ht or ten years the average has been about S450,000 a year. In addition to these large annual grants in aid of education, agriculture, asylums, hospitals, adminis- tration of justice, etc., the Province of Ontario has spent from time to time very large sums in the erection of public buildings and in aiding railways. The new Parliament Buildings alone, only recently completed, cost over ^1, 800,000. The asylum accommodation has at a great expense been doubled within the las few years. Since Confederation, nearly §8,000,000 have been spent on public buildings. A similarly generous measure of aid has been given towards railway construction. The province has now 0,542 miles of completed railway in operation within its III! iH' 214 FINANCIAL RELATIONS OF THE PROVINCES. boundaries, and nearly $7,000,000 liave been thus far actually expended in railway giants. The Province of Ontario has practically no obliga- tions, present or future, outside of its railway obliga- tions (certificates issued to railway corpoi-ations to aid in their construction), which are distributed over a long period of years. Even taking these obligations into account, it has a surplus in securities, trust funds, and other assets, of sevei-al millions of ilollars. It is especially rich in natural resources, actual and potential, and present indications point in the near future to a degree of prosperity far exceeding even that of the past. ,M' ! n«iHniHp CHAPTER V -SECTION 4. Unalienated Lands of the Public Domain of Ontario Suitable for Settlement. Bv Thomas W. Gibsuv, Secretary ok the Bureau of Mixes, Toronto. rPHE area of the Province of Ontario has been vari- 1 ouslj' estimated, but mav be set down as about 200,000 square miles, or 128,000,000 acres. Of the total area, 22,000,000 acres, as nearly as can be cal- culated, have passed into pi'ivate hands for juirposes of settlement and mining — mainly the former — leaving about 106,000,000 acres still the property of the Crovi^n. Roughly speaking, all that part of the pro- vince south of a line drawn from Penetanijui.shene on the Georgian Bay, east to Arnprior on the Ottawa River, is fertile land, eminently suited for farming, and has long been the home of a pro.sperous agricul- ture. In this section are the cities and towns, the mills aud manufactories, the .schools, colleges and churches, as well as the great bulk of the population. Stretch- ing north to James Bay and the Albany Rivei", and Westward alone;- the northern shoi'cs of Lakes Huron and Superior and on to Lake of the Woods, lie the Crown lands of Ontario — a vast expanse of territory coiuprisinu' a ijfreat deal of rouuh and broken land un- inviting to the agriculturist, but containing also many stretches of ar.ible and fertile soil. The .settled land to the south for the most part overlies geological formations belonging to the Devonian series, and is compo.sed of drift transpoi'ted by the glaciers in the long- past ice ages from the rocky uplands of the north. The latter on the other hand consist oC Laurentian ! ,' ( (11^ i' ,1 ^^i ^ ■'^■■:n 216 UNALIENATED LANDS OF THE PUBLIC DOMAIN. and ITiironian rocks, with thoir various sulxlivisions, except on the extreme north, where the slope wliich drains into James Bay is partly underlaid hv Devonian formations resemhlinij^ those of southern Ontario. The older roeks arc usnally clothed with a scantier covering- of soil than the newer series, luit there are clay plains and fertile I'iver valleys which rivnl in productive power anything- found in the south. The height of land which divides the waters runninii,^ into the great lakes from those nnming into James Bay, cuts oti' a territory containing perhaps (SO, 000 square miles, the greatei- part of which is not only at present inaccess- ible for lack of means of communication, but is al- most wholly unexplored, To be available for settle- ment, lands must afford at least passable means of in- gress and egress, and must not be too far from markets for their ])roducts. In this i-espect the wild lands of Ontario are well served. The Canadian Pacific Rail- way runs for nearly 1,000 miles through their full width from east to west; the great lakes with their numerous harbors lie on their southern border ; and many navigable sti'cams and inland lakes intersect and connect them in all directions, thus making access and transportation comparatively easy and cheap. The principal tracts of land available for immediate settlement are as follows : 1. In the districts of i\luskoka, Parry Sound, Hali- burton and Ni|)issing, and parts of the counties of Peterborough, Hastings, Frontenae, Addington and Renfrew^ Between five and six millions of acres in these districts have been opened for settlement, maitdy under the provisions of tlie Free Grants and Homesteads Act, which give an actual settler one hundred acres if he be a single man, or two hundred acres if the head of a family, free of cost, on his performing settlement duties. These consist of five years' residence, clearing and cultivating at least fifteen acres, and erecting a habitable house. Much of these sections is rocky and : JI'KRr THOMAS W. GIBSON. 217 not adapted for tillarje, Imt there are man}'' arable areas, and the runninjx streams and nutritious ixi'asses whicli abound give ample scojio for dairyinii' and stock raising, 2. At various points along the main line of the Can- aest of settlers; hut there are also many who have come direct from the old land and who after o-ainin2f the experience necessary for meetinsf the cxin^encies of l)ush life have prospered in their new surroundings. Persons of this class, how- ever, would do better to purchase farms already wholly or partly cleared, as they would thus escape the hard- shi])s incidental to takinj? off the timbei', and would befjin life anew under conditions rcscmblinfj those with which thev are familiar. In a new and thrivinc^ set- tlement, schools and churches soon sprino- up, roads and bridi^es are built, usually with government assistance, town.ships are incorporated with powers of self-govern- ment, and the forest gives way to tlie farm. Tn all the frontier parts of Ontario the same process is going on as that which has made it one of the most advanced and prosperous communities in America. Ontario has the land ; all it needs is the people to possess and occupv it. "T-Tfrt CHAPTER v.- SECTION 5. Provincial Lands Reserved for Parks and Game Purposes. By Thomas \V. UiitsuN, Secijeiakv ok i'hk liUKKAU of Mines, Toronto. ri'^HESE comprise three areas or tracts of land vary- 1 iiig widely in liieir character. 1. TllK AI,G0N(2U[N NATIONAL PARK OF ONTAIMO. Tile advisability of preserviiio- a lunnher of iinpor- taiit rivers in full and e(inal (low, (jf securing the benetieial ertects upon climate which large and un- hrokeii forests are generally conceded to proiluce, of allordino- on a yiand scale a health resoit and recreation ground which should he counnon to all the people, of providing an asylum where game and furhearing animals nught breed and re})lenish their nund)ers in peace and .safety, and of undertaking experiments in [)iiictical forestry, led the Government of Ontario in liSUo, to set a[)art a tract of wild land in the District of Mpissing containing, with suljseciuent additions, about l,liO,OOU acres of hmd and water under the name of Tile Algompun National Park of Ontario, to achieve, if possible, these important ends. 'J'he Park occupies a tract of rocky country south of Lake iS'ipissing and between the Ottawa River and (Jeorjiian Bay. It com- prehends within its limits the watershed dividing the livers tlowinu' east into the Ottawa from those runnino; north into Lake N i pissing jind west into Georgian Bay ; among these streams being the Amable du Fond, Tetawawa, Madavvaska, South and Muskoka. Rivers, ^^ tl 1 :* Mi ■I y j ■ I hI ! I\ ( i , I' T iil. , 1 ^ u :i22 LANDS UESKUVKI) I'Oll I'ARKS AND (iAME. Ialh_i l>y rail. The aH'airs of tlu; I'ark areinanagecl hy a ^su^)erintend- ent and statl'cjt' rangers. 2. U()NJ)KAU I'llOVINHJIAL I'AUIv. A sandy ])eninsula luns south into Lake Erie from tlie county of Kent, and curving towards the west encloses Rondeau Harbor, a safe shelter for vessels exposed to tho storms which sometimes come up sutl- denly on Lake Erie, it contains about 5,000 acres of (Jrown land, and is largely covered with a luxuriant growth of tind)ei*, coni[irising pine, Idckory, oak, white- wood, black walnut, sycamore ami soft nuiple, several of the varieties being unknown except in this district of the Province. Rondeau Harbor is the resort every autuuni of great Hocks of wil to ()7'> acres. 'J'his is vested in a hoai'd of coiiiniissioneis t'oi' the nianagi'nient of tlie I'ark appointed l>y tlie Lieutenant- Governor in Council, whose administration of alhiirs so far has not cost tlie I'rovincea (h)llai'. A revenue sutll- cient to l)earall charges of maintenance, improvements, etc., is derived from rentals paid for the right to use the water power to generate electricity, for the I'ight to run an electric railway along the bank from Queenston, and winiilar sources. I'he object aimed at lias been fully achieved, and tiavellers who come from all parts of the world to see Niagara may now do so in peace and (piiet- nets, amid far moi'e })ictures(iMe conditions than i'oi- merly,and free from the necessity of either subnuLting to extortion or fo'egcjiiig the [)leasui'e of viewing the rapids and falls from some of the most adxantageous spots on the Canailian side, which admitt(Mlly fiunishes a butter siuht of them than can be had from American soil 4. QUKI'.KC. By an Order in (Jouneil dated the (jth Novembei', lyjj-i, subsequently conlirmed by tlie Act .j8 Victoria, Chapter 22, the (Jovernment of the Province of (.Quebec set aside as a forest reservation, lish and game preserve and pu "'!'. park and pleasure ground, a tract 2,5ol squa' js in extent, including the head waters oi" tl' - Montmorency, Jaccpies Oartier, Ste. Anne do ' .ade, Batiscan, Metabetchouan, Uj)ikauba, Uj»ica, Oiucoutimi, Boisvert, A Mars, Ha ! Ha I, Murray and Ste. Anne's. The statute empowers tlie Lieutenant- Governor in Council to annex to this Bark any adjoin- innr unconceded Crown Lands. Bishinii*, shootins--, cut- ting timber, mining, and the sale of intoxicating licpiois within the [)ark are all prohibited, and due provision ia made for the enforcement of the law. CHAPTER VI. Munioipal Institutions in Canada. Bv C. R. W. BiooAR, M.A., (J.C, fokmkria' Solicitor and COUNSKL FOR TIIK t'llV OK ToRONTO. THE Imperial Statute 30-31 Vict. chap. 3, known as " The British North America Act, 18G7,"— which is in efi'ect, the Constitution of tlie Dominion of Canada — assi<;ns (section ^J'2.) to the Le^ishitures of tlio various Provinces, exchisive power to make hivvs in relation to certain enumerated classes of subjects, including (No. 8), " Municipal Institutions in the Province." The object of this paper is briefly to outline the nature of these municipal institutions in each of the several Provinces. It is interesting to trace the successive modes in which our local affairs have been managed : — at first, through the Governor or Lieutenant-Governor in Council : next, through the agency of Courts of General Quarter Sessions, consisting of justices of the peace appointed by royal commission for each district in the Province, and finally, by the late-payers themselves, acting through their district, county, and local councils. The result (briefly stated) is, that at present every inhabitant of the settled districts of Canada, except in the Province of Prince Edward Island, is a member of at least one of the various municipal corporations in which is vested the power of taxation for local pur- poses, the control and management of the public high- 15 -i ^ ii 22G MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN CANADA. ways and ])ublic buildings of the municipality, and which niana^eK these and similar local affairs through the agency of a municipal council, chosen, (in most cases annually), by the resident ratepayers of the locality. Since it is in the Province of Ontario that this system is most highly developed and completely organized, it will be convenient first to consider somewhat in detail the provisions of the munici])al law of that Province ; afterward," Jid niore l)riefiy, the municipal institutions of the other Troyinces as compared therewith. ONTARIO. The municipal divisions of Ontario are : — 1st, The minor or local municipal corporations, con- sisting of — (A) Townsliipi^, — which are rural districts having an area of eight oi- ten squai-e miles with an average pop- ulation of about 3,000 souls. (B) Villages, — with a population of not less than 750 persons within an area of 500 acres. (C) Towns, — having a population of at least 2,000. Municipalities of these thi-ee classes, (except such larger towns as have separated themselves for municipal purposes from their original share in the government of the county in which they are locally situated,) are grouped together into a larger organization, viz. 2nd. Couvti/ municipalities, the affairs of which are under the control of a County Council. The Mi'd class of municipal coiporntions consists of : — Cities, — which may be erected out of towns when the population of tlie hitter exceeds 15.000. Tlx'ir municipal jurisdiction cond)ines that of both the local and the county municipality. The government of each local municipality is vested in a council, annuall}' elected by the adult ratepayers thereof, being men, unmarried women or widows, and subjects of Her Majesty by birth or naturalization, who a. '6 — ^""^"■^ fy ft l?! C. R. W. BIGOAR. 227 (A) Freeholders or tenants of property rated at an actual value in townships and villatres of SlOO, in towns of $200 to S30(), and in cities of S400, or (B) Ratepayers npon an annual income of $400, or (C) Fanner';' sons, resident upon the farm of their father or mother for a twelvemonth prior to the Election. A municipal councillor, reeve, or mayor must be a resident within the municipality oi* within two miles thereof, a subject of Her Majesty, a male, of the full a,ly to preside at council meetings and to oversee the other municipal officers. He has no power to veto 01- to refer back any by-law, resolution or other act of the council, and no casting vote in the event of a tie. 2nd. The clerk — who keeps the records of council meetings, and the documents belonging to the munici- pality. ^:| •ill, ■■ • m. m ^30 MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN CANADA. •Srd. The treasurer — both of tliese are practically pernianeiit othcers, thou<,di they really hold office during the ))lea.sure of the council. I'lie reinaiuiug officers (except the assessment commissioners of cities), are annually aj, pointed. 4th. Auditors of municipal accounts. oth. In county municipalities, the valuators, and in local municipalities, the assessors, who prepare annual lists of the lateable ))r()perty within the nuuiieipality. In cities ami towns theie may be constituted a board of assessors under a presiding officer, styled an '* assess- ment commissioner." 6th. (In local municipalities only), collectors of the annual rates imposed by the local and the county councils, as well as of those im))osed for " local im- provements," and for school purposes. There are no parliamentary rates or taxes. The jurisdiction of each munici|)al council ('^xcept certain special powers as to extra-territorial expropri- ation) is confined to the nninicipality, and its legislative powers, like those of other corporations, are exercised by by-laws which are enforceable by summary pro- ceedings before a justice of the peace ; convictions for a breach of any by-law being punishable by a fine not exceeding 5$oO, collectable by distress, or, in defauH of payment, by imprisonment for twenty-one days, (in the cases of convictions for keeping a house of ill-fanio in a city, six months), unless the tine and costs are sooner paid. Each council is required to make annual estimates of the sums necessary to be expended during the year for ail pur[)Oses within its jurisdiction, and to as.sess and levy upon all rateable property within its jurisdiction, an annual rate sufficient to discharge all debts falling due within the year. The aggregate rate for all purposes, exclusive of school of taxes, and rates for improvements payable by local assessment upon the properties specially benefited thereby, is lim- ited to two per cent, per annum upon the actual value of the rateable property within the municipality. II mim m C. R. W. liirJGAK. 251 The votingf upon a l»y-l.iw creating- a (1ol>t, is ]»y ballot, is conducted in the sjune uianncr, and is sub- ject to the same statutory in'ovisions as to seciccy of proceedings, bribery, tieating, undue inlluenee, etc., as the polling at a municipal election. Provision is also made for a recount or scrutiny of the ballots by the County Judge upon the petition of any elector. If money has to borrowed, e.(j., to defray the cost of permanent improvements or otherwise, tl:,e l)y-la\v authorizing the creation of the debt must first be approved by a majority of the rate-paying free- holders or leaseholders entitled to vote at municipal elections. The debentures issued for any debt so crea- ted, must be payable within thirt}' years at farthest, and the by-law must impose nr\ annual rate sufficnent to pay ofi' the debt by annual instalments, or to pay the interest annually nnd provide a sinking fund, sutfi- eient, with interest ac five ])er cent, per annum upon the investments thereof, to pay off the principal at maturity. If the debt is created for the purpose of a loan to, or for the purchase of stock in, for on guarantee- ing the repayment of money bori'owed by a railway company, or for aiding by way of bonus a railway, or water-works, or water company, the by-law must receive the assent of one-third of all the ratepayer.s entitled to vote thereon, as well as of a majority of those actually voting. Very full provisions are contained in the statute Respecting the securities in which sinking fund accu- mulations may be invested ; and if moneys raised for a special purpose are diverted therefiom, every mem- ber of the council who votes for such diversion, becomes personally liable for the amount so diverted, and is disqualified from holding any municipal office. In addition to the regular annual expenditure of the municipality (to be provided for by general rate), special power is given in regard to incurring debts for local improvements, the cost of which may be defrayed .!' I' III! !l l! I \ ! 1 r I Ill's ■ri 232 MUNICIPAL IxNSTITUTluNS IN CANAJJA. W by special local rates, assessed and levied upon tliti property immediately benefited therel)y. Such " local improvements " may be undertaken. 1. Upon petition of the ratepayers ujxm the street or place or within the area where the impi'ovement is to be made, or 2. By proceedings initiated by the council of a municipality after notice to owners of the properties affected and intended to be assessed therefor, who may, by petition, prevent the council from undertaking the work or improvement. It would be impossible here to enumerate in detail the subjects in respect of wliich municipal councils are authorized to legislate. Briefly summarized, they include : — 1. The organization and management of the muni- cipality itself and the conduct of its public business. 2. The conduct of municipal elections. 3. The appointment, control and payment of muni- cipal officers. 4. Provision for the payment of members of town- ship and county councils for attendance at meetings of the council and for necessary travelling expenses, and of aldermen, chairmen of standing committees and members of the local Board of Health and Court of "Revision in cities of over 100,000 inhabitants, (e.g., Toronto) and of the mayor, warden or other head of either a local or county municipality. 5. The finances of the municipUity. 6. The protection of life and property therein, by establishing a police force, by regulating the erection of buildings, hoists and elevators, the size and strengtli of walls, fire escapes,, fire engines, fire companies, dan- gerous traffic on streets, the running at large of dogs, the fencing of vacant and other pro})erty, etc., etc. 7. Public morals, by the suppression of disorderly houses, houses of ill-fame, gambling, horse-racing, drunkenness, profanity, indecent exposure, etc. 'i4 l< l"ilMl>» C. 11. W. HIGGAR. 233 I, 'fl 8. Pul)lic health, includiii'^ power to abate public nuisances, to regulate noxious tray reference tlie pro- visions of the general code a)iplieal>le tliereto. The reniain»h)r of tlie province is siil)ject to tlie pi-ovisions of a general Municipal Code, and is divided into: (1) County municipalities (coterminous in most cases with the counties as divided for the purpose of repre- sentation in the Legislative Assembly ). Each of these may include several ; (2) Local municipalities, classified as (a) country or rural, (b) village, or (c) town nninicipalities. A country or rural muiiici|)ality may consist of a parish or part of a parish, a township or part of a township, or parts of more townshij)s than one, but in order to be incorj)orated it nmst contain at least three hundred souls. A village municipality must contain at least forty inhabited houses within a space not exceeding sixty superficial arpents ; and any village may be erected into a town by ))roclamation of the Lieutenant-Governor. The affairs of each local municipality are managed by a council consisting of seven councillors elected annually (or appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor where no election has taken place) and holding othee for three years. Of these, two councillors retire annually in each of two years and three in the third year. Local councillors receive no salary or remuneration for theii- services. Municipal electors must be males, twenty- one years old, British subjects, rated on the valuation roll of the niunicij)ality as owners of real estate in the nmnicipality worth at least s?50, or tenants, farmers, lessees or occupants of real estate woith S20 per annum, and must have paid by December loth, pre- ceding the annual election, all municipal and school taxes. The elections for local councils arc held annuallv on 1 \ 1 I 1 »< 1 1 1 1 • ,: , 'I r 238 MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONH IN CANADA. I the socond Monday of Januaiy at the jtlaco whoro tlio local council usually Ijolds its HCMsionK, an eh'cted a local counc^illor. In tlie eas(» of a rural municipality, any person domiciled in an adjacent villnnre, town or city municipality, an C. R. W. DIOGAn. 239 ntoly «ucco('(lin|^r (Icfault, ami tlio tlino for rodomption* l»y tlie owiHT \h two years instead lA' o!u» year as in Ontniio. 'I'lu; powei's of tlie local councils are nnieli tlie same as those of tin- corresponding,' bodies in Ontario, l)ut in aildition tlu-y arc further autl..)iizrd in (^)uel)ee to pro- liihit OH well as to i'e<>ulate the sal(» 1»\' n-tail of iiitoxi- catinj^' li(luois within the numieipality. As in Ontario, hy-laws creatiui; dehts re(Hiire, hefore coining into force, the a])pi'oval of the electors whose pi-operty will he suhjeet to the I'utes therehy inip(»sed. Any ]»i'rson interested nui}' appeal to the county council from the passinj^ of any l»y-law hy the council of a local municipality except (^i) hy-laws rt'latinj^ to the sale of intoxicating li(|Uors and (/>) hy-laws which re(|uire tlie approval of the electors. The county council is comp(;sed of the mayors of all the local municipalities within the county, it n.eets (luartci'ly in March, June, Scpteuihei' and December, and at the March meetinnr chooses from amoni" its iiiemhers a presidini,' oHlcer styled a wanh,'n. In addition to the powei's of a local council, the county council has also authority, (1) With the concurrence of two-thirds of its mom- heis, to fix or chani:;e the chrf-Hcn of the county; hut after a registry olhce has been established at the county town, the chef-Ueu can only bo changed by Act of the Leofislaturo. (2) To determine the place where the circuit court )f the county shall be held, and to ])rovide for the iiuilding of a court house and rei^istry ottice, and for the purchase of the necessary land. (fi) To levy tolls on county bridi^-es, and (4) To ])rescribc the character of the vehicles which may be used in winter on municipal roads, or on turn- pike roads belonging to trustees. (5) The county council may further make provision for the payment of an indeninity to the warden and ijieiiibers for board and travelling expenses. J^^t'S ■ \', I 240 MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN CANADA. ^1 • As in Ontario, local municipalities have jurisdiction over municipal roads within the municipality ; county municipalities over roads forminf]; municipal boundarioH or partly in more municijmlities than one, and (jointly) over roads forming county municipal boundaries ; hut county councils may by resolution or proces-verhal declare any local road a county road or vice versa. In case a municipal council determines to open, widen, alter, or chanpre the position of any public road or bridii^e within the municipility, they may either do so by means of funds raised by direct taxation, or by means of a proch-verhal drawn up by a superintendent specially appointed therefor, and which must specify (a) the work to be done and the time within which it is to be completed, (h) the properties liable to contribute, either by the labour of their owners or occupants or by supplyin<^ or payinnj foi- materials, (c) the proportion of the work to be performed V)y each ratepayer and ((/). the person under whose superintendence the work is to be done. The procks-verhal being filed irj the office of the council, is after examination and adoption (homo- logation) by them, (subject to an appeal by any inter- ested ratepayer) followed by an Act of aj^portionment passed by the council, giving to it the force and effect of a by-law. In respect of roads, bridges or other public works in which two or more counties are jointly interested, a Board of County Delegates consisting of three persons annually a])pointed by each county council (of whom the warden is ex ofjUcio one) may exercise the powers above recited in reference to such roads, bridges ov other |)ublie works. NKW BRUNSWICK. In this Province there are no local municipal council, the municipal affairs of each county being managed by a county council, composed of two councillors elected annually from each parish (a term which includes a C. R. W. BIGGAR. 241 city or town as well as a rural municipality), except tho parishes of St. Stephen (which elects five county councillors), Moncton (which elects three), and St. John, wliere the council of the united city and county consists of tvventv-iive councillors, of whom ten repre- .sent tlie citv of St. John, and five the town of Poi't- land. A county councillor must i>o an inhahitant of the county, possessed of freehold or lea.sehold real pro- perty therein to the value of S.jOO ahove encuniln'an- ces. The municipal elections are held annually in each county on Oct(;l)er olst, or on such other day in Octoher as may be appointed l)y by-law — nominations for ottice heinpectors of barrels ; weighers of coal, and not more than three " by-road commis- sioners," who expend any moneys appropriated by tlie legislature for by-roads within the county ; also tire wards or wardens and wharfingers. Property is rated (as in Ontario) at its actual value, and lates and taxes are levied as follows : One-sixtli of the amount required is raised by a poll-tax on all adult males of twenty-one years of age and over, the remaining five-sixths being levied upon rateable I'eal and personal property and income. The valuation for assessment purposes is made in each county by a board of county valuators, no two of whom may be residents in the same parish, city, or town. The valu- ators hold ofiice for three years, and are apparently eligible for re-appointment. A valuation for taxation purposes is made every fifth year, based upon assess- ment schedules, furnished by the board of valuators to the assessors of each city, town, or parish. The assessors, after having completed their schedules, make up a list of the names of persons assessed, and a valuati(m of the property and income of each, and post these lists in three of the most public places in the parish, requesting any person who objects thereto, to apply to the assessors for a reduction. After hearing such applications, the assessors may amend their sched- ules. If they decide against the applicant, he may appeal in writing to the valuators, by whom the assess- ment schedules are finally settled. From the schedules so settled, the assessment roll, containing the names of the poll-tax payers and of the ratepayers on property and income, is made up and delivered to the tax collectors for the various parishes, cities, or towns. Taxes unpaid upon demand are collectable by exe- X, 'm 'i\ pr C. R. W. lUGGAR. 243 cufcion in the nature of slJI. fa. goods, and if no goods can be found, then (in the case of persons residing within the province), by imprisonment of the defaulter for a term not exceeding fifty days ; in tlie case of non- residents within the province, by execution against the lands and the sale of so much thereof as a sheriff's jury of three freeholders not resident within the ])arish, may adjudge to be sufficient to pay the amount in arrear with the costs and expenses incurred. NOVA SCOTIA. Most of the cities and larger towns of Nova Scotia are incorporated by special statutes, e.g., Halifax (in which the municipal council consists of a mayor annu- ally elected by general vote, and eighteen aldermen elected for three years, six of whom retire annually), but several of the towns have been incorporated under a general Act (51 Vic. c. 1) now consolidated as the " Towns Incorporation Act." (58 Vic. c. 4.) Under this statute any locality having 700 inhabi- tants dwelling within an area of 500 acres may, if the inhabitants of the locality so determine by vote, be- come incorporated by proclamation as a town, which is thenceforward governed by a town council consisting of a mayor and not less than six councillors. A municipal elector must be a British subject, twenty- one years old, qualified to vnte at elections to the Legis- lature, rated on the preceding year's assessment roll, and not in arrear for taxes of any kind. A town councillor must be a British subject, and a resident ratepayer of the town for at least one year prior to the nomination ; a mayor must have been a resident ratepayer for at least three years and must be assessed on real estate for at least 3500, or on personal property for at least $1,000. The election of mayor and councillors is held on the first Tuesday of February of each year, the mayor being elected annually, and the councillors for two ^!i 244 MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN CANADA. years, three of the six retiring- annually. Nominations* of candidates for the office of mayor and coiincillois are made in vvritinjr and handed to the town clerk at least a week before the day of election. The voting is by ballot upon voters' lists previously prepared by revisor.s appointed by the town council, the polls being held in each ward (if the town is divided into wards) and being open from a.m. to 4 p.m. The procedui'e as to voting, counting of ballots, and return of the result to the town clei'k resembles thnt prescribed by the Ontario Act, except that the otHcial declaration of the election of the councillors for each ward is nuxde by the presiding (. Meer for the ward in.stead of by the town clerk. The town council exeicises all the jurisdiction formerly exercisable by the county council, the town meeting, the grand jury, the trustees of schools, the supervisors of public grounds, commissioners of streets and highways and overseers of the poor, and, in lieu of all county rates and assessments collects within the town and pays annually to the county treasurer its pro rata ])roporation of the expense of all services for their joint benefit; which proportion, in default ot agreement, is determined by arbitration. The town council has also all the powers of a local board of health. The council appoints a town clerk and all other necessary officers, including assessors. Every male resident of a town between the ages of eighteen and sixty (excejtt firemen, etc.), pays an annual poll tax of $2. In addition thereto, all real and personal property and income is liable to assessment and tax- ation as follows : — The assessors make up their rolls annually and give notice thereof to every ratepayer by advertisement and also by personal service. Appeals from the assessment are heard by an " assessment appeal court," composed ot three memlDers of the council and the mayor, or the t'xpe Th( 'WW C. R. W. BKiGAR. 245 recorder of the town, who is an officer appointed by the town council, and must be a barrister. The assess- ment roll as thus revised becomes the l»asis of the " rate roll" aocordinof to which tlie town taxes are collected. Taxes un))aid, it' uncollectable by distress become a lien on the laml, which (when they are three years in arrear) may be sold by the town clerk therefor. Outside the towns, the unit of municipal organiza- tion is the county or district corpoi'ation, the law as to which is contained in chapter o of the statutes (jf 1895, Tlie council of a county or district is composed of one councillor for each polling disti'ict ns Liid off for the election of members of tlie Legislature. The election is held on the third Tlnnsdav of Novendjer in every third year, the nominations bein;L( made in writini;- ten days previous thereto and filed with the presidini^ officer of the polliufij district, who gives public notice thereof by poster or advertisement. The ([ualification of county councillors is the same as that recpiired of members of the Legislative Assembly. Municipal electors are those (jualitied to vote for members of the Legislative Assem- bly, and the law governing provincial elections applies also to municipal elections. The voting is \^y ballot, the ])rocedure being as above mentioned under the New Brunswick Act. The council meet twice a year, the " annual " meet- ing beinij- held on the .second Tuesday in January (in Yarmouth on the third Tuesday), and the second "half yearly " meeting at such time and place as the council may by by-law appoint. Besides these regular meet- ings special meetings may l)e held at any time. At the first January meeting after the election, the eouncii choose from amono- themselves a warden, who holds office until the next election. The warden and members of the council may be paid then, travelling expenses with an extra fifty dollars to the warden. The county council appoints a clerk, treasurer, auditors, overseers of highwa3''s, road surveyors, constables, health officers, etc. I 1 \ •I 246 MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN CANADA. The matters in respect of which the county council may exercise jurisdiction are substantially the same as in the other provinces, but no by-law <^oes int*; into effect until it has been approve*! by the Lieuten- ant-Governor in Council. No money can be borrovvtd without the authoiity of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council, and (if the amount required to be borrowotl exceeds .*;?2,()()0 in any one year) without the authority of an Act of the Legislature, to be Mp})lied for by the council after havin*^ first obtained the approval of the rate-pa^'ers at a town meeting duly convened for the purpose. Chapter 5 of the Nova Scotia Statutes of 1895 con- solidates the Acts relating to municipal assessments in counties. The district assessors make up thoir sched- ules annually between Septend)ei" lath and November 1st, and forward them on Novendter IGth to the municipal clerk. Appeals are made to a " Board oi Revision," consisting of three rafe-payeis of the muni- cipality, appointed b}^ the county council at the January meeting. This Board meets on the 4th Tues- day in November and completes its duties by the 4th Tuesday of December of each year. On or before tlu; 1st of April of the following year, each municipnl clerk makes out from the amended roll the county rate and poor rate for hsi district, and forwards the roll to the district and townshij) collectors. The remaining provisions as to the collection of taxes, the sale of lands on default, etc., are substanti- ally the same as in the Provinces of Ontario and Manitoba. PRINCE p:i)\vari) island. In this province there are no municipal institutions in the usual sense of the term, i.e., no local municipal organizations, except in the two cities of Charlottetown and Summerside, both of which are incorporated by special statutes. Si '-1 ' I'; , if ^ C. R. W. HIGGAR. 247 The Island being small, is practically (outside of these cities) but a sin«,de iniujicipidity, tlu> aHairs of which are uiana<2;ed by the Provincial Legislature. " During every Session the House resolves itself into a Connnittee of the Whole, to consider all matters relating to public roads, and to pass resolutions appro- priating money for this purpose in conformity with a certain scale arranged for the 0() or leasehold to !?1, ()()() ; in towns and vilhii^^es, freehold to S-jOO or leasehold to Sl.o'JO ; in rural nuinicipalitios there is no prescribed minimum of value. The (lualiiieations of nuinicipal electors are the same a.s in Ontario, exceptinj^- that there are no income voters. The nomination meetings in towns,, villages and rural municipalities are held on the first (in cities on the second) 'J'uesday of December, and the elections on the third Tuesday in Decend)er, the proceedings thereat being preeisel}' the same as in the Province of Ontario. The Manitoba Act also provides for a recount of votes by a County Court Judge and for the trial of contioverted elections by summar}' proceedings upon a petition presented to the Judge, from whom an appeal lies to the Court of Queen's Bench for the Province. Bribery, undue influence, personation and fraudulent voting are punishable as in Ontario, by pecuniary penalties, and (in the case of a candidate) by disquali- ication for two years. The officers of municipal councils and their respec- i ! •?f|rf C. R. W. BIGGAR. 240 tive duties are the same as in Ontario, except that the offices of clerk anil treasurer may be held l)y the same ])erson, wlio is then called secretary-treasurer, and who is required to be an adult male British subject. The provisions of the law as to annual estimates, by-laws creatine; debts, assessments for local improve- ments, and municipal finance, an; taken almost vc.rha- t'lDi from the provisions of the Ontario Statutes. Special powers aie, however, confeired rc!S})ectini; the (Irainnge of rural municipalities, and as to providing a water supply therefor. The legislative powers of municipal corporations are the .same as in the Province of Ontario, and the A.ssessment Act of Manitoba is almost identical with that of the older Provinces. THE NORTH-WEST TEiaJITORIES. Municipal institutions in the North-West Territories are regulated by an ordinance of the Legislative As- sembly passed in 1894 and amended in 1895 and 1896. Municipalities may be either cities, towns or rural municipalities. Towns must contain over oOO, and cities ovei- 5,000 irdiabitants. The councils of all municipalities are elected annu- ally, and hold office for a single year. The council of a city consists of mayor and ten aldermen ; town coun- cils, of the mayor and six councillors, but if the ])opu- lation exceeds 3,000, the nund)er of councillors may be raised to eight ; the council of each rural munici- pality consists of the reeve and four councillors. Any person is qualified for municipal office who is an adult male subject of Her Majesty, able to read and write, and (in cities and towns) resident within the muni- cipality or within two miles thereof, and possessed of freehold or leasehold or partly freehold and partly leasehold real estate, assessed in cities for $2,000 if ! 1 . 1 ■ 1 1 ■'HI' 250 MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN CANADA. freehold, anject, registered as the owner of land in the municipality worth S500 above encundjiances. A councillor must be a male British subject, registered as (A) The owner of land in the municipality assessed at $200 above encumbrances, ov (B) A homesteader or pre-emptor resident in the municipality for a year prior to the nomination and assessed for $500 above encumbrances. Municipal electors are adult British subjects (males or females) resident within the municipality for a year prior to the nomination and not in default for muni- cipal taxes, and who are : I ry, treating, undue intluence and fraudulent voting. The sections of the statute relating to the lev the unanimous consent f)f hotli mayor and council. The council have power to appoint l»y resolution or to tdect hy hallot sucli ollieers of the municipality as tliey consider necessary. If the electors of tlie municipality so diitermine, the l/ieutenant Governoi- may appoint a special municijial auditor with very exteiisivi- powers of control over the expenditure oi* coutem[)lated expenditui-e ot* the municipality, sul)j(.'ct to an appeal to a Judge of the Supreme Court of the Province. Tiie assessnn'iit lolls are pre[tared and revised and the tax collection carried out in the same manner as in the Province of Ontario, lands in default for taxes being sold hy the collector. I TH] ■^rf I • II fS'ir i| r^ III PART III THE ECONOMICAL RESOURCES, TRADE AND POPULATION OF CANADA. 1 r i ^ i ' ■ -'IS ' .'WW •r V PART III. i 1; ■ ■if THE ECONOMICAL RESOURCES, TRADE AND POPULATION OF CANADA. CHAPTER I. The Pur Trade of Canada. Bv SiK D(»NAr.i) A, Smith, G.C.iNLG,, Hicit Ccimmissionkr or Canada, and Cuaihman of tiik Hudson's I!av Comi-any. I . II if! The fur trade and fur-traders have always been prominent features in Canadian history. Even in the days of the French regime the business was of impor- tance, and the leading occupation of the people. It led to the exploration of the country, and to the discovery of the great waterways which have had so much influence on the development of Canada. The fur- traders were undoubtedly the pioneers of civilization in North America. Long before the English pene- trated inland, the French coureurs dc hols had ])re- ceded them, and had established relations, more or less friendly, with the Indians. It was the fur trade which led to the formation of the Hudson's Vmy Company in 1G70, or to give its proper title, " The Company of Adventurers of England tra.es and inconveniences, and the forts on Hudson Bay changed hands on several occasions. While the Enji'lishmeii were confining their operations to Hudson Bay, their French rivals took the bolder course, and established stations in difierent parts of the interior. They were thus able to intercept the furs, and in the end the Company was force; Ocean ; and over the Rocky Mountains into British Colunihifi. At the time of the amal<,^amation there were probably about 140 posts in ojx.'ration. It is not too much to say that it is ovvini^- to till' fur-tradeis that much of Western Canada was retained for the British. This is paj-ticularly the case in rei^ard to what is now Biitish C-olundiia, and it is not their fault that the country l.stween the Colum- bia River and the international boundary is at the present time under another tiaif. In the early days, Moose Factory, the headquarters of the southern department, and Y(jrk Factory, the headquarters and port of importation for the northern department, both on Hudson Bay, were the chief posts of the Company. There, the furs were collected and shipped, and supplies were sent from those places each year to the most.st friendly relations with the natives, and to collect as many liiis as p()ssil)le both from tin; Indian and half-breed hun- ters and trappers. The <,^reat event of the year was the arrival of the canoes or do^-trains with supplies, and mails and pa(;kets of newspa})ers, m;iL;M/,ines and books, which kept them informed of what had taken place in the outside world many nwjnt'.is previously. These means of communication with the head ofhei' of the Company veiy riU'ely occurred more than onee in the year, and the conveyances which hrou^ht in supplies, took back the furs that had been oathered. The Com))any's powers of exclusive tra00,00() ; (2) the reservation of certain lands about their forts and trading posts, and (3) one-twentieth of tlie land in the fertile belt as it might be surveyed. The fertile hcit includes the country between the North Saskatchewan llivei' and the international boundary. It might have bci^ii expected that the fur trade of the Comi)any would diminish with the advent of civilization, and the c»»n- struction of the Camulian Paeitic Ivailway. This ha> turned out to be the ease so far as the districts alonu the line of railway and in the zone of settlement are concerned, but the bulk of the trade has not lar^eh fallen off, although the returns of the various posts have somewhat changed. The opeiung up of the coun- try has made the trade more active in some of the less accessible regions, and the railway now plays an im- portant part in the shipment of the furs, and in the TF W SIR DONALD A. SMITH. 261 v»n as the Hudson IJay JMankets, The notes issued were chiefiy of three denominations, .ill, o shill- ing, and 1 shilling. ^Jow of course in the modern establishments the (currency of Canada jnevails. The following are the principal skins which find their way to the London market from the Company : — IJadger, bear, beaver, eeu constru(;te(l. The verdict of liistory will undouhtedly he that tin; Hudson Bay Company performed usefid functions, ami that it ])laycd a most important part in the events which led up to the Confederation of Canada, especially so far ai* regards the western parts of the Dominion. Tfjf Mil 't CHAPTER II. The Fisheries of Canada. By Pr()Fi;ss(»k Kdwakd K. riuNCK, H.A., F.L.S., Dominion Co.MMlSSIONKIl (tK KlSMKKIES, OTTAWA. OF the world's great fisheries tliose of Canada, are without doubt, the most vast in extent, and the most varied in tiieir pro(hjcts. The waters on the Pacific and Athmtic shores of tlie Dominion teem with fisli of the greatest economic value, while the sys- tem of fresh-water lakes, really inland seas, the lakelets, countless in number, and the noble rivers which How throui^h her far-reaching territory, provide the amplest field for gigantic fishing industries. The annual value of the inland and sea fisheries is estimated at not less than S?3(),()00,()00 (£G,0()0,0()()) and their growth has been phenomenal. In 1850 their value did not exceed $150,000 (£30,000). In 1852 the value was doubled, and reached $800,000 (£G0,000). In 1850 the value rose to $1,407,000; ten years later (1869) to $4,370,520; 187G, $11,147,000; 188G, S18,- 077,288, and, as already stated, it must now reach about $30,000,000, including the value of fish con- sumed by the Indians, the Eskimo, and the settlers in remote districts of the Dominion. An army of fisher- men, over 60,000 in number, possessing boats, nets and gear, valued at about $10,000,000, engage in these fisheries. The following summary, suggested by the system of territorial regions which Sir William Dawson laid down in his " Ice Age," recognizes seven great divi- EDWARD E. rUINCE. 2G5 sions, each clmracterized by fisheries more or loss clis- tiiictivc. 1. The AtUu\tic dirimov, from tlie l^iiy of Fundy to the coast of Lal)ra-s<'a and in- slioro flslierios, cod, inuckercl, haddock, lialihiit, herr- ing, hake, I()l)ster, o\'ster, seal and ^vhitt• wluilf ( I'x'l- usser whitelish (called lake lu'rring), sturgeon, pike- perch fdorc or j)ickercl), idack bass, brook-trout, maskinonge, ])ik(' and nunn'rous carps, suckers, and catfish. Value : i?2,()(M),00(). ( i:4()(),^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 266 THE FISHERIES OF CANADA. dogfish Jind whale fisheries exist, and there are limited oyster fisheries. Exclusive of the fur seal, which is an oceanic industry, less than Si, 000,000 in value, the coast fisheries may be valued at 1?4.,000,000 (£800,000). 7. Ilndson B(iy r.nd Peri-Ardic Area (Ungava Bay to the Mackenzie River) : — Whale, walrus, sea- trout, the inconnu, which is m huge river vvhitefish, pike, suckers, sturgeon, and ]M)ssihly salmon and cod, occur in these vast waters, ot* which Hudson Bay alono exceeds the Mediterranean Sea in extent. The richest whaling grounds in the world are in this littledvnown part of Canada, off the mouth of Mackenzie River and as far castas Cape Chudleigh in Hudson Strait, whev(^ the Baleen whale and walrus were until recently nnmerous. " The tidal channels of Canada's Ai'ctic archipelago are destined," it has been truly said, "to be the last home of the leviathans, which within the memory of living men have been driven from New- foundland latitudes to the places where their survivors have now sought retreat." It may be pointed out that the waters grouped in this seven-fold manner include, on the Atlantic, a Canadian coast line at least 10,000 miles long, and on the Pacific not less than 8,000 miles, while the portions of the great lakes (Superior, Huron, Erie and Ontario) which lie within the British boundary line, embrace a fishing area exceeding 70,000 square miles. To these extensive waters must be added giant streams like the St. Lawrence, the largest river on the North American continent, the Mackenzie River (2,400 miles long), the Saskatchewan (2,000 miles long), the Fraser and Red Rivers, each 600 miles long, and others, like the Rivers Peace, Assiniboine, Skeena, Ottawa, St. John, Restigouche and Miramichi, all of which are great rivers, abounding in the choicest species of fish. It is important to note that the Atlantic inshore fisheries of Canada are prosecuted not by Canadian fishermen alone, but b those of the United States, •v \ 1 ' EDWARD E. PRINCE. 267 Newfoundland and France under International Trea- ties. The great lakes also are for the most part divided between the United States and Canada, and the recorded (.'anadian catches represent therefore only a proportion of the total yield of those waters. In Hudson Bay and the northern seas as well as in the Paciiic inshore waters of British Columbia, foi'cign fishermen have very laroely encroached on the fishery resources of the Dominion. I'here are, it may be added, extensive waters as yet untried and undeveloped, and valuable resources which in the near future will add to the annual value of the Canadian iisheries. The importance of fishing industries did not in the past go unrecognized. A Government Department charged with the administration of Fishery, as well as Shipping matters, was created at Confederation (1807), prior to which, the fisheries had been regulated for nearly thirty years by a branch, organized in 1859, of the Crown Lands Department of Upper Canada. Such control as the Provincial Governments still exercise in Ontario, Quebec, and the other Provinces, is carried out by the Commissioners of Crown Lands in the several Provinces. Since Confederation the vast fisheries of the Dominion have been under the direct supervision of a Cabinet Minister (the Minister of Marine and Fisheries) at Ottawa. A Deputy Minister acts immediately under the Minister, and a Commis- sioner of Fisheries, who is also General Inspector for the Dominion, has important advisory and executive functions. In addition to the usual inside start" of clerks, a body of outside officers enforce at a yearly cost of about $120,000, the close seasons, and the fishery license system, as well as collect statistics, etc. The start' includes twelve Inspectors of Fisheries (who receive $700 to $1,500 per annum) ; several hundred Overseers vested with magisterial powers for the pur- poses of the Fisheries Act (receiving $100 to $900); and a still larger body of temporary fishery guardians *-tk I :i: ;*' 268 THE FISHERIES OF CANADA. whose pay ranges from $1.50 to $2 per day. A fleet of .armed cruisers, costing about S100,000 annually, patrol the coastal and fjreat inland waters, exercising; sur- veillance over foreign as well as Canadian fishinsf operations in Dominion waters. Finally, a Bounty System is carried out for encouraging the pursuit of the deep-sea fisheries in the Atlantic, the provision for which was secured by the Halifax Award (November 23rd, 1877), whereby a sum of $5,500,000 was paid by the United States in consideration of the fishery con- cessions granted to the United States fishermen in Canadian inshore waters along the Atlantic coasts. A sum of $160,000, voted annually by Parliament, is by this means available, and is distributed amongst the deep-sea fishermen in the Maritime Provinces. The woi'k of the Fisheries Department is thus extremely varied and important. The late Professor Brown Goode, United States Commissioner of Fisheries, at a Fisheries Conference in London, 188o, said : — " It seemed to him that the Canadian Department of Marine and Fisheries was one of the most valuable organ- izations in the world, and that the .system of gathering statistics was one which other countries ought to study with a great deal of care. In the United States they had nothing of the kind." The collection and pub- lication of statistics is, indeed, an invaluable branch of the Department's work. The methods of protection and restoration adopted by the Department of Marine and Fisheries are : — 1. Close seasons preventing the capture of spawning fish. 2. Fishing licenses specifying the amount of net, kind mesh, etc. 3. Prohibition of obstructions, pollutions, etc. 4. Artificial fish culture as a means of introducing fish into new watei's, and supplementing natural repro- duction. The last is carried on by means of fourteen hatcheries EDWARD E. PRINCE. 2C1> under the supervision of the Commissioner of Fisheries. Salmon (Atlantic and Pacific), great lake trout, and lake vvhitefish, are hatched and shipped (jratls, if the waters applied for are suitable. A lobster hatcliery at Pictou, IN.S., turns out annually one humli-ed millions to one hundred and sixty millions of minute larval lobsters. The fish culture operations cost between 830,000 and 1:540,000 pei- annum, and in 1895, close upon three hundred millions of the fry of the various fishes above named were planted in the several pro- vinces. A sea-fisheries Intelligence Bureau, established in 1889, including between fifty and sixty stations under the charge of the Commander of the Protection Fleet announces daily to the fishermen the movements of fish and the localities for bait. The following table shows in graduated series the various fish and fish products with the relative value of each : — Kinds of Fish. Cod Cwt. " tongues and sounds Brls. Salmon, preserved in cans LIjs. fresh " pickled Brls. " smoked Lbs. Lobsters, preserved, in cans " " in shell, alive, etc Tons. Herring, pickled Brls. " fresh or frozen Lbs. ** smoked " Whitefish " Mackerel, pickled Brls. " fresh and preserved. . . . Lbs. Trout pickled Brls. 938,027 Him 23,047,102" 5,-4S4,0.")3 -1, 029 80,280 13,333,093 7,505 439,238 16,900,241 9,100,980 14,854,170 53,087 1,803,072 7,182,083 3,724 .$ cts. 4,225, 89(i 00 8,335 00 2.305,717 30 801,429 80 51,404 00 8,888 OO 1,803,250 00 507,375 00 1,977, 3.S0 00 404,905 80 183,427 OO 879,<)50 40 731,782 00 177,088 14 720,900 80 37,240 OO 4 • ,; U '■' if' ( nil !i I 4 1 iM (k-. I I 270 THE FISHERIES OF CANADA. Kinds of Fish. Haddock, dried Cwt. '• fresh preserved, etc. . . . Lbs. Smelts " Hake Cwt. " sounds . . LJ)S. Pollock Cwt. Halil>ut Lbs. Alewives Brls. Pike Lbs. Sardines ' ' preserved Pickerel Oysters Sturgeon Coarse and mixed fish Eels, pickled " fresh Bass Shad Tom-cod or frost-tish Clams Squid Maskinonge Mixed Hsh (British Columbia) . . . Flounders Crabs Oulachons . , Winninish Fur seal skins in British Columbia Hair seal skins Sea otter skins Porpoise skins Perch Fish oil Fish used as bait Brls. Cans. Lbs. Brls. Lbs. Brls. Lbs. Brls. Lbs. Brls. Ll>s. Lbs. Lbs. No. Lbs. Calls. Brls. manure Fish guano Tons, 1894. Qiumtity. 1.37,140 r)0:{,4'io 8,OS7,()7t) 10.3, '297 s;ilH7 ss,7r)S 3,4S1,-J7(i (J.3,470 .3,079,4X4 1.3(;,0 53,120 00 71,525 00 It is necessary to add a few succinct notes upon cer- tain species of fish of prime importance, commercially, EDWAHI) E. PRINCE. 271 000 00 090 00 000 00 740 00 40.") 00 ilOO 00 388 00 970 08 338 40 417 00 120 00 525 00 Lake Whitetish. or for sport, which are either peculiar to the waters of this continent or closely allied to Euiopean species. The cod, haddock, halihut, mackerel, heirino-, sahnon, pike-perch or dore (also called pickerel), the pike, .smelt, eel, and other kinds, call for no special reference ; hut others, like the whitetish, striped l)ass, etc., demand a brief notice. Whitelish {CJurcgonus clui>eiforrni)^, M it- chili). This t'n'sh water salmonoid is allied to the European gvvvniad and pollan. It varies in weight fiom 2 ll)s. to 10 lbs., and is deep in the body, the shoulder abruptly descendinj^ to the head, which is very small, the jaws are toothless, the snout blunt, and the gape contracted. The large silvery scales upon its sides, or as some think, the whiteness of the Hesh have ijained for it its distinctive name. No fish is more justly esteemed for table purposes, and to explorers and Indians it is invaluable as a continuous diet of whitetish unlike salmon never palls upon the taste. There are several species abounding in almost all the lakes from the Atlantic to the Pacitic, and their capture constitutes one of the most valuable of the fresh-water fisheries, the annual yield being not less than nine or ten thousand tons, or about one-fifth of the yearly take of codfish. The le.sser whitefish, called ciscoand lake herring, have become valuable in recent years, as the lai'ger species have been con- siderably depleted. They feed upon insects and small crustaceans, and like the Salmonida^ generally, they resort in the fall to their accustomed spawning grounds, traversing great distances, in many cases, to do .so. The speckled trout or brook trout of ^Trout^*^ Canada (Salvelinus fontinalis, Mitchill), is more allied to the charrs than to the common river trout (Salrtio fario, L.) of Europe. In- stead of the silvery sides with comparatively large Lesser Whitefish. n- 272 THE FISHERIES OF CANADA. scales, showini,^ minute red and black spots, the Canadian speckled ttout has small scales, dusky green back and dorsal tin vividly diversified with yeUow vermiform markings, thu sides being spotted with red, white and blaek. The reddish paired tine show a cream-white anterior margin. It is more important for spoit than conmH^i'cially, but its game (jualities are inferior to those of the Ennrlish trout. ,, , . The maskinonoe (Esox nuhillor, LeSuer), MasKiiioii<;e. , i i i j. \\ -i " bears a general resemblance to the pike (Esox laclns, L.), but is in many respects superior. Its edible and game (jualities are remarkable, and it often attains a weight of 70 lbs. Whereas the pike is blotched witli white on its irreenish-bi'own or duskv sides, the maskinonge exhibits brown blotches on a pale gi'ound colour. The branchiostegal rays are 17 to 19 in nund)ei', but in the pike 14 to 10. Most of the still waters of Quebec and Ontario contain this tine game fish, but it has greatly decreased in nund)ers, though splendid fishing is still to be had in Lakes Scugog, Rice, Sinicoe, and other Ontario watei-s. Tji 1 1, Black Bass (Mlcropterus, Lacep). The Black lUss. . r. 1 1 1 1 11 -1 • ^.1 two species oi black bass rank high in the estimation of the angler. They range from 2 lbs. to 8 lbs. and are bold, strong and of game (qualities. The flesh is hrni, white, and of great excellence. The nest- building haljits and strong ])arental instincts of these fish are well-known. Striped Bass {Roccus lineatus, Bloch.), occur in the tidal waters along the Atlantic coast. They reach a great size (15 lbs. to 40 lbs.), and att'ord s|>lendid sport. They are, with the exception of the salmon, the choicest of food fishes, but their destrU(:;tion when dormant in the rivers in winter, and the :aking of the immature young in smelt nets, has seriously depleted them. r^ 4fflj Cattishes or Siluroids (Ameiurus). A great variety oi species occur in the rivers and lakes, and all are characterized by the long feelers Strijied Sea liass. 7?^T EDWARD E. PRINCE. 27'i wliich project from the upper and lower jaws. In size they lan^ije fi'oni 2 or ',\ inclies to 4 or 5 feet, and as tliere is a e largely attril)Uto(l the serious decline in some localities of oneo prolific; fisheries. Scoop-nets and ha^- nets are used for taking- smelts, striped bass, and shaiiie and other woods, and in th(( wake of the cutting follows the annual tirrs whicli, bf.sides burning over the districts from which the timber has been cut, extend in many instances throui;h the untouched forests and destroy more timber than the woodman with his axe. V'ear after yeai' this goes on, and '.low when a hundi-ed mi!es or more itervene l)etween the settlements aiid the lumber camj)s, little attention is i>aid to the subjecrt, but when the public awaki's to the truth it will be appalled at the enormous waste and loss that has been going on for more than a genei'ation. Twenty-tive years ago the Algoma district, over 1,000 miles from east to west and we may say :^()0 miles from north to .so.ith, was a solid coniferous forest. To-dav most of it is so completely denuded of ti'ees that even the dead and whitened trunks of some localities have disa})peared and nothing is to be seen for nnles but bushes and younia, Thomas. (Rock elm). CeltU occii/eiUalis, Linn. (Nettle tree). Carya aiaarci, Nutt. (Bitteriuit). " alba, Xutt. (JSliell-bark hickory). Carp'muH Cafo/iniana, ^^'alt. (Blue l)eech). Querciis alha, Linn. (White oak). ' Populu-s moniJ'ifera, Ait, (Cotton-wood). Juniperus Virecome lair-sized trees. Inelndccl in this grouj) are four species ot* (JrattcjUK Jind the. June berry {AiiLeUuichier), which in the vicinity ot" Niagara-on-tlie- Lake are very noticeable. Even the wild yrape, Vitls LUstivaUti, has often a stem over four inches in diameter, and Corans altcriiijlora, i:iai)ibacas rdccmosa, and VibLivaiLni Lenta(jo become trees, and in fence corners make a tine shade lor cattle and sheep. Were my paper intended to illustrate clinuitic condi- tions or tho many lessons to be learned from the na- tural distribution of the forest, 1 miu'ht show from tho wild grape, the plum, the wild a[)ple and the wild cherry tlie economic nnportance of this district as a fruit producer. Only a few years since our own people believed that peaches and certain varieties of the grape could be grown only in favoured localities, yet the forest growth if read aright would have told them that with proi)er local shelter all the finer fruits of temi)erato climates were suited to the tlistrict under considera- tion, and not alone to this district but to the whole of Ontario alonii' the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario. With the exception of the peach, eveiy other species can be profitably raised as far castas Ottawa, if proper shelter be forthcoming, for it is not a low temperature so much as unsuitable conditions that prevents tho successful culture of fruits in Ontario. A lesson hard to learn is that shelter from ni[)ping winds is just as necessary for vegetation as it is for the shorn lamb, and when horticulturists and others realize this to its full extent there will be fewer failures in fruit growing. :ff ! I, m 19 I.-JIK I 290 TFIK FOUKHTS OF CANADA. MANITOIlA AND TIIK NoHTII-WKST TMIimTOIUKS. Tliu trees of tlie forosts of tluH imiiiensu re;'ioii nro few in numl>er and nearly all heionj^ to the sub-arctic forest, and as a wlioK; have I teen treated under tliat head. Two trees whicli we liav(! had with us from Nova Scotia ai)[)ear iti Manituha, l»ut thry are never found in nuich ahuiidaiice and seldom out oi the rivtir valleys. These are the elm and the l»asswood. Tiie creen ash {Frp- doarts of the country. At one time a large quantity of timber in the rough, was exported to the United Kingdom, where it was manufactured into boards, etc., but this trade has been much curtailed in recent years, and the timber is now usually manufactured at the saw- mills in Canada, and then shipped to the different markets. Within the last few years a laige quantity of wood- fibre, or wood pulp has been made from spruce, and this promises to become a very im|)ortant industry of the Dominion. - 1 Hi 1 1 ' ir ' I ! \ i 300 THE LUMBER INDUSTRY OF CANADA. The timber ripfhts in .almost all parts of the Domin- ion are vested in the several Provincial Governmentn, and when disjiosinnj of these piivilenjes the Crown retains a largjc interest in the timber, only sellinfTf a rijjht to cut, commonly calU'd a timber license. These timber licenses are offered foi* sale at public auction, and entitle the licenoiate to cut all kinds of timber off the lands so licensed, on ]iayment of a small armual jji'ound rent, and a royalty on th(^ tindx'i- as it is cut. The form of licenses varies in the different provinces, some beinpf in perpetuity and others for a fixed period, usually twenty-five years. The value of a timber license depends on so many factors, — quat»tity and quality of timber, cost of operatinij^, etc. — that oidy the most experienced men, can with any certainity arrive at an accurate idea of it. The w'orkinfj operations of the lumberman are of a very varied nature and from one and a half to two years usually elapse before the standinf]^ tree is cut down, manufactured and put on the market, and on few things is the success of the industiT more depen- dent than the climate and season of the year. In September a small force of men is sent into the woods to put up the nci'essary buildino^s for the win- ter's work. After a location, convenient to the work and near fresh water, has Ijeen found, the camp or shanty is built. It usually consists of two large build- ings for the men — one for them to sleep in, and the other for tho kitchen and eating room, — a stable and barn for the horses and provendei", a store house for supplies, a smithy, an office where the foreman and clerk sleep and where the business of the camp is con- ducted. These buildings are made of logs hewn to a square, the joints being filled up with c\n.j, and arc warm and comfortable. The food while plain is al- ways good, and as the outdoor life is a very healthy one, it has its attractions for the men. The fascination about life in the bush is akin to that exercised by the sea. nTT A. If. CAMPUELL, JR, 301 A gang for a camp usually consists of forty men and four learns, with ten to fifteen additional teams when the Ion's jiie beiui: liauled to the stream, Provisioninj^ a camp of this size for from six to seven months is necessarily a very important matter, as all the supplies have to ho hrought in from the oritsitle world, J^'re- cpiently they are di-awn in on sleighs over the snow during the preceding winter, but the rivers often atibrd a way of getting them in just before they are required. The shanties offer an excellent market to the farmers for their produce, and also provide work for the men and horses durin«^ the winter when there is little to be done on the farm. The work proper of the camp is connuenced by the choppers, who fell the trees and cut them up into proper lengths. An ex[)erienced chopper can bring a tree down in the exact direction re(piired, unless one side is very nmch overloaded with branches, and there are few more impressive sights than the fall of these giants of the forest as they come crashing down. The axe is used for felling the ti'ee and the saw for cutting it u[) into proper lengths — or saw- logs — after it is down. The lenuth of the lo^'s are twelve feet and upwards, according t(^ the uses tor which they are re- quired. After the tree is cut up, the logs are di'agged one at a time by a team and piled in a heap called a " skid way " the front of whicli is on one of the roads leadinof to the river. Durinu; this oi)eration which is called" skidding " the work for the horses is not very heavy but is very trying and at times dangerous. The {ground is rou<;h and the horses have to find footinrr where they can, but after a little practice and with experienced teamsters the horses become accustomed to the work, and will f A, If. CAMPUKLL, JU. mm V. capsijin. A liout callc*! .'ui nllij^ator, t'roiu its a)n|»liil>i()us chaiacttcr, is ot'tcii y\>,in\. It is Kiiilt vitli a flat ijottoiii shod with steel, and is e(|niiti)e(l with paddle wheels and a powerful windlass driven l>y an engine. It is sent ahead of the latt I'iiyinj^ out tiie tow line and after hein^^ i'astene(l to the shore or anchored, the tow line is wound in on the windlass dia'-i-inii' the rait up to it, when the operation is repeated. When a rapiil or fall has to be passe*! hy tlie hoat, a njad is cut out along the shore, the tow lino taken ahead ami made fast, and the boat pulls itself across the portagt; by means of the windlass. In their work the river-drivers have to be constantly on the logs, and tlie ease with which tliey can ci'oss the stream or go down a rapid on a round log is wonderful. Tlieir boots are shod with sharp spikes to keep them from slip- l)ing, and they carry a pole witli a pike on the end, with which they keej) the logs moving, and whieli also acts as a balancing pole. Clonsidering tlu! risks these men rtni, and the lai'ge proportion en- gaged in the work wlio ctinnot swim, accidents are comparatively rare. The logs fi'ecpiently g(!t jammed across tlie river and in the rapids as well as stranded along the .shores, and the river-drivers have to keep working at them continually U) get them all safely down, the current in the streams, and the wind, being of great assistance to them. The driver's work is at an end when the loj^s have been brought donn to the .saw-nulls. The ndWs are as clo.se as possible to the streams from which the timber comes, and at some ])oint, whence the man- ulactured article — or lumber as it is called — can be cheaply forwarded to the nuirkets. They are generally driven by steam power, the sawdust and other waste neces.sary in the process of maiuifacturing, providing ample and cheaj) fuel on the spot. The ma- chinery u.sed for cutting up the logs is necessarily of a very heavy and complicated kind. The circular or ! i i I I . J: ) nd4 THE LUMHER INDUSTUY OF CANADA. rotary whs for a Ioiilj tiiiH! the only kiiowii .saw, but in i'('<;L'nt ycMirs lias hiHMi rcfdjuMMl \ty Uiv^v, liaiid-saws wliicli savt! a great dual of liuil)L'r Ijy a tincr saw- cut. Tlioy are niiuli; of a Lliiii sliuot (jI' oiulless stuol about ten inclics wido, ono-sixteentli of an inr-h tliiek, and usually ahout lifly feet long. TIk^ saw is iiung like a hult, on two largo wheels one above the otlier from Nviiich it nets its niolion. 'J'he lou" is on a cariiage which UKjves it past the saw, on*; l)oard being cut otl" eacii time the log is taken up to the saw. Upright or gang .saws are also used, consisting of a number of saws hung in a frame working perpendicularly, and through which the log is fed by means of rollers, the whole log l)eing cut up into boanis at the same time. After the boards come from these saws the edges and ends are s(puired oft' l)y other maehiiies and the boards are then piled in an open pile to season. The drying process takes from four to eight weeks ac- conling to the time of the year and the (piality of the lumber. 'J'he product is then ready to be forwarded to the markets. A.s lumber is a very bulky product shipments are more largely carried (;n by boats than by railways, and the magiiiHeent waterways atibrded by the Ureat Lakes and canals play a very imjJortanL part in this industry. The export trade is at present about e([ually divitled between shipments to Great Britain and the Uniteil States, the figures for the yt)ar ending JiUth June, li^UG, being- Exports to Great Britain $12,187,000. Exports to United States 13,528,000. The mills on the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers and those in the Maritime Provinces as a rule shi[) to Great Britain, while those on the Upper Lakes find a market in the United States. The stock for the English market is usually cut three inches thick, and on arrival it is re-cut to the required sizes. The ' T vj' A. H. CAMPBELL, JR. 805 fltandanl thickness for tlio United States market is one inch. If tho hi;jjh import iluties on hnnhcr |)ropose(l hy the United States sliould ln'comt'law it will pr()l»al)ly havo the tffl'uct of diverting .sliipnients IVoin that country to Hluropc. The husine.sH of tlie lumberman is of sucli a complex kind, antl the fa<;t that operations are carried on in so many different places, make it necessary to exercise the gfreatest care and economy in every department to insure a successful lesult. There are also a great many continjjencies over which the lumberman has no con- trol, ho beinn^ almost more dependent on the weather and climate for succeedinir in his work than even the farmer. In many cases <;reat fortunes have been made in the business, but taking it as a whole the ))rotits made are small when the risks incurred are considered, and it is only alter long — and frequently dearly bought — experience, that success can be h{)[)ed for. VIH SO CHAPTER IV. The Mineral Resources of Canada. By A. P. CoLKMAv, :M.A., I'ir. D., Pkofessor of Mikeralooy ix THE School of Practical Soienok, Toronto, FOR a country possessing almost half of North America, Canada has been surprisinf^ly slow in de- veloping its mineral resources, so much so that many foreigners and not a few Canadians have doubted whether Canada would ever become of importance as a mining country ; but the last few years have shown so decided an advance that Canadians are beginning to hope that their half of the continent will prove as widely metaliferous and as rich as the great republic to the south. The slow growth of mining in Canada is to be attributed, not to a lack of important mineral resources, bi t to a variety of circumstances connected with the settlement of the country, its araal geology and its climate. A population of about 5,000,000 in an area of more than 3,400,000 square miles of territory represents an average of only one and a-half individuals per square mile, and since the two most populous ])rovinces, Ontario and Quebec, including more than two-tlnrds of the whole number of inhabitants, were established mainly as farming communities on the fertile paleozoic border of the great archrean shield where no deposits of ore or coal can be looked for, the bulk of the population have grown up with no know- ledge of mines and with the thrifty virtues of farmers and merchants averse to risking their savings in an untried and hazardous occupation. Almost all the provinces and territories of the -"f^ffHfry^ f A. P. COLEMAN. 307 Dominion possess mineral resources of importance, but only two liave been large producers as niiniui; renjions, Nova Scotia on the Atlantic coast and Britisli Columbia on the Pacific ; and it is remarkable that both these provinces have been producers chietly of gold and of coal, although the eastorii deposits are of an entirely diti'erent character from those of the vast and mountainous western province. In studying the mineial wealth of Canada the most important sources of information are the reports of the Geological Survey and of the mining departments of Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia ; but in the following short suuuuary of our mineral development it will be unwise to give very detailed references to the authorities consulted. It is proposed to deal first with the more important metals and then with non-metallic minerals. METALS OF CANADA. Gold. Gold has been found in most of the ])rovinces and territories of Canada, but has been mined to any serious extent only in Nova Scotia and British Columbia. T!;e gold fields of Nova Scotia are in (juartzites and slates of Caml)rian age, the auriferous (|uartz occurring as saddle-shaped beds at anticlines or as small veins cutting these saddles, the interbedded quartz being low grade but in large quantity, while the fissure veins though usually very narrow are often lich. The relationships mentioned are much like those found at the Bendigo gold field in Australia. Hitherto the mining done has been chiefiy on the narrow rich veins, but attention is now being directed, often with nuieh success, to larger bodies of low grade ore. Owing to its favouiable situation, healthful climate and plentiful supply of good labour, gold mining can be carried on in a most economical way, in some instances the whole cost of mining and milling the ore being not more than $1. Go per ton. 308 MINERAL RESOURCES OF CANADA. ii ! Nova Scotia is not a new mining country, gold having been produced in considerable (|u;intities ibr more tlian thirty-Kve years, always V)y (juartz mining, no ])lacers of importance having been discovered. Silice 18{jl the annual product has avei'aged about 8350,000, and the whole amount of gold produced up to the present is considerably over $12,000,000. That lower grade ores are now being treated than formerly is shown by the tact that in 1893, as i-eported by the Geological Survey, the avei'age amount of gold per ton of (juartz was $8.68 (a pennyweight is a|)proximately worth a dollar), while in former years the quartz seldom ran below $12 per ton.* In 1890, 25,596 ounces were |)ro- duced from 65,873 tons of ore.^f In the Province of Quebec auriferous gravels have for more than sixty years been known to exist on the Chaudiere River and its tributaries, but comparatively little work has been done on these placers, the whole quantity of gold obtained amounting, it is said, to only about $2,000,000. Interest in these old gravels, which frequently carry coarse gold, is being revived, however, and they may yet pi'ove of imj)ortance. In 1893, a product of 872 ounces is reported V)y the Geological Survey and almost twiee as much in the following year.+ Gold was first found in the Province of Ontario in 1866, but in the thirty years that have followed, com- paratively little gold has been produced until within the past year or two. There is now, however, every prospect that its output will raj)ieliy increase. Unlike the adjoining Province of Quebec, Ontario contains no placers, tlie whole of the gold being obtained from ([uartz veins found at or near the contact of bands of huronian schist with areas of Laurentian oneiss or *Geol. Siir. Can., vol. vii. 113 8. and 115 S. tRep. Dept. Mines, Nova Scotia, 1H!)6, p. .SO. tibid., 100 S. A. P. CT)T,EMAN. 309 in mi- ll lin ery like no 'om of granite or eruptive bo^sos of the latter rock. Gold has been found at various points for nearly a thousand miles alonj,^ almost the whole length of the northern Archiean portion of the province, but the richest and most numerous tin tons in the following year. Three bhist furnaces, two using eoke for fuel and one charcoal, were in operation in J8!)4'. In Quebec, 22, 07() tons of bog and lake ore were mined in 18IJ3,and two charcoal furnaces are in opei-ation pioducing an ex- cellent quality of cast iron. A single coke furnace has been in blast for some time near the city of Hamilton, Ontario, 'i'he whole product of ii'on in the Dominion in 189-i wa.s 49,9(J7 tons worth 5i?()4G,447. A portion of the Nova Scotian pig iron was converted into steel. f Formerly a considerable quantity of magnetite and hematite was exported from Quebec and Ontario to the LTnited States, but the imposition of a heavy duty and the advent of cheap ores from the States south of Lake Superior have put an end to thi.s industry. In western Ontario there are immense deposits of magnetite and hematite, but the lack of I'ailways and of cheap fuel has prevented their ex- ploitation up to the present. A few thousand tons of iron ore have been mined in Bi-itish Columbia and disposed of in the States to the south, but no iron has been smelted in the |)rovince. Vast deposits of oi'e are reported from Labrador, but at present they are out of reach. ii 1 !' :: N^f *Eng. Mining Jour., 1897. fGeol. Sur. Can., vol. vii., p. 66 S, m S16 MINERAL UKSOUUCES OF CANADA. Minor Mffdh. A considoraMo nnni)>or of otlior metals ])e.si(l«3.s tlioso pieviously rot'cnuMl to aro found moro or loss (!xtonsiv(3ly in (Jauada lnit very little lins been done in tln^ way of niininy I'rofeshoi- C'lui[»niiin of Toronto University, to small (|uantiti<'s of a sinnlar niinenil oeciirrini^^ in ( 'a?ul(ro-Silinian rocks, is piefer- al)lu to the usual name ot anthracite or " liard coal. " How larj,'e a (juantity of this fuel is available has not yet been determined.* 'I'he imi)ortant stores of petro- leum and natural iJias found in southern Ontario will he described in another ))aper. The western territoriesof Canada are richly supplied with coal of late cnitaceous or Laramie age, the de- posits beginninLj in the western part of Manitoba and reachin*^' at sonu! points into the lvo(df. The Thetford re,f,don in the Province of Quebec produces practically all the asbestus marketed in the world. The mineral, thou<^di o^enerally called asbestua, is not the true horn-blende asbestus, but ivally fibrous serpentine, containing' nearly fourteen ])er cent, of cond)ined water. The mineral occurs as small veins in massive serpentine anj Prcxhids. Ontario takes the lead in the pro- duction of brick, tiles, etc., and the innnediate vicinity of Toronto affords an unsurpassed variety and (juantity of clavs and shales suital)le for makinjjf brick of various colors and (jualities. The Dominion as a whole is es- timated by the Geological Survey to have produced in 189G, brick, etc., to the following value : Bricks $1,000,000 Potterv 103,905 Sewer Pipe 1.53,iS75 Terra Cotta 110,85.5 Tiles 225,000 Biiild'hif/ Sfone, etc. Ontario, Queljec and the Eastern Pi-ovinces produce most of the building stone quarried in Canada, and the Eastern Townships of Quebec most of the slate, the values being estimated as follows : Building Stone $1,000,000 Granite 100,700 Slate 58,870 Lime to the value of $050,000 and cements to the value of $201,505 are reported in 1890, as well as sand and gravel valued at $120,000. ConcJ a.non. The total value of the mineral pro- ducts of the Dominion is estimated by the Geological Survey at $28,027,305 in 18;>0, metals amounting to more than .$8,000,000, non-metallic minerals to more than $15,000,000. The largest single item is coal, valued at more than $8,000,000, next follows gold with a value of $2,810,200, and silver amounting to .$2,147,- 589 ; while nickel, copper and petroleum, somewhat surpass a million each in value.* *Eng. Miu. Jour., Mar. 6, 1897, p. 232. 21 ■■■r«'»ff:«!TOgjT3»»l|H.:,^ 11 I'l 1 1 ) k 322 MINERAL RESOURCES OF CANADA. The two provinces now advancinf? at the most rapid rate in the products of the mine are Ontario and British Columbia, and both appear to have a very bright future l)efore them, Ontario because of its inmiense area of free milling cold ores, British Columbia Ijecausu of its great depositsof smelting ores rich in gold, silver, copper and lead. I'here is no i-eason to su])|»ose that these two provinces or Nova Scotia will pi-ove less rich in metals than similar areas in the great country to the south ; and now that Canadians have tfdton is contained in a granular dolomite, belonoino- to the corniferous limestone. The strata penetrated at Oil Sj)rings are 60 to 80 feet of soil and clay, 100 to 200 feet of the limstoncs and shales of the Hamilton formation, and loO feet of the corniferous limestone, oil being reached at 370 feet. At Petrolia the Hamilton limestones and shales lie about 100 feet below the surface, and extend for about 300 feet. Oil is reached in the underlvinii' corniferous about 05 or 70 feet down, at a depth of about 370 feet below the surface. In the early days of the oil industry, a well about four feet in diameter was dug to the rock, and boring continued through the rock by means of a spring pole and hand power. Skill came with experience. The soil is now bored with a clay auger 10 inches in diameter, and the rock drilled with a steel "bit" 4| inches in diameter, and connected with a sinker bar and "jars " of iron, in all about 38 feet long, weighing 1,250 lbs., and a series of light ash poles attached to one another by iron screw joints. The drilling is done by machinery worked bj' a steam engine. Cana- dian drillers have a high reputation for skill, and are in demand in all parts of the world where oil is found. When the drilling is completed the well is " torpedoed," by exploding about 10 quarts of nitre glycerine at the bottom. None of the wells now are flowing wells, Wf] u W. HODGSON ELLIS. 327 all have to he pumped, and the average yield for each well is not niueli more than half a barrel a day. This could not pay if it were not for the in wells in the Oil Springs tiekl, making a total of 9,9G3 \v'ells. The total production of oil was 33,351,997 impei'ial gallons, giving a 3'early average yield of 3,347 imperial gallons per well. In 1891 the yearly average was 0,1 o4 gallons per well. In those four 3'ears the number of wells has been nearly doubliMl, but the production lemains nearly the same. The total production of crude oil for 1890 was about 28,000,000 gallons. The falling off' may perhaps be attributed to uncertainty as to the tariff. The oil refineries are now nearly all situated at Petrolia. A laige refinery is in course of construc- tion at Sarnia. The stills used are c^'lindrical iron stills, set in brickwork, and fii-ed by a spray of petroleum. I am informed that the increased value of the heavier products of distillation is causing this method of firing to be abandoned in favour of coal. The vapours are condensed in pipes, set in long •James Kerr, Toronto Mail, Isb December, 1888, quoted by H. P. Brumell, loc. cit. ! ( ■ if & u I i^ri 328 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES OF CANADA. wooden t.inks filled with water. The scarcity of the water supply at Petrolia has been a serious drawback to the refiners. The products of distillation are : 1. Gas and uncondensed vapours of very low boilinpr point. 2. Na|)htha, specific yiavity, 0.086. t3. Benzine, specific gravity, 0.72}). 4. Illumiiiating oil, s[)eciHc gravity, 0.788 to 0.082. 5. Intermediate oil, used for enriehiniif water iras. 0. Paraffin oil, from which solid paraffin is crystal- ized by cold, and separated l)y filtration under pressure. Fiom the residue lubricating oils of all kinds and of excellent (juality are manufactured. The ilhiminatinof oil is refined bv treatment with sulphuric acid, which is removed by washing with water and caustic soda. Besides this washing with acid which is required also by the Pennsylvania oil, the Canadian oil has to undergo further purification in order to remove the sulphur compounds which it contains, and which give to the crude oil an extremely offensive smell. This is usually effected by agitation with lead oxide dissolved in caustic soda. The refine- ries have now succeeded in removing the sulphur very completely from the oil, but the cost of this addi- tional treatment increases the expense of refining. Mr. Blue, of the Ontario Bureau of Mines, has kindly given me the statistics of oil production for 1890, as follows : — Crude oil used for fuel 2,221,349 gallons. Crude oil distilled 25,1 59,239 27,380,588 Illuminating oil 11,342,880 • " Lubricating oil 2,283,047 Other products 7,821,202 21,447,189 Paraffin 1,532,071 pounds. The value of these products is estimated at $1,884,430. ^]1 W. HODOSON ELMS. 329 Natural Gas. There are two areas in Ontario whore natural gas is obtained in consideraMe ([iiantity — the Kssex field and the Welland fiehl. 'J'hcir devflopnieiit (bites from about 1S90. In tlie rei)ort of the Ontario Bureau of Mines for liS!)2, it is stated that there were seventy- three gas wells in that district producing gas valued at $160,000. In LSOG there were 141 producing wells, 287| miles of piping for the distiibution of the gas. The production was 2,208,7cS4',00O cubic feet valued at 3270,710. A very large portion of the gas is used in the cities of Buffalo and Detroit. Sulj>lnir. — We have !io deposits of free sulphur of any conse([uence, so far as known, but in the form of ])yrites we ])ossess large (quantities which we have scarcely begun to use. In 1894 (Geological Survey 1895, sec. 109) the pro- duction of pyrites was 40,o27 tons valued at $121,581. Most of this was shipped to the United States, but a little was used in Quebec and Ontario for the manu- facture of sulphuric acid. In 1889 the l\'trolia oil refineries used 3,038,704 pounds of sulphuric acid which was made in Canada from Canadian pyrites (Geological Survey 1888-89, sec. 88). Salt — There is a large deposit of salt in the Pro- vince of Ontario, along the shore of Lake Huron, from Kincardine to Windsor.- In 1890 there were made in this district 44,810 tons of salt valued at $204,910. A well bored last year at Windsor is 1,072 feet deep. It passes through four beds of rock salt, the combined thickness of w^hich is 392 feet. The salt from all this district is of excellent quality. A small quantity of salt is also made in New Brunswick. Lhnestones. — Limestones of the best quality, suita- ble for all purposes, abound in Canada. The value of the lime burnt in 1891, was : in British Columbia, * \ \-\ ill 330 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES OF CANADA. iii^4(),2G0; in iMaiiito])a, $20 1, Of).') ; in Nova Scotia, .*:57I,«I9; in Ontario. ;if77.S,5:{() ; in Prince Er<)portion of buckwheat. The climate is less favour- able for fiuit growing, nnd while orchards have been successfully established in the valley of the St. JoJm River, and in some other localities, the varieties grown are chietiy of the liardier soj-ts, ami the cultivation of large fruits is not general. Small fruits, howevei", are grown in abumlance, and the cool weather in early summer retards the ripening season, and i)ermits of the grovving of large quantities of excellent straw- berries, which, rii)ening after the main supplies ob- tainable elsewhere hiive been consumed, find a ready market in the New England cities, at good prices. QUE15EC. The Provincu of Quebec has an area of 227,000 scjuare miles, of which more than one-half is in forest and woodland. The surface of the country is very varied, with ridges of mountains and lofty hills, diversified with rivers and lakes. The climate of Quebec varies much in different parts of the province, but the winter weather is steady, and the atmosphere clear and bracing, with a good depth of snow which gives excellent sleiijfhinf;. The summer is warm and pleasant, when vegetation developes rapidly. Much of the country is well adapted for farming, the soil being loamy and fertile. Hay is one of the princi[)al croj^s grown, and this has been largely exported, but with the recent rapid growth of the dairy industry, much of the crop is now more profitably fed at home, and the elements of fertility, taken from the land during its growth, are restored to the soil with the manure. The principal cereal crops are oats, wheat, pease and buckwheat, with smaller proportions of barley, rye and maize. Potatoes and turnips are largely grown» and cattle, sheep and swine, kept in increasing ^•>rT WILLIAM SAUNDERS. 335 numbers. Tobacco is an iniportjint crop in this |)ro- vince, and of a total of about 4.} niillion pounds prochiced in T'anada nearly 4 niHlion pounds are raised in Quebec. Fruits are grown freely in some of the more favoured districts, mikI tlii-re ai'e many uood orchards in the valley of the St. Lawrence. Nowhere does the celebiatcd Fanieuse appU' reach so hinh a degree of perfection as on the island of Montreal, ■where many varieties of pears also, and phuns of tine flavour are grown. In the eastern townships which are noted for the excellence of their dairy products, fiuit jirowing is carried on to a considerable extent, and fjuantitics of a])ples fioni this section find their way to Monti'eal. Jiut on the intei'ior lands, on the north side of the I'ivei-, oidy the haidier fruits succeed, iind the orchards are few and small. ON TAUIO. Ontario has a teriitory of 220,000 s(piare miles, more than 100,000 of which is in forest and woodland. This province has about 12^, nnllion acres of cleared land, of which, in 1890, more than 11 million were in field crops and pasture. Ontario has a wonderful variety of climate, the extremes both of summer heat and winter cold being tempered by large bodies of water. The following are the princi|)al crops, with the quantity produced of each, in Ontario, in 1S96: Oats, «S3 million bushels; wdieat, 18.} million: maize, 24 million; pease, 17| nuUion; barley, 12!- million, with smaller (piantities of rye, buckwheat and bean.s. Of potatoes, 21 i million bushels .vere grown; turnips, 70 million ; mangels, 17 million, and carrots, 4| million. The crop of hay and clover was 2,260,240 tons. Fruit is grown to a very large extent in this pro- vince and the po.ssibilities in that direction, are as yet but imperfectly known. The estimated area in orchard, garden, and vineyard, is 320,122 acres. The number of pple trees of bearing age is about million, while » I H tw 336 AGRICULTURE OF CANADA. there are 3^, million of younger trees, most of which will soon be in bearing condition. The yield of ap})les in 1896, is estimated at 50 mil- lion bushels. In the Niagara peninsula and along the shores of the western part of Lake Erie, peaclies are grown very successfully, and there ai'e said to be over half a million peach trees planted in those sections of Ontaiio. Grapes also are grown in large quantities. There are about 3 million of bearing grape vines in this province, producing annually about 15 million pounds of grapes. There are also large orchards of pears, ])lums, and cherries. Canadian markets are well supplied with home grown fruits, and there is a large and increasing surplus for exportation, which is sent chiefly to Great Britain. During 189G, more than 2 million barrels of apples were exported fiom Montreal. Tomatoes also are ex- tensively grown, and a large ))roportion of the surplus crop is canned and sent to other countries. Among other useful crops grown in this province, are flax, hops, clover and timothy seeds, millet, and tobacco. Dairying has of late years become one of the most important and profitable branches of agriculture. For the feedino- of milch cattle and steers durinfjthe winter months, a large quantity of maize is now grown anart of tliese crops are fed to animals on the farms. Of about 100 million hushels of oats grown in the Dominion in ISDG, there was exported ahout \\ million l»ush('ls and about 2 million bushels more in the form of oatnieal. It is much the same . with barley Fori)>erly a lar^'e export trade was car- ried on witli this Lorain, now of the IcS to '10 million bushels ijrown not more than 1 million bushels are sent aln'oad. Thus more than nine-tenths of the whole crop of these coarse grains prodticed in Canada is now used in the country as tVxxl for animals. The value of the total exports of breadstufts incluv tliu oiiiunization Jiml maintenance of Experimental Farms by the Dominion Government, also by the estal)lishment of allien Itural colleges and schools in the provinces, where tanners' sons receive a ))ractical training, and where more or less experimental work in agriculture is conducted. This provincial work will be referred to in a separate cha])ter. The work carried on by the Dominion Government was begun ten years ago and was designed to cover a very comprehensive field. The Experimen- tal Farms Act outlines the several branches of woik to be conducted, as follows :— ^ " To test the merits, hardiness and adaptability of new or untried varicjties of cereals and pther field crops, of grasses, forage plants, fruits, vegetables, plants and trees, and to disseminate among persons engaged in farming, gardening or fruit growing, upon such con- ditions as may l)e prescriljed by the Minister, sann^ of the surplus of such products as are considered to be specially worthy of introduction. " To test the relative value for all purposes of dif- ferent breeds of stock and their adaptability to the varying climatic or other conditions which prevail in the several provinces of the Dominion and in the North- West Territories. I ■ ! j 344 KX I'KIUMKNTAL FARMS. "To oxainino into the economic conditions involved in tlic ])r<)ducti()ii ot'ldittcr and cIkm'sc. " I'o analy/*' icrtili/crs, wiictlicr iiatuial or artificial, and to coniluct expciinu'nts with sncli I't'itilizers, in (»rd«r to test theii* C()ni|ianitive value as applied to ero])s of ditlcrcnt kinds. " To examine into tlie eom|t().sition and dij^n'stihility of foods for domestic animals, to eondnct experiments in tlie Dlnntini; of trees for timlier and shelter, to exan nto the <]iseases to wlneii cultivated plants and 7 an; suliject, also into the ravaLies of destrijc- tive insects, and to ascertain and test the most useful preventives and remedies to he used in each ease. "To investij^ate the diseases to which domestic animals are suhject, to ascertain the vitality and purity of i)L,nieultnral seeds nnd to conduct any other ex})e]"iments and researches, henriui,' upon the a,iL,n"icul- tui'al industry of Canada, which are approved by the Minister." Five Experimental Farms in all have heen. estab- lished. The Central, or principal farm is located at Ottawa, where, on the houndary line between Ontario and Quebec, it serves the purposes of tliese two in)j)or- tant provinces ; the four bi-aneh farms beini:^ in the more distant pi'ovinces of the Dominion. A site was chosen for one of these at Nappan, in Nova Scotia, near the dividing line .between that province and New Brunswick, wheie it mil isters to the nee«ls of the three Maritime Provinces. One was located near Brandon, in the eenti'al pait of Manitoba; a third Avas placed at Indian Head, a small town on the C\anadian Pacific railway, in Assiniltoia, one of the North-West Territories ; and the fouith at Agassiz, B.C., in the coast climate of British Columbia. At each of these farms many experiments are in progress in all branches of agriculture, horticulture and arboriculture, and many problems of great in»portance to farmers have already been solved. In selecting the sites for WFLMAM SArNDKIJS. :Hr^ tlioso farms, thov liavo l)ecn so placod as to rondor effiricTit liclj) to tlu' fjinners in tlic iiion' tliicUly s«'ttl«'le l»nildini;s for can-yin,L; on cxjierimcntal woric, an (|uantities of jMomisini: \arieties of seed <4iain which is sent out to he tested by farmers in dillerent ])arts of the country. The principal officers of tlie farm are the Director, A;,'riculturist, Horticulturist, Kntonjolonrist and IJofan- ist, and ('hennst. There is also a Poultry iManaj^er, a Foreman of Korestry, who also acts as assistant to the J)irector, a Farm Foreman and an Accountant. A suitable office staff" is pi-ovideil for conducting' the lare-e corres])()ndence both in Knglish an(i Fretich, which i.s carried on with farmers in all parts of the Dominion, who are encouran(Ml to wribti to the officers of the faiin for information and advice whenever rcijuired. The Director resides on th«^ (^»ntral Farm, Ottawa, and supervises the woik on all the Fx]i(Mimental Farms, making personal inspection of th(( branch farms at least once a year, when the piorrjvss of all the divisions of the work is in([uir2d into and future courses of experiments ])lanne(l. At the Central Farm, the production of new varie- ties of cereals and other crops, the ornamentation of the jijrounds and the plantations of timber trees are under the personal charge of the Director and his assistant, the Foreman of Forestry. During the past seven rears more than 700 new varieties of cereals have been produced at the Experimental Farms, by cross-f'erti- t I 1 ' ' ' i I 1 ' Ir 346 KXrEUlMENTAL FARMS. liziii<^ and liyldidi/iii;^', most of tlu;in at tli(! CentiaT Faiin. Aswistanco in tliis \vt)il\ has been had fVoiii experts specially etnployrd loi" this purpose, and aUo IVoiii some of the superintendents of the hraneh farms. These new varieties are carefully watclied and those of less promise rejected. There are, of th«.'.se, still under test ISO varieties, vix., iS7 of wheat, 'M\ of harley, l.S (tf oats and oG of pease. Some of tliese new sorts have picxhiced lieavy crops for s((Veral years auS.SS with dilferent fertiliz-eis and comhinations of fertilizers, on permanent plots of one-tenth of an aere each. The first year these experiments were confined to |)lots of wheat and Indian corn, hut in l(SSf) the work was en- larged soasto inelude oats, harley, and roots, and the experiments have heen repeated evt-ry year since. There are 10.') plots now devoted to this work and the resnlts obtained are given in the Ainmal lleport each year. Arran' soli and climate on I'ruit and fruit trees within these provinces are caiefully studied and the experience ujaii»e«l from year to year is j>uhlished in the Annual liepi^rt of he Experimental Farms or in special bulletins. Specimens ot new fruits are exan»ined and rejjorted on, and meet- ings of fruit growers indifferent parts of the country, attended, where the horticultural work in juogress at the Central Farm is discussed and the exj)erience ro\vers in all })arts of the Do- niitdon, so as to be informed promptly whenever any outltreak of an a-nicultuial enemv occurs, in ordei- that the best remedies nuiy be applied without delay. By pi'ompt attention to the many correspondents who write to the Kntomolotdst and Botanist, and by the ])ul)lication of information in the asj^ricultnral and fluily press, the importance of this department has been made widely known anson^^ the farmers of Can- ada as a source of trustworthy information upon all subjects which come within its scope. The Chemist analyzes various fodder croj)s to ascer- tain their feedin<; value at differcMit stages of their growth, includini,^ native and introduc(!d grasses, In- (.iian corn, etc., and thus gathers infoi'mation as to the proper time for cutting and curing these plants .so as to obtain the best results. The virgin soils, representing large areas in the ])omini()n, have been under examination foi- some years past, and repoits given on the analytical and physical data obtained, with suggestions as to the most profit- able treatment of these soils. It has thus been shown that Canada possesses soils e({ual in fertility to the most productive in the world, both among the prairie districts in the North-VV^est and the valley lands on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Many of. the naturally occurring fertilizers of Canada — peat, nmcks, mar.sh mud, nuirl, etc. — have been exam- ined during the past seven years, and nuich informa- tion given in reference to the composition of these important deposits. The knowledge of their composi- tion and value enables the farmer in many parts to enrich his fields at small cost. As far as time permits, analyses are made for faiiners, of matters pertaining to Agriculture, where the results are likely to be of inter- H' to ts, to 51'- WILLIAM SAUNDERS. 351 est and value to a larixe portion of the connniinit}'. Much usclul woik Itas also been done bv tlie exaniina- tioii ot" water .supjdies on i'aiiiis, and by callini; atten- tion to tlie dangei' oi' drinisini,^ water or of usini,' it for stock, wliere it is i)()lhited 1)V' (baiiiJ«i>e from tlie barn- yard. A lari^^e coircspoiKlcnoe is cariied on witli farmers W'lio desii'e tt) olttain advice and information respecting tlie treatment of soils, the eom|)osition and application of fertilizers, the relative value of cattle foods, and kindred subjects. The Poulti'v Manau^or conducts experiments with a ninnber of dillerent breeds of fowls, with the view of fiiuiinuf out the best eu'LT-lavers and Hesh-foiMiiers, ]»ar- ticularly those which i;iv(; the best eL,'^' yield durinj^ th«.' winter season, when ement of the young fowls, per month, so as to show which thoroughbreds or crosses t^ive the most satisfactory results an I produce l»irds tit for market in the shorttsst time. Notes are also made as to the beiiaviour of the ditterent breeds during their long confinement in winter, and as to the best methods of jne venting egg-eating and feather-picking, also as to the diseases to which poultry are subject and the remedies therefor. When the Central Experimental farm was acquired sixty -five acres of land weie set apart for an Arboretum and Botanic Garden. This has been placed in charge of the Foreman of Forestry. During the past seven years the planting of this section of the farm with trees, shrubs and perennial plants, has made nuich progress, sjiecial attention having l)een given to the obtaining of as many of the trees and shrubs native to Canada, as possible, and such species and varieties from 1 V t 352 EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. other countries as wore likely to prove hardy here, A larj^'e proportion of tliu native trees liave now het.-ii secured, and many ot" tlie sliruhs and j)erennial plants; many s))ecies and varieties liave also been introduced from otlier countries, such as the United States, Great Britain, llussia, (Jurmany, Fiance, and othei' i)arts of Europe, also from Siheria, Japan, (Jhina, the mountain districts of India, and IVom Asia Minor. Ot" these, many have })rov(jd hardy, and the collection already formed is a source of nuieh inteiestto hotanists, as well as to the general puhlic. The nundjer of species and varieties of trees and shruhs now yrowin*,^ in the Ar- horetum and JJotanic Chiiden is al»out 2,000, and of peremiial plants, nearly 1,100. These have heen ar- ranged, as far as was j)ractical)le, in related hotanical j];rou})s, s(> as to adnnt of convenient conij)aiison and study. Kach tree, shruh and pliuit, is lahelled witii a duialile enamelled or a zinc label so that it can be readily ideiititied. The Farm Foreman directs the labour of the workmen and teams, and keejjs the time of the men. He also carries out the arrangements made in connection with the pre})aration of the land and the sowiniLj and har- vestini^ of the crops, "ucl takes carefid records in con- nection with the L;rowth and yield of all the Held crops and arranues for the .torini^or threshinir, cleaniuLr, and subsequent care of all these farm products. Dui'injj^ the winter nujuths he arranj^'es for the haulinu- and care of manure, the cuttingand )»repaiation of food lor stock, and dirt^cts the cieaiung, haiul pickinij and i)Ut- ting up of tlie samples of grain sent out to farmers for test, also of much ot the seed sup})lied to the branch Expeiimental Farms. BRANCH KXPERIMKNTAL FARMS. At the branch farms much cf th*; work is so arranged as to provide for the investigation of those questions which are 61 the most innnediate importance to the ''^TT WILLIAM SAUNDERS. 85^ farmers rosidiiirj in tlie sovoral provinces wlioro those institutions are locato WILLIAM SAUNDKUS. 355 to make successful plantations for the ornament- ation of homes in towns and cities, as well as those on the prairie farms in Manitoha. THK KXI'KlllMENTAL KAHM I'OU IHI': NOllTH-WKST TKKKITOIIIKS. This farm, which has heen located at Indian Head, in Kastern Assiniiioia, eontains (uSO acres, iind at the time of its selection it was all bare prairie. The soil is very fertile and produces excellent crops of grain ; but there is great need of shelter froni prevailing winds. Tree planting on a fairly large scale was begun as soon as piacticable after the I'arm was o('Cuj)ied, and al- though at first, [)n)gress was rather slow, the trees planted at the outset soon formed more or less shelter lor each other as well as for those subse<|Uently j)lant- ed, and now they arc nearly all doing well. In shelter belts, blcjcks, avenues and hedges, there are now grow- ing on this farm more than 100,000 tiees. Experiments in the treatment of land to prepare it for crop, in methods of sowing and de^jth of sowing, also in the treatment of seed grain for smut, have been cai'ried on here, the results contirming the conclusions which have been reaehcd at Ih-anilon. Many tests have also be<^n made with ibdder c'op.s, sueh as Indian corn, grasses and mixed grain crops and spring rye cut gre(;n for hay. Experiments have also been concluctcd m the feeding of stock, the fattening of swine and the management of poultry. In this relatively drier climate the value of good grass for hay and pastnie can scarce- ly be over-t'stimated, and among the most important of all the results gaini'd by tests on this farm are those which have establishc i the value and general usefulness of Awnless liiome (Jrass {Bromutt inrrm is) in the Noith-West. This grass is very hardy, is a Miong grovvei-, enilures drought well, njakes a very early growth in the spring and yields tine crops of excellent hay whicJi is much lelished by cattle. Large quantiticb 1 \ 1 ; i' 1 u iv I- 356 EXPEUIMENTAL FARMS. of seed oi' this useful grass have been fc-avecl at Indian Head, and many hundreds of sample bags liave been sent to farmers in different parts of the North-West country for trial, and the reports received regarding its usefulness are most satisfactory. Small fruits have been grown successfully at Indian Head ; but among the larger fruits tried none have yet proved successful. Many species and varieties of econ- omic and ornamental trees and shrubs have been tested here and more than 100 sorts have proved hardy. KXPEUIMENTAL FARM FOll mUTISlI COLUMBIA. The branch farm at Agassiz, B.C., is situated in the coast climate of British Columbia, 70 miles east of Vancouver, and contains about 1,100 acres of land, 300 of which is valley land and 800 acres mountahi. The climate here is admirably adapted to fruit culture, and since the fruit industry promises to become one of great importance to this province, large trial orchards have been planted on this farm for the purpose of testing side by side the fruits of similar climates, from all parts of the world, so that information as to the most prom- ising and useful sorts may be available to guide the settlers in that country. Already more than 2,200 varieties are under test and orchards have been es- tablished not only on the valley lands, but also on the bench lands up the sides of the mountain, at different heights varying from 150 to 1,050 feet. On the mountain sides have also been planted large numbers of forest trees, especially- those representing the more valuable hard woods of the East. Many dit- ferent sorts of ornamental trees and shrubs are also under test. As at the other branch farms, useful lines of work are carried on in the cultivation of different sorts of cereals, roots and fodder plants, and experi- ments conducted with cattle, swine and poultry. At this and each of the other farms, many varieties oi vegetables and liowers are tested every year, and thus WILLIAM SAUNDERS. 357 the work is marl'' holpful to apjri culture, horticulture and arboriculture. GENERAL WORK. During the past seven years more than lO.OOO pack- ages of seedlinj^ trees shruhs and cuttings have been distributed free through the mail, and more than six tons ot" tree seeds, in a sinnlar manner, to farmers in dift'ei'cnt parts of the Domiiuon wlio have applied for them and thus a general interest in tree growing has been awakened. An Annual Report is published, containing ])articulars of the work done at each farm, and this report is sent to every farmer in the Domin- ion who asks for it. A very large number is distribut- ed each year. Occasional bulletins on special subjects of immediate importance are also issued from time to time, which roach a large pj\)portion of the most intel- ligent farmers in the country. 'J'he ofhcors of all the farms attend most of the more important gatherings of farmers in different parts of Canada, where oppor- tunities are afforded forgiving further explanations re- gardinjj the work conducted and the results acldeved from year to year. "TTTT f Ml I i til iiM CHAPTER VI. -SECTION 3. The Work done by the Legislatures of the various Provinces in assisting Agriculture. T^Y C. C. Jamkm, M.A., Dki iTY Mivisteh ok AoRicnLTrKE for OSTAHtO. ^pilK legislatures of all the provinces have from the 1- Hrst shown an intense interest in all niov(»nients ten(iin<( to develop this i,n'eat industry. This interest was first shown in most cases throuiih assistance ixiven to aijjricultural societies. It will doiihtless be sur- ])risinf( to many to learn that a jj^ri cultural societies were formed as early as 17S in Ontario. Furthermore, all these were inau mi rated throuMi the influence of the Governors of the three provinces. In the year LS25,the Board of Agriculture of New Brunswick heo-an the impoi'ting of pure bred stock which has been carried on so extensively ever since, especially by the Province of Ontario. Tc; these general atjricultural societies W(!re subsequently added the live stock associations. Dairyin*;" belongs to a later period. Co-operation in this work dates from 1804, and the various dairy associaticms belong tathe past (piarter of a century. All the provinces are at present assisting this industry and the development is very rapid. An- other moveUkjnt of recent years is the formation of societies for discussing agricultural questions as dis- tinguished from societies tbi' holding fairs and award- ing premiums. These are known as Farmers' Institutes in Ontario and in Manitoba, and as Farmers' Clubs (Cercles Agricoles) in Quebec. Specialization in agri- Y' C. C. JAMES. 359 cultnro has boon assistod by tlio orp;anization of other associations dovotoil to I'niit-^'rowin^, poultry-raisiujj, bec-kcopijiiT^, ontoiMoloLjy.otc. One of thi^ most sij^rniH- cantaiifl most liopoful si^jjis of (levelopmt»ntati(l«iriovvth in Canada is the incroasinij iiitorest in all the 14<,?20,000, V(Ued for furthering the dairy interests of the Territories by way of Ijonuses to cheese and butter factories. Agti- cultui-al societies are assisted by b')tli the Dominion and the Local Government. The latter also makes grants to encourage tlie destruction of wolves, coy- otes, and gophers, and to exterminate weeds. Cheese factories and creameries also are assisted by grants or loans at the time of starting. In IS!)2 there was started The Dairymen's A.ssociation of the North- West, the headquartei's of wliich are at Regina. Manitoba. In the l^•ovinciaI Government of Mani- I !| , ' I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) fJ^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 '- I— 12.2 :^ 1^ ill 2.0 1.8 1.4 1.6 6" — ► 7] <^ /] V. "c-1 0% ^> 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 \ ^^ 4^ ^9) V ^ 360 LEGISLATURES ASSISTING AGRICULTURE. toba the interests of agriculture and immigration are {issociated undei- one Minister. At the present time, tliis Minister is also leader of the Government. The Department collects and publishes full statistical re- turns of the crops, live stock and dairy products of the province. The annual I'eport also gives a general summary of the agricultural work of the association, and special reports of each give the details. There are fifty agricultural societies for holding annual fairs or exhibitions, with one large central association at Win- nipeg. ^14,000 is voted for the former and $3,500 for the latter. There are Farmers' Institutes in the various districts for the discussion of questions relating to farming. The Central Farmers' Institute, with head- quarters at Brandon, is made up of delegates from all the local institutes. There are three other Provincial Associations interested in poultry, dairying and stock bleeding. The Government has a Superintendent of Dairying under whose direction a dairy school is oper- ated. Special efforts are being made to increase the number of cheese and butter factories. Other matters under the direction of the Department are the sup- pression of noxious weeds, and the inspection of live animals, with a view of checking and preventing dis- ease. A beginning has been made by the Educational Department in teaching agriculture 'in the public schools. Prince Edward Island. Agricultural work in this province has hitherto been carried on mainly by the Dominion Department of Agriculture. The Provin- cial Legislature makes an annual grant of $3,000 to the Provincial Exhibition Association, and $1,500 to each of two other local associations. Nova Scotia. Agriculture is not represented in the Government of Nova Scotia by a Minister, but there is an officer appointed bj^ the Government to supervise the agricultural work of the province and to report upon the same. This officer is known as Secretary of C. C. JAMES. 361 Agriculture. Nova Scotia possesses one of the oldest agricultural societies in America, the Kings County Agricultural Society in " the land of Evangeline," will in 1897, hold its 108th annual meeting. Agricultural societies have for over a century played an important part in the progress of the province. At present there are eighty -five, with a membership of 4,888, receiving in all $8,000 from the legislature. At Truro is located the Provincial Farm and the Provincial School of Agri- culture. At the latter, eighty-seven students were re- gistered in 1896. Dairying is a special feature of the school and special attention is given to courses for teachers. The Nova Scotia School of Horticulture is located at Wolfville, and is directed by the Provincial Fruit-Growers' Association. The school is open from November 1st to May 1st. There is a general pro- vincial organization called the " Nova Scotia Farmei's' Association." A report is issued annually by the Sec- retary of Agriculture giving a summary of the work of all the societies also papers and articles of interest to the farmers of Nova Scotia. New BvuTiswiGh. The supervision of the agricultural work of this province is entrusted to an official of the Government who is known as Secretary of Agriculture. The Provincial Government makes special grants for importing pure-bred stock. Annual grants are made to the local agricultural societies whose funds are used in holding fairs and importing stock for the use of the members. There is a special grant to the fair at St, John, and several local dairy associations are as- sisted. There is a Superintendent of dairying and a short dairy cour.se is given at Sussex. For the past two years a travelling dairy has been sent out. The leading farmers' organization of the province is known as the " Farmers and Dairymen's Association of New Brunswick," which ])rints an annual report. The latest yearly report of the Secretary of Agriculture gives the dairy product of the province as follows : In 1896, nine - 'ii ■jl 11 M : '8 i ■ Mi 362 LEGISLATURES ASSISTING AGHICHLTURE. creameries with 548 patrons, produced 113,892 lbs. but- ter; 53 cheese factories with 2,292 patrons, produced 1,263,266 lbs. cheese. Quebec. The work is directed by the Commissioner of Agriculture and Immigration, who is a member of the Government, assisted by a Council of Agriculture. There is an agricultural society in every county. The Act under which they are organized requires them to hold exhibitions and competitions for farms or standing- crops in alternate years. The annual grant to these societies is $50,000. Then there are what are known as Farmers' Clubs for discussion, one for each parish. There are 550 of these clubs, and the annual grant to them is $50,000. The Department .sends out lecturers to attend the meetings of the clubs, each club being entitled to at least two lectures a year. $6,000 is ap- propriated for this purpose. There is issued by the Council of Agriculture the " Illustrated Journal of Agriculture," which appears twice a month, once in English and once in French. It is distributed to members of the societies and clubs, and its circulation is at present 10,000 in English, and 45,500 in French. General agricultural instruction is given at five schools located at Oka, L'Assomption, Compton, Rober- val, and Ste. Anne de la Pocatiere, the last school being for housekeeping for farmei's' daughters. The annual grant to these schools is $25,000. Two veterinary schools are assisted by an annual grant of $5,000, both located in Montreal, the French school being attached to Laval University, and the English school to McGill University. Two societies for the improvement of Horticulture are encourajied, viz.: The Pomological and Fruit Grow- ing Society of the Province of Quebec ($500 grant), and the Horticultural Society of Quebec ($250 grant). In addition to this $500 is voted to encourage the culture of fruit trees. C. C. JAMES. 363 Dairying is especially encouraged in Quebec. The Dairy School at St. Hyacinthe receives an annual grant of $15,000, and SlO.OOO additional is voted to the Dairy Association of the province and for the inspection of butter and cheese syndicates. Three hundred pupils attended the schood in 1896. There were in IcSOC, 400 creameries and 1,400 cheese factories. The Dairy Association, with headquarters at St. Hyacinthe pub- lishes annually an interesting and valuable report. Other grants of the legislature tliat may be mentioned are the following : $200 for the Poultry Association at Montreal, $1,000 for the Official Agricultural Labor- atory at Quebec, $5,000 for the Three Rivers exhibition, $4,000 for the improvement of rural roads, and $2,500 for " agricultural merit," this last being awarded in prize competition for farm management. (hHavio. An agricultural society was formed at Newark (Niagara) under the patronage of the first Governor, Qo\. Simcoe, soon after the organization of the first legislature. It was not, however, until 1830, that organizations of this nature became numerous and received much assistance. The entire Province is now thoroughly organized and districts and township socie- ties are carrying on their work through holding annual fairs and the purchase of pure-bred stock. There are numerous horticultural societies also in the cities, towns and villages. The legislature of Ontario appro- priates $75,650 for their support. The sum of $183,736 was paid out for prizes in 1895. There are other pro- vincial societies and associations to which grants are made as follows: Fruit-Growers' Association, $1,800 ; Entomological Society, $1,000 ; two Butter and Cheese Associations, $6,500 ; Horse Breeders' A.ssociation, $2,000; Sheep Breeders' Association, $1,500; Swine Breeders' Association, $1,200; Cattle Breeders' Asso- ciation, $1,500; two Poultry Associations, $1,400; Bee- Keepers' Association, $1,100; and the Agricultural and Experimental Union, $1,200. ,: i| 1 ' .Ml I' I; r i 11 Hi 364 LEGISLATURES ASSISTING AGRICULTURE. Ten fruit experiment stations are maintained in different parts of the province directed by the Fruit- Growers' Association and assisted by a jiijrant of $2,800. Practical instruction in spraying of fruit trees is carried on at an annual expense of Si, 800. A vote of Si^OOis made for experiments in apiculture. The system of Farmers' Institutes is most complete. Thf Legislature directs the work, maintains the Superintendent, p^ives a grant of .1^25 to each separate organization, and sends out well qualified speakers to attend and addi'ess the meetings. In 1896, 606 meetings were held, attended by 102,461 persons. The appro]>riation for this work is $9,900. Road improvement is looked after by an official known as the Provincial Instructor in Road- making. A pioneer farm is established in Western Algoma to prove the adaptability of that section to farming. The Ontario Agricultural College and Ex- perimental Farm is located at Guelph, fifty miles west of Toronto. It is, all departments considered, the best equipped agricultural college in America. Full courses are given leading up to a diploma at the end of a two years' course and a degree (Bachelor of the Science of Agriculture) at the end of a three years' course. Connected with it is a dairy school. Both courses are now attended to their fullest capacity. The Govern- ment also maintains a well equipped dairy school at Kingston in Eastern Ontario, and another dairy school with short courses has lately been started at Strathroy. For several years past there have been sent out travel- ling dairies to give instruction in butter making. The great extent of the dairy production will be appre- ciated when it is stated that the province produces annually over 100,000,000 lb. of factory cheese (ched- dar), 5,000,000 lb. of creamery butter and over 50,000,- 000 lb. of dairy butter, and the total value of all the dairy products amounts to over $25,000,000. All of this varied work is under the charge of the Department of Agriculture at Toronto, over which C. C. JAMES. 365 presides the Minister of Agriculture, who is a member of the Government. The reports of all the associa- tions and movements here enumerated are printed and distributed by the Department. The same Depart- ment collects and publishes statistics, including those relating to the farm and dairy, inunicipal finances, loan companies, labor organizations, etc. The appropria- tion for printing reports and bulletins is J$2(),500. The total grant in 1897 for the expenses of the Department, the grants to the various associations, the maintenance of the Agricultural College and dairy schools and the various work coming under the general head of agri- culture, amounts to $230,897. The details of the var- ious branches of this woi-k may be had in the separate reports published by the Department of Agriculture, Toronto, Ont. CHAPTER VI.-SECTION 4. Notes on Agricultural Education in the Dominion of Canada. By James Mills, M.A., LL.D., Pkksioknt (Jntahio Aoricultural College, Guei-imi, Ont. APART from .schools and colleges, there are a number of agencies wliich assist indirectly in the vvoi'k of agricultural education, — agricultural papers and peri- odicals, agricultural societies, live stock and dairy associations, horticultural societies, farmers' institutes, and similar organizations. In the Province of Ontario, tlie county and township agricultural societies, 432 in number, and 51 district horticultui'al societies hold annual shows which exhibit very clearly the results of"»the be.st practice of each locality in grain growing, root cultivation, stock rais- ing, and fruit culture; a provi? cial fat stock .show, held annually in ])ecember, furni.shes striking illustra- tion.s of what can be done by skill in the breeding, selection, and feeding of animals ; the live stock and dairy associations have meetings from year to ytar for the discussion of (juestions I'elating to farm animals and their pioducts ; the latter also send .specialists throughout the province to in.struct the makers of buttei' and cheese while at work in the factories ; and the Travelling Dairy, under the control of the Agri- cultural College, goes from neighbourhood to neigh- bourhood, lecturing and giving practical demonstrations in rnilk-testing and butter-making. The Fvuit Growers' Association publi.shes a monthly journal and holds annual meetings at different points I JAMFIS MILLS. 307 in tho province for tlic dolivory of a 'lit < '111 1 i- 380 LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY UF CANADA. Up and calf branding-, and at the fall round-up. Hay sufficient to food the weaklinj^s of the herd i.s provided to be used only in case of nece.ssity. Calves are branded at the end of June and during September. Beef is shipped during September, October and No- vember. Most of it goes alive to Montreal for expor- tation to Britain. A considerable number of cattle go west to British Columbia, especially to the mining districts. The building of the Crow's Nest Pass Railroad, it is expected, will increase this market. The men who look after the cattle are called " cow boys ;" they are usually men of middle age, of good physique, and capable of much endurance ; in manners and ideas of the world in general they resemble very much Jack, the sailor, and like him they are generous to a fault with one another, and have a similar ten- dency to have an occasional " blow out " during which they usually " blow in " all their month's, wages. Thereis piobably no class of men as much misre- presented as the " cow boy," " cow puncher " or " cow man," of the western country. Judging from the newspaper reports and the manufactured articles of magazine contributors one would suppose that they are all devil-may-care, reckless-of-life, bold-bad-men, whose sole object in life is to ride a bucking broncho, terrorize the natives, " paint the town red," and die with their clothes on. It is true that the far west has long been the hiding place of fugitives from justice and many lawless out- casts, who dare not return east, work at intervals dur- ing the round-up, on cattle ranches, but too often join with others of their own description and become out- laws out west also. These men by adopting the picturesque dress of the genuine cow boy are taken for such and thus despoil him of his good name. There are to be found on western ranches, wearing the sombrero hat, the buckskin shirt, leather " chaps " "[ I DUNCAN M'EACHRAN. 381 1 i I' and the clanking spurs, nnon in whose veins course Britain's host hlood, and <^ra(hiates of her great Uni- versities, men who, loving a life of freoterinarian and al)Out a hundred ins[)ectors. Their responsibilities are very ijjreat; charged as they are with preventing the introduction of disease of animals from without and arf;o by (jlreat Britain was put on Canadian cattle on the erroneous diagnosis made by Imperial veterinarians, when a non- contagious form of pleuro-pneumonia caused by the rough usage incident to 1 on <>• railroad and ocean transit, was mistaken for the contagious lung plague ; led to a falling ott'in the numbers exported. In 1896 exporta- tion had again increased to 101,502 cattle, 117,428 sheep and about 15,000 horses in addition to the large numbers exported to the States and sent west to the ranches. At no time in the history of Canada has the outlook '•i^ Hi i'h ,i: ! l;: I I \ 384 LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY OF CANADA. for live stock business been so promi.slniif both in tlie east and iti tlie wost as at present. The removal of tl)(! (juarantine of ninety days against Canadian cattle by the United States Government after thoroijt^ldy satisfyiriLj themselves that contaLjious pleuro-pneu- monia does not exist in this country ; has opened up again that lar^'e market for breeding stock. The opening up of tiie western mining country, and the shortage, from various causes, of cattle in the far western StMes tend to boom Canadian ranches, and combine to make Her Majesty's Jubilee year a red letter year for Canadian stock raisers throughout tho Dominion. CHAPTER VIII. Canadian Water Powers. With Special llEFEiiiiNCK to tiieiu Utilization FOR Electrical Purposes. By Wm. Kknneuy, Jr., M. Can. Soo, C. E., Monthkal. TT Hi^lE Water Powers in Caiuula, suitable for iitili/atioii *- for (;lcctrical [)urpo.se,s are so luiiucroiis, ami (jf so great capacity, that in a comparatively short ui'Lielt; it is [)0.ssible to do little more than state their locations, or as seems preferable in this case to note some particulars of a few of those now utilized or likely to be in the near future. In A])ril, 1892, an Act was passed by the Ontario Leijislature, contIriuinkrsity of Toronto. 'T THE first part of this volume and the foregoing chapters of the tliird part furnisli an account of the resources of Canada from the points of view of natural science and of tochnolonfv. ft remains to oive a brief account of the economical exploitation of those resources, to indicate the extent of the development of manufactures, transportation and commerce, and the growth and distribution of ]iopulation. The foundations of the ti'ade of Canada were laid by the couveurs de hois, wdio trapped and hunted in the "backwoods" of New France, and brought their peltries to Montreal foi' sale at the periodical fur fairs. The Company of One Hundred Associates (1G27), and La Co^npagnie des Indes Occidentcdes (16G4), were the forerunners of " The Governor and Company of Adven- turers of England trading into Hudson's Bay " (IG70).* * The Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company, granted l)y Charles II., has been frequently reprinted. (See, c.r/.. Report of Select Committee on Hudson's Bay Company, 18.")?, Parliamentary Paper, 224, 260, Sess. 2, 1857.) Much interesting information regarding the history and operations of the Hudson's Bay Comi)any is to be found in " Correspcmdence, etc., relating to the Northerly and West- erly Boundaries of Ontario," 'j'oronto, 1882; in the "Ontario Sessional Papers, Vol. xxi. , Part V"., 1889 ;" in "An Investigation of the Unsettled Boundaries of Ontario," by Charles Lindsey, Tor- onto, 1873; and in "Report on the lioundaries," eti;., by David Mills, M. P. , Toronto, 1873. " Canauiations and the eagerness with whicli tlie puisuit of gold is con(hict('(l in tiieni, tlie newly deve- loj.ed rej^dons have exhibited renuirUaltle instances of self-government in the liteial scMise. It is, however, a question whether or not this can Ix; a i)ermanent con- dition, in such a case much d(!penr nnnin;; are those (jf smelt- ing and of transportation. Many of tlu! most valuable deposits of placer as well as of free-milling ([uartz and of dioriti(; gohbbeai'ing rocks are at present inaccessi- ble by ordinaiy means of travel. No doubt, in time the yield from tlu; less inaccessilde nnnes will justify the extension of the system of transportation, by means of tunnels coniu'ctin*"; the different mines to- gether, or by means of sub-aerial or aeiial railways or tramways. The lemarUable system of inland waters in the Kainy Lake and Seine River districts, and in southern British Columbia and in the Yukon have rendered possible meanwhile a development to which otherwise Canada might have remained a stranger. The smelting of Canadian gold, silver and copper ores, is carried on to some extent in Canada, especially at Sudbury in Ontario, and at Nelson and Trail, in * An " Uitlander " question has already emerged in the West Kootenay district of British Columbia, and in the Yukon- .FAMr:S MAVOJl. no9 British ( 'oliiiiiiiin. 'I'lic imlk < I" tin- ( 'hiiikIIhii ore uocs, li()\vc'V(!r, to tile siiuiltcrs iit liiittc, lltlcii.i junl (iifat Falls, iti Moiitaim, or .to Onuilui, in N»'l»iJiskii. Kvon wheri! tlu! oics art! siiK-itod i.i ( 'aiuida, tlie process of retiniiii;' is ctiiricd on in tlu; United States. The laiUion exports from ( anada an; theretore small in comparison to tliL! total yield, 'i'lu; '^oUi and silver extracted from Canadian ores appear as IJidted States products. VV'heat •.,'rovvin<; in ('nnada is "ow chieliy carried on in Manitoba, although there is an increasing (piantity grown in the North-VVest 'I'erritories and a diminish- ing (piantity grown \\\ Ontario. The tliick, hlack loam of tlje prairie west of tlu; lied River lias pro- duced, under cultivation, the finest wheat. Although Manitoba wheat commands a sliglitly higher pri<;e in the market than other sorts, tlu; price is deterndned rather in the " wheat-i)it," at Chicago, than either at Jiondon or at Winnijteg. The relatively low price of liSl).> u as offset l»y an ahundant (rro]); and the rela- tively high price of INUG was offset hy a diiticient ciop, due lar<>('lv to late storms. On the whole, the Mani- toha farmers have heen prosperous duiing the; few ))ast seasons, and have succe(\ded, not only in paying interest on mortgages for money borrowed during had seasons, or to j)urchase nuichinery, hut have heen able to pay off a large amount of their indebtedness. The result has been a clieck to the inflow of ca))ital into the province. The tiJide in wheat is conducted by a few large firms, who have their warehouses or elevators at nearly every station in Manitoba, and at many in the North -West Teriitorics. The farmer.s take their grain to the elevators and receive the market price, the cost of carriage to the market being taken into considera- tion. Althougli there are large flour mills at Montreal and in Ontario, there is a much larger exportation of wheat than of flour. Amonor the reasons for this are !i Mi m 400 ECONOMICAL RESOURCES OF CANADA. the expediency of mixing diti'erent classes of wheat in iioui' nulling, the absence in Canada, at present, of facilities for the disposal of ottal, and the relatively greater convenience of storing large quantities of wheat than of Hour. It is to be noted, however, that a market for Hour is opening up in Australia. There is an apparent tentlenc}' towards consolidation of the liour milling companies. The Ontario, JS'ova Scotia and New Brunswick farmer, driven out of the wheat market by the com- petition of Manitoba, has turned his attention to cattle- raising, to dairying, to fruit and vegetable growing, and to bee culture.* As regards vegetables, there are three staples in which, especially in the Ontario pen- insula, a large trade is carried on. These are tomatoes, corn and peas. As regards fruit, strawberries, peaches, gra[)es, plums and apples are tlie [)rincipal staples. The trade in fresh fruits has been to some extent injured recently by tlie com2)etition of dried fruits from California. Apples are produced in large quantities also in New Brunswick. A change has recently taken place in the apple trade of interest from the point of view of international commerce. Formerly the whole of the trade in apples between Canada and the contin- enl: of Europe was transacted through English and Scotch firms, who transhipped the apples in the United Kingdom. Now the Canadian houses export direct to Germany and France. The development of the cheese and butter industry has been greatly promoted by the establishment of co-operative creameries and cold storage arrangements ; and by the adoption of improved methods by which at * In addition to the information contained in the articles by Mr. Saundero, Mr. James and Mr. Mills above, much valuable informa- tion inr.y be had from the reports of the Dominion Minister of Agri- culture, and from the reports ot the Ministers of Agriculture of the various provinces, especially of Ontario. Information regarding the Dairying Industry, Cold Storage, etc., may be found in the excellent reports of Mr. Robertson, Dairy Commissioner, Ottawa. JAMES MAYOR. 401 of [Ir. Lia- \vi- fhe the but a day's notice the man.agement of a factory may changje from the manufacture of cheese to that of butter. The result of these recent improvements has been a f^reat increase in the export trade both in clieese and butter. Pork packing is carried on at Winnipeg and at Toronto, St. Thomas and Ingersoli, in Ontario. Form- erly farmers killed hogs on the farm ; now they send live hogs to mark-^t where they are bought for the packing factories. The conditions of the Canadian trade have lately been such that the farmer found greater profit in the production of light-weight than of heavy-weight hogs, and with the ready adaptability for which the Ontario farmer has distinguished him- Belf, he has devoted himself to the production of these exclusively. For packing purposes, however, it is necessary to have a certain number of heavy-weight hogs, and recently these have had to bo im])()rted from the United States. Boot and shoe factories, so far as Canada is concerned, have come to be concentrated in Montreal and Quebec. There were formerly some factories at Toronto ; but the industry has practically left Ontario. Tlie princi- pal cause of this concentration appears to be the cheap- ness of labour in the lower ])rovince, where French- Canadian girls are largely employed. The manufacture of wood into doors and window- frames, etc., is carried on extensively in Ontario — at Desoronto, for example, the work being done by the aid of wood-working machinery, and large quantities are packed and exported. Furniture, also, is manufactured extensively in Canada. There is a certain freshness of design in Canadian furniture, although there is perhaps a tendency to a rococo style.* The manufacture of cottons is eniraixed in more largely in the Province of Quebec than in Ontario. * Furniture is manufactured chiofly at Preston, Toronto, Ottawa, London and Woodstock. n 26 402 ECONOMICAL RESOURCES OF CANADA. The largest mill is at Hochelaga. The Dominion Cot- ton Company, one of the most extensive concerns, has ten mills with 194,000 spindles and 4,890 looms. The trade in printed cotton goods has increased enormously during the past five years. In 1890, the deliveries were 87,000 pieces ; in 1896, they were 500,000 pieces. During the American Civil War, while the cotton famine la'-ited, and the price of litien was high, a factory for the manufacture of linen was established at Water- loo, Ont., but after the close of the war and the fall of prices, the manufacture was abandoned. Shipbuilding is engaged in at Owen Sound and at Toronto ; although the decline of w^ooden shipbuilding has affected this industi'y at the former port and has affected related industries, such as sail-making, at both places. Hops are grown in British Columbia — in the Okana- gan Valley, for example. Canadian hops are being exported on a considerable scale to Japan, where beer seems to be replacing the native spirits. There are breweries in Brock ville, Walkerville, Perth, Waterloo and Toronto ; and distilleries in Halifax, Waterloo, Lanark and Toronto, and in the counties of Hastings, Grenville and Essex. Tobacco is grown in Essex and Kent counties, On- tario, and manufactured in Montreal, Toronto and Hamilton. The Canadian wholesale and retail trade in dry-goods has undergone a series of changes during recent years. The growth of "departmental stores,"* and the efforts made by English wholesale houses to trade direct with the "departmental stores" or with the ordinary dry- goods store instead of selling to the wholesale houses in Canada, have together tended to render the whole- sale trade unprofitable so far, at any rate, as the large * Shops, of which Whiteley's, in London, or Lewis's, in Liver- pool, may be taken as the type. JAMES MAVOR. 403 towns are concerned * Even in the country, dry-proods incrcliants in some cases unite toijotlier to scnid a bnver to New York or liondon. Tlie efforts toward direct trade on the part of the Enjj^li.sb houses have led to the appointment of p^ents or brokers ; tliis is manifest in the grocei'Y trade as well as in the dry-goods trade. The extent of territory which an agent must cover in selling even one commodity and the cost of travelling render it more profitable for him to represent several houses and to sell sometimes widely different classes of goods. The wholesale houses have, however, an advantage in trading with the more distant parts of the country. In spring and autumn, for example, dry-goods buyers from British Columbia and IManitoba go to Montreal, Toronto or New Yoi-k, for the purpose of seeing the latest -j^ioffos and of laying in a stock of materials with which to make uj) tliese.-f* The soft coal of Nova Scotia is used for maritime purposes and for manufactures in that province and in Quebec. Western Ontario is wholly supplied from Pennsylvania.^ The lignite coal beds of Lethbridge supply the Canadian Pacific Railway through a great part of the Territories and the line to Great Falls in Mon- tana. The bituminous coals in the foot hills of the Rocky Mountains have for years been used by the ranchmen in the neighbourhood, and are likely to be * One result of this lias 1)een tliat the wholesale houses in the towns will sell to country retail dealers at a lower rate than to town retail dealers. The latter thus sometimes go to the country villages to ])uy. The several conditions noted in the text and al)ove (as also relatively higli local railway rales), have contril)uted to the development of country markets, an*\\ii had hocti aocuHtoiunl mot l)y nii Iikmcnisc in the iron diiticvs. In tho tariff of IS.S7 a Inrtrc nunilH'i' oi' nd rulorcpi xt important remodeliinj^r of tin. tariff took place in 1JS!)0. Then tlie principal objects of the (lov- ernment were described in tlie Hudi^et Speeeli of that yeai' to be to adndt free of duty those raw materials which miL,dit faeilitate the tlevelopment of the eountiy and to reduce the duties upon articles which were not manufactured in C'anada, and which were on that account, not tit subjects for protection. In the follow- ing year, 1(S1)1, the principal ehan<^f(! was tho reujoval of the duty upon raw suear and the granting of a bounty ofSl per ewt. upon beet root sugar " produced in Canada wholly from beets produced theiein." 7. The fixation of the tariff for 181)4 was preceded by an inquiiy made by a commission which visited different industiial centres and reported to tin; Govern- ment, and was deterniined, no doubt, very largely by the contemporaneous discussions on the United States tariff' The characteristic of it was th<' effort made by the Government to convert specific into (ul vdloreni duties and the extent to which this effort was foiled during the ))assage of the tariff resolutions through committee. 8. The tariff of 1897 is matter of recent history ; the chief points of interest are in the clauses by which a pre- ential duty is given to the United Kingdom. The otion of the Canadian Government has led to notice being given to Geiniany and Belgium of the desire of England t(> levise the connnercial treaties with these countries.* The question of preferential trade with England had frequently been opened by Canada; but * Treaties, Belgium, 18G2 ; Germany, 1865, both prior to Canadian Confederation. JAMES MAYOR. 413 tho reluctance of Engli^li statcsnion to donotinco the treaties always stoo.l i„ the way of estal.lishi,,.. a preferene^^^ It is to., soon to rKHKC. Ul'I'KR Canada, Ontario. .Manitoha. TlIK Tkhri- TdlUK.S. liRITIHII COLIM- III A, 1762. . a 8,104 1766.. b 09,810 1817 c 81,351 1824.. d 74,170 e 150,000 1825 / 479,283 1827. . g 123,630 1841 . . h 47,042 1842. . j" 487,053 1844.. jf 697,0S4 1845.. 1S48.. k 02,078 I 725,879 ASMIN in 5, IHOIA. 391 1819. . 1851-2 n 276, S54 193,800 (/ 800,261 r 9J2,004 1856. . 8 6, 091 , 1857 . . 1860-1 t 330,857 M 252,047 V 80,857 (« 1,111,500 X 1,390,091 1S69. . 1/ 10,586 1870-1 (ff. 1 387,800 (6)440,572 (c) 450,390 (rt) 285,594 (/;) 321,233 (C) 321,203 (a) 94,021 (h) 108,891 ((,•) 10!»,O78 (rt)l,i91,51() (/>) 1,3.59,207 ((;) 1,488,535 (rt)l,G20,8)l (/>jl,'.>23,228 (<;)2,114,32] (rt) 18,995 (b) f.5,954 (f) 152,500 1880-1 1890-1 (/>)5fl,440 (f)98,9ti7 (6)49,4.59 (<')98,173 Censvis of Canada, 1661 to 1871, Vol. IV., Ottawa, 1876-a, p. 61 ; b, p. G5 ; c, p. 82 ; d, p. 84 ; f-., p. S.3 ; /, p. 88 ; ^X Z. rl ♦ ▼ * ■L- f X ^ ^ i h - - I 1' i 2 ■/! S H C :< H i- ;< i h h a. Ik < A: V / // I £ 1 \ . \ V\\ 1 ^^ Wl •Hi ♦* U) X » o z (0 o 1^