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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clicht!), il est filmd d partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images n^cessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ■..irv#*«Ba«»si«»»t.'c4«UJ'«rRi m: THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS. ASIA BY iSLISfiE RECLUS. EDITED BY A. II. KEANE, B. A., MKUD. or COUNCIL, ANTIIROPOLOOICAL INSTITL'TE. /^ VOL. II. V/ EAST ASIA: CHINESE EMPIRE, COREA, AND JAPAN, /f r WMH sv m ^l^J-TV* i '^ 'n Ft' If ^75p\ \ 1 "A "• 'i: i i5/pl ^ %- ^ —4^r^B V S y ^ -Mf ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPAN 1, 3, AND 6 BOND STREET. 1884. RAR ). -M^-wmi ■is J) *• CONTENTS. VOL II. "h EAST ASIA. !• PAOK I CiiAP. I. Gexeuai. Suuvev . . . . . East and West contrasted, p, 2. Isolation oiF China," p. 3. Intercourse with India and Europe, p. 4. Foieign Influence: Russian Encniuchmcnt?, p. 8. Rivalry of the Eastern and Western Races, p. 9. Future Prospects, p. 12. i. , v,.. Chap. 11. Tiiiet 13 Nomenclature, p. 13. Physical Oinlines, p. 14. Extent, Exploration, Divisions, p. 15. The Kucii-Iun Range, p. 17. Khachi: Lacustrine System, p. 19. Eastern Highlands and Rivers, J). 22. South Tibet, Trans- Himalayas, p. 23. Mount Kailas, Upper .Satlaj, and Indus, p. 24. Lake Pang-kong, p. ^9. The Tauiigho River, p. 30. Head waters i)f the Great Indo-(;hineso Rivers, p. 36. Climate, p. 38. J auna and Flora, p. 40. Inhabitants: the Tibetans, p. 41. liuddhism, p. 44. Diet, Social Customs, Population, p. 48. Topography, p. 50. Trade and Trade Routes, p. 54. Adniinistrution, Postal [Service, p. 50. CiUF. III. Chinese Tukkhsta.v: The Tauim Basiv 53 Progress of Discovery, p. 58. Extent, Population Water System, p. 60. The Yarkand and Knshgar Rivers, p 61. The Tarim and Lob-nor, p. 62. The Takla-makan Desert, p. 64. Flora and Fauna, p. 66. I>ih tbitants : the Kashgarians, p. 67. Routes and Passes, p. 69. Topography ; Administrative Divisions, p. 70. CiiAP. IV. MosnoLiA 75 I. The KiKU-Noii, p. 74. Relief of the ImuA, p. 74. Lake Kuku. p. 77. The Clmidam Biisin, p. 78. Inhabitants : the Tangutans, p. 79. II. Mokoolian Kansu, p. 80. Climate, p. 81. Routes, Extent, P..pulation, p. 82. Inhabitants, Topography, p. 83. III. Zf ncjahia ANn KuLJA, oa Ili, p. 88. Historical Routes, p. 88. Lake Zair.m, p. 90. Inhabitants: the Zungarians, Dung.ns, tmd Taranchi, p. 90. Topos-raphy, p. 91. IV. North Mongolia and THK OoHi, p. 93 The Ektag Altai and Tannu f)la Ranges, p. 95. Lakes Ubsa and Koso, p. 95. The Gobi Desert, p. 96. The Khinjan and In-»han Highlands, p. 99. The Ordos Plateau and Ala-shan Uplands, p. 100. The Great Wall, p. 102. Inhabitants: the Mongolians, p. I(i3. Topography, p. HI. V. Chinese Maschukia, p. 113. Physical Features, p. 116. Tho Sunuari nnd Liuo-ho Rivers, p. 11". Flora and Faun«, p. 119. Inhabitants: tho Manchus, p. 120. Topography, p. 1:^3. Chah. V. China 128 General Survey, p. 128. Progress of Discovery, p. 129. Physical Features, Climate, p. 132. Flora and Fauna, p. 134. Inhabitants: tho Chinese Race, p. 136. Tho Chinese Language, p. 137. Religion, p. 140. Tho Feng-shui, p. 143. Buddhism, p. 145. The Jews and Mohammedans, p. 147. The Christians, p. 161. Habits and Customs, p. 153. Secret Societies, tho Taipings, p. 150. Basin of tho Pei-hn, Province of I'echili, p. 10.'. Topography : Peking, p. 164. The Shantung Peninsula, p. 174. Topography, p. 175. The Hoangho Basin, Kansu, Shensi, Shansi, and Honan, p. 179. The Grand Canal and Lower Hoang-ho, p. 185. Tho Tsing-ling and other Riuges, p. 187. Tho Yellow Li.nd«, p 189. Topography, M^ JL^^'k CONTENTS. p. 102. Bnsin of tho Yiinff-tzr-kinnK, Soohuon, Kwcichow, Hupch, Hunan, X({aiihwci, Kiiiiif^mi, Kiiiii^i, Chckiiin^, ]i. IttU. Tho rppiT Yan^-t/.i! anil Min, p. 100. Tho Midilli) Yann-tzt! ami lliin-kiiin^, p. '201. Lako I'oynnjjf ami tho Lower YaiiK-tzo, p. '202. Hiichxum IliKlilamlii, p. '20"). Inhaliitanti of .Sochucn, Iho .Sifan, p. '200, Tlio Mantxo, IjoIo, iiml Chini'Ho of .Si'ihucn, p. '210. I'roviiico of Kwrichew, tho .Miiiot/.i', j). '2U. Ilinian, Kiani;si, and ChcKianj?, j). 217. Iiihahitaiits of tho Lower Yanf? t/i' Itasin, p. 219. Topojjraphy, p. 220. Kastern SliipeH of tlie .\aii-Hlian, 210. InhahitantH of Fokion, p. 2tl. Topo^rapliy, p. 212. IliiHin of tli(^ Si-kiati(r, Kwiiii|,'si, ami Kwani»tiinfj;, ]). 247. Tlio Si-kian^ Kiver KyNtein, p. 218. Tlie Canton Delta, p. 210. Ciiniato of South Ciiina, p. 2<')0. InhaliitantH, J). 2.")1. To])0!iriiiihy, p. 2."):). JIouh; Koiijf, p. 2')7. Miieao, p. '2'>9. Yunnan, p. 2(i;i. Inliuliitantrt, p. 207. Tlio I'authay Insurrection, p. 2flH. Topograjjiiy, p 2'iO. Hainan, p. 27.'i Formosa, p. 27'>. InhaliitantH, p. 2S0. TopoH;riqihy, p. 281. Material and Soeiiil ('onilition of ('hina, ]). 2St. The Chine.so TownH, p. 28.'i. Agriculture, \>. 287. Tho Tea Tradis p. 201. Land Tenure, tlu' Commune, p 202. InduHtries, p. 20.>. AlineralH, Metal Work, Kronzos, p. 208. I'rintinfj;, tho Labour Market, p. 200. Inland and Foreign Trade, p. .'100. Tho Ojaum Question, p. ItOl. Tho Treaty Ports and Foreign F.m hanges, htapios of Trade, p. ;)0;l. Highways, liailwuy Prospects, Telegraphs, p. IIO.V Foreigners in Cuina, (Jhineso Emigration, p 08. The Xew Ideas, Social Progress, Public Instruction, Tho Literati, p. 312. Ponding Changes in the Social System, p. :114. Administration, Filial Devotion to tho Head of the Family and of tho State, p. 31."), Imperial Authority, tho Emperor's Ilouseh'jld, p. 317. Kducatiou, Public Examinations, p, 320. Tho Mandiirins, p. 322. Pi'ual Codo, p. 3'20. Army and Xavy, p. 328. Uuvenuo, Curroucy, p. 331. Adniinistrativu Divisions, p. 333. Chap. VL Kohea 334 Progress of Discovery, Foreign liolations, p. 337. Physical Features, Orographic System, p. 339. Thu Korean Archipelagos, p. 340. Mineral NVealth, Flora and Fauna, Climate, p. 341. Inhabitiints, Language, p, 344. Social Condition, Itcligion, p. 340. Habits and Customs, Trade, Industries, p. 348, (iovcrinnent, Administration, p 3.')1. Topography, p. 353. Chai'. Yll. Jai'an 366 Fonn, I']xtent, Name, p. 3.56. Progress of Discovery, p. 3.')8. Tho Kurilo Archipelago, p. 300. Y"eso, p. 302. Hondo, p. 3G4. Tho Xikko Highlands, a Buddhist Legend, p. 3G7. Asama- yama and Fuzi-san, p. 369. The Highlands of South Hondo, p. 371- Lake Biva, p. 373. Tho Inland 8ea, p. 37.). Tho Island of Sikok, p. 376. Tho Island of Kiu-siu, p. 378. Tho Iliu-kiu (Lu-ch\i) and Ooto Archipelagos, p. 381, Ilydrogruphic System, Chief liivcrs, p. 386. Clinmto, p. 387. Vegitation, p. 389. Fauna, p. 393. Inhabitants, tho Aino.i, p. 390. The Aborigines of Japan, p. 400. The Jupanesc Hace, p. 401. Language and Letters, p, 408. The Art of Printing, p. 410. Religion: Sintoism, p. 411. Buddhism, p. 41.'). ("hristianity, p. 416. Topography of the Kuriles and Y'eso, p. 418. Topography of Nip-pon, p. 421. Topography of Sikok, Kiu-siu, and liiu-kiu, p. 441, Tho Bonin Archipelago, p. 444, Vital Siatistics, Agriculture, p, 446, Uico and Tea Culture, p, 447. Natural Uesources of Y'eso, p. 460. Land Tenure, Mining Industry, p, 400, Manufactures, Japanese Art, Porcelain, p. 4.53. Lacquer-waro, Paper, p. 4.55. Decline of Art, Traffic in " Curios," p. 459, Foreign Trade, p, 462. Shipping, p. 466. Roads, Railways, Telegraphs, p. 467. Literature iiii'l Public Instruction, p. 469, Historic Retrospect, the Revolution, p. 470. Administration, p. 473. Finance, Army and Navy, p. 475. Statistical Tables 477 IND.JX 485 i'Xum i* ' i i > iMTi ^ A 4 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. VOL. II, 334 MAPS PRINTED IN COLOURS. 355 [0, p. 300. Asimm- I, p. 373. 178. The •i Rivers, ho Aino.i, 1(1 LotUTB, I, p. 413. E Nip-pon, ;o, p. 444. sources of ■nose Art, 8," p. 409. Litcraturo nistration, 477 48a 1. Tiirkcstun and luiicr Asia . 2. China 3. Peking und Neighbourhood 58 4. runton iind the Pearl Ruur 128 f). The Islands of Jupun . 10 1 0. Tukio and its Uay TAOM 249 366 423 PLATES. Tho Yang-tze-kiang— Mitan Gorge To face page The Lantzan-kiang — Hogg's Gorge Ovis Ammon— Ibex Siherica— Ovis Nahur.i — Markhor Ram .... Monastery at Shigatze .... Lassa— Liimassery of Potala in tho Seventeenth Century Chinese Turkestan— Types and Costumes Upper Kara-kash Valley .... Street Scene, Yarkand .... Mongolian Desert— Tomb of Lama and En campment Dungans and Taranchis— Types and Costumes Manc'hu Ministers— Chiefs of Banners . View tdken from tho Summer Palace, Peking Nan-kow, Southern Gate of the Great Wall - View taken from Pat «-ling View on the Upper Yang-tze-kiang Road cut through the " Yellow Earth " . River View on tho Upper Yangtze-kiang Chinese Miners— Upper Yangtze Highhinds Hankow — Han - kiang and Yang-tze Con fluonce 3 37 40 51 62 58 CO 72 80 91 121 164 173 190 192 203 221 227 A Slroot in Kin-kianij— Typos and Cos- tumes .... To face page Tower of Long-hua, Shanghai Fomale Types and Costumes -Pi ovince of Fokien Buddhist Monaster,- at Vucn-fu on the Min, South of Fui 1 V fii Lake Tali— View uik a from tho North . Formosan Types and Costumes— Butan Captives in .Tiipan Paper-mill, China M. Tseng— Chinese Minister in Paris Korean Mandarins Fuzi Yania — View taken from tho South-west Lake Htikono Capo Homer— View taken from tlie Entrance of Kngo-sima Bay Japanese Peas;intry Aino Types and Costumes .... Japanese Typos and Costumes Types and Costumes of Citizens of Tokio View of Odovara ; taken from Tokai-do . Birdseyo View of Naguski .... 229 236 241 243 270 -.280 299 317 344 370 372 380 386 397 409 423 4-29 442 . ! VI LIST Ui-' ILLL'siTHATlUNa. ILLUSTRATIONS IN TKXT. KAST ASIA. 1. Itincruiy of ll'wcn-'rHiinsf 2. Km ri>;ii')iiiii'iits iiC ANiittic UiiHHia on Chiiiii 3. lUiicraiirM of tlio 'I'ilMt'iii Kx|ili>rrr!t . 4. Uri'KU Kaiia-kasii Vai.i.kv 6. Liiko Diingrii-yum anil Tiirgot Jloun- tniim 0. 'IVtigri-noi- ...... 7. Mount Kiiiliis iind the Four Sucrod Uivors 8. Till' Mansiii'iiiir Hisiii .... '.•. J.AKH 1'AN()-K0M1 ; K.NCAMI'MKNT OF TlIK K.\(iI,IHll Kxi'EDlTIO.N Ol' 1871 . 10. Lakn ranif-koii(f 11. .'^i!;(^ ralti 12. Course of til ' Tuanglio .... 1.3. (.'ourse of tlic Tsanjflx) .... 14. Ct'Ursu of tho Tsunj^lio .... 111. C'oHiso of tho Tsanfjjbo .... IG. TilKtan Ethnography .... 17. I'llAYKIl INSC'rtlHEn ON A lioCK . 18. TiiiKrAN Amtlbt 19. LiiHsa i!0. Tri'dn lloutoM of Tihct .... i!l. Itineraries of tho Tian-shnn Nnn-lii . 22. Tho Tian shan Nan-lu, from a Chinese Map 23. Lake Karishar 24. Lob-nor 2.5. lluees of Cliineso Turkestan 26. Koutos from Kashgar to Ferghana . 27. Khotan and the Southern I'latuaux . 28. Yarkand and Yangi-sh ihr 29. Sources of the Iloang-hc, from ii Chincso Map 30. Kuku-nor 31. West Knd of tho Great Wall . 32. FoiiTiFiEO Villages nkau Laxtciiew, Province of Kaxsu .... U.3. Ousoi of Jlarkul and Hami 31. L'rumtsi, Turfan, and surrounding Moun- tains 35. £bi-nor ....... 3G. Chuguohak and the Tarbagatai Hange 37. Valley of tho Tekcs 38. Section of the Gobi, going East and West 39. View in the Gobi .... 40. Section of tho Gobi between Urga and Kiilgan 41. South-east Corner of tho Mongolian Plateau H 43. 10 19 44. 4.). 20 40. 21 47. 2'! •;s. 20 49. 60. 23 -)1. •.'9 .52. 30 32 .-,3. 33 *U. 34 55. 35 .50. 43 57. 4.') 58. 10 (52 59. 04 00. 59 01. 02. 01 03. 63 64 01. 08 65. 70 60. 71 73 07. 08. 7(i 77 69. 82 70. 84 71. 86 72. 73. 87 74. 89 92 75. 93 76. 94 77. 97 78. 98 79. 80. 81. 99 The (luKAT Wai.i.. Vikw taki.n at tmk Xankow 1'ahk .... Mongol invaNiiiUH and Conquests of their Hucce.sSorH ..... InhabitantH of .Mungolia . Kobdo lial(;iu I'rga Moiigoli.in llii;hways Mcjulb of till' l.iio-lio Manliii; Wo.man .... (/'oiillucncc ot the Nonni and ^nn^aii Lower Tumen Valley and I'onsiet Kay Tlio Nino Provinees according to tho Yukuiig China aeeordia,' to tho Native Oeograplu'rH Kiang-su, according to Maitini Isothcrmals of Cliiiia .... Range of the (Jhineso Fauna Chneso Dialects .... The Nine Sacred Mountains. —T'ho Chew Epoch The Taiki, on Maokj Lookino-olass UUI>I)HIRT PulEHT .... The Godobss Kwawix . , l)0MK8Tic Altar.— The Siwilino Bimidha Ilegicms was'.ud by ihe Mohammedan In surrcctions .... A Chinese Savant .... Chinese Childuen .... Tekuack with P\'neual Uuns neai Amoy Manchu Ladv Lauds wasted by tho 'I'uiping Insur. rcction ItoutoB of the Chief Modern Exjilorers in China Range of tho Floodings of the Lower Pochili Successive Displacements of Peking . The High Stueet, Peki.no The Temi'Le of Heaven, Peking . Celestial Sphekb in the Old Observa TORY, Peking .... Tientsin The Lower Pei-ho .... Old Shantung Strait .... Tengchew and Sliao-tao Archipelago Cliefu Trans-0rdo3 Cliki-s or Yellow Earth on the Uo.ing uo 102 104 105 111 112 113 118 122 12, 120 129 130 131 133 135 139 141 143 145 140 148 150 163 154 156 157 160 161 163 165 166 167 169 171 172 175 176 177 180 131 LIST OF ILLUSTUATIONS. tU N AT TIIK . 102 (if tlii'ir 101 , , lOo 111 . 112 . 11 :> UH 122 ,'aii 124 liny 120 to tlio . 129 )f,'i'iHilicrM 13U . 131 . i.'ia . 13.) . 139 Iio Chow . in ULAHS 143 . , iir> , HO Itri>i>iu 1>8 dUuii In- . 150 . liiii . 1(')4 8 NEAIt . IfiO , 167 160 101 103 105 160 167 109 171 172 175 176 177 180 131 R2. 83. 8t. 8.'>. 80. 87. 8H. 89. OU. Ul. 92. 03. 01. Oo. 0«. 07. 98. 99. 100. lUl. 102. 103. 1U4. 1U5. 106. 107. lOS. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 11a. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 121. 125, 120. 127. HhiUiiiKH of tho I loanf^-ho during Thn^u Th anil Y.mg-t/.u . . , 20') ChunnuU and IlroakwatorH butwuun tho Iloang-ho and Yang-t/.u . . . 200 MmiiitainN lii'tworn Tatiiirnlii and Hatung 207 Frum thu Min Valluy to Tatsivnlu . . 208 The Skciii i:n Hioiilanhh . . . 213 Itaces of .South- wi'Ht (>'hina . . . 210 Chiiigtii-fii Diwin 221 Tho T«ing-ling and Singan . . . 223 Coiirso of tho \'ang-t/.i) dbovo tho Oorgi's 224 I-i'hang Oorgoa 225 WrcHANo : ViBW taken tmom tiik ToWKll Ol' THK Y'eLLOW CuaNK (Ho- AN(l-no-I.K\v) Hankow and ^llrrollnding Iiukos Nanking Chingkiang Shanghai and tho Iloung-pu . Shanghai ...*.. Suc'how boforo the Taiping War llangchow and the Si-hu Ningpo and Tsinhai .... Gland Chusun and I'utu .... Mouth of tho Min Fuchow-fu SlIl'I-KOW, O.V THE UlTEU Mf.N, FoKIBN . Amoy Comparative Tempcntturo of Canton and othor Towns Inhabitants of Kwangtung Female Coiffi'UB, Swat of tho CropH in tlio (^'liincso I'rovinri'M .... 288 111. Chii'f Crops of China .... 293 112. Mini's of .Shantung 290 143. Mini's of Yunnan 298 144. PoUTAdE IN CUEKIANO , . ° . . 300 145. Chini'Hi Trraty Ports .... 302 140. (Jenekai, View of Nankino . . . 300 147. Uoutcs, Tt'IrgraphH, and Linos of Steam Navigation in (.'liinu .... .307 148. HiONAi, TowEiis 300 149. Hangii of Chinos.) Migration . . . 310 150. ^1. Yanii, AttaihI^: of the CiiiNtSB IiKOATIliN IN PaHIS . . . .313 151. Chinese (luartor, Shanghai . . . 310 152. Simmer Palace— IJuonze Lions, Em- IILKMH OF THE iMrUIIIAL PoWEU . 318 153. Vaokant Convicts 325 154. DofonuoB of tho Mouth of tho Pni-ho . 320 165. I'roi'inc'ial Chief Towns, Fu and Chew, in China 332 150. General View of Kanu-hoa, Lower Uanu-kiano 335 157. Korea Strait 536 158. K.YpIorations of Korea and surrounding Waters 337 150. South-west Archipelago of Korea . . 338 100. Entrance to the Gulf of Pechili . . 342 101. island of Quolpaert 343 162. Ilan-kang, or Soul River . . . 352 163. Administrative Divisions of Korea . . 353 164. Curves of the Japanese Archipelago . 357 165. Strait of Yeso 350 106. Tho Kurile Islmds 360 167. Pakamusiiiu Iklanu— Kukiles . . 361 168. Section of the Sea of Okhotsk . . 362 169. Tsugar Strait, between Y'cso and Hondo . 303 1 70. Mouths of tho Tonc-gava . . . 365 \',1. Oga-sima Island, and Ohokata-hatsiro Sea 366 172 XlKKO PoUTICO OP THE TeMFLB OF TUB FoUll DUAQONB ..... 368 I ft 11! 173. 171 l-.). ITO. 177. 17M. 170. I mi. IHt. \Wi. IHIt. 1H». IS.-). 1811. 1H7. \m. 180. I'.'O. 101. 102. lo;». 104, LIST OF IliMJSTllATIONS. (;ult of Simoiln nnd Oho-ninm I.iikc llivii Niirutti Nlritit Yumii-giiMi 'ii>'l Mount Kiumcin Kii((o-mma iiml Mi-liikt- Volnmn Urlii ( tHI'. I.AMiMAIT. VlKW TAKEN AT l>'l/,IHAVA IlAIIOfcli: KACHIM1I.K OF .lAI'ANrHK Dr.KKI Tacsimilk of a .IaI'ANFKK IIiiii> UtMIl riimitivc ropuliilioiiHof Nip-pon, nnord inK to llii^ .Iii|Hni('Ho AniuilH .Iai'Anf.hf. Woman . Jafankhk (JlllL .Ia»'ankm« MiHKUSH ANi> Dkai.ek Jai>anihr TATrooiNO Jai'anf.»f, Womkn . Nikko un.l the Uppor Trnc-Biivii l»l lUIIIIHT Tr.MlM.K AT NlKKO. NnnHWiki iinil IJnzcn-san Uttkodato Uay fkOU . :i71 ' lO.V . ;i7.i Kill. . 377 107. . ;i78 108. . ;i:o too. . ;>Hu 200. . wi 201. . 383 202. . 300 203. 20 J. . 301 20.5. N 304 20(1. n 30.» 207. 208. . 400 2UI). . 40'J 210. . 403 211. . 404 212. 1 . 40.') 2i;). . 400 214. . 412 2ir,. . 414 j 'iiu. 1 . 417 . 410 217. Ilnkoilntn Nihi-Kiitu nml Siiilo Isliiml Kiim/uvii iiiul the White Momitain . MoNKTItU lUI.L IN Tlir. SlHA tilAUTIH 'I'llKIO JiNMiKHiA, Jaimnf.»f. IIanii-caut SiiiuhIii Hay N.inoyii and Dilta of thu Ki«o-gava l.aki' llivA ( lluiHiika ...••• llioK0 HlOIIWAY . TllF. riLUlIlY IN JaI'AN IIF.FOIIB TUB Hf.volution . Adminislrativu PivisionH of Julian . FAOB 420 421 422 424 427 42U 431 434 438 430 443 44U 4.V2 45.5 408 100 40 1 40.) lUO 408 474 47d I ' < < ■ - jw^u i^ h uiKmv ■^■ '■' . -**.* ' .- A no i'ii in 427 4'iU 431 434 435 438 139 143 tlO 4.Vi loj 4.')H KlU 401 4(i'> tUH 408 474 47o THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS. I:AST A8IA. CHINESE EMl'IKE. fOREA, JAPAN. CHAPTER I. GENERAL 8UUVEY. HE nutural divisions of tlio Asiatic continent lire druwn in bold lines. Wo luive seen that the vast Russian domain comprises the Aralo- Cuspian depressions and the northern slopes of tlio mountain systems, which stretch from the Alai and Tian-shan to tlie Manchurian coasl ranges. Southwards and westwards, the two Indian peninsulas, the Iranian plateau, Asia Minor, and Arabia are no less clearly defined by snowy barriers, great inlets and seas. In the I'ust, also, China, with Corea and the neighbouring archipelagos, forms, so to say, a world apart, enclosed by an amphitheatre of plateaux and highlands with a total frontier-line of C.OOO miles. From Manchuria to Indo-China, the Shanyan-alin, the DAs-alin, the Khingan, the Kentei, the Tannu-ola and Ektag Altai, the Tian-shan, the Tsfing- ling, the Himalaya, the rugged hills pierced by the rivers of Transgangetic India, form together a continuous semicircle round about that portion of the Asiatic conti- nent which now constitutes the Chinese Empire. Japan has taken the name of the "Land of the Rising Sun;" but relatively to the rest of the Old World China also faces eastwards. Its general slope, as indioat6d by the course of its rivers, is towards the Pacific Ocean. From the peoples of the West, Cliina and Japan have rightly received the name of the extreme East, an expression also extended to Indo-China, the Philippines, and Malaysia. ^.M>- ■ -SSSf^^St**--*??*^*" EAST ASIA. East and West contrasted. Coinparod with Weatorn Asia, and especially with Europe, which may in certain respects be regarded as u group of peninsulas belonging to Asia, the eastern regions of the continent enjoy certain privileges, but have also some great dis- advantages as lands of human culture. The most striking contrast between Kast and West is presented by their respective seaboards. In Asia Minor and Europe the coast lands are cut up Into numerous peninsulas, forming secondary groups in the Mediterranean and Atlantic waters. The peninsulas are moreover prolonged by arcliipelagos, or the coasts fringed with islands ; so that Europe has by Carl Hitter and othei-s been compared to an organized body well furnished with limbs. This continent seems, so to say, endowed with life and motion beyond the dead mass of the Old AVorld. But China cannot boast of such a surprising diversity of out- lines. From the shores of ^lanehuria to those of Cochin China one important penin- sula alrne, that of Corea, is detaclied from the continental mass, while the land is penetrated only by one gidf deserving the name of sea — the Iloang-hai. The I'acific waters are here doubtless animated by two large islands, Formosa and Hainan, and by the magnificent ^Vrchipelago of Japan. But how insignificant arc these penin- sulas and islands of Eastern Asia compared with the Cyclades and Sporades, Greece and Italy, the British Isles, Scandinavia, and the whole of Europe, itself a vast l)eninsula everywhere exposed to the moist and warm sea breezes! The high degree of culture attained by the Chinese people cannot therefore be explained by any exceptional advantages in peninsular or island formations. But here the absence of marine inlets has been partly supplied by the great rivers. If the Chinese seaboard proper presents but few deep indentations, the great streams of navigable water by which the land is irrigated, and by whose ramifications and canals it is divided into inland islands and peninsulas, give it some of the advan- tages in water communication enjoyed by Europe, Hero the Yang-tze-kiang and Hoang-ho replace the yEgean and Tyrrhenian Seas, and like them have served to develop and diffuse a co.nmon civilisation. Formerly China had another advantage in the possession of the largest extent of productive land held under one social system in a temperate climate. North America and Europe, which at present possess an equal extent of such territory, were till recently still covered by forests which had to be laboriously cleared. In China is found that vast stretch of " Yellow Lands " which forms pre-eminently an agricultural region, and where were naturally developed those peaceful habits which are acquired by the pursuits of husbandry. To this region are attached other arable lands possessing a different soil and climate, with corresponding animal and vegetable forms, and thus it came about that civilised life encroached step by step on the vast domain stretching from the Mongolian wastes to the shores of the Gulf of Tonkin. These conditions admitted of much variety in cultivating the land, and thus was trade developed between the different ])rovinces. All partial improvements reacted beneficially on the whole land, and the general civilisation was easily promoted amongst the Chinese themselves and in the neighbouring countries. Comparing East Asia with the Western world, lr vhich may in ia, the eastern me great dis- , between Kast 3r and Europe lury groups in ver prolonged e has by Carl od with limbs, the dead mass versity of out- portant penin- ile the land is i. The Pacific i Hainan, and c these penin- nrades, Greece , itself a vast )t therefore be mations. But ?at rivers. If great streams lifications and of the advan- tze-kiang and lave served to her advantage ler one social sh at present red bj' forests ist stretch of ttd where were 16 pursuits of ig a different I thus it came retching from tions admitted rl between the le whole land, se themselves '^cstern world. .^' -"•■ ■ft ISOLATION OF CHINA. 8 o o i I we ace how greatly (.hina proper differs from Kurope in it« goographicnl unify. From the yellow lands of the north to the pltiins tniversed by the Yunf?-tze on tho Indo-('hincse frontier the people hud a coinnion centre of gravity, and their civil- isation was consequently developed more rapidly in that " Flowery liand," whence it was carried later on to Japan and Formosa. But how much more distinct and individual has been the growth of culture in the various regions of the West, from Asia Minor to Great Britain and Ireland ! Greece cut off from the rest of Europe by moimtain ranges still imperfectly cxplorwl ; Italy so sharply limited by its Alpine barrier ; the Iberian peninsula even more complctelj' shut out by the almost impassable Pyrenees ; France with its twofold drainage to tho Atlantic and jNIediterrunean ; the British Isles washed by warm seas and wrapi)ed in fogs, all form so many geographical units, each of which had to develop its special civilisation l)cfore a higher culture could be formed, in the production of which all the European nations took part. Without being insurmountable, the natural obstacles between the various countries of Europe are greater than between the different provinces of East China, and it was these very obstacles which, by preventing political centriklization while permitting mutual intercourse, have fostered the individual energies of the Western races and made them the teachers of the rest of mankind. Isolation of China. But if the communications were easy between the north and south of China, and if the inhabitants of the mainland could without much difficulty cross the narrow seas separating them from Formosa and Japan, the East Asiatic world seemed, on the other hand, almost entirely shut in from the West. In prehistoric times the forefathers of the Chinese, Hindus, Chalda^ans, and Arabs must no doubt have been close neighbours, maintaining frequent relations with each other ; for these various peoples have inherited the same astronomic conceptions, while the coincidences of observation and views may be traced, even in their details. But these mutual relations, explaining a common civilisation, can only have taken place at a period of greater humidity in the Old World, when the now dried-up desert regions of Central Asia enabled the populations to connnunicate more freely together. At that time tho Tarim basin, now hemmed in by the sands, still belonged to the Aryan world, and the civilisation of its inhabitants was allied to that of India. Since the nations grouped on either slope of the Pamir were compelled to advance farther down to the plains, leaving a broader zone of deserts and steppes between them, the centres of civilisation have been removed to greater distances from each other. That of China has gradually approached the Pacific, while an analogous movement has been going on in an inverse direction west of Babylonia towards Asia Minor and Greece. After these centres thus Ix-came isolated, no commercial intercourse or exchange of ideas could take i)lace for long ages between the eastern and western extremities of the continent. Distant rumours alone kept up the common traditions of other nations dwelling b(\vond tho rivers and lakes, the plateaux, highlands, forests, and deserts, and the inhabitants of those remote .,yViir-'^-r--.Kjj'i^^-- 4 FAST ASIA. rej^ions were in tho popular ima}»iiiation transformed to strange and terrible monsters. The two civilisations were independently developed at either extremity of the con- tinent without exercising any mutual inHuence one on the other, following parallel lines, yot as distinct one from the other as if they had been born on two different planets. There was undoubtedly a time when South China had even more frecpient relations with the scattered islands of the South Sea than with the western regions Avith which it is coiniected by an unbroken continental mass. Common physical traits prove that towards the south the ('hinese race has been intermingled with the tribes peojding the oceanic regions. Nevertheless, the barrier of plateaux and highlands shutting in the Chinese world offers here and there some wide gaps, some opening towards the south, others in the direction of the north. Nor are the snowy ranges themselves inaccessible. Altai, Tian-shan, Tsung-ling, Kuen-lun, Nan-ling, are all crossetl by tracks, over which the trader makes his way regardless of fatigue and cold. The slopes of these uplands, and oven the plateaux, are inhabited to an elevation of from 10,000 to 15,000 I'eot, and traces of the pennanent or passing presence of man are everywhere met along the route. IJut owing to their barbarous lives and rude political state these highland populations added a fresh obstacle to that presented by the physical conditi»ms to free international inten-ourse. The unity of the Old World was finally established when the Europeans of the West, by means of the sea route, esta- blished direct relations with the peoples of the eastern seaboard. But before that time direct communications even between the Yang-tze and Amur basins across the barbarous populations of the intervening plateaux took place only at rare inter- vals, and were due as much to the great convulsions of the Asiatic peoples as to the growing expansive power of the Chinese political system. But such rare and irregular international movements had but little influence on the life of the Chinese nation. For thousands of years this race, being almost completely isolated from the rest of mankind, was thrown back on its own resources in working out its natural development. Intercourse with India and Europe. The first great internal revolution of China took place at the time of the intro- duction of the Indian religious ideas. However difficult it may be to interpret the ancient doctrine of Lao-tze, there can be scarcely any doubt that it was affected by Hindu influence. Some of his precepts are identical in form with those of the sacred writings of the Buddhists, and all are imbued with the same sentiment of hunumity and universal philanthropy. Nor does Lao-tze ever cite the leading characters of Chinese history as models of virtue or as examples to be followed, so that the body of his doctrines is associated by no traditional ties with the past annals of his country. According to the unanimous tradition he travelled in the regions lying to the west of China, and the pojndar legend ixunts to the Khotau highlands as the place whence he was lM»rne heavenwaifls. The barrier raiscfl by the mountains, plateaux, and their barbarous inhabitants between China and India was so difficult to be crossed that the comnninications INTERCOURSE WITH INDIA AND EUROPE. e monsters. )f the con- ng piirullel o different re frequent 3m regions •n physical h\ with the inese world hers in the )lo. Altai, over which ?8 of these 10,000 to jverywhero litical state le physical World was route, esta- before that .sins across rare inter- oples as to h rare and he Chinese lated from ; its natural ' the intro- terpret the affected by lose of the ntiment of be leading ollowed, so b the past 'lied in the he Khotau nhabitunts lunications betw( t II the two countries were effected by a detour through the Oxus basin. The Buddhist religion itself was not propagated directly, and penetrated into the empire not from the south, but from the west. During the periods of its peaceful expan- sion China included the Tarim basin, and maintained free intercourse with the ( >xus basin over the Pamir passes. At that t' ne traders followed the famous "Silk Highway," which was also known to the Greeks, and it was by this or other routes across the plateaux that were introduced the rich products of Southern Asia, as well as the more or less legendary reports of the marvellous region of the Ganges. The same road was also followed by the liuddhist ])ilgrims. After three centuries of religious propaganda the new faith was finally established in the country of Con- fucius, and received official recognition in the sixty-fifth year of the new era. Ihiddhism found favour with the Chinese people from its pompous rites, the rich ornaments of its temples, the poetry of the symbolic lotus blooming in the midst of the waters. It also pleased them, because it opened up vistas of those magnificent Southern lands hitherto concealed from their gaze by the intervening snowy ranges and plateaux. But after all the Fo-Kino, or worship of Buddha, changed little in the social life of China. The ceremonial was modified, but the substance remained much the same. Whatever be the sacred emblems, the religion that has survived is still that which is associated with the rites in honour of ancestry, with the conjuring of evil spirits, and especially with the strict observance of the old traditional formulas. But at any rate the relations established between China and Hindustan during the period of Buddhist propagandism were never again completely interrupted, and from that time China has no longer remained, even for Europeans, excluded from the limits of the known world. Communication by sea was kept up between India and South China, especially through the Gulf of Tonkin. Even two hundred years before the vulgar era an emperor had sent a whole fleet to the Sunda Islands to cull the " flower of inmiortality." Later on, other vessels were sent to Ceylon in search of relics, sacred writings, statues of Buddha, and besides these things brought back rich textiles, gems, precious stones, taking thtm in exchange for their silks, porcelains, and enamelled vases. This route was also followed by the embassies, amongst others by that which, according to the Chinese annals, came from the great Tsin ; that is to say, from Rome, sent by the Emperor An-tun (Aurelius Antoninus) in the year 106 of the Christian era. In the seventh century, when the Chinese Empire, after a series of disasters and internal convulsions, resumed its expansive force and shone with renewed splendour, at the very time when Europe had again lapsed into barbarism, exploring exjjcdi- tions became still more numerous. China now took the lead, and the pilgrim, H'wen-Tsang, whose itinerary in Central Asia has since been rivalled oidy by Marco Polo, was a true explorer in the modern sense of the term. His writings, embodied in the annals of the Tang dynasty, have a special value for the geography of Centnd Asia and India in mediaeval times, and their importance is fully appre- ciated by European savants. Thanks to the Chinese documents, it has been found possible to determine with some certainty the whole of his itinerary, even in those 'i!7i»ifsits>'*:f I I ! I I ' I I EAST ASIA. "Snowy Mountains," \\hert' travellers aro ex])o,se(l to the attacks of the "dragons," tliose niystie, animals which may possibly symbolize nothing more than the sufferings entailed by snow and ice. Like the other Huddhist pilgrims of this epoch, Il'wen- Tsang skirted the Tibetan plateaux, where the liuddhist religion had oidy just l)een introduced, and reached India through the Oxus valley and Afghanistan. Hut some twenty years after his return, in (i()7 or 008, (^hinese armies had already traversed Tibet and N(>])al, thus pem>trating directly into India, where they cap- tured ov(>r six hundred towns. At this time the Chinese Empire comjjrised, with the ti'ilmtary states, not only the whole depression of Eastern Asia, but also all the Fig. 1.— Itinehauy ok II'wen-Tsano. Snalp 1 ; !W,0On,OOn. to 10,000 Fee;. m2^ 10,000 to 10,600 Kpot. "J \%T-fXS Feet and upwiu'ds. — COO Milea outer slopes of the highlands and plateaux surrounding it as far as the Caspian. It was also during this period that the Nestorian missionaries introduced Chris- tianity into the empire. The progress of Islam in the west of Asia and along the shores of the Medi- terranean necessarily isolated China, and long rendered all communication with Europe impossible. But in the northern regions of the Mongolian steppes warlike tribes were already preparing for conquest, and thanks to their triumphant march westwards to the I)nie])er, they opened up fresh routes for explorers across the whole of the Old World. In oi-der to protect themselves from these northern children of -.■--rftrr:!«*,-(;ffKSS^>>-p ._4f^-^;ff^^^tc-^f^,^igg-^ INTERCOURSE WITH INDIA AND EUROPE. " dragons," lie Butforings oeh, H'wen- »ly just l)con listan. ]{ut hud idroudy re they ciii)- iprised, with : ultMi ull the 40' m w m m '4i the Caspian, duced Chris- of the Mefli- icution with ppes warlike phant march 388 the whole 1 children of the steppe, the Chinese emperors hud already raised, rebuilt, and doubled witli parallel lines that prodigious rampart of the " (Jreat Wall " whieh stretches for thousands of miles between the steppe and the cultivated lands of the south. Curbed by this barrier erected between two physically ditferent regions and two hostile societies, tli(> nomads had passed westwards, where the land lay open before them, and the onward movement was gradually propagated across the continent. In the fourth and fifth centuries a general (convulsion had hurled on the West those conquering hordes collectively known as Huns; in the twelfth century an analogous movement urged the Mongols forward under a new Attila. Holding the Zungarian passtw, which gave easy access from the eastern to the western regions of Asia, Jenghiz Khan might have at once advanced westward. But being reluctant to leave any obstacle in his rear, he first crossed the Great Wall and seized l*ekin, and then turned his arms against the AVestern states. At the period of its greatest extent the Mongolian Empire, probably the largest that ever existed, stretched from the I'acific seaboard to the Russian steppes. The existence of the Chinese world was revealed to Europe by these fresh arrivals from the East, with whom the Western powers, after the first conflicts, entered into friendly relations by means of embassies, treaties, and alliances against the common enemy, Islam. The Eastern Asiatic Empire was even long known to them by the Tatar name of Cathay, which under the form of Kitai is still current amongst the Russians. Envoys from the Pope and the King of France set out to visit the Great Khan in his court at Karakorum, in Mongolia ; and Plan dc Carpin, Rubruk, and others brought back marvellous accounts of what they had seen in those distant regions. European traders and artisans followed in the steps of these envoys, and Marco I'olo, one of these merchants, was the first who really revealed China to Europe. Henceforth this country enters definitely into the known world, and begins to participate in the general onward movement of mankind. Marco Polo had penetrated into China from the west by first following the beaten tracks which start from the Mediterranean seaboard. Columbus, still more daring, hoped to reach the shores of Cathay and the gold mines of Zipaugo by sailing round the globe in the opixisite direction from that taken by the great Venetian. But arrested on his route by the New World, he reached neither China nor Japan, although he long believed in the success of his voyage to Eastern Asia. But others continued the work of circumnavigation begun by him. Del Cano, companion of Magellan, returned to Portugal, whence he hud set out, thus completing the circumnavigation of the globe. All the seas had now been explored, and it was possible to reach China by Cape Horn as well as by the Cape of Good Hope. Notwithstanding the determined opposition of the Pekin Government to the entrance of foreigners, the empire was virtually open, and within two hundred and fifty years of this event China and Japan, which had never ceased to be regularly visited by European traders, were obliged to open their seaports, and even to grunt certain strips of land on their coast, where the Western nations have already raised cities in the European taste. The conquest may be said to have already begun. ^'^>r^r^r^mfy ^ff^^na^-, v^^s^i. J - HIWrMW In I 'i| ! 8 EAST ASIA. FoKKiox Influence — Rishian Encuoachmen'I's. Tho power of the Wostorn states has even made itself felt l)y the tempornry oecupution of the (!hiiiese capital and the suck of the imperial pulaees. It, hus been revealed still more by the support j^iven by the Mnglish and Kreneh allies to the Chinese (ioveinment aj^uinst internal revolt. AVhilst tho Kuroi)ean troops were storminj? the l*ei-ho forts, oceiipyinji; Tientsin, and driving the Emperor from IVkin, other KuniDcans were arresting the Taiping relxds ut the gates of Shanghai and barring their approach to the seu. At the same time the Russians kept a garrison Fig. 2.— Knckoachmbntb op Ariatic RusaiA on Ciii.sa. SoiUe 1 : 80,000,000. L'liine8e tarritoiy, occoi-dinv to the Tientjr I f Nerahinsk. 'Jen Korjr held by China before the annexation to Siberia. .000 Miles. in Urga to curb tho Diingalns, and it was probably this intervention of the Western powers that saved the Tsing dynasty. The integrity of the empire was upheld, but only because the Europeans were interested in its maintenance. By merely folding their arms China would probably have been .split into two, if not three or four, fragments. No doubt its unity seems at present unexposed to danger from the west, but on its northern frontier Russia is continually gathering strength, and is already cohterminous with it for a distance of nearly 5,000 miles, more than half of this line running through countries formerly subject to the " Children of Heaven." The temiwrary and permanent annexations of Russia in Kulja belonged till recently to China, and the same is true of Transbaikalia and the whole Amur -*..w^-«faK».w^flfct-,.wja««.aKfsa.s to L'un troops were ror from IV'kin, Shuiij^luii and kept u gurrinon v -\^ \^- V!>Moy us fur us the rcindcHT pastures of llio Nortliorn Tiin^rusrs. At prcsoiit all tlic rf^'.oii uloiif; till- loft Imiik, lur;,'(>r than the \vlioI.> of Kruiicc. forms an intogrul part of .SilH'ria. Lastly, tin- Mancliuriuii soulxiard as far as the Corcan frontier lias hccome Russian, and iis southern i»orts, distant two days by steum from -Japan, stand on waters now known as the (iulf of Peter the Great, as if to renjind the world that the empire of the Czars is as aj,'f,'ressive in the east as in the west. At the slightest diphanatie imbroglio, or whenever the dignity of Uussiu nniy rnpiire her to muke u military promenade in the Chinese waters, she may easily seize the nu)st convenient port on the Corean coast, and lH>re found a naval arsenal still more fonnidublo than that of Vladivost»)k, commanding ut once the entry to th(> Sco of Japan, the mouth of the Yung-lze, and the inland Japanese waters. Notwith- standing the tinanciul embarrassment of thcGovernment, the periwlical famine and droughts, and the abject misery of the masses, the resources of the State arc still disposed in such a way as to give her great power for aggressive purposes. Iler military strength, even 5,000 nnles from the cujjital, is superior to that of China and Japan in their own domain. In spite of its stockades and forts armed with steel guns, IVkin is probably as much at the mercy of Russia as it recently was of the Knglish and French allies. Its position is extremely exposed. S<» long as it hud nothing to fear except from Mongolian inroads or local revolts it held an excellent strategical position near the fortified ranges protecting it tnmi the north, not far from the Great Cunal whence it drew its supplies, and at no gieat distance from the ]\Ianchu tribes, ever ready at the first signal to luisten to the succour of their threatcn-xl fellow-countrymen. But the security of the empire may now bo menaced by far more formidable enemies than Mongolian nomads or Taiping fanatics, and in case of a Ilusso-Chinese war the troijps of the (^zar would no doubt land near the capital. Notwithstanding the recent military equipments and improved discipline, the army of the " brave and ever victorious " could scarcely hope for success so long as the State refuses to place a railway system at its service. But this innovation may soon be intro<'*'ii opciu-*! in liOiulon and New York. Tt» fhow outward Mijfiis corrcsiMHid pndouiKl internal niiHlitinitions. Tlit.>n> i.s an intcirlian^c of idtuiH an well nn of cotnnioditics, and tlic juMtpicH ol' the Kast and West hoj^in to underntand oaeh other, and eons('(|nently In perceive how niiieh ihey have in eoninion. The world Iium heeonie |oi» narrow to allow ol' any lurlher isi»late,'eneral civilisation of a hi^dier order. The Kuropean and Asiatic races formerly dwelt altogether apart ; now the United States of America have Inst-n pe«)ple(l by enii^;rants who have made this region another Kurope ; and thus it is that the Chinem^ nation now finds it.self hennned in between two Kurojjes — those of the (Jld and New T'ontinents. From east and west conu> the same types and ideas, and a continuous current 8et8 from people to people around the globe, across seas and continents. The historic period on which mankiiul is now entering, through the definite union of the Kastern and Western worlds, is pregiumt with great events. As the rutHed sin-face of the water seeks its level by the force of gravity, so the conditions tend to balance themselves in the labour nuirketH. Considered merely as the owner of a ])air of hands, man is himself as much a commodity as is the produce of his labour. The industries of all nations, drawn more and more into the struggle for cxisti'uce, seek to produce cheaply by purchasing at the lowest price the raw material and the " hands " to work it up. But where will manufacturing states like those of New England find more skilful and frugal — that is, less expensive — hands than those of the extreme East ? Where will the great agricultural farms, like those of Minnesota and AVisconsin, find more tractable gangs of labourers, more painstaking and less exacting, than those from the banks of the 8i-kiang or Yang-tze? Europeans arc amazed at the industry, skill, intelligence, spirit of order, and thrift displayed by the working element in China and Japan. lu the workshops and arsenals of the seaports the most delicate operations may be safely intrusted to ( -hinese hands ; while eye-witnesses bear unanimous testimony to the superior intelligence and instruction of the peasantry over the corresponding classes in I'jurope. If the Chinese gardeners have not modified their system in the neighbourhood of the coast factories, it is only because they have had nothing to learn from the stranger. The struggle between white and yellow labour — a struggle whicn threatens to set the two hemispheres by the ears — has even already begun in certain new districts where JOuropean and Asiatic immigrants meet on common ground. In California, New South Wales, Queensland, and Victoria the white labourers have had to compete in most of their trades with the Chinese, and the streets, workshops, farms, and mines have been the scenes of frequent bloodshed, occasioned less by national hatred than by international rivalry in the labour market. Continued over a whole generation, this social warfare has already cost more lives than a pitched battle : it even increases in virulence as the competition grows more fierce. Hitherto the white element has had the best of it in California and Australia. With large majorities in the legislatures, they have triumphed over the manufacturers, farmers, and contractors, whose interest it is to secure cheap labour; and they --»-.rvr*-r.,.,„,^-.,,35^^,,,^^^..^^^^^^_ UIVAMIY OF TIIK EARTOUN ANP WKSTKKN IIACKH. 11 Its will tlH <»f 1(1 i«iich nthcr, III- world has pt« in Hi>i>anito lii^rliiT oriU-r. iw the United I' this iTgion If lu-nmu-d in oust and west opK' to people h the definite ,ents. As the the eonditiona y us the owner produce of his lie struggle for price the raw iicturiug states 8s cxijensivc — cultural farms, 8 of labourers, he Si-kiang or fence, spirit of Japan. In the s may be safely jstimony to the ponding classes system in the had nothing to threatens to set lin new districts Calil'ornia.New had to compete ops, farms, and ess by national led over a whole pitched battle : Hitherto the ia. With large manufacturers, ibour; and they have passed liiws throwing difficiiltios iu the way of rhiiiesr coolie ininiigratinn, constituting this olcnirnt ii distinrt and ss(i| rlii>s, witli products of which might soon compete nuccess- fully with the h)cal numufactures in the Wtst. Hence, from the economic point of view, the definite cimccrt of the Mongolian and white races invtdves conse(|uences of supreme importance. The balance will d«)ul)tless Im? idtinuit(>ly cstablislied, and humanity will learn to adapt itself to the new destinies secured to it by a connnon possession of the whole worhl. Hut during the transition ])eriod gnat disasters nnist be anticipated in a utruggle in which upwards of a billion of hunmn beings will be directly engaged. In |)oint of numbers the civilised element in KurojM) und America is about ecpial to that of Must Asia. On either side hundreds of millions stand uvrayed against each other, impelled by opposing interests, and incapable as yet of understanding the higher advantages of a common human «!oneert. For the antagonism of East and West flows as much from the contrast of ideas and morals as from the opiM)sition of immediate interests. lU'tween the moral standards of Europeans and Chinese, both of whom have a certain personal self- respect, the ideal is not the same, and their c(mcei)tion of duty, if not contradictory, is at least different. This moral conti'ast reappears, in a more or less conscious form, in the nations themselves. It will, howeviT, doubtless be partly neutralised by intercourse, instruction, and, hero and there, by intennixture. The civilisations will be mutually influenced, not only in their outer aspects, but also in their tendencies, and the very ideas which are their true controlling force. It has often been remarked that Europeans look forward, while the Chinese look backward ; but the statement is too general, for society is everywhere decomposed into two groups — one continually renewed by ceaselessly striving to improve its destinies ; the other, through fear of the future, falling back on tradition. The frequent civil wars in China, and notably the recent insurrection of the Taipings, or "Great Pacifiers," show- that beneath the official world, wedded to the old ways and seeking its golden age in the past, there seethes a fiery element which does not fear the ri.sk of facing the unknown. If the Chinese Government has for ages succeeded in holding fast by the traditional forms, if the disasters of Tatar conquest and intestine convulsions have but slightly affected the outward framework of society, it is none the less true that the Eastern world will now have to learn from European civilisation not only new industrial methods, but especially a new conception of human culture. Its very existence depends upon the necessity of shifting its moral stand-point. vrztg ■ ■K^SiX-Tf^^'-'V^*^ IB l'.A.ST ASIA. Fin hi; IMiiisPKcis. 'hi lliif it iiiuy !'«' iiskod, Will iiol tlic idt-iil (»f tho their Htr«>aiiis, tlie limpid wiitern of tlie oiu> are troiiiiled Ity llie tiii-i>iil elements of tin; other, uiul neither ever apiin recovers its primitive eon- (lition. Will the eonttict of these two «'ivilisations in tlu- same way result in raisinjjf tho one and lowering; \\w other h Will the projrress of the Mast Ih» attended by 11 t'orrespondinj^ retroj^rade movement in the West J* Are eomin^^ j^eneratioiiH jf in the vast empir(<. They ask thems<'lves what these hosts may not do when disciplined and hurled hy victorious leaders aj^ainst the Kuropean world. May they not, under other conditions, renew the .Mon;;olian invasions when, armed with the same weapons, hut more united than the Western peoples, tln'y will he marshalle the ports already opened to connnerce, and CiUleavour to confine tlie Chinese to their former seclusion and ifj;norance. Others are rejoicinj^ that the ("hinese nation are becotnin<; slu^fj;ish under the iufluenee of opium, which prevents it fnmi recof^nisinp; its own strenj^th. "Hut for opium," says Vasilyev, " China would sooner or later overrun tho whole world — would stifle Kuropo and Anu>ricu in its embrace." But it is now too lato to attempt to separate the Kast and West. With tho exception of Tibet, Corea, and a few remote highlands, Kast Asia henceforth forma ])art of the open world. What will be the consequences for humanity of this accession of half a billi(m of human beinj>:8 to the general nu)vcnu>nt of history ? No more serious (piestion can l)e asked. Hence too much importan(!e cannot Ik) ntta<'hed to the study of the Far East and of the " yellow " races, which must one day play so great u part in the future development of human culture. I - *»■ 4^ ,1, --w^wt fi-^v* , .-s-rn* -,■ i^»v« ?»wrTOTwn.-Wr«*- races !»<> also inIv iiiiMlitinl ; re truiihird Ity |»riiiiitiv(' luu- wiiy result ill st he attended i>r ^jcneiatioiiN whicli Uoiiiiin it? Priipliets the interittr of I'tiinied full of re. They ask I hy vietoriouH ulitioiiM, renew it more united en^;lliz Khan ? ly hc(roino our pov ers Hhouhl d Oiideavoiir to [•H are rejoicing t' opium, which ' Huy« Vusily(>v, flo Europe and ?st. With tljc L[id(ne Kin^j^doni " tlie Chinoso Kinpiro enihraces vast f(><,'i(»iis, with a joint area more extensive than that of C'liina proper. It inchicU's Tibet, tlieTarim, and Kiiku-nor basins, tlieuiiland valleys drainiii},' to Lake Halkhash, Zuiif,'aria, Mon;,'olia, Maiicliuria, and tlio ishinds of l-'oriiiosa and Hainan. It also claims as tributaries the Horean iieiiinsula, and even, on the southern sh.pe of the irimalayas, Nepal and Hhutun, lands which belonj,', at least geo^'raphicully, to India. All these countries, while reco)>:nisin<,' the common supremacy of Chinu, are severally distinj,Miished l)y their physical features, the institutions and habits of their inhabitants. Hut none of them have, in recent times, so effectually repelled foreij,Mi influences as Tib(^ ' ji p >« Stfei EXPLORATION-EXTENT-DIVISIONS. 15 ■i the interpre- wlio give the be, the present tsclf probably single state on [n its principal \n and Tsang, ,'0 the name of rcstern Fans," lussians of the s inhabiting its Daran-tolu, or is, the present iffhlands which igolian spurs of ic Tsangbo, the lorder range of 'iking contrasts rim and several ( elevated table- ice rises close to frontiers, Tibet the Old World. r the Ijadak and ith-east between the Pamir, these lase as " roofs of m the limits of s the appearance ise as the region 3 some 14,000 or •c than half tilled )able remains of I frontier ranges, item frontier the ^ south-west and south-eastwards, ys. Yet on this •iphery. On the eastern frontiers of Tibet travellers arc arrested by the rugged gorges, the extensive forests, the absence of population, and consequently of supplies of idl kinds, and to these obstacles is now added the ill-will of the Chinese authorities. During the present century the Tibetan Government has succeeded belter than any other Asiatic state in preserving the political isolation of the people, thanks cliieHy to the relief and physical conditions of the land. Tibet rises like a citadel in the heart of Asia ; hence its defenders have guarded its approaches more easily than those of India, China, and Japan. P]XPL0UATI0X — EXTKXT — DIVISIONS. The greater part of Tibet remains still unexplored, or at least geographers have failed to trace with certainty the routes of the Roman Catholic missionaries who traversed the land before their entry was interdicted. In the fii-st half of the four- teenth century the Friuli monk, Odorico di I*ordenone, made his way from China to Tibet, and resided some time in Lassa. Three centuries later on, in lG2o and 1G20, the Portuguese missionary Andrada twice penetrated into Tibet, where he was wvW received by the Buddhist priests. In 16G1 the Jesuits Griiber and D'Orville travelled from China through Lassa to India. In the following century the Tuscan Dosideri, the Portuguese Manoel Freyre, and others visited the Tibetan capital from India. But the Capuchins had already founded u Catholic mission in I^assa under the direction of Orazio della Penna, who spent no less than twenty-two years in the country. At this time the Tibetan Government allowed strangers to penetrate freely over the Himalayan passes, which are now so jealously guarded. A layman also lived several years in Lassa, whence he went to China by the Kuku-nor, again returning via Lassa to India. This was the Dutch traveller Van de Putte, who is known to have been a learned man and a great observer, but who unfortu- nately destroyed his papers and charts, fearing lest these ill-arranged luul mis- understood documents might be the means of propagating error. He left nothing behind him except a few notes and a manuscript map, carefully preserved in the Middelburg Museum in Zealand. Itineraries traced either astronomically or by the compass and chroiumicter are still very rare. The English explorers and the Hindu surveyors employed by the Indian Government have only visited the south-western districts, and the upland basin of the Tsangbo north of Xepal and Sikkim. South-east Tibet has been traversed by French missionaries; but all the recent attempts made to penetrate from the north and north-east have failed. In imitation of I'askievich the " Transbaikalian," and Muraviov the " Amfirian," the brothers Schlagintweit have assumed the whimsical title of " Transkuenluniau " (in Russian, Zakuen- luuskiy), to perpetuate the memory of their passage over the Tibetim mountains ; but they only visited the western extremity of the country. The Russian exphjrer Prjevalsky was compelled twice to retire without being able to penetrate into the heart of the country, and the Hungarian Bela Hzcchenyi also found himself obliged to retrace his steps. For all the regions not yet visited by the English and Hindu . ♦^rn, lU EAST AHIA. surveyors tho prosont iiiiips of Tibet arc merely reproductions of the chart drawn up hy the ilhisti-inus D'AnviUe, and based on the surveys made under the Kniperor Kang-hi by the Til)etan himas truinelateaux ; the ■lite directions , cut up into TiiK KtKX-i.rN Haxok. The northern region, the largest in extent, hut by far the most thinly iieopled, consists of all the eh»sed basins limited southwards by the eastern prnhingiition of the Karakorum, and resting northwards on the mighty Kuen-hin range. This border chain of the plateau, separating Tibet from (he Tarim basin, sluiidd be regarded, far more than the Ilinudayas, us forming part of the continental back- IxMie. It continues the llindu-Kush east of the Tamir, while connecting itself directly with the "diaphragm " of Western Asia. It thus constitutes (he eastern half of the main continental wuter-purting, which runs west and east irregularly, now skirting the plateaux in the form of border chains, now breaking into parallel or slightly divergent ridges, occasionally even devch)ping into distinct mountain systems. The Kuen-lun and its eastern continuation into China do not apparently present greater uniformity us the Central Asiatic axis than do the ranges of the western " diaphragm." IJut the orography of Tibet and China is still too imper- fectly known to allow us to sjK'uk with certainty on this point. Regarding the Kuen-lun with its eastern prolongations us forming one vost system, its total length, from its roots in the I'amir to its extreme spurs Ix'tween the Iloang-ho and Yung-tzc-kiang, may Ik> estimated at about 'J,4()0 miles. IWit this orographic system is broken into a great numlwr of chains by freijuent gups, changes «)f direction, interstnstions, and displacements of all sorts. The highlands to which the term Kuen-lun was applied in the curly periods of Chinese history form a group of magnificent mountains rising near the s«»urces of the Iloang-ho ; but this muss can scarcely be regarded as the central nucleus of the system to which gw)graphers have subsequently extended the name. AVith the progress of geographical knowledge westwards, the tenn Kuen-lun (Kul-kun, Kur-kun) also advanctnl in the same direction. It is now applied to the range by the old Hindu immigrants from Kashmir called Anoftta, from the Sanskrit Anuratapta ; that is, the " Unillumined," the mountain of cold and gloom, synonymous with the Tatar name, Karangui-tagh, or the " Dark Mountain." The Kuen-lun has apparently no peaks as high as the highest in the Himalayas, or even in the Karakorum range. Johnson, Prjevalskj , Montgomerie, and Ilicht- hofen arc of opinion that none of them attain an elevation of 2»J,0(H) feet, although lK\vond Tibet a few summits between Kashmir and Yarkund excee ■ -9*^ -* I W^ •^^.•*r ■* -^^^•imm^i-^SfSTfit^ THE PROVINCE OF KIIAmi-LACUSTRINE RYSIKM. lU el) oMor (late. Iliiiialavus, it8 spread by tho lands. In bis sins, Stolii'zka Tbcy consist c, wlierous the 1 botwooii the e Kuon-lun is 8 arc of more ; on the whole ! of the llinta- e narrow ouses speckled with compared with cording to the ion, as well as he plateau are frozen masses the range is loir way across their rains and Tibet. Thus d tho streams nselvcs in the s far more in plateau above md snows are 1, considerable to the Khotan river, crosses )f the Ilindu- t deep in the f the Khotun. an opening in . IJut east of letan plateaux 'nough to flow now be, these by hollowing ^pression. In iclinc docs not exceed that of ordinary routes in highland regions. According to the natives of Khotan, it would even be possible to cross the Kucn-lnn in a carriage. ')ii(« of Moiitgonierie's Hindu surveyors easilj' reached the western Tibetan plateau by following tho Kiria valley to an altitude of over KJ.OOO feet. The ]>lateau is approached by other passes from the east, for the Zungarians have freiiuently Fig. 4. — ITiTKK Kaha-ka8h Vamey. invaded Tibet by crossing the steppes and deserts stretching south of the Lob-nor. The Mongolian pilgrims follow this route on their way to Lassa. The Province of Khachi — Lacustrine System. The North Tibetan tableland, mostly inhabited or visited only by nomad tribes, still remains the least-known upland region in the Chinese Empire. The Tibetans themselves are acquainted only with the southern districts of this bleak and storm- swept land, roamed over by Mongolian and Tatar nomads, who choose for their camping grounds the sang, or sheltered pastures resembling the pamirs of the {■■■■r L;l '20 EAST ASIA. ])liit('!iii iM'twccii tlic Oxiis iind Tariiii Imsiiis. The Tiitiir tribes, oollccfivcly known lis lliir i>r Klii>i\ dwell in the western and sontliern districts. KIsi>wliere live the Sok, (»r M(in;^i)lian imniads, wlio have named nearly all the lakes and nionntains in N(irth-east Tihet. They mostly practise Shamanistie rites, altln)U<,'h the Tibetan eolieelive name iti' all these trilxvs is Khash-len, or " Mohannnedans," whence, probably, the term Khachi apjdied to the whole rej;:ion. From the two ]>rincipal groups »»i' tribes settled in it, the country is also known by the name of lIor-8ok. Fig. 5.- Lake Panoha-yim ami Taikjot Mointaixh. SciUe 1 : 2,U0U,U0U. '5*i . 30 Hilen. Of the numerous lakes scattered over the Khachi platcaxi, those of Nniiiftr, Tke Namur, and Hakha Xamfir arc the largest traced on the Chinese maps. The waters or ])artly flooded tracts in this vast lacustrine basin woidd seem to stretch south-west and north-east for over 1*20 miles, and we now know that the ;;^ i' iiu is largely occupied by a hain of lacustrine basins running north-west and somli-east, ])arallel with the depression watered by the Tsangbo. In 1110VINT'E OP KIIACIII— LACUSTRINE SYSTEM. 21 tivcly kiidwii ilu'iv live tlu* inountiiinH in 1 tli(> Tihcfiin IIS," wlu'iicc, two ]>riiu-i|>al f Ilor-Sok. 150 HXiT 88- P Nnmftr, Ike maps. Tlie [>m to stretch tho ]; 'i' uu is ul s(mili-(>ast, ])iiii(1it Xaiii } remains of 'd to mudfly » bv tbc salt traders. Some of tlio lakes an> saline, olliers l)rackisli, while most of l1ios(< with free outlets are ix'rfectly fresli. This lacustrine n'ffion lias a mean elevation of from I-^OOO to Ki.OOO feet, with almost cverywheri' extremely gentle slojies, over which carriage and even military roads might easily be eonstnietcd. One of the largest lakes is the I )angra-yum, or " Mother Dangra," which is contnicfed towards tlie centre, thus forming nearly two se])arate basins. Although no less than ISO miles in circumference, the devout IJu(hlhists of the district, and even of Lassa, often undertake to walk in procession round this lake, taking from eight to twelve days to perform the task, according to the season. A large mountain rising south of tlie lake has received tho nanio of Targot-yiij), or " l''ather Targot," and the natives regard this mountain and Mother Uungru us the first parents of Fiff. 6.— Tenori-nor. Pcalel : ll.OJl.WK), 18 Miles. mankind. The groups of hills dotted round about are their daughters. The kora, or complete pilgrimage round the mountain and lake, takes about one month, and is a most meritorious act, effacing all ordinary sins. Two koras satisfy for one murder, and the parricide hin-.self is pardoned if he perfonns tho act three times. East of the Dangra-yura the lakes become more numerous than elsewhere on the plateau, and most of them drain northwards, where occurs the (,'hargut-tso, said to be the largest basin in the south of the tableland, and discharging its waters to one of the great affluents of the Indian Ocean. The Tengri-nor, M-hich is smaller than the Chargut-tso, and situated in the south-cast angle of the Khachi country, lies already within the limits of modern exploration. It is about GO miles from Lassa, and runs 48 miles south-east and north-west, with a breadth of from 22 EAST ASIA. l-'> to '24 miles. The pundit wlio visito*! it in 1H7',* took fourteen days to trnvorse its norllicrn slioro. It is of unknown de|)tli, and an almost perennially cloudless sky is mirrored in its ehuir waters, whence its Tatar name, Teiijfri-nor, and TiU-tan Nam-tso, ixitli meaninj!^ the " Heavenly Lake." Thousands of piljjrinis yearly face the dilKculties of the route and the muruuders of the district in order to visit the convent of Dorkia, und the other monasteries on the headlands connnandin^ extensive vistas of its hlue waters, and of the snowy i)eaks in the south und south- cast. In this " holy land " everything; partakes of the marvellous. Here a rocky gorpfc has heen the work of a J? earrii'd away as relies of one of the " three hundred and sixty mountains," or divinities in the suite of the principal deity, the snow-dud Ninjin-tan;;-la. It was till recently supposed that the evaporation of the Ten<;ri-nor alwiut balanced the amount discharjjed throur ti> visit s (■Diniiiiindiii)^ ith and isouth- IIc>ro a rocky 'd by the liuiid ii'ds to a laiim 'd objects, mid y luoiintains," -tan\ver Tibet, or borux known id rain fall on irkable rej^ion rnij'litv rivers, fthich receive reczes. These se maps show I to the Yajij^- re divided by ^olf is nearly to between the »n<; to a single form part of n accepts the connects the shain he even le Tengri-nor. ; chains would iippliud to inoun- nll seem to form parallel crests running suutli-west and north-eiist, with broad and deep int.M'vening depressions. Tlicset icsls are successively crossed by tiu' ciiravans proceeding from Tibet to .Mongolia. Of those parallel chains the souliu>rnmost is the Tanl-la, whose western extremity al)uts upnn Uichthofen's Tang-la. 'i'lu- Iwuwo'' stem to be merely dialectic varieties (tf the saiue name. Hue speaks of tho Taii>-la as p«'rliaps " the highest point on the globe," but during his third I'xpeditinn Prjevalsky scaled these formidal)h' heights and fixed their eh'valion at Hi, <)(•(> I'ecl, oi about ;i.(M)U feet lower than some other fretpiented passes. At their southern base are luune- rous theruud springs, whidi unite in u considerable rivulet flowing over a ImmI of yeUow or gold-coloured pebbles. Dense vapours rise continually above the springs, und are condensed in fleecy ch)uds, while in some reservoirs tlu* pent-up vapour is ejected, forcing upwards a vast column of water like the geysers of Iceland or tho Yellow Stone National I'ark in the United Stutes. SoiTii TtnKT — Tin: Trans-IIimai.ayan Rancks. South Tilu't, comprising that {lortion of the j)lafeau where towns have Wn built, and where the imtion has been gradually constituted and its culturt* deve- loped, consists of the relatively sheltered depression stretching south of the Khachi tablehmd. In ordinary language the term Tibet is ajjplied tt» this section alone of the Trans-Ilimalayaii uplands. Although draining in opposite directions to tho Arabian Sea und Hay of lUmgal, it is nevertheless a longitudinal valley, at onco the largest, und, thanks to the Burrounding highlands, the grandest on the surface of the globe. Hut this h)ng depression, forming a semicircle parallel with the Himalayas, is not a regular plain or a mere trough limiting the Khachi plateau on the south and south-west. It is a highland region whose ranges run mostly in the Hiune direction us the Himalayas. The chain skirting the north side of the Tibetan depression projierly so called, and at the same time forming the southern escarpment of the Khachi plateau, may be regarded as a continuation of the Karukorum. East of Kashmir and of Ladak this range trends southwards parallel with the Himalayas, und projects to the left several ridges which gradually merge with the plateau; while the main chain, cut into ravines and even intersected by tributaries of the Tsangbo, by .some clo.sed basins, and eastwards by the affluents of the great eastern rivers, unites with the Tang-la south of tho Tengri-nor. Back of this chain rise several lofty grou])s, including the Turgot-leh, which overlooks the Dar.gra-yum, and which Main Singh regards as tho highest in the whole region of plateaux north of the Himalayas. Farther east the Gyakhanna rises above the great lake XyarJng-tso, and is sepa- rated from the southern border chain by the valley of the. Dumplu, an affluent of the Nyaring. Teaks from 2JJ,000 to 'J4,000 feet high have been sighted on the range skirting the course of tho Tsanglx), and which have not yet been definitely named. For this Tibetan chain the Schlagintweits have retained the Tatar term Karukoruiu, which belongs, strictly speaking, to the crest separating Kashmir from 24 KAST ASIA. ii ijpi •'iS' fli the T^|ip('f Viirkanil vuUoy IJut Ilmlj^son wntiM jn-cfcT to call it Niiijiii-tim(j;-lii (Nvcnslilicii-liinjj-lii), after the inan whiili would introduce lurdlt'ss coiifiision into tlu> nonu'nclatun' of this n';<;it)U. Fur the sanu' reason wo slioidd i)erliai)s reject tlie Tibetan term (ianji;ri,or "Snowy ^fountain," alr(;ht bo called tho Trans-Hima- layas, stretches between the Tsanpression is thus divich'd east and west into two seccmdary and parallel d(>pressi()ns. The mi(hllo chain, forming a continuation of one of tho liadak ranges, lifts its snowy j)eaks above tho southern edge of tho Sutluj valley, and farther on above that of the Tsangbo. Although less elevated than tho Himalayas, it forms a more in)portant water-parting, and is pierced by fewer river beds. For about 480 miles tho Trans-Hinudayas completely enclose the Tsangbo basin, while tliD deeper gorges of the Himalayas allow several streams to escape towards tho plaii^' of tho (jianges. Hut not all the nnining waters of these upland regions find th'.'i> way to the oc(>an, and s(nuo vast cavities in tho intervening jdatoaux uro tilled wth lakes without any outflow, such as tho Chomto-dcmg and I'algu-tso. Tho water of tho Ciu»mto-dong is ])erfectly sweet and limpid, which would scorn to imply that an outlet existed till comparatively recent times. All those highlands arc crossed by pas.ses exceeding Mont Hlauc by 1,000 and oven 3,000 feet in altitude.* MoixT Kau.as: SofucK of the Forii Sachkd Rivkus- -Tuk Upper Satlaj AND Indis. Tho Tibetan region, where rise tho Satlaj and tho Tsangbo, is a holy land both for Itrahmins and IJuddhists — a fact undoubtedly duo to its geographical impor- tance. Tho transverse ridge connecting the Himalayas with the Gang-di.H-ri, and through it with the whole Tibetan plateau, not only forms tho necessary route between tho two great valleys which stretch far into regions of different aspect, but • Chief altitudes of the Lacustrine Unsin, tlio Oang-dis-ri, and tho Trans- Himalayas : Lucualriiie Basin. Feet. Thok-Niihina:, highest inhabited place on tlic globe 1G,000 Targot-yiip, highest peak of iho Targot- leh 24,000 liake Dimgra-yum Oyiikharmii Peak . Lake Tengri-nor . Gttiig-dit-ri Range. Miiriain-la KhonioRing-Ia Kuilas, or Tiso 14,000 20,800 15,200 I4,fl00 18,1500 21,700 Ninjin-tang-la Puss west of this mountain . liaknitk I'ass, north of Ijassa . Traiis-Hiiiialayas. Snowy Peak (langiti'), south-west Janglarheh .... Tunglung-la Lagulung-la Khaniba-la, south-west of Lassa . Lake Palti Khoro-la, west of Lake Palti of — --^ JfeoV. 24,000 18,000 17,600 23,960 19,200 15,900 17,000 13,400 10,500 '^-ti^.^C-^:*^rr-rr^«5!fSBE^-! ^m'.«^:^-w^ ^saff.- ^^.^-/^^rf-.^-Atr^ ;{;iun. fi'i.or " Snowy )n»th has prt)- tlicrs call thu ins," ai'tcr tho 1 blasts. Trans-IIinm- thc f^littcrinf? . The South V and parallel fiadak ranf^cs, ind further on yas, it forms a For about 480 lilo tho deeper ' l)laii '^• of tho id tli'.'i- way to led wrahadet», or the (ireat (Jod, thenvnt and jfranch'st of all those tJlynipuses on whose siunmits the peoples at each succes- sive stufje of their westward mi;;ralioiis have seen in fan«y tlie dazzling; li^fht of their (h'ities. Ft is the ^^ount Meru of the ancient Hindus — the pistil of tlu' sym- bolic h)tus Hower which represents the world. Nor do the Tibetan lamas yiehl to the Hindu yo^his in their veneration for the sacred moinitain. The most darinfj; amon;<;st them undertake a pilfrrimaj^e of Hi>veral ItivKiiH. Scale I : .i.non.noo. Z oFG m^^-'-t. ^^^^^ 51 501 fiS' < ao MUea. Buddhist monastery on tho plateau was built at the foot of this mountain, with its four faces, "one of gold, the second of silver, tho third of rubies, the last of lapis- lazuli." Tlio Hindu legends also hero seek tho mysterious grottoes whence emerge tho four divino animals — the elepliant, lion, cow, and horse — symlM)ls of the four great rivers — tho Sutluj, Indus, Ganges, and Tsanglx). These mighty streams, which flow in four different directions, rise on the flanks of the same mountain within a space of not more than GO miles in extent. The Alaknanda, Karnali, and other head-streams of tho Ganges rise on the Indian side of the Himalayas, and the Indus receives its first waters from the northern snows of the Gang-dis-ri. iJut between these two oxtrcmo points occurs that deep depression where rise the Satlaj and Tsangbo. At a former geological epoch tho crescent-shaped di'pression skirting the northoni slope of tho Himalayas was probably flooded by a vast alpine lake, of 35 ■vl-^"*'«!H^^fi,''.'''-M''t"-?''' ■'■■■'* 80 KAST ASIA. wliicli till' prcHiMit liikcn Mciittfi) H4Mitlii'ni itiutcimnl' Kliiiilii. irmii the |liiii), and, liki> tlir Sutlaj and TNaii^lKi, Fig. R.-TlIK MANHMIAfn nAHIN. Hnilc t : TlDMrO, IS MUes. flow ill opposite directions— the Tndus on tlio one hand, and on the other the mysterious stream which i)robal)ly forms the upjier course of the 8ahven. The least-inclined section of the Hcmth Tibetan depression is that which is traversed by the Satlaj. Its first terrace is occujHed by Lake Konj^-kio, which has no outlet, and which, like iicaily all dosed basins, has become suit. Hound about are scattered some other saline tarns; but the JMansaraxV and Rakus-tul, the two great basins of the valley, are fresh- water lakes connected together by a permanent k-rsi;-.- '»- ''■■■■■!ff-:,-J--.^'TI>»S'K'V''.:r,_.'-.^-j,^^^^ MOUNT KAlr-AS- TlIK IH'I'IIU HATf.AJ AND INDUH. 27 ]\y II rcrriiirk- i UN tlir «'hiiiii lit' 'rcii>;ri-iior. uiul Tmiii}{Imi, : of the other the wen. thut which is kio, which has Ktiund ubout tus-tul, the two )y a permanent rivulot ciirrvlii^j to the Siitlnj a Miicrcd Mtrciim, ft»r tlic MaiiHamrir- the Muiwihh Sunivara ol ]|iii(hi Icj^ciid — is the " lake I'diiiicd liy tlic hiratli of llnilima."* Its liluc waters lire l'n'(|iiciitcd l»y tliDiisaiids of swans, vcncniti'd as hiissl'iil Itriii^rs. The NuriiMiiuliiiy; IthilVs are dotted witli the little houses of |iil^'t'iiiis, tnanv oi' \\lioiii lope of the Himalayas. Mven at tlu>se elevations battles have heeii foujjht, and in Deet'mher, ISH, the Cliiiiese here (hd'eated the Dostum throiiji;h the Himalayan porfj^es tt)wards the plains of Intlia, the terraces tm either bank maintain an elevatiim of 14,(100 feet above the sea, as at Lake Mansaraur, 1S> miles farther up. Thi>se terraces, which are of lacustrine origin, have been liirrowed by the stream to a depth tif 1,.'{()0 and even 1,()00 feet, withtmt, ho^*evor, reaching the live rock ft)rmin^ the old bed of the lake. All the tributai \ torrents have, like tht! Satlaj, to force a passage throup;h tho rocks and days; and the wlmle tlistrict has thus been cut up into vast gorges. In these gorges the few inhabitants t»f the country have form(;d their temporary or permanent abodes. Thus Daba, the chief "city" of tho Satlaj valley in Tibet, ticcuijies the sides of a ravine tiver >'10() feet deep, which has been cut through the rock by an atfluent of the main stream. A few two-storied stone houses, with their white fa9ades, ctiutrast here and there with the red escarpments ; and towards the top of the town the tpiarter occupied by tho lamas forms a sort of citadel, itself overlooked by inaccessible rocky heights. A solitary gate in tho lower quarter gives ingress to the inhabitants. In winter Daba is completely abandoned ; tho gorge is filled with snow, which covers all the houses, and which in spring-time has to be cleared away, with the mud, locks, and other remains of avalanches that have accumulated during tho cold seastm. The dtibris which now fills up tho old lake beltwigs to the tertiary and quaternary eptjchs, and contains many fossils as well as tho bones of some large veilebrates. Thus a special fauna had time to be developed and disappear during the ages occupit'd by the detritus in filling up the inland sea, which has escaped through the gap in the Ilinuilayas now affording an outlet tt) the Satlaj. Several of the rivers rising north of tho (iang-dis-ri were ftirmerly said to be * According t) Moorcroft, Manaodo SurQur meaiig simply tho Sacred Liiko. It ia tho Thu- Alapung of tho Tibctuns. .mpi-'- 28 EAST .VSIA. flic main lipad-stroain of tlic Sind or Indus, and to all of them was applied tlip mytliical name of the Sonj^e Khahad, or river " fiowinji; from the lion's throat." Uut tlie Anglo-Indian explorations have established the fact that of these rivers the true Indus is that which rises farthest east, near the nortliern slope of the Mariam-la. This is the longest and most coi)ions of all the streams uniting in tho common bed of the Indus above its entry into Kashmir. Within Tibetan Fig. !).~Lakk I'ano-kono : Excampmkxt op the Enoush Expedition of 1871. territory the Indus is also joined, and nearly doubled in volume, by the Gartung, or river of Gartok. Lake Pang-kong. The continuous diminution of moisture which has reduced so many Tibetan lakes to mere salt marshes has also dried up many rivers, converting into closed basins numerous valleys which formerly drained to the Indus. A striking example occurs in the Radokh valley, north of this river. In this district, at a ^*'/.^f»-f^-|ni-^^^«^lv■"^^^v~-L•<*.^vsf««r?^^fi«^^^AA«,^aK^Tv«^-.■^ LAKE PANG-KONO. 20 m was !ii)plicd c lion's throat." those rivers the 1 slo])e of the 'iiiiis uniting in Within Tibetan 01- 1871. by the Gartung, many Tibetan •ting into closed IS. A striking bis district, at a mean elevation of 13,500 feet, a valley, running parallel with the Indus, follows the same general windings, turning tirst north-west, then hcafling westwards through a mountain gorge, beyond whieh it resumes its normal north-westeily course. A large portion of this valley is flooded, but the lake thus formed, which resend)les many inland Scandinavian fiords, alternately broadens and contracts with the breadth of the bed and the projecting headlands. It has even been divided into three basins at different levels by the detritus, or i)orhaps by the alluvia washed down with the side streams. The upper lake takes the name of Xoh, from a neighbouring caravan station ; the central, 40 or 4-"» feet higher than the lower, is the Tso-Mognalari, or " Fresh-water highland lake ; " and the same name is apjdicd to the lower lake itself, although the lack of supplies has gradually Fig. 10.— Lake Pano-kono. Scale 1 : 1,600,000. .30 MUes. changed it to a saline basin with 13 per 1,000 of salt, or about the same as in the Black Sea ; but it also contains nearly as much sulphate of soda and magnesia as of sea salt, so that the absolute proportion differs. The Anglo-Indian explorers have called this lake the Pang-kong, from the Kashmir province of that name into which its northern extremity penetrates. Water marks and banks of fresh-water shells show that it formerly rose 240 feet above its present mean level, which is 13,460 feet above the sea. Hence it was twice as deep as at present, its extreme depth being now 140 feet according to Trotter and Biddulj)h, or 105 feet according to H. Schlagintweit. The total area of both lakes, estimated at 210 square miles, was also more than double when the emissary descendtnl to the Shayok through a valley some 8 miles long, and through the Tankseh River. While gradually falling ^ijy wi " ■■,'Ji!iSSt:»*fl r^?f**S=Pi*»^riB«*-f'(.'T; 80 EAST ASIA. with tlio 1('V(>1 of tli<> Like, lliis outlet furrowed tlie rock to within l')4 feet of its present h'vcl, sifter wliich the outflow ceased, and tlie lake {j;radually diiiiinishe^bo (Tsanpu, Tsjinibo, Zanj^bo, Sanipo, or SaiiilMi); that is, "the Holy Stream," whose upper course is often callwl the Yaru- Tsaii<^lM), or " Ilifjh Tsanii fillod wifii alluvia or oxluiiistod tliroiigh their emissaries. Anioiigst tln' largest that still survive is tho Vunidiik, or Palti, which is figured on D'Anvillo's and subsequent maps as almost ring-shaped, or like a moat surrounding a citadel. Tho island, which is somotimos roprosentod rather as a peninsula, rises 2,'2')0 feet above tho surface of tho lake, which is itself l;i,;{oO feet above soa-lovol. According to Manning it is slightly brackish, although the pundit who visited its northern shore found its water perfectly pure and sweet. It is said to be very d(>op, but it is uncertain whether it forms a completely closed basin or drains through a western outlet to the Tsangbo, from which it is separated on the north by the lofty Khamba-la group. North-east of Lake I'alti the Tsangbo is joined by the Kichu, another "holy stream " which waters the Lassa valley. Nain Singh, who visited the district in 187o, saw this valley stretching eastwards some JJO miles, and thou disappearing towards the south-east between the hills. But in 1877 another Hindu explorer, instructed by Ilarman, was able to follow the course of the river for over ISO miles. This explorer first followed the Tsangbo Jo the extremity of the valley seen by Nain Singh from a distance, but was afterwards obliged to make a great detour in order to avoid a deep goi-ge into which the river plunged. Nevortholoss he came upon it again some 20 miles fi-om the i)oint where he had left it, and then ascertained that it made a bend northwards before resuming its normal course towards the east and south-east. At the farthest point reached by him he saw a fissure opening in the mountains in the same south-easterly direction, and was told by the natives that the Tsangbo escaped through this fissure to traverse a tract inha- bited by wild tribes and a country beyond it belonging to the British Government. At Chetang the Tsangbo valley is about 11, 200 feet above sea-level. Yet at this elevation tho river, which already drains an area of 80,000 square miles, has a volume equal to that of the Rhine or llhone! When seen by Nain Singh its waters were comparatively low, yet the breadth of from 1,000 to 1,500 feet assigned to it by him, combined with its great depth and velocity, implies a volume at that season of rather more than 28,000 cubic feet per second. But during the floods of June and July the stream overflows its banks for several miles, and the discharge cannot then be less, perhaps, than 700,000 cubic feet, assuming the rise to be no more than IG feet, as the natives assert. Below Chetang, in East Tibet, the Tsangbo still receives a large number of copious streams, and flows through one of the wettest regions on the globe, so that -t must carry an enormous quantity of water to the Indian Ocean. Yet, to judge from the maps, it seems to lose itself, for its lower course remains still uncertain, oscillating between the Brahmai)utra and Irawady. Francis Gurnier even suggested that limestone rocks full of caverns, like those seen bj' him in many parts of China and Further India, occupy the south-east portion of Tibet, and that the Tsangbo here flows partly underground and ramifies into several basins. But what little is known of the geology of East Tibet seems opposed to this theory. Limestones occur only on tho Yunnan frontier, the rest of the country being com- posed of crystalline rocks covered with glacial clays. '*w«!'f*feaSi^S^S I '■as I 82 EAST ASIA. But however this l)e, no explorer huviiif!; yot followed the lower course of the Tsini;,'l)() beyond the point reached hy llarniun'H emissary, this important (juestion remains still undetermined. What becomes of the river after eseai)in<^ from its Tibetan valley ^ In 17"Jl the missionary Regis, who drew up u chart of the country by order of the Kmperor Kan«»-hi, slated that " nothing is known for certain as to the place where the river discharges." lie had merely learnt that it flows into the Hay of liengal " towards Aracan, or the mouth of the Ganges in Mogul." B'Anville, availing himself of the lamas' map and the documents furnished Fig. 12. — Course ok thk Tkanobo. Acoording to the Chinetie Documents. Atcortilnj h DHUiwIlc T^ffneii of 20 to the Degree. t* H t> ** ^ by missionaries, traces the course of the Tsangbo as if it were continued in the kingdom of Ava by the river Irawady. Rennell, on the contrary, identifies it with the lirahmaputru, and his view is now most commonly accepted. Yule even asks whether the question may not be regarded as already settled, and advances an argument which he thinks conclusive. In 1854 two Roman Catholic missionaries, while attempting to reach Tibet from Upijer Assam, were killed by one of the Mishnii tril)es. A bishop at that time residing in a TilKjtan province annexed to China writes thut some Tibetans spoke to him of this tragedy as having taken "'SBas?V---v<.« ig -x^r^t®:^- (,,Tie.^'i„H-iii^-«iroW!l».J!r!^^ THE TSANOllO, OR BRAHMAPUTRA. HiJ p course of the (rtant (jucstion iping from its , chart of the is known for Y learnt that it the Ganges in lonts furnished 1 3/( f 26 f5 itinued in the entifies it with ""ule even asks d advances an c missionaries, by one of the ice annexed to having taken place on the banks of the Gakpo, or Kanpu, " a tributary of (ho Tnnvady," wliich flows to tlie north of the Tsangbo. Kow it is cortnin that the nmr«K>r ocruncd on the Lohit, (.r East lirahmaputra ; for a dotaohnient of IJrifisli troops wont lliitluT to avenge tlicir death. Yule argues from this that the Lohit is cerfainly llio continuation of the Gaki)o, and that this river, describing a great bend east of the Fig. 13.— C0UII8E OF THE TSANOBO. Aocordinir to H. Scliliwintwelt. Scale 1 : 12,000,000. . 300 MUes Tsangbo, prevents it from reaching the Irawady. But it may be asked whether a vague report, turning on the doubtful name of a river, is sufficient to dispose of such a geographical question. The partisans of Rennell's view have long discussed the rival claims of the Dihong, Dibong, Subansiri, and other streams in Assam, to be regarded as the upper course of the Brahmaputra. Most English geographers have pronounced in Wiljt'#Si^r*S.iSi*»^>'''!!^'iS*8«^- 34 KA8T ASIA. favimr f)f the Dihoiifj^, since Wilcox und Ihirlton nscertainod in IS'io-O that it is evidently the main branch of the Urahniajjutra. Ihit when tlu'V went on to assert tiiat the IJrahinaputni itself is the lower course of the Tsaujyho, the still unexplored j^ap between tho two rivers was no less than 'MO miles hinj; as the bird flies, and the inlervenin}^ hijjfhlands were entirely unknown. The information brouf^ht back by Wilcox re^'ardinji^ tho river ascended by him was also far from sulHcient to justify his opinion on the identity of the two streams. He should have first of all proved that the Dihong has u larger volume than the Tsungbo. Fig. 14.— COUKBE OF TUB ThA .OBU. Accordint to MarLham. Soale 1 : 10,000,000. • 300 Miles. But he merely observed, that at the point reached by him the Dihong was 100 yards broad, with a slow current, and, as he 8iippo8e(f, an immense depth. The problem is now confined to the narrowest limits. According to Walker's explorations, the entirely unexplored space separating the extreme point reached by the already mentioned Hindu pundit on the Tsanglx>, and the farthest point to which the Dihong has been ascended, is exactly 93 miles, and the difference of level would appear to be about 7,500 feet. Were the two streams connected, the total fall in an approximate course of 180 miles would consequently be rather over 1 in 100 yards — a fall uuapproached by any other river in its middle course, and equalled only by the valleys of torrents in the heart of the mountains. Vag^o •-''^:! ''^0'-l's^:f^-''-i^ »fS<^^'AX^Vv-i^y-:f>^ -'''«-'mmii)^ms»ism^i!ismm^Sgmm^^gmi^^^ THE TSAXGIU). Ott nRAIIMAI'UTRA. 8R m^>-(> that it is «'y wi'iit on to nifj;l)o, till' still iiif^ us the bird be iiiforniiition ) also fur from IS. He should 1 the Tsuiigbo. M' B4?n6 ihong was 100 epth. InfT to "Walker's K)int reached by irthest point to fference of level iccted, the total be rather over Idle course, and utaius. Vag^e reports, no doubt, speak of rapids and cataracts throuf^h wliich the Tibetan waters reach the lowlands; but it is uncertain what streams these re})()rts refer to. llesidcs, the exact measurements rec(>ntly taken of the disdiarfje i>f the Ilrahmaputra and its alllucnts do not seem favourable to Reunell's hypothesis. The How of the tSubuusiri, Dibong, und Upper Bruhmuputru shows that these rivers are all far Fig. 15. — Cdirse of the Tkanoho. According to Gordon. Scale 1 : 11,000,000. . 300 MaeR. inferior in volume to the Tsangbo at Chetang, and consequently still smaller than the same stream 180 miles lower down. The volume of the Dihong, as measured by Woodthorpe, is 54,000 cubic feet per second in the snowy season, when the water logins to rise ; and judging from the extent of land coveretl during the floods, the discharge would then seem to vary from 350,000 to 420,000 cubic feet. But this is precisely the amount we might expect to be sent down by the river mm^m-'m^mm^ -^^fr-J-i^D^'ii^^ »0 KAST ASIA. fl basin limited by tlio Traiis-Hinmluynn ranpr; fur lu-ir tho avrrii^c rainfall ih at least \''i I'eet, and the natural discharge may Im' taken at from 4(K) to •<()(> ^mlltins p<^r s(|uare mile. A basin from S,()()() to 1*^,000 square miles in extent would sutficu to supply such a (|uantity, and the une.\ph)red traet separating the Tsiui^rlMt and Lower |)ilion^ valleys is lar^e enou^;h to contain a basin of this sixe by including in it that (d' th(> Lopra-ko-chu, which Hows to the west W-tween the Himalaya and Trans- Himalaya, and whose lower course is still unexplorwl. On the other hand, the comparative Huvial discharge, as approximately indicated for the Tsanji;lM) and accurately for the Irawady, would seem to justify the Chineso map reproduced by D'Anville, which represents the Jlurman river as the continuu* tion of the Tsanj;lM). At lihamo the Irawady dischurjjfcs during the H,(K)0 and even 47,000 cubic feet per second ; but during that iH>rit follow that this was the true Irawady, although m named by them. These explorers themstdves heard rejiorts of u great eastern stream belonging to the same basin, but they made no attempt to reach it. In any ctise, before coming to a di^finito conclusion, it will be wise at least first to see whether the blocks of wo rainfall i'h at I) to '>()() ^mlloiiM eiit would KiilHco ho Tsjiii^'lMt and ii/(> Ity including 11! lliiiinlaya and inatoly indicat(>d *tify the Chi 11080 UH tho continuu- ' tho fltHHia ovor iwo-thii-ds of tho ^'o doubt, durin}^ or Irawady may that {H'ritNl tho approaclu-s tho 1 \H far loM8 than a lar^o aroji of I'd hy an aniphi- iid Hurlton may ; but it ds not ly thorn. Tliost) l!;iug to the same vis(! at least first by onlor of tho Tibet will roach d that tho route 1 may have free sta, Hwumps, and us. m cut into iiinu- winds from tho ojwnings in the . copious rainfall ere, sultry heats inaccessible, tho character, their !s inhubiting tho 1 administnitivc is several groups itherto been able S^ffiiSS^^^^^^J -"'^ ji l M i ' ! * 'S-r -, !;i ii«« TU£ LAKTZAN-KIANU-HOOQS OORUK. %^^.«;-&BaRr.'T«vr-7"^^ts*g^»«ni,'?;rasK-^^3*5g?9it»i3w^«^^ UEAD-WATEUS OP TIIK OIIKAT INDOCIIINKHK IMVKUS. 87 to occupy tho country, and itn Hnvnjfo or luilf-i-ivilist>it!iiitN have (iccnNiniially rccojyiiisrd the Muprciiiucy of Tibet or China only for the purpoM*' ol' tindin^ a ready market for their priKluco. Their huids have Ikh'H triiverHcd hy traveUers, and cs|M'eially hy niissionaricM, but few of tlieni huvo iK'en able to trace a continuous itinerary of tlu>ir routew, no that these hi^rhhind regions, fifteen times more extensive than the Alps, must hmp^ renuiin unknown. Hitherto littU> has In'en (h>ne lH>yond determining the general run (d" the nuiin ranges. I'araUel with the Tant-hi oth»'r ridj^es stiitch to llie Kuku-nor, and all of them run mainly north and south far into the Trans-'ian^etic IM'uinsula. These hif^hl. nds form the Indo-( 'hinesi' system spoken of by Hiehthofen. The two HysteniH intersc'ct each otlier, leaving several breaks in the conver^injjf lines, through which tho rivers escujM) from their upper basins. Ah far as can Ik? judged from the rouf^hly sketched charts of e.xplorers, supplemented by the Chineso documents, the streams of the province of Kham indicate by the direction of their valleys the fj;cneral run of the mountain ranffcs. All tlu'se streams How first north- cast parallel witli tho Tant-la, then finding an issue westwards, they gradually trend towai-ds the south through the narrow and deep valleyH of the Indo-Chinese system. Thus tlu; Tsangbo itself is deflected to the north-east l)eforo bending round to the southern plains cither through the Dihong or the Trawady. Similar curves, but on u much larger scale, are descrilK^d by the Mekhong and tSalwen, and tho Yang-tze-kiang itself runs parallel with tlio Mekhong several hundred miles southwards to an opening in tlu' hills, through which it pass<'s suddenly cast- wards into China proper. Nowhere else do wo meet with so many independent streaiiis flowing so near each other in parallel valleys, yet ultinuitely discharging into different seas. Tho emissary which escapes from Lake Chargut, and wliich also drains tho Tcngri-nor as well as most of the lacustrine district in the south-east corner of tho Khachi plateau, is a considerable stream named the Nap-chu, or Nak-chu, by Hue and Nain Singh. But after leaving tho plateau it frequently changes its name according to tho districts and languages of the populations through which it passes. As remaiked by Francis Gamier, tho river nomenclature is ])urely local through- out China, and especially in this part of Tibet, tlo same name for the same stream being nowhero current for more than 60 miles o! its course. Thus the Nap-chu becomes successively the Khara-ussu, Om-chu, Ngen-kio, Nu-kiang, Lu-kiung, and Lutzc-kiang. This divereUy of names, combincc'i with the difficulties of explora- tion, has enabled geographers to send this river somewhat wildly up and down tho country. While Potennann with tho Schlagintweits bus identified it with tho Dibong, which joins the Dihong a little above the I^rahnutputra junction, Desgodins, who has followed the middle course of tho " river of the Lutze people " for about 240 miles, has ascertained that it flows far to the east of tho Brahnuiputra, and accordingly identifies it >vith the Salwen. lie also feels confident that the I^antzan- kiang, or Kinlong-kiang — that is, tho " Great Dragon River "—is the Meklumg of Camboja, and this opinion has been confirmed by tho French exixvlition up tho Mekhong. Yet Schlagintweit, Kiopert, and Prterraann make the Lantzan alsf) o f«l«»,»«'i' 8H MAST ASIA. trilMitiirv of tlic lii'a)iiiiii|Mitrii, nMii^rnisin^ in il tin* lioliil, or UimI Mnihiiiiipiitni, wliiisr iinw <'\|i|iin'(| Inisiii Uvs iiliiKist nitirrly 1)11 llir smith hUIv of the t'listmi nm- liiiiiiitiitii iif tlic iliiiiiiltiyns. Viil<> iipilii ic^fiinls it as idnitinil with the (iukpn, the siniill TilM'tan river Huwiii^ tiortli of, aiitl paralitl with, thi< Tsany;lM). Of all th(>s<> rivers flowing; from the 'i'ilirtaii platrniix throii^rh profoiiiid ttssiirPH to the plains, the Ijaiit/aii proliahly passes throii^'h tlit> most savage ^or^es. At Yerkajd, \vher«' it is still r,"»(M( fe<'t alM(v«> the sea, its rocky hanks rise sevt'nil linntlred yards, in many places almost |H'rpendicnlarly, ahove the river hed. Sntth of Aleii-tzo it iH not uUvuvh possible to follow its course, and the traveller is h<>ro and there ohli^ed to mount !,'>(»() and even '2,(M) feet alnive the stream, which fri»m IIh'sc elevations rn'onm like a mere rivulet. The ^orge which ("tioper hun named Iloj,'p;'s |)cfile, from one of his friends, is a fissure scarcely more than (iO feet wide, which seems completely shut in wherever the view is interrupted hy overhaii^iiij' rocks. At its luirrowest point a sort of platform supported hy propH Hprin^fin^' ohlitpiely from the rock lias had to he c(»nstructed in its vertical side. iJeiu)^ kept in u ha? to be carriwl across by its own gravity. Solid copper frames receive travellers and uninuds, who are shot over the yawning ubyss in a flash. The return journey is nuide at some point where the rojH^ is inclined in the oj)po»ito direction. Hut the system varies considerably in dilVerent places. Whatever be the ori^^in of these deep fissures, tlu>re are several indications of j^reat ehaiifj^es in the climate of this re;?ion. Jleds of reddish clay, like the glacial marls of Kurope, luij;;e boulders strewn over the valleys, nnd similar appearances seom to show that the f^laeiers formerly descended much further than at present down the watercourses of Kust Tibet. Cmmatk. But althoupfh the glaciers have retreated from the lower valleys, the present climate of the country is sufticiently indicated by the title of " Snowy Kingdom," connuonly given to it by all its neighbours. According to Turner the people of Bhutan simply (^all it the " North Snow," while the people of the plains, con- tinually cr)ntem])lating the snowy crests of the Ilinmluyus, naturally suppose that the land beyond them is covered by perennial snow-fields. But the effects of alti- tude are largely balanced by the extreme dryness of the air on the plateaux, where at times not a single fluke will fall for months together. The little that does fall is also soon swept by the winds into the ravines, or in summer rapidly melted by the sun. In the south-east corner of Tibet the zone of perpetual snow begins at alM)ut 18,0()t) feet — that is to say, some ;{,()()() feet al)ovo the sunnnit of ]l[ont Blanc; and even on the Caylcy Pass, 19,900 feet high, Forsyth found the ground free of r. .'-^f7-.v^^^ T'F■«eB;g">^■V^,K3*,^■-J»tJJ,.^?vK■'.^sSl^'WV>:.3f-•,i5=-'^i '''^■/!^^*iim&inm.'!^',^^^^^4 n.IMATK. 80 il nni)iiiiii|)iiti-ii, llic t'H^^tcrii ciiii- witli the (iuk|) fiirnliitiiH of rom side to Hi(li> iiifj; to Ik' carried iiid uiiinuilH, who is inad(> at koiiiu he Hysteni varieH id iiidicatioMH of , like the j^laeial ilar appearanees than at preMeiit leys, tlio present )\vy Kingdom," er the j)eople of the plains, eon- lly suppose that e elfeets of alti- platoaux, where le that does fall ijjidly melted bj' [ snow begins at of ^lont Blanc ; ground free of miow. On the soiith(>rn stopi's of the Himalayas tht> snows drilling lu'lore thu winds descend mmh lower than on the Tilu'tan sid«', and the pusses over theso mountains are closed earlier in the season than tin* more elevated routes across tho various plateau ranges farther north. Kven in the depth of winter the roa wrapp(ar their faces with a black grease. The aninuds dying on the routes across the plateaux Hoon shrivel up, and some of the more diHicult roads are lined with the nuunmili(>d yaks, horses, and sheep. U'hen a beast of burden falls the caravan people gene- rally cut away the choicre parts, and .spit them on the thorny scrub for the benefit of passing wayfarers. Hut if the snow is relatively slight, the <-limate of Tibet is none the less sovero. Hero I'rjevalsky, Drew, and others s]H>ak of tho terrible eohl, eond)ine(l with a defi- ciency <»f oxygen, which they had to endur»>. On the higher passes and crests the rarefaction of the air renders all exertion very distressing, and men and animals alike suffer from the so-called " mountain sickness," often causing the camels to fall as if struck with lightning, or, as the Chinese writers say, " poisoned by the deadly exhalations from the ground." In 1870 a caravan of three hundred hunuin beings, which left liassu in February, lost all its thousand camels and fifty men In't'oro reaching tho end of its journey. In winter all tho streunis and lakes ore every- where frozen down to within 8,000 or even 7,000 feet of sea-level. Kven in July and August the caravans often find the water ice-bound on the passes. Tho long-haired yaks are at times burdened with a heavy coating of icicles, and Hue tells us that when crossing the frozen surface of tho liower ^luru-ussu he perceived some fifty dark and shapeless objects, which, on a nearer view, proved to bo a long line of these animals suddenly frozen to death while attempting to cross tho stream. Tho attitude of tho bodies in tho act of swimming was perfectly visible through tho clear ico, above which protruded their fine horned heads, from which the eaprles and ravens had plucked the eyes, Tho radiation of heat into tho clear, cloudless upper legions contributes greatly to reduce the temperature of tho plateaux, and here travellers suffer all the more that there is almost a complete dearth of fuel. Little can bo found beyond some scanty brushwood, except on the more favoured camping grounds. Fortunately tho nights are nearly always calm ; but during the day, when the tablelands are exposed to tho solar rays, while the depressions remain buried in a chilly gloom, the surface is swept by fierce sand-storms, the terror of all travellers. In some of the low-lying tracts the tillers of the land usually flood their fields at the begin- ning of winter in order to protect the vegetable soil from the erosive action of the winds, and this method appears also to increase its fertility. Altogether the Tibetan plateau, enclosed as it is by lofty border ranges, is characterizeJi by great dryness and the extremes of heat and cold. But little moisture reaches it from the Indian Ocean ; the force of the southern monsoons is .:im^imm?-i^ 40 EAST ASIA. spent in the Ilimalnyan valleys, and the upper counter-currents alone arc revealed '.:. ♦lie avalanches of snow that arc precipitated from the Kincrliinjinf^a and other giants of Iho great range. Nevertheless, the eastern region of Tibet, towards which the Hay of liengal projects inland, already partakes of the Indian climate. The marine winds ])enetrate into these lands through tho breaks in the mountains, hero much lower than in tho west, and discharge abundant rains, especially during the i/i'rr/i, or rainy season, from August to October inclusive. All the rivers rising in this part of Tibet are fed far more by these rains than by the melting snows. :!!5S Fauna and Flora. The elevation of the tablelands west of tho province of Kham is too great for the development of arborescent vegetation, except in the shelteri'd depressions, and even here nothing is met beyond the willow, poplar, and some fruit trees. Else- where little is seen except stunted or rampant shrubs scarcely exceeding feet in height. Yet the lamas have succeeded in growing some fine poplars about the monastery of Mangnang, in the province of Nari, l'},970 feet above the sea. On most of the exposed plateaux over 13,000 feet the vegetation is limited to thin and hard grasses sharp as needles, which pierce the camel's hoof and cover its feet with blood. Nevertheless, the ijnharjcrc, a hardy and woody plant, creeps up to an altitude of 15,000 feet, and in some places is met even whei-e the dry atmosphere and saline properties of the soil arc fatal to the grasses. Godwin Austen found it growing abundantly on the Chang-chegmu plateau, 18,300 feet above sea-level. Nain Singh met with fields of barley at an elevation of over 15,400 feet, or about tho altitude of Monte Rosa. All the Ombo basin, watered by Lake Dangra-yum, is like a green sward ; but in the colder uplands still iidiabited by the Tibetans cereals seldom ripen, and the people here live entirely on the milk and flesh of their herds. On the other hand, the less elevated and well-watered south-eastern valleys are covered with vast forests. Amongst the larger trees is the prickly holm, which, though not so high, is comparable in the size of its stem to the pine, Avhile far exceeding it in its rich and abundant foliage. Although poor in vegetation, the Tibetan uplands have a much more varied fauna than the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Tibet, which is regarded by zoologists as a princij)al centre of evolution as regards animal life, possesses a special fauna, exceptionally rich in varieties of the ass, yak, sheep, antelope, gazelle, and wild goat. Nain Singh met with herds of as many as two thousand antelopes, which in the distance look like regiments of soldiers, with their sharp horns glittering like bayonets in the sun. The Schlagintweits found yaks at an eleva- tion of 19,800 feet, and the tarbagan marmots (^Arcfomt/s hobac) are still found burrowing in the argillaceous soil up to 17,900 feet. The game is preyed on by foxes, jackals, wild dogs, and the woolly-haired white wolf ; while in the neighbourhood of the Tengri-nor, white bears, resembling those of the polar regions, commit great ravages on the flocks. In I'^ast Tibet the fauna is still more varied, including the panther, bufl'alo, monkey, squirrel, bear, and a small si)ecies of wild boar. But ^Niii ;.■■•'•■«? "^r^fs.^m^i^msmiy^^m'^wmiWma-.r nlono arc ^c^■cule(l iiijiiif^ii and other of Tibot, towards 10 Indian diinalc. in the mountains, especially during 1 the rivers rising nelting snows. m is too groat for [I depressions, and fruit trees. Else- scooding (5 foot in poplars about the bove the sea. On mited to thin and ^over its feet with creeps up to an 10 dry atmosjjhero n Austen found it t above sea-level. I feet, or about the D l)angra-yum, is by the Tibetans [nilk and flesh of 3rcd south-eastern ics is the prickly stem to the pine, iiuch more varied ch is regarded by 1 life, possesses a antelope, gazelle, lousand antelopes, heir sharp horns j'aks at an eleva- ') are still found e is preyed on by he neighbourhood )ns, connnit great od, including the wild boar. But i i i i ai i i T' I I i iinninirr dWfcyMiw^ ^ I ft"' li8 iiai iiiii 1 ■'■r '^'**S'''S««&^S^35555IS«^^r«5s^^ INHABITANTS— TllE TIBETANS. 41 bird? are comparatively rare, though some of them rise to astonishiurr heights, one spo(ies of hirk being met ut lo,000, and otliers at over IS,U00 fei't. In Tibet proper no .songsters arc heard except birds of passage ; but the eagk% \ullure, and raven abound, while the pheasant frequents the woodlands. ^\ few li/ards and snaki's reach an altitude of 15,400 feet, and some of the lakes on the plateau are stocked with fish, ^The extreme limit of fish in the Alps is 7,100 feet, whereas Schlagintweit met in Lake Mognalari (14,000 feet) varieties of salmon, which, like those of the sea, ascend every year to the higher fresh-water lake in the spawning season. In the basins that have become saline the species have adapted them- selves to the altered conditions. Several of the indigenous animals have been domesticated. The yak has been crossed with the Indian Zebu cow, the result being the dzo, whose varieties have hair of different colours, while the wild yak is always black. But in the fourth generation these animals revert to the primitive typo. Although always somewhat obstinate, the yak is the most general beast of burden in Tibet ; but slieep, being more hardy, are employed on the higher passes. Each sheep carries a load t)f from 20 to 30 lbs., and thrives on the scanty pasture along the route. The horses and nmles make excellent mounts ; but the most valuable domestic animal is the goat, whoHcpas/iiti, or short, soft, downy hair under the outer coat, commands such high prices for the manufacture of the Cashmere shawls. The dogs, a powerful and i'.i "idable breed, are not employed in the chase, but only as house-dogs and t They degenerate in India, though some specimens have been perfectly a. •' :..utized in England. IXHAIUTANTS — TlIE TlHETANS. The great bulk of the inhabitants, apart from the Mongolo-Tatar Ilorsoks of Khachi and the various independent tribes of the province of Kham, belong to a distinct branch of the Mongolian family. They arc of low size, with broad shoulders and chests, and present a striking contrast to the Hindus in the size of their arms and calves, while resembling them in their small and delicate hands and feet. The cheek bones are generally prominent, the eyes black and slightly oblique, the mouth largo, with thin lips, the hair brown and bushy. The com- plexion varies, as in Europe, from the most delicate white amongst the rich to the copper yellow of the shepherds exposed to ihe inclemency of the weather. C'rctinism is general in the upland valleys, leprosy and hydrophobia on the plateaux. The Tibetans arc one of the most highly endowed people in tlie world. Nearly all travellers are uiumimous in praise of their gentleness, frank and kindly bearing, unaffected dignity. Strong, courageous, naturally cheerful, fond of music, the dance and song, they would be a model race but for their lack of enterprise. Tluy are as easily governed as a flock of sheep, and for them the word of a lama has force of law. Even the mandates of the Chinese authorities are scrupulously obeyed, and thus it happens that against their own friendly feelings they jealously guard the frontiers against all strangers. 80 rlS'SKsS^^i^i; i«>a«ii'< "ii;; - y ■-' 42 KAST ASIA. ii pi Tho more or loss niixod races nf East Tibet on (lie riiincso irontior, on the route of the troops thiit |)hiii(h>r tliciu iiiul of the iiiaiuliirins wh(» oppress them, seem to bo less I'avoiniibiy eonstituted, and are described as tliievish and treacherous. Amnn, the Tibetans have outliveeoples of Bod stock stretch be\'ond the present frontiers into Kashmir, Hhutan, and Sechuen, west, south, and east, nevertheless several of the wild or barbarous tribes in the east and north belong to different races more or less mixed together. In the south the Mishmis, Alwrs, and others are allied to the hillmen of Assam ; while the Arru, Pu-i or Ghion, Telu, and Remepang all sjieak varieties of the Melam, an archaic and polysyllabic Tibetan language mix(;d with many foreign elements. The Amdoans of the north-east, near the Kansu frontier, are -*i»*: '^^««»«^Bsewi^aa?;i^?gs^— - • IXUABITANTS— TIIK T1I5ETANS. 48 ior, on tho route < tlu'iii, sei'in to 1(1 trciichorous. to 1)0 carefully the Tibetans of uld seem to bo atnoufjfst tlioni, c Khanibas are 111 tho caniijiuf^ roups have bore L'monts have no a<^e itself still unities use stone 1 iron, while tho n some resjK'cts I'ies, for reading oks arc here so il of these works roe evolution of ioinii de Koros, hieh the Chinese Il differs from all ;ed by the priests irrent speech has e sense of mono- >ld words, whose minal and verbal !8. The various rom India by the other languages io ancient ortho- lie written letters h words cnoiKjIi, in Tibetan dbjuH iatod from each present frontiers heless several of lit races more or are allied to the nepang all speak uage mixed with iiiisu frontier, are nearly all bilingual, speaking both their mother tongue and TilM-fiin. A nomadic and migrating peojile, they are distinguished by their (iiiick wit and aptitude for all kinds of work. Nearly all the lamas and teachers of tiie high sclmols as well as the higher oiHcials tliroughout Tibet are of Amdoan stock. West of the province of Khaiu the half-savage Lolo, Mantz', Lissu, and others, (uUcctively known to the Chinese as Si-fan, or " Western Strangers," and to the Tibetans as (ii,tin(iii/l/o, from the chief tribe (jtyarung, dwell on both sides of the Sechuen frontier, where they form distinct ethnical groups, some speaking Tibetan dialects, others languages of dilferent origin. Most of the names applied by the Chinese and Tibetans to tho jiooplos of this region can only be accepted provisiomilly. They are either vague designations, or injurious epithets indignantly rejected by the tribes themselves. Chinese influence is making itself felt more and more in tho neighbourhood of Fig. 16— TlllETAN HlIINOGKArilV. Rfliln t : 22,(XX).O0O. ■r-UVVVA' S} ^^^*^^^^;^^ \VSNNV\V V\' y ^ . » , \ •■^^::, '■v:;'..*, Sd>A /AeA,. ^(••t«n$ '*^. .... . ,.... ■^i^^i^-'^^V^^^'K \1 35- E. OiG. 80' 100* ^M lU to 10,000 Fppt. 1(1,00.1 Feet nd iipwii iIr. _^i_^_^_ em Miles. Sechuen and in the large Tibetan towns. Access to the country being completely interdicted to the Chinese women, all the mandarins, soldiers, oHicials, and traders take Tibetan wives temporarily, and the frontier population already consi.sts largely of cro.ss-brceds, who are grouped according to circumstances as Tibetans or Chinese. Tho Chinese immigrants are not the only strangers in the Tibetan towns. Tlie NoiKilese and IJhutaneso from beyond the Himalayas are very numerous in T.assa, whore they are chiefly occupied with metal work and jewellery. They occupy a separate quarter, and are distinguished by their superstitious jiractices. Here are also some ilohammedans originally from Kashmir, the so-called Khaclii, a fine race with long beard and grave demeanour, who keep entirely aloof from the rest of the population, and live under a special governor recognised by the Tibetan authorities. m-^^^imm 44 EAST A8IA. If"^'i. niDDIIISM. Tilxt is the t'ontro of IJuddliism, a ii'li;^ioii rivulliiijj; ('hristinnily in tlio niiinhor of its followers. IJut !ilfliony;h tlic most zouloiis of IJiirldhists, the Tilutiiiis liave inodiHcd their cult under the iiitluenee of previous rites, eliinate, social liahits, and relations with th(> surroundin;; nations to such an extent that it only bears an out- ward reseinl)lanee to the jjriinitive reli<,'ion of Shakya-inuni. After three centuries of preliiuinaiy eU'orts the Hindu missionaries l)e<>;an the serious work of conversion in the fifth century. Previous to that time the 'I'ihetan riles, analogous to those of the Chinese Taoism, eonsistenth century, when it soon be^^an to split into various sects. Four centuries afterwards came the preat r(>vival. The monk Tsonkha|)a undertook the revision of the sacred writing;s, formulated now precepts, and modified the ritual. His disciples are tho "Yellow Caps," or (leluk-pa, who prevail in Tibet, while tho older sect of the " lied Caps " (Duk-pa, or Shammar) has held its ^rnmnd in Nepal and lihutan. Hut for both, as well as for tlu' other seven sects of Tibet, red has remained one of the sacred colours of the cloister and tiMuples. Accordiuf^ to the ordinances, the religious edifices, usually of pyramidal form, should have the north front painted green, the east red, the south yellow, the west I'emaining while. By his followers Tsonkhapa was regarded as the incarnation of the deity, as a living lluddha, who had put on the appearance of human nature. He never dies, but ])asses from body to body under the form of a K/iiihi/(/ars an out- llircH- ('t'nturic8 i of conversion ons lo those of ])rayoi's to the hundred years •ship, the first ic country was ke the lijfht of , for aceordin<» ition for their Still the (tlder ic writer, " tho )r<>:otten like a tenth century, iards came the iicnd writings, o tho " Yellow "l{ed Caps" lut for l)oth, as • sacred colours igious edifices, 1, the east red, the deit}', as a lie never dies, ir " New-horn y nionastery of ip hy his side, in the ca))ital Dalai-lama, or iously related, linesi' emperor iassa has taken lemselvcs from ly is the chief in Til)et itself led as a divine Amongst the Tihetan iWiddhisIs some few mystics, altractem class tho faitliful ill tlii'ee groups — the enlightened, those of niodeinte intelligeiUT, and the vulgar. Ibit for the mass botli of hnnas and people religion is reduced to a system of magic, in which worship has no object exctpt to conjure the evil spirits. The life of m(»st Tibetans is passed in ejaculations and adjurations unch-r the form of j)rayers. The »ix mugic syllables, Oiii main jxtdmv /nun, usually translated, Fig. 17. — Praybu inmcuuiki) os a Mihk. " O gom of the lotus, amen I " but whi<'h some commentat< rs declare to be untrans- latable, are the form of prayer most frequently rei)eated. These sacred words, each of which has a .special virtue, are tho first taught to the ^longolian and Tibetan child. They will form his only prayer, but thi.she will go on repeating ince.ssiintly, ignorant alike of its origin or sense. Tho importance attached to it may be judged fn»ni tho fact that for 100 million copies printed in 8t. l*eter.sburg Schilling of ('annstadt received from the IJuriat lamas of Siberia a complete copy of their inestimable sacred book. The invocation is met everywhere — on the walls of tho houses and temj)les, by the wayside, under colossal statues rudely carved in the live rock. Certain iiiaiwh, or retaining walls, ahnig the roads are built of stones, each of whi<'h bears the magic formula. Jirotlierhoods have been formed for the 46 KAST ASIA. mm Fipr. 18— TlMETAN Ami'let. solo purpose (if liiiviiiy: it iiiMcn'lMMl in Inrpfo cliiinictors on tlio hillside, so that the traveili r ;,Mlli>piiij,' hy on lioisdiiick nmy reml the words oi' salvation. l']veryl)iidy wears on his elotlnvs, arms, or iieek p>id, silver, or otlier metal anuilels, eonlainin^f, Itesides the all-poweri'ul prayer, little idols or relies, the teeth, hair, or nails of eanonised lamas. The korio, klioi-fin, or prayer-mills, omployod in all Uuddhist lands except .lapan, are most universal in Tihet. The very forces of nature, wind and water, are utilised to turn these cylinders, each revolution of wliich shows to the all-seeing' heavens the maj^ic words re^jidatiny human destinies. Like the Kirijfhi/, the Huriats, Tunj^uses, and other Central Asiatic peoples, the Tihetans arc uccustomed to Bct up on tho hill-tops poles with banners containing the same formula, which is thus, .so to wiy, repeated with every pulf of air. One of those IkiwIhis, as they arc caUed, has Ix'en phmted on Mount Uunshakar, over 20,0t)0 feet hif>;h. The liuddhi.st pilf^rims also take ummonites to the hipfhcst peaks of the runfj;es, and, to conjure the evil apirit.s, near these f().ssils they place as offerings the bones and skulls of the great wild sheep, or Oiin (initiioii. Most of the gilded images in the temples are simple reproductions, copied for some thou.sand years, of the idols seen in India ; hence in their expression they bear no re- semblance to the Tibetan type. Every trait or special form having a symbolic meaning, nothing can be changed. The other images of native type represent the gods only of an inferior order, and are reproduced especially in the coloured butter statuettes, in making which the lamas excel. But while the greater deities are Hindus, one might almost fancy that the general ritual is of Roman Catholic origin. The extreme analogy has long been remarked between the Buddhist and Catholic rites, and most of the missionaries have explained this identity of outward worship as an artifice of the devil trying to ai)e the (Jod of the Christians. Others have endeavoured to show that the Buddhist priests, after abandoning their old practices, simidy adopted the ceremonial of the Christians in India, with whom they had established relations. AVe now know what a large share both of these relatively modern religicms have had in the inheritance of the primitive Asiatic cults, and how the .same ceremonies have been transmitted from S Ki-.»'V-_. -- -v: --tifjM" ■%■:'--'■■'■■ ^;'^iliffj£A"'i-'ite»:\"^' Tr. "^^'^»-^m-^mmmff:^m^mmh'-7,-^^^^^^^^P^^y^ BUDDHISM. 47 ^ido, Ko that tho I. or other motul vlicH, tl>o tci'th, 1m, oinployiul in very forces of )hitioni)f wliich lestinies. Like es, tho Tihetans iiiiin<>; the same hiis, so to suy, • pulf of uir. s, as they are ited on Mount ,000 feet hi^rh. rims also take ifjliest peaks of on jure the evil )ssils they l)laco 's and skulls of leep, or Orin (1 images in the 1 reproductions, usand years, of ndia ; hence in y bear no re- Tibetan type. al form having nothing can be her images of sent the gods order, and are V in the coloured ile the greater u\ is of Roman d between the explained this I the (jod of the St priests, after jc Christians in iv what a large lieritance of the ■ansmitted from nj,'e to age in honour of new divinities. None the iexs surprising is it that, in virtue ol' a paraMcl evolu'ion in two disiinct ('(litres, the (uilwaid lorms of iJiuhlliiMii and Catliolieism should have niaiiitaiiicd their resi'mhlaiice, not only in their main features, l)ut even in their details. The Ihuhlhist priests are tonsured liKe tliose of Jionie; like them, they wear flowing robes covered with gold brocade; they fast, hohl spiritual retreats, mortil'y the flesh, confess the faithful, ask for the intercession of the saints, and make long pilgrimages to llu; holy shrines, f'elibacv also, (triginally u meritorious act, has become the rule for the lamas, and by tho Bide of the temples there have sprung up communities of men and women whoso only aim in life is to work out their spiritual welfare. K very thing is alike even in the internal arrangement of the sacred edifices — the same altars, (uuKhliibra, bells, reli(piari(s. l<'rom them flows all knowledge ; the printing establishment? arc in their cloisters; and besides the sacn^l writings, the "Kanjur and Tanjur," printed for the first time about 1750 in '>yiisli('d in the attempt to pcnctrato into tlic couiitrv. In the Moiitli-i-ast a lew priests wi'i'i' more fortunate. In IH.'ti they eontrivek of the I'pper Salwen. With tlie aid of Chinese immi;;rantH and of mnnerous slaves, they eK .ncd tiie ffround and estahlished a Hoiirisliin^ villat,'e. A lamu convent liecanie a preshytery, a pa^roila was transformed loa cjiureli, in which converted lamas ])erforined the functions of sacristans. Hut this prosjK'rity did not last lonj,'. After many vicissitudes tho missionaries were ol>''';ed to (juit Tihetan soil, and then the huildinjjs were j^iveji to the tlaTnes. The mission was re-estahlished in Sechuen, doso to Tih(sts have several monasteries, especially in the south-east, and in tho petty state of I'omi, west of the Salwen. They believe in two groat gods, a nuile and a female, j)ar other gods, spirits, and mortals. Hut in other rospect.s they have gradually conformed to Ituchlhism, of which they arc now merely u distinct sect. Tho higldandi-rs of Ond)o and tho Dangra-yum, whw»r/«/»), or sorcorers, to conjure the bad genii by beating drums, wielding swords, and burning incense. Diet — Socui, Ci^-stoms — Population. 'fif ill '* ^lilk, butter, and barley-meal form the chief diet of the people of the plateau. But in spite of the first commandment of IJuddha forbidding tho slaughter of animals, most Til)etans, and even tho lamas, add the flesh of their domestic animals to their modest fare. However, they make amends by despising tho hereditary caste of butchers, whom they confine to remote suburbs of the towns. The nmtton of Tibet, " tho best in the world" (Turner), is universally consumed, and in winter whole bodies of those animals are preserved in a frozen state. Game is taken with the dart, arrow, and gim, while the musk deer is usually trapiK'd. The only animal spared in East Tibet is the .stag, " Buddha's horse." On tho plateaux skirting the north bank of the Tsanglx) liquid bloiKl forms a part of the diet, and Nain Singh often .saw the shepherds falling prostrate on the ground to lap up the DIKT— HOriAL Cl.'HTOMS— I'OITI.ATION. 40 laricM to ^v\ a •tiiaiii lor two jil to pellet rati' mte. Ill IS.*)4 ',n forests, near iij,'raiits and of n;; villajfo. A urcli, ill wlik-h l»rosjH>rity r ISiiddhistH, it tlio (Jill iiKini on backwards ; 1, and BurmoRO vlio liavo p;iven ) the trees and ■jK (^i)ii(ntiix), or b, and burning of the plateau, le slaughter of )inc8tic animals the hereditary I. The mutton , and in winter le is taken with M'd. The only II the plateaux of the diet, and d to lap up the blood (lowing from the HJaughteit'd animal^, 'riiistiii^le is aetpiired by the ehildieii as soon as weaned. Idin^r iiiialile to procure them pap frmii the (huith of < urn on the uplands, llieir iiiothers make them a iiios of cheese, butter, and blond. Prjevalsky tells us that in these regions the horses are also bd on Hesli and curdled milk. The Tibetans are distinguished from (heir co-religionists of other countries by their national haliifs, which have Im-ch scarcely nioditicd by Ibiddhisin. Thus those td' the south, like their neighbouring kiiisiiieii of llhiitaii, practise polyandria, in iidin<; a hand in the (ield and ti ndiiig the herds. Ilut her work, like that of the brothers, beloni^s to the whole bimilv. lly the side of these polyandrous households some wealthy Tibetans, in imitation of the Chinese and Mussulmans, keep several wives, who reside either under tho same nnif or in .separate dwellings. IJut Intth ])olyandria and jiolygamy alike have the same result of keeping down the population, ilarriage is regulated by no rules in a country where celibacy is so rigorously enforced on a large section of (ho peojde, and where tho jKilyandrous wife has still the right, reeogni.se(l by custom, to choo.se another hu.sband beyond the family circle. As in China, courtesy is held in high honour in Tibet When two persons meet they salute each other several times by showing (he tongue and scratching the right car, or oven by exchanging white or pink embroidered silk scarfs, some- times accompanied with letters or other missives. In Lassa and other towns ladies of rank wear coronets of true or false pearls or tunpioise, shells, or silver, liut Hue's statement that they are obliged to disfigure themselves by daubing the face with a sort of black varnish is denied by the English travellers. All ceremonies are regulated beforehand, and the form and colour of the clothes suitable for the various social occasions arc prescribed by rigid custom. During the year of mourning the men lay aside their silk garments, the women their jewellery. Immediately after death the h,.ir is torn fi-om the crown of the head, in order to insure a happy transmigration, and the body is preserved for some days, and in wealthy families even weeks, when the priests decide whether it is to be buried, burned, ca.st to the running waters, or exposed to the beasts of prey. In the latter case the bones are first broken and the Iwdy cut in pieces, in order to hasten the return to the first elements^ and what is left by tho animals is collected gS i.v ' .B./^ ' .-! r • M 50 i:,\ST ASIA. rtt and tlirnwii info tin- nlvnnn Tlu" fiiifjcr joliifs uri' hIsd offrn pn'wrvi .1 iiiid strung ill cliaiilils, while tlir Ixim-s nl' nniis hihI Ii'm;s mi' coiivcrtiMl into trmii|>i'ts tor HUiniiiniiiii;; tiic liiiiiji'i til ]ii'iiyri-. I'lir Ijuiiiii tliriiiHrivi's iii'i' iilwiiyH Kiirii'il in u Hitting attitiiliv«, hut otdy hocauso tliis fonii.s the mean lu'tween the two extremes, ;{,.")()((,(M(i( and 11,000,000, recently Jiroposed l»y various geographers. The ])oi)ulatiiiii would thus amount to ahout H persons to the scpiarc mile, hut it is known to he very une(|ually distributed. The Khaclii plateau is almost uninhaiuted, and in the south-west province of Hundes, or Nari (Xfj^ari, (Jnari Khorsnm), there are only a few scattcicd groups. Owinjj to its forests, mountains, and inaceessihle raviiu's, the eastern province of Khain is very uni'ipially inlialiited, so that the ])o|>ulation is concentrated cliieHy in the two Houthern provinces of Tsuii}^ and Wei (LT, Wi) aloufj the Middle Tsangbo, and in its lateral river valleys. Tol'OORArilY. Ddba and most of the so-called towns and villages in the Upper Satlaj valley aro abandoned dnrinpf the winter season. PnliiKj, the liif^hest permanently inhabited villa;;e in this part of Tibet, stands at an elevation of 1.'{,H00 feet above the sea. Tsti/>niii(f, lik(> Daba capital of a district, and situated to the north-west of this place at a height of 10,400 feet, and far above the head- waters of the Satlaj, is also unoccui)ied for a part of the year, and in summer contains no more than some fifteen dwellings. The fortress of Takla-klirn; another district capital, lies on tlie southern shipe of the Jlimalayas, on the right bank of the Map-chu, or "(Jreat Kiver," the main branch of the Karnali of the Nepalcse. The fort consists of e.\cavatiiins and gaUeries hollowed out of a rock HJJO feet high. It contains large stores of supi)lies, and the corn deposited here for half a century is said to be in perfect condition, thanks to the dryness of the air. West of Takla-khar stands Sitling-gonpa, the largest monastery in lluudes, and iu)ti'd throughout Tibet and Nepal for its immense wealth. The ITpper Indus basin, like tliat of the Satlaj, is almost uninhabited. Yet '^■sM' 'ii^^-?^i^-»'W^mmm^^!wmmi^x^m^?:!g!^gm^smim^S:, ■ :1 1111(1 stniiiy; lniin|H'tH lor s l)iii'i(' MONASTIiKY AT SlilOATZ*. "~'mw^rmmm!^''smmismssmm^^mmm^-'" h TOrOGRAPUY. 51 bore is the temporary capital of the south-wcstorn province of Tibet, (Itnrtoh, on ibe CJartung. The name means " Ilijjb Market," and tbe place probably contains tbo most elevated hay market in the world. In Au00 feet above the sea, or nearly 650 feet above Mont Blanc, in an atmosphere scarcely half as dense as that on the surface of the ocean. Yet it is chiefly frequented in winter, when as many as six hundred tents of miners are hidden away in deep hollows, above which nothing is visible except their cones of black hair. In summer their number is reduced by one-half, because the neighbouring springs then become so sidino that the water is unpotable until purified by the freezing process. In this part of the plateau salt and borax are everywhere found by merely digging up the surface. The other gold-workings are less productive than those of Tok-j-alung, and according to Nain Singh none of them, except Tok-daurakpa, lying much farther east, possess any economic importance. The annual yield of all the mines in West Tibet is only about £8,000, which is forwarded to India through Gartok. In the Tsangbo valley the highest inhabited points are either the convents or the postal stations. Here the cold is too intense to allow any permanently occupied villages to be formed. Yet real towns begin to appear in the valley at more than double the elevation of the Simplon and Gothard. Tadiim, capital of the Dogthol district, is 14,000, and Jauglachvh, at the junction of the two Nepal routes from Kirong and Nilam, 13,850 feet above the sea. Shigaize, or Digarchi, capital of the province of Tsang, lies at a relatively lower altitude in the side valley of the Penang-chu, 11,730 feet high. Above it are the houses and temples of Tasbi-lumpo, or " Exalted Glory," residence of the Tashi-lama, Teshu-lama, or Panchen-rimbocheh ; that is, the " Jewel of Intelligence." The walls of the holy city have a circuit of nearly a mile and a quarter, and enclose over three hundred edifices grouped round the palace and sacred monuments. From 3,000 to 4,000 lamas occupy the monastery, whose gilded belfries and red walls tower above the mean houses of the lower town. Most of the other towns in this region also consist of low dwellings commanded I't'.i 63 EAST ASIA. mi liy inii«ijiiilic<>iit huildiiififs, which tiro palaces, fortresses, tenipU's, and moiiasterios all ill oil*?. Such are, on the nortli side of tlie Tsaiijj; valley, liie towns of Xnnilinii, or " Heavenly Garden," and Sli(ikiit-J(nuj, south-west of Shij^ratze, near the Sikkini frontier, (ri/rinyh, south-east, of Shif^atze, is an iiiiiKn'tnnt town, as the centre of trade with Nepal and a nianufacturiiio, T'oniiiho, or C/idiiiutn ; that is, " Two lloutes," a nanu' indicatinji; its position at the junction of the two head-streams of the Lantzan-kian' little land, and possessin' beyond its flocks and a few. unimpurtunt industries, Tibet could scarcely enjoy much intercourse with foreign Fiff. 20.— Trade Rovtes of Tiiiet. Scale 1 : 'Ji.OiJd.OOO. Trade Routes. 10,000 to lO.cWO Feet. 16,6(10 imd iipwiuds, — ^_ 600 MilcH. Riiilways. lands, even were it not enclosed bj' a barrier of political and commercial obstacles. ]\Iuch of the abundant raw material is required for the local looms, which produce cloth of every kind from the coarsest to the very softest quality. The red chrti, or ■piilii, intended for prelates, is a fine, stout fabric, which commands high prices in China and Mongolia. Most of the natives of both sexes are skilful knitters, and in this way prepare all the clothing they require. Next to these domestic industries they occupy themselves chiefly with those connected with the service of the temples and monasteries. Their artists display great skill in modelling the statuettes, arti- -^,:" V i'^^^?;cR< .:=j^^|g5iiii«S^Sr^Sl^S^gi^ ^2^m TRADE AND TRADE ROUTES. 05 \ fruits, spices, in Tibet. tut the narrow administrative that is, " Two licad-stri-auis of a uiouasti'ry of or Merkau). on sprinj^s on the »cks and a few. •8c with foreign ilwnys. ercial obstacles, which produce riie red vhni, or i high prices in knitters, and in lestic industries 3 of the temples statuettes, arti- ficial flowers, ornaiuents in hiittcr placed before th»> idols, wliile numerous hand^ are employed in preparing the incense sticks burnt in lionourof tlu' gods and genii. Notwithstanding their simple tastes and frugal lives, the Tilietans still need some foreign wares, of which the most indispensable is tea, the ti-ade in wliiih was till recently monopolized by China. Tea, even more than aims, has been the instrument by wliich the Chinese have contpiered the c(mntry, and " to invite the lamas to a cup of tea" has become a proverbial expression, indicating the nu'ans emph>yed by the Mandarins to bribe the Tilietan rulers. Jleuce the care taken by the Imperial Government to prevent tlie introduction of the Assam tea, which, in any case, is less csteenu>d than that of China. Still the natives of the independent state of Pomi have preserved their right to free trade with India, whence they import the ])roliibited article in yearly increasing (piantities. The annual ini])orta- tion from Chimi is estimated by Haber at about 10,000,000 lbs., representing from £;300,ooo to i;;}.jO,ooo. The exchanges with India are at present quite insignificant, and the little received from that country comes mainly through Nei)al and Kashmir. The ex])orts to India arc ten tinu\s in excess of the imports, the chief item being the costly wools, which ultimately rea(;h the manufacturing towns of Yorkshire. There is thus a constant flow of rui)ees into Tibet, where this coin is gradually replacing the "bricks of tea" hitherto used as currency. Needles also are much used in i)etty dealings, and ingots of silver in wholesale transactions. The Tibetans are born traders, dealing indifferently in anything that may oiler a chance of turning "an honest penny." Every house is a shop, every lamassary a warehouse. The monasteries have all their (jarpM, or chief agent, under whom are a host of employes and pack animals. Caravans of yaks and sheep heavily laden cross the country in all directions, although the great highway is the route leading from Lassa through Tatsienlu and Sechuen to the heart of China. Another route to China runs from Lassa north-eastwards across Mongolia, wliile several roads lead southwards to Assam and Bhutan, south-westwards to Nepal, westwards to Leh and Kashmir. This last, probably the most important for the European trade, is traversed by caravans of silks, shawls, saffron, and other wares, leaving Leh in April and reaching Lassa the following January. At Gartok, Lake Mansaraur, Shigatz^, and other stations along the route, fairs are held, often lasting several weeks. After an absence of about eighteen months the caravan re-enters Leh with tea, wool, turquoises from the Kuen-lun, borax, &c. The disti-icts through which it passes arc bound to supply it gratuitously with two hmidred yaks as beasts of burden, besides provisions for the travellers. Along the southern frontier the Himalayan passes are every year formally opened for traflfic by proclamation of the nearest local Tibetan dzoiif/poii, or governor. In case of war, disturbances, or cholera in India, they are kept closed pending instructions from the central Government at Lassa. Nearly all the profit of this foreign trade goes to the monasteries, which, by monopolies and usury, swallow up all the savings of the country. Thus, notwithstanding its natural poverty, Tibet supports in wealth and luxury a whole nation of monks. 50 KAST ASIA. Ai)MixisTnATi(i\ — Pkxai. Com: — Posiai, Skiivick. Till' TilK'tiiM (lovcniiucnf is in tlicnrv ii [mic flicocnitv. The Diilai-lainn, ciilltil nlso the ( iyiill)ii-n«ml)t»cli(', " Jnwcl of Maji'sty," or " Sovoroi^u TiTasuiv," is at oiicc <,ro(l and kiiiy:, iiiaslcr of the life and I'drtuiics dl' his snhjccts, with no limit t ) Ills |Mi\\rr (-xccpt liis »»\vn ph'asnrc. Nevi'rthi>U«ss ho consents to he );iii(h'(l in onlinarv niattcis l»y tho ohl usages, wliili- his very jfroatncss jji-cvcnts him liom directly upprcssinj^ his pcoph*. His splicrc oi' action hi'in<|; rest lifted to spii-itnal matters, he is represented in the a(hninistration hy a viceroy, chosen by the I'lmjHMor in a supreme conncil (tf three liif;;h priests. This is the Noniakhan, or (lyalhd, wlio acts either directly, or throu<;h I'oiir ministers (Kastaksor Kalons), and sixteen inferior mandarins. Tho other functionaries are selected hy the ministers almost e.xeliisively from the lamas. Hut hehindtliis machinery Jire on(> or more Kirichai, or Amban, fhincso agents, wlio control the liij^h oHicials, and onwiMfjfhty occasions convey to them the phnisnre ivo a yeaily subvention from Peking, and all the Tibetan mandarins wear on their hats tho button, or distinctive sign of the dignities conferred by the empire. Kv(>ry third or fifth year a solonni end)assy is sent to Peking witli rich presents, receiving others in exchange from the " Son of Heaven." The (irand liama's treasury is yearly increased by a siun of £10,000, which can be touched only in case of war. The rate of taxation depends rather on custom and tlie mandarins than on any tixed laws. The whole land belongs to the Dalai-lama, the people being merely temporary occupants, tolerated by the real owner. The very houses and furniture and all movable ])roi)erty are held in tiust for the supreme master, whose subjects must be grateful if he takes a portion only for the requirements of the administra- ticm. One of tho most ordinary sentences, in fact, is wholesale confiscation, when the condemned must leave house and lands, betaking themselves to a camp life, and living by begging in tho districts assigned to them. So numerous are these chony- loiKj, or official mendicants, that they form a distinct class in tho State. In the courts oven tho inferior mandarins may have recourse to torture, and sentence to the rod, fines, or imprisonment. The higher authorities condemn to exile, amputa- tion of hands and feet, gouging out of the eyes, and death. But, as faithful discipl(!s of Puddha, the lamas refrain from " killing " their subjects, only leaving mmmmmm^^mm^^^i^mmm^mmsm:'' -.-•*. ADMIXISTRATION— I'ENAL CODE— POSTAL SERVICE. 67 [> Daliii-lainn, '11 ft <;n I iTiisurc, ijccts, witli no s t(» lie <7\ii(U'(l •uts liiiii i'loin I'd to spirituul liosi'ii by tlu' Xdiiiiikliiiii, or ks or Kiiloiis), iectt'd by the hinoso ngpnts, 11 tbo plciisiiro wod by till bis bo referred to All the civil tbe denlb, or, iul'iint. Tben I'ok in ])niyer 'lection is still D conclave the Dr of the land, I'ope, viceroy, the Tibetun the dignities issy is sent to n of Heaven." which can be IS than on any being merely and furniture ivhose subjects lie adininistra- iscation, when camp life, and 'o these chong- >tate. In the id sentence to exile, amputa- it, as faithful s, only leaving them to perish of himger. With every new year the office of jurn Tian-shan route of Zunj^aria, has at least the advantage of precision, whereas " Kash<;aria," the nanu! lately current in Europe, has no ritinon Wvh'r since the collapse of the independent state founded by Ya>'vub of Kashfj;ar. In the same way the expression " Kinjj^dom of Khotan " fell into disuse alter the city of Khotun had ceased to be the cajntal. The term "liittle Bokhara," still in use some thirty years ago, pointed at the former religious ascendancy of Bolchara, but is now all the less appropriate that Bokhara itself has yielded the supremacy to Tashkent, Lastly, the exj)ressions Eastern Turkestan and Chinese Turkestan are still applicable, because the inhabitants are of Turki speech, while the Chinese have again brought the country under subjection. PkOOIIKSS ()!•' DiSCOVKRV. Although till about the middle of this century it had fallen into almost total oblivion, Chinese Turkestan at all times possessed great importance as a high- way of migration or trade between Eastern Asia and the Aralo-Caspian basin. Greek and Chinese traders met on the great " Silk lloutc," which passed, this way, ^M^^mm^'''s^^^ms'm^mm^^^m^^: -■mr lent inlaiul sea bears a great I, Arongol, and vliich, with the ed eacli in its t' their eountry : Jiti-shahr, or I sweeping in a enn Tian-shan han Pe-lu, or advantage of ?, ha.s no rtiitton ih of Kashgar. lisuse after the khara," still in py of Bolvhara, the supremacy iiesc Turkestan lilc the Chinese ito almost total nee as a high- ■Caspian basin, iissed this way. iii i-rf!r--.Ti«e>B 9(«'M|r I In iM Ml otto ii." >- '• I,.. „it.i I mi %■■'■ ms ..A.. .■Ml Mil u ;^ o u p a. i E- E-< U EC m ^s:^~^ ' ■ •^ V ^m u mW'ttMi m n t-U MirtaMMMMtw ... 0!i^ inn I'iadiii Ill PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY. 60 while Biulflliist missionaries, Arab dealers, the great Venetian, ^larco Polo, fol- lowed by other European travellers in inediieval times, hud all to tarry in the oases of Chinese Turkestan on their long journeys across the continent. IJut so for- gotten were the old accounts, that the depression watered by the Tarim was sup- posed, eighty years ago, to form part of the vast " plateau of Tatary," which was thought to occupy all the interior of the continent. The general form of this great cavit}' remained unknown till again revealed to Europe by the study of the Chinese documents relating to the Tian-shan Nan-lu. Adol])h Schlagintweit was the first European that reached the Tarim basin from India in the present century. In 1857 he crossed the Karakorum, thence descending to the plains and pushing on to Kashgar, only to be assassinated by EMg. 21. — Itinehauies of the Tian-shan Na.n-lu. Scale 1 : 16,360,000. tcPr, s^J^> ^ 6,600 to 13,000 Feet. H'wen Tsnig. Mbtco Pdlo. SdilnBiiitweit. Valikhanov. Johnaon. l;i,000 and upwanls. (iKteu Sacken. ForByth. —i Venyukov. ... Gordon. — Regel. — 800 MilcB. Kuropatkin. Scveitzov. FrjevalBky. Kttulbars. P'lstul Route. order of the ruling prince, Vali Khan. Thus were lost to science all his labours, notes, and collections. Eight years afterwards Johnson visited Khotan and the surrounding deserts, and this was the first of the English expeditions inspired by the commercial and political rivalries of England and Russia. In 1868 Shaw undertook the exploration of the trade routes down to the plains, while Ilayward received from the London Geographical Society the mission to survey the plateau regions. Ilayward shared the fate of Schlagintweit, but Shaw succeeded in col- lecting nmch information on the trade of the country, and soon after accompanied the famous embassy to Yakub, sovereign of Kashgaria. Forsyth, the head of the mission, got no farther than Yarkand, but he returned three years afterwards with a more numerous staff of explorers, amongst whom were Gordon, Biddulph, Trotter, ,„^ ^trtfrt"****™*.-*-* -^ .-..lii rt W R * ' .■^— '■- ■ 4i ^ l'*'^".^* I'-' 60 EAST ASIA. fi>"ik 51 ( l)« 'Si( Chnpinan, Bellow, StoHczka. The fortilo rof»ion of the plains was now visited in every direction, while farther west the " Roof of the World " was reached from the Upper ( )xus valleys. Nor were the Russians on their ])art idle. Valikhanov in 1858, and Osten Sackon in 18(57, had crossed the Tiiin-sluin, thence descending; from the north down to the Kash B < i ii^ Ill THE YARKAND AND KASIIOAB. Gl conp^oaled on the surfiioo, and to a height of 17,000 feet hot springs are found encircled hy de])osits of lime and an outer rim of frozen water. For spaces several squiire miles in extent the ground is pierced by little funnel-shaped fissures 4 feet dee]) and 8 in diameter, and nearly all quite regular. After the rains some of these funnels throw up masses of mud and even boiling water. Lower down the banks of the Kara-kash are broken by similar fissures, but with a saline (Tust round the upper edge. These connnunicate with the river, whieli ills during the frosty nights and rises during the diiy from the melting of the snows and ice. The funnels are thus alternately filled and emptied every twenty-four hours, the salt water of the Kara-kash leaving a saline deposit each time on the surface. West of the Lower Kara-kash follow several streams which are lost in the sauds or in the Yashil-kul swamp,!, separated by a ridgo of dunes from the Kara- Fig. 22. — The Tian-8]UN Nan-lu, fhom a Chinese Map. iS' ff ' ' Toupfaif -V ♦Hami l.eh nof /^ara Aou/ J^^^^*'^^^<.;^Acrn^ M0«a-f|^ '^^'1^?^^'^^^ ■ '-^-^^v^s^^^? kash. These streams rise on the outer spurs of the Kuen-lun, which are covered to a height of 11,000 feet with an argillaceous soil, probably of glacial origin. The main route from India to Chinese Turkestan leads through the Sanju Pass (16,800 feet) over these mountains, thereby avoiding the great bend described by the Kara- kash towards the north-east after emerging on the plaina. The Yarkand and Kasiigar. In the south-west comer of Chinese Turkestan rises the Yarkand-daria, also often called the Zarafshan, or " Auriferous," the longest, and probably the most copious, of all the Tarim affluents. Over one-fourth of the whole population are concen- m 02 EAST ASIA. Ill'*' trntod alonj? tlio banks of this fcrtilisinfi; stroimi, whoso alhiviiil deposits nrc fur more precious tliun its j^ohh'ii sniuls. Its furthest souree is on the Kurukonun Pass (17, ')()<) feet), wliere u ridge a few yards wide separates the Tariin and Indus basins. Flowin>£«K W '. i* *" '«^'- - .,iS 64 KAflT ASIA. Loh-nor is now fdtmd. Kvcn at tln> dawn of liistory real inlurul scmh M\\l Murvivrd in this rofjion, and the Tian-shan Naii-lu and Tian-shan I'c-lu on fiil.cr sidt- of thu oastom oxtromity of i\w Tian-wlian ranpo had both of thorn their vast hioustrino basin, now roprosontod by tho Hinall lakes scattered over thophiiiis. The unanimous tradition of tho natives, lM)th in lOastern Turkestan and West (^hina, speaks of tho grathial exhatistion of tlu^so lakes, and tho disap])earancc of the waters may have possibly suggcstwl the idea of an underj^'round channel, ]M)j)ularly sup])osed to convey tho outflow of Loh-nor to the sources of tho Jloang-ho, !0,U(JO feet higher up. It is very remarkable that tho gradual desiccation of I^ob-nor has not rendered it completely saline, like most of tho other lakes scattered over the old marine basin. Its water is at present fresh and sweet, und according to tho local accounts Fig. 24. — Loii-NOB. ArmrdinR to Prjevnlfky. Boale 1 : 2,fl80,000. to.. 40° *sjjr'i * Ka ra' k o uft h i n •j^i^t r /foym-tm^ ■^r~--^ — '^ R>,;^iYToh«rkhal?k flofG . 60 Milea. it gradually diminished in volume towards the middle of the present century, again increasing about the year 1870. Like the Tarim, it abounds in fish of two species, which the iiatives take by moans of artificial canals and reservoirs. During the floods tho fish penetrate into these reservoirs, whore they are easily captured after the subsidence of the waters. The Takla-makax Desert. Although the extent of the desert and waste tracts in Chinese Turkestan has not yet been accurately determined, there can be no doubt that they are vastly in excess of the cultivated and inhabited lands. These are nearly everywhere limited to a narrow strip of a few thousand j'ards at most along the river banks, bej'ond which the still unexplored wilderness stretches uninterruptedly beyond the horizon. Here we already enter the Gobi, although it is unknown by this name in Eastern THE TAKLA-MAKAN DESERT. 05 II Hurvivwl nidi- of the lucuHtrino uiitiniinoUH ■iikn of tlio limy liuvo upposod to 0,000 feet it rendered old marine ml accounts 40° ntury, again two species, During the ptured after iirkestan has ire vastly in here limited inks, beyond the horizon, le iu Eastern Turkestan, l)oiiif the Tariiii from the true Mongolian deserts. North of Kliotan and east of the Kliotan-daria the sandy region takes the Turki name of Takla-iiiakan. Here the dunes advancing like the ocean waves are exiM)sed to tlie full fury of the northern Musts, l»y which they are raised to heights of from '2(H) to 400 feet. West of the Khotiin-diiria, however, they are merely shifting hillocks or mounds, mostly from 10 to 'JO feet high, all drifting south-eastwards. Hut even here some rise to 100 feet and upwards, forming regular crescents, with the horns projecting on either side beyond the central mass. The proximity of the desert is announced in the oasis, and uj) to the very foot of the Kuen-lun and Pamir ranges by the fine particles of dust whirling in the air, and often clouding the azure sky. The sun is not distinctly visible for some hours after dawn, and when the east winds prevail it remains at times overcast throughout the day. Then the lamps arc lit in the houses at noon, as in Lomhm during the winter fogs. When driven in dense masses before the storm, the sands are as disastrous to the eultivatec^ lands as they are beneficial when they fall imperceptibly in the form of an impalpable dust. To these sands of the desert the natives thus, not without n, attribute at once ttic gradual ruin of their country and the temporary alii, nuio of their crops. Not all the Turkestan wastes are covered with dunes, which are chiefly concen- trated in the south and south-west under the action of the northern winds. Some of the desert tracts are true steppes, like those of the Aral basin, yellow or reddish rolling lands following each other with the uniformity of waves under a steady breeze. In the distance white rocks worn by the sands stand out like ruined buildings, while saline incrustations cover the beds of ancient lakes. At the foot of the Kueu-lun stretch vast stony wastes, and the old Chinese records speak with horror of all these " rivers of sand " and rocky plains. The wilderness stretching east of Lob-nor is haunted by winged dragons and evil genii. Hero the path is traced only by bleached bones ; the voice of the sands mocks the wayfarer or fills him with vague fears, now singing, now moaning, or muttering like distant thunder, or uttering shrill, hissing sounds, as if the air were alive with invisible demons. Much of this may be due to the fevered fancy of travellers ; but the Eastern Turkestan dunes may also re-echo with that •' music of the sands " spoken of by explorers in Sinai, Afghanistan, Peru, and by many naturalists on the seashore. The same voice of the burning sands is mentioned by the traveller Lenz during his recent visit to Timbuktu. During the prosperous days of the kingdom of Khotan the sandy wastes were far less extensive than at present, although even then the cultivated tracts were hemmed in by the surrounding desert. A great river is mentioned as flowing towards the north-west, to the west of Khotan, but which has now completelj' disappeared. In the north-east also the inhabitants of a city called Ilo-lao-lo-kia, rejecting a message from heaven, were condemned, according to the legend, to perish under a rain of sand. Elsewhere another tradition speaks of 3G0 cities swallowed up in a single day by the sands of the Takla-makan. Certain shepherds, we are told, know the sites of these cities, but keep the secret in order to enrich ..^Mt^ m ''Mi '4 06 KAST ASIA. tlicmwIvcH with lln- nM j<;ohl orn liueiitw like thow Ntill worn liy tlie iliuilu women, are l're(|uently piiked up. The ruiM> of another city near Kiria yielded ima^'es of Ituddha and a clay Nliitiiette of the ape llanunian. Thanks to its almost rainless climate nnd dry air, the ruins of Chinese Turkestan last for loii^ a;;es, and walls of adolte are still seen just as fhoy hUwhI when dismantletl some eij,'ht hundred years u^o. The samls also help to preserve) the Ituildiiif^s, and when a shifting; dune reveals stane old edilice, it is ^enenilly found in the Hiunu stuto uh when ii/i(n iliivrxijolio sper'ies, presenting, as indicated hy its lM)tanical name, a j^reat variety in tho form and \av cd' its leavcH. The very sap of these plants is saline, and in their shade the ground is (piitc bare, covered either with ;,'r<'y sand oi a white elHorescence. Thanks to their irr _,ation works, tho natives have developed u cultivated flora relatively far richer than the wihl growths. The hamlets are shaded with clu.sters of walnut.s, and all the gardens in fh • Kliotaii and Varkand districts have their mulberry ph)ts. Tho pear, apple ; < i'^h. it.ricot, olive, and trailing vine inter- twine their branches in the orchard ;, ,1 :'ii vield excellent fruits, while abundant crops of maize, milh*, barley, v , v;il, rice, cotton, hemp, and melons are raised round about the villages, which no often buried in u den.se vegetation of almost tropical luxuriance. On the bank.s of the Tarim and its affluents the species of wild fauna arc even less numerous than those of the wild flora. IJcsides the wild boar and hare quadru- peds are rare, although the tiger, panther, lynx, wolf, fox, and otter are met in the thickets along the river banks, while the mural deer and antelope keep to tho open plains. None of the mamnnds and two species only of birds are peculiar to this region. Prjevalsky enumerates forty-eight species of avifauna altogether, but in .s2)ring and autunni Lake Ijob is visited by millions of birds of passage, which here find a convenient resting-place cm their weary flights between Southern Asia and Siberia. They arrive in a thoroughly exhausted state, and it is noteworthy that they come, not from tho south, but from the south-west, thus avoiding the bleak plateaux of Tibet. It was in the neighbourhood of Lake Lob that Prjevalsky saw a wilu camel, un animal who.se existence had been doid)trd by most naturalists, although (con- stantly mentioned in the Chinese records and spoken of by the natives of Turkestan Ill tlic niiiH. M' III Klmtmi, its likf lli(iM> IS of lllKltllCI' of the ii|>*> HM of ('liint'NC lis flicy HttMMl l|) fo jm'MiTVc I is gciK'niUy spocios. The 111 tall ii(]iiatio 1 1 olive, some k'nu'iits ill the ^alii'Ut foaturo ^, as indicated es. Tlu! very bare, covered ultivated flora [ with clusters lets have their if^ vine iuter- hile ahundunt )ns arc raised ion of almost auna are even I hare quadru- ;er are met in e keep to the re peculiar to ilto.. i l rl i frnK- ' - ■- - ■ ' . * ^ !< a iW ^ Li-HJ.-. » U ! >j ' Ui f IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) V ■ 1.0 1.1 12.2 :^ pi£ mil 2.0 u Hi u Hiuu L25 iU 11.6 — 6" Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST KiAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M5S0 (716)t72-4S03 ■^^ nBMH Yrr-mim i n 1 1 1 '■ t x tti irii i r,^ .mM .> MiMiga!- ' —-■ — CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Inalltuta for Hittorlcal Microreproductioni / Inatitut Canadian da mlcroraproductlona hiatorlquaa .A- INIIABITANTS-THE KASHGARIANS. 67 and Monj^olia to all recent travellers. It is at present met chiefly east of Loh-nor, in the sandy Kumtug deserts, and less frequently about the Lower Tarim and Cherchen-daria, and on the Altin-tagh uplands, in company with the yak and wild ass. Very numerous twenty years ago, they have become somewhat rare since the Lob hunters have begun to pursue them into the desert. They are extremely Mary, and scent the enemy several niiles off under the wind. They are distinguished by some anatomical features from the domestic animal, and the two varieties differ also in size and the colour of their coats. AH the wild camels are small compared with the giants of the caravans, and it is on the whole more probable that they represent the original stock than that they descend from individuals of the tamo species which have escaped to the desert. Most of the traffic is carried on by means of horses of large size imported from Ferghana, while the small, hardy, and vigorous breed used as mounts come chiefly from the Southern Tian-shan valley.s, and especially the Ak-su district. Owing to the great heat the yak could scarcely live on the plains, and this animal is imported only for the shambles of the Turkestan cities. The sheep and goats tended by the Kirghiz nomads on the slopes of the Tian-shan and Pamir are of the same species as those of Tibet, and are equally noted for their delicate fleece. According to Shaw the best wool in the world comes not from Tibet, but from Turfan. Inhabitants — The Kashgarians. The peoples of the Tarim basin are evidently a very mixed race. Old geogra- phical names and many facts mentioned in the Chinese records show that at least a portion of the inhabitants are of Aryan stock. The legendary heroes of the country are the same Iranian heroes, " Rustan and Afrasiab," Avhose exploits are associated with the gorges, precipices, and other natural wonders of the land. They are the Charlemagnes, the Rolands, and Arthurs of Central Asia, and even in the legends of Chinese Turkestan their names recur more frequently than that of Alexander himself, the " Hazret Sikander," supposed to have conquered China in order to propagate Islam in that region. At present the only tribes of undoubted Iranian stock are the Galchas, akin to those of the Upper Oxus valleys. Like them, they are a fine race, of symmetrical build, frank and upright in their deal- ings, still worshippers of fire and the sun. Although scattered in small groups amongst the Kirghiz of Turki speech, many still preserve the old language, and Persian is still current in the Upper Sarikol valley, over 700 miles from the frontier of Irania. But the little Aryan community of this upland region recently threatened to disappear, Yakub Khan having forcibly removed them to the Kashgar district. Even amongst the Turki people of the plains many traits recall the regular Aryan type. Europeans who have visited Yarkand were struck by the resemblance of many natives to the English in their regular features and florid complexion. They had well- furnished beards, although men of pure Turki stock are mostly beardless. But such is the mixture of races in this region that Persians, Tibetans, Arabs, 1^ f SMliH «au G8 EAST ASIA. Kirj?lnz, Kalmuks, every variety of Mongols unci Tatars as well as Hindus and Cliinese, are represented in their erossinj^s with the Sartes, or Taranchi, of Eastern Turkestan. F-ven in the whoh>sale niassaeres, such as those of ISO?}, 1H77, and 1S7S, when the inliabitants of whole cities were exterminated, the hatred of oppressor and oj)i)ressed corresponds in appearance only with that of hostile races. However the Kashgarians may have detested the very name of Chinese some years ago, many people were none the less met in the streets bearing an unmistakable resemblance to tlie natives of the " Middle Kingdom." The only real contrasts here observed arc such as are caused, not by race, but by social habits, pursuits, or climate. The two really distin(rt elements are the agricultural classes of the lowlands, whatever may be their origin, and the Kirghiz or Kalmuk nomads of the upland pastures. In the cultivated tracts the people designate each other not by ethnical names, but by their native places, calling themselves Khokandi, Yarkandi, Kashgari, Fig. 25.— Races op Chinese Tuekebtan. Scale 1 : 1S,000,000. 18,000 and upwards. aoOMUeik Turfani, as the case may be. They have, nevertheless, a sort of collective patriotic sentiment based on a community of political conditions and social habits. Proceeding from the foot of the Karakorum north-eastwards, one observes a gradual transition in the aspect of the people, Aryan features insensibly yielding to the Mongol type. But all this intermingling has by no means resulted in a fine race. In the Yarkand district every third person you meet suffers from goitre, and this affection is quite as common in the plains as on the uplands. Ophthalmia is also very prevalent, thanks to the dazzling glare of the sun, the dust, and fierce sand- storms. . ■ . The current speech differs little from the Turki dialect of Tashkent, the chief differences arising from the use of Chinese words and of some Kirghiz expressions, li'..... t^ ROUTES AND PASSES. 60 Hindus and li, of Kustoru ii;{, 1H77, and ao hatred of hostile races. )nie years ago, e reseinhhmce lere ohserved )liuiate. The lids, whatever id pastures, hnical names, di, Kashgari, f/ ti.2- f/fOf ictive patriotic jits. »ne observes a )ly yielding to in a fine race, •oitre, and this thalinia is also lid fierce sand- ken t, the chief iz expressions, which seem to have found their way from Orenburg without leaving any trnco of their passage in the Sir and Oxus basins. The East Turkestan dialect, which is spoken with great uniformity throughout the Tarim basin, possesses no literary importance. It boasts of neither jjoets nor prose writers, and even books are extremely rare in the country. The strangers here settled come mostly from Ferghana, and are collectively known as Andijani, from the name of the old capital of Kokhand. Hindus arc met only in the bazaars of the chief towns, but Kashmiri people are numerous, and some Tibetan settlers from Haltistan raise tobacco and melons in the Yarkand district. The Jews were till recently almost unknown in the country, Yakub, like the Emir of Bokhara, having excluded them from his kingtlom. IJut since the return of the Chinese numerous Jewish families have crossed the eastern slope of the I*amir from Ilussian Turkestan. Under Yakub the law for strangers was, " Islam or death," the Ealmuks alone being allowed to retain their Buddhist fetishes. The Kashgarians entertain a great aversion for Christians of the Catholic and Greek rites, who place images or statues in their churches. But they regard the iconoclastic Protestants as Mohammedans of an inferior order, neglect- ing the observances, but none the less forming part of the great family of Islam. But with all their zeal the people are extremelj' immoral, and thousands have been brutalistnl by the use of opium, or of utrshti, a mixture of an extract of hemp and tobacco, which is highly intoxicating. Apart, however, from the tricks of trade, robbery and theft are rare. When a pack animal strays from the caravan the load is left on the spot while they go in search of it. In Yakub's time the method of dealing with thieves was at once simple and summary : for the first offence a warn- ing, for the second the bastinado, for the third loss of both hands, for the fourth decapitation. Chinese Turkestan is on the whole a poor country, although Shaw found it superior to India as regards the well-being of the people. Yet the mud houses are not even whitewashed, and the dust penetrates everywhere through the fissures. Even in the large towns the remains of edifices are rarely seen embellished with enamelled porcelain and arabesques, like those of Samarkand and Bokhara. Industry seems to have declined, judging at least from the descriptions of the Chinese records and the valuable treasures often brought to light from the debris of old buildings buried under the sands. The chief local industries arc cotton, silk, and woollen fabrics, carpets, boots, and saddlery. Notwithstanding the rich •mineral deposits, most of the copper and iron wares are importe TUB SOUTHERN PlATEAVX. AooordiDfr MIN1STUATIVK lUVKSIONS. 78 Another importimt fortross is Maraffids/ii, lying oiiHt of Kiislignr, noiir tho junction of the Ki' 'hK'ir-chiriii luid Yiirkund-fhiriii, and ut the j unci ion of the routes coiiiu'ctin)^ the cliief cities in the Tiirini hiisin. North-west of it the Hiutill town of UH/i-tiir/iiii, with u garrison of lii.OOO men, guards the route Uuiding over the lliidal I'ass (15,000 feet) to the Issik-kul vuUey. Hut the most important place at the Houthern base of the Tian-shun is Ak-nu (" White Water "), a fortitied town at the toot of a hhiff, formerly overlooking the Ak-su lliver, which now How8 nearly 10 miles farther west. Heyond .Ak-su, liiti, Knrlui, Kor/a, Kaiitsltar, and all the other towns of Chinese Turkostuu lie ut some distance from the Tarim, which hero flows through the heart of the desert over tiO miles south of the Fig. 28.— Yaukand and Yanui-shahh. Ponle 1 : .Vl,00O. 1. CoUege. 2. OiaBegidenoeoftbeKhaii. n. Magnzines. 4. Old Citadel. _—i.^^^^_— ^^— . 8,300 Yards. advanced spurs of the Tian-shan. They are all small places, with little trade or industry. Nor are there any towns on the Lower Tarim, or near Lake Lob, although the ruins of ancient cities are here both numerous and extensive. The remains of a place called Kok-nor He concealed amid the reeds of a river three days' journey south-west of Lake liob, and contain a temple with an image, apparently, of Buddha, still visited by the natives. They report that the statue and temple walls are adorned with precious stones and ingots of gold and silver, which no one dares to touch for fear of being struck dead by an invisible hand. The present " Tarimtzi," or inhabitants of the lake, reduced to a few hundred families, have nothing but wretched reed hovels, with a few fishing boats and nets. The dead are laid on a skiff, with another reversed above it to form a coflSn, and with them is placed half a net to fish with in the other world, the second half being kept by the relatives in memory of the departed. 88 74 KAHT ASIA. A ri'iMirf IiikI Imipf Ixm'h current that oortaiii UuMriiun nootario« had taken refiij^o (III llic l)aiikH III' llic 'I'iiriiM. itut I'rji'valsky has hIimwii that the re|M)rt wax ^nMiiHUess, iiikI that the 'rarimt/i, witli tlieir " Aryan " features, a.sin. It is ixaie tlie h'ss certain that some UuNsian liaskohiiks foiintl tlieir way to thin dreary ^e^'ion in seareli of thu marvellous " While Wiitt r," whieli eleans(>n of their sins all who hathe in it, besides Heeurini,' for llieni all earthly happiness. A few yoiin^,' ni< ii first arrived to erect hilts anil prepare the lields for the colony. Next year eaiiie the rest of the iniiiii;;iiiiits with their families ; hut despairiii),' of lindins ten hir)j;e diNisionH, which, proceediiij^ from the Hoiith-west, are: Kliotan, Yarkaiid, Yanj^i-hissar, Kash^ar, Ush-turfan, Ak-8U, Mai, Kucha, ICorla, Karashar. Three military commandants reside ut Karashar, Kliotan, and Yarkand, the last luimed lieinjjf also the seat of the ji;enerul admiiUH- tratioii. Amongst all the cities, Hovon arc considerod as enjoy iiij? a special diji^nity, apart alto;i;ethi'r from tlieir sizo and administrative rank. Kliotan, Yarkand, Yaiif,'i-hissiir, Kashfjfar, Ush-turfan, Kucha, und Karusbur uro tUo mt'inbers of thid Jiti-shuhr, or •'bcptupolis." ^ <^>h»-^Pi "— - n ' H ill - 1- ■ ■ Hill lifcii i im n riffc i 1(1 liikcji ivfupfo tlii" itport wiiM 'M, «lil1'( its commercial relations are far more im])ortant with the (jhinese province of Kansu than with the valley of the Tsangho. A triple mountain barrier separates the Kiiku- nor and Chuidam basins from tho inhabited regions of Tibet, whih' the mtturul slopo of tho hind is towards tho north-west; that is, towards the Gobi and the Mongolian domain. Nevertheless, this land of lofty plateaux, of closed basins and difficult mountain ranges, can hardly be regarded us beh)nging to tho same natural division us tho Gobi wastes, or the cultivated plains of Kansu. Hence it must bo studied apart, as far us tho scanty geographical materials nuiy enable us to do so. Relief ok the Land. East of Lake Lob the Altin-tagh and Chameu-tii;j:h ranges are interrupted by a broad gup, through which tho Chaidani dei)ression merges in the plains of the Lower Turim and Lob basin. Still further wist rise other ranges also belonging to tho Kuen-lun system, and forming the advanced scarps of tho Tibetan plateaux. These are the parallel chains between which the great rivers of East Tibet have their source. Such are tho Muriu-ussu, which farther down becomes tho Kiusha- kiang and Yung-tze-kiang ; the Lantzan-kiang, or Upper Mekhong; and the mysterious Nup-chu, forming the boundary of Tibet proper, and supposed to be identicul with the Lu-tze-kiung, or Upper Salwon. Tho ranges themselves, with tho intervening vuUcys, run beyond the plateau north-west and south-east, parallel with the Chttidum valley, which is continued on the one hand by that of the Lower Tarim, on tho other by the lacustrine district where the Hoang-ho takes its rise. It is thus easy to imderstand why the old Chinese geographers unanimouslj' assert i: W ^T" 76 EAST ASIA. that the sources of the Yellow River arc the springs from the undergrownd waters flowing from Tjako Ijob. The early travellers were unable to determine the general inclination of the slopes between the Lob and the Iloang-ho. Yet tlic Chinese maps, ])r()jo('ted in a reverse sense from ours, figure a rampart of mountains between the " Stars," or lakelets, forming the source of the Iloang-ho, and the plains whose central depression is occupied by Lake Lob. Still the transverse depression of the Tarim and Iloang-ho is consistent with the presence of northern mountain masses and ranges, which are connected with the Tibetan plateau by an extremely irregular region, across which the Yellow River forces its way through a series of formidable gorges. This highland system, Fig. 29.— S0UUCB8 OP THE HOANO-HO, FllOM A CHINESE MaP. which may be called that of the Kuku-nor from its central lake, is also intersected by various affluents of the Hoaug-ho. In the north the Nan-shan range (Siwen- shan, or Kilien-shan), running nearly west and east, forms the outer limit of the Kuku-nor region above the plains of the Mongolian Kansu, thus apparently prolonging the Altin-tagh east of the Chaidam gap. Towards the sources of the Az-sind some of its crests rise above the snow-line, here fixed at about 14,000 feet. South of the Xan-shan, which is dominated by the Konkir, one of the " amne," or sacred mountains, of the Tanguts, there rises another range, the Chetri-shan, separating the valley of the Tatung-gol from the southern basin of the Kuku-nor. Beyond this lake succeed other mountains, the Southern Kuku-nor system of r^>wwMliillg»!i"iiiWHllit,it.m>aB»ii OfcH^WliBli lN l,.^ ^ LAKE KUKU. 77 Tground waters line the "fcneral iTet the Chinese intains between lie plains whose consistent with connected with ich the Yellow [ghland system, Prjcvalsky, which break into nunierouM ri(lfj;os, all aboiuulinp; in minerals. Hero much gold was formerly collectctl ; but since the Dungan insurrection the washings liave been abandcmed. The opposite slopes of all these ranges present the same contrasts as do those of the Tian-shan in Kulja, and those of the Altai in Siberia. Thus the Xan-sban is well wooded on its northern Hank, whereas timber is very scarce on the opposite side. Still the flora of this region is extremelj' vai'ied compared with that of the northern steppes and southern plateaux. Forests of conifoi-s, billows, and red birch, besides other trees elsewhere unknown, rise to an altitude of 10,000 feet. Peculiar species of the rhododendron and honeysuckle are found in the under- growth and on the alpine prairies. The Kuku-nor liighlands are also the special t*cA/ Fig. 30.— KUKU-NOH. Aoourding to Prjeralgky. Scale 1 : 3,7S0,000. ilso intersected range (Siwen- T limit of the lus apjjarently sources of the ut 14,000 feet, the "amne," le Chetri-shan, the Kuku-nor. nor system of 60 Sliles. home of the medicinal rhubarb, for which the Chinese merchants of Sining pay high prices. The fauna of these regions is also surprisingly rich, and Prjevalsky here discovered no less than forty-three new species. Lake Kuku. The Kuku-nor, which gives its name to the province, is the Tso-gumbum of the Tibetans, or the Tsing-hai, or " Blue Lake," of the Chinese. It is so named from its Iwautiful azure colour, contrasting with the delicate white of the snows mirrored in its waters, which Prjevalsky describes as " soft as silk." It has the fonn of an ehmgated ellipse, with a circuit of from !2'-20 to tj40 miles, and an urea of from 2,000 to 2,000 square miles. It was formerly fur more extensive, as 78 EAST ASIA. shown by tho water-marks on tho cliffs at a groat distance from its present shores. Its nmnorous foiders from the west, of wliieh the Hiikhain-gol is the hirgest, do not suffice to compensate for the evaporation, and, as there is no outlet, its waters have become saline. Towards the cast is an island (5 miles in circumference, which, according to the legend, closes up the abyss whence sprang the waters of the lake. It was dropped by a gigantic bird from the skies on the spot, in order to stop the flow, which was threatening to submerge the world. A convent with about a dozen lamas stands on this solitary island, completely cut off from the mainland during the siunmer, when no craft dares to venture on the stormy lake. But during the four winter months the monks cross the ice and renew their stock of flour and butter. The lake, which is said to abound in many species of fish, stiinds 10,(J00 foot above the seu, and is fringed by dense thickets of shrubs. The Ch.vidam Basin. Several other smaller lakes are scattered over tho plateau west of the Upper Hoang-ho, but the largest of all the inland seas in this region has long disappeared. The valley of the Chaidam (Tsaidam) was formerly the bed of this vast reservoir, which filled the triangular space bounded on the north by the Nan-shan, east by the Kuku-nor highlands, south by the Burkhan-Buddha range. It is traversed south-cast and north-west by the large river Bayan-gol, or Chaidam, which is porliaps 250 to 300 miles long, vud 480 yards wide at the point crossed by Prjevalsky. But as it approaches the desert its volume gradually diminishes, until it disappears at last in the Dnbsun-nor swamps, near the gap through which the Chaidam Lake was formerly united with the Lob-nor. Throughout its eastern section the Chaidam plain is covered with saline marshes, while in the north-west nothing is seen except argillaceous or stony tracts. The vegetation is limited to the reeds of the swamps, a scanty herbage and thickets of the Nitmria Scholeii growing to a height of 7 feet, with berries at once sweet and bitter, eagerly devoured both by man and beast. They are gathered in the autumn, and mixed by the natives with their barley-meal. The fauna of Chaidam is as poor as its flora, which is probably due to the swarms of mosquitoes infesting the marshy tracts, and driving the flocks and wild beasts to the surrounding uplands. The animals most frequently met on the plain are a species of antelope, the wolf, fox, hare, and, according to the Mongolians, the wild camel in the western solitudes. Although visited only by tho hunter and nomad pastor, the country is not unsuitable for a settled population, being well watered by the Bayan-gol, and enjoying a comparatively mild climate, especially towards its western extremity, where it falls to little over .'{,000 feet above sea-level. The ruins of an ancient city at the confluence of the Bayan-gol with another stream in the centre of the plain are still silent witnesses of the great changes that have taken place in a region once perhaps thickly peopled, now occupied only by a few nomad tents. The upland steppe of Oduntala, north of which runs the water-parting between >m£» » ^ i nW i l i i fa iiw^ t i ui i LUyj IM Hii ii lWh ■NMti . '■ i ijw i i«>j ( W- L i ^iff» » wi ^ k M ^ ' ^s im ^4 ' ^ n lif^ « ^l i ^ ii M '' mv '''' ni m«t*^' » INIIABITANTS-TIIE TANGUTANS. 79 present shores. Ihe lurj^est, do itlot, its waters circumference, the waters of ; sjwt, in order L convent with ; off from the 10 storm}"^ lake, lew their stock species of fish, shrubs. : of the Upper g disappeared, vast reservoir, -shan, east by It is traversed lam, which is nt crossed by ly diminishes, through which out its eastern the north-west n is limited to fraiia Scholevi »erly devoured mixed by the )ly due to the locks and wild !t on the plain ongolians, the 10 hunter and un, being well ate, especially [)ove sea-level, with another a^reat changes occupied only rting between the Bayan-gol and Hoang-ho, is a holy land for the ISIongols and Chinese. Here are the Lakes Jaring and Oring, which drain to the Yellow River. But no European has at least recently visited this region of Sinsu-liai, or the " Starry Sea," although its pastures are frequented in summer by the Mongols, who come to worship their god near the sacred springs. Seven spotless animals — a yak, a horse, and five sheep — are consecrated by the priests, who tie a red ribbon round their necks and drive them to the mountains, charged with the sins of the tribe. West of the Oduntala steppe begins the Burkhan-Buddha (" Lord Buddha") range, which here forms the angular escarpment of the Tibetan plateau. It is an arid chain of nearly uniform height and regular slopes, consisting mainly of clay, conglomerates, and porphyry. It is separated rather by a narrow gully than a valley from the Shuga, another barren range of grey, yellow, and red rocks, some of whose peaks rise above the snow-line. Farther south stretches the bleak plateau, strewn with hillocks and low ridges, torn here and there by crevasses, covered in one place with stones, in another with sands or a white saline efflo- rescence. For travellers this elevated rolling plain, from 14,000 to 15,000 feet high, is a region of horror and of death, from which they gladly escape over the Bayan- khara border range down to the pasture lands fringing the Muru-ussu, or Upper Yang-tze-kiang. Inhabitants — The Tangutans. The Kuku-nor country is officially bounded by the Shuga range, but it is often extended to the Bayan-khara, or even to the valley of the Blue River, and beycmd it to the Khara-ussu. But in such a vast and mostly uninhabited regitm the frontier-line must necessarily be somewhat fictitious. Its population may be estimated at about 150,000, and in the region west of the lake there can scarcely Ije more than 20,000 inhabitants altogether. Towards Donkir, near the Chinese frontier, the population is tolerably dense, and here the districts spared by the Dungan rebels are admirably cultivated. Chinese settlers have already penetrated into these valleys, where the aboriginal element consists of Tanguts and of Dalds, an agricultural tribe unlike the Chinese in appearance, although assimilated to them in religion, manners, and customs. Their dialect is a mixture of Chinese, Mongol, and unknown words. The most sedentary tribes are Mongolians, degenerate representatives of their race. Oppressed by the Tanguts, and lacking the spirit to resist, they obey in silence, scarcely remembering that their forefathers were once masters of the land. The dominant Tanguts themselves are mostly a proud and daring race, fully conscious of their strength. Of Tibetan stock and speech, they dilfor greatly from the Mongolians in appearance and habits. With large black eyes, oval face, moderately high cheek bones, full black beard, straight or aquiline nose, they present a startling likeness to the South Russian gipsies. The Mongol is jjcaceful, the Tangut combative ; the Mongol loves the arid waste, the boundless space, while the Tangut prefers the valleys and moist pastures of the uplands. The former is 80 EAST ASIA. hospitable unci friendly to 8trnn{?ers, the latter drives them from his tent, or makes them pay dearly for their entertainment. For the Tangut is greedy and specula- tive, fond of pillage and plunder, but at the same time religious, never forgetting to obtain absolution for the deeds of violence and blootlshed committed in his marauding expeditions against the caravans and Mongol encampments. On the sacred shores of the IJlue liakc they purchase or seize the captureut from IS the simple ation of the of yaks and , and thanks rhubarh, the remacy over ntly passing 8 are able to ar of China, n, about 45 regarded as divided into B Euku-nor aing is the inicate with ards to the represented iiversity in ween Ilami It merges er >vith the aller inter- i p « o H I g s CT^^wiWPiPIBH ^_ maaiMMMMMIMMiHMIi teSTT *W*I*« CLIMATE AND RAINFALL. 81 mediate solitiulos, waterless and destitute of vegetation. But elsewhere the streams from the Nan-slum and neighlwuring highlands are copious enough to flow between verdant banks northwards to the foot of the advanced spurs of the Tian-shan. The " deserts " traversed by these rivers are not dismal solitudes like the Takla-makan of the Tarim basin, or the "Black Sands" and "Red Sands" of the Arulo-Cas- pian depression. Water is found almost everywhere near the surface, and springs bubble up in the hollows, often encircled by extensive oases. Everywhere the ground is hard and easily traversed bj* horses and carts. Wayside inns, villages, and even towns with bazaars and industries have sprung up here and there along the banks of the running waters in the midst oi cultivated lands and plantations. Climate and Haixfall. The cause of this break in the great central desert must be sought in the con- tours and relief of the continent itself. South of this comparatively fertile belt the coast-line is deeply indented by the Bay of Bengal, forming a semicircular curve with a radius of not less than 900 miles. Thanks to this vast marine basin penetrating far inland between the two peninsulas of India and Indo-Chino, the space separating Kansu from the ocean is reduced by one-half. The vapour-charged clouds are thus borne inland beyond the Kuku-nor district. The atmospheric currents crossing East Tibet from the Brahmaputra delta to the Mongolian wastes find no obstacles comparable to those presented farther west by the vast plateau of Central Tibet, with its plains from 15,000 to 16,000 feet above sea- level, and its mighty escarpments towering to an altitude of 23,000 or 24,000 feet. The ranges in the province of Eham are not only less elevated than those of West Tibet, but also present many breaks of continuity, while often running in parallel lines with the meridian, thus enabling the southern winds to sweep up the valleys as far as the Kuku-nor highlands. The south-west monsoons, which bring such u prodigious quantity of water to the Brahmaputra basin, are far from being exhausted after crossing the Bayan- khara range. From April to the end of autumn they bring both snow and rain, and the atmosphere is really clear and dry only during the winter season. Prje- valsky found snow falling daily during the whole month of April. Hence it is not surprising that sufficient moisture is still discharged beyond the Nan-shan range to give rise to true rivers, which flow thence far into the plains. Still none of them are able to reach streams with a seaward outlet, so that all ultimately disap- pear in saline lakes and marshes overgrown with reeds. The river Ngansi, flow- ing westwards in the direction of Lob-nor, runs dry in the depression of Khara- nor, or the " Black Lake." The Az-sind (Etzina, or Edsinei) receives the waters of the " Snowy Mountains," after which it is joined north of the Great Wall by the Tolai from Suchew. Farther on it gradually diminishes in volume until it disappears at last in the Sogok-nor and the Sobo-nor on the verge of the desert. 89 EAST ASIA. RoVTES — EXTKXT — PolTI.ATION. ThankH to tbo fertile triiot thus nittiuj,' tlic (iohi iiili) two prcut sections, tho Cliineso have been able easily to maintain tlu-ir eoiniiiuniratioiiH from tbo Nan- sban to the Tian-shan with the western provinces of the enij)in>. The natural route always followed by the caravans and invadinji; hosts starts from liantebcw-fu, at the fjreat western bend of tlie lloanjj-ho, and, aft(>r crossinin the Nuu- The iiatuml Liuntehcw-fu, e moiintuins 1(1 tlie (ireut oasis. Here un-»han, ono 59- b7' broad, conneets rhinese Kansu with this Nortli-wcstern Kansu, which, from tho nomads frefjuentinj? it, may be called ^[ongolian Kansu. Its area may he esti- mated at 100,000 square miles, with a population of probably less than ono million, centred chiefly in tho southern towns and in tho oases at the foot of tho Tian-shni. Inhaiutants. In a repfion of such strategic imjjortance, and so often disputed by rival hosts, the inhabitants are naturally of very mixed origin. Tribes of Turki stock, the Uigurs and Usuns, ^longols of diverse banners, the Tanguts of Tibetan blood, and the Chinese have frequently contended for the possession of the pass connecting the Gobi with the snowy range. The work of the nomad warriors was soon done ; after destroying everything in their sudden inroads they would retreat rapidly to the steppes of the plain or to the upland valleys. ]iut the Chinese, v.hile slower in their movements, were more tenacious and persevering. They founded garrison towns at convenient intervals, which soon became centres of culture, and the land was thus slowly peopled, while the wilderness was crossed bj' military and trade routes. The barbarian might return and burn the crops, level the fortresses, waste the cities. But after the storm was over a few years olways sufficed for the Chinese to restore the network of their strategic routes and strongholds. Thus the cities of Northern Kansu, reduced to masses of ruins during the recent wars between Dungan Mohammedans and the Imperial Government, are again gradually recovering, while others are being founded by the Chinese agricultural settlers. Tho Mongols ranging over these steppes belong mostly to the great family of the Eliuts, kinsmen of the Kalmuks. Some fifteen hundred years ago the country was occupied mainly by the Usun, supposed by some to have been of Teutonic stock, and who were distinguished from all their neighbours by their deep-set eyes and straight nose. These " men of horse-like features," as tho Chinese described them, were gradually driven westwards to the Tian-shan and Tarim basin. Here Prjevalsky met many of the peasantry who seemed remarkably like his fellow-countrymen of Central Bussia. angaria into crtile region o two parts, ig-ho to the 11 and sepa- attached to i and Pijan, 3 as integral he Usu-ling elv 30 miles Topography. The chief towns going westwards in the district connecting the inner and outer Eansu are the walled cities of Liang-cheic, Kanchew, and Suchew, founded at the time of the first settlement two thousand years ago. From the combined names of the last two, capitals of the Kan and Su districts, the province of Kansu has been named. Kanchew has rapidly recovered irova, the disastrous civil war, and Liang- chew, a large and busy place, is one of the cleanest and most orderly cities in China. This is true, however, only of the portion comprised in the inner enclo- sure, the quarter stretching between the first and second wall being a mere mass of ruins. From the ramparts are visible a number of small forts dotted over the landscape, all of recent origin, having been erected since the Dungan insurrection M EAST ARIA. by i\w jH'usiintrv »» u promution agoinNl froHh troublcfi. Hucliow, on tlic Tnlai, WHS {(triiHM'ly tlio l)iil\viirk of tho nnpirc. Hut when rotukon by the Chinese in IM72 not 11 sinfi;k' housso wuh Htiinding. Ininu'diiitely west of Siichew stands the famous Kiayu-kuan, or " Jado fJate," so oalU'd because it led to the Khotari country, whence the (.'hinese trach'rs broup:lit back the precious mineral. Hut the gate does not, as is usually supposed, mark tho verge of tho desert, for shrubs und patches of herbage still line both aides of Fig. 3'2.— FouTiFinu ViLLAOKg NKAii Lantchbw, Puuvincb of Kaniiu. i I the routes beyond it. Nor is there any lack of running waters fringed by the poplar and weeping willow. Two centuries after Marco Polo, the Portuguese missionary, Benedict de Goes, was the first European to follow this route from Khotan; but he only reached Suchew, where bodied in 1607. His companion, Isaac, the Anncnian, was unable to save his manuscripts, although he continued the journ(\v to Peking. Suchew is a great mart for the surrounding Mongols, as are ulso Ntjaim (Ansi), Kwachew, and Shachew, or " Sandy Town," a place already :-r-ttH$m TOl'OORAI'IIY. 80 1 tlio Tc.laT, ("liiiK'so in Jado (iat«>," It'iM brought posed, mark K>th Hides of m ■i^l v-.» jcd by the 'ortuguese oute from ompanion, continued ongols, as ce already invaded by tho Hands of the western desert. Soni(> fifteen bunth'ed yeais ago, (hiring the Hourishing periofl of tlie kingdom of Khotan, Shachew was a chief centre of the caravan trade iM'tween China and the Tarini l)asin. YiiiiniuHiini, lying on the route to llami, comph'tcly escaped the ravages of the Dungans, while X;/miHi, on the same route, was entirely destroyed. Nothing is now to Ih) seen on its site except heaps of rubbish, ruined temples, the scattered fragnuMits of idols. The neglected gardens no longer i-heck the advancing sands, which in some places are surging over tho ramparts. I'nless the place be so(»n resettled, it will disappear altogether. North of it tho desirt, pn)p(M'Iy so called, stretches away beyond (he horizon in tho direction of the Tiun-shan. lint this it; not the region most dreaded by the traveller, although as far as tho llami oasis ho n»ee(s little beyond u few cumping-grounds on tho bunks of tho streams, and tho debris of ruintnl cities. JIdiiii (Khami, Khamil), described by Marco Polo under the name of Camul, is one of those cities which may be regarded as indispensable. It occui)ies u position clearly nuirked out for a centre of population. Ilencie, although frc(|U(>ntly wasted or destroyt>d, it has always risen from its ruins, either on the same spot or in the immediate vicinity. The Ilumi oasis is a necessary resting-place for armies and caravans, whether arriving from or plunging into the desert. No coiupieror advancing east or west would venture to push forward without first secui-ing a firm footing in llami, and commanding all the resources of the district. As a strategical point it is almost unrivalled in Central Asia. The zones of vegetation which fringe lx)th sides of tho neighbouring Tian-shan have necessarily become the "Nan-lu" and "rc-lu" — that is, tho southern and northern routes to the western world — and hero, accordingly, converge the great historic highways. Yet llami never seems to have been u largo place, the strip of arable land surrounding it being too limited for tho development of a great capital. During the recent rebellion it suffered much, its rice-fields, vineyards, and gardens, noted for their excellent melons, having been frequently wasted. West of llami, the two towns of Pijan (Pishan) and Turfan, now much reduced, occupy neighbouring oases extremely fertile, and yielding excellent cotton, sesame, wheat, besides all sorts of fruits, especially magnificent grapes. Although frequently traversed by Chinese travellers, Hegel is the only Euroi)ean naturalist who has visited this region in recent times. Yet there are few districts of Central Asia more deserving of careful exploration. Between I'ijan and Turfan rises an isolated cone, which is said to have vomited lava and ashes some ten centuries ago. Tho old geographers also speak of a mountain west of Turfan, rising in a series of terraces, all com|M)sed of blocks of agate. On this sacred mountain not a single plant is to be seen, and its dazzling brightness is caused by the sparkling agates, " the remains of the hundred thousand lohaii," who have earned immortality by their virtues. Turfan was the last city recaptured by the Chinese in 1877 from the Dungana. It lies about 30 miles west of Old Turfan, which was destroyed four hundred years ago, and of which the walls, 50 feet high, are still standing. Their peculiar structure is referred by Kegel to the Uigurs, ■fc HO EAST AHIA. wli«)iii he n-j^inlw iim tlu' iiiiccMtorH <»f tlio |»ri'M«'iit I>iiii^iiiih. (^liiiirNo ixirrt-lainN and KiiddliiHt Ntaliii'ttcN an< pirkrti u]) aiiioii^Nt the ruiiiH, and lifrt< art* alHit a iiia);iiiH- ct'iit luinari't and liiiildin^H rcNcniltling thtiH<> of Samarkand. In tlu> ni-i^fldMiui'- hutwl is tli«^ ni(mi|ur of Maxar, " IioIut «>v« of th«« Tian-whan as far at* tin- rruintMi vnlloy an> included in the provini't> of KaiiMU. lUnkiil, no calliHl from liakc Itar, which occupieu u depreaHiuii in the plateau, HUpplenieutH tbv Ntrutegieul puHitiuii uf Ilami. Fiif. 33.— Oaiim ok Bahki'l awd Hami. Aooonlint tu lurallov. Had* I : l,SOt),uW). .80 Miles. It 18 the first military and trading station on the route leading from Hami to the Zungarian plains, and as the southern highways converge on Hami, so those of the north unite at Barkul, the Chinsi-fu of the Chinese. It is a large place, commanded by two fortresses, and surrounded by gardens and orchai-ds. The Kosheti-davau, one of the three passes connecting the two cities, has an elevation of 9,100 feet above the sea, or about 5,300 above the surrounding oases. But this is a very slight altitude compared with that of the passes opening farther west, in the snowy range of Eongor-adzigan, while the Tian-shan cannot be turned towards -^MKMliMlHliSlB »i w «i w ^>i M W |! P TOI'OdUAl'HY. w orcclaiiiM and Ml) 11 iiiii^tiifi- H' lu'ijflilMMir- truditioiiully uintNi valloy ' Har, which ion of Hami. its i'n>*f(Tn fxtririiity without |»limffinj? info fho «U"«'rt. Ilnico lh»» parimiount iniiMirtancr of the llaiiii-llurkiil rmitc. To Pijan anil Tiirfan corn'siiond f/iirfirii and XiiiHH, Hut here tho Tian-Nhan has already hran'lx'd olf into two panilhl chains, whilo the ^^ciicral ch'vation is Huch as to prevent (...^.sy coninmnicat ion from shujo to nhtpe. In the aniphitlieatro of hills dcvcloptsl still farther west lies the fainouH city (d' rniintsi (Tnuitsi), tlu^ Tihoa-chew t»f the (Mnese, or tin Hiin-nn'ao; tliat is, the " Red T«'niple," foiuided in the Man dynasty, 'flns was the Mishhalik of tlie Mcin^fols and Tatars, which enjoyed ^reat ini;ii»rtanco at different epochs, and which, thanks to its liajipy uituution, hus always lapidly recovered after every frotih disuHtcr. As cupitul of Fig. 34.— Umuhtiii, TvHfAit, ani> hi-hhoundino Mointainm, Ifriim n Nkntoti Ijy Venyuknv Hcale I : tl.MiO.UtO. EnPG tto Milei. Inmi to the 80 those of large place, hards. The an elevation s. But this her west, in aed towards the Uigurs, it was the residence of princes who ruled on both sides of the Tian- shan over a vast domain designated, like the chief town, by the name of Bishbalik, or " Pentapolis." Here may have reigned one of the sovereigns known in Europe as " Prester John." In the last century the place was very populous, and took the foremost rank amongst the Chinese colonies of Northern Kansu. It was said to have had 200,000 inhabitants ; but all were butchered by the Dungans, who were afterwards butchered in their turn. Urumtsi consists of two distinct quarters, the old town occupied by the traders, and the new or Manchu town. Notwithstanding its disasters, it does a considerable trade at present with Russia through the town of Chuguchak, and with Turkestan and China through the basin of an old lake, the centre of which is occupied by the town of Daban-shan. Like Turf an, TJrumtsi 88 EAST ASIA. has its hot sulphur springs, and in the neighbourhood is a coal seam, which has h)ng boon in a state of combustion. One of the eminences commanding the city is yearly visited by the inhabitants, who here offer sacrifices to the " Holy Mount." III.— ZUNGARIA AND KULJA, OR ILL Zttnoaria is the broad gateway leading from the Chinese to the Western world. Tlie old gulf of the driod-up sea, which sweeps round to the north of Mongolian Kansu, ponetrates far westwards between the southern offshoots of the Altai and the Tian-slian. Kere it ramihes into two branches, which in remote geological epochs formed two marine straits, and which have now become two historical routes for trade and migration. The eastern depression forming the common entrance of these routes is mostly strewn with marshes, remnants of the ancient sea, and is con- tinued by two troughs, one of which runs north-west along the valley of the Ulungur lliver, which is itself continued beyond the lake of like name by the Black Irtish. The other skirts westwards the Katun and Iren-khabirgan ranges belonging to the Tian-shan system. The northern opening, where are collected the farthest head-streams of the Irtish, presents nearly everywhere an easy route over the hard clayey soil of the steppe, at .aij extreme elevation of scarcely 2,550 feet above the sea. The southern opening, which is much deeper, is occupied by sluggish steppe streams and closed basins, such as the Ayar-nor and Ebi-nor, continued westwards by the Ala-kul and the other lakes, all formerly united with Balkhash. Here also the route between Lepsiusk and Urumtsi presents little difficulty. The two plains have a mean elevation of from 650 to 850 feet, and the road, which lies between the Barlik and Zungarian Ala-tau, is formidable only from the fierce gales which here prevail. The space separating the northern, or Irtish, from the southern, or Tian-shan Pe-lu opening is partly occupied by the Jair and Barlik ridges and the eastern projections of the Tarbagatai and Sauru ranges. Yet it offers a third pas- sage, which, although narrower, is more frequented than the other two, and which runs by the city of Chuguchak. Historical Routes. The expressions Tian-shan Pe-lu, or Northern Tian-shan route, in opposition to the Tian-shan Nan-lu, or Southern Tian-shan route, shows that the Chinese had fully appreciated the importance of this historic highway, which continues the road running from the Jade Gate obliquely across Mongolian Kansu through Hami and Barkul to Urumtsi. An imperial route, commanded at intervals by forts and military settlements, crosses the country from east to west as far as the triangular plateau bounded north by the Zungarian Ala-tau, south of the Boro-khoro range. From this point the Talki Pass (6,350 feet) and other neighbouring openings lead down to the rich Kulja valley, which already lies on the western slope of the UISTORICAL UOUTES, 89 }am, which has ling the city is loly Mount." iVestern world. L of Mongolian the Altai and note geological listorical routes ion entrance of sea, and is con- valley of the le by the Black ngcs belonging :ed the farthest ) over the hard ' feet above the sluggish stoppe lued westwards sh. Here also The two plains h lies between ce gales which 10 southern, or ridges and the srs a third pas- wo, and which continent, and which is connected with all the routes of the Aralo-raspian dojuvs- sion. Thus from the Black Irtish to the Hi River, a distance of about liOU iiiilos, the semicircle of plateaux and mountain ranges surrounding the Chinese Empire is interrupted at various points by valleys and dei)ro.ssions of easy access. Tlirough these natural higliways the devastating hosts of the Iluns, Uigurs, and Mongols advanced westwards, and the same tracks were followed by the Chinese when they overran the only districts which they still possess on the western slope of the con- Fig. 35.— Ebi-noe. According to Mouohketov. Scale 1 : 1,200,000. EoPG. 62*50- 85°50' .90 Miles. , in opposition le Chinese had continues the through Kami s by forts and the triangular -khoro range, openings lead slope of the tinent. Those arc, on the one hand, the Upper Irtish valley, on the other that of the Hi. The Russians, on their part, were fully aware, from the time of the first inva- sion of Siberia, that the road to China lay between the Altai and (he Tiun-shan. For it was in this depression that they sought for the great lake of Ivitai, a name since extended by them to the whole Chinese Empire. Nevertheless this was not the way they first took. Peking lying far from the centre of China, they were obliged to go round by the bleak and elevated eastern plateaux of Mongolia in order to reach that city from Eiakhta. But they now perceive how much better for their trade it would be to go directly from West Siberia through Zungaria and Kansu to China. From Zaisan to Hankow, which may be regarded as the true centre of the empire, there are no serious obstacles, and, except a break of about 88 00 EAST ASIA. 1(50 miles practicable for pack animals, the whole distance of 2,600 miles may be traversed by wa;ons in abont one liundred and forty days, whereas the roundabout journey ria Kiaklita to Pekinj; takes two liundred and two days. The future continental railway from Calais to .Shanjj;hai may be said to be already traced by the hand of nature throu^li Zunjjfaria, ^lonj^olian Kansu, and Lianjj^ehew-fu to the Uoanf^-ho basin. Ilenee the impoitanee attached by the Russians to the approaclies of this route, which they secured before consenting to restore the Kulja district, occupied by th«'m duriufj; the Dungan insurrection. On the other hand, Kulja itself, j)rojecting between Zungaria and the Tarim basin, is of vital importance to the Cliinese, enabling them as it does to reach the Kashgar and Yarkand oases directly from Zungaria, without going a long way round to the east of the Tian-shan. ZlXOAHIA — LaKK SaIUAM — ThK Ii.I, oh KvIJA DlSTRIfT. The two regions of Zungaria and Kulja, separated l)y the lloro-khoro range, differ greatly in size, population, and physical aspect. Like most of the Mongolian phiins, Zungaria consists of monotonous expanses of yellow or reddish clays, with little vegetati(tn except stunted shrubs, and along the streams the poplar and asjR'u. The usually barren southern slopes of the Chinese Altai arc, however, here and there relieved by patches of herbage, meadow lands, and even forests. The Southern Katun, Uoro-khoro, and Talki chains are still better wooded, some of their slopes being entirely covered with conifers. But the most picturescjuc district of Zungaria lies in the south-west corner, where the depression is filled by the waters of the Sairam-nor. Although less extensive, this lake is deeper than the Ebi-nor, the Ayar-nor, or the Ulungur. It presents the apiMjarance of a vast crater encircled by wooded hills, and rising only a few hundretl yards above the Talki ridge, which is crossed by the impcritil route leading down to the Hi valley. It is said to dis- charge its superfluous waters by a subterranean channel under the Tulki I'ass to the copious streams which water the plains of Kulja. The territory of Kulja, one of the finest regions in Central Asia, compri-ses the central section of the Tian-shan, here rising to heights of from 10,000 to 24,000 feet, with its vast glaciers, grassy plateaux, forests of pines and apples, fertile, well- watered, and highly ]n'oductivc plains. Owing to their great clevatiim the valleys of the Tekes, Kunges, and Kash Rivers are thinly peopled, and nearly all the popu- lation is centred in the plains traversed by the middle course of the Hi, which farther on enters Russian territory, and finally loses itself in Lake Balkhash. IxuAmTANTs — Thk ZixoAniANs — DrxoANs AxnTAiiAxnii Wars axd Massacres. The Zungarians — that is, the " Tribes of the Left Wing " — have ceased to exist as a niition, and their name has survived only as a geographical expression, indi- cating the region which was formerly the centre of their jKtwer. They belongc>d to the Eleut section of the Mongol stock, and were the last of their race who succeeded "■'fiBK!5^vaft*aR'^^T« ' '*^*'''^"" '■■T*'v i 'II mm \ li'ii I Ill n 1 1 1 I I i i iiiftwinw ii 'rui juifip^ ,!. iiiMM» *i m ' "mfft } miles may bo tlio rouiulubout •t. The future eiu'iV traced l»y !;ehew-fu to the I thcMipproaclies Kulja district, or hand, Kulja [ importance to Yarkand oases lie east of the ;1CT. o-khoro range, the Mongolian lish elavs, with plar and us]R'n. , here and there The Southern of their slopes ict of Zungaria B waters of the 10 Ebi-nor, the 'rater encireknl ii ridge, which t is said to dis- ilki I'ass to the , comprises the > to 24,000 feet, s, fertile, well- ion tlie valleys y all file popu- the Hi, which tilkhash. M) Massackes. ceased to exist tpression, indi- ley belongt>d to who succeedern Turkestan paid him tribute. After three successive attacks his armies captured Lassa and the sacred stronghold of Potala in 1717. But dissension and intestine wars prevented the state from nuiintaining its independence, and although two imperial armies were annihi- lated, a third overthrew the Zungarian power in 1757. The whole country was subdued, and those of the rebels who failed to reach Siberia or Westem Tui-kestan were all mercilessly put to the sword. A million of all ages and sexes perished in this overwhelming national disaster. The ruined cities were replaced by military stations and cohmies of convicts from all parts of China and Mongolia, and ihese were soon followed by free migration to the depopulated regions. In 1771 the Ealmuks of the Turgut branch, then occupying the Lower Volga steppes, resolved to escape from the oppressive surveillance of the Russian Government, and return to the Zungarian plains, which still lived in the national traditions. Of the ;J00,000 who started from the western shores of the Casi)ian many thousands perished on the way. IJut according to the Chinese accounts the great majority succeeded in reaching their ancient homes, where they were joined by multitudes of other Mon- golians from Ijeyond the limits of the empire. Altogether about 500,000 migrated to the wasted lands stretching from liake lialkhash to the Gobi, and the Emperor Kiun-long could boast that he had become master of the whole Mongolian nation. But fresh massacres were brought about by the differences of race and religion, and still more by the, oppressive Chinese rule. A century after the overthrow of the Zungarian power the agricultural populations of the Hi basin rose against the mandarins and imperial troops. The Dungans — that is, the native Mohammedans — and the Taranchi — that is, the colonists from the Tarim basin — alone took part in the struggle, the Eazaks and Kara-kirghiz holding aloof, owing to the advantages enjoyed by their nomad life. The war, at first conducted with hesitation, gradually increased in violence, culminating in 18G5 with the wholesale massacre of the Chi- nese, Manchus, and other military colonists from the east. The arrival of the Russians, to whom the Kulja territory was temporarily intrusted, put a stop to the flow of blood, but not before the 2,000,000 inhabitants of the country had been reduced to 139,000, mainly Dungans and Taranchi. By the new treaty, which restores Kulja to China, Russia has reserved a district in the north-west, where these rebels may find a refuge from the imperial vengeance. But such are the natural advantages of the Hi valley, that notwithstanding the frightful butcheries of 18G5 this country is still more thickly peopled than Zungaria, which, with an area five times greater, has scarcely more than double the population. Topography. In North Zungaria there are no towns properly so called, although two military stations have acquired some importance as resting-places for the caravans crossing I • I 02 EAST ASIA. t iho ])liiiiis. These iirc lin/ini-folcoi, on t1u« soutli side of LnlvO Ulinij>;ur, and Tii/fii on a Irilmtarv of the IMiick Irtish, wliere the liussiuii dealerM hiivo iin entrepot for their oxcliun;»es with Mon<;oHa. Hut the husiest mart in the fountrv is C/ni/fiicfifi/,-, \\in<:i; at the soutliern foot of tlie Tarbu;,^atai ranfye in the valley of the Kniil, an alHiient of the Ala-kul. Situated on the Siberian slope within 11 miles of the frontier post of Hakti, this town oilers <^reat advanta,u, Sliiklio, Jinlio — are military stations peopled by exiles, like most of the other settlements btiyond tho Great AVall. In this region colonisation is being rapidly developed, especially in a tract east of JIanas, which is the most fertile part of Zungaria north of the Tian-shan. Near Shikho are some gold-washings, coal-fields, salt beds, and a lake of naphtha mentioned by Hegel. In the Hi valley Old KuIJa alone has survived the recent tro.i' l,000 inhabitants Avithin its square walls, beyond which stretch extensive suburbs concealed from the traveller by a belt of poplars. Although built by the Chinese, who call it Nin-yuan, Kulja has rather the aspect of a town of Russian Turkestan, its houses of beaten earth, with their ( lay roofs, strongly reseni- NORTH MONGOLIA AND THE GOBI. 08 , nnd Tiiltn on rciKit for their is Cliiiiiiiclinii, the Kinil, an [ miles of the u traders, who own territory. 1(1 had at that reotion, it is chu, Mongol, lens, uud suinc bling tliose of the U/hegs and Tajiks in the Aral basin. The inhal)itants arc also mostly Mohammedans, and there is h(>re a small lloman Catholii; comnninity founded after the overthrow of the /ungarian Empire. Old Kiilja is an industrious place, with paper-mills, well-cultivated gardens, and extensive arable lands, on which during the Ilussian occupation the poppy was much cultivated. AVest of Old Kulja the traces of the late civil war are everywhere conspicuous. The little J)ungaii town of Simliiii still exists. l}ut of the neighbouring IJayandai, said to have hud a population of 150,000, nothing remains except some crumbling walls overgrown with elms. Ncic KuIJa also, founded by the Chinese in 1704 as the capital of the country, is now a mere fort surrounded by heaps of bones and rubbish. Farther on follow other ruined cities, such as Clam-ha-liodzi, Almi-tn, K/ioi-fjos, Jtirkrut, and A/,/,riif, and hero the very land is being converted into a swamp by the former irrigating canals now choked with refuse. Hut so great are its natural resources that the country cannot fail soon to recover from its disasters. Fig. 37.— Valley op thk Tkkes. eoiUo 1 : 2,500,000. SO MQes. 1 Pass (9,580 un), lutrlara- t of the other being rapidly fertile part of 1^8, coal-fields, It is a large vhich stretch Ithough built of a town of •ongly reseni- The province of Ili contains gold, silver, copper, lead, and graphite, besides extensive coal-fields, some of which have already been worked. Hot springs abound in its valleys, and no region of Central Asia presents such magnificent prospects as the banks of the Eash and the basin of the Tekes River at the foot of the glaciers and highlands above which towers the mighty Khan-tcngri, or " King of the Heavens.' TV.— NORTH MONGOLIA AND THE GOBI. This vast domain of th(; Mongol nomads is of itself alone nearly as large as China proper, and, with Zungaria, Outer Kansu, and the Tarim basin, it occupies about one-half of the empire, liut between it and the basins of the Hoang-ho and Yang-tze-kiang the contrast in climate, soil, and .social life is complete. China is one of the best cultivated and industrious, as well as one of the wealthiest and iii&o>fc«*«*4\fe..- 04 EAST ASIA. most (IciiHoly pcdplod rcpfinns on tlic ^lolu*, wluTcas Mun<;;oliu proper, ami l)v tli(> Cliinese ealh'd Tsaoti, or "(irassy Lands." Tluis lias been formed an intermediate zone, whielj no Itmjjer heltinj»s to Monjjolia etlmically, altlionfjli eonsistinj; «»f the same jjeolo^^ieal formations. The nntnral h'mit of tlie steppe is eh-arly marked hy a h'dj^e of ;;ranite rocks, over whidi has l)een dilTnsed a vast stream of unduhitinj; hivas. lint these hi va.s huvo heen furrowed hy tlie action of runninneral way, as a vast plateau slightly hollowed in the centre, and rising gniduully from the south-west towards the north-east. The mean elevation, which is about 2,600 feet in the west, thus exceeds 4,000 in the east. Most of the land is bounded by ranges and mountain masses — the Altai and Sayan on the north-west, the !i[unku- sardik, Kentei, and Baikal highlands on the north, the Khingan on the east, the uplands oveHooking the planisof Peking on the south-east ; histlj', the eastern exten- sions of the Knen-lun and Nan-shan on the south. Towards the Wi'st alone M«)ni i WATER SYSTEM— li A KKS UUSA AND KOSO. M ic of tlio most ru|M'r |»y cuin- tjist, coloiiisa- iiKiri' tliirkly «»r "(iruMMy p-r hclniij^s to lint ions. The to rcH'kH, over t>N(« III MIS luiVO I leys, through II u Mongolia and gioiis alri'july if th<> Chiiiose h between tho 3 or peaceful n of the land the surface is lining waters. Idle course it itry from the >scribed, in a ing gradually 'h it'll is about is bounded by , the iSFunku- the east, the astern ex ten- one Mongolia [)f the Tarim. Tmk KKT\(i Altai and Tanm -oi.a Uan(ii;s. Owing to the greater eh'vation plateau. In this region of Central Asia the most humid atmospheric currents are those which come from the nearest iiuirine basin; that is, from the Polar Sea. Hence the rain-bearing and fertilising winds bhiw from the north-east. Hut these winds discharge their moisture on the northern 8lojM\s of the Altai, so that those facing Mongolia are mostly destitute of vegetation. In several places the contrast is complete between the two sides — dense forests on the north, mere scrub and brushwood on the south. The two chief ranges branching from the Altai into Mongolian territory arc the Kktiig Altai and the Tannu-ola. The former, sometimes also called the " (Jreat Altai," runs north-west and south-east parallel with the course of tho IWack Irtish and Ulungur. Some of its crests rise alnive the snow-line, whence the term Kktag, a dialectic form of the Turki Ak-tagh, or " White ^lountains." IJut the range is pierced by deep depressions, through which the llussiun caravans easily reach the KoIhIo plateau from the Irtish valley. The range itself, as shown by tho recent explorations of I'otanin, is continued south-eastwards far beyond the meridian of KolMht, after which it trends eastwards under the name of the Altai- nuru. In this recently discovered section some of tho peaks attain an altitude of 10,000 feet, and tho Olon-duba Puss, crossed by the Kobdo-Barkul route, is no lo«« than 9,400 feet high. Farther east other ranges run parallel with the Ektag and Tannu-ola — that is, north-west and south-east ; but these are everywhere cut up into irregular masses by erosion. Here is apparently the culminating jioint of the Altai system, crossed by Ney Elias at tho Bayan-ingir Pass (over 9,000 feet) on the route from Kobdo to Biisk. A snowy peak rising immotliately north of the pass seemed to this traveller to have an elevation of 12,000 feet, or 8IJ0 more than the Bielukha, highest summit of tho Russian Altai. The Tannu-ola, or eastern chain of tho Kobdo plateau, stretches far east of the Altai to tho head-streams of the Selenga. Although some of its peaks pass the snow-line, the Tannu-ola is in many places but slightly elevated above the surrounding plains. From its base the plateau stretches for 120 miles southwards to the Khangai range, above whose wooded slopes several snowy crests arc said to have an elevation of 10,000 feet. Between the Kinghai and the Altai-nuru the steppe has a mean altitude of from 5,000 to G,000 feet. "Water System — Lakes Ubsa an» Koso. All tho depressions of the plateau comprised in the vast quadrilateral of the Mongolian Altai are oceupitHl by lacustrine basins. One of these is the saline Ubsa- nor, one of the largest lakes in the (.'hinese Empire, with an area of at least 06 KAHT A.^IA. l.'v'IMt sqiian' iiiiirs, hut with no outflow, iiltlioii^;|i receiving the W!it«'rM of a vast aiiijtliillicatn' of liills. The otlirr lakes, also saliiio Iwcaust- witliout niiissarifH, if loHM oxtonsivo than tlic in)Ma-nor, sornctiiiu>s lulonjj; to hirjj^crhydro^rrajiliir Hysti'iiiH. The riv(»r Dsalt^aii, risinjy on tlic Miuthcrn slope of the Tannu-(»hi, swfcps round the north-west coriH-r of thr liilly I'h'asutai phitcau, and after ret-oivin); its torrents disa|i]H!irs in tlie saline niarslies sontliof the Ihsa-nor. To the same l)asin helon^n the Kohdo or Kara-sM l-ake, wliich receives the waters of the Mktajf Altai through the rivers Kolxlo and Hnyantn. The' lower lakes arc fringed hy poplars and aspens; lait elsewhere trtn^s an* rare, and the vegetation of these hilly regions on the whole r<'senil»les that of the steppe. Mast of tlie Tainiu-ohi the Mongolian territory ]H-n«>trates far into the region draining to the Aretie ( >eean ; for the I'pper Yenisei and Selenga hasins, which How to the great Silterian rivers, still lu'long to Mongolia. The nomad pastors of the "(irassy liaiids" naturally songht to exteno their (himain to the whole region of pasturage. Southwards their natmal limit is thi" des»'rt, northwards the forest. All the intermediate zoiu', in whatever direction the rivers may How, is frequented hy their Hocks. Hence they have occupied all the " Keiii," or head-streams of the Yenisei, Itesides the extensive hasin of the Selenga. Here is the loninntic Koso- gol, wh<»se hlue waters, sjicrelonging to the Annn* hasin ; for the Kemlen, which flows parallel with the Onon to the J)alai, or " Sea," fornierly united to the Khuilar, is one of tho chief afHuentH of the Argun, or Upper Anmr. The Gobi Desert. South of this region strctclies the Gobi desert, which, although crossed by some caravan routes, is nowliere permanently inhabited. The Gobi — that is, " Sandy Desert," or "Shamo" of tlie Chinese — forms the eastern extremity of the vast zone of arid lands obliquely traversing tho eastern hemisphere from Senegal to the Khingan range. I^ike the Takla-makan, the Western Turkestan sands, the Persian and Arabian wastes, and the Sahara, the Gobi lies on the track of the dry winds. In winter the prevailing atmospheric current is from the north-west, which, after traversing the Silx'rian plains for a distance of 1,800 miles, discharges its little remaining moisture on the Sayan slopes, so that nothing is left for the Mongolian plateaux. In summer the south-east monsoons prevail ; but nearly all the humidity brought by them from the Pacifl;; falls on the slopes of the parallel ranges and terraces separating China proper from the desert plateaux. Nevertheless the Gobi is sometimes visitcnl by heavy summer rains, forming here and there temj)orury meres and lakes, which are .soon evaporated, leaving nothing behind except a saline efflorescence. Klsewhero the ground is furrowed by sudden torrents, and here the nomads sink their wells, hoping thus to husband a little moisture when the plateau TUK QODI VTM'A. 07 torn of 11 vast ciiiissnrifs, if ijdiic HYHtt'inN. |>.H round the if its torrcntH Misin holoiigf) Mtai tliroii^h }M)|)lar.s and y rt'j^ioiiH on o llic r<-p:i(>n Wasins, wliicli pastors of llu> lolf rojfion of Is iho forest, is frcqucntt'd t roams of the ninntic Koso- t«, rotloot tlie , and dindom tlio Kobdo : »Solonf>;a. as bolonginf!^ Onon to the HuontH of the ssed by some is, " Sandy the vast zone noffnl to the I, the Persian e dry winds, wliicli, after p;vH its little Mongolian he humidity 1 ranges and ess the Gobi e temporary oept a saline itnd here the I the plateau has again bocomo an arid M-asto. Tint no pomianont ^tfeott. has Ix i (h'vcli p^'d in tlio wlmlc rogion, somo ISO.OOO wpiaro mih's in i\t«'ii -fivrchin^ im the Ivomlni Houlhwiirds to llio Hoang-ho, botwo(iig(>li,tii iimi east and west. Tho rapid evaporation on the (iobi plattaiix is dm to tli. .co of tho winter gales and llio high tomporaturo in summer. For the (»obi i t unco Siberian and Indian in its extremes of temperature, and these extivmi tiutcN Fig. 3',i. ViBW IS THr Oont succeed each other within the space of a few hours. In the South-eastern Mongo- lian highlands Prjovalsky recorded on March 16th, 1872, a temperature of 68° Fahr. in the shade, followed during the night by 18° below freezing point. The intense cold of the Mongolian winters, aggravated by the terrible north- west winds, explains the errors of the old geographers, who gave the Gobi plateau an altitude of more than 8,000 feet above the sea. This has boon reduced by Ney Elias and other recent explorers to a mean elevation of about 4,000 feet, rising in m EAST ASIA. wnni' pliiros fo |,r)00 und ovrn "j.OOO, Hinkiii^ in the lowoHt (loprrHsioiiH, fnrmorly (illnl liy salt lak«'s, t<» ;{,(»<(() iiikI cvrii V.',(iO(» tVtl. Notwitlistamliii^j; llicsi- diMTr* paiicicH then- in litllo ti> n'litvi' tlii' iiiniKiliiiiy i»l' llii< vaxf rolling; plains oxiH'pt ii f«'W I'licky cmincnci's risinjif Iuto anil lliciv uIn>vo \\w iMiiiiidlfss waste of yi'llow Hands, For days and days tlic (Join* dt'snt every w here presents to the weary traveller the muue inttTininidtle pieture of tlies«« vast undnlatin^; plains, st-areely relieved by a few patehes of send) and lines of hilloeks sueeeeding cuuh other like waves on the siirfaee of the shoreless deep. The soil of the (jolii pro[M'r is almost everywhoro composed of reddish sands intei'spersed with (juart/ pebbles, njjates, eoruelians, or chalet'dony. The deprcs- eions are filled with stdino waters, or i'lHoreseenca'H of saltpetre, which the Mongols call ynchir, and which the camels eagerly lick as they pass. (Jrass is very riiro, and the yellow, grey, or reddish soil is nowhere entirely concealed by the scanty tufts of vegetation. In the argillaceous hollows grows the (fiiisii (LuHifitjrontig «j)/iii(lnhs'j, a shrub with twigs luinl as wire, which is also a characteristic feature of Western Turkestan. But true trees arc uuwhero found except perhaps in a fow 3.3aoF.^ Fig. 40.— Ubci'ion ok thi Ooiii nKTWKSN Uuua and Kaluan. Itineriiry uf Friliclio. Soalel ' I in,0()O.(li)O n>r (liiitnnoea. I'tu.uuo fur elevutluiu. iMofri- 1-ff-r Latitude 46* 42* , isn Milex. well-sheltered cavities. From Kalgan to Urga, a distance of over 420 miles, Pumpelly met two, and Russell-Killough five stunted trees only. Elsewhere grow a few wretched elms, which the Mongols contemplate with a sort of uwo, not daring even to touch for fear of desecrating them. The wind, even more than the natural barreimess of the soil, prevents the growth of any vegetation except low, pliant herbiige. Withered plants arc uprooted and scattered by the gale over the steppe like patehes of foam on the stormy sea. In these regions, as on the Tibetan plateaux, the only fuel is the droppings of the animals, which are carefully col- lected, und which are always the first thing supplied on his orrival in the canij) to a friend or stranger for his evening fire. Such are the laws of nomad hospitality. The fuunu of the Gobi is no more varied than its flora. As in Siberia, the steppe is often honeycombed with the burrowings of the lagomys, a species of mar- mot no bigger than a rat, always inquisitive, always on the olert, incessantly popping out of their luiderground dwellings to see the ])assing wayfarer, and sud- denly disappearing at his approach. Threatened by the wolf, fox, and birds of prey, they live in u state of constant trepidation, starting at every shadow, trem- -"T* TIIK KIIIN'OAN AM) I\-SIIAN FIKJIII.ANDS. 00 *ii»iiN, formerly ^ llirsf (lift ri>- )laiiis t'Xt'cpt a istc of yellow to the weury laiuM, Mcareely iich other like rcddiNli mnih The (Icprcs- I tlie Mongols 4 18 very raro, by the seiiiity (^Luxitif/ronfis eristie feature liaps in u How liliii}; al every wiiiiid. The largest inaiiiiiial in the (ilolii in t\w i/zrrni, ur AHfifopf f/iitfiinisii, an animal proitahly nnsurpassfd for speed. Mven when inoitally woinided, or with a liroki II leg, he will outntrip the fleetest horse, and siieh is his teinu'ilv of life llial unless the liullel pierce his head, heart, or spine, he always escapes capture. The herd consists usually of thirty or forty head, although they are oica-ionally nu'l in (locks of severid hundreds, inul even a thousand. Of hirds the most com- ninn are the vulture, which follows in the wake of the caravan, and the raven, which will holdly perch on th(! camel's hump aiul draw its life-ltlood. Above the grii->y steppe hovers tlu' lark, endowed with as sweet a song as the Muntpean Hjxries, and also possessing the faculty of imitating the notes of other songsters. The reedy marshes aiul lakes harbour multitudes of duck, whi(!h migrate in winter to South China. Till'; KltlNOAN AM) T\-SIIAN HKiHtANDS. Eastwards the (jiobi is limited by uidands, which have no, yet been thoroughly explored, but which are known to form a U)ng frontier range rising above the Fig. -11.— HiilTH-EAItT COIINKB ()!•■ THE MoNOOUAS PlATEAU. Acooidinx to Fritncho. HniUe 1 : 3,000,000. 1-- ■H — 3.300 ff l,«50fl: T 420 miles, wwherc grow ■0, not daring n the natiiral t low, pliant or the steppe the Tibetan L'arefully col- i the camp to hospital ity. I Siberia, the jcies of mar- , incessantly rer, and sud- md birds of ludow, trem- > CO Milei. Manchurian plains, and the lower steppe lands commonly called the East, or Little Gobi. This is the Khingan chain, which stretches northwards to the Argun (Amur), and which deflects this river towards the parallel Stanovoi ranges, Accord- inar to Fritsche none of the crests exceed 8,300 feet, thus falling short of the snow- line. In the lost century the mis.'^Ionaries Gerbiilon and Verbiest had spoken of 100 EAST ASIA. tlio I'ccliii, a mountain mass sonio 15,000 feet high, forming the southern limit of tlio Kliingaii system. l?ut Fritsehc and rrjovalsky have shown that in this seetiou there are nothing hut low eminences, while the highest peak is only 0,900 feet above the sea, or scarcely more than 1,500 or 1,000 feet above the Gobi steppes. On its western slopes the Khingan consists of rounded treeless crests, but on the opposite side there are many green upland valleys, especially towards the south- east extremity of the plateau. The gneiss and lava ranges bounding the Gobi north of Peking are continued under various Mongol and Chinese names south-westwards, skirting the valley of the Hoang-ho along the northernmost section of its course. Collectively known as the Tn-shan, tliis system terminates in the saline Alu-shan wastes to the north- west of the great bend of the Yellow River. Here the granite, gneiss, and por- phyry crests rise to heights of from 0,000 to 9,000 feet, and the polisiie53S^PaR->'i.vr^Sl3-3SS'S??5P-' - ■ - -Twrr jf ^y^-^f"' THE ORDOS PLATEAU AND ALA-SIIAN UPLANDS. 101 ithcrn limit of 1 that in this I is only 0,9G0 Gol)i stcppoa. sts, hilt on the "(Is the south- lire continued the valley of vely known as to the north- eiss, and per- iled surface of distinguished cli vegetation, iland, sends to een mantle of the eglantine, it the Chinese many valleys 'cially in the lose of Tibet, species of the to haunt the :o-ho encloses Ordos plateau as the Gobi, ith its fertile tion of about ided on three uthern slopes itself, consists d for cultiva- sected by low our, relieved ■ey or yellow Is. Towards >l)08it of salt in the Kash- iwe-inspiring sounds, associated in the popular fancy with the massacres of Jenghiz Khan, who is supposed to have died here, and to now lie buried in a silver and wooden coffin somewhere under a yellow silk tent. At a respectful distance from the spot are also intcrrcfl the various members of his family, and a horse and sheep are said to be still sacrificed every evening to the shades of the mighty conqueit)r. Some 20 miles south of the Iloang-ho the ruins are visible of a city now buried in the sands, whose ramparts were 5 miles long both ways, and about 50 feet thick. At present most of the land beyond the river valley is a complete solitude, and the Dungan rebels have even destroyed the encampments of the Ordos Mongols. The very cattle have again run wild, losing the dull, heavy air acquired in the domestic state, and assuming the habits of a free life. In two or three years the change was complete, and at the approach of man these animals take to flight like wild beasts. Camels and horses also roam in herds over the steppe, but all the sheep have been devoured by the wolves. In 1871, when ^rje^•alsky explored the country, its only visitors were u few traders, who came in search of the liquorice plant, characteristic of this region. Near the right bank of the Iloang-ho, where it flows northwards, a range of hills gradually increasing in elevation attains towards its southern extremity the proportion of true mountains. This range, known as the Arbuz-ola, is continued on the other side of the river by the loftier chain of the ^Vla-shan, whose highest summits, the Dzumbur and Bugutu, 10,000 and 11,000 feet respectively, still fall short of the snow-line. Both sides of the Ala-shan are fringed by a narrow strip of verdure, watered by the rivulets flowing from its slopes. But its flora is very poor, although the uplands are here and there clothed with forests of pines, spruce, willows, and aspens, the resort of the deer, musk deer, and ibex. Beyond the Yellow River the sands of the Ordos country are continued west- wards by a still more barren and desolate region. Its fierce sand-storms, combined with the absence of water and herbage, render this one of the most inhospitable sections of the Gobi. This Trans-Ordos steppe stretches uninterruptedly between the southern spurs of the In-shan and the northern extremity of the Ala-shan as far as the Az-sind River and the plains of the Mongolian Kansu. For a stretch of some 300 miles the eye lights on nothing but sandy and gravellj' wastes, or saline clays overgrown with the hardy saksaul and thorny sulkhir (^f/rj'o/>//////H/« (johicum), the latter yielding a small grain from which the Mongols make a sort of flour. Here the lowest depression is occupied by the Jaratai-dabasu lake bed, which has a circumference of 30 miles, and is everywhere incrustetl by a layer of pure salt from 2 to 6 feet thick. " The sparkling surface of the Jaratai-dabasu appears like water in the distance, and resembles ice when you are near it. So deceptive is its appear- ance that a flock of swans, apparently attracted by the sight of water in the desert, descended before our very eyes almost to the surface of the false lake, but discover- ing their mistake, rose again in the air with affrighted cry, and continued their flight." — Prjevalsky. 102 EAST ASIA. TnK Gkkat W.\m„ Tho lumlor-line botwoon ^loiijfoliu and Cliiiui proper was formerly indicatwl by the (ireat Wall, wliieh, iiielii(lin<>; all its win(lin<>:s and the double and triple lines erected at some jMiints, has a total lent forget that for many centuries it served to arrest the military expeditions of the lliungnii. ancestors of the present Mongolians. Tlio sentinels mounting guard on the towers erected at intervals along the ramparts gave timely warning of the enemy's approach, while all the natural passages were guarded by encamp- ments. Every gate hud its little garris(»ii, around which towns sfton sprang up, serving as market-places for the surroiuiding populations. Sheltei'cd behhid these ^ M M ^m ii LMUV i . j y jqp-i INHABITANTS-THE MONGOLIANS. 108 y indicufp(l by lul triple lines owing II mean ious structure (onry. Those pyramids of >i^^i expeditions Is mounting ely wurniug by oncamp- I sprang up, jehind these barriers, the Chinese were able to develojj their national unity, and concentrate their energies, in on r henceforth to enter into continuous relations with the Western world. When the " wall of 10,000 li," forced at last by Jenghiz Khan, thus lost all further strategic importance, it had at least already protected the empire for a period of fourteen hundred years. In its present condition the Great Wall belongs to various epochs. In the severe Mongolian climate, with its sudden and violent transitions of temperature, a very few years suffice to crumble most ordinary buildings, and it may be doubted whether any portion of Shi Iloangti's original work still survives. Nearly all the eastern section from Ordos to the Yellow Sea was rebuilt in the fifth century, and the double rampart along the north-west frontier of the plains of Peking was twice restored in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. With the changes of dynasties and the vicissitudes of frontier wars, the lines themselves were modified, ^wrtions being abandoned in one place, consolidated in another. Thus is explained the great difference in the style and workmanship at various points. North of Peking it is still in a state of perfect repair, whereas in many western districts along the Gobi frontier it is little more than an earthen rampart, while for considerable distances all vestiges of the wall have disappeared. Similar structures in the Tmnsbaikal region north of Mongolia, traditionally referred to Jenghiz Khan, still recall the perennial struggles between the agricultural populations and their nomad neighbours. IxiIAUITAXTS — ^ThE MONGOLIANS. The Mongolians, against whom the Chinese were fain at one time to protect themselves by such vast barriers, are a people without any national cohesion. Conquerors may have occasionally united them in a single army ; but on their return to the stt^ppe they again broke up into tribal divisions. Thanks to the intestine feuds maintained between these sections of the race, the Chinese have been enabled to triumph over the Khalkhas, Eliuts, and Zungars, while the Buriats and Kalmuks fell a prey to the Russians. The very name of Mongol was applied during the two centuries of their political supremacy to all the different races who took part in the conquests of Jenghiz Ehan and his successors, penetrating on the one hand into the Chinese Empire, on the other into the heart of Europe. Even after the extinction of the family of Jenghiz the vast empire of Tiraur was still attributed to the Mongolians, although it really represented the reaction of tl e Western Asiatic world against the East. Later on the title of " Great Mogul " was extended to Baber and his successors on the throne of Delhi, although they had no longer any Mongol warriors in their armies. I'ride in a remote descent from the great conqueror was the only claim to the title. The Zungarian Empire, founded towards the end of the seventeenth century, was on the other hand really of Mongol origin ; but it nowhere stretched beyond the Central Asiatic plains and plateaux. In mediajval times the Mongols wore confused with the Tatars, or Tatas, a feeble tribe, in the twelfth century occupying the In-shan valleys, but which, in the 104 EAST ASIA. chaos of conflicting elements, contrived to give its name to Mongols, Manchus, Turks, and to all the warlike nomad peoples of Asia and East Europe. Neithei- Jenghi/ nor any of his people took pride in this name of Tatar, which helonged oriir Manchu neighbours, and is now restricted to the peoples of Turki stock, although nowhere acknowleged or adopted by them. Before the period of their ccmquests the Mongolian tribes were restrictetl to the northern and eastern ])ortions of the vast region now known l)y the general namo of Mongolia. Here all the streams and lakes are worshipped as gods, and legends - !« i' "nH ^ >f"»' ' ;w y y tP- ' " Miw ^' iB f j i INHABITANTS— THE MONGOLIANS. 106 !;ols, Munt'hus, ope. Ncitlier [lich bclonjrod ris. The title ! uzure is the e earth. But lerully formed mythological nsolcd," said back to the aven!" At the Mongols les of Turki rioted to the ■eneral naino and legends are assoeiuted with every moimtuin, which always bears the title of Khan, or king. The extreme north-east corner of this domain is now occupied by tht Manchu Solons and other Mongol tribes, which are more or less mixed with foreign elements, and which furnish numerous recruits for the military colonies founded by the Chinese in the western regions of the empire. The Khalkhas, so named, like the Mongols themselves, from one of their ancient chiefs, are mainly concentrated in the northern steppes near the kindred Buriats, now subject to Russia. The eight tribes of the Tsakhars occupy the south-eastern steppes towards China, and these the Imperial Government has specially intrusted with the defence of the frontiers against the Northern Mongols. The Ordos, now almost extinct, dwelt in the fluvial peninsula named from them, and farther west are the Eliuts, more or leas mixed with Turki elements, and embracing the Kalmuk hordes of the Altai Fig. 44.— Inhabitants of Mongolia. Scale 1 : S3.O0O.00O. . 600 Miles. and Tian-shan. Lastly, in the Upper Yenisei basin, the Turki Dorkhats and Donvas, or Urianhai, have been largely assimilated to the Mongolians. In a general way the race is divided into Khalkhas, or Eastern, Eliuts, or Western, and Buriats, or Siberian Mongolians. But the only real division is that of the Khoshun, or " Banners," and according to the vicissitudes of wars and alliances the tribes of the various Banners combine in more or less powerful confederacies. The national type seems to have been best preserved amongst the Khalkhas, who also claim a certain superiority over the other branches on the ground that amongst them are the families of the Tuitsi, descendants of Jenghiz Khan. Yet the Khalkha least resembles the typical Mongol type, as described by most ethnologists. He is rather brown than yellow, with open eyes, not inclined obliquely, like those of the Chinese or Ostiaks. He has, however, the broad flat 40 'Igg^p; 100 EAST ASIA. f«'iitun>8, proniiiu'iit cluH'k boiics, black huir, and Hcunt Ijoard usually doHcribed an distinctive charactpriMtics of the type. The M()n}>;(»ls an' fore the undisciplined bands of Dungan rebels, whose courag(» was largely inspired by the terror of the foe. Subtlued, dismembered, and disorganized, the nation feels its weakness. How different the craven attitude of the present nomads towards European travellers crossing the steppe from the haughty bearing of Kuyuk Khan, who in reply to the I'ope's legate, J(»hn du Plan Carpin, pnu-laimed himself the avenging instrument of God I " I have the right to kill you," he a(Me an abstract right to the use of the land can be of little consequence to those who own no flocks or herds, and the nobles and lamas, to whom the live stock belongs, are ipso facto the pro- prietors of the soil. The high priest of Urga alone possesses a domain peopled by one hundred and fifty thousand of his slaves. Few of the Mongols have turned to the cultivation of the land, nearly all being still exclusively occupied with their herds of camels, horses, and cattle, and their flocks, mostly of fat-tailed sheep. When they meet the flrst question turns on their live stock, more important in their eyes than the family itself. They cannot understand that there can be any human beings so forsaken of heaven as not to possess domestic animals, and receive with incredulity the assurances of the Rus- sian travellers that they own neither sheep nor camels. All the woik falls on the women and children, who not only tend the herds, but also manufacture the houf ')- hold utensils, saddles, arms, embroidered robes, tc t felts, camel-hair cordage, and other articles of camp life. From the Chinese and Russians they procure all the provisions and other supplies they require. Tea especially is indispensable to them, for they never drink cold water, to which they even attribute a malignant influ- ence. Besides tea they also drink kumis, mare's milk, and too often the vile brandies supplied to them by the Russians. Their diet consists almost exclusively of nmtton, camel, and horse flesh, varied with a sort of paste or dough ; but the flesh of birds and fish is by most held in special abhorrence. The Mongol speech, which belongs to the Ural-Altaic family, and which has a large number of roots in common with the Turki branch of that family, is sjroken with considerable dialectic variety by the Khalkhas, Buriats, and Eliuts, who are not always able to converse together. Many foreign elements have everywhere crept in, and the pure national speech has been much corrupted by contact with the Chinese, Manchus, Tibetans, and Turki tribes on the frontiers. Over two thousand years ago it was reduced to writing, at that time employing the Chinese ideographic characters, which were supplanted at the beginning of the tenth cen- tury by an alphabetical system. This was again changed in the twelfth century for another style, employed to translate the Chinese classical works. Unfortunately all these works have perished, and the very characters in which they were written have been completely forgotten. During the period of conquest the Mongols adopted the alphabet of the Uigur Turks, but a national system invented in 1269 by a lama, honoured by the title of " King of the Faith," finally prevailed. The Mongols write with a pencil on wooden tablets painted black and powdered with sand or ashes. 51 EAST ASIA. Tlio Iitlll-^'!(■aI worlcM uro written in Kmrhak, or TilK'fun, \\w y^^wrv^\ lan<;uafj[<> (if tin* Monp)lians since their conversion to Kuthliiisni. Ilenee tlie priests, wlio wish to know something: more of their r*et is the " |[oly Land" of the ^fon^dians, who regard the Dalai-lamu as of superior divinity to tlieir own Taranath-iania, or Jetstm-tampa. Nevertheless the latter is also a liiirhlidu, or " livinj^ lluddha," who under divers forms is suj)- jjose»l t() have sueeeiMUMl to liimstdf sin<'e the mithlle of the sixteenth century, if not from a more remote periml. At each apparent (h>ath he is recjuired to renew hin>- self in Til)et, whither a solemn end)assy sets «»ut to recover him iu the f<»nn of an infant. Formerly the Mongolian i)ontiif residwl at Kuku-khoto, near the Cliinesu frontier, hut, having lu'en assassinattnl in eonset|uenee of a dispute about pro- eminence with tlie l"'imi)oror Kan^-hi, he was ordered by imperial decree to got born again at Trga, in North >[ongolia. Since that time the names of the Huddhuti eh'ct must 1mi Hrst submitt«Hl to the Foreign ()tfi<'c at Peking. The chief Mongolian divinities, like those r*' Tilwt, are of Hindu origin, but some are also of national descent. Nor are those the least venerated, although occupying a lower rank in the M(»ngol pantheon. Such, for instance, is Yaman- dag, or " (jioat Face," tigureil with the head of u goat or else of an ox, wearing a coronet of human skidls, vomiting flames, and in his twenty hands grasping human limbs or instruments of torture. lie is painter8 in the lamassjirios. Nowhere else are the outward forms of religion more scrupulously observed, and even the Chinese of the frontier, when retailing their adulterated wares at short measure, do not for- get to wrap the parcels in paper bearing the sacred formula, Otn mani padme hum. The Chinese Government, which pays little heed to ils own bonzes, protects the i-i5*ri=3^. INIIABITANT8-TI1K MONaOLlAXa. 109 'd laiif;»iiff(> of icHts, who wish arc ohli^tnl to r of the MlKTOtl ini(lei'stan ropioii knf)W!i by th«> nnino of Knw-vci, or " noyonrl fho Gntos," is now Cliiiipsc tcMrifoiy, I'.iitl IniK Itccii ncciitly iii('nr|Minit<'(l willi flic two provinces ol' Slumsi (iiul I'cdiili. ( hic <»f the .'liicl' indiiccmi'nts to settle here is tlie liherality nhown towiirds th(> cultivators of tl>e poppy, who, for a slijjht tax of h>ss than VJOs. the acre, are aUowctl to j<;row lliis phint freely, and are thus eiialtlcd to pn)cure opium at a nnxlerate price. Although the Mon^'oiians, as a rule, keep aloof from the intruders, extensive alliances have already taken place, and the ICrlitza, or olfsjirinj^of Ciiinese fathers and .Mt)n>i:ol nmthcrs, arc very numerous in some trilM's. Tlie Tsakhars especially have almost become as.-imilated to the <'hinese in type and social habits, preferriu}^ a settled life to the freedom of their nomad kinsnuful possession of Monjrolia the Imperial (iovernmcnt luis hitherto pursu<>d the simph- |M)licy of dividin^r the race into hostile tribes, and flattering? the vanity i>f the chiefs by allowing them to contract alliancoH with the imperial family. The princes, most of whom claim descent fronj Jt'nj^hiz Khan, bear varicuis 'lereditirv titles answering to those of kinjj^, duke, earl, baron. Hut they arc lH)uml ♦o consult the ('hincse ministiT in all weijj^hty affairs, dependinjf in nil other respects on the hijfh priest of I'rj^a. Annual national <<;atlu*rini;M are held under the i)residency «»f i»ne of the chiefs chos(>n by the people ; but their decisions do not aopiire the force of law until approved of by the ('hinese Government. The Kmp(>ror has the power of de]H)sin}rs, receivinj? a yearly subvention of from t"{(> to .t'HOO, according to their rank. Thus, instead «>f adding to the ini]ierial treasury, Mongolia is actually a burden to the State, at least financially. The Mongols pay no direct tribute, but they arc bound to military 8t>rvicc, all the men between their eighteenth and sixtieth years forming part of the imperial cavalry. Hut the late Hungan insurrecticm has shown that the ^fcmgolian army exists only on paper. The Khalkha territory, comprising the hirgerhalf of Outer Mongolia, is divided into the four khanates of Tushetu, Tst'tien, Suiiioin, and Jesaktu ; that is, of the north, east, centi-e, and west, and the different tribes are by usage interdicteopof one hundred and fifty men forms a squadron, six squadrons a regiment an indefinite numlK»r of regiments a K'/tos/iitn, or " Banner," this last answering best to the tribid division. A certain number of Khoshuns form an Aimiik, or section, which varies acconling to (urcunistances in size and importance. The Aimaks and Khoshuns are distributee! as under : — Aimaks. KhnRhnns. Khnlkhii ilomnin, or Xorth Mongolia ... 4 h6 Kii8t Mcnuoliii 25 61 'i'siikhnr doinaiii 1 8 Alii-Hliiin I 3 u"-t«i j lixrl"** ^^"'"':'*'" ;:::,! 5[ Ordoa tnrritory I ^ Total "as 172^ TO POO n Am Y. in nrl (ho Gntos," • t\v(i proviiiron s th«' lilMTiility !<'ss (l)un 'JOs. led to procure '('l) aliMif from 111* Ju'/ifzn, or ill some trihos. ■sc ill fypomul kiiisiiicii. ivorriiiH'tit litiM iio triltcs, and uncos witli the ronjflii/ Khan, , baron. lint , (lopcndiiiji^ in 'riiiffsarc liold their decisions (lovoriiniont. ro, and in any subvoiition of the iin])orial The Montis ! men iM'twocn dry. Hut the only on paper, nlia, is naturally conoont rated in the soiith-oastorn rojrion " lloyond tlio (Jatos," occiipird by the ('liiiu'><(' sottlors. Novortlioloss cvni in the north there are a few placoM onjoyinj; a certain importance, centres of trade, and eoiiver^'iiif; points of the caravan routes. Thus h'o/n/o, lyiii;; 4,()(K) fi-et above the sea, on the plateau of like nuine in the M(ni;j(»liaii Altai, is the entrepot of the Uussiun dealers from the Altai mines on the Upper Irtish valley. Some disfanco to the east of KoInIo, iiut on the same hilly plateau, is the commereial t(»wn of Uliiisntdi. Uoth placoH resemble each other in their general disjjositioii, consist iiiff of a walled enclosure, seat of the administration, and an open dieine, theoloj^y, and astrol(»^:y. The Maima-elien, or conmioreiul (piarter, lyinpr cnst of tlie Knren, is occupied hy idxait 1,000 ('hine?se dealers. Hen' is the campinj; >f round of the Russian caravans, an 8,800 Yuid*. new quarter has also sprung up round the Itussian consulate, established in 1861, where have been organized most of the recent scientific and commercial expeditions across Mongolia. A large triennial fair is held at Urga in Sejjtember, visited by about 200,000 persons from every part of 3IongoHa. All the trading routes converge on XJrga, which is the chief station on the great tr-.i highway between Kiakhta and Kalgan, at one of the gates in the Great AVall, while it is also connected with Kobdo, Uliasutai, and the towns of Kansu and Manchuria by regular jmstal routes. Along these tracks camps of fifteen to twenty tents are established at intervals, and placed under a postmaster, who is bound to provide travellers with night lodgings and mounts free of charge. By the treaties concluded between Russia and China in 1859-60, the St. Petersburg Government ToronnAriiY, 118 HON tlif iihrupt. ». Tlif Ktircn tMoiitaiiipii, or lo to the north l»ly inf)ro than kth the shallow I'tiilinifiiip; the Dr miunion^ial lincM' (loiilorH. iH ciirrciit a 1(1 Sibcriu. A iahcd in 1861, al expeditions er, visited by tation on the t in the Great of Kunsu and een to twenty lo is bound to y the treaties ' Government hn« arquired the ripfht to maintain at its own PxpriiHc n postal Korvier In'tween Kiaklita and Tit-ntHin, rid I'rpi. In all the towns of Ir^ii, Kal^^an, Peking, and TientNJn, Itnssiaii a^i>ntH look after the transit of ^kmIs, wliii-li are forwariled once a month, and the comfort of travellers, who nturt every ten duyw. The journey oecupies on nn nv«>raffe al)out two week«. Kdriiknnnn, the old capital of the vast Moti^olian Kmpire, lies in the mime river Imsin as Kinkhta. It mi)fht seem siirprisinjj; that the imperial residence Hhould hnve remained for nearly seventy years in the midst of tin- -A^^*X-/l k? "x^ ^^)^^^^\r1 40 1 :'0' __ sc- .:(j' [ore 600 Mile*. or Western Asia. At the beginning of the fourteenth eentury, when the work of conquest was completed, and the empire divided into eastern and western sections, such a capital as Karakorum could serve no further purpose ; hence it was soon succeeded by Peking and Samarkand. Ilolin, or Khorin (Kara-kuren, or " Black Camp"), is already mentioned by the Chinese chroniclers of the eighth century ; but although Jenghiz Khan may have here established one of his chief encnuipments, it did not become the imperial capital till 1234, when Oktai Khan caused it to be enclosed. Here Longjumel and Rubruk beheld the Mongol Khan in all his glory, courted by the mighty of the earth, and surrounded by adventurers from all the Buddhist, Mohammedan, and Christian states in the Old World. Guillaume of Paris laid out his pleasure groirnds, planning elegant fountains with their jets of — 'i ^Mmm^im^mmms-mmMiAi'''- ^ 114 EAST ASIA. I* mi ^ ,i1 wine, milk, kumis, and bocr fallinff into silver basins. Novortholoss Karnkorum was never a fj;reat city. Accordinjj^ to Marco Polo the ramparts were only •{ miles in circuit, and even most of this space Avas occupied with palaces and temples surrounded by extensive courts. Beyond the enclosure were two other cities, the Maiina-chen of the Chinese, and the Mohammedan bazaar. But these do not appear to have been larj^o quarters, and Rubruk describes the whole place as inferior to St. Denis, near Paris. Hence it is not surprisinp; that soon after its abandon- ment by the Khans the " Black Camp" should have vanished from the face of the earth. For a lonjj time its very site was known only to the Khalkha nomads. D'Anville placed it on the very verge of the Gobi, near the salt lake, Kulcn-ulen, while R«'musat removed it much farther north, about the sources of the Orkhon, some '240 miles south-west of TJrga. And not far from this spot Paderin came upon its ruins in a plain traversed by the Orkhon. Here are still visible the remains of a crenellated rampart, five hundred paces both ways, and enclosing some crumbling walls. In the region east of Urga, watered by the Iverulen and Khailar, and partly attached to the administration of Manchuria, the centres of popidation are mere villages, deriving some little importance from their position as capitals of aimaks and trading stations. The most frequented are Kcrii/rii and K/iai/nr, named from the rivers on which they stand. But the trade of the country is naturally concen- trated in the south-eastern regions annexed to Hhansi and Pechili, where the_ Chinese, '• devourers of the Tatars," have founded s(>veral industrious towns. Amongst these are Sarchi, on a tributary of the Ilojing-bo, and Kircilina-clicng, in a small basin also draining to the Hoang-ho. Th(> latter, which is the Kiilni-k/iofo of the Mongols, consists of a religious and a trading (piarter, and till the end of the last century was the residence of the Mongolian Buddha, now enthroned in Urga. It is still a great centre of Buddhist learning, and according to Hue 20,000 lamas and students crowd its schools and convents. Kuku-khoto is a great cattle mart, and nearly all the dressed hides, camel's-hair cloth, and cordage forwarded to Tientsin for the London and New York markets come from this place. Farther east are the extensive ruins of Kham-khoto, or " Black Town," and of Tuftfjaa-k/idfo, or " White Town," the former a very ancient place, the latter founded at the beginning of the fourteenth century as capital of the ^longol Empire, and visited by Marco Polo, who calls it Chagan-nor. Thirty miles east of it is the Chinese village of Simnfzc, centre of the Mongolian Catholic missions. In 1873 the Mongolian Catholics in this diocese numbered about 12,000. No less important than Kuku-khoto is Dolon-iior, lying at an elevation of 4,000 feet in the south-east comer of the plateau near the extremity of the (Jreat Khingan range. It takes its Mongol name, meaning the '* Seven Lakes," from a number of meres, now choked with the sands of the desert. The Chinese cull it Lama-miao, or the " Lama's Grave," from u structure here erected by the Emiieror Kang-hi. Like the other cities of the plateau, it is an open town, consisting of a religious and trading quarter. Its Chinese inhabitants carry on a brisk trade at the expense of the surrounding Mongol nomads, and are also skilled artisans, r^'K&'<'«. CHINESE MANCHURIA. 116 ss KnrnkoruTn re only -i iiiilcs 58 and temples thor cities, the t these do not lace as inferior ' its abandon- he faee of the alkha noinads. e, Kulen-ulen, f the Orkhon, Paderin came ill visible the and enclosing lar, and partly ation are mere als of aimaks r, named from urally concen- ili, where the„ ttrious towns. "iliua-chcug, in lie Kiikn-klioto the end of the ned in Urga. Hue 20,000 a great cattle ! forwarded to Wn," and of cc, the latter ongol Empire, ist of it is the ms. In 1873 elevation of of the Great ikes," from a liinese call it the Emperor )nsisting of a brisk trade at lied artisans, producing statues and ornaments of all sorts in iron and gilt copper for tho Mongolian lamassaries and temples. The grand effigy of Buddha, over 30 feet high, in the great temple of Urga, was brought across the desert from Dolon-nor, In the midst of the wilderness, some 24 miles north of Dolon-nor, lies Shang-tu, or the " Superior Court," which succeeded the " White Town " and Karakorum as residences of the Khans, and where Kublai Khan erected the marble and bamboo palaces described by Marco Polo, Its usual Mongolian name of the " Ilxmdrcd and Eight Temples " is taken from its many religious edifices, formerly as nimierous as the sacred volumes of tho Kanjiir, all now in ruins and enclosed by a double rampart overgrown with grass and scrub. A grassy enclosure at least 5 square miles in extent, lying north-west of Shang-tu, was probably the wonderful park of which Marco Polo speaks ; but the fountains, artificial streams, groves, and green- swards described by the illustrious Venetian all have vanished. Immeasurably more extensive was the park of Jehol, a wooded district peopled by wild beasts, which covered a wide expanse along the hills and valleys between the Mongolian plateau and the palisade of Manchuria. Here grazed those herds of ten thousand spotless white horses offered in tribute to the Emperor Kang-hi. Jehol, or Chingte-fu, is noted for its summer palace, built in 1703 on the model of the Peking structure, and rich especially in inlaid wood artistic objects. Paku, or Pingchicen-hien, 60 miles east of Jehol, which consists of a single street nearly 5 miles long, is the centre of the silk industry in Inner Mongolia. Hada, or Chifmg-hien, is also a busy place, much frequented by dealers in furs. In this northern district there is a gcgen-suma, or temple of a living Buddha, with a lamassary said to contain as many as 5,000 priests. v.— CHINESE MANCHURIA. This province is bounded north and east by the course of the Amur and its tributary, the Usuri ; south-east by the highlands and solitudes separating it from Korea ; south by the Yellow Sea ; but westwards — that is, towards Mongolia — there are no natural frontiers. Here the north-eastern comer of Mongolia, west of the Great Khingan range, is assigned to Manchuria, while the forest lands and fertile tracts of the Upper Shara-muren, east of that range, now fonn what is called Inner Mongolia. Formerly the boundary between this section of Mongolia and South Manchuria was marked by a long line of palisades, which, however, have long disappeared. A few clumps are shown here and there, which are said to be the remains of the plantations made in the time of Kang-hi. But no plan can be detected in the disposition of the clusters occurring on either side of the old frontier in the two Manchu provinces of Mukden and Gii'in. Such barriers, which the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans were formerly fond of erecting, can never have had any strategic importance ; they were simply a sort of magic circle traced round the land, which was thus placed under the protection of the terminal deities. ' 17.3P llfi EAST ASIA. In any raso any conventional frontier between Mongolia and Manchuria can have all the loss significance that both races are steadily retreating Ijeforo the Chinese immigrants, who already form the majority of the population. Probably not more than one- twelfth of the inhabitants of Manchuria behmg to the race whence the country takes its name. Main Physkal Features. Manchuria is naturally divided into two distinct regions, draining one north- wards through the Amur to the Sea of Okhotsk, the other southwards to the Yellow Sea. The two basins arc separated by a slightly elevated ridge which runs west- wards to the Mongolian plateau. But great differences prevail in the regions lying on either side of this low water-parting. Northern Manchuria forming part of the Siberian world, while South Manchuria belongs in its climate, vegetation, and inhabitants to China. The Great Khingan presents a far more imposing appearance as seen from the banks of the Nonni than towards the west, where its base is deeply rooted in the Mongolian plateau. The conic crests of the now extinct volcanoes formerly stretch- ing along this range stand out Ijoldly at the head of the deep and densely wooded gorges excavated '\v the affluents of the Nonni. But other cones rise also above the plains watered by the Nonni, and which were formerly dotted over with now dried-up lakes. In the valley of the Udelin, a tributary of the Nemer, which joins the Nonni between Mergen and Tsitsikhar, a group of volcanic hills marks the spot where the ground was violently agitated by an earthquake in 1720, followed the next year by a fierce eruption, which lasted for over a twelvemonth. These igneous phenomena were carefully described by five imperial envoys, who visited the district at ditferent times, so that there can be no reasonable doubt of the occurrence. From a new crater which rose to about 8!30 feet, with little over half a mile in circumference, four lava streams flowed down to a great distance across the plains, one of them damming up the Udelin, and converting it into an exten- sive lake. The group of hills contains rich sulphur beds, which, however, the Government does not allow to be worked. Several other hills in the valley are of igneous origin, but it is doubtful whether they have shown any activity in recent times. In this respect the group here described is quite unique. Such volcanic action at a distance of over 600 miles from the sea-coast is a clear proof that the saline waters of closed basins may perform the same office in nature's underground laboratories as do the marine waters in the production of volcanic eruptions. North of the Upper Nonni valley the Great Khingan is connectetl by a high- land region with the Daus^-ulin, or Little Khingan of the Russians. This upland tract, known by various local names, is crossed by a much-frequented route between Mergen and Aigun. In a forest clearing at the highest point of the route a Chinese temple entertains travellers of all nations in the empire who come to worship at its shrine. The custodians of the sanctuary, banished from the " Flowery Land," are required to look after their comfort and guide them over the dangerous parts of the country. The Daftsd-alin, which appears nowhere to rise higher than 5,000 RIVER SYSTEMS— THE SUNGARI AND I,IAO-HE. 117 uria can have c the ('hinose My not more 3 whence the ng one north- to the Yellow eh runs west- regions lying g part of the gotation, and seen from the rooted in the norly stretch- nscly wooded ise also above ver with now Nenier, which . ills marks the 720, followed onth. These S who visited doubt of the ttle over half istance across nto an exten- however, the valley arc of ity in recent )uch volcanic •oof that the underground it ions. I by a high- This upland oute between jte a Chinese o worship at «'ery Laud," igerous parts r than 5,000 feet, is continued north-eastward across the vast semicircle formed by the Nonni and Sungari, and beyond the Amur by the Hureya range in Siberia. Hut the Lagar-aul, culminating |)oint of this section, has an elevation of no more than ;{,oOO fcot. The true main range of Manchuria is the Shan-alin (Shanyen-alin), the Chang- pei-shan, or " Long White Mountain," of the Chinese, so named both from its dazzling limestone rocks and snowy crests ; for the highest peaks about the sources of the Sungari attain elevations of 10,000 and 1*2,000 feet, thus rising considerably above the snow-line. The chain runs mainly north-east and south-west from the Usuri-Amur confluence to the Liaoti-shan headland on the Yellow Sea, a total distance of some 900 miles. The system is partly of volcanic origin, and in its central section an old crater is said to be filled by a lake enchtsed in rocky walls over 2,(»00 feet high. The Manchu poets sing of the Shan-alin as the sacred home of their forefathers, and in their eyes it is the fairest land in the world, with its woodlands, sunny glades, and sparkling streams, all bathed in the bright atnu)- sphere of heaven. Other ridges running between and parallel with the Shan-alin and Ehingan traverse the central plains, and one of them follows the valley of the Liao-ho,* on the west, skirting the west side of the Gulf of Liaotung as far as the promontory at the eastern extremity of the Great Wall. At its northern end this coast range is known as the Kwangning chain, from a city of that name lying at its foot in the neighbourhood of some extinct volcanoes. Like the Shan-alin, the Kwangning iVIountains have always been regarded as amongst the tutelar deities of the countrj', Mount Wulin being from a remote period included amongst the nine guardians of the empire. On its highest peak the hermitage is still shown where Yenhwang, one of the most renowned Chinese princes, passed most of his days, surrounded by books and manuscripts. River Systems — The Sungari and Liao-he. Although differing greatly in size, the two chief Manchurian rivers resemble each other in the disposition of their respective valleys. Both flowing in opposite directions, describe semicircles of remarkable regularity, that of the Upper Nonni, or main branch of the Sungari, corresponding with that of the Shara-muren, or Upper Liao-he, while the Lower Sungari reproduces the bend of the Lower Liao-he. Between the two the Eastern Gobi plateau, covered with " yellow earth " and dotted over with closed lat trine basins, has been gradually cut up into divergent valleys by erosive action. The Sungari is regarded both by the Manchus and Chinese as the main stream of the common basin which it forms with the Amur. Yet it seems to be inferior to the latter both in length and volume, except in summer, when its discharge is greater, thanks to the melting of the snows on the White Mountains. In many places it is considerably over a mile wide between its muddy banks, which are alive * Or rather Liao-he, he being the term answering to ho, "river," in North China. 118 EAST ASIA. willi niyriiuls of swallows. Durinjjf the flood8 tlio Sunj^nri becomes an inland sea dotted with islands, the resort of countless flocks of wild geese, swans, and duck. As an historic hi country an almost PiUropoaii aHpect, whit-li in enhanciHl by tho fruit trtt's, corrals, veji^ctablcs, and other cultivated jilants growing round tho houses. But wihl animals aro still numerous, including the panther and the tiger, or *'h)rd," as he is here calleil. The royal beust fre(|uently attacks the inhabitants, even in the very streets of their villages, and almost more dangerous are the wolves, the packs sometimes sparing tho flock and falling upon the shepherd. The wild boar, bear, fox, polecat, and wild cat are common in some districts, and in the northern forests the squirrel and sablo are still trapped for their furs, which are used to adorn the head-dress of the natives. Notwithstanding the peaceful invasion of the Chinese immigrants, Manchuria continues, as of old, to be u famous hunting ground, and although tho attacks of wild beasts are less droadetl than formerly, tlio chase is still ccmsidered as a sacred pursuit incumbent on all. Birds, mostly of species analogous to those of West Europe, nro very numerous, and multitudes, especially of singing birds, are met almost everywhere. The hamlets are visited by largo flocks of ravens, which are looked upon by the Manchus as the spirits of their auoestors, and consequ6'ntly supplied with daily offerings. The running waters abound to such un extent in animal life that whole conmiuni- ties live exclusively on a tish diet. In tho Sungari the salmon are so large and plentiful that their skins form a not unbecoming article of summer attire, which is elegantly embroidered by the women. The Ynpi-tatze, or " Fish-skin people," as the Chinese call them, are all Tunguses of tho Gold tribe, like those of the Usuri lliver and the Russian maritime province. Inhabitants — The Manchi's. The present Mauchu race recognises the Ninchi as theii- ancestors. The name now applied to the whole nation was originally restricted to a single tribe occupy- ing an upland valley in the White Mountains. Taitsu, chief of this tribe, having subdued all his neighbours, proclaimed the perfect equality of all his subjects, to whom he extended his tribal name of Manchu. To this stroke of policy he was probably indebted for his victories over the Chinese, resulting in the complete conquest of the " Middle Kingdom " in the year 1644. This conquest, however, hud the effect of transforming the Manchus themselves. With tho exception of the Solons, Golds, Manogrs, Orochons, who still wander along the river banks, there are in Manchuria no longer any nomad Manchus, or Tung-tatze ; that is, " Eastern Tatars," so named in opposition to the Si-tatze, or " Western Tatars." There is now nothing more than a Chinese province, and even in the Upper Nonni valley the natives have, under Chinese influence, gradually abandoned their wandering habits. They live in /(ttizai,, like the immigrants from the south, and own arable lands, which they usually rent to the Chinese peasantry, with whose speech they have also become familiar. Of all the Manchus the Solons, or Salons, have best preserved tho ancient national usages. They reject Buddha, and still believe in the Shaman wizards, who practise their magic rites round about certain hallowed eminences. The Solons WIU* the fruit trtt'8, ) houses. But , or " lord," as ts, even in the Ives, the packs fild boar, bear, the northern ;h are used to invasion of the mous hunting I formerly, the 'ery numerous, ywhere. The y the ManchuH aily offerings, lole communi- B so large and if tire, which is an people," as 3 of the Usuri •8. The name tribe occupy- I tribe, having lis subjects, to policy he was the complete lest, however, 3 exception of ! river banks, ;atze ; that is, stern Tatars." Upper Nonni mdoned their he south, and y, with whose 1 the ancient iman wizards, . The Solons m fit iMANCHU MINISTERS-CHIEFS OK BANNEH8. TiC] 'tiltHil =:==--:l_„ :^.v v.— ■"" -— ----- " -— r — -■-- — ■ . — — . Mil- :.. INHABITANTS— THE MANCIIUS. 121 burn their dond, plaoing tho hhIics in Ipiithor sucks, which fhcy attach to tho brunches of tho trees. On the other bund, tlie Daurians, altliou^'h the bruvest nnd fiercest of all tho ruco, hnvo bocomo zenU)us Huddhists, one uieniber nt least of every family bciuf? a lama. 0\viii;j; to the mi.xtnre of races, which has produced a larger and more vi{*orons population than that of Central China, it luis beconio almost im2)ossilil(> to distin- guish the natives from tho intrudinj^ Chinese. Ibit the Munch us are distinj^uished above all tho northern peoples for their natural politeiu'ss and courtesy towards stranj^ers. Although descendants of the conquerors of China, they havc^ the good taste to avoid any reference to their origin in the presence of the " Sons of Heaven," in this respect differing greatly from their kinsmen in China, the insolent mandarins, wh(» have been corrupted by the enjoyment of po^- r and jjrivileges. Tho Solons, Daftrs, and other northern tribes, like the Siberian Tunguses of tho same original stock, are brave, cheerful, good-natured, and resemble the Ja])anese in their aptitude fn* assimilating foreign ideas and adapting themselves to tho altered surroundings. ITenco in Manchuria religious differences have at present far more imjjortanco than those of race. The IMohammedans, who form in some districts one-third of the whole population, reside mostly in villages or in separate quarters, where they constitute quite a distinct element, holding aloof from those of other religions, although themselves of Chinese race and speech. For military purposes the Manchus are grouped in eight banners, whence their name of Paki ; that is, " Eight Flags." But tho men, whose only arms till 1873 were tho bow and arrow, are at present employed more frequently on himting than on Ktrategi conquest the more important Chinese works have been translated into tho language of the conquerors, and these translations often throw great light on tho obscurities of the original texts. Manehu is a sonorous language, easily acquired, thanks to the regularity of its inflections and syntax. Lik all Tungus tongues, it consists of monosyllabic or dissyllabic roots, whose meaning is modified by agglutinated suffixes. The Ninchi, ancestors of the present Manchus, and who gave to China the Kin dynasty, 41 \ • \»m ' imim^f.>f'. isa KAST ASIA. borrowrd tlicir wrilinjf syslnn from th«< (^liiiu'w in tiio Iwolfth confiiry. liut tho iHlcrs i ori^fiii \v«'ro cun'fully oxfliKlrd. Atniot'M wits the first Maiu-hu dictionary ])ubli»4h«>d hy u Kuro|HMin towardH the end of tho hijit ountury, Hinco when Kovoral others have uppoared in various Kuropcan Iniif^'nap's. Ill .Manchuria, as in tiic othtr outer |MmsossionH of the enjpire, Chinese «-oIonisu- tion bep;an with convict stations and military estahlishnients. The first setllcnienta wcro founded innnodiately boyund tho Urout Wall ; hut at esi'iit most of the political or (;riininal oxiicH are Imu- Fig. 40.— Manchl' Woman. ished to the forests andstcpp(> lands near the Jliissiaii frontier. Tsit- sikhar has bc<-ome the chief place of exile for hi;vn place of residence on tho con- dition of presenting themselves once or twice a month before the authori- ties. A great number of Moham- medans are also interned in North Mongolia, where tht;y have their own mosques and schools, living altogether a^Nirt from their co-re- ligionists who have voluntarily migrated to this region. All these new elements contribute to modify the local population, which becomes yearly more assimilated to the Chinese type. But Ix-fore settling down peacefully by the side of the natives, the exiles and free immigrants often combined in formidable bands, such as that of the Hunhutze, or " lied Beards," of tho I'pper Usuri, who still remain hostile to all the peaceful settlers of tho surrounding districts. By means of the improved weapons smuggled across the Kussian frontier, they have even become a formidable power, and have built strongholds, abjive which flies their red flag with the inscription, " Vengeance." The Chinese inhabitants of Liaotung take the collective name of Mandzi, what- ever be their origin. They come chiefly from Shansi, Shantung, and Pechili ; but in North-west Mancliuria there are many descendants of the Yunnan exiles banished to this region by the Emperor Kang-hi in the seventeenth century. Still the immigrants from Shantung are the most numerous. They supply the agricultural y. Hut tho > of Molipil ,in'»'n visited by lis phicc fon- II free to ply choose their c on the con- eniselvos once e the authori- T of Moham- ue chiefly itinerant dealers, hawkers, hucksters, money-lenders, and l»ankcrs. They betray a rcniarkalile talent for uc(|iiiring languages, in their dealings with a straiigi>r always conversing in his language, unless it happens to be Manilm. This tlu'V alVect greatly to d(>,xpiMc, and have the less n«'ed to ham if that ("liinese is now everywliere understood by the natives. These Shansi triulers are gradually uc(|uiring all the substance of the land. In their flat-nM)f<-d Maiichu houses the place- of honour is taken by Laoyeh and Tsaikin, tho gmls (tf wealth, whom they worship most sedulously. Thanks to its fertility and temperate climate. South V nchiiria yields a groat variety of agricultural ju'oduce. The Chinese breed swine and cultivate wheat, barley, niai/e, millet, besides the "yellow pea" (/a k» - W)fe;'iWWJ/SJL '' ' ' , "'Sp- .Jiki 1S4 KAST ASIA. " Ilivrr of th<' lll;i»k Drnjfon," us ttii>('liin<>M(> rail tli«> Amur, proluiltly frr»m tluMliirk cnliMirnf its waters, Aij^mi <>tri't('lH'M, with itn Nuhiirlmaiid jjurflciiM, tor ovtT l* inili-s aloii;; t\w river, aiitli('licusk. Tliu Cltiui'Hi) city is not only llic capital of all tli** Amur dixtrict, liut i.s also rc^;ar,500 sable-skins, and on this occasion n great fuir is lield, which attracts the Chinese dealers from all quarters. The Upper Sungari valley, lying further south ami nearer to China, is much more densely peopled than the province of Tsitsikhar, and Girin, its capital, has already become a large city. It occupies an admirable pjsition in the mitlst of an amphith(>atrc of wooded hills on the right bank of the Sungari, which is here about 1,000 feet wide. The place is called Chuan-chang, or " Boat-yard," by the Chinese, from the number of river craft EofG ilJb'lj . 6 MUe«. TOI'OOUAJirY. V2r, roin tlu'diirk ■ over ^) mil<'rt to Siiklialiii, ivirNhclifiiiHk. , but is al.HJi town Ity III! itiul riiiin'sc vho carefully hUth, and still tuxes to the lUt as a mili- um is tiH> far I ol'tluM'inpiiv tho Ilussians, TtH onclosuro palisado ond 'Uiu', while its tli(> rest (»l' the I hy the steep Ulits relations 'o carried on |ieh lien in u istriet in the Wlien visited this place hud by the tide of whieh hud ■onso dealers ri vaUey, lying m the province It occupies Is on the right place is called of river craft which are here built for the navigation of the Sungari. The streetH are entirely INived with N((uare wtHidi'n blocks or planks, and piles of luinbe" obstriict the tratlic ushore, while the Htreani is covered with rafts. The neighbouring gold inini'H are the scene of constant violence and bluodsbcd, which tlie Chinese authorities endeavour to ''Up|»ri'ss with atrocious cruelly. When I'alliidius visited (liriu he had to pass through u line of stakes, < ai-h surmounted by a gory liunian head. In the marshy and fever-stricken plains lying about the \onni and Sungari coiiHueiice the only place of any si/e is lii'ihnirh (I'etuna), or Sincheng, which has succeeded another town of the same name lying muirer to the jun<'tion. Mere converge the main routes of the two valleys, uiid a eon«i(leral)le trade is done, especially with KinnnjchiiKj'tz , oi' S'KiiKjtn ; that is, "(Jreat Ciipital." 'i'liistown lies farther s lutli ou tiru great highway to Chinu, and is the natural nuu't of all the nomad Mongol tribes of the Eastern (iol)i steppes. Hut in this district the main route lends directly north towards the Smigari. Along this line of busy trallic lie the towns of Kni/K-sIni, L'l/lii, and y(.<(A('-//M (Asher-ho). (>))posite the conHuenco the main stream is joined by the Ivhulan and on a blulf cotiununding this triple junction stands the town of Kluilitii-vlnii. The most northern ('liineso city in the Sungari basin is S(iiisiii(/, which lies on the right bank between the two rivers, Khurklia (M ;tan) and Kl.ung-ho, and facing the mouth of a third. Sansing is the .»ld Islai, iuda of 'li; JMaiuhus — that is, the city of the " Three Families" — and its admirabh! siluatin . it the junction of four river valleys coidd not fail, in a nu)re favourable cli oiuie, to rnise it to u connnercial centre of the first rank. Hut Sansing ii- ^i. is.d to the fnl' I'iry of the northern blasts, while in summer it is drenched by v-e heavy rains from the monsoons, which change the river banks into malarious swamps, flood the cultivnu'i! tracts, and drive the people to take refuge in the uplund valleys. Ilenco Sansing has remained little more than a mart for the peltries brought hither by the IManchu himting tril)os. Higher up the Khurkhu valley is iM'opled by nunierous colonists, and here was foundixl the im])ortant town of Nimjuta, in the midst of the fertile valleys watered by the streams from the White Mountains. Ningutu occupies the most convenient site in Chinesp Manchuria for the lUissian und Japanese trade ; for the routes converge here, which run over easy passes across the Shun-ulin range east and north-east to the valleys of the Suifun and Tumen Rivers. Thus the com- modious ports on the Gulf of Peter the i>v; -'t, are the naturnl outlets of the Ninguta district. But since the Russian occupauon of the maritime province the fiscal measures of its new nia.sters have residted in the depoi)ulation of the border-lands. The main highway from Girir. ;o ^lukdcu, skirting the foot of the volcanic Taku-shan range, traverses srviral large places, such as Kd/i-c/iiiiuj, Kaii/ticn, and Ti'/iiiff, or " Iron Mount," so named from a range of hills abounding in ores, thanks to which Ti'lfng has become the "Birmingham and Sheffield of Manchuria." In the southern or Liao-hc basin the chief place is Mukden, the Shinyang or Fungtien of the Chinese, which is the present capital of the three Manchu provinces. It lies in the midst of extremely fertile but treeless plains, watered by an affluent of the Liao-he from the east, and it is regarded as a holy city, becauso -ajgBBaai«scwKr «3aM.wsa»r.wia««a»^^ r"r ^.. | ^.-^--7- . .. ■ | .| ^'" ii " - i .--^^- .^ . ^,— . ,^ ^ 1^^^^^ , . ^ ^^^ ^ ^ j ^ ^^ ■■■^^rPij *»''"'»*-' — - ' M 'I ii nw '»'» J t^ja ? -1/— T**«^«"»55^v. e ,1 L PROGRESS OP DISCOVERY. 12i) stoppo or desert. East niul Houth-oast wards the Tacitit! Ocean washes the seaboard, which devehtps a setnicircular coasl-lino over L\0()() mih's in extent. Lastly, on the south iiiouutain rungoH, phiteaux, marshy tracts, difficult river goijjes, He])arate China ironi the Trans-Gtingetic peiiinsida. Here, however, the frontier-line is often purelj' conventional, and in this direction Chinu merges more gradually than else- where witli the border-lands. It occupies in the extreme east of the continent a space of almost circular form, with one semicircle traced on the mainland, while the Fig. 6i. — Thb NtNB PiioviNCEB accoudino to the Yukuno. Scale 1 : 22,000,(X)a wiiimiiTi. u[onntains mentioned in the Tuknng. "'<«^** Uivers „ „ "'^i-*' Manhea, ttacta tubject to inimdatu ns. 'J.> Bange and probable density of Ihc CliincBe population. (^ Capital of the Empire under Shun. (The figures I. to IX. represent the decrensingr fertility of the land.) _.— ^^^_— ^^_-^-— i— flOO Miles. other is formed by the Pacific seaboard. Thus circumscribed, China represents about one-half of the empire, and comprises the eleventh part of the whole main- land, with a population estimated at about 400,000,000. Progress of Discovery. For thousands of years the Chinese have been making observations on the form and relief of the land, at least in its general features. The Shuking, or ■■ .awiMi[)i i W ii »Mmil i» M » i| i f^m p ii irvi'cji i ttJjK Wii a ji m i 180 EAST ASIA. " Book of AiuuiIh," relutos how tho KiiiiK-ror Yu, twenty-two conturit's beforo the vulj^ar rru, hud u coiimus taken, and liad nuips of the nine provinceH engraved on nine bronze vaseH. These vawH, liaving been 'leposited in a lenipU', were supiWHed to secure the crown to tlicir posNcssor, and in the middle of the thiril century H.c. an enijuTor liad them thrown into the river t«i prevent them from fallin;^ into the hands of his enemies. The series of works executed under the direction of Yu constitutes probably the oldest topographical survey in the world. Mountains and headlands, lakes and rivers, quality and prcnluets of the soil, are all indicated in this description of the nine provinces. Legions of commentators, native and foreign, have 8tudieY f i i t' ii aMtwM» i»i m » w iW ^MMW 188 EAST ASIA. under fiivouraulo conditions, rurcfuUy prquirin^ their itincniripaand iiHtrononiicidly determining several places on their maps. In l(i^!M-!) Cierhili«in was even recpicsted to co-operate in determining the new frontier- line between lUissia and the Chineso Kmpire, an iiortli-ciiMt, tho lutt«'r to the xoulh-wi'Ht. On tho KoNt ANiutio N(>iii nf the I'uritic (livcrts tlwHr curnMitn from tlirir norinnl (linMlioii, tv> tliiif the pdiir winds jmssiiif^ over Sihcri'ii drvliil iJn, Noiitli iiiul Hoijlli-rust in onliT to replace the wiinner iitnioNphere (lil'iij, i 'roin the tropicul waters towards tho {H)le. On thn otiier hand, the marine l»n i> outtruetcd in Mininier liy the "Yellow liatids" of the lloaiiy:-ho and tlio liarren Hte|)pei4 and winds i>f Mongolia, tli«' I'aeitie trade wiiitN hein^ tlins often dellected towards tho interior of riiiiia. Farther south the opiiosite enrreiilH from the Itay of Ileii^^al mid the I'aeitie pnMlnce .in nnstaltle e(|iiililirium, often sueeeeded hy those territiu typhoons (/(/;/»;///, or " Ureut Windn"), h«» drcudod by mariners in those water>i. Tli;inks to the regular south-west winds and tlu* niarino monHTKmN, (Utinii roceives u lur<»er average ?-ho basins. Nevertheless this advantaj^e over Europe iH rounterhalunced by extensive inundations, and occuHionally by long periods of drought, followed ini'vitably l)y widespread famiiu*. Fi-oKA AND Fauna. Tluinks to its normally temporute, and in tho south almost tropical climate, China possesses an extremely Tich flora, in which both Inical I uttmctofl in I Hti'pjH'K and i towarilii tiio ay of IK'ngul tlumi< tcrriHc 'vn in thoae MxmH, China . Alon^ the rc'f^uliirity «if i^i'iculturo in vvr Kiiropo in g pcriuUa uf »ical climate, iroponn types me landH will le by side in iial transition varieties has ay i)en insula, on, and even is the indis- :or food, the the Chinese nted by their leal character Even in the ortion of the ©long to the the resinous a itself. The ircaniore, ash, ra as those of beauty of its ilea, jasmine, FLOllA AND FAUNA, 1H.J and so many other lovely plants, whirli form the pride of our gardens and conser- vatories. Notwithstanding tlie labours of nuuiy zoalouH naturalists, the fainia of Cliina id still far from being tlioroughly known, and every su(Tt'ssiv«> exphtrer lier«' disi'overs new species. Many huve also probably disappeared Ix'foro the eucroachnienls of Fig. 56.— Kanor of the Thijiem Fauna. Scale I : 'JO,(iui),0UU. i • 300 Miles. agriculture during the historic period. Thus the old accounts speak of the rhinoceros, elephant, and tapir as still surviving in China proper ; nor is it now possible to say when they became extinct. But what remains is nevertheless far more varied than that of Europe, although wild animals have become very rare in the cultivated districts. As with the flora, there is an insensible transition from the Indian to the Manchurian fauna. Monkeys, which may be regarded as here iii Wi iii iaii rti|i «i' ii' i iiMtl i l< i i i V i ii ' Mffl ^^ ^^ '''» Rii j^^ 186 EAST ASIA. representing the tropical world, occur in small numbers in the thickets and rocky caverns as far north as the neighbourhood of Peking. At least nine simian species are found in Cliina and Tibet, and as many as a dozen of the feline order, including the tiger and pantlier, infest the leas pojjulous districts of China proper. Of two hundred niauimaliaus not more than ten are common to China and lairope, and even these present certain differences sufficient to constitute, according to some naturalists, distinct varieties. Relatively more numerous are the European birds, of which as many as 146 species in a total of 764 are found in China, which has also about 60 in common with America. The numerous Chinese varieties of the lizard, snake, salamander, and turtle arc altogether unrepresented in Europe, and, with the single exception of the eel, all the fresh-water fish differ from those of the West, betraying, on the whole, a more general resemblance to those of North America. Hi rj Inhahitants — ^The Chinese Race. The Chinese people constitute one of the most distinct varieties of mankind. They are commonly regarded as a branch of the so-called Mongol type, although presenting a marked contrast to the nomad tribes of this name. The very expres- sion ^longol, to which a more precise meaning was formerly assigned, denotes at present little more than the relationship of contact or proximity between the East Asiatic nation.i. The Chinese are evidently a very mixed race, presenting a great variety of tj'pes in the vast region stretching from Canton to the Great Wall, from the Pacific seaboard to Tibet. But of these types the Mongol is perhaps the least common amongst the " Children of Han." The average Chinaman, considered as belonging to this assumed Mongolic type, is represented as of low stature, somewhat symmetrical form, although occasionally inclined to obesity, especially in the north, with round face, high cheek bones, broad flat features, small nose, small oblique and black eyes, coarse black hair, scant beard, yellow, brown, or even light complexion, according to the climate. The head is mostly long or sub-dolicho- cephalous, whereas that of the Mongolians is rather round or brachycephalous. The old Chinese writings, including those of Confucius, already speak of the contrasts presented by the physical traits and moral character of the different peoples in the empire. Those of the north are spoken of as brave, the southerners as endowed with wisdom, the men of the east as kind and friendly, those of the Avest as more upright and honest. But however this be, it is certain that the nntives of the various provinces present the sharpest contrasts with each other. The true national link is their common culture ralher than any connnon racial type. For the aboriginal elements have been diversely modified by mixture with Tibetans, Tatars, Mongols, Manchus, Burmese, Shana, Malays, besides the Si-fan, Miaotze, and other still half-savage hill tribes, M-hich have no collective ethnical desig- nation. For thousands of years the agricultural populations of diverse origin settled in the Hoang-ho and Yang-tze-kiang bosins have had the same historic destinies, speak dialects of »he same language, and have become one nation. !Many differences between the primitive stocks have been gradually effaced ; but the differences are ''I W ii mil j iP j pp » « n i WVJJ I »tf * H i' M" ' " if N il THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 137 cets and rocky simian species 'der, including Dper. Of two d Europe, and rding to some uropean birds, which has also i of the lizard, , and, with the 3 of the West, ■th America. !S of mankind, type, although le very expros- ;ied, denotes at tween the East enting a great eat Wall, from rhaps the least L, considered as ture, somewhat ly in the north, , small oblique or even light or sub-dolicho- cephalous. y speak of the f the different the southerners y, those of the 3rtain that the ith each other, common racial y mixture with ies the Si-fan, ! ethnical desig- se origin settled storic destinies, [any differences differences are still conspicuous in some of the southern provinces, notably in Fokion and Kwangtung, the natives of which seem to form two races not yet thorougiily fused. But whence came that primitive stock, which, blending with diverse elements, resulted in the great Chinese nation ? The people formerly called themselves the " Hundred Families," and pointed to the north-west beyond the Iloang-ho as the region whence the migrating groups descended to the fluvial plains, where they either expelled or subdued and absorbed the loss civilised aborigines, Nor is it at all unlikely that the vast and fertile region of the " Yellow Lands," lying mainly north of the Tloang-ho, played a leading part in the early history of the Chinese people. Here was room for millions of agriculturists, who may have gradually migrated eastwards according as the lacustrine basins dried up and the sands of the desert encroached upon the cultivated plains of Central Asia, where the forefathers of the Chinese had dwelt in close proximity with those of the Turki, Hindu, and Iranian races. Every river valley became a highway of migration, and conse- (|uently of dispersion for the peoples of higher culture, and the arts, manners, and speech of the early settlers may have thus been gradually diffused from north to south throughout the empire. Tiike those of Europe;, the peoples of China have had their stone age, and the collections of the extreme East include implements and objects of all kinds similar to those of the palax)lithic and neolithic periods in the West, Sladen has brought from Yunnan a number of jade hatchets, which, as in Europe, were formerly supposed to bo " thunder stones," bolts hurled to the earth by the god of thunder. The Chinese have divided the prehistoric ages into three periods corresponding with those of the Western archaeologists. " Fu-hi," they say, " made weapons of wood ; Thin-ming, of stone ; Shi-yu, of metal," But after the introduction of iron imple- ments the stone arrow-heads were still credited with a symbolic virtue, and in the hand of the sovereign regarded as emblems of royalty, Down to the twelfth century n,c, the Chinese emperors received in tribute stone arrow-heads, and long after that time these arras continued in use amongst the wild tribes of the western highlands. Amongst the Chinese ideographic characters there is still a particular sign to indicate a stone used in manufacturing arrow or dart heads. The Chinese nation has thus passed through successive stages of progress answering to those of other civilised peoples, only in China the early evolutions were brought sooner to a close than elsewhere. The European races were still rude barbarians when the Chinese were writing their history some four thousand years ago. In spite of all their shortcomings, the Chinese annals constitute the most authentic and complete historical record possessed by mankind. Here are faithfully registered the political vicissitudes of the land, as well as the natural phenomena and astronomic observations by means of which the dates of historic events may be tested or determined. The Chinese Language. But notwithstanding their ancient culture, the Chinese are distinguished amongst all civilised peoples for the still primitive form of their speech. In this 42 »iii r WM < iw#i »-wfci i 'i i limi i Wi ii w iwi mnw aWilw RMP Jl»^ I 138 EAST ASIA. Hi ill h Pii ' } il f 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 respect tlioy have rcrauiued in a stage of development answering amongst the Aryans and Semites to the prehistoric epoch. Their dialects contain nothing but a small immber of monosyllabic roots expressing merely general ideas, and conveying a definite notion oidy in the sentence. In virtue of their i)osition alone they become nouns, adjectives, verbs, or particles, and gi-ammar is thus reduced to a question of syntax. And, strange to say, of all the dialects, the so-called " ^landa- rin," or Kwan-hoa, current in Peking, is the poorest, containing, according to Williams, no more than 460 distinct monosyllables. Those of Shanghai and Ningpi) are not much richer ; but that of Swatow, in the south-east of Kwangtung, has 074, and that of Canton as many as 707. But the richest of all is that of Changehew, near Amoy, whose 846 roots yield, according to Medhurst and Douglas, as manj' as 2,500 different sounds, thanks to the variety of its intonations ; for the poverty of sounds obliges the Chinese, like other peoples of monosyllabic speeeli, to vary the sense by means of the tones with which they are uttered. Hence the vague and undecided character of Chinese pronunciation, which, more- over, varies immensely from province to province and from city to city. Thus the sign rendered into English by the word " child," and found in a vast number of geographical names, is pronounced ts in the north ; tz or dz in Canton ; clii in Macao. So also the sign for two is diversely pronounced cut, oil', id, ur/i, r/i, htr, iif/p, tif/i, zhc, zlii, c, and /. This variety in the pronunciation, combined with the poverty of words, gives all the more importance to the nhing, or tour, which plays a greater part than the mere phonetic utterance of the sounds. Thus the sign for water may be indif- ferently pronounced sui, shiii, sh'tii, or even chvui, and will be intelligible to all, provided it be uttered with its proper ascending tone : uttered with the descending tone, none will understand it. The number of tones varies considerably, some dialects containing four, others five, six, or even seven, and that of Fokien possibly more than twelve, if account be taken of all the delicate shades of intonation characteristic of that dialect. Thanks to these intonations, thousands of meanings may be evolved from the few hundred phonetic roots. Kang-hi's dictionary contains 44,449 signs, each representing a grcp of distinct meanings, but a great number of which will be pronounced alike. Thus over a hundred and fifty different characters, each denot- ing a particular series of ideas, are all pronoimced i. The philosophic writings can only be understood by readers with the text before their eyes, and whenever the conversation rises above the usual current of ideas, recourse must be had to the pencil to make the subject intelligible. This astonishing poverty of phonetic sounds is commonly attributed to the premature culture of the people, whoso speech became fixed by the oificial scribes and academicians at too early a date. The nation has never since beon able to overcome the artificial obstruction thus opposed to the free evolution of their language. The Buddhist missionaries often vainly attempted to introduce one or other of the syllabic alphabets of India, based on the Devanagari. The Christian mission- aries tdso have employed the Latin alphabet for prayers and hymns, which the eSb. » amongst the I nothing but a and conveying ion alone they s reduced to a called " !Munda- r, according to Shanghai and of Kwangtung, I all is that of st and Douglas, iitonations ; for if monosyllabic By are uttered. 1, which, more- sity. Thus the vast number of Canton; ehi in ul, ui'li, rh, /ut; of words, gives sr part than the r may be indif- elligible to all, the descending siderably, some Fokien possibly )s of intonation v^olved from the 449 signs, each af which will be ;ers, each denot- ssophic writings s, and whenever st be had to the rty of phonetic le, whose speech ly a date. The on thus opposed 5 one or other of dristian mission- ymns, which the THE CHINESE LANGTJAGE. 189 converts learn by heart after the sense has been explained to them. But to be of any value for literary puiposcs these letters require to be burdened with so many diacritical marks that they become more difficult than the Chinese ideographs themselves. But under the influence of Western ideas a gradiuil transfoi-uiation is taking place. Many polysyllabic words, detested by the purists, have already acquired the Fig. 57. — Chinese Dialects. Boale 1 : 20,000,000. M^NiiAnix (Kwamhoa). Ckntbal. F=5 Patois of the North. Patois of the Sotitb. Patflio of Seohnen. Hakka. Old Chinese. PatoiB i)f Kweichew. Cavtok. fir nzT] Punti. Patois of Hweichew. PfttriK of Fuehow. FoKIBN. Effll Patois of Patois of Amoy. Swatow. right of citizenship, and have a natural tendency to modify the Chinese method of thought, and assimilate it to that of the Europeans. Hundreds of strange fonns have also been introduced in the treaty ports to express foreign notions. Such are " steam- air-carriage," " steam-air-boat," " air-swim-steam," meaning locomotive, steamer, I 140 EAST ASIA. und balloon respectively. The jo compounds, so alien to the genius of the national speech, are already current not only in the spoken language, but even in jjopular writings. The changes that hiive taken place in the Aryan linguistic fauiily during the historic period are now going on under our very eyes in the Chinese language. The natives of the various provinces would have long ceased to be able to com- municate together but for the common ideographic writing system, which can be read not only in China, but also in Korea, Japan, Annam, and Siam. The most marked dialectic varieties are the " Mandarin," or Court language, current throughout the northern and many of the central provinces, the Kwaugtong, Fokien, and Chekiang in the south-eastern provincos, which are quitu unintelligible to the inhabitants of the rest of the empire. The Xanking dialect is a form of the Mandarin, ajjproach- ing nearest to the Chekiang, which, according to Edkins, best preserves the primi- tive elements of the common national speech. II 5^ 1 vi Religion. In religion there arc no such marked differences as in language between the natives of the northern and southern provinces. In the various districts divers rites are practised, which, luAvever, meige so imperceptibly together, that it seems impossible to draw any sharp line between them. The same individuals may even be at once IJuddhists, Taoists, or disciples of Confucius. In virtue of his position the Emperor himself belongs to all three religions, and scrupulously fulfils their observances. There is, in fact, more fundamental resemblance between them than might be supposed from the ceremonies and religious treatises. The ju kiao, commonly referred to Confucius and conformed to by the lettered classes, is based on the old national worship. The tan kiao, or Taoism, completely forgetful of its founder's elevated teaching, has returned to the ancient superstitions, and is now little more than a system of magic. Lap*';', the foieign origin of the fu kiao, or Buddhism, has not prevented it from having also become thoroughly imbued with the national ideas, or from accepting the outward national observances. At the dawn of history, some four thousand years ago, the national cult consisted in the worship of natural objects. All the phenomena of the outer world were supposed to be the work of good or evil spirits, to be propitiated by prayer and sacrifice. Trees, rocks, running waters, the whole land, the seas, and the world itself, were all equally animated by some special deity, while above this lower nature, thus peopled by invisible beings, the boundless regions of the heavens were themselves full of angels or demons. Man, product of all the natural forces, was himself a god, although one of the feeblest ; hence obliged by supplications and conjurings to guard himself agauist so many other beings in league against him. In tlus multiplicity of spirits a certain hierarchy was gradually estr.blished. First came Tien, or " Heaven," enveloping the earth, encompassing all nature, illumining it with its rays, and thus merging in the Shanyti, or " Supreme Lord," the active principle of universal nature, as opposed to Ti, or the " Earth," which receives and matures the germs. For three hundred years European scholars have been •f the national vvn in popular fainilj' (luring iiesc language, le able to com- ich can be read B most marked hrougliout tbo and Chekiang inbabitaiits of irin, approach- ves the primi- ;e between the listricts divers p, thiit it seems iuals may even of his position sly fulfils their ecn them than The j'u kino, lasses, is based forgetful of its ms, and is now the /« liiao, or y imbued with es. il cult consisted :er world were by prayer and and the world ove this lower e heavens were iral forces, was jplications and le against him. blished. First ure, illumining >rd," the active ch receives and ars have been EELIOION. 141 wrangling about the true moanmg of this term or attribute " Shangti " applied to heaven, and they ask whether it may be translated by the word " God," taken in the theological sense. Abel Ileniusat supposed he had even discovered the name of Jehovah in the "Taote King," or "JJook of the Way and of Virtue," where the three syllables I, Hi, Wei, each taken from a different sentence, might represent the sacred name of the Jewish God. But modern critics generally reject all such subtle proofs of relationship between the religions of the East and West. Before Fig. 58.— Thb Nine Sacred Mountains.— Tub Chew Epoch. Boale 1 : 21,000,000. ,300 Miles. the introduction of Buddhism the evolution of religious thought in China seems to have been spontaneous, starting directly from the basis of spirit worship. Fancying themselves encompassed by genii, the Chinese supposed that their favour was to be secured, like that of men more powerful than themselves, by prayer and petitions, which required neither a priesthood nor a regular liturgy. Hence the head of each patriardial family olfered food and perfumes on behalf of his kith and kin, while the head of each clan or commune did the same foi* all its members. In these rites there was no place for a sacerdotal class, and priests arc even formally excludcfl from the religious feasts in which the Emperor ajipears. —'T.^-v~ .-"**-< mm^ .J^hM 142 Ei ST ASIA. No rcvplation having boon matlo from ubovo, no intorproters of the divine word were needed ; but a liiorarchy correspondinn; with that of the spirits themselves was naturally developed in the social body. 'I'lius to the Emperor was reserved the privilege of presenting offerings to licaven and earth, to the chief river.s and to the sacred mountains of the empire, which from age to age varied in number from five to nine. The feudal lords sacrificed to the secondary deities, while the devotions of private persons were restricted to trees, rocks, and streams. Worship having become one of the functions of the State, its minutest details were regulated by ceremonial codes. Between the speech and religion of the Chinese there has thus been maintained a remarkable analogy. Both have been refined to the utmost, but both still remain at one of the lowest stages of human culture. The propitiatory sacrifices form an element which has been attributed rather to the surrounding populations than to the Chinese themselves. From the nomad Mongol tribes the " Sons of llan " are supposed to have adopted the sanguinary rites formerly practised on a largo scale. Hundreds of courtiers have at times € : used themselves to be buried alivv^ in order to aecoiupany their master to the r.ther world. At the death of Iloangti, about two Icmdred years before the Christian era, several of his wives and body-guard followed him to the grave, and ten thousand working-men were buried alive aiound his funeral mound. Traces of these savage rites still survive in remote districts, where the people often seek to yaard against witchcraft by throwing their new-born babes into the running waters. Wishing to put a stop to those abominations, a mandarin on one occasion caused several of the infanticide;^ to be cast into the Kiang, charging them to convey his compliments to the water gods. To Confucius and his disciples is usually attributed the cessation of human sacrifices in China. Yet long before that time religiou.s sacrifices had ceased to be offered, while long after it such rites continued to be occasionally practised. Confucius deserves none the less to be regarded as the true founder of the national religion, as regulated by the book of ceremonies. lie aimed especially at the revival of the ancient practices associated with ancestral worship, the glorification of the past, as handed down by tradition being, according to him, the best means of insuring the permanent prosperity of the empire. The supernatural element, which plays sirch a large part in other systems, he almost excludes altogether. " How," he ask.-*, " shoidd I pretend to know anything about heaven, since it is so difficult to clearly understand w^ut take"' place on earth ? " "You have not yet learnt to live," he said to one of his disciples, "and you already ra\'e about what may happen to you after dcnh." The duties ol man to his superiors, to his neighbour, to the State, were what he was most concerned with, and religion in the strict sense of the term was dealt with only so far as it formed an element in the general system of government. Well balanced by nature and habit, without religious zeal, and ever striving to observe the golden mean, the Chinese have recognised themselves in the sage of Shantung, who has gradually tiiken the foremost rank in the memory of his people. The accurate historic records left bj' his disciples, as well as his own simple life, have prevented his name from being obscured by myths and miracles. jlivino word cmselvcs was reserved the rs and to the bcr from five devotions of [•ship having rcguhiled by liere has thus utmost, but ted rather to n the nomad sanguinary lave at times naster to the s before the le grave, and und. Traces often seek to the running one occasitm jing them to ion of human 1 ceased to be lly practised, f the national ?cially at the e glorification best means of lement, which er. " How," is so difficult yet learnt to ut what may lis neighbour, be strict sense general system ^ious zeal, and lod themselves n the memory 'ell as his own and miracles. THE FENO-SIIUI. 143 -The Taiki, on Magic Lookino- or.Ass. But although he lias escaped deification, his moral influence has increased from age to age. Four hundred years after his death his only title still was Kung, or " leader ; " eight centuries later on he became " the first saint," after which his statue was clothed in a royal robe and crowned with a diadem. During the Ming, or last native dynasty, ho was declared " the most holy, the wisest, and most virtuous of teachers." After his death a colony of disciples settled roinul his grave as vassals of his family, sixteen hundred temples were raised to his honour, and he was solemnly recognised as the " teacher of the nation." Except those who have received divine worship, no other mortal has ever been the object of so much veneration. "When the Emperor Iloangti ordered the destruction of the old books, and r>specially of the Shuking, or " IJook of Annals," composed by Confucius, four hundred and sixty of the lettered class perished in the flames with the writings of ^^^' ^^'' their master. The Feng-shpi. But a public cult, however well regulated by official ceremonies, could not embrace all the popular superstitions, or conjure all the invisible demons hostile to mankind. Hence there remained a considerable number of un- official practices embodied in the fcuff-shui — that is, "wind and watc" — a system which, by a play of words, is said to be " invisible as the wind, untenable as the water." It may, however, be described as the collective body of ceremonies, by means of which we pro- pitiate the spirits of air and water—that is, all nature from the stars of the firmament to- the wandering ghosts of the dead. Two principles govern the uni- verse—the 1/aiig, or male principle, represented by the sun, and the pin, or female principle, represented by the moon, the former vivifying and propitious, the latter hostile and deadly. Yet nothing could exist but for this mingling of the two prin- ciples, through whose union everything is born and flourishes, and the perfect understanding of which confers immortality. In every house is seen the image of a tiger bearing the taiki, on which are represented the yang and yhi interpenetrat- ing each other in a magic circle, and surrounded by lines of various lengths indi- cating the cardinal points and all nature. These lines are the famous diagrams which have served to compose the Yi-king, or " Book of Transformations," attri- buted to Fohi, and the sense of which so many native and European scholars have vainly endeavoured to fathom. The faithful observers of the feng-shui are bound to be guided in all things by the magic arts, which substantially resemble those practised elsewhere. The shades of their forefathers arc amongst the beings who fill the earth and circum- ambient spacos, and who exercise a good or baneful influence over the destinies of M » ^ R» »Ww riiil»ai i Birf» i r i.^M»-rtMW»*i^»t»-*<»*»'*-«»-^ uii^cim M -r^(M«uA* Jw^^ok •^^tHkn-tj' w^i-- -i-e.'--- v« - 114 EAST ASIA. I >."! tho living. Tho (^hlni'so recognise in the individual tliroc diHtinct /iiicii, or soulo — the rational rosidirjg in the head, the sensuous in the breast, the material in tho stomach. 0{ thesi' the first two may after deatli be fixed, one in tho memorial tablets, the other in the tomb ; but the third escapes into space, seeking to enter some other ImkIv, and its influence may become hostile to the family if they neglect their religious observances. The huen of children are most to bo feared, because they were still impei-fect at tho moment of death, and unappcased by a regular cult. The incense sticks burning at the entrance of the houses and shops are to prevent these and all other nuilignant spirits from entering. The choice of a grave is of the last importance. Should the soul of the deceased he e.\i)osed to baneful influences, it will certainly endeavour to avenge itself, and its anger will bo shown in the endless disasters that may fall on the family. The good and evil genii, who "come in the cloud and vanish in the fog," are eternally wandering over the surface of the earth, and the essential point is to build the houses, erect monuments, lay down roads, construct canals, and sink wells in such a waj' as to obstruct tho flight of the hostile and favour that of the beneficent spirits. Hint the knowledge of all this is extremely diflieult, and all calamities are attributed to tho carelessness or ignorance of tho professor of feng-shui. In every part of tho country mines and quarries have been filled by tho local authorities, because the inhabitants have com2)lained that they have caused bad harvests by allowing tho demons to pass by. Lawsuits often occur between neighbours accusing each other of having made changes on their lands, turning the good spirits aside. A single tree planted on the right spot, or u tower raised on an eminence, will at times suffice to place tho whole district under a hajipy conjunction of the elements. From tho north came the bad, from the south the good spirits, and in general winding streams or gently rounded hills promote prosperity, while sharp turnings and steep bluffs are dangerous to the surrounding populations. Hence straight lines must be avoided, and all the roofs of the buildings are curved upwards, so that the evil influences may be turned aside. In some respects tho feng-shui constitutes the rudiments of natural science. According to its professors it embraces tho study of the general order of things, their numerical proportions, their inner life and outward forms. When the European engineer digs straight trenches in the ground, throws bridges athwart the torrent, tunnels the hills obliquely, lays down iron rails across the graves of the dead, the people look on with a feeling of downright dismay. The great opposition to railways is due not only to the fear entertained by the Govc^rnment that Euro- peans may gradually make themselves masters of the land, but also to the traditional respect of the people for the earth that bears and nourishes them. The religious system founded by Lao-tze, and which originally differed essentially from the national religion represented by Confucius, has gradually reverted to tho old superstitions, and now differs little, if at all, from the practices of feng-shui. Lao-tze did not, like Confucius, look to the past to discover a model of conduct for the future. He sought for absolute truth, without troubling himself with precedents drawn from the history of the emperors. Heedless of good or evil I en, or souln — iiitcrial in tho the monioriiil king to onttr E they neglect pun'tl, boeuuso I regular cult, urc to prevent f the (leccuHcd igo itself, and family. The ' are eternally s to build tho wells in such the beneficent calamities are mi. In every ;al authorities, lid harvests by hours accusing :l spirits aside. inence, will at i the elements, ind in general sharp turnings Flencc straight jwards, so that atural science, •der of things, When the ridges athwart e graves of the ■reat opposition lent that Euro- it also to the es them, inally differed has gradually m the practices iscover a model )ubling himself of good or evil BUDDHISM. 146 Fig. 60. — UrindiisT I'iukst. spirits, or of ancestral shades, ho studied tho first causes of things, and his language, us far as it can be u.scertuined from the obscure text of the Taote-king, recalls ihat of tho Western philosophers. For him " matter and the visible \v«»rld are merely manifestations of a sublime, eternal, incomprehensible principle," M-hich he calls l)io ; that is, the "way of salvation." Whoso controls his passions may escape successive transmigrations, and through contemplation pass directly to everlasting bliss. Such was the doctrine of the great mystic and his immediate succes-sors. But tho Taoist priests soon claimed to have discovered immortality even in this world, and sought the favour of emperors by means of elixirs and nostrums. Thus was Taoism gradually confounded with magic, and of tho teai^hings of liao-tzc nothing remained but an empty nume. The Taoist priests, most of whom, like tho Buddhist lamas, take vows of celibacy, are the magicians, wizards, " table-turners," and '"mediums" of China. Without any connnon body of doctrine, some aro more Sha- manist.s, others astndogers and fortune-tellers. The learned generally affect to despise Taoism, although some of its practices are imposed on the mandarins, or introduced into the national cult, as observed in presence of the Emperor. The Taoist high priest, or '* heavenly doctor," who claims direct descent from Lao-tze, receives a subvention from tho State in exchange for the amulets, holy objects, and instructions on red or green paper which he distributes through- out China. Buddhism. The Buddhist religion, more faithful than Taoism to its original doctrines, has secured the adherence of the great majority of the popu- lation. Although of foreign origin, it has become at least outwardly the national religion, but in a form which closely assimilates it to the primitive spirit worship. It was intro- duced twenty-two centuries ago, and three hundred years afterwards received official recognition. Yet it had to struggle both against the disciples of Confucius and the Taoists, and did not reach the regions south of the Yang-tze till the sixth century. At this time thirteen thousand Buddhist temples had been erected, but the alliance had already begun with the old national cult. The spirits of wind and water, the shades of the great, all the members of the Chinese pantheon were easily introduced into the multitude of Boddhisavtas, and other more or less incomplete incarnations of Buddha. To make room for all, new degrees of holiness and beatitude were added to those already in existence. The domestic gods remained under other names by the side of those worshipped by the community, and the number of ceremonies was increased without exciting the suspicion of the people. To the cultivated classes A Jb 1 -r 146 EAST ASIA. Ihiddhism ofPorcd its rnotnpliVHicnl Huhtlctios, while it p^.'iiiicd thr> ndlirrcnco of tho lowly and wretched by admit tiiijif them to its pompous ('(Temoiiiul, and proniisinjj; redemption from their Hull'erinfj;s in tho nfter-life. The most widespread Iluddliist work in China is tho " White Nenuphar," a collection of consolatory und loving Fipf. CI.— TlIK OoilDKSB KWANTIW. (s'-^-'ct,s. tli words and j)romises. Of all the Buddhist sects the most popular is that which worships Kwanyin, the only woman included in the number of Buddha's disciples. She is the goddess of mercy, the patroness of childless women, of mariners threatened by shipwreck. She is often represented with a child in her arms, and many of her images are exactly like those of the Madonna, whose m^ w THE JEWS AND MOIIAMMKDANS. 147 nrcncc of tho 11(1 promising [•lul HuddliiMt y und luviug s that which of Buddha's 38 women, of child in her ionna, whose worship was contomporanoouMly dcnolopod at the opposite extremity of IIk Old World. The Hourishinj? poriod of lluddhi.sm in Hiina is comprisod hotwcon iho sixth and clcvcuth fcnturv, when tiio monks, fired by tln'ir zeal for tho propa^^'nfioii of the faith, traversod all China and tho noiffhhouring lands. Thon were made thoso important cxplorationH, not all tho records of which have yet been tritnsliited. Then also were made tho Chinese translations of nearly fifteen Imndred Sanskrit works, most of which no lonj^er exist in tho orij^inal, and which contain the most valiiiiblo documents on the history of Buddhism, During this period of early fervour tho country was covered with those countless /«, or paginlas, without which Europeans can hardly imagine a Chhu'so landscape. In these temples the rites consist of hymns, ofT(>ritig8, prostrations, processions, and eternal repetitions of the syllables O, mi, to, to, tho Chinese phonetic transcription of Amitabha, one of the Hindu names of lluddhu. The multitude of monasteries attests tho former pn ponderance of the religion of Fo, or Buddha. Like tho pagod.i aost of the larger ones date from at least several hundred years ogo, and are lostly in ruins, overgrown with shrubs und rank vegetation. The decline of lUuidiiism is evident, and in many districts it has already l)ecn reduced to an empty ritual left to the monks. Emperors and high functionaries have often issued edicts against superstitious practices not recognised in tho official ceremonials, and warning the people against the priestly "impostors who rob tho beehive." But although the public arc daily forsaking the bonzes, they continue none the less their religious practices, Tho scepticism of the lettered classes has create ealh'd, read the Ilehn'W texts aceordiiij; to tlie ChineH*' proniineiation. Tlius the name tif iNniel Ixroines in tlieir mouth Ye-(H'-h)-ni. Aeeordinjj; to their unaninioiiH tradition they heh>n^ to thu tribe of AHher, and entered China during the Han dynaHty (202 n.c. — ii(J4 .\.i».). They call their Fig. 62.— DoMBRTii; Altai*.— Thr Nmilino Dvddha. ' *ii4 country Tionchew, which is the Chinese name for Ceylon, and when the European Jow.s recently succeeded in opening relations with them, it was found that they had lost all 8on.se of national cohesion. The synagogue was in ruins, no one could read the Pentateuch, and rewards were even offered to any persons capable of interpreting it. They supposed that Mecca and Medina were their holy cities, and arrangements were being made for definitely changing their religicm. On the other hand, the Mohammedans have acquired great influence, and according to the lowest estimates number at present at least 20,000,000. They are 11(1 tlu' riiiiu'MO I tiit'i'c Iwiiidful. ' AroniHtM," or lo the CliinoHc ill Yf-w-ht-iii, of ANlier, uiiil 'hi'v cull tlioir e:^§ n the European ouiid that they 18, no one could sons capable of holy cities, and n. influence, and 000. They are ^^v.w^V^^y-,.vr-^^ ' ^ ' ^^ ' ^■'aM!-^^i.■' ' ^ ' ; ■' ? ^ '' ' _ ^^^h,b|ilMAI^*^ v^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) .^^ €^J^ 1.0 I.I 11.25 14^ IM |2.5 ■ 50 "^" mIHI 1^ IM 12.2 i 1^ iJ£ 1.4 il.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716)872-4503 ^J^ ^^ w t CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIN/I/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Inttitute for Historical MIcroreproductions / Instltut Canadian da microreproductiona hiatoriquaa ''^■p yn-/ rT 'jW**''* THE JEWS AND MOHAMMEDANS. 149 said to form a majority of the population in Kansu, and ono-tliird in several districts of China proper. To these must he added the Dunp^ans and the other Mussidniuns of Zunj^aria, Kulja, and Eastern Turkestan, in order to form an udecjuate idea of their power and influence in the empire. All the Chinese Mohammedans are collectively knt)\vn as Ilwei-lnvei, a term formerly applied to the Uigurs, while they cull themselves Kiao-nuui, or " Ileligious jjcople," in contradistinction to the other Chinese, regarded hj' them as Unhelievers. The Mongolian epithet Dungan, usually explained to mean " outcasts " or " loafers," is restricted to those of the north and north-west, who hold no direct intercourse with their co-religionists the " Panthays " of Yunnan. Nor do the Chinese Mussulmans anywhere form a homogeneous ethnical group. Descended from the Uigurs, Tanguts, and Tatars, they are intermingled in the north and west with Chinese proselytes, while in Yunnan the Turki and ^Mongol elements are represented only by the descendants of the soldiers settled here by Kublai Khan. Since the accession of the present Manchu dynasty all are obliged to wear the })igtail, and their women have even been compelled to conform to the barbarous Chinese fashion of preventing the natural growth of their feet. Nevertheless, !^^olulmmedans can always be distinguished from the other natives by their haughty bearing, frank expression, and in the west by the practice of carrying anns. Abstaining from alcoholic drinks, tobacco, and opium, they are generally more healthy than their neighbours, while their spirit of clanship insures for them a material prosperity far superior to that of the surrounding populations. According to the unanimous tradition Islam first reached the northern ])rovince8 during the reign of the Emperor Taitsung in the seventh century, when Ibn Ilamsa, related to the Prophet, settled with three thousand immigrants in Shangan, the present Singan-fu. Being well received, they freely raised their mosques, and their ministers were invested by the Government with a certain civil authority over their congregations. About the same epoch others entered Yunnan, and the Chinese annals of the year 758 speak of Arab pirates who sacked the suburbs of Canton and plundered the imperial granaries. The communications between the Yunnan Mohammedans and the rest of Islam have at all times been maintained either through Canton or more directly through Bhamo and Burmah. The standard of education being higher in this province, natives are always found capable of interpreting the Koran and the Arabic prayers recited in the mosques. At present the northern Hwei-hwci keep up their relations with their western brethren through Zungaria. Here the Uigurs as well as the Tanguts of Kansu, formerly Buddhists or Nestorians, were converted to Islam when this religion was adopted by their fellow-countrymen in the Jagatai State. Their numbers were increased by immigrants from East Turkestan, and by the Moslem Mongolians left in Zungaria by Tamerlane. Thus they gradually acquired the ascendancy in this part of the empire, where are situated the two cities of Salar (Iluchew) and Kinkipao, the Mecca and Medina of the Chinese Empire. Some of the Kansu towns have hundreds of mosques, and their Mohammedan inhabitants have monopolized the whole trade of the country. J— 160 EAST ASIA. Compared with their co-roligionists elsewhere, tlio ITwcu-hwci arc free from un;gre8!sive fanaticisin, many subinittinrnieious literature*" of the West, while tlu; Protestants take care not to teach their converts Kiiglish to pre- vent them from going to seek a living as interpreters in the treaty ports. IIaHITS and CtSTOMS. It is difficult to pronounce a general judgment on the Chinese moral standard, and assign their true place amongst civilised peoples to the " Sous of Han." Most Fig. 64,— A CiiTNF.sE Savant. ^ <•■■.-;<^:^;f travellers have a tendency to treat them with ridicule, and some seem incapable of speaking in a serious tone of the " Celestials," as they ignorantly call them. With the missionaries the case is different ; but they, on the other hand, see in everj'thing the consequences of original sin, and usually describe the " Heathen Chinese " as a degraded being, a prey to every vice. Others again, and these would seem to be the most uimierous, grow accustomed to the new siu-roundings and become naturalised Chinese. Some of the missionaries, while preserving their Western culture, become prejudiced in favour of the natives, and feel inclined to 48 I Ui EAST ASIA. rccopniso in tlicin ii oorfain moral superiority. Thun in fho lust contiirv tho onthu- siustic descriptions sent to Europe^ by tho Jesuits eonferred a halo of virtue und wisdom on tho natives, which was by no moans justiKed by their liistory. Authors delif^hted in choosing their examples from this new world of the remote East, comparing tho Chiucse, taken as their models, with tho inferior civilised ueoples of tho West. Tho Chinese on their part, comparing themselves with tho *' Western Bar- barians," naturally claim the superiority, if not in industry, at least in true culture, and appearances certainly often lend a colour to their pretensions. Nowhere else are courtesy and kindly feelings more general. The people arc naturally reserved, earnest, good-natured. "Tho men of tho Four Seas arc all brothers," says tho national proverb, and even strangers have travelled from one extremity of the land Fig. 66.— Chikese Ciulpbex. to the other without even meeting with a rudeness or incivility. In Yunnan, Himan, Kiangsi, and some other provinces the crowds are doubtless somewhat importunate, but even here the protection of any aged person always insures respect. No drimkards are seen in the crowded streets, and scenes of violence are seldom witnessed beyond the limits of the European " concessions " in tho treaty ports. But the national character shows perhaps to the best advantage in the schoolroom. None of tho children ever dream of causing a disturbance or neglect- ing their tasks. Here they show themselves such as they will continue to be throughout life — docile, thoughtful, painstaking, ond persevering. Grave beyond their years, they are none the less bright and merry, neither choleric nor given to boisterous laughter like the Mongolian children. From their early years they seem already fully conscious of their dignity as civilised beings. ^ onthu- rtuo und Authors )to Eust, .'oplcH of tm Bar- ) culture, hero else reserved, Hoys the the land Yunnan, somewhat l^s insures olence are the treaty ^e in the »r neglect- nue to be ve beyond r given to rears they "^*W l Willi * "J t^i IIAIUTS AND CUSTOMS. 155 A feebly developed Hpirit of enterprise is perhiips tho feutur(> in wliieli the Chinese betray their real inferiority to Kuropeiins, Tli(>y niiiy doubllcHH show themselves as ingenious as others in the struggh< i'or existence, but tliey also remain enslaved to routine and tradition, relying more on passive resistance than on per- sonal energy and daring to ovorooine their ditliculties. As a rule they are free from " vaulting and)ition," as shown by tho popular sayings and the ])recepts of their moral codes. They slirink from adventures, speculation, and sudden changes of life, and no other nation has fewer warlike songs or more enthusiastic enco- niiuniH of the arts of peace. " When we departinl the plants were already sj)rout- ing ; when wc returned they were withered. The journey is h)r>g, meagre tho diet ! What undeserved miseries, since I have had to bear arms, ceasing to follow the plough ! " Such is the md song of the Chinese peasant recruit, so different from the fiery hymns sung in chorus by the Western conscripts. A strange spectacle is presented by this national poetry, celebrating above all things tho praises of peace, sobriety, regular toil, the calmer affections of the heart. Yet it lacks neither dignity nor depth, and vivid thoughts and sentiments are often embodied in a few striking strophes. But it is a poetry seldom inspired by personal enthusiasm, w bile the meaning is often hopelessly clouded by the exigencies of conventional forms and stereotyped syndwlisms. During the natural evolution of the national intel- lect tho Chinese writers have even at last confomided poetry with a rhyme|i' lilow uiiiu'd liy tlio scin aj!;aiiist latlit«r ami iiiollior is n-j^ardi'd (IS panicidil, and ])iiiiisli('d l»y dcafli. In limes of distress the yoiiiifj; (d'teii eurii u few liiuidicd pounds for tlieir Htarviiij; J'aniilies h\ olferinfj^ t«) take the plmio of wealtliy criminals condemned by tho magistrate. Tor the law Heekn oidy the expiation of crime, and as lon>if as justice is satisfied, it iiiatterH little what head falls. Pious hous thus dyiiiff with iheir parents' l)le.ssinj^ uro V\f(. Ofl. -Tl'.HUACE WITH KlNKItAl, I'ltNH NFAll AmOY, filled with the ineffable joy of having fulfilled their filial duty in all its sublimity. In tho funeral ceremonies, especially of the father, custom requires the children to give public expression to their grief. The oldest son, chief heir and head of the family, or, he failing, his first-born or adopted son, has to fix one of the three souls of the dead in the commemorative tablet of his virtues, bum incense to his shade, render his journey easy by supplying him with fictitious money in paper, as well i: l%^| iii'ii' IIAltlTH AND CUSTOMH. ir.7 ha' idoan vegan li'd dig ((I'teii take the law wcUh inatterH ssiug uro ■f* in all its 10 (.■biidrcn load, of the three souls bis shade, jer, as well as <'lt)lhoK, horst'M, Hcrvaiits, IjoatH, also III" papir, rcprcsciiting rvcrytliiiig tlml llic »lt'|»att»'d may iT(|uiro in thi' olhtT world. Mourning hisls lor iIiith ycarK, and lor tlu> whole of this time the mourners nnint abstain from meat and wine, and keep from |)ul)lie gatherings. Custom also requii'(s (hat the remains of lh(> dead lie brought to their native plae(>s, and as the eaniage of a single liody would often lie expensive, they generally wait until a sullieient number ean be pit together to form a large convoy. Ileneo the numerous temporary eemeteries and mortuary villages, with their funeral urns and eolllns, all tastefully (heorati-d with emblematic paintings, representing flowers, birds, or musieal instrumeutH. Vessels are also freighted by the friendly societies to bring back tlie renniins of those dying in foreign lands. Kvery year the people clothed in white, tlie colour of (b-ep mourn- ing, resort in the monlh of May to the graves and mortuary temples with fiuits, flowers, and other offerings, whicli are soon i>iekcd up by the birds nesting in pig. o". - Manchu I.ady. the surrounding thickets. In these hallowed places tluu-e is no distinction of rank, age alone taking precedence. The simple peasants and day labourers generally know the history of their families for many generations back, ; and uro able to repeat not only the names, but even the great deeds of ~ their forefathers. Tlie ccmtempt enter- _ tained for the bonzes is due mainly to ' the fact that they have renounced the v X ^v family ties, or have become outcasts \ ;^^ by being sold in their youth to the ^ X' ^I monasteries. Long funeral rites are not usual in the caseof children, bachelors, spinsters, illegitimate women, or slaves. The bwlies of infants are often even left by the Imnks of streams, a custom which has led many travellers to attribute the general practice, especially of female infanticide, to the Chinese people. But this crime has never been sanctioned by public opinion, or authorised by the Government, as has often been asserted. Nevertheless it is certain that in some provinces the poor are in the habit of exposing their children, while female infanticide is common, especially in the Amoy and other overpeoplwl districts of Fokien. Extreme poverty is the sole cause of the practice, which the ^[andarins content themselves with denouncing in proclamations read by nobody. The impossibility of provid- ing a dower for girls condemns them to a life of hardship or dishonour, from which their parents rescue them by an early death, unless they succeed in selling them as slaves or the future brides of some village youth. In these cases the price runs at the rate of eight or ten shillings for every year of their age. Many ^ 158 EAST AHIA. iiro iiImo liiiii^^ht hy tho nu-tHiotmrit'H, wIiomo con^ro^iitioiiH nro tliiw ftcllfiouNly iiicri'iiNrd. Hut wliilo infanticide in citluT ccnsiinMl, <»r iil most tulcriitcd, in ccrtiiin ri^lit of thf i'lithrr to hcII iiis olfsprin^ into l)onda^i' is fully it'co^'niNrd by tlu> liiw. Yt't thf practice in rare, altliouj^h alaij^o nmnlx-r of girls are dcHtincd to a life of slavery' l'i<'l> families often own them by the do/en, and most faniilien ill easy circumstances havu at leaHt one slave amongst their Mcrvants. However, thu Bhivi) Htat«' is for women only temporary, their masterH Ix-ing obliged to provide them with a husband when their condition is altered. Mah' slaves also may before their thirtieth year re(|uire their owners to tind them wives, and as heads of families they transmit the slave Htuto to the male issm^ only down to the iourth {feneration. In other respeetH tho slaveH are mostly treated like tho other servants, receiving instruction in tho BchcMtls, competing at the pid>lic examination.^, und obtaining ofHcial appointments. In the latter case the owner is bound to allow them to redeem themselves and famili(>s. Married women also may be sold by their husbands, but only as wives, never as slaves. A material proof of the inferiority of wonuin in Chinese society is the practice of deforming the feet, to which countless millions aro subjected, even amongst tho poorer classes. Lockhart refers the introduction of this custom to tho year 926 ; but it must have spread very slowly, for no allusion is made to it either by Marco Polo or the other mediicval travellers. Now it is so rigorously enforced that every- where throughout the northern provinces, except in Peking, all the women submit to the torture, from which the peasantry in the south und in Sechuen aro completely emancipated. The Manchu ladies also, as belonging to tho conquering race, aro not required to conform in this respect to tho national custom, although they imitate it by confining their feet in such small shoes that they are obliged to walk tiptoe, Avhenco numerous accidents and serious complaints. In general the artificial defonnity has become in China tho distinctive mark of " good society," so that oven those who condemn the practice as barbarous aro fain to inflict i( on their daughters, in order to save them from a life of celibacy. The feet are usually bandaged up according to various methods at the ago of five or six, and when once crippled in this way tho unfortunate victim of fashion becomes almost absolutely helpless. She can lift no heavy weight, apply herself to no useful work, nor even walk straight, but is obliged to totter along with short quick step, balancing herself with her outstretched arms. And this is the motion compared by the poets to the waving of tho willow in the zephyr ! Yet the rustic women seem to take their share of the field operations without opparent distress. Remote traditions point to the exis' ce of the " Matriarchal " state in China. "Before the time of Fohi," say the old books, "men could tell their mother, but not their father." But since the constitution of the modem family, law and custom establish the absolute inferiority of woman as wife end daughter. After venerating her parents she must venerate her husband. " If I wed a bird," says tho proverb, " I must fly after him ; if a dog, I must follow him to the hunt ; if a clod of earth, I must sit by its side and watch over it." All the symbolic acts of the -rf SKCUKT HOCIiyrilvS— TIIH TAIl'INCJH. 160 utitlniiMly (lis'rii'tH, [•»(ij;iiiHC(l • (U'Hliufd t I'aniilii'H vxviT, the » |)r<» villi) also nmy I Ih-uiIh of hi« fourth tlio other niiuitioiiM, il to allow Id by their le i)raetico iiongHt the year 925; by ^lurco hat cvery- len submit completely J race, are Dugh they ed to wulk neral the society," iflict il on are usually when once absolutely , nor even balancing y the poets em to take in China, nother, but y, law and tcr. After bird," says it ; if a clod acts of the lM»trothi'd reminti her that MubmiNNJon in for the wile the virtue of virtues. Wliiitever be tlic liusbaiid'H eoiiiliii't, nIh' must iicids Nulmiit and obey in hilt lue. She may appeal iieitiur to parents nor magistrate, and may at most sii>peiid in tlie temple a paper ima^'e of her lord, and ank the " (ioddi'ss of Merey " to change his heart, I'anhwei-pan, the most iilustriouMof learned Chinese women, who flourished in the iirst century of the new era, has laid down all the duty of woman in the classic memoir of fill' "Seven Articli's." She tells us that tin* old custom was at the birth of a dauj,'hter to offer tc the father bricks and tiU-s, " bricks itecaiise we tread them under foot, tiles because they are exposed to the incK'nu-ncy of the weather." "The wife must be a nu're shadow, a simple echo." When her husband selects one or more eoncubiues, generally from amongst his slaves, she is bound to welcome and live in peace with them. The husband alone has the right of divorce, and witlumt arbitration he may dismiss his wife, even though her only fault be bodily ailments or a love of gossip. l)ut when she displfases him he usually prefers to get rid of her by sale, entering into a formal contract with the purchaser, which is regarded as a purely personal matter. Nor has the self- immolation of the widow on her husband's grave entirely disappeared, the usual methods being by drowning, hanging, or poisoning themselves, never by fire, as in India. Their resolutiojj is announced beforehand, when relatives, friends, and thn curious assemble from all parts to encourage and a])plaud. When the Anglo- Frcuch army entered the province of Pechili in 18(50, thousands of women committed suicide to avoid falling into the hands of strangers. Thus the wife is taught to consider that she has no existence apart from her husband, and for whatever liberty she may enjoy she is indebted to the general mildness of the national character. Virtuous maidens and widows are also honoured after death with numerous triumphal arches outside the large cities. Like all other social acts, marriage is accompanied by endless ceremonies, the symbolism of which is little understood. "Heaven itself," says the Shaking, " has made the distinction of ecroraonios, which are for us immutable laws." The li, or " ceremonial," however, comprises manners and etiquette, as well as every- thing that distinguishes cultured from barbarous peoples. Whoever respects tradition finds his line of conduct already laid down for him in every civil or religious ceremony, in his visits, receptions, and other social duties. He knows the prescribed number of salutations and knec-bendings ; calculates to u nicety the length of his stride, his " bowing end scraping," the pitch of his voice, the extent of his smile. In his tender years the greatest delight of Confucius, the typical Chinaman, was to salute his ployfellows with all the ceremony of his elders, inviting them to be seated, yielding them the first place, imitating the rites associated with ancestral worshij). " All virtues have their source in etiquette " is a sentiment attributed to him. Secret Societies — The TaYpings. Nevertheless the numerous revolutions which have shaken the Ohiuese social system to its foundations show that, beneath all this formal parade, the pulse of the ^■F^a— afco tt i jto Ji 160 EAST ASIA. nation is quickened more by the pressing interests of life thnn by the rigorous perfonmince of a symbolic ceremonial. The struggle for existence prevents the masses from seeking a sanction for their acts in the conduct of the Emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu. " The son," says the national proverb, " resembles the times more than he does his father and mother; " and the times bring about constant changes, Fig. 08.— Lands wasted hy the Taipino Inbukkection. Boole 1 : 22,500,000. Ori^na] Seat of the Tnsorreotion. ^^^^ i Zone of the Greatest Devastation. Zones of the Spread of the Insaneotlon. SCO Miles. if not iu the moral code, at all events in the real life of the people. The oft- repeated statement that China has been exhausted by its precocious development is false, for no other race recovers more rapidly from apparently overwhelming disasters. The distinctive features of the national character are none the less faithfully reflected in the profound changes continually taking place. In Europe the initiative comes mostly from the individual ; in China from the hui, or *^ffvimnMivi 'i bimiii^i l i'A l ^m im im^^ i j lii i jj ^ S i 'i jW Kyii lii ' iii w ii Wi F ' a it'iii M i ii , .Xam SECRET SOCIETIES -THE TAlfriNOS. 161 Hocictioa, wLich are maintuinod from generation to generation. For licrc nearly the wl'.ole nation is influenced and guided by the action of these social unions. In all the towns nearly every person, rich or poor, belongs to one or other of the numerous brotherhoods, which are either publicly constituted, or else secretlj'^ organized. The very mendicants, or " children of the flowers," as they are Fig. 69. — SOUTBB OF TH8 ClIIEP MoDEKN EXFLOKEHS IN ClIINA. Boole 1 : 25,000,000. [ oFG. 100' eno Miles. called, have their associations, with their statutes, special code, feasts, and gatherings. The late civil war has shown the great influence of the secret societies, and has also made it evident that the " sons of Han " are by no means a stagnant people hopelessly wedded to the old ideas, as is so often asserted. The common error of confounding the Chinaman and the Mandarin has been rudely dispelled by recent events, and Confucius himself had long ago said that the " Law of the Great Philosophy is to renovate mankind." The Taipings represented a fresh departure in the national development, and if they were not upheld to the end by public ' 162 EAST ASIA. opinion, it wus probably becuuse they plunged too daringly into the new religious and political career. Too indifferent to the claims of the old national Ming dynasty, they had not sought in the past history of the country a stand-point of connnou action against the Manchu usurpers. In 1848 began the great revolt, arising at first out of a petty quarrel about some idle ceremony, but soon assuming the proportions of a general outbreak, in which religious passion, class interests, and hatred took part. From the Kwangsi valley the flames spread raj)idly throughout the southern provinces, whence they gradually reached the Yang-tze basin, the Iloang-ho, and the very gates of Tientsin. The kingdom of the " Taiping " — that is, the " Great Peace" — was proclaimed in 1851, and in 1853 Nan- king was chosen as the capital, under the name of Tienking, or " Heavenly Abode." llistrcss of the fertile central provinces, of all the Lower Yang-tze valley, and even of Ningpo and other seaports, the insurrection had every chance, if not of ultimate success, at least of ])rofoundly modifying the whole political and social system. But now came the European intervention in favour of the Manchu dynasty, first with volunteers, and then with regular Anglo-French forces. Although mingling Christian rites with their worship, using in their edicts a language borrowed from the missionaries, including the Bible amongst their sacred writings, and even offering official positions to foreign Christians, the Taipings failed to secure the sympathy of the European residents, who preferred their commercial to their religious interests. By their means the Imperialists saved Shanghai in 18G'2, and soon after rapidly recovered all the more important stra- tegical i)oints. Then followed the usual wholesale butcheries, to escape from which the rebels banded together as brigands, still wasting the open country, but without further political aim. The empire was preserved, but the restoration of the old order of things is only apparent. The various secret societies of the " Nenuphar," the " Three Precious, Heaven, Earth, and Man," and so many others, all aiming at the political and social renovation of the land, are still at work. The old machinery of the laws, formularies, official practices, also become daily more out of joint with the times, while the growing relations with foreign countries are exercising a profound influence, and hastening the ruin of effete institutions. The few European colonies settled on the coast and along the banks of the Yang-tze, although a mere handful compared with the surrounding multitudes, are the real starting-point of a new epoch in the national life of China. Henceforth East and West are united in the great movements of history, while the empire is bo(!oming yearly better known to the outer world by geographical exploration. European travellers have already traversed the land in every direction, and fresh itineraries are thus constantly added to the network of previous research. Nothing now remains to be done except the methodic exploration of the several provinces. Basin of the Pei-ho — Pkovincb of Pechili. The region of China proper, in which the capital is situated, forms the northernmost of the eighteen provinces. It even lies at some distance from the i' j i a Hee rjECUILI. 168 • religioua nul Ming l-point of at revolt, assuming interests, i raj)idly Yang-tze m of the 853 Nan- y Abode." alley, and if not of ind social ) Mauchu ;li forces. • edicts a icir sacred Taipings •red their ists saved 'tant stra- om which it without }f the old enuphar," aiming at The old more out ntries are ks of the itudes, are [enceforth empire is ;ploration. and fresh Nothing 'ovinces. Porms the from the heart of the land, which is comprised between the two great rivers, Yang-tzc-kiang and Iloang-ho. During the long epochs of internal peace the seat of cnii)ire was naturally established in a central city like Nanking, but the Government was necessarily removed to a more northern position when the Mongol and Mancliu nomuds began to threaten the land through the valley of the I'ei-ho. The invaders, when successful, also willingly fixed their head-quarters in the same region, whence they could receive help from the kindred tribes, and whither they could take refuge in case of disaster. From these causes IVking has, with little interrui)tion, remaincnl the imperial residence since the tenth century. It lies, in any case, in the same natural region as the southern cities, being separated by no Fig. 70. — Banob of the Floodinob of thb Lower Pecuili. Roiile 1 : 3.ono,ooo. erj Miles. bills or uplands from the plains watered by the Yellow River. From Pechili to Honan, Kiangsu, and Nganhwei, the changes of climate, vegetation, and inhabit- ants are very gradual, and in the density of its population Pechili itself rivals the more central provinces. According to the official census taken previous to the Taiping invasion, the change in the course of the Iloang-ho, and the great famine, it contained 37,000,000 souls in an area of little over 49,000 square miles. Washed on the east by the Yellow Sea, Pechili is limited north and west by the scarp of the Mongolian plateaux. Here the ranges run mainly south-west and north-east, parallel with those of the Liaotimg peninsula and Shantung. Their streams, after following for some distance the line of the upland valleys, force their iriv^^-' 164 EAST ASIA. way somewhat abruptly thiough side fissures down to tbo plains. In the high- lands comprised between the gorges of the Pei-ho and Wen-ho, which water the Peking district, scarcely any summits reach an elevation of 6,700 feet, but south of the Wen several rise to 8,000 and upwards, while according to liretschneider the snowy peaks of the Siao-Utai-Shan (" Little Five-crested Mountain ") attain an altitude of 12,000 feet. The coast-line, which stretches for about 300 miles from the mouth of the Liao-he to that of the rei-ho, formerly ran parallel with the inland ranges, but has gradually been modified by alluvial deposits. An extensive semicircle of new lands has even been formed at some distance from the coast by the Laonm-ho, which collects all the streams from the south-east corner of Mongolia. The whole region of the Lower Pei-ho was at one time u marine basin, which has scarcely yet been completely filled in by the sedimentary matter washed down from the interior. Numerous lagoons or swamps still cover large tracts, and the slope of the land is so slight that at times the whole country, for a space of 0,000 square miles, is converted into a vast lake from 2 to 6 feet deep. On these occasions the crops are destroyed, the land wasted by famine, the rivers and canals diverted from their course. Thus the Wen-ho, which formerly formed the northern section of the Grand Canal between Tientsin and the Yang-tze, has recently ceased to be navigable. Nearly all the names of the villages bear evidence to the constant shifting of the streams in this low-lying region. The inhabitants refer the inundations to the anger of a black and green dragon, who must be propitiated by offerings, while the Europeans attribute them, on insufficient grounds, to a subsidence of the land. But the direct cause of the evil must be traced to the destruction of the forests on the highlands where the streams take their rise. The heavy summer rains, being no longer retained by the vegetation, sweep in foaming torrents down the slopes to the Tientsin depression, where they are collected too rapidly to be discharged through the single channel of the Pei-ho. To the disappearance of the woods is also due the increased violence of the hua- fung, or " dust storms," so destructive to the crops and injurious to tht health of the people. All these evils have driven the natives to emigrate in hundreds of thousands to Mongolia and Manchuria, where they have formed many flourishing settlements. Topography — Peking. The chief city in the province is the imperial capital, Peking, pronounced Peting or Betzing in the Mandarin dialect. The term means "Northern Residence," in opposition to Nanking, the former " Southern Residence." It was 80 named at the beginning of the fifteenth century by an emperor of the Ming dynasty, but the name is known in China only to the learned. The people call it simply Kingcheng, or " Residence," which is also the meaning of the official name Kingtu. Amongst its numerous other designations was the Mongolian Khan-balik (Cambaluc), or " City of the Khans," imposed upon it by the northern conquerors, and introduced into Europe by Marco Polo. « I mii ii iMf i' W ft W I WBiaiJMIir iB8Pii>#»aiftlii i>i i M « n i in nil <* w '^jmmm w> iw >iWij il i<»4 Bit i«numm WW*^ ' Jim. ■»«(?W^WP«»W^*««PiWIW* In the high- ich water tho f'ot, but south irctscbncidor tuin ") uttuin uuuth of the cl ranges, but semicircle of lie Laoniu-ho, The whole 8 scarcely yet 1 the interior. )f the land is uare miles, is the crops are d from their icction of the be navigable, bif ting of the green dragon, »ute them, on ise of the evil re the streams ;he vegetation, 11, where they of the Pei-ho. ce of the kua- » tht health of a hundreds of ny flourishing J, pronounced IS " Northern tnce." It was ' of the Ming i people call it e official name an Khan-balik ru conquerors, VI£W TAKEN FBOM THB SUMMER PALACE, PEKIXO. ^ JtM ■'^ 4J,iUllaUimlW|l ' >IWlM I W»l lW WWl 'l HJWl »u W ) W t '"«IJW< ' W'M'' « W imiiiB— I I' •"" Jtm, L. - t|l l il fWl U '' ^ ' "t' i^f f *^''^y . ' * i -I^IH j! ^" ' " h PEKING AND NEIGHI I iuMMan i m i w" Aoeordmjf to Br«>tacilmaid«r. MoUi Is 400000 NEW YORK, D. API-LET * • lKing and neighbourhood 'ordintf to Bretsclmeider. HioUendacff and. fintacilw 1)400000 Q « 1« NEW YORK. D. APPI.ETON ScC-J I ... .N I IW IIII — 111 ' ''' ^ feltfHt " " :-« ■'w. i ! i '»aM'i ' 'iH;t * »ia«»A#'w»>Jw.«iK^.i,^", M!'!«iiwi*''>W ' 'WMi ■ « "'wwaiti « i i ^ i t ii' iiJ)' i iiwi ! i!ii.!>imtti i «iiBi)i>.ii»ii»iii « MaiLw« i jwAuiw^ TOI'OOHAI'IIY-IMIKINO. 105 Pckiti}? HtandN in the middle of a plain wwircj-ly I'^O ftM«t ul«iv«> H(>a-l(>vcl, and a little Koiith-ciiMt of tlio liiNt NpupH of tli(> Moii^rolimi «>Ncarpni in fur from Immiij? complrfj'ly iMTupifd. Tlio ini|M'rial (luartor and tlio n'sitlt'iiccM of tlm priiicrM an> Hurrdiindrd Ity rxtciiMivo giirdciiH, ki«mkM, and a!)anduii('d Imildiiiffs, and I'vvn tlit> Chiiicwi (niar(«T '\h ocupiHl l)V IiouMCM for a diHtiinrc of little over a iiiil(> in tlic dirrction from j'ast. tv) ivost. KlMrwhcn- tlic (Micloscd Hpaci' in covered by exteiiNive waste j^roiiiidH, iiitrrsptn-Mwi with Hwainpy traetn, old jfraveyardu, and tields. Hero arc uIho the parks ^,( the Tt'inples of Heaven and Afi;ricuIturo, while ruined MtruetureH alHO tuLi' «p much Fig. 72.— TlIK Illdll SlIlKKT, I'kkino. space. Hence Peking would seem to be inferior in population, not only to ihe large cities of the central provinces, but even to its own seaport of Tientsin. Bretschneider thinks it can scarcely have more than 500,000 inhabitants, so that instead of rivalling London, as was formerly supposed, it would seem to be eight times smaller than the British metropolis. Hitherto the Government has declined to publish the statistics of the place, although all the materials are available. Peking consists of two cities, separated from each other by a lofty inner wall. i tf ! gXi .' Y^i ff?f^ y ' '^^*iW£ sg^''S*^^' mtmm TOPOOIf.M'MY— rKKINO. 167 Mi'»l. The i>.\t('n(*ivo »t t<,> woM. ♦orsptM'Hwl ikH of re Mabiiri>, wlii.h in the Hixteenlh century wm enclrwd by an iniposinjf earthcti rampart facc.1 with bricliM, :>(> feet hi^h. tlimkcd by H walls are Mcparated l)y'a moat from the outer gardens und somo wretched suhurbs straggling into the country. The Mur. 73— Th« TrMn.d or Hkavrw, Pkhiko. Chinese town, which, if not the more populous, is the more industrious of the two, resembles u largo camping ground or market-place rather than a city properly so called. The irregular open spaces are obstructed with carts and tents, while the thoroughfares are bordered by hollow footpaths Uttle better than muddy quag- mires in wet, and sand-heaps in dry weather. The foul liquid of some open drams is used to water the streets, and at one of the most crowded cross-roads r" 1G8 EAST ASIA. the lieadsiuun and his assistants are constantly occupied with their sanguinary office. Although more regularly laid out, the Manchu town is scarcely superior to the Chin(>sc except in the neighhourhood of the foreign emhassics and along the trimnphal avenues, where the canals are crossed hy niarhle hridges adorned with symbolic animals. Formerly the inhabitants of the two quarters lived quite apart, but the races have gradually become intermingled, while the trade of the Manchu town is now largely monopolized by the Chinese jjroper. Several thousand Mohammedans, mostly artisans and workers in metal, arc distributed amongst both communities, and there are also some native Christians, largely engaged in the clock and watch trade, taught them by the missionaries during the last century. In the heart of the Manchu city is the so-called " Yellow " quarter, also within an enclosure with four gates facing the cardinal points. This is the sacred city, in which stands the imperial palace, the only building in China faced with yellow porcelain. Most of the space, from which the public are rigorously excluded, is occupied with an artificial lake, groves, and shady avenues. Of almost equal extent are the two famous Temples of Heaven and Agriculture, both situated in the midst of extensive groiinds at the southern extremity of the Chinese quarter. The Temple of Heaven, with its double roof, stands on a terrace approached by marble steps, and is decorated with enamelled porcelains and woodwork, whose bright red, blue, and golden tints contrast agreeably with the surrounding green vegetation. The Temple of Agriculture, of smaller size, but more elevated, and surmounted by three superimposed roofs, is encircled by a forest of carved pilasters ornamenting the balconies and steps. Close by is the field where the Emperor and imperial princes assembled every spring to guide the ivory and gold plough while invoking the blessings of heaven and earth on the fruits of the land. But since the triiunphant entry of the allies into the capital this ceremony has fallen into abeyance. The Temples of the Earth, of the Sun and Moon, and the other sanctuaries, where are celebrated the solemn rites of the national religion, lie beyond the walls of the Manchu town. But just inside the ramparts, and near the Temple of the Sciences, stands the old observatory of the Jesuit missionaries, with its curious bronze astronomic instruments of native workmanship, which form the finest known collection of Chinese bronzes. The Russian observatory at the north- east comer of the enclosure contains a valuable Chinese library, and in the Lazarist mission is a rich natural history museum formed by Armand David. But the magnificent imperial library has been to a large extent dispersed. Under the Ming dynasty the Government maintained schools in which were taught Siamese, Burmese, Persian, Turki, Tibetan, and two dialects of the south-western wild tribes. But since the " Opium War " the ministry have discovered that there are other languages of more importance than those of Indo-China and Central Asia. Hence in the Government school attached to the Foreign Office young mandarins are now taught English, French, German, Russian, and Manchu. As a trading-place Peking is scarcely as important as in the time of Marco 1 1 M | im4t.)n n as) * imiii aB «" ' ■tag!i^i!,aivw!i.«MttHae i gflifeaM9^^ ! Wi»!Uii«a> ! «aiaiii!L!m-i »_-, li^l 170 EAST ASIA. Peking to the productive Chaitang mines, they received from the Government olTu-ials the usual answer: " Mules have hitherto sufficed; they will still suffice." Since the days of 3Iarco Polo not even a good road has been laid down, so that it is found more prf)titable to import good English coal, and even firewood, through Shangluii from California. South- west of Peking there arc also some productive marble quarries and magnetic iron mines. South of the capital, and separated from it by u marshy plain, is the extensive park of Nanhai-tze, occupying about 80 square miles within a fortified enclosure some 40 miles in circumference. Numerous villages, cullivatcnl tracts, and military stations are scattered over these woodlands, from which Europeans are jealously excluded. Amongst the herds of deer hero maintained Armand David discovered a new and remarkable species, the Elaphurus Dnvidiaum, some specimens of which are now preserved in Europe. In the neighbouring hills was also found the Macacus Chclicnsis, a curious species of monkey marking the northernmost range of these animals in Asia. But a still more famous park is the Yuangming-yuan, or " Splendid Garden," better known to Europeans as the park of the " Summer I'alace." This imperial residence was plundered by the troops of the allies in 1860 after the Chinese army had been dispersed at Palikiao. Those who first penetrated into the interior might have fancied themselves in a public museum, such was the profusion of artistic objects in jade, gold, silver, ivory, and lacquer- ware lying al)out. liarge quantities of these curiosities were broken, melted down, or otherwise dissipated ; but enough remained to enrich many private collections in Europe. The gold and silver ingots were distributed omongst the troops according to their rank; but the great bulk of the precious metals is supposed to have l)een concealed. Since this event most of the buildings have remained in ruins, one palace only having been rebuilt for the Empress Dowager. From the summit of the neighbouring Iliang-shan, a wooded hill about 1,000 feet high, a varied prospect is commanded of the surrounding gardens, with their lakes, temples, bridges, kiosks, glittering pagodas, and in the hozy distance the sombre outlines of the massive ramparts enclosing the imperial capital. At the northern foot of these heights are the famous sulphur springs long frequented by the Chinese, and now visited also by European invalids. These waters lie on the route to the renowned sanctuary of Miaofeng-shan, where the monks show a spot whence young men throw themselves down a precipice " through filial love," thus hoping to insure a long life for their parents. Most of the numerous Buddhist monasteries scattered over the Peking district have fallen to ruins, their bronze and plaster statues being now exposed unsheltered from sun and rain, whilst their walls are disappearing amidst a rank vegetation. Of these monasteries the largest and most celebrated is the Hoang-sze, or " Yellow Convent," where a "living Buddha" has taken up his alwde. Farther west is the Temple of the "Great Bell," ccMituining one of the largest bells in the world, which is nearly 27 feet high and covered with 30,000 exquisitely chased letters representing a complete volume of Buddhist liturgy. The Peking district is also strewn with marble monuments, mostly family tombs, ^^w-ETOpw^Bffir ._--. .fr.«^ TOPOGRAniY— PEKING. 171 Government itill suffice." n, «o that it )od, throuf^h e prcjductivo he extensive cd enclosure [ind niilitury ire jealously d discovered ins of which > found the lost range of ing-yuan, or ,c "Summer the allies in se who first ilic museum, md lacqucr- aeltcd down, joUections in ps according ised to have remained in . From the feet high, a kes, temples, ■e outlines of springs long dids. These n, where the ice " through Most of the lave fallen to Irom. sun and 1. Of these 3W Convent," 1 the Temple rid, which is representing family tombs, nearly all in the form of huge turtles, with inscripti(ms on llioir carapace. The ni)pnm('hos to the huriul-placcs of the nobles are adorned witli colossal cfligios of lions in bidii/(> or marble. But more attractive to Kuropcuns are the so-called " Portuguese " and " Kicnch " cemeteries, wliere repose the remains of Kicci, Verbiest, Ajniot, (iaubil, Gerbillon, and otlier famous missionaries, to whom we are so largely indebted for our knowledge of China and its inluibitants. The tombs of the Ming dynasty lie some 24 miles from Peking, in a solitary amphitheatre amongst the Tienshu hills, approached by a gorge, which terminates Fig. 76. — Tientsin. Scale 1 : 3,000,000. Sinoheui juii 117 EToFG Il7*l5' . SOMilcK with a magnificent marble portal. Of these tombs the most noteworthy is that of the Emperor Yung-le, at the head of a vast avenue of marble statues representing twelve high officials, priests, or warriors, and twelve pairs of animals, elephants, camels, lions, horses, and the fabulous unicorn and kilin, some kneeling, others er(>ct. Although some exceed Hi feet in height, all are cut in a single block ; but being (listributi«d over too large a spacie without an eye to the perspective, or to the general effect, the result is not ssitisfactory. The body of the Emperor lies at the end of a long gallery under the natural pyrantid of the mountain, and near it is the sacrificial temple resting on sixty pillars of the nanrau laurel, each 43 feet high 172 EAST ASIA. uiul 10 feet in eireumference. The blocks of inurblc required for these and other imperial tombs were conveyed along specially constructed rouds on huge trucks with sixteen wheels, and drawn by six hundred mules. Tiriilsin — that is, " The Ford of Heaven " — is the seaport not only of Techili, but also of Mongolia and the Kussian province of Transbaikalia. It is happily situated in an extremely fertile district, on a navigable river at the converging point of several natural highways formed by the rivers of the -interior. Thanks to the development of its foreign trade, it has become one of the great cities of China, already surpassing the imperial capital itself in population, which, according to the consular reports, is now (;lose upon a million. The imports are chiefly rice, woven goods, opium, European hardware, taken in exchange for raw cotton and wool, skins, furs, plaited straw, and camel's hair. Here are the Government granaries for the supply of Peking, and the salt depot for the whole of North China. After Fig. 76.— Thb Lowfk Pki-ho. Sralel : l.aSO.OOO. 12MilM. Tientsin became a treaty port in 1858, most of the navigation of the Pei-ho, here commonly known as the Hai-ho, or " Ocean River," fell into the hands of the English ; but since then the Chinese have gradually recovered the first place. Besides the river junks the natives now own vessels of the European type, and even numerous steamers, which ply daily on the Pei-ho above and below Tientsin. A few miles farther down is the European settlement of Tzekhulin, in its street architecture and general appearance quite a Western town, where nearly all Euro- peans reside who have business relations with Tientsin. Even in the Chinese city there are several buildings in the European style, amongst them the new hospital and the ruins of the Roman Catholic cathedral, destroyed during the terrible out- break of 1870, when all the French priests and nuns with one exception, besides some other foreigners, were massacred. A cotton-spinning factory has here been recently established, and some 60 miles to the north-east a horse tramway now connects - ^Wft^PKlVBW^Bt }8e and other hujjc trucks if recbili, but ppily situated ging point of hanks to the ;ie8 of China, jording to the y rice, woven an and wool, lent granaries :!hina. After 59' I7°40' le Pei-ho, here ! hands of the the first place, type, and even rientsin. in, in its street early all Euro- le Chinese city le new hospital be terrible out- jeption, besides f has here been jy now connects Ij J IW JiJ ^ 1 " n.wrw l jy i l> i lf.sm: ' }f" ' I I I HMMMRnn IIIWIII WH. I L . UtaUB J U TOPOaRAPHY. 178 i'v.'^ < S3 I O H O O the Eaiping coal mines with the port of Lutai, on the river Peitang, at the head of the deop-8ea navigation. Works have also been undertaken to improve the water- way below Tientsin, where the bar has only 4 feet at ebb, and about 12 feet at flow. The approach to this important strategical point is now defended by formidable lines at SinelifUg above the delta, and by the forts of Taku (" Great Mouth "), near the main entrance of the river. These forts, which fell so easily to the allies in 1858 and 18G0, have since been reconstructed, anned with the heaviest ordnance, and completed by a vast entrenched camp and docks for the Government gun- boats. Peitang, at the mouth of the river San-ho, just north of the I'ei-ho, has also been strongly fortified. On the route leading from Peking through the Kupe'i-kow Gate in the Great "Wall to Manchuria there are several towns, amongst them the administrative city of Yungping-fu, which, however, is a small place. West of the Kupei-kow Gate the Pe'i-ho valley is approached from Mongolia by the Kwan-kow Gate, formerly a point of great strategic importance, through which all the nomad invaders pene- trated into China. Hence this highway is defended at various point* by strong lines, some of which have been mistaken for portions of the Great Wall itself. But here the most remarkable monument is a triumphal arch erected at the southern entrance of the Kwan-kow Pass, and bearing an inscription in six languages — Sanskrit, Chinese, Uigur, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Ninchi, or ancient Manchu, the last mentioned being the only known specimen of that tongue. The chief importance of this highway, however, is now due to the traffic of the Rus- sian caravans and postal service, which follow this route between Eiakhta and North China. The convoys of brick tea for the Siberian market start directly from Tungchew, on the Pei-ho, without passing through Peking, which they leave to the south-west. In the upland valleys watered by the tributaries of the Wen-ho the most impor- tant place is Knlgan (Changkia-kow), guarding one of the gates of the Great Wall leading to Mongolia. The military quarter, with its forts and barracks, is built up against the wall itself, while the trading quarter lies 3 miles farther south, beyond which are the houses of the Protestant missionaries and Kussian dealers. Sitcan-hoa, at the entrance of a defile on the route from Kalgan to Peking, is also much fre- quented by the Chinese and Mongolians. Its imposing ramparts, triumphal arches, and extensive parks date from the time when this place was capital of the empire under the Mongol dynasty. Like Tatung-jvt, lying much farther to the west and more in the heart of the mountains, Siwan-hoa is conveniently situated in the midst of fertile valleys and rich coal-fields, and does a considerable trade in tobacco and felts. Kiming, on the route thence to £wan-hoa, is the chief postal station for the whole of North China. Its vineyards produce a highly esteemed white wine, which is found only on the tables of the wealthy mandarins. In the southern section of Pechili, watered by affluents of the Wen-ho and Pei-ho, the largest place is Paoting-fu, which has been chosen as the capital of the province and official residence of the Viceroy, who, however, lives mostly in Tientsin. It is regularly built, very busy, and better kept than the imperial capital. The iwiiMiii msOM 174 EAST ASIA. r. li 1 I: Burroundinff plaiiH, which aro ndmi'nibly cultivatnl, aro larpdy under millet, the Htajjle crop in iVchili. South-west of this place is Chiiiijtiiif/, near the Shensi frontier, where iron iniaj^es of Huddha are manufactured for all the northern pro- vinces. The bronze idols in its t(MiipleH are amongst the most remarkable in tho empire, and one of them is no less than SO feet high. THE SirANTUNO PKNINSITLA. SiiANTT'xo ifl a geof^raphical region entirely distinct from the rest of China. This country of the " Kastern Hills," as tho term means, consists of two detached masses of mountains and hills, one of which projects fur seawards between tho Gulf of Pechili and tho Yellow Sea, and is limittnl landwards by extensive alluvial plains deposited in an old marine basin. In this directicm tho Hoang-ho has shifted its course for ages, washing down its sedimentary matter at one time to the north, at another to the south of tho Shantung peninsula. In its general outlines this ])eninsulu rcsenjbles that of Liaotung, but is of larger si/o. Its shores, visited by European vessels for the first time in 179JJ, on the occasion of Lord Macartney's embassy to l*eking, are indented by innumerable little inlets developing a series of regular curves from headland to headland. Some of these headlands are continued by banks and islets for a long distance into the shallow waters of tho Yellow Sea. The north coast of Shantung is even comiected by a sort of half-submergefl istlnnus with the southernmost extremity of Manchuria. The mean depth of this marine basin is only about 80 feet, yet most of the iidets of the peninsula are accessible to Chinese craft. The facilities thus affoi-ded for intercourse have largely contributed to the development of the great natural resources of Shantung. The population is said to bo here denser even than in Belgium, and from the summit of many hills the whole country as fur us the eye can reach presents the aspect of a vast city interspersed with garden plots. The natives are also more robust and energetic, as well as of a more swarthy complexion, than those of the Houng-ho and Yang-tze lowlands. In the Chefu district and elsewhere they show many graves attributed to a pro- Chinese race. The Shantung highlands may bo reganled as the remains of a plateau denuded ond cjit up in all directions by small streams. In the north a series of regular rounded eminences stretch along the coast, but nowhere reach an elevation of 3,400 feet. The mean altitude is lower in the south, although here the peninsula, properly so called, culminates with the Lo-shau, an isolated peak rising 3,550 feet above the neighbouring island-studded bay. But towards the west the Ta-shan, or "Great Mountain," famous in Chinese mythologj', attains a height of 5,100 feet close to the plains of the Hoang-ho. Ta-shan is the most sacred of the five holy mountains of the empire, the " beneficent king," the " equal of heaven," the " con- troller of births and deaths," the " arbiter of human destinies." Confucius, born in the neighbourh(MMl, vainly attempted to reach its summit, a temple now marking the spot where he stopped short. Since then the ascent has been rendered easy by a good paved road 12 miles long, with broad shady steps, convenient landing- TOPOORArilY. 178 milli't, the tho Shonsi •tliorn i»ro- iblo in tlio of China. w dettuihed etwooii tho live alluvial ung-ho has time to tho sral outlines ores, visited Macartney's ^ u series of •o continued Yellow Sea. god isthmus this murine re accessible r contributed [)opulution is f many hills f a vast city id energetic, nd Yang-tze es attributed teau denuded es of regular ition of 3,400 le peninsula, ng 3,550 feet e Ta-shan, or of 5,100 feet the five holy 1," the " con- mfucius, born now marking rendered easy lient landing- places, and palanquin bearers for old and infirm pilgrims, notween these wesfern hills and the peninsula proper a broad depression, stretehing from tho (julf of Pechili to the Yellow Sen, was formerly traversed by a navigable canal traced like a river on the old map of the Jesuits. Here also the IVima-liu, or " Lakt^ of the White Horse," wouhl seem to bo a remnant of the strait which fornu'rly flowed along this depression from sea to sea. Nearly all the forests have disappeared from the hills, and the indigenous vegetation has almost everywhere yielded to tho useful plants introduced by man. The wild animals have also been mostly externnnuted, and little room can even ^'»- "-O'" Shantung 8thait. 1 1 « 1- i. 1 • ^1 • i< Boale 1 : 2,UOO,0OO. be spared for live stock ni this fer- tile and highly cultivated region. It abounds also in coal-fields, iron ores, gold, and other metals, besides precious stones, including diamonds of small size. Tho climate, us elsewhere in North China, is characterized by tho extremes of heat and cold. ]}ut tho transitions are effected very gradually and regularly, thanks to the warm marine waters and the shelter afforded by tho neighbouring Munchurian and Korean uplands from sudden polar winds. The typhoons also spend their fury in the Yellow Sea before reaching the Gulf of Pechili. Topography. The largest towns aro naturally found on tho western alluvial plains, watered by the Iloang-ho and its tributaries, and traversed by the Yun- ho, or "River of Transports," which was till recently navigable. But many of these places are exposed to destructive floodings, while others have been plundered by the Taiping rebels and Nienfei brigands. However, they rapidly recover from such disasters, and Tiingchmuj, on the Grand Canal, amongst otheis, has already resumed its place as one of the great industrial centres of the empire. Farther north Lintsing and Chingkia-hetc. which also suffered severely during the late insurrection, are now flourishing towns, carrying on a largo trade with the crmtral provinces, Pechili, and even Mongolia. Tuinau, the Chinangli of Marco Polo, and the present capital of the province, also lies west of the mountains in a fertile alluvial district, dotted over with isolated . 30 Miles. mmimmmmm $ueil^^^^' tn^s^"' nn EAST ASIA. conos of loiiff-oxtinct volriiiiocs. With a ciri-uit uf ulMiut ii;") iniloN, it in lH)tli oiipof tho liir^oMt and lH>Ht-l>uilt nitios in (Jhiiiii, noted oHpccially f«)r its trade in falw f]>emN and nianiifacfiiro of a peculiar Milken fabrie, woven from the C(K;(M>nM of n wild Hilkwnrin which lives on oak-leavcH. Here in a Roman Tatholic com- munity of r2,0U0 .souls, besides many Mohammeilans, variously estimated at from Fig. 78.— TiNocNKW AND Muo-TAu Archipblaoo. Bonto 1 : 198,000. 120* 55 120*45 T«n^teh«w feu to as Feet. 88 to 06 Feet. 06 Feet and upwarda. — — ^^.^ 8 Mfloe. 10,000 to 20,000. Three miles east of Tsinan is a hill consisting of partly magnetic iron ores, and on the Yellow River lies its port of Lokao. In the basin of the Yellow River is also situated Taingan-fu, the " City of Temples," on the Tawan-ho (Wun-ho), which traverses a district abounding in coal and iron. The chief temple dedicated to the holy mountain, Tai-shan, occupies a large space to the Wi^^Mi'i.n TOP' .llArMY, 177 of tji own, in the midHt I. acrp* in . xJent, all fhf trrch of wliieh ItAve been )> iitwMiy >riituH ciin rors iih«* tli»^ tenth century. When viNJtctl in ISfif) hy Mitrkhaiii were hmn tli. 70,(M»() pil^riniH UHHCiiiblcd in thi« pluco from nil |hii <>1 Chun Furthor wtuth licH Yi'iirlicw-fn, in a niut-Hhy dintrict travcrKtHl U\ c (Iran'l >mil, fornu'i-ly capital of one of the nine provinecH into which the enn. ■•' >•" div uled by Yii four thouMUid years a^o, and still the largest place in the south-west uf Shantung. This is one of the classic regions Fig. 70.— CHiru. nnir 1 : IM,O0O. to 16 Feet. 18 to S9 Fent. 82 Feet >nd npwardt. 3 Mile» of China, the towns, mountains, and rivers of which figure on almost every page of the old chronicles. Some 12 miles west of Yenchew-fu is the far-famed city of Kinfao, birthplace of Confucius, and still inhabited almost exclusively by his descendants, at least 20,000 of whom bear his name. Although a fine, vigorous race, not one of them seems to have distinguished himself in any way during the twenty-four genera- tions which have elapsed since their common ancestor bequeathed hxn moral code to the empire. The chief temple raised to his memory is one of the largest and most sumptuous in China, and contains a series of inscriptions dating from all t lie djmasties for the last two thousand years. The accumulated treasures of vases, bronze ornaments, and carved woodwork form a complete museum of Chinese art. At the entrance of the palace is still shown the gnarled trimk of a cypress said to 178 EAST ASIA. : liiivc Ik'oii planted hy roiifuciuM, whilo uriiH, trijKKlH, iniiniiscriptM, nnd oIIut ])rfoioiis iihjfctM, Niiid t(» have Ix-loii^cd to the pliilnMophcr, arc prcHiTVcd in tlio private apartnirntn of tlio princi-ly ln'ad of the family. 'I'ln' domain of thin dignitary, wlio is a diri'ct feudatory of tlu' i'mpire, is no \vhh tliun l(i"<, <•!(() aercs in extent. Wiien Kinfao was Keizod l»y tiie Tajpin;? nlu !■*, they respected tlie temple, the pahice, and all their contents, and even spared the life of the local governor, cftnlrary to their invariablu practice. Mcar the temple in the jlfravo of ('onfuciuH, in the centre of n vuHt space occMpicd by the family necroi)oliH. TowanU the south-woHt is unuthcr cemetery near the small town of Txin-hii'ii, which for the last twenty-two centuries has received the renuiins of all the descendants of Mengtze (Mciicius), the most renowned disciple uf Confucius. Tsiiii/r/irir-/ii, the old capital of Shantung, lies on the northern Hlnpo of the mountains in a valley draining to tin; (julf of I'echili. Although much reduced, it is Htill a large i)laee, and a now almost deserted Tatar (juarter recalls the early days of the ^fanehii concpieiit. Tsingchew has iK'come u chief centre of Islam in Kast ('hina, and a knowledge of Arabic is still kept alive in its schools. The surroiuid- ing and other kinl ill tho lit! of this ,0(10 ariT!^ jK'ctt'd the it'o of the iplo in tho I In- fiiiiiily ^iiuill town lio iTinuinrt diHciplo of opo of tho •ducod, it is ourly thiys am in Kunt ! suiTound- tho Houth- lauteriul of ^f» 18 really 1 tho plain f coninmni- '{iai/iiiff und llpotro, and rium. Tho ; but it is market of I of Pechili, n section of hrough tho treaty port, to penetrate vessels are chants have Yenta'i, the nal to warn otter known e north, and arhorough " 3xtrcmity of , both doing aiyaiuj, ou n TiiK noANo-iio hasin. no river flowing to tho port of Tiiii/fxi ; Txiiiii, a depot for grain, fniils, pigs, and otlicr agricnltnral produce; lytiniiii, Kitinr/inr, and Yiihi'ir, tlie lant with a eoiiNiderable Mosh>ni (■oniniiiiiity, and prodticlivo coal niinoM in the iiciglibouring hills. TlIK IIOANO-IIO RASfN, PllOVmiM nv KANIIf, SlIINKI, HllAMI, AND IIl'NAM. Tmk region drained by tho Ifoang-lio, or Yellow River, comprises in Tilu't and Cliina i)roj)er a t(»)Ml area of some (UM), 000 square miles, or about three times the extent of Franco. Yet it ranks only as tho second river basin of the empire, and there were ov< '' times when it formed merely a tributary syHteni, discharging u porti(m t)f its waters into tho Yang-tzo-kiang. Nevertheless it presents a striking contrast to tliis great stream in tho salient features of its estuary and wiisdiug course, iio loss than in tho character of tho lands and peoples fringing its banks. To mark this contrast the natives have ichMititied tho twin streams with the two male anil female principles of heaven and earth ( Viniu and 17/;), which divide the world between tliem. The Hoang-ho is tho female river, (h'voled to the earth, and designated by tho name of Yellcc, which the inhabitants of tho " YeUow Lands " naturally regarded as prt-eminontly tho terrestrial colour. Tit'th streams rise on tho same inland plateau, and in their lower course traverse tho > lino alluvial plains. IJut in their middle course they are deflected north and sout II into regions far distant from each other, and differing greatly in their physicid aspect. After emerging from tho upland pasturages of tho m)sterious and still unexplored " Starry Lakes," tho Iloang-ho escapes from tho higlilands through formidable gorges, but without describing tho vast Ik'iuI which is traced on most majjs. Swollen by numerous torrents from the Euku-nor ^Mountains, it reaches the verge of tho desert, already a large stream. Hero it is suddenly deflected north- wards along the scarp of tho Mongolian plateaux, and even beyond China proper round tho Ordos country, and through a gorge in the Ala-shan range, beyond which it throws off several shifting channels intermittently flooded aecordinj^) tho extent of the annual inundations. When visited by Prjevalsky in 1871 tho main stream, 1,300 feet broad, lay to the south. But it was of recent formation, and lateral branches were at that time winding through the plains as far as the foot of tho In-shan range. To these displacements of the stream is probably due tho log(>nd that the Iloang-ho disappears altogether in the sands north of the Ordos peninsula, and again reappears among the rocks lower down. Uclow this half -lacustrine region the stream, resuming its easterly course, impinges against the gneiss hills forming towards the south-east the outer scarp of the ^Icmgolian plateau. Pumpelly thinks ho has discovered the traces of an old bed, through which the Yellow River formerly flowed along the base of the plateau. A string of lakes connected by narrow depressions would seem to indicate the former course of the stream, when it discharged through the Pei-ho into the ^SSS^JSES ■p< .y 9. •ipnnHHHwwi V 111 II 'U m 1 180 EAST ASIA. Yellow Sea. But it is now deflected southwards through two parallel chains, thus completing the circuit of 1,200 miles which it describes round Ordos and the pro- vince of Shensi. The formation of this new bed is perhaps referred to in the Chinese legend of the contest between Kingkung and Chwanchew for the empire Fig. 80.— Tuan8.0hi>08. Scale 1 : 2,300,000. 'A'iM^^^-P^ ^ ' Oiryouan I04"'50 . 60 Miles. of the world. "In his rage Kingkung butted with his horn against Mount Puchiao, which supports the pillars of heaven, and the chains of the earth were broken. The heavens fell to the north-west, and the earth was rent asunder towards the south-east." -'mm'-'smKsms^s^^- 'fiimf^^^ft. THE IIOANO-nO BASIN. 161 chains, thus ind the pro- jd to in the r the empire Below these ranges the middle course of the river is abruptly temiinat(>d by a sharp l)end towards the east at the confluence of the Wei. In some respocts the Iloang-ho, notwithstanding its greater volume, might even be regarded as tlio tributary of the "Wei, which maintains its original direction throughout its entire course, us does the Saone after its junction with the Rhone in France. Tlie Wei is in any case its largest affluent, and even more important as a navigable highway. ill' Kg. 81.— Clifkb of Yellow Eakth on the Hoano-iio. 4/- I ?3 )6''50- gainst Mount he earth were rent asunder Thousands of flat-bottomed craft ascend its stream to within half-way of the Lan- chew bend, where the Hoang-ho is deflected towards Mongolia. Both rivers wash down large quantities of sedimentary matter, estimated in 1792 by Staunton at one-fiftieth of whole volume for the united stream. This is three or four times in excess of the average even of such rivers as the Ganges and Pe'i-ho, which carry down an unusual amount of alluvia. These deposits are one of the great sources of danger to the riverain populations. Natural embaukmenta are thereby gradually formed along the course of the stream, whose bed is raised, 182 EAST ASIA. and now channels formed during the floods, which often cause widespread r-uin. liike the Nile, To, and ^lississippi, the Yellow River thus flows oocasionall at a hififher elevation than the siuToundinpf plain, although nt)t so high as has been represented by the terror-stricken fancy of the inhabitants. A vast system of end>anknu>nts has been erected on both sides to keep the stream within its bed during tlie rising of its waters. Above Kaifung-fu the two main dikes on the left side, etich 72 feet high, run parallel, and from 3,000 to 2,700 yards from the natural bank of the river, and the intermediate space is cut up into rectangular sections by transverse mounds. The more exposed districts are thus divided into a Fig. 82. -SHmiNUb uF THB HoANO-Ho DVRiNo Thkbe Thovsand Yeabs. Scale 1 : 10,000,000. . 180 Hoes. number of independent tracts arresting the overflow, ai.d enabling the people to raise their crops in conjparativc security. But this very system itself, maintained by the constant lal)our of 00,000 hands, has the inevitable result of increasing the height of the banks by the rapid deposits of alluvia in the lateral sections. The difference in level between the river bed and the low-lj'ing plains becomes proportionably increased, and the higher the embankments are carried the more dangerous becomes the stream. Nevertheless the risk may be diminished by the construe! ion of canals conveying the overflow to one or other of the lacus- trine depiissious in Kiaug-su north of the Yang-t/c-kiung. Thus in 1780 the THE nOANO-nO BASIN. 188 iprond niin. donuU . iit a as ha« boon ; Hystcin of thin its hod likes on tho Is from the rectanguhir vidod into a ^81 S tie people to , maintained f increasing ral sections, lins becomes 3d the more ishcd by the ' the lacus- in 1780 the Emperor Kienlong caused a canal 60 miles long to bo constructed in fifteen months, which diverted half the discliargc of the Iloang-ho into Lake Ilangt/ou. IJut in spite of all precautions great disasters arc occasionally caused by tho bursting of tlie dikes, when tho crops of whole provinces are swept away, and millions booome a prey to famine and jjostilence. For China the Iloang-ho still remains the Nih-ho, or " llebellious lliver," as it is called by the old chroniclers. The riverain poim- latious are always at the mercy of invading hosts, or even of predatory bands strong enough to seize and open the sluices. In 1209 one of the few defeats experienced Fig. 83. — Bkcent SiiiFTiNas of tiik Uoano-ho. Scale 1 : H.OOO.OOO. Oto83Feet 83 to 164 Feet. 164 Feet and npwards. __iiiiii^_ 16 Miles. by Jenghiz Ehan was due to this cause. In 1642 a mandarin submerged the city of Kaifung-fu, with its 200,000 inhabitants, and later on the Emperor Kang-hi in tho same way destroyed half a million of his subjects. The lowlands, subject to the shifting course of the Iloang-ho, comprise the vast region stretching from the mouth of the l*ei-ho to that of the Yaiig-tze-kiang. The stream thus oscillates to the rigiit and left over an area some 5o0 miles long north and south, presenting within these limits changes elsewhere unrivalled in extent and importance. These disastrous shif tings, at times laying waste a region as large ^i r i'} 184 EAST ASIA. i^ I ■ I ii U8 Groat Britiiin, arc clue to the Shantung uplands, which arrest the direct easterly course of the stream, deflecting it either to the right or to the left, and thus causing it to flow at one time north to the Gulf of Pechili, at another south-eastwards to the Yellow Sea. Since the mythical times of Yu, said to have flourished some forty-two centuries ago, these complete or partial changes have been regularly recorded by the native annalists. For the last two thousand five hundred years the bed of the Lower lloang-ho has been displaced as many as nine times, when one or more fresh channels have been excavated in the alluvial plains, and each of those events has been attended by the partial depopulation of the land. In the middle of the present century the Yellow River flowed south-eastwards below Kaifung-fu to the coast about midway between Shantung and the Yang-tze estuary. A small branch was even thrown off through a series of lakes to the latter basin. But in 1851, when the Taipings began their ravages, the inhabitants being unable to keep the dikes in repair, the stream made a breach over a mile broad through its left bunk near the village of Lungmenku. Still the old bed was not completely dried up, and the new course northwards to the Gulf of Pechili was not definitely established till the year 1853. Even then the channel was not thoroughly excavated, and at many points the stream preserved the aspect of a permanent inundation, covering a space from 10 to 15 miles in extent. It thus overflowed into the bed of the Tatsing-ho, formerly an independent river. Along the old course most of the embankment works remained intact, while the villages were converted into heaps of ruins, the cities deserted, and the cultivated lands allowed to lie fallow. The change was, in fact, a twofold disaster, for, on the one hand, it caused fertile tracts to be submerged, while on the other districts were necessarily abandoned whose productiveness depends on the irrigating canals derived from the river. The direct evil caused in the region at present traversed by the Hoang-ho is a small matter compared with the ruin indirectly occasioned by the withdrawal of the water which fed these canals. Hence the inhabitants of the southern districts have repeatedly petitioned to have the stream restored to its old bed, while those in the north have adapted themselves to the altered conditions. Numerous villages have sprung up, and embankments have been constructed for nearly 100 miles on both sides, regulating the course of the river in its new channel, which, however, still varies in width from a few hundred yards to 2 miles. But after the loss of millioTis of lives a fresh disaster was threatened in 1870, when a breach was opened in the embankment on the right side above Kaifung. On this occasion the overflow took the direction of the Yang-tze-kiang through the Kulu-ho, the Sha-ho, and Lake Ilang-tzew, west of the old bed. Through numerous other smaller openings on both sides the Hoang-ho would seem to still send contributions to the Yang-tze, the Iloai, and Pei-ho, a fact which explains the remarkable diminution of volume observed by recent travellers in its lower course. Near the Gulf of Pechili the stream winds through a marshy tract, which was evidently at one time a marine basin. The town of Putai, said to have been within GOO yards of the coast twenty-one centuries ogo, now lies over 40 miles from the sea, and all the surrounding lands are still saturated with saline particles. SSSmi .'=-^' THE GRAND CANAL AND LOWER IIOANO-HO. 186 •ect easterly iiU8 causing h-eastwards rished sonio n regularly tudred years )8, when one and each of th-eastwards he Yang-tze to the latter )itant8 being i mile broad bed was not chili was not t thoroughly a permanent 18 overflowed long the old irillages were ands allowed one hand, it •e necessarily ved from the he Hoang-ho e withdrawal the southern (Id bed, while Numerous d for nearly new channel, i miles. But 1870, when a rag. On this the Kulu-ho, imerous other contributions e remarkable ,ct, which was to have been 40 miles from line particles. Owing to the narrowness of the navigable channel, large vessels are now obliged to anchor some distance off the bar, althougli it uas a depth of 7 feet even at low water. The cargoes, transhipped to smaller craft, arc carried to Tiemen-kwun, 24 miles above the mouth of the river, beyond which ])oint the " ungovernable Iloang-ho" has almost ceased to be available for navigation. Its ujjper course in Eansu might be navigable by small boats ; but here the natives prefer the road to the river for transporting their produce. The Grand Canal and Lower Hoano-ho. The " Grand Canal " so often spoken of by travellers, especially in the last century, is one of the great monuments of human industry, although, perhaps, less wonderful than it may seem to be at first sight. It is not a cutting, like so many European works of the kind, carried by a series of locks over extensive tracts at dill'ercnt levels, but simply consists of a string of abandoned watercourses, lakes, and swamps, all connected together by short artificial channels. Hence it has almost everywhere preserved the aspect of a winding river, constantly varying in width. As related by Marco Polo, the Emperor Eublai Khan, towards the end of the thirteenth century, created the Yun-ho, or " River of Transports," as it was named, mostly by connecting river with river, lagoon with lagoon. Even before that epoch goods were conveyed by water and across a series of diflicult portages from the Yang-tze to the Pei-ho basin. But although the course of the canal was thus already indicated and partly constructed by nature, none the less enormous are the sums that have been spent on the formation, and especially on the maintenance, of this great navigable artery. Thousands of hands have been constantly employed in dredging, embanking, protecting the exposed sections from the fury of the winds, so that a regular canal constructed on the European principle would have probably been less expensive in the end. The Grand Canal, which is mainly fed by the Iloang-ho, the Wan-ho, and other streams from Shantung, has in recent times lost much of its importance, and is at present in such a bad state that the navigation is actually interrupted at some points. Since the introduction of steam Peking and North China receive their supplies chiefly from the sea, so that the inland navigation for which the canal was constructed has no longer the same commercial and economic significance. It still, however, presents many advantages for the local traflic, and it may be hoped that the work of restoration, already begun at the Tientsin end, will soon render this artery navigable by steamers throughout its entire length, from the Pei-ho to the Yang-tze basin. According to one estimate the mean discharge of the Iloang-ho is about 80,000 cubic feet per second, or nearly equal to that of the Nile. The sedimentary matter brought down in its turbid waters is slowly yet perceptibly diminishing the basins of the Gulf of Pechili and Yellow Sea. Staunton and Barrow have calculated that these alluvia would be sufficient to create, in twenty-five days, an island half a square mile in extent and 120 feet thick. They have further calculated that in about twenty- four thousand years the Yellow Sea will have entirely disappeared, 45 186 EAST ASIA. just as tlio iiiliind seas wost of Sliatitunj,' have already boconio dry land. Its uavijjnlion is already inudi ohstrueted l)y (he .-hiftiii^' sand-banks, as well as by the dense [o'^s in whieh these shallow waters are Irec^uently wrapped. The Chinese limit the term " Yellow Sea " to the portion discoloured by the alluvia, applying Fig. 84.— Yellow 8ea. RcnlP 1 : 7*00,000. (■ « <' ,; ♦ 'II to 82 Vtct 83 to l(i4 Feel. (^ Submarine Sandbanks. Ii:4 to 32H Feet. 328 Fee'- onJ upwarJe. ^2^ Bonks exposed at low water. _i_i 160 Miles the expression " Black Sea " to the marine water.s preserving their natural purity. The extensive plains stretching between the Lower Hoang-ho and Yang-tze are traversed by the sluggish Tloai, which, notwithstanding its great length and volume, can scarcely be regarded as an independent river. From age to age it has never ceased to oscillate from right to left in search of a fixed channel. At one time it flowed to the Iloang-ho, at another to the Yang-tze, while occasionally throwing off branches in both directions. At present it discharges into Ijake Ilang-tzew and the other lacustrine basins, Avhich are the remains of the ancient inlet penetrating northwards between Shantung and the mainland. -— ^ .i,lli"il|llpiSli Mrilg^tUM) Iniid. Its 11 as by tlio .'ho Cliiiu'so a, applyiug their natural Yang-tze are 1 and volume, it has never it one time it r throwing off -tzew and the t penetrating THE TSIXG-LINO AND OTHER RANGES. The Tsixg-uxo and othku Ranoks. 187 The ppntnil highlands about the hoad-strcams of the Iloang-ho arc still lol'ty enough to supply alluvial deposits which may some day convert the Archipelago of Japan into an Asiatic peninsula. E.vtensivo ranges rooted westwards in the Tibetan plateaux form the water-parting between the Iloajig-ho aiul Yang-tze basins, and these are succeeded farther north by other less elevated chains forming tlio outer scarp of the Mongolian terrace lands. The main range, which may be regarded as an eastern continuation of the Kucn-lun, is separated from the Kuku-nor highlands by the deep gorge of the Upper Iloang-ho, South of Ijanchew-fu this range takes the name of Siking- shan, and is hero broken by the valley of the Tao-ho, an upper affluent of the Yellow River. ]Jut east of this point its snowy peaks stretch away to the south of the deep valley of the Wei-ho, where it is known as the Tsing-ling, or " lUuo Mountains." In the upper valley of the Han, north of Ilanchung-fu, this section is crossed by passes ])racticable thnmghout the year for mides. The pass chosen by the naturalist Armand David, in the winter of 1873, is G,.']00 feet high, and runs along the west side of the famous Taijei-shan, whose snowy crest has an extreme elevation of from 12,000 to 13,000 feet, while Kichthofen assigns a mean altitude of 6,500 feet to the main ran.'re. In its central section the Tsing-ling consisting of granites and old schists, is so difficxilt to cross, that travellers generally prefer to turn its eastern extremity through one of the depressions whicih here separate the great bend of the Iloang-ho from the valley of the Han, a tributary of the Yang-tze. Northwards the Tsing-ling terminates in the granite mass of the Hoa-shan, which overlooks the triple confluence of the Iloang-ho, the Wei-ho, and Lo-ho, over against the imposing Fungtiao-shan, traditionally said to have been separated from it by an earthquake. Like the Pyrenees, which they resemble in their general aspect and elevations, the Blue Mountains form a parting line between two vegetable and animal domains. The chammrnps palm grows only on the slopes, but on the north side the paulovnia, catalpa, and magnolia are found intermingled with the spruce and oak. Here also flourishes the red birch, while a species of rhododendron attains the proportions of a tree. Some of the woodlands still harbour a few carnivora, and the northern atd southern fauna are represented by several species, among which are the chamois, ante- lope, monkey, and a wild ox protected by religious scruples from the native hunters. The parallel treeless ridges of the Funiu, which form an eastern continuation of the Tsing-ling, attain here and there an elevation of over 6,500 feet, but their mean height scarcely exceeds 2,600. Like the Tsing-ling, they form a parting line between the Hoang-ho and Yang-tze basins. In a single day the traveller passes from one region to another, presenting the greatest contrasts in soil, climate, vegetation, and even in the appearance, habits, and speech of the inhabit- ants. In the south the crops are endangered by a superabundance of moisture, in the north by prolonged droughts. On one side rice is the staple of agriculture and food, on the other maize, wheat, and millet. 1 IRS EAST ASIA. I'arnllol witli tho THinf,'-ling other rimfjcs run north of tho "NVoi-ho valley in the pninsuhi foriiK' — Teuiucb Lasdh of Shanri. SmO* 1 I ^400,OUO. 11 120 Miles. ^ formerly known as the Yo, was long regarded as one of the bulwarks of the empire. North-east of Lauchew some of the peaks take the name of Siwe-shan, or " Snowy Mounts," but tho ranges rising to the north of the Wci-ho valley are generally of moderate elevation. The ranges skirting the south side of the Ordos steppe are continued east of the lioung-ho through Shansi. Here the " Western Mouutaius." from which the province of Shansi takes its name, run uniformly in a THE YEIJ^OW LANDS. 180 o vuUoy in it they are rilling with s occurring and lower ituiu muss, north-onstcrly direction, nnd the whole region rises in successive terraces from the llonan lowlands to the Mongolian plateaux. Thus are formed several parallel hasins in which the streams flow until they find a hreacli tiirough which they reach the plains. One of the ridg(>s skirting these basins is the; Siwe-shan, or " Sierra Nevada " of Shunsi, and towards its north-east end arc several venerated peaks, the most fre(piented of which is at present the Utai-shan, or " Five Peaks," with un extreme height of 11,000 feet. As many as three hundred and sixty temples are said to stand on its sloj)cs, some of which are imposing structures, nnd one of them is built of pure copjjcr. According to the popular belief those buried Fig. 8(1. -Utai-mman. Scale 1 : 230,000. 115* e: ofG "1115° 10' , a Miles. varks of the f Siwe-shan, ho valley are of the Ordos ie " Western Qiformly in a here are insured a happy transmigration, and the flowers growing especially on the Nanting, or " Southern Peak," are credited with certain medicinal properties. From the summit of these holy mountains a view is afforded of the Ileng-shan, also one of the old "guardians of the empire." Traditional sacrifices are still offered here, but the Chinese do not display the same fervour as the Mongolian pilgrims to the shrines of the Utui-shan. The Yellow Lands. Apart from the highlands and alluvial plains, most of the Hoang-ho basin is covered with hoang-tu, or "yellow earth," which prevails throughout Pechili, icS&-y|fe»r>5 1 100 EAST ASIA. Shiinsi, Kinisii, liiilf of SIh'iihi, the iiortlicni division oi' iloniin.iinil cxlciiftivi" Iriirts ill Sliiiiitiiii^. This I'oriiiiitioii, coiiiitrisin^; a region liir^cr than tiu* whole of France, real Ik's in noine phiees even to the hanlvH of tlie Vaiif^-t/e, and stretelieH westwards to the Tibetan phiteaiix. In these repioiis everytliin^ is yellow — hills, fields, hi^^'hwavH, Inmses, (he very torrents and streams ehar^'d vith alluviu. Even the vej;etation is often covered with a yellow veil, while every pull of wind rniHC8 clouds of fine dust. From these lands the Kniiwror liiiiis»'lf takes the title of Ilouug-ti, or " Yellow Lord," equivalent to ' Master of the "NVorhl." According Fig. 87. — YiLi.ow I.AMOM OK NuiiTU China. Sonic I : 18.CIUO,000. :, I] <■ i! ■!j ii ^^ miDH ^! ^ AUnyJnm. Yellow Ijinds. Red Allvjvlnm. rnltBomle. Metamorpbic. Volouie. Carboniferoiu — >— — ^-^_i^ 300 MlleH. to Ilichthofon, the hoanj»-tu, regarded by him as a formation analogous to tlirf loess of the Rhine and I)anul)(> basins, is nothing more than so much dust accumulated during the course of ag(>s by the northern winds. In any ease it cannot be of glacial origin, for, inst«>ad of being simply heaped up like the moraine dei)o.sits, it is pierc(>d by vertical lioles rMinifying in various directions, and caused by the stem.s and roots of jdaiits gradually covered by the dust. Nor is the hoang-tu deposited in luyens like the alluvia of running waters, while it is destitute of murine fossils attesting a possible submersion of the land mider the ocean. i.Hivi' triirtH ' wliiilt' of il strrtrlifrt low — hills, th uUuviu. \\ of wind llii> title of According pJiJ i .1 I I- 1 VJ miferons IS to tlirf loess uccuinulatod ninnot be of dei)osits, it is by tho stems -til dej)osited Luriuc fossils C5 i a. a. H 5 is h i ■Vr^-- -'■^t ■ Omm -Emb k-~— TIIK YKI.LOW LANDS. 101 On iIm- pliiti'iiiix onoinlcil l»y iiuiuiitiiiM l>iirrii"H fnniiiny; f'oMi'cl Imsins tho vt'lliiw I'll ill I'nriiis ii iiiiiiiiriii liivrfnl' uiikiiuwii ili'hlli. Itiit wlicn'Vtr tlic iTOHivi) iii'tidii (if riiiiriiii}; wiitcrs Ims liad lull piny, riiDiiniMis tH-^urcs with vertical wiiIIh hiiM' Im'cii iipciK'tl ill tlic iit';j^illii('coitH iiiiots. Tlic wiitiT, priicli'iiliii;;; nipiilly tliiuii;,'!! till- ('(111111 ics-^ ciiiply Kpiii'i'M h'l't liy (lie routs ul' pitiiits, j^nidiiully (liHiiito- ^nitcs the soil, lirciikiii^ it up iulu pcipi'iidiciiliir lilnckH. The iihh'c cxpoMcd iiiusscs, n^i\ iii;,r way, loriii irrcj^iilar clills, Imtkcii up in all directions, and ercatinj^ ii laliyriiitli id deep pir;>:<'.s Hanked liy perpendicular walls. In some places the work of erosion has left little Iteyoiid mere lerraees, or isolated eminences, often resend)lin«;radiiiil infiltration has excavated unihr^roiind galleries in many dislrietH alfordin^ shelter for the whole population. The erosions reveal in some places a thickness of at least 2,(K)0 feet, oil'erinjf a prodif,'ioiis ipiaiitity of ferlilisinj; soil constantly washed down, and maintaininj; tlu! productiveness of the plains watered liy the ll(ian moisturo penetrates far into the soil, n'fnrning hy (•aj)illary attraction, charged with all the chemical Hulistances in solution iihich contrihute most to the alimentation of the vegetahle growths. It even serves as a manure for other lands, over which it is distrilmti'd in largo quantities. Such is its efficacy that it enahles the peasantry in the cold regions of North Chinii to raise erops of cereals at an elevation of (i.oOO feet, and in wmio places even 8,000 feet, wliereas in the warmer provinces of the south the land is seldom cultivated heyond tj.OOO feet ahove sea-level. Much ingenuity has been displayed in overcoming the didiculties offiM'ed to freo communication hy the perpendicular walls of the yellow lands. To jiass from river basin to river basin advantage has bet-n taken of every narrow fissure, deep cuttings have iK'en made in many jjlaces, and fresh routes opened when the.se have been filled up by tho landslips. Some of tho most- frequented roads have been excavated to depths of from 40 to 100 feet and upwards, nv/1 the labour expended on all these works is I't lea.st equal to that luvi.shed on the building of the (Jreat Wall, or the construction of the Grand Canal. The roads are sometimes continued for hundreds of miles almost in tho bowels of tho earth, but are seldom more than 8 or 10 feet wide, tho wheeled traffic being conducted by means of shuntings like the "gares " in the Suez Canal. In dry weather tho waggons sink into the dust up to the axle, while after the rains tho tracks are converted into quagmires, dangerous alike to man and boast. Yet these difficult highways, being quite unavoidable, po.s.sess great strategic importance, the bhickade of one of these defiles at a single point being often sufficient to cut olf all connnunication between extensive regions. The mountains whose lower slopes are covered by the yellow earth also contain some of the richest coal beds in the world. Anthracite and other varieties are found in all tho provinces watered by tributaries of the Iloang-ho — Pechili, ~5S^<;S®9^{2E»*E' 192 EAST ASIA. Shantung, Sliausi, Shcnsi, Kansu, lEonau — and some of the deposits are con- veniently situated on the river banks, whence tlie produce can be easily exported by water to the seaboard. The anthracite basins of Ilonan alone cover an area of over 21,000 square miles, so that one of the most agricultural regions on the globe offers every clement of future industrial development. Topography. The Iloang-ho basin has in recent times suffered so much from the ravages of civil war, inundations, and long droughts, followed by famine and pestilence, that not even an approximate estimate can be formed of its present population. The country, however, appears to be rapidly recovering from these disasters, and according to the reports of recent travellers, the towns and villages are again everywhere assuming their normal appearance. Thanks to the introduction of the potato plant, some of the upland valleys hitherto uninhabited are now receiving numerous settlers, and at the present rate of increase the Hoang-ho basin will in a few decades be again peopled by some eighty millions, as it was before the Mohammedan insurrection and the bursting of the Kaif ung-fu embankments. Qomi, the most elevated town on the Hoang-ho, was recently visited by Prjevalsky. It stands at an altitude of 8,000 feet on the extreme verge of the cultivated zone, which is here succeeded by the wooded tracts where the blue pheasant is indigenous. Siiiinfj-fii, lying east of the Kuku-nor, on the left bank of the Siuing, is the capital of Kansu, and residence of the authorities, who administer the Tangut and Mongol populations of the Kuku-nor region. Its position at the north-east corner of the Tibetan plateaux, and near the historic route to the Tarim basin and Zungaria, renders it strategically and commercially a place of great importance. But the wide circuit of its walls now encloses many ruins, while much of its trade has been transferred to JDonkir, some 24 miles farther west. Here the Eastern Tibetans and Si- Fan tribes assemble to exchange their rhubarb, hides, wool, live stock, and minerals for provisions and other supplies. Amongst these varied and unruly elements the exchanges are not always effected without bloodshed ; the dealers go armed, and disputes about the market prices sometimes end in free fights. This region is sacred in the eyes of the Tibetan and Mongol Buddhists, as the birthplace of the great reformer, Tsonkhapa, and amongst the lamassaries held in special reverence is Kunbtim, which lies south of Sining, on a wooded terrace near the deep gorge of the Hoang-ho. Befoi'c the recent Mohammedan and Si-Fan troubles this place contained 4,000 lamas, and its university comprises four schools devoted to the study of the occult sciences, ceremony, prayer, and the art of healing the "four hundred and forty ailments of mankind." One of the chief remedies is the foliage of a sacred tree, a species of older, growing in front of the great temple, every leaf of which is said to bear a representation of Buddha and various characters of the sacred Tibetan alphabet. Hue fancied he saw this marvel, and Szechfcnyi, after much inquiry, was shown a leaf on which had been traced the rude outlines of a figure of Buddha. :8 are con- ily exported an area of m the globe e ravages of tilcnco, that ation. The sasters, and >8 are again iction of the w receiving sin will in a before the ments. ' visited by erge of the )lue pheasant bank of the administer sition at the to the Tarim ace of great ruins, while farther west. leir rhubarb, s. Amongst icted without es sometimes and Mongol amongst the Sining, on a the recent mas, and its 3ult sciences, Y ailments of a species of lid to bear a tan alphabet, y, was shown la. BOAD CUT THROUGH TUB ■' YELLOW EABTU." ! in ■ 1 i t i i i • 1 1 If 1 ^ 3 : 1 ] • 1 1 1 i 1 i 1 i ii j! ; ; 1 j ^ i j ^ 1 1 i urn i:y^Wm mm TOPOGRAPHY. 193 North of Sining-fu and Chuufjpe-liicii, which also lies on the Sining-ho, nearly all the towns were reduced to heaps of ruinH during the late Dungan rehellion. But thanks to its strong ramparts, Lancheu-fii, starting-point of tlie main route to the west, was not only preserved, but also afforded an asylum to innumerahlo refugees from the surrounding districts. Official capital of Kansii, although the Viceroy resides alternately at Snclivw, near the " Jade Gate," Lanchcw-fu occupies an advantageous site on the right bank of the Iloang-ho, which near this ])oint bends suddenly northwards round the Ordos peninsula. Although its forty thousand houses are mostly mere wood huts, its well-kept streets, paved with granite and marble blocka, impart a pleasant appearance to this place. Amongst Kig. 88. — SiNOAN AND THE LoWBK VVei-HO VaLLBT. Scale 1 : 1,700,000. , SO MUea. its numerous industries are a cannon foundry and a factory conducted by Europeans for the manufacture of cloth for the army and other coarse materials in wool and camel's hair. There are even some steam-engines supplied from the neighbouring coal mines, and broad roads of moflern construction, planted with elms and willows, radiate from this important centre to every part o' the province. Some 60 miles south-west of Lanchew-fu is the fortress of Sa/'iir, or Ilnr/ietr, the chief stronghold of the Dungans during the insurrection. From this place they probably take the name of Sah-la', by which they are known in Eansu. On the left bank of the Iloang-ho stands the commercial town of Chougirei, at the cast foot of the Ala-shan, and close to one of the gates of the Great Wall on *i 104 EAST ASIA. the very vorjifo :hia the chief places arc Jitiotii (liichukiiai), on the left hank, and C/ini/an-kinTJi, near the north-eastern anfj;le of the Ordos peninsula. Soutii of the Great Wall the stronj^hold of Paotr f^uaids the chief p;issa<;:e lealHll f I ■! I W ■ j ' , " >'li TOI'OCUAPIIY. 195 hid, a fornu r in the tintU its i)iiRO(l;is, s arc lidutn iter 11 aiifi;U> of fi- j^uanls the >f Sbcusi and [oric higliway Pi)i(j/i((ii parts to resist (I the DiiiiK"" iiage (lone and Lire. A grotto iba in Central 2, representing ebief place is k-u of Fiu/i(iiifj- r south, on the of TuiiKjt'/ifW, lyor, but each large mart for lustries. gdoni under the empire, being a plain at the ns, and each of pierced in the central position •cial city of the .h1, it contains a thousand years n on the right )f its tributary, In 1541 it was D cnihunkincnts tied themselves, which was the )ld monuments, aermanent fair, lusively in gold a vast garden, busy place, is farther north- ies. The route [Wci-kiun) and ei-ho. West of veil-kept streets e plains watered the three head- -fu. The plains IS those of West ng rebels. The ed by the Grand eized and sacked ClIBKIANO. proper, with a lun 200,000,000. region the chief umoimt power of le largest, and is hence commonly spoken of simply as the Ta-kiang, or " Great River." Like those of the Iloang-ho, its waters are turbid and of a yellow colour, from the alluvia Avushcd down with the stream. But while the Ilonng-ho is compared to the "earth," or "Female rrinciple," whoso symlKilic colour is yellow, the Yung-tze, according to some commentators, is the " 8on of the iliile Principle ; " that is, of Heaven. The title of " lUue " given to it by the early missionaries, and still current in Europe, would thus be justified, azure being the colour of the sky. Hut much doubt prevails as to the real meaning of the characters conmionly used to designate this river, which may possibly mean " Son of the Ocean," in allusion to its vast inundations, or may be a purely geographical expression, derived from the Fig. 89.— COMI'AKATIVE DiSCHAItOB OK TUB YaNQ-TZR AND OTHER RiVEKS. 178,00(1 SS.OOO High Water. Mean. Low Water. old province of Yang, now called Kiangsu. But however this be, the grandilo- quent epithets applied to the river of Central China need cause no surprise, for it is certainly one of the very largest in the world. In the length of its course and the extent of its basin it is no doubt surpassed by three others in Asia alone — the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena.* But in volume it far exceeds those Siberian streams, and according to the careful measurements of Blakiston and Guppy, it is surpassed in this respect by three only in the whole wo,rld — the Amazons, Congo, and La Plata. Below the confluence of the Han the mean discharge is about 035,000 cubic feet * Length of the Yang-tze according to Ritter, 2,800 miles ; approximate area of drainage according to Blakiston, 7aO,OUO square miles. -m* jr I » J I jii! '11 mm 109 EAST ASIA. per socoiid, jiiid at liij,'h wiifor in Aii<;ust 1,'J()(»,(I(»() cuhic feet. Assuniinp' that tlio pr<)|H>rti()ii between iiiinfiill inul (liseliinwor eourso, the avenij;e vtthune ol' the Van<,'-lze woiihl l)e S"jS,()()U cubic leot, ur hix times that of t]io Nih-, anil ten times that ol' tlu> IMione. When instilulinj; eompaiisons between their two ^^rout water hif^hways, tlie r'hinese never fail to contrast the benelicent character of the southern with the ilisastrous influence of the northern stream, which they have entitled the " .Scimrfj^e of the Sons of Man." The Yano,nii(),ni)0. Mnvi^iilile fur Steuiucri. NuviRnltli- tur BoaiB. Ocriixiiiniilly n.iTipiMe. - SCO Milen. rniiiivifriible or uut^xplored. hundreds of thousands. Mareo Polo was certainly fi^nilty of no exapffjeraticm wlion he declared that the waters of the " Kian " bore more vessels laden with more morchaiidiso thnn on all the united seas and rivers of (Christendom. A conflagra- ti(m caused by li<»'htnin<>f in the port of Cehaiifj; in 1850 consmned seven hundred large junks and thousands of small boats, and on this occasion as many as fifty thousand p(>ople are said to have perished by fire or water. One local merchant alone ordered no less than ten thousand coffins. Thus were destroyed in a single port more boatmen than arc found in all France. Tlic Tuiping rebellion, which ragetl chiefly along the banks of the Yang-tze and its great affluents, for o time swept the river of its inhabitants. Ihit since the restoration of peace the local trade has revived, and lf)ng lines of craft engaged in peaceful pursuits have again made their appearance on its waters. But these flotillas are from time to time ly ii ji i iij i iT ii Mriiu - iiiniiip thut the t s lower course, Hix times thut lii .'11(1 ruin U8 that r in the world (teumers as the utillas of junks H nunihered by irnble ov doi'ed. igp^eration wlien aden with more n. A conflagra- d seven hundred us many us fifty c loeul nierchunt royed in u sin<»le rebellion, which ucnts, for o time peace the local rsui^s have again om time to time THE UrriUl YANO-T/E AND MIN. 1!)!) tossed by the waves raised by tlio passing steajiuTs, as if to warn them of the revo- lution that is taking pluct? in the niethorls of triiiisport. The Yang-tze lias received from the Mongoliiins tlie title of Dalai, or "Sea," and in the history of (!hina it hasphiyed the same ])art as the ocean and great marine inlets elsewliere. It has afforded even greater facilities for travel, for tlie transport of goods, and for the mutual inten^ouise of the surrounding peoples. At the present day European inHuenees are penetrating into the heart of the empire through the sumo channel, which for practical purposes may bo regarded as a continuation of the seaboard, stretching some 2,400 miles inland. The total length of the navigable waters in its basin is equal to half the circnniforeuce of the ghjbo. Tin; TJppKU Yang-tzv, ano Jlix. The head-streams of the Yang-tze arc known to ri.sc on the Tibetan plateaux, far beyond the limits of (!hinu proper. Although utill unexplored by Kuropean tnivellers, its actual source may be indicated with some ajiproach to accuracy. Tliree rivulets, known to the ^[ongolians as the Ulun-muren, or " lied J avers," and more particularly discriminated as the Nameitu, Toktonai, and Ketsi, take their rise in the north-eastern region of Khachi, south of the unexplored Kuen-lun ranges, which are here continued westwards by the Ihiyan-khara chain. These three streams jointly form the ^lurui-ussu, or " Winding ^Vater," of the Mongo- lians ; the Dichu, or Brichu, of the Tibetans — that is, tho " River of the Cow ; " and in Chinese territory the Yang-tzc-kiang. Where it was crossed by I'rjevulsky, at an elevation of 13,000 feet above tho sea, its bed was 750 feet broad, and its current very rapid. From the appearance of its banks it is evident that during the summer inundiuions its waters are spread over a space at least 5,300 feet wide. Hence at an altitude of nearly 2 J miles above the sea, and over 3,000 miles from its mouth, the Murui-ussu already discharges more water than many famous streams in West Europe. In this region the two great rivers of China approach nearest to each other, their basins being here separated only by the ridge of the Buyan-kuara, whose snows feed both streams. The Murui-ussu at first follows the same direction as the other rivers of East Tibet, flowing parallel with the Lu-tze-kiang and Luntzan-kiang southwards, as if intending to discharge its waters into the Gulf of Siam. But after falling for over COO miles towards the Indian Ocean, it fails to pierce the Y''unnan plateau, and is thus deflected eastwards to the China Sea. At this part of its course it has received the names of Kinsha-kiang, or " River of the Golden Sands," and Peshui- kiung, or " White Water." The title of Kinsha-kiang has also been conferred on the Yalung ( Yarlung), or Niachu, whicii flows from the slopes of the liayan-kharu parallel wiih the Murui-ussu and the other Tibetan rivers of the province of Kham. At the confluence of Iwth the Yalung, nearly as large and more rapid than the main stream, plunges into a wild rocky gorge which has never yet been pierced by a ])ath. Below the Yalung the Einsha-kiang receives another tributary from the Bayan- 200 EAST ASIA. m kliura, or at loaHt fntiii iln caHforn oxtoiiHion, (ho Miii-Hlum. Thin in tho Wim, or Mill of our inapH, \vlii

  • ^[iii iiiUHt l)o rr^mU'd as an aftiiu'iit of the KiuHlia-kian<;, to wliifh it in groatly iiift>rior in volumes and length, whiU* itH vidh'V is nuTcly a hitcral trouuhtK>ss bo attrihutod to tho common oulturo provailin<^ in tho vaHoys of tho Min and Lower Yang-tzo. Tho grwit river eomiii}^ fiou' '^e up|M'r rogiouM inliabitod hy wihl and liostih* triln's soemi'd to tlio (•ivilisod Chini'so to In'Umg to another worhl. They oonsidored, in fact, that tho Kiang, or " llivor," pro-ominontly s(» oaUod, sh«tuld flow altogether within tho limitM of tlioir domain. In tho Yukui.g, tho ohlo.st ('hinoso goognij)hionl work, tlio Min IS iiiioiidy (h'sorihod as forming tho up}>or course of iho "(Jroat Uivor," and, while an exaggerated imi)ortanco is ossigncKl to the lloang-ho, whoso valley had Wen the first to bo 8ettlcvhich offer a refuge to tho peasantry of the surrounding districts during civil Avar. At their foot are rich deposits of coal, carbonate of lime, and here and there of iron ores, while a little gold- washing is done along the more level banks. tho Wen, or imrscs of tho "jfiinU'd an an and lcn^;th, voi'Mcd by tlio onMidrrcd tlic 1 the conuiiDii lie j;rwi1 river «eenied to the fact, that tho ihiii the liniit8 ivork, tlie Min r," and Mareo I tho ohl maps 1 exapr^?oratc channel is scan-oly 470 feet wide, and. as most of those deep fissures run east and west, their ch-pths are sehhan reached by the s(»lar rays. 'J'lioir ghMimy recesses uro overgrown with ferns and other vegetable growths delighting in tho shade and moisture, while their summits are ch)thed with forests of conifers. Sunken ledges fringe tho banks, but in many places tho channel is fully 100 feet d.op, rising during the August freshets from 00 to 70 feet above its ordinary level in tho narrow ravines. To avoid those inundati(.ns all the houses havo to lio perched on the crests of the hoadhinds. Ordinary craft, if well managed, puss down without iiuich risk of going to pieces on tho sunken shoals; but those ascend- ing tho stream huvo to struggle against a current, in some places running over 10 miles an hour. Hero a regular towing system has been organized, and at tho uu)re dangerous jMiints villages have sjjrung up peopled mainly by skilled boatmen engaged in this work. As many us u hundred are sometimes attacluul to the bandnm towing-rope of a single junk, ami uro often preceded by a clown or hired bull'oon leaping and bounding along, and encouraging them with his merry antics. lletween Kweichew and Ichang tho series of fan, or chief rapids, have a t«»tul length of 114 miles, and terminate with several roniantic gorges, such us tlutso of Lou-kun and Mi-tan. Ik'yond those tho hills suddenly fall on either side, tho stream e.vpands to a width of over 5,000 feet, and hero porpoises are met following in tho wake of the junks. For at this distance of 1,000 miles from the coast niarino influences are already felt in a river to which the natives have applied tho sjiying, «' IJoundless is tho ocean, fathomless tho Kiang." For ordinary craft it may truly be descrilxMl as fathomless, being scarcely anywhere less than 20 foot dei«p even at low water. But as wo approacli tho sou the danger of inundations increases with tho gradual lowering of tlio banks, and in the plains the stream is enclosed on both sides by regular embimkments, like tlu)se of the Hoang-ho. The evil, however, is hero greatly mitigated by tlie extensive lagoons, and oven veritabh' lakes, which now begin to make their appearance on both sides. Of these lakes the largest is tho Tung-ting, which lies above the confluence of tho Han. With an area of at least 2,000 square miles, tho Tung-ting serves as a reservoir for the overflow of a basin some 80,000 square miles in extent, comprising nearly all the province of Hunan. This lake changes in form and extent according to tho volmne of water discharged into it by the Yuen, Su, Siaiig, and its other influents, and according to the level tif the Yang-tze itself, from which there is at tinus a 46 'f •^ 11 : II ! 202 KAHT ASIA. b;i<'k How tlirou^h the Tiiiiy:f iiijf-lio i'liUHsury. iMiriii;; the llnods tlit« rivriiiii jiopiilatioii Inrsaki- their villiiffcs, MCfkiiij; a temporary rel'ii;^e eillier on the Kiir- rouiulinj; hilU or on the ]M)ats and rafts. From tlie Tnn^-liiij^ are named the two adjacent provinces of Flnpeli and llunan ; that i^, " North of the Luke " and " South (tf the liake" respectively. Moth in :.izo, commercial anrl historical iinportnnco, tlie chief afllnent of thn Ijowcr Van>,'-t/e is nncpu-stionably the Man-kianj,', wliich presents a natnral hij;h- way of trade and migration between the two ^'real arteries of the empire. In the Hun basin aro also comment rated all the elements of prosperity — a temperati- ami hcallhy climate, fertile soil, abundant wutcr of j^;oo(l qnality, an endlessly varied flora, ^ypsnni, marbles and other bnildin;r materials from tlu* nei^hlxnirin^ hills ; lastly, rich carboniferous deposits. The Ilan is available for navigation nearly tlirou^'hont its whole <'ourse, and in summer niifi^ht be ascended by steamers for a distance of (lOU miles. Kven above llanchniifif-fu, whcie it is a nieri! torrent, it iMM'omoH navi>,nibl(» for boats durin'j; the floods; but, on the other hand, its middle c(Uirse is obstructed by rapids, which cause frecpient shipwrecks, Lower down the channel stands at a higher elevation than tlio Nurroundint^' plains, and hero the villa^^es are often bnilt on broad terraces, restinpp amblance is often heightened by the fierce storms to which it is subject. lielow Lake Poyang the Great River trends north-east across one of the most pleasant landscapes in China. Here the current flows in its broad bed with a s the riv«>riiin IT (III the Mur- uiiiiu'd tilt" t\vi» I'" iiiid "South iilllin'iil of tho 11 niitiinil hiy;li- iii|iirt>. Ill tho , tciiiporiiti! and •iidh'ssly viiricil hhourin^ hills ; vijjiitioii iK'iirly V stt'iimtTH lor u iiuTt! tornMit, it »thor himd, its vrccks. Lower liiiu: pliiiiis, mid st till* ciiibaiik- tho Hurrouiiding tho Hull and , altlum^jfli in its . At low water ds in its middle I to bunk. a frreat bend of )rtunco for navi- alluvial delta is a. back flow from led with islands, t, are little more f deep, and here ffs crowned with animation of tbo md junks nb iis? of the Orphan," Orphan," which -fowd and schools )f a marine inlet, lich it is subject, one of the most iroad bed with a •«»w«»PWI»" :»ji&a'iAiiW8M»-^ '' aa ' -jg-^-«»!^"^^ iiiWi>a g^ 4.'Jj>m ' ai)iWKtf jwi 'jmhs^ . .n '' !i;.i. ' a.aiii».f' gf M \i ti E7 o !5 ■< 03 a b O Ed ^ N 6 SB < h o LAKE POYAXO AND THE LOWER YAXO-TZE. 208 placid \in!form nintiou ; tlic monotony of its grey wutors is broken horo and there by It'tily iwlt'ts ; the biunlets alonfi; the banks nestle uniid their bamboo tliickets and clusters of trees; the nei ui*i^"V ! ivn»t'-itlfn.!im>*' Vlt' 204 EAST ASIA. connoctod by mud-banks with fho northeru lioiuUaiul at. the mouth of the estuary. In this part of the province of Kiangsu the settlors find tliemselves in contact with an abiiost savage aboriginal element, to which they present u marked contrast in their gentle disposition and superior intelligence. xVlthough inferior in importance to those of the Iloang-ho, yrvai -hanges have nevertheless taken place in the course of the Ijowcr Yang-tze-kiang. IJesides its present mouth, it had formerly two others farther south. Of these the largest branch, which may still be traced throughout most of its windings, ramified from the northern channel, ut the point where is now the city of Wuhu, above Nanking. From this point it pursued a meandering course south-eastwards to the llangchcw Fig. 91. — Old Mouths of the Yano-tze. Rcnle 1 : 4,600,000. After KdkiiiB nnd Dtxker. ..,.« Old Tied* of the Yong-tie-kiong. ^^^« HiUy Lands. m. . 00 MilGB. estuary. The outlines of its ancient bed are still preserved by a string of lakes in the Shanghai peninsula, now abandoned by the Yangtze. Thus the Ta-hu, the largest of these peninsular lakes, recalls its former fluvial character in the outlines of its western shores, which follow the right bunk of the Yang-tzc. The Gulf of Ilangchew itself still retains the aspect of a river mouth, although the process of alluvial deposits has been interrupted, and in many places even reversed, the waves washing away the sand-banks and eating into the old coast-line. Tlie whole district, which formerly comprised the Yang-tze delta between the two estuaries, is u low-lying ti-ut^t resembling ITolland in appearance, being cut up in every direction by dykes and canals, and all the traffic being ciiuducted by water. North of the Yang-tze the alluvial plain, which stretches ■(g M fl i^ FWW iMyH lM ji y ^ i>ii SECTITTEN niOnLANDS 206 tho estuary, contact witli i contrast in :hiingc>H have Besides its 3 the largest aniitied from :)ve Nanking, lie Ilangchcw \SL' y a string of mgtze. Thus former fluvial ;he right bank pect of a river d, and in many eating into the Yang-tze delta in appearance, ic traffic being ivhich stretches northwards to the old bed of the Iloang-ho, presents mucli the aamo aspect, and here also the natural and artificial channels form an inextricable labyrinth of watercourses. This region is traversed south and north by the Grand Canal, a former affluent of the Yang-tze, which now joins the Iloang-lio, while the IToai, fed by the torrents from the extreme spurs of the Kuen-lun, is distribut(>d over tho plain in numerous brunches, which converge in the old beds of the Iloang-ho. A Fig. 92.— Channels and Bkkakwatbks bbtwken the Hiiano-ho ani> Yano-tze, A (Voiding to Oie MiBsionnrips Scale 1 : 2,500,ty)0. :.0fG. 119 .aOMUns. good idea of the appearance of this watery region may be had from the chart of the early Roman Catholic missionaries, since rectified by the Chinese geographer, Li-fong-pao. Sechtten Highlands. Between the outer terraces of Tibet and the shifting shores of the YoUow Sea the Yang-tze basin is divided by the varying relief of tho land into several natural regions, dilToring one from the other in their climate, products, and the character of their inhabitants. A well-marked region is that of the West Sechuen highlands, j4j«MWH»«va'i*;.',-«iti»«Bv-'««Ma*«w*>^^ ^.'i .-.' . 20A KAST ASIA. wlicro flio "liivrr t»l' (idhU'ii Saiul " winds its wiiy iiloii;"' (locp iiiirrow "for^yrs tliroufrh tlic lands dl' tboTilu'tiins, ol' tlu" Miintzc and Lolo. I'lasi Sichucn, n^uin, is separated from the plains ol'lliipeli hy the " Cross Ranges " and the ravines between Kweiehew Fig. Oa. — ClIANNEI.R ANII BlIKVKWATKIlS HKTWKKV TIIK IloAXO-HO ANI> YaNO-TZR. ApTciriliiiif til l.i-foii!^ pno. Sculc 1 : v'.liTn," 0. m Mileii. and Ichang, while the Nganhwei hills mark the extreme limits of the uplands and the beginning of the lowland plains more recently conquered from the ocean. The ranges on the ]']ast Tibetan frontier are evidently the remains of a plateau gradually worn by the action of ice and running waters into parallel ridges running mainly north and south. ^.Ithough cut deeply into the thickness of the SKCIIUEN HIOHLANUS. 207 nf^os throujjh 1, is s(<|)iiriit('(l (11 Kwciclicw =5^ le uplands and lie ocean. IS of a plateau parallel ridges ickness of the plateau, the very river heds in this rejyion Mtill lie at elevations of from S.OOO to 10,000 feet iihove sea-level. Tlie ' lioni liiissa, tliroiirrh Hataiijif and Tatsienlu, to West China, maintains hetween those two towns an almost uniform elevation of 11,000 feet, and three passes on tliis route stand at a hei;,'ht of nearly 'JO.OOO feet. These passes are much dieadt>d by traveUers, far more on uceount of the rarefied atmosphere than for their steej) inelines, severe cold, and fierce gales. The ranges separating the Kinsha-kiang from the Yalung, and the latter from the Min, far to the south of the Kuku-nor and IJayan-khara plateaux, also present sunnnits rising uIhjvc the snow-line, which has been fixed by (Jill at frcmi 14,000 to 1(),000 feet in these regions of the East Tibetan frontier. Thus the Nenda, or " Sacred Mountain," rising to the east of the Upi)er Kinslia-kiang valley, under the parallel of liatang, is no less than :20,o00 feet high, and sends down in all Fig. 94. — Mol'NTAINS IIKTWEKN TaTSIENLU AND BaTANO. According to OUl. Limit of Forests. „ Tillnge. „ I'astures. Scale of Heights decnplc of Distances, directions vast glaciers from its bouijdiess snow-fields. With its spurs it covers the length of a whole day's march during which the blue glint of the ice on its upper slopes remains constantly in view. East of the Nenda rise the scarcely less elevated peaks of Surung, which probably form a portion of the same system. East of the Yalung the crests of another range running parallel with the Surung all rise above the snow-line, and one of them towers some 4,000 or 5,000 feet above all its rivals. This is the Ja-ra, or " King of Mountains," and Gill declares that he " never saw one that better deserved the name." " Never before," he adds, " had I seen such a magnificent range of snowy mountains as here lay stretched before me, and it was with difficulty I could tear myself away from the sight." The range culminating with the Ja-ra is connected northwards with the highland region, forming a continuation of the Bayau-khara, and here also numerous peaks exceed Mont Blanc in altitude. Armand David even thinks that amongst them >1 ' ■« r^lgiKfdMBKSj'M^iG^'dM ■" rr itM rnT i ii i i ili W i m i lin ii n iilii W rn «)f iho laud. Relatively more nutnornufl ev«>u than those of Tihet itself, tliey own fully one-half of the soil, the tinest henln of yaks and sheep, and multitudes of slaves emphtyed as shepherds or hushandmen. Tho praetice of usury has even rendered them tho real proprietors of the lands eidtivat(>d by the laity. Mend)ership is easily aequired in Ihcso relij»ious com- munities of Seehuen. Tho fulfilment of a vow, the fear of vengeance, tho desire to eseapo tho imposts, any pretext will serve to gain admission as u novice, and thus gradually acquire all the privileges enjoyed by the eoufrutornity. Hut while the lamas arc thus placed alwvo the law and exempt from tuxes of uU sorts, the common people are all the more ruinously oppressed, and the imposts, distributed over a continually decreasing nundn'r of families, huAe already become almost unbearable. During the last hundred years the population subject to taxation has diminished fully to one-half, especially through migration to Yunnan ; tho country is covered with ruined houses and hamlets, certain districts have even been entirely depopulated, and extensive cultivated tracts have reverted to the condition of forest or pasture lands. The still lialf-savuge Til>etan tribes of the Xorth Sechuen highlands are commoidy designatetl collectively by tho name of Si-Fan, or " Western Strangers." Clothed in skins or coarse woollen garments, and with their dishevelled hjcks falling in disorder over their shoulders, the Si-Fun present a ferocious appearance to tho cultured Chinese of tho plains. Yet they are far less formidable than they seem, and tho stranger seeking hospitality amongst them never fails to meet with a friendly welcome. Lamaism has been introduced to a limited extent into their social system, and their priests possess books written in the Tangut character. Those of the Upper Iloang-ho, like many other wild tribes of the interior, and like numy Chinese themselves, fancy that the Europeans can penetrate with their glance to vast depths in the land and water. TLcy can also fly over the hills, and if they cross tho plains on foot it is because they would be encumbered in their flight by the pack animals which they cannot dispense with. The chief of Sining asked Prjcvalsky's interpreter whether it was true that his master was able to see the precious stones sparkling 250 feet below the surface of tho earth. The Mantze, Lolo, and Chinese of Sechtten. Northwards the Si-Fan come in contact with the Amdoans, while towards the south and south-west they border on other tribes also of Tibetan origin, commonly known as Mantze, or " Indomitable Yermin." But the tribes which understand the meaning of this word reject it as an opprobrious term, and claim to be called I-jen ; that is, " Different People," or " Strangers." One of these tribes, the Sumu, or "White Mantze," dwelling on the banks of the Luhoa-ho, a western tributary of the Min, numbers, according to Gill, as many as 3,500,000 souls, living on agricul- ture and stock-breeding. But however this be, there can be no doubt that the Mantze form a considerable clement in the population of West China. Politically distinct from the surrounding tribes, the Mantze of Sechuen are grouped in THK MANTZE. LOLO, AND OHINKSK OF HKrilUKV. 211 i(»ro nuinerouB ;]i(' finest liordn ir liuslmiidnn'ii. s of Uu" luiitla relij^ious eoin- !c, tlie (k'Hire to u novice, und ipt from taxes •essed, und the 8, littve ulreudy pulution subject (Ugh migration amlets, certain utcd tracts have highlands are :crn Strangers." ishcvelled hicks iious appearance forniiduble than ver fails to meet lited extent into mgut character, nterior, and like rate with their er the hills, and tnbered in their B chief of Sining r was able to see ,h. irhile towards the rt'igin, commonly h understand the ) be called I-jen ; aes, the Sumu, or tern tributary of iving on agricul- ,o doubt that the aina. Politically are grouped in eighteen petty states, in whidi th<' uiilhtirily nf the kinglet is absdliite. He raises a tiix on the cultivated land as well as un the herds, mid every I'limily owes hin> the yearly trihute «f Hi.\ months' manual lalxmr paid l)y one of its nienilu rs. IIi> disposes of llie land at his pleasure, transferring it from one to another according to liiscaprice. The throne of tlie White Mautze, the most powerful of all lliesc states, is always occui)ii'(l by a (pu'cn, in grati-ful memory of the brilliant deeds performed by an ancestress of the reigning family. The epithet of "Savage" applied to the Mant/e is not justified, for they care- fully till the land, weave textile fabrics, build houses and towers in the Tibetan style, possess Tilwtan and Chinese writings, and support schools for their children. Ti»w.irds the west Tibetan influence j)revails, and here the lanuis are fully as powerful as amongst the Si-Fan. In the oast the Chinese are in the ascendant, and here numy of the Mantze have shaved their shock heads and adoi)t(>d the costume of the lowlanders. It is evident that the Mantze states will not be able long to resist the pressure of the Chinese colonists, who are continually encroaching on their domain. These colonists seize every pretext for declaring war against the " Savages " and taking possession of their lands. Thus the ^lautzeare undergoing the fate of all concpiered races, and they are accused of conunitting the very crimes of which they are the victims. In the great bend formed by the Kinsha-kiang between Sechucn and Yunnan dwell other tribes south of the Mantze, und like them threatened by the Chinese settlers. These are the Lolo, a name without any meaning in Chinese, unless it be a reduplicate form like the Greek " Uarbar," indicating " stammerers " unable to express themselves in a civilised language. In any case, under this designation of Lolo, the Chinese confound a large number of tribes in Sechuen und Yunnan, all differing essentially from the Si-Fan, Mantze, und others of Tibetun stock. Edkins regards them as members of the Burmese family, and their writing system woidd seem to resemble the Pali current in Ava and Pegu. By Thorel they are divided into " White " liolo, akin to the Laos people, and " Bluck " Lolo, whom he regards as the aboriginal element. They are generally taller and slimmer than the Chinese ; their features are also sharper and more pleasant, at least according to the European taste. But in some valleys goitre and cretinism are very prevalent affections. In the city of Ningyuen many of the Lolo have adopted Chinese ways, and some have even passed the examinations for the " civil service." But in the surrounding hills the tribes have preserved their independence, and are accordingly avoided by the Chinese traders and travellers, who pass north and south of their country. After centuries of warfare the colonists have failed to subdue these barbarians, whose chiefs have in very few instances consented to recognise the Imperial Government. Even the military stations established at intervals along the frontier do not prevent the Lolo from frequently swooping down from their eyries, and carrying off the salt and other supplies of which they stand in need. In the northern districts of Sechuen a half-caste race of Chinese, Si- Fan, and Mantze has been developed ; but in the south no crossings have taken place between the rude Lolo and their cultured neighbours. -1 : ^^<«W«^J«VNKnKWUinib^M««W-<^£»tl>^^^ 218 KAST ASIA. Th(! |Mirliiiii i>[ SnliiKMi (M'ciipicd ( xcliiHivi'ly hy tlio niincsc is limifcd I)y flir b1ii|)cs of (li(> iiioimtiiiiis lisiiifj; wt'stdl' the Miii valley. Kiist of tliisiiiiliirnl froiilicr the iil»orijifiiiiil clfiiiciits linvf coniplclcly vaniMJicd from the laud of llu- " Four Jlivfis," which WUK exclusively held by them some tweiity-fwo eeuturies ajifo, hefore the adveut of the first Chiiu'se iMnui>j:rauts. Siuce theu fre(|iii'nt uinssacres have taken place, iiud in the tinn" <»f KuMai Khan most of the settlers were extirpated. At the ^^anchu cou(piest (he country was aj^ain depojndated, after wliich fresli Btreanis of ini<;ration flowed in, esjM'cially from the provinces of Sheusi and Ilupeh. Hence tlic population of the " Kour llivers " is of very mixogetables in greater variety and abundance than in any other part. For soricidturo Secdiuen is also unrivalled oven in China, and so common is silk as an article of dr(>ss that on gala-days more than half of the inhabitants of tho capital are clothe ly industriouH, no t'ithor from The iK-opUi of I jjorhaps any ofRciiil courso ■11(11 weh of placed tlu>ir ken Httlc part iifj; their iiiex- aiid coal mii)C8 itod, producing For sericulture 18 an article of ital are clothed even the stcop rhanks to tho rica apparently of 8,000 and mtinucd across he superfluous thus returning am them, ar useful plants 38 is that of the labour between which secretes growing in the '8 are carefully he other side of t to protect the ! operation ; for hey have been ift'ercnt species, TIIK MANTZK, l.ol.o. AND flllNKSK OF SKCIIUKN. Pin im.— TlIK HiCMlKM IIlUIILANUt, 21.') r '*Mn on which the insects are hatched, aud secrete the highly prized white vegetable wax. •214 KA8T ASIA. TiiK I'uoMNrr, (»i Kwi:t(irKW. Enut 'I ''■• ^Tm' uiul itH tnlmtnrii'M, tho " Four Uivcrf*," • ri'to tho red wmdHtono ntid ciirlK) . roii.-t niiiy:t>M, all ruiiriiiijf Honth-wcsf niid lutrfli-i-ust, llir drlritiis Iroiu wliirli hiis been strcv i (tvcr tlic xiirlncc, iiiipiirfiii^? to it tlic ruddy tinj^c wliicii Iiiih HU^f^,'('st('d t(i UiclitliolVii its iiiiiiu' of the " Ucd nasiii." Tlii'sc niiiffcs arc coii- ni'ctcd witli tho crcHts Ncparatiiii^ tlir Miii aliliiciits t'roin tlir valley ol' t)ii< llan- kiaii^f, and which, according; to Aniiaiid David, attain an ch'vation of l(),(M)0 feet Hoiith ives tlie overflow from tlie Yan<;-tze and the Ilan. South of tile (ifcat River the province (d" l\^v•ei(•]lew presents in itH ffoncral relief a form anuloH^oiis to that of Sechnen. Thus towards the west it is com- manded hy u hi;?hland rej^ion, or rather a broken |)Iateau, above which Hho iho snow-olad peaks of tho lioau^-shan, or "Cold Mountains." Southwards it is sepa- rated by bonh'r ran>>:es from the Yunnan tableland, while tho chain known to Europeans as the Nan-liny; (Nan-shan), or "Southern Ilan;tinfj and Poyanj^. (Jradually driven by the Chinese intruders back to tho hills, these Nan-man, or " Southern liarbarians," as they were formerly called, have settled mostly in the Nanling and surrounding valleys. Hero they have been broken up by the intervening plains into numerous tribes, which have in the course of ages become differentiated to such an extent that it becomes diffi- cult to recognise their common parentage. The Shu-king of Confucius divides tho iMiao info throe main groups — the White, Blue, and Red. Certain tribes known by these names are still found in the South Kweichew highlands. But such epithets, derived from tho colour of the dress, are probably no longer applied to the same tribes as those mentioned by Confucius. To the now scattered nation of the Miaotzo also belong the Chung Miao, Ngnchung Miao, Kilao, Kitao, Tuman of Kweichew, Tung of Kwangsi, and the " eighty-two " tril)os described in a Chinese work translated by liridgman. Some of thorn take the name of the " Six • These are Iho Jlin-kiiing, the To-kiarg, tho He-ehui (BiHckWutcr), and Pei-shui (White WatPr). TffF. MFAOT/i;. •21 n !•' red sniidsfoiio III' tIrtriliiH I'loin tiii)^(< whirl) liiiM riiiijft'N an> coii- It'V «iiiii!utcd to the coiii|iicriiig race, iiikI some Miao scholars have already pas>4('d the university cxiimiiiiitioiis and been raised to the rank of mandarins. On the other hand, many hall-caste Cliiiiise live in tlie sava^rc state, while Mie still iiidepeiiilclit Miao Seng have taken reliige ill the mountain fastncss(>s. Mere they have biiill llieir t'ortilicd villages on tli(> liill-tops; but, with tho exception of one or two marauding tribes, tli(>y remain mostly on the defensive. They cultivate maize, and even a little rice in the more sheltered districts. They also rui-te cattle, and are skilful hunters, excbaiigiiig tho skins, hartshorn, musk, and other produce of the chas<' for the supplies liroiight by the hawkers and pedlars from the surroiiiiding plains. Ileing of a haughty tem- perament and intolerant of injustieo, the Miao are unable to ( yi'i'V^" i 'i i ''*^ liiii'tntlill'liliaitiMMtl— ■»»«■ \m ' r EAST ASIA. province of Kianp;si, fur to the south of the mountains forming the main axis of the Nan-shaii. To this water-parting have been given the names of Nan-ling, Mei-ling, Tuyu-ling, from the various /iiif/, or passes, leading from the northern to the southern basin. Of all the Chinese mountain.': the Mei-ling has been most f repiently visited, for this range is crossed by the main route connecting the port of Canton with the central regions of the empire. According to the local saying, the Mei-ling is the " gullet " between North and South China. All the goods brought by the river craft to either foot of the hills are conveyed by porters over the pass, and us many as fifty thousand hands are said to be constantly engaged at this difficult point of the route. At the beginning of the eighth century, when the trade with the Eastern Archipelago had been greatly developed by the enterprising Arab merchants, this highway was constructed, or more probably repaired, by the Emperor Changkuling. Ritter estimated the height of the Mei-ling at 8,000 feet, but modern exploration has shown that this estimate is much too high. Still the passes in this region are everywhere so steep and rugged that all goods are carried across the hills by porters, pack animals being employed only in the neighbourhood of the large towns. The parting-line between the peoples and languages of the north and south does not follow the water-parting between the two basins. It passes much farther north, here following the normal axis of the Nan-shan range, which is entirely comprised within the limits of the Yang-tze basin. Thus the traveller ascending the Kia-kiang River through the jirovince of Kiangsi passes from the domain of the Mandarin dialect to that of the southern languages as soon as he has entered the defiles above Kingan. Hence, notwithstanding its low elevation, the main axis has played an important part in the distribution of the populations in this part of China. The division of the land into innumerable valleys has also had the effect of developing a multitude of isolated clans largely independent of each other. Except along the main commercial highways the inhabitants of the secluded Nan-shan valleys know nothing of the outer world, and most of them suppose that beyond their narrow domain the rest of the earth is occupied by savages, or is a prey to wild beasts. The vegetation of Hunan and Kiangsi is naturally of a more tropical character than that of the Upper Yang-tze provinces. The aspect of the plants betrays the neighbourhood of the torrid zone, while even such trees as the oak, chestnut, and willow are of different species from those of North China and Mongolia. On the upland slopes the magnificent golden pine {^Ahies Kwmpferi) is distinguished by its great size from the other evergreens ; lower down one of the most common trees is a much smaller pine with extremely narrow leaves. At the foot of the hills the camphor-tree is cultivated round about the villages jointly with the Elwncocca and varnish plant (^R/ms vcrniciferny A great part of the country has been completely cleared of its timber, and in many towns the only available fuel is straw, dried herbs, or brushwood from the neighbouring hills. The woods are the property of the Emperor, my the natives, and they accordingly take all the wood they require for their houses and boats. But the hills are still clothed with a magnificent vegetation of shrubs and plants of small size. The Chusan Islands especially are transformed to a land of enchantment by the spring and summer flowers, [n no other temperate *"«i.!i*l!i|5: "T^af? , !«g »j i iii^ !i j» j ii*wpi _ W' f ".^ ■■I T INHABITANTS OF THE LOWER YANG-TZE BASIN. 219 lain axis of tbe -ling, Mei-ling, to the southern 4uently visited, vunton with the Mei-liug is the y the river craft and as many as ult point of the ith the Eastern merchants, this )r Changkuling. lern exploration 1 this region are ! hills by porters, ^e towns, h and south does ch farther north, itirely comprised ig the Kia-kiang )f the Mandarin the defiles above is has played an ; of China. The !ct of developing Except along the ban valleys know and their narrow » wild beasts, tropical character slants betrays the lak, chestnut, and ;ongolia. On the stinguished by its t common trees is )t of the hills the :he Ehncocca and 8 been completely straw, dried herbs, s property of the d they require for nificent vegetation [y are transformed no other temperate region, except perhaps in Japan, is there found such a surprising variety of plants remarkable at once for their exquisite foliage, brilliant blossom, and sweet perfume. On the other hand, all the large wild animals have disappeared with the forests wliich sheltered them. The wild boar alone has again increased in number bince the country has been wasted oy the Taiping rebels and the Imperial troops. In some reedy islets of the Yang-tze a small species of deer (U//c/ro/jotes) is met bearing a remarkable resemblance to the musk deer, although separated from that animal by vast intervening spaces, and found nowhere else in China. The only domestic mammals raised in the country are the ox, buffalo, and pig. The heron is held in great veneration by the peasantry, and large communities of these birds are often seen, especially in the thickets surrounding the pagodas. Inhabitants of the Lower Yang-tze Basin. The Nan-shan is a highly favoured agricultural region. From the Lower Yang-tze provinces China draws most of its exports, and the chief tea plantations are found in the eastern districts of this basin. The tract stretching for some 300 miles from the banks of the Chang to the alluvial lands about the Yang-tze estuary, and including the southern slopes of the Fokien highlands, is pre-eminently the home of the tea plant. It is generally cultivated on the slopes with a southern aspect, not in continuous plantations, but either in small plots, or else in the hedges between the fields, and on the embankments between the rice grounds. The Yang-tze-kiang varieties are used especially in the preparation of the green teas. Sericulture is also widely developed in the Nan-shan and Lower Yang-tze regions, which take the first, or almost the first, rank not only for tea and silk, but also for rice and other cereals, as well as sugar, tobacco, hemp, oleaginous plants, and fruits of all kinds. The sweet potato ia cultivated to the very top of the hills, and in the Nan-shan country cotton alone is not produced in sufiicient quantity for the local demand. But the deficiency both in the raw material and in woven goods is amply supplied from the provinces of Chekiang, Nganhwei, and Hupeh. The industrious character of the people is revealed in the allies they have procured for themselves in the animal kingdom. Like the English in mediseval times, they have domesticated the cormorant, turning to account its skill at fishing. Being furnished with an iron collar, to prevent them from swallowing the prey, these birds are trained to dart from the junks to the bottom of the river, returning each time with a fish in their bill. After the day's labour they roost in regular rows along both sides of the boat, thus maintaining its equilibrium. Elsewhere otters are employed in the same way, and piscicidture, a recent inven- tion in Europe, has been practised for centuries in China. Dealers in the fry traverse every part of Kiangsi, supplying the tanks, where the fish are reared and rapidly fattened for the market, Some of the processes of this remarkable industry are still unknown in the West. Such pursuits could only have arisen in the midst of teeming populations, and I 1 : K4**8j^; ■■"' "■*"'-■■'•■"'■■"' '''■"■■'^'"--•■'■'~"~""'"*"-?""-T-'"Yr1f'lTtilTiriMiaMiri' i »M i > 220 EAST ASIA. towards tho mifldlo of the present century the provinces of Kianpsu, Ngiihhwoi, and Chekianp^ were found to bo the most dcnisely peopled lands in the whole world. Accordinjj to the returns for 1842 Chekiang hud a population of no less than 20,000,000, or upwards of 5G0 to the square mile. But after the late massacres, followed by famine and pestilence, the survivors were estimated by Richthofen at no more than 5,500,000. Yet even this would bo a higher proportion than that of France, and the country is now being ropeoplod with surprising rapidity. The wasted plains of Chekiang have been occupied by iiumigrants from the provinces of Tlonan, Ilunan, Kweichew, Sechuen, and especially Ilupeh, and the new settlers, speaking various dialects of the Mandarin language, do not always understand each other. But harmony is being gradually established, and the common speech resulting from these diverse elements resembles the Mandarin standard far more than did the old local variety. Thus it is that the mixtures following every great convulsion contribute more and more to the remarkable national unity presented by the inhabitants of China. The only formality required of the new settlers on abandoned lands is the payment of a nominal sum to the piiiifi Jen, or nearest representative of the former possessors. After two years the soil becomes their absolute property. ^i Topography. Since the recent troubles the number and size of the towns in the Yang-tae basin have been much reduced. Yet several still remain which rank amongst the largest cities in the world ; but these are naturally found only in the fertile regions below the Upper Kinsha-kiang. In the part of Sechuen commonly included in East Tibet the chief place is Batang, which was completely ruined by a series of earthquakes in 1871. It now consists of a few hundred new dwellings standing in a fcitile plain, watered by an eastern affluent of the Kinsha-kiang, and by copious hot springs. Nearly halt of the people are lamas, living in a sumptuous monastery with gilded roof, and the place has no importance except as a station on :'ie great highway between Central China and Lassa. Here the traders from the East exchange their brick tea and manufactured wares for the musk, borax, peltries, and gold-dust of the native Tibetans. These are under their own magistrates, and controlled by a Chinese garrison, while the surrounding hills are occupied by the completely independent Zendi tribes. Litang, another mart on the route between Tibet and Chingtu-fu, is one of the most wretched places in the world, lying in a depression of the Kichu basin over 13,000 feet above the sea at the limit of the vegetable zone. In this cradle of 'he Tibetan nionarcihy nothing grows except a few dwarf cabbages and turnips, yet here reside some 3,500 lamas in a rich monastery all covered with gold-leaf. Tatsienlii (Tachindo) lies some 5,000 feet lower down, in a pleasant valley watered by a tributary of the ]llin. Here is the custom-home on the Tibetan frontier, besides a Chinese garrison and several Buddhist or Mohammedan traders from Shansi. Yet the nominal ruler of the country is a i^kutze king, ii«l;!j i H i t i M^ ii . i i'M i . ii w w i ^ ^i W WjMffwwy^^y gsu, Ngiihhwci, s in the whole iiition of no less ; after the lato •c estimutcd by igher proportion with surprising nmiigrunts from ally Ilupeh, and nguage, do not established, and es the Mandarin iiat the mixtures the remarkable rmality required ininal sum to the ter two years the in the Yang-tae mk amongst the y in the fertile le chief place is n 1871. It now in, watered by an Nearly halt of led roof, and the ' between Central eir brick tea and ist of the native led by a Chinese etely independent nd Chingtu-fu, is ion of the Kichu ble zone. lu this arf cabbages and r all covered with \vn, in a pleasant :om-ho'i-ie on the t or iVtoliammedan 8 a Ikutze king, ■•s ^imm* Ji i lu till ' iilJ i ti i 'L i ui i» hu l l i ii » >i fl Mii | iiii 'w i ' i ii* i i* i r i ■ n >iia. m ■.■ i wiMlii w ii. WfiM i w > jia i» m * f''l l»: u i »i "i u i ( iiw«>iii i > i i U w* v l imw 4! "■ ' ■? m CUINKSE MINERS-UPPEK YANGTZE UIUIILANDS. TOPOaRAniY. 221 ■:y.J whose territory strctclios south wuhIh to the Lolo dotniiin. Chinese women arc not ullowed to cross this state to enter Tihet, hut they lire luunorous in Tafsienlu, wlicre the Tihetan eUinient is mainly represented hy half-castes. Tatsienlu is the present centre of the Roman Catholic missions for Tihet. T?i'low Tatsienlu, the Tatu-ho River, after cmergin}^ from a formidahle gorj^o with sheer walls 050 feet high, reaches the walls of Lntiiui-choo, the first city lying completely hoyond the Tihetan and JIantzo lands. Beyond this point it is joined by several tributaries, the united stream forming the Tung-ho, the chief affluent of the Min, and even exceeding it in volume. The ^lin is navigable by boats at all seasons as far as Kiatiny-fu, at the confluence of both rivers. This place is one of the chief marts of Sechuen, whence the pei-la, or valuable vegetable Fig. 98.— Chinotu-fu Basin. Scale 1 : l.BOO.noo. .— 30 Miles. wax, is forwarded to all parts of China. It also receives by water the raw silk of Yachetc-fu, lying to the north-west on the route between Tibet and Chingtu-fu. Here is prepared moat of the brick tea intended for the Tibetan market. In the neighbourhood is cultivated a species of the plant who^e coarser leaves are used in this traffic. Yachew is the chief stronghold and largest military depot on the frontier. In 18G0 it held out successfully against the Taiping rebels, without the aid of the imperial troops. Chinglu-fH, capital of Sechuen, still remains what it was in Marco Polo's time, a "rich and noble city," although since then more than once pliuulerod and even destroyed. Nearlj' tlic whole population, said to have exec ' million, was exterminated by Kublai Khan. The present city is of recc the Imperial Palace, probably its oldest building, dating only from the foiuiLcuiu century. The ^t ^S i ■»■ a^i-j* rf «wj T .a^ tU*i^ il K iil f:^» ' U - '^ - . 'W : "- J tf .. - * VS l*, i'*iriffl 222 EAST ASIA. walls and most of fhe houses wore rebuilt towards the end of the last century, after the place hud been wasted by a great file. Few towns cover a lurj^er urea, vast suburbs stretchinf? far beyond the enclosure, which is itself 12 miles in circuit. Like most provincial capitals, it consists of a Chinese and Munchu quarter, of which the former is by far the largest and wealthiest. Chinptu is the " Paris of riiina," the finest and most elegant city in the empire, with broad, straight, and regular streets, lined by handsome wooden houses with gracefully curve'[iecMilly in silks, tobacco, vefj;etable oils, and nuisk, even than the provincial capital itself. This " Shanghai of West (.'hinu " has its exchange like Fig. 100.— CoiHMK OF TiiK Ya.no-tze above thk GonoEg. According to IllukiKtuti. 8calc 1 : I.OuO.OOO. . 18 Miles. the European towns, where current prices arc regulated, and here is also a silver refinery, which works up ingots to the daily value of some £4,000. Chung-cheng reiilly consists of two distinct towns, both ranking as administrative centres, Chung-cheng proper and Kiangpeh (Limin), west and east of the confluence, besides a vast suburb on the right l)ank of the Yang-tze. Most of the wholesale dealers are strangers from Shensi, Shansi, and Kiangsi, and an English Consul has been stationed here since 1878. At the beginning of the century the population was estimated at 36,000, in 1861 Blakiston raised it to 200,000, and according to TOrOGRArilY. 22C workiiu'ii, wlio chuoii. rictu- i' tho nuvij^ablc tlio i)ntducc oi [t docs u larjifor von thiiii tho i cxchungo like •F''- ^v,: t' k a 30' ■■■■'%: vim l^m re is also a silver >. Chung-clieng istrativo centres, the coniluence, of the wholesale glish Consul has y the population and according to tlio latcHt rclurnN this figure has Immui more than trchlcd. North of rhung-tlMiig tho buHy town «>f Jlo-cltrw occupii-N a convfuicut position near the junction oi' tho three hcad-stnaniH of the I'a-ho. In the neighbouring hills " ,; fatty earth, wliich in times of distress is kneaded into small loaves, baked on ( li iicrf-' tires, and larj^ely consumed in all the surrounding districts. Below Chung-chciig the large emporium of Fiicfinr, stands at the confluenco of tho Kungtan, or Kicn-kiang, and thus conmuinds all the navigable waters of the province of Kweiehew. Most of the junks stop at the Kungtan Rapids, beyond which a few flat-hottomed craft alone ascend as far as Km-i-i/anif, capital of Kwei- ehew. This city lies near the source of tlie river, and coiimnmicates across low water-partings on tlie one hand with the Si-kiang basin, on the other with that of tho Yuen, an influent of Lake Tungting. In the neighbouring highlands are some Tift. 101.— I-CHANO GOROBII. Apcnidiiiff to ninkitton. Scale I : 600,000. 13 Mile*. independent Miaotze tribes, who have been partly evangelized by the Catholic missionaries. In a mountain gorge near Nganshun in this region a torrent is precipitated from a height of several hundred yards. Hero also quicksilver occurs, probably in greater abundance than elsewhere, and in many places lumps of cinnabar are constantly turned up by the plough. But since tho sanguinary outbreak of 1848 the mines have been closed, and in 1872 they were still under water. Tho pleasant city of Ktceichew-fu is situated, not in the province to which it gives its name, but within the Scchuen frontier on the left bank of the Yang-tze, at the upper entrance of the gorges which terminate lower down at I-chang, in the province of Hupeh. I-chung, where is produced the best opium in China, is tho most inland city opened to direct trade with foreigners. A European settlement was established here in 1878, and since then its trade has rapidly increased. '■A . :J#»->-» .j^^SiK.. :|ii'i?1i M •ill li'iri! ' m ii? f'i*;- ; yinH 1' 1 1 11 t 1 ■ 1 ill 1 II i flM^^B y^': ■ fWlf-, i- 'i 886 KAST ASIA. Tlic ' xporlN conrMHt jiiiiiiily in cfml, iiu'diciiii'M, and dru^s of all moHn. Alfhouf^h lyiiiK i. '*'*'* milt'M aliovc Sliaii^fliai, tluH jilaic is now n-fifularly visited hy a Yan^j-tzo HtniiiKM-, whirh usually finds '20 foot of water oh fur us the rapids. Most of tlu> Socliucn Iwuts discliar>,'o their curf^nos citluT at I-('lian>; or at S/iazi, lower down, wlirncc tli(> incrcliandise is cojiveycd in larjjfcr craft to Hankow. Jlclorc tlu' intrti- ductioti of stt-anj nnvi|,'ation, Slia/i, which stretclics for over U miles aloiij^ the river, had a larj^er trade than I-chan^, imd it slill enjoys the advantaj^e of direct coni- niunieation through the navigable Taipin^ Canal witli Laku Tun^tin^. Near Nhazi stands the stron^j^hold of h'itir/irir, on the left hank of the Yaiiff-tze, a place already mentioned by ('cmfucius, hut now p'^scHsinf? merely un administrative anf city in Hunan, and one of the gnat marts of ih.,- \vii, JU'lorc tlu« iiitro- M uloiij; the river, l^c of direct coni- Tungtiiifj;. Near YuiiK-tz''. 'I I''"*'*' dmiiUHtrativo and utorior, along tho t' tho main water )nneeted by canal 3 Lower Yuen get . Farther down, ids of tho Yuen, lize. But a much 8 the chief city in on a rapid of the pr, and with vast am 25 to 30 tons iter craft are able lich occupies the in, is tho natural nces, through the lus lies in tho very joriums of Chung- tre of the trade in mrrounding tracks herbs, pills, and an mand in a country t any other people, le treaty porlH and itely diminish the E this traffic. But ul-mining industry sylvania in extent, e valued, but the ivn. Thousands of mg-tze, whence it ho mines has been veen Siangtan and .iWuy!,«j-^,. ' '-.'iii»j i -W ' '' i ,gIgn.'-i ' ;v.:» 7^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1 'IteiiiBte'lilltliiiliiHii Photographic Sciences Corporation «' I CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/SCIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical MIcroreproductlons / Instltut Canadian de microreproductions historiques illWilliJ i WIiW ^SK^BI^m^^^S^w^mm^^^^^^^^ V"- m mil' 14 ' ' TOrOORAPIIY. 227 ■ \^ ^1 \ w*. liU m O o S) 6 ■< (- o !?; ■< o < I I m UM Lake Tungtinfj. On a hill fnoinf* tlio city stnnda the collojjo of Yolo, one of the most renowned in China, where over one thousand students, from twenty-two to twentj'-five years of age, pursue their studies in private, consulting their teachers only in the case of extreme difficulties. Below Changcha a granite ridge crossing the Siang is largely used in the manufacture of flags and mortar, while the argillaceous sand is in great demand amongst the numerous potteries of Tungkwiin. Here are produced enamelled tiles of all colours, and covered with fanciful designs, much used for the roofs of temples and houses in Ilunan and the surrounding provinces. Lower down Siuiiiji/in may he regarded as tlie upper port of Lake Tungting, while its outlet is commanded by Yocliew, which stands on a cliff over- hanging the right bank of the Yang-tze. Before the middle of the present century the thme cities of Wiichnug-fii, on the right bank of the Yang-tze ; Hankoic, over against it, east of the Han confluence ; and Haiti/ang-fii, in the peninsula formed by the junction of the two streams, con- stituted probably the largest collective urban population in the whole world. London, which now knows no rival in this respect, had at that time scarcely more than two millions, whereas, before the Tai'ping ravages, these three vast hives of human industry are said by some travellers to have had a joint population of eight millions ! But however this be, the number had been reduced to below^ one million when Blakiston ascended the river in LS61. Of the three cities, Hankow, capital of Ilupeh, is alone enclosed by ramparts, which comprise un area of over 15 square miles. Beyond tlie walls the suburbs stretch along both rivers, while the connection with Hanyang is completed by a multitude of junks, forming a living bridge from bank to bank. Even the main stream, here nearly a mile wide, is covered with craft, amongst which arc numerous English and Chinese steamers. As a trading-place Hankow enjoys special advantages, standing as it does at a central point on the navigable course of the Yang-tze, and at the confluence of the Han-kiang, which gives direct access to the Hoang-ho basin and the province of Shensi. Hankow — that is, " Han Mouth " — may even be said to command the course of the Siang and the whole of the Tungting lacustrine basin. Standing thus at the converging point of the great navigable arteries running east and west, north and south, Hankow is the true commercial centre of China. The bnlv drawback to its advantageous position is the danger it runs from the inundations of the Yang-tze. When the embankments give way its streets are flooded, and the people seek refuge on tlie surrounding hills and artificial mounds scattered like islands in the midst of a vast inland sea. No other city of the interior has such a large foreign population as Hankow. A fine European quarter, separated from the river by an extensive open space planted with trees, overlooks the native city. Vast works have here been undertaken to raise the land above the level of the inundations; and a so-called "bund," or embankment, 50 feet high, now protects the European concession from this danger. Hankow is the chief centre of the tea trade in China. The foreign settlement may almost be said to depend on the oscillations in the current prices of this article. The arrival of the first crop is the signal for a general commotion ; . t- 228 EAST ASIA. crowds swiinii in tlio warolKtuscs and count iiiff-liousoH, sloaincrs aro numrod along the cndianknicnf, nijjht and day strocts and squares are ulivc with tlio busy throng. All this bustle lasts lor three months during the very hottest and most relaxing season of the year; and the (>X('itement grows to fever heat towards the end of May, when the vessels boun-tze- kianj,' hasin. Nej,'(itiations liave already l)een s(>t on fo of railway. Meantime the direct seaward trade of liankow is represented hy over fifteen hundred vessels, with a tonna^'e of nearly ii million, of which less than one-half is Chinese, and most of the rest Uritish. Alonj^ tho banks of the Hun the chief jkjiIs are HauvhHiHj-fii, u former imiwiial capital; Siiijm-itdii, noted for its steel works; C/iirhidficii, at the head of the navi- Fig. 103.— Hankow and siuiiocndino Lakh*. Sciiio 1 : ;i,7rio,iK)o. . 60 MilPS. gation, over 4 miles in circumference •. Tjdo/io-liow, wi\\i a large cotton trade; and 54 miles lower down the twin cities oi >-iiing>/ang-fi( and Faiig-clidig, on the right and left hanks respectively, near the confinence of the Tang-ho and l*ei-ho, which give access to the rich phvins of Honan and the Hoang-ho basin. Midway between Fang-cheng and Hankow is the busy port of Sliaynug-vhcn, where liichthofen saw as many as five hundred large junks moored to the quays. Most of these ijlaces stand at some distance from the Han to avoid its disastrous floodings. Below Hankow the narrow rocky peninsula between liake Poyang and the Yang-tzc is occulted by Kin-Ja'aiig, or the " City of the Nine Rivers," which does a large trade in tea and tobacco, and where there is a European quartei-, protected like that of Hankow by a strong embankment of recent erection. N(inch((ng, cajjital of Kiangsi, lies in a fertile plain at the head of the delta of the Kia-kiang 2H(» KAST ASIA. (Chiin^j, 1111(1 at the ctnivcrj^iiiff point of Hovorul iiii])oi'taiit trade routes. Hero are noiiic of tlin>^i> triiiiM|ilial nrclirs raiMrd in no many ]>la('(>s to the nieinory of illnstrions women. Nanohanjif is u chief centre of the j)orcehiin industry, and no h'ss than hve hundred fuetories were at work in thi-* district durinj; the hist century. The porcehiin of Kiiiifd-c/icii, in the Chun^-kiun^ valley east of Lake I'oyanj,', instill tin? most hiji^hly esteemed in Chinii, yet it is now far inferior to the Knrope-ui ware in paste, form, and (U'sij^n. In tho oustorn und south-eastern valleys towards the Fokien frontier tlie excpiisite teas are ])rodueed which ure nunuf industry, and no the lust t'ontury. X' Poyunj^, is still •iUropc'in ware in I'yH towardfi the from the city of ere was discovered \.nking), capital of rts of Tatuiig and known throughout steel, which, how- the neighbouring [y from the bark of Nanklnif, capital of Kiangsu, and rcstdcnn' of the Viceroy of Kiangnan — flnit is, of tlic two provinces of Kiarigsu and Xganliwci— was furnierly llie nietmpolis of the empire, and hmj,' llie largest city in tlie world. Kven after the removal nf the court > Peking it rivalled the northern capital in its pdpnlatidu, trade, and industry. In iM.'iU it again for a moment became a ntyal residence, the " Heavenly King," or sovereigji of the Taiping rebels, iiaving chosen it for his capital. I tut after an obstinate siege of two years it was captured in lS(il by the Imperial forces, its surviving defenders put to tin' sword, aiul the place converted into a iieajt of ruins. Yet a few years of j)eace have sutliced again to restore Nanking to its pluco anxmgst the great cities of China. The area imdiidcd within its enclosures, some IH miles in extent, still comi»riscs many open spaces, waste grounds, and piles of debris, where the snipe, i)hea.sant, and even large game are pursued. \ Government arsenal has recently been (>stablished in the neighbourhood, and several factories have again resunu'd the manufacture of the cotton fabric; fonnerly known as " Nankeen." Here are also produced the finest satins in China. Nanking, or Kiangning-fu, as it is ofHcially called, has resumed its position as the metrop(dis of letters and learning, and as many as twelve thousand students hero undergo their yearly examinations. Large libraries have been again collected, and new printing-oHlces opened, with Chinese and Kuropean a])pliances. Amongst the recent inunigrants, the Mohammedans are said already to nund)er over fifty thousand. Except its rampai'ts, Nanking has lost all its famous monu- ments, including the celebrated " Porcelain Tower," which was destroyed during the Taiping war. The commercial enterprise of the province of Kiang-su has been chiefly concentrated in the city of C/ihxjkinnf/, lying east of Nanki?ig, and also on the right bank of the Yang-tze, at the southern terminus of the Grand Canal. It also communicates by water with Shanghai, and is the converging point of several extremely important trade routes. Hence the rapidity with which it has recovered from two disasters during the present century. In 1842 the English army, after the victory followed by the treaty of Nanking, found Chingkiung converted into a city of the dead. Its Manchu defenders had destroyed their women and children, and then made away with themselves, in order to escape the hated rule of the "red-headed barbarians." In 1853 the place was taken by the Taipings, and the inhabitants four years afterwards massacred by the Imperialists. As in Nanking, nothing remained except the ramparts and a few of the wretched survivors crouching amid its ruins. Y''et Chingkiang has already become the second port in China for the importation of foreign goods. On the opposite side of the river formerly stood the largo city of Koaehvic, where the Government had established its chief salt depot on the Yung-tze. But this place has been washed away by the erosion of the stream, and now nothing remains except a few houses. Yaiifjehcu; a little farther north, on the Grand Canal, was the old capital of the Yang kingdom, which, according to some etymologists, gave its name to the Yang- tze-kiang. This is the " great and noble city " of Yanju, governed for three years by Marco Polo. m rf-S^-^f\ »». 81)2 MAST AHIA. Sliintijliiii, the nniri'sf Kniport to tlic Vaiijif-t/c cHfiiiirv, Iiiih Itccdiiic the firnt comnHicial mart in flic fiii|iirc. and in all Asia kiiowf n Miipcrior fxccj)! n(inil»uy. Yrf wIh'Ii in iMj'i I lie Knj^lisli choHO this plact' iur tluir factorit'M, it Hccinrd (lilliriilt fu iiilicvo that thrv coiild I'vur convert it inlu a rival dl' Canton or Atnoy. It wiiM iloiiliiloH the ontitort of Siic/inr and tlic rich Hurroundinj; diHtiicf, and it haci also ih*' important advanta|;t> of commandi'i)^ the entranc*' of the ^rnat water liij;h\viiy which traverses th<' whole empire from east to west. Ilul there wero formidahlc dillicultics of scil and climate to contend a^jainst. The very >,M'ound on which it stood had to lie raised and consolidated ; canals had to he cnt, lagoons drained, the navij^ahle chunnel dred«;ed, the atmosphen' pnriliiil from its miasmatic Fitf. lO/J.— Chinukiano. s'ftilo 1 ; iin.'mo. ^ V .Ko»tch«iw ofG English diuanon t.kltU,!!'''' ,., -. vi- M9'3a U'3'12 B i: : 1 lu 80 Feet. 60 to 100 Feet. li;o Feet mid iii>wiii'(la, ^_— — __ 2 Milei. exhalations. Most of these improvements have Leon successfully curried out; but u danfiferous bar still separates the Yang-tze estuary from the IIoaiig-j)u, or river of ♦' Yellow Waters," on which Shangbui is situated. The evil has even increased during the last decade, and vessels of deep draught do not now ascend the Iloang- pu to the city. Unless the Chinese Government allows the necessary works to be undertaken to keep open tbe navigation, Shanghai runs the risk of sooner or later getting lost on tbe margin of a marshy creek in the interior. To bring about tbis result, all that is needed is a further slight geological change in a tract where tbe alluvia of tbe Yang-tze and the marine waters are struggling for tbe ascendancy. According to the local tradition, Shanghai formerly stood on tbe aea-coust, from TOPOORAPHY. 2:1:1 Fig. 100.— HllANdllAI ANII TIIR IloANO-l'U. Hoile 1 ! ITft.mX). wliicli if in lit prcMi'tit *M miles diMfanf. It in iniidi cxposrd in ilic "villuvv wind " Irom the north and north- west, cliarj^rd with, thi' diisi ol' ihi' di'scrl. The lialHc ill Ihi- hical prndu(!t> nia(U» the fortinuuif the KrNt Kiin.piMii Hctth'rsat Shaiijjfhai, wIki fhairiHlii'd, no to say, <>n flic iiafiuiial disasters. The Taipiiij? war drove thousands to take reril^;e on the land eeded to the I'oreij^iiers, and when Siiehew WHS desfroy«'d in |H(!(), Shan^rliai took its place as fh(> I'oreinost city in the coinifry. F5iif after file overthrow of the reliels flic jjopiilation flowed hack into the inferior, and the nuinher (d' nafivo inbuhit- ants fi'll from half a million to ().'),(»()(). Nevertheless, Shiinj^hui l)ocame the chief (k'lfot for flic disfrihu- tion of Kuropean imports throiid to the Amoricans to tho north of the Siioliow Rivor has l)oon united since IHGli to tho Hrifish municipality, which is also occupied by over a hundred tbousand natives, as well as by most of the French residents, glad to take refuge hero from the despotic power of their consul. South of the Chinese quarter lies the suburb of To)if/katu, while the opposite or east bank of the river is occupied by Pitntiing, often called the " Little Europe," from its numerous native Christian population. Shanghai does a very largo export trade in tea, chiefly to England and America, and in silk mainly to France, while opium forms by far the most important item in its imports. Five lines of rivor steamers have their head-quarters at this 48 to 38 Feet. 83 Icet and upwardi. — — 3 MUes. '"""^ir^ I ft i 11 til I 234 EAST ASIA. station, which also owns forty ('oastiii<^ Hteamcrs . This is tho only Chinese city whicli j)oss(>ss(>s dockyards, whore merchant vessels are built under the direction of Europi'an euf^ineers. Here also a cotton-spinniiifj; mill, a tannery, and some other industries wore estahlished in 1S79 on tho I'uropean model. The coal mines of the Yaii.2;-tzc yield sufficient fuel for all the steamers plying on the river, and are L'ig. 107. — Shanoiiai. Scale 1 . -11,000. E SB to IB Feet 1 fi to ,S2 Feet. 82 to 90 Feet 80 Feet and upwardg. — — ^^ 1,100 YarJs gradually replacing the foreign coal in Shanghai itself. The city is traver.sed by tramways, and the racecourse is surrounded by fine avenues, which are continued as far as (he " Hubbling Well," a hot spring discharging sulphuric acid gas. Broad Tnacadamised roads radiate for (5 or 7 miles round to the villas and country seats of the foreign and native merchants ; but the Government has not yet ^liinose city (liiTC'tidii of I some other oul mines of iver, und are 51- 15 ^ s traversed by are continued uric acid gas. 8 and country t has not yet TOPOORAPIIY. 285 allowed these routes to be coiitiiuud farther inland. Even the short riiihvav (9 miles Ion-?), the only one in China, recently built by uii Knj^lish company between Shanj^hai and Wusung, on the Yan<,'-t/e estuary, was bought up and destroyed by the authorities after a short and useful career of six months. The terminus and goods station ut Wusung have since been replaced bv forlitications armed with heavy guns. Nevertheless the imperial administration must sooner or Fij?. lOR. — SuciiEW iiEFouB THE TaVpino War •m ^ mm CanulR unci Biidyes. later yield to the force of circxmi stances, and v ithdraw its veto from the plans of the foreign engineers. The surveys for a railway from Shanghai to Suchew, and even to Hangchew, have already been completed, and now only await the imperial sanction. A telegraphic line coimecting Peking with Shanghai, and by submarine cable with Japan, was finished, after much local opposition, early in the year 1882. Since 18-58 Shanghai has been the seat of the "North China brunch of the Koyal Asiatic Society." ml if "■Hi Mi fm S'lnB I "m^ i « h< ^H 286 EAST ASIA. Five miles soutli-wost of R1ian<>;hui lips Siikia/iirri, flic approach to which is marked hy the lofty i)ad by him. Nothing astonished him more than this "most noble city without fail tlie noblest and best that be in the world." But the details given by him were received with laughter in Europe. For he speaks of a circumference of 100 miles, 1,600,000 houses, 3,000 baths, 12,000 stone bridges high enough for fleets to pass under, and each guarded by a company of 10 men. The twelve work- ing corporations are each stated to have had 12,000 houses for their industries, and other travellers speak in similar terms of Quinsay. Oderico of Pordcnone calls it " the largest city in the world," and Ibn Batuta tells us that it takes three days to triiverse it from end to end. Even in the seventeenth century, long after it had lost the rank of capital, Martinus Martini gives it a circuit of 100 Italian miles, and even more, including the vast suburbs. You may walk, he adds, in a straight line for 50 li through the place without seeing anything but houses closely huddled together. Hangchew has still a circumference of 12 miles, beyond which the ground is strewn in every direction with the ruins of temples and palaces. The great lake (Si-hu), which mediicval writers speak of as enclosed within the city, now lies beyond the ramparts. The delightful scenery of this lake, combined with the g(>nial character of the people, has earned for Hangchew the title of the " Chinese Paradise." "Heaven is above; Suchew and Hangchew are below," says an oft- tai. to which is founded in pbscrvatory. peninsula choir, noted iffic in silk .still is the ess the place lif^h enouf^h enouj^h " lo y recovered of old, arc itiful conies jays a local lew and live kichcw, and >f an inland nnmands the gation of the was fonncrly ;ring Mongol [ ^larco Polo . by no other st noble city ails given by uniferenco of 1 enough for twelve work- idustries, and enone calls it three days to g after it had Italian miles, in a straight ouses closely the ground is 10 great lake city, now lies ned with the the " Chinese says an oft- TOWER OF LONUUUA, 8UANUHAI. ili BBP^'a^,. I TOPOORAl'IIY, S87 quoted proverb. The ehicf local industry is silk-woavinf;, wliicli employs 60,000 huuds in the city and 100,000 in Jluchvn; Kiahiiuj, and the iiei},'hl)()uriiig towns. Hut the whole district bus suffered much from the Tuipinf,'s, the popula- tion of IIuu{,'chew alone having been reduced, according to some writers, from 2,000,000 to less than 500,000 since the middle of the century. Here the Mohair- mcdans arc more numerous than in any other city on the coast. Shaohiiig, on the south side f the bay, is the commercial and industrial centre of one of the richest and most densely peopled lowland regions in the empire. The hydraulic works here constructed to reclaim, protect, and drain the land arc clsewliere altogether unrivalled. Amongst them is the longest viaduct in the Fig. 109.— llAKOCllEW A.NI) THK Sl-lll'. CuoalB and (IridgeR. world, being 86 miles long, and consisting of about 40,000 rectangular arches supporting a roadway 6 feet broad, protected by a graded parapet. Mount Taying, lying between the cities of Ningpo and Yuyao, contains probably the largest quarries in China. They have supplied the material for the con truction of the viaduct, and blocks here cut into columns and statues are forwarded as fur as Siam. The viaduct, which terminates eastwards in the red sandstone fortress defend- ing the city of Tm'uhai at the mouth of the Yung-kiang, or river of Ningpo, dates probably from a period when the whole country was a vast saline marsh. Although the draining of the soil has rendered it no longer necessary, it has been built with such solidity that it still continues to be used as a highway and towing-jjuth for the neighbouring canal. An extremely fertile tract has also been reclaimed by an lai Hg i «..|.;, ..~- I r 288 EAST ASIA. enormous I'luhankini'nt skirtiiif,' the shore, erected at uii unknown period. It is fared seawards l»y dressed stone shd)s botmd tofjether with iron cramps, and stretches t'ntm the llan«,'ehew estuary to th(^ Nin«,'po River. I5ut Slmohiu};, capital of this unheahhy re','ion, is a (h-cayed phice, althouj,'h still distin<,niishe(l by the culture of its inhabitants. Some two thousand years a^;o it was the capital of a state which comprised all the Houth-eastern lands from Kianfjsu to ('ant«m. Outside the wall is still shown a tomb, said to be that of the Emp?ror Yu. Hero Fig. 110. — NlNOPO AND ThlMIAI. Sualo 1 : 220,000. to 16 Feet. 16 to 32 Feet. .12 Feet and upwards. ^_^__^^_____ 8 Miles. is prepared the exquisite perfumed li(iueur known as " Shaohing wine," compared by travellers to Sautej-ne. It is extracted from a species of rice. A walled city on the north side of Chekiang Bay still bears the name of Kampu, although the true Kampu (Ganfu, Gampu) spoken of by ^larco Polo is supposed to lie submerged in the waters of the bay. Here the sea has encroached consider- ably on the coast, and nowhere else does the caffre, or fjoio, cause such disasters. From a distance it seems like a white cable stretched across the bay, but it advances with a velocity of over 80 feet per second, constantly increasing in size, and pro- ducing a din like loud peals of thunder. Its daily attacks require the embank- ments to be kept in constant repair, and during the reign of Kien-lung (1736—96) the hydraulic works along Ilangchew Bay cost over £2,000,000. All the culti- I imiiiMHIIini riiwin ilipiilinMiM«g.t- . TOPOOHAIMIY. 230 riod. It is ramps, niul Sluu>liin<^, stiiif^uishcd I the cupital to Clinton. Yu. Hero vuted lunds on the coast und noiphbourinj? islands arc piotcctod hy dykes, wliicli give to the disfrict u {,'eonu'tiical aspect, and the sweet waters are retained by shiiees, which serve also to keep out the sea at hi}:;h tide. Most of tlic coast towns are intersected by numerous canals, whence the title of " Chinese Venice " commonly given to them. The Tsicntang basin, some 1 (!,()()() sijuare miles in extent, sulfered almost more than any other ri'gion from the ravages of the Taipings. Scarcely more than one- thirtieth of the inhabitants survived the massacres and ensuing famine. Yet the country soon recovered from these disasters, and its export trade in silks, teas, Fiff. 111. — (illAM) ClllsAN AM) Pt'TU. Sciile 1 : 50U,000. )|'4.5- to 80 Pent. B," compared le of Kampii, is supposed hed consider- uch disasters, it it advances size, and pro- the embank- er (1736—96) VII the culti- 80 Fe«t and upwards, ^i^^—. 12 Miles. fruits, hams, has already revived. Of its twenty-nine towns, Lau/d (!Nanchi, or Lanchi), although a simple /iie)i, is the chief commercial centre. All are accessilde by boats during the floods, but large vessels are obliged to stop at C/iapii, below Ilangcbew. Hut by far the most important place strategicallj'^ is Nuigjm, which stands at the junction of two navigable streams and of numerous canals radiating thence to all the cities of Chekiang and Kiangsi. Ningpo also enjoys the advan- tages of good anchorage, abundant supplies, and great facilities for defence. Hence the district, has become famous in the military records of the empire. Within 5 miles of the city the Tatars were routed by the Chinese peasantry in 1130; in 2i() E.VST ASIA. n. \r)')i tlio pliieo was hoIzhI and occupied by .Tapimoso pirates; audit was again capluml in IMH hy tlie Hritisli forces, who made it the centre of their operations a^rainsl Niinkinj,' during the "opium war." The Portuguese also had a settlement near Tsinliai, which was entirely destroyed by the Chinese in 1542, when eight hundred Europeans were nuissacred and twenty-tive vessels sunk. Of late y(>ars a number of missionaries have been settled at Ningpo, which is favoured by a fi-rfile soil, a (Udightful climate, and picturescjuc surntundings. The blue mountains bounding the horizon towards the south-west are amongst the best wooded in ( 'hina ; and one of their gorges, the so-called " Snowy Valley," is famous throughout the East for its white rocky walls, forests, and cascades. Uelow these ui)Iands stretch the ricdi jdains renowned in the history of CMiine.se agriculture, wlier(> the Emperor Shun is traditionally supposed to have guided the handle of a plough drawn by an elephant over forty centuries ago. In the district are also shown his well and stone bed. Ningpo is a learned city, and one of its private libraries, with upwards of fifty thousand volumes, is the common property of u community of blood relations, every member of which holds a key. The local industry is very active, and the inlaid or lacquered cubinct-work, carpets, and nettle mats manufactured in Ningpo are exported even to Japan. Its foreign trade, formerly amounting to £'2,000,000 yearly, was reduced in 1880 to little over £23,000, most of the .shipping having been removed to Shanghai. Ningpo, how- ever, still remains the chief mart in China for fish. The surrounding district is occupied by several large towns, such as Yiii/ao and Tsrh/c (Zkiyu). Tinyhai, on the south side of Great Chusan (Chew-shan, or " Ship Mountain"), is the capital of the Chusan Archipelago, which has a population of fully one million. Although of difficult access, the port of Tinghai is deep and well sheltered, and a large export trade is here carried on in such local produce as cordage, mats, fans, cloaks of palm fibre, and the so-called " Chinese orange," largely used by the Canton preservers. The famous monasteries of Piifo (Putu), on a small island in the archipelago, consecrated to Kwanyin, goddess of mercy and protectress of mariners, are much fre(iueuted by pious Buddhist pilgrims. These monasteries, about 100 in number, with about 2,000 priests, serve in smnmer as hotels for visitors, who resort to this place for sea-bathing. The great industry of the archipelago is fishing, these islands abounding in fish of every kind. Being mostly descended from pirates, the natives have preserved a very independent spirit. So recently as 1878 they successfully resisted the Imperial forces, and thus got rid of the Government imposts. EASTERN SLOPES OF THE NAN-SHAN. (South Chekiano and Fokien.) This is one of the most clearly defined regions in China, the main ridge of its mountain system sharply separating Fokien from the Yang-tzo and Tsientang basins. The Nau-shan ranges, all running south-west and north-east, indicate t was again ir operations u Hettlonient when eight ■po, which is iduigs. The igst the best '," is famous Jleh)W these agriculture, I handle of a ^rict are also if its private iroperty of a . The local carpets, and Its foreign to little over fingpo, how- is Yiiijdo and an, or " Ship jopulation of i is deep and al produce as ese orange," archipelago, TS, are much •0 in number, resort to this Sshing, these from pirates, as 1878 they Government L ridge of its lid Tsientang east, indicate -'"--"n.. .-■■'=■■--•-' ■ :;lffv mat] m n ^^m^ W^^^' s u i a. 9) a » td (d MM mm ^s vN>!! i IMIAIIITANTS OF FOKIKN. 941 tho niitural diroctjon of the historic nuiti' followed liy tnido and iiiijfintion l)(t\v«M'n tho Yaiifif-l/c oMtuary and tho Canton Uivc>r. This routo was ni'Cfssarily dctlcctrd iidund to tho went of l''oki(>n and the water-part injf. IW'twccn Ilanj^chcw-fu anil Canton it followoveral intlependeiit clumnels, Homo of which are si'parated from oacli other by diflicult intervening ridpfOH. Thus South Chekiang is naturally divided into two districts, watered by the Taicliew and Wenchew Rivers respectively. l*'okien also is distributed into a number of distinitt re<,'ions correspondinjf with the basins of the Min and i>f tho HtreaniN flowing to the Amoy and Swatow (>stuaries. The axes of the uplands run parallel with tho coast and tho Nan-shan system, so that the affluents of tho nutin streams traviTso intermodiato valleys in tho same direction ; that is, either south- west and north-east, or north-oast and south-west. H«'nco hero also tho natural routes, avoiding tho hilly and much-indented sealwiard, take advantage of tho depressions in tho upland valleys Iwtween the ])arallel main ranges. Intercourse between tho inhabitants of Fokien has thus been maintainevlliil)if ciiiniMMiiHlH, anil rvcn varii'M the iiiH(>rtioiiM i»f roTnmon wonN bv iiicann of iMiMiil <»r coiitrartrd niiliii^M. Tlirsc l-'okicii dialfcls, wliich «'iiciimch upon tlio iiDrthrrti and iMiNtrrii diHtrictN of l\\vmi^;tiiii^, giv<> a certain national unity to thu popidalioiiH H|M«akin); them. Tlicy huvi' \h'vu diMMciuinatt'd by migration ovit tim l'liilip|)in<>s, MalavHiii, Indo-Oiina, and i>vt>n parts of Anicrit'a. Tlu* Anioy and Swalow varictirs prevail in Han^kok, Lima, and SacranuMito. In l-'okii'ii, as wi'll as in Kwan^tiin); and tlu> Cliumin Arcliiprla^o, tlicro Ntill exist certain despised elasses wliieli are repirded us tin* survivors of an altorij^inul clement. TIk \ liv(> apart Iron the rest of tlie popidation, and in many districts, e(ip<'ciallv Fucliew, they can neither «»\vn prop«'rty nor oven reside on the mainland. Deing <'oinpelled to live afloat, they move about fntin iM»rt to jM)rt, exiMisi-d to wind, rain, and storm, or taking shelter in the creeks and inlets along the coast. These amphibious communities have even their floating temples and Taoist priests, who celebrate their marriages and perform the ceremonies in honour of the " Nino Kings." Hut neither Ituddhism nor the rites of Confucius have ever penctratt'd amongst them. The outcasts are condemned to ignorance, becuuse their childn^n are not admissible to the public examinations; while three generaticms nnist pass before their descendants, tolerat(>d as barlH'rs or palancpiin-btarers in the towns, can acquire full j-iti/enshij). Many of the rompra'/oiTs, or agents of the European traders, Ix'long to this class ; but however wealthy they may grow, they are never permitttnl to become landed pmjjrictors. ('ustom has thus j)roved stronger than the beneticent edicts of the Kmperor Yungching, published in their favour in th(> year 17!10. In the highlands stretching west of Fuchew some almriginal trilM's still bear the nanm of Min ; that is, of the chief river and of the old kingdom which ha8 bocomo the province of Kokien. TOPOGKAPHV. South of Ningpo the numerous inlets along the coast offer safe harbours of refuge to the junks navigating these waters. S/iipu is the busiest port on the South Chekiang seaboard, although here the treaty |)ort is Wr»('lmr, at the head of uu estuary formed by a navigable river. Wenchcw was formerly a place of much imp(jttance, as attested by the ruins of its palaces, sculptured gateways, and triumphal arches. The " Feng-shui," say the natives, is no longer favourable to the local prosjjcrity ; but the true cause of its decadence are the jieople themselves, who have become probably the most inveterate opium smokers in all China. Even the innuites of tlie numerous convents lead dissolute lives, and to put an end to the scandals the civic governor recently caused the nuns to be seized and publicly sold " by weight." The average price was about £3 per head.* All the trade is in native hands, and in 1871) not a single IJritish vessel entered the port, although the imported goods are almost entirely of English manufacture. Of the numerous inlets following southwards the most spacious is that giving access to the city of Funiny-fii. It forms a broad land-locked basin dotted over with • W. Everard'g Consular Report for 1879. 1m 1)\ IIU'IIIIN (;h u|Min tlio unity <<• tlio 1)11 ttvcr tho Aiiiiiy and ), there Htill n alMtri^^inul my (listrictH, le mainland, iseil to wind, Hint. These priestn, who the " Nino r peiietrat«>d ehildren are I inUNt paHH II the townH, ho European w, they are ved Htron}»er eir favour in •ipinal tribes Ad kingdom harbours of port on tho t the head of lace of nuieh iteways, and 'avourable to D themselves, !hina. Even m end to the pnbliely sold e trade is in although the 8 that giving ted over with Pl^s. lil {'VyHl^^fi^A^Bi ' ■' , .. j " ' 1 "■■'..,'^ 1 1'V.' ,if , *. ,.t / * ■>' "'': ,/" ■t ''-■ n^/ 1/ .i^-- v,.\ I^'m a?,,xS ■', ' '" .* >;.,2,riji ^rru ■ \. "" n '' -\ :^; t^ ■■■.". VArV'H ^"^ cU' BUDDHIST MONASTEKY AT TITEN-FU ON THE MIN, SOUTH OF FUCHU-FU. 'll.' ' tli .lt ' . ' ...t,. A ' - . ...A ' !! r^^-"«'.!i'HUv!RHH4c^.Tr" 1 Tunrniim^je wnatm TOPOGRAPHY. 243 xm-" — p . >/ ..^V ^ :\ C^^.^ lita ^iSi^, 'ihfi, 244 EAST ASIA. roadwiiv liiiv(> fallen intd the .stmiin, wliero tlicy have formed rapids, barrinj? the fiirthor pro^rcHs of junks. In 1870 this bridge, although coniplotely submerged by the inundations of the Min, suecessfuUy resisted the violenee of the current. The Eurojjean quarter lies in the Nantai suburb, where most of the houses are scattered amid t)ld Chinese tombs on the slope of a hill commanding a prospect of the eitv. The chief staple of export has for years been tea, forwarded almost exclusively to England and Fig. lia.— Flciie\v-iu. Scale 1 : 55,000. Nort)lC^tr Australia. Recently, however, the Russian traders settled at Fuchew have begun to prepare brick tea, which is shipped for Tientsin and Siberia. The local traffic consists of lumber, bamboos, furniture, papi'r, rice, fruits, exchanged for European goods from Hongkong, Canton, and Shanghai. Six miles above Fuchew the Min is crossed bj' another bridge like the "Wenchcw-kiao. But all river craft are arrested at S/nii-kow, below the great city of Ynufjpiiiy, which stands at the converging point of the chief routes of the Min basin. The botanist Fortune ascended the main stream to visit the districts where the best black teas of I'^okien are grown. Rut various obstacles compellecl him to retrace his steps, return- ing by a pass over the " Rohea " Mountains, which attain a mean elevation of 0,000 or 7,000 feet, with peaks rising in the eastern ridges to 10,000 feet. The great tea mart in this upper regi(m of the Min is Tnoitgnn, not far from the isolated Wi-shan, one of the most venerated mountains in China, consisting of conglomerate sandstone, granite, and quartz, and rising 1,000 feet above the plain. Here is also one of the best tea-growing tracts, extensively cultivated by thc> Buddhist monks of the " 999 temples " scattered over the surrounding hills. Refore Fuchew the more southerly city of Tswanc/ww was the capital of CofG 116" 59 2,20'1 Yards. "$«*^*SSiW(l!3(.B'E"W«"W^Pl)PHSS5'-a.^*^ . ■mmmmm'^- TOl'OGUArilY. 215 barrinj; tho siibiuorgod curroiit. ) houses tiro prospect of rded iiliuost ■ •rlund uiid ly, however, •a settled at [I to ])repiiro shipped for .1. Theloeal af lumber, , papi'r, riee, nr European mg, Canton, vo Fuehew [ by another •nchcw-kiao. arc arrested w the great (vhich stands point of the e Min basin, line ascended to visit the e best black are grown. es compelled steps, return- the"l{ohea" ih attain a of 0,000 or peaks rising ?es to 10,000 tea mart in of the Min is ckI mountains z, and rising jwing tracts, icattercd over le capital of Fokion, and is still the residence of the provinciul militiiry governor. Must commentators identify this pUuie, vulgarly culled T^ufun;/, willi Marco INilu's Zayton (Zaitun), which Ibn Hatuta descrilK^s as '* the largest port in tli( woi-ld." In mediicval times it was much frecjuented by the Arab tradei-s, and even the Anncnians and (ienoese had settlements here. Marignoli saw "tlirci' beautiful churches" in tliis city "of incredible extent," where an Italian bishop resided from 1:518 to I'-i'-i'i. Its harbour was crowded with vessels to such an extent lliat, Fipf. 114.— Shlt-kow, on the 1'pprr JIix, Fokien. on the occasion of a war with Japan, the local merchants boasted that they could throw a bridge of boats from their port to the archipelago of the " Rising Sun." Zayton supplied the Western traders with sugar, velvets, and silks, and Ibn liatuta expressly declares that the word Zdituniah, or " satin," is derived from this place, an etymology which Colonel Yule seems half inclined to accept. But the roadstead of Tswanchcw was gradually choked with sjind, and its vast trade transferred farther south to the great Bay of Amoi/, which seems to have also 246 EAST ASIA. l)eeii kiutwii by tlic iiiiine of Xaitun, uh eoiniiu'rcially dcponclnnt on Tswanchew, in the (listricf of wliich it is Kituatcd. At present the little jM)rt of Ntjanhai serves us the entrepot of traIKe between the ohl iM>rt of Zaitun and its sneeessor. Anioy (Ilianien, or Ilianiun), now open to the trade of the West, lies on an island apparently at one time conneeted with the mainland, in one of the very Fig. 116. -Amov. BniUe I : ISO.Ono. Ii8"iff to 64 Feet. CI Feet and upwards. —_— ^_^ 6 Miles. fine.st harbours in the world. It was already the chief port in the province of Fokien when the Portufj^uese arrived here in the boj^inning of the sixteenth century. It remained acces.sible to European shippin*^ till the yQnx 1730, after which it was clo.sed till reopened by the f>;uns of the Knjjlijsh in 1840. The colony of the " ivd-haired devils," Avhieh numbered three hundred souls in 1880, has bt^en established in the little island of Kulang-su, over half a mile from Amoy, and .-IWl'SWiJCtBM'WillW'Jat •- ^^-mcsmsm-'- BASIN OF THE SI-KIANO. 247 rtiiiu'how, in lini serves us , lies on all of the very ys4 ,^^l S^ province of iith century, ter which it olony of the 0, has bt^en Amoy, and round nlwut this settloinont quite a hirj^e native city has sprunj* up. TTore the naturalist Swinhoe founchnl a U'arned society in IHo?, which has done much gmtd work in various branches of natural history. The trade of Amoy, about as extensive as that of Fuchew, consists mainly in opium taken in exchan<»e for tea and sjijyar. Here also emifj^rants arc sliipj)(sts, especially between the Han-kiang andTun-kiung river basins, are lofty enough tt) be covered with snow in winter. South of Fokien, iho copious TTan-kiang, collecting the drainage of "West Kwaiigtung, flows from the Kiangsi frontier due south through the breaks in the parallel rang(>s. ]5ut its chief aflluent, the Mei-kiang, foHows one of the intermediate north-easterly depressions, thus offering u transverse route from Fokien to the Si-kiung basin. The Si-KiANfi River System. The Si-kinng, or Sei-kong, as the Cantonese pronounce the word, which means " West River," contains a large volume of water, due mainly to the summer monsoons. These trade winds send to the southern slopes of the Nan-shnn an abundant rainfall, which in the province of Kwangtung is estimated for the whole year at over 20 inches. The Si-kiang, knowni also as the Pu^-kiang, or " River of I'ue " — that is, of the two southern ])rovinces — receives its fartliest head-streams from Yunnan and the Kweichew uplands occupied by the Miaotze tribes. The Ilung-shui, its main branch, flows under various names before receiving from the Cantonese the designation by which its lower course is known. This want of a more precise nomenclature has enabled every traveller to regard the head-stream visited by himself as the main branch. Thus Hue and Gabet, who embarked on a stream rising at the foot of the Mei-ling in the north of the province of Canton, and Moss, who ascended the Yu-kiang, which rises in Tonking, all supposed they had explored the chief branch of the Si-kiang. Below the confluence of these two tributaries the main stream is joined by the Kwei-kiang, after which it penetrates through a series of defiles into the province of Kwangtung. At some points it is obstructed by shoals, and at low water there is little more than 6 or 7 feet in the channel. Rut during the summer rains it rises from 25 to 30 feet and upwards, while the tides are felt in Kwangsi, 180 miles from its mouth. In some parts of the channel the plummet reveals depths of from 150 to 170 feet. After emerging from its last narrow gorge, where it contracts to 630 feet between its rocky walls nearly 1,200 feet high, the Si-kiang is joined by the Pc-kiang, or " River of the North," at the head of the delta. From its source to this point it develops a course of about 800 miles, throughout which it presents the only commercial highway from Canton to the three provinces of Kwangsi, Kweichew, and Yunnan. Through the same channel a portion of the traffic is carried on with the regions of Indo-China, watered by the Red River and the Mekhong. Yet the Pe-kiang is still more important than the main stream as a trade route, for it forms a section of the great highway conn^ -^ mg Canton w^ith the Yang-t/ 3 basin, where the only interruption is the Mei-liuj, i'ass. Thi« is the route followed by most European travellers who have visited the southern regions of the empire. The Pe-kiung was explored in 1693 by the missionary Bouvet, and .'umi&^imtm.i -asiKWisssaiKP' land roj^ion iiiissi(»iiiiru!S river basins, »o of "West roaks in the mo of the route from rliich means the smnmer 'J^an-slirm an itetl for the Pud-kianpf, s its fartliest the Miaotze amcs before se is known. er to repird and Gabot, north of the in Tonking^, Below the K-.vei-kiang, Kwangtmig. le more than 8 from 25 to m its mouth, to 170 feet. to 630 feet (ined by the source to this presents the )f Kwangsi, the traffic is iver and the (1 stream as a Canton with Th:« is the hern regions Bouvet, and 1^^ • > - i< tk<«^i< ^,i' u ^ 1^j . - m . , n^^ CANTON AND THE P Si r ' V r r ; ' ]]J ^ ttllokaihan ■ t0 / ." ; ^. s, y _„.'.© Ho utishuii . .mom -jji y,.,, ./ ' — S' If-.^-''^ -1 \ V, ,,i' ^Smc . . __£ -n M 'r-^ " " "-"■'■^~''-- . \ — I na' jlia'E.ufGr. I --- -' to leFf 16 to sa NEW YORK ;.' ■•' NTON AND THE PEARL RIVER. m KWANAT.IIlKy KIJI'tfANTttN) ■'* \ •'l'^"'^. J»f~*S~ -■■IHolo ■hi shin i / ) 4 V ■.^.;iv ■Bhiui .t'. r S^'.IS; ..N...*y^ r-f: ■".>^ ( i. 2 ^'~Jv^ -iV^'-^ -> •4 vr-^^^rsl^-^^V'' Wl«u^%- /& to ;)7 3'i U 1 : «7 I 000 NEW YORf-C ;-. .^ ■•- 1-ETON 8c C9 .V6 to 160 ISO S upwttrda. St'Milei rtfe^ Hi 'i' i Vy a .v -. TlIK canto: J.TA. 24U in 17'.2'2 Oiiul)!! survoy«Ml tin? Imniii iiNtranmnic. ty. A\ th>' historic roiitcN of tbr eiiipin' lliis is llu* niost iiiiiMirtaiit. an Init fui tin *•)»••! i the nouIIutii rcji^if u would remain (Iftacla'd from tlio "Middle K ,' u i -h rcfiucw nlllioii «'lmniit'l, (iwiiij; to a lino of liilln wliicli run Houth-woNt iind north-oiiHt iktosh iho alluviiil soil, mill wliicli serve to retiiiii llie sedimeiitin y inatter broii;;lit down hy tlit> Ml ream ami waHJiid haek l)y llie tid»'s. Tlu- iioilheriinioMf oi' tluse iidj,'.'K coiisiNtH of lar;^e inlands, al)ove Honie of wliicli rinc elevated eiestn, Nueli us the twt) peaks of the island of Wun^fkiini at the entry of the Canton estuary, In'tter known hy its I'ortu^niese nanu of Montanha. The l.adrones, or " Hohher " Islands, like Ifonj^ Kon^ itw<1f, form itortions of un intermediate ehain, while still further seawards Htretuhes th(! h)n|; urchipela^o of thu Luiping and Lenui j^roups. ri.iMATK ni' SoiTii China. Tn the Si-kiau)? hasin the torrid und teinperuto zones are intonninj»led. With the alternation of the monsoons, Cunton oseillutes hetwin-n the two, so tlnit its climate is far less ocpiuhle than that of Cuhuttu, Honolulu, Havana, und other places situated under the same parallel.* During the moist summer monsoon the southern provinces ure us hot us Indiun cities equally distunt from the equator. Hut the temi)erature rapidly falls in winter, when the dry uorth-eust polar winds ("Weep down In'tween the parallel mountain iunp;es, running mainly north-eust und south-west. Rain seldom falls in January, when the nij;;hts are clear, und even frosty. At the same tin.e, the re<,'ulur alternation of moist sunnner und dry winter winds is occasionally disturhed by atmospheric currents, del'i-ctcd in varioutj directions by the relief und contour of tin; seubourd. Thus the south-west monsoon bt'comes ut Tanton u south-easterly j?ule, und the lofty Mount Lantuu is duily exposed to fierce storms for months together. These climutic disturbances arc ulso reflected in the flora of the southern provinces. Here the ])luins are bare in winter, when nuture presents the same bleak us])ect as in more northern regions. Hut all is changed with the return of the hot moist monsoons, under whose influence the tropical vegetation is reveaU^ in all its splendour. Now the palm und camellia flourish by the side of the ouk, chestnut, und sombre pine, while the bununu, mungo, litchi [Ncj/fidium liic/ii), orunge, and citrons of divers species are intermingled with the fruit trees of the temiwrate zone. Many leafy shrubs, confined in Europe to the conservatory, here thrive in the open air, decking the landscape Avith their brilliant blossom, charging the utmos2)here with a balmy peifume. The small island of Hong Kong contains, so to say, un epitome of this varied und beautiful southern flora. In this favoure(iuator. pohir winds )ith-ou«t und [ir, and ovc>n id dry winter i ill various ft'cst raoiifiooii ntuo iH daily the Houthem eiits the same the return of on is revealed 3 of the oak, 'itrhi), orange, the temperate here thrive in charging the contains, so to itcd to afford >t besides the hinoceros and ire numerous, Meun. 70^ F. 79 75 77 INIIAUITANTS OP SOUTH ('NINA. 2BI Tmiaihiants ok Soi th fiiiw, Southern and csiuM'ially Malay .•l.-inenls Nrcn. to have Imtomio int.-rniinj7l..d with the populations of South Cl.ina, although no trace of th.-ir pivsnic.. can now be detected in the customs or spcccli of the natives of Kwaiigtiuig. Her,, tho purely Chineso dialect is even of a more arehai(! character than the present FiK. llfl.- roMrAHATIVK TrNfrPUATIHR oi- PantoN AMD OTHKR ToWNd. Mandarin variety, while all local geographical names belong to tho same stock as those of other parts of China. It is now ascertained that the number of original terms unrepresented by particular signs in the literary standard is far more limited than was formerly supposed. But in the interior there still survive certain aboriginal communities which have not yet become amalgamated with the Chinese ir,' V>*.iS6S-kii'i>. Hence the true meaning of Ifoklo is probably " People of Fokien." According to the Chinese tradition, they migrated in the fourteenth century into the adjacent province of Kwangtung, and it is noteworthy that here the floating population about the creeks and inlets, who have the greatest affinity with the Hoklo, are also sujjposed to have come originally from Fokien. Their peculiar manner of life has made them a special caste, no less despised than that of the Fuchew waters, and also stigmatized by abusive appellatives. In Canton, us in Fuchew, the members of this caste would appear not to be admitted ashore, so that they live from generation to generation grouped in floating villages along the river banks. In the I'earl lliver the moorings become hereditary jjroperty, and when a junk falls to pieces, it is immediately replaced by another. The Punti — that is, " Roots of the Soil " — are the most numerous element in the southern provinces. Although priding themselves in the title of autochthonous, they probably represent a fusion of northern immigrants with the aborigines, and now regard themselves as the natural masters of the land. Even in Yunnan they reject the name of Chinese, and claim to be considered as a distinct race. Repre- senting a sort of southern aristocracy, they affect to despise not only the plebeian Ilakka and Hoklo, but even the people of the north, whom they certainly surpass in elegance and refinement. Their beautiful dialect, which is the current speech of Canton, takes the title of pe-hoa — that is, " white language " — in the sense of the pre-eminent speech, and in it have been composed many literary works. The Punti have a numerical majority in the Canton district, where, however, they are now threatened by the proletariate Ilakka element, descended from colonists originally settled in the north-east of Kwangtung. The Ilakka dialect differs greatly from the Punti ond Fokien, and appears to be a variety of the " true language ; " that is, of the Nanking form of speech, although now afTcctod by numerous Punti elements. The Ilakka are a hardy, laborious race of agricul- turists, who supply a large proportion of the coolies now employed in Formosa, Java, Saigon, Bangkok, the Sandwich Islands, Peru, and California. Their dialect also prevails in Singapore, and amongst the Chinese villages in Borneo. Thus, although despised by the haughty Punti, to their industrious enterprise is largely due the share at present taken by the Chinese nation in the common work of humanity. ToPOORAPHY. East of Canton, and in that part of Kwangtung which belongs ethnically to Fokien, the chief trading-place is Shasfinnfow, which the English call Sinifoir. A mere fishing hamlet in 1840, thanks to its happy situation on a navigable river % ft- ^■■mmm^m^ 254 EAST ASIA. ostuary in a rich alluvial plain, it soon ro8c to prosperity after beinp; tlirown open to the trade of the West. Even before this time some l']n}j;lish nierehants had settled on "Double Island," at the mouth of the llan, which they converted into an entrepot for opium and all kinds of merchandise. Jlere they Mere encircled by a cordon of pirat(>s and smufj:}>:lers, forminj? a sort of republic, with its head-quarters on the island of Xaniao (Nants of mer- ;hed. Thus angsi, stands ain gorge on nnecting the isins through Rivers; but ed by rapids istanding its great city of Si-kiang and iianufactured iber, cabinet ) the Anglo- -kiung as far the Si-kiang e Viceroy of 3es was after- ent or in>iM)r- trade in teu, porcelains, and marble slabs from the neighbouring hills. Hcyond this point the trafhc and population increase continually on both sides of the river, coming to a focus at the confluence of the Si-kiang and I'e-kiang, where stand the cities of Saiis/i III and Si nan, near the head of the delta. Fnr/iaii (Fu-shan), although rank- ing as a simple- village, without walls or fortifications, is no less than 12 miles long, and is classed among the "Four Marts "of the ^liddle Kingdom. It forms the largest centre of population in the district connecting the Sanshui, or " Three Waters," with the Pearl Kiver. Here the channel seems to have become much shallower than formerly, whence probably the decadence of Fachan, whoso popu- lation has fallen from about one million in the seventeenth century to half that numl)er. It may now l)e considered not so much a rival as a dependency of Canton, where silks, hardware, mats, paper, sails, and all sorts of wares are manu- factured. Another dependency of Canton is SIiUiIiiikj (^S/nik/ini;/'^, at the head of the delta formed by the Tung-kiang, which is the great depot for the sugar and other pnxlucc of the Fast destined for the capital. In the l*e-kiang valley there are also several large places, such as Nankiiiny, at the foot of the 3Iei-ling, and Shaoclivw, a much-frequented riverain port. Mention is made of Canton in the Chinese records as far back as the fourth century before the vulgar era, at which time it bore tlie name of Xanwu-cheng, or " Warlike City of the South," a title fully justified by its frequent revolts. In A.n. 250 it succeeded in expelling the Imperial forces, and maintained its independence for half a century. At the beginning of the tenth century it became the capital of a separate state, paying an annual tribute to the empire, but sixty years afterwards it was again conquered by the founder of the Sung dyiuisty. In 1(548 it rose against the Manchus in the name of the Ming dynasty, and held out for over u year. Upwards of 700,000 Cantonese perished during the siege, and the city, given up to plunder, became a heap of ruins. At ])resent Kwangchcw-fu, or Shencheng, as Canton is called in the local dialect, is one of the most thoroughly Chinese cities of the empire, although lying on its southern limits over against the great southern peninsulas and archipelagos. It probably exceeds all the other imperial cities in population, as it certainly does in the originality of its appearance and fidelity to the national types. It lacks the broad dusty streets and tent-shaped houses of Peking, recalling the neighbourhood of the Mongolian steppes. It presents no such imposing aspect as Shanghai or ITankow, with their new European quarters, houses, quays, and shipping ; nor has it had to be rebuilt in recent times, like Hangchew-fu and so many other cities destroyed by the " long-haired " rebels. Canton is still what it was over four hundred years aro, when first visited by Europeans, altogether a unique city as approached through a floating quarter, where are anchored all kinds of craft, disposed in blocks like the houses ashore, with intervening water streets crowded with trafhc. Although at this point nearly three-quarters of a mile broad, the river is completely covered by this city of Iwats, no less animated by its dealers, artisans, innkeepers, pleasure- seekers, than the city on terra firma. Canton proper, lying on the north side of the Chu-kiang, is enclosed by a ''^^Mm^.^^smmt- 256 EAST ASIA. rampart, and, as is usual in China, divided bj- another enclosure into two distinct cities. Within these spaces, with a joint area of several scpiarc miles, the population is crowded together in narrow, tortuous streets, lined by rickety houses, with their lacquered or gilded signboards still further shutting out the prospect. In many alleys mats are stretched from house to house, the finer shojjs are exjiosed fully to view, the motley throng is jostled by the rude bearers of i)alan(iuins. Heyond the walls vast suburbs stretch right and left uhmg the river, while the south side is occupied by the city of Jlonan, on the island of like name. Canton is one of the most insalubricus places in China. Amongst its inhabitants there arc no less than 8,000 blind and 0,000 lepers, while the general type of features seems exceptionally repidsivo to the P^uropean eye. The English, by far the most numerous and wealthiest of all the European settlers, have converted their quarter on the island Fig. 119.— Cantov, Whampoa, and Hoxan Island. Scale 1 : 200.000. ,<) Milos. of Shamin into a sumptuous city, far more healthy than the native town, provided with promenades, shady avenues, and a racecourse. The site of this " Concession " has been well chosen, at the diverging point of the two deepest branches of the Pearl River. For its industries Canton takes the foremost rank amongst Chinest cities. Its artisans are engaged in the most varied pursuits, such as silk-spinning, dyeing, paper, porcelain, and glass making, lacquer-work, ivory and wood carving, cabinet- work, metal casting, sugar rcHuing, and in the production of the thousand knick- knacks known as Canton fancy goods. The embroiderer's art has been brought to great perfection, being elsewhere absolutely unrivalled in the disposition of the colours, its exquisite designs, and delicate execution. Canton is the great mart for the silks of the 8outh, as lluugchew is for those of Central China. ir»5?S»J'«-'»;«'SS?iB0Bii|*A-KaS8fo-i;, -'t&im^m^,:. IIOXO KONG. 257 tt'o distinct jjojiulation with their In many sod fully to lieyond tho juth side is one of the uo less than nceptiouuUy merous and n the island Nearly nil tho trade of Canton is in tho hands of native morohnnts, the Europeans of (Shuniin haviuf* sunk to tho position of mere hrokors. Ilefore Lord Amherst's mission of 1810, Kuf^Iish eommeree was harely tolerated, and at that time there were no capitulations, as with Turkey, nor any treaties as araonj^at the different European states. IJut when intercourse was permitted with the West, Canton, already enjoying a monojwly of the foreipfn exchanges, soon aiHjuired an extraordinary develo])ment. Tho opening of Shanghai and the other treaty ports doubtless reduced it to the second rank amongst tho em])oriums of tho empire, but it seems to bo gradually recovering tho foremost position. Here was first developed the curious liHffna fratirn known as "Pigeon (Hiisiness) Englisli," some expressions from which have entered into the familiar speech of tho English themselves. lUit the constant relations of Europeans with the natives rcem to have produced a general lowering of the moral standard. A national proverb warns tho aged from Sechuen and youth from Canton, implying how laborious life is in the western highlands, how corrupt in the great southern capital. W/ini)i/>oa (^lIoaii(/-pu), tho outport of Canton on the Pearl River, is also a largo place, stretching some 3 miles along tho islands which enclose its harbour. Notwithstanding its proximity to European structures, Whampoa has preserved all its originality, and is still little more than a vast aggregate of wretched bamboo hovels overlooked by a lofty pagoda. Building yards, repairing docks, and exten- sive warehouses cover a largo space ; but a great portion of the trathc has fallen into tho hands of smugglers, who infest the neighbouring creeks. Old towers rise at intervals along the shore, raised at an unknown date against enemies whose very name has been forgotten. wn, provide5SSK^^«p?SgSe«!!S»«SS»'-- MACAO. 2a0 ■thrpc lurgo prt'soiits us I'arst'fs, tho uters, whero II.VI5 me. Hindus tuguese Lave n consists of n Cunton und much of the cntsin. The shipping in tho roiidstead oxcoods 4.000,000 tons yciirly, wliilr the cxclianfros uiiiount altogether to about i;i'.>,000,000. Victoria still ri'taius its inonoiMily in the niovonicnf of the precious nu'tals; hut much of its goiwral frath' has already passed into the bands of the native dealers, those especially of Koirhm, on theopposite ride of the strait. At Aberdocn, known also as " Little Ilong Kong," a small town Fipf. 121.— Ho.No KoNO : ViKW takkn kkom Kosvll.n. on the south-west side of the island, several building yards and repairing docks have been built, and some large sugar refineries have also recently been erected here. Macao. The Portuguese settlement of Macao (the Ngaoraen of the Chinese), lying over against Hong Kong on the opposite side of the Pearl River estuary, is not othcially detached from China. The Imperial Government has never recognised tho absolute sovereignty of Portugal over this peninsula, and has always enforced ■lii.'Sftijt.i^' 2fiO EAST ASIA. paytncnt of tho trihuto of £150 imposofl hy tho Emperor Kanf»-lii, and oollcctcd hy a inandarin resident on tho spot, Xevertlu'Iess Macao is praelirally a I'ortii^uese possession, and the European quarter of J'ruya (irande presents tlie aspect of a town in Kstreniadura, with its hir}?e red or yellow houses, heavy balustrades, nnd vust monasteries now converted into barracks. Its so-called Portuguese; inhabitunta 'I' m Fiff. 122.— Macao. Scale 1 : 40,000. II3*33 II3'34- El tu H Feet. b to in Feet 16 to 32 Feet. ._ ^^1^ 1,100 VanlR. are, however, almost exclusively half-ciistes, and even these are now encroached upon by the natives, who, althouj^h forbidden to build houses in this quarter, buy up those of the old Lusitanian owners, replacing the image of the Madonna with their ancestral phrines. Macao is conveniently situateil for trade, occupying a district some 12 square miles in extent at the southern extremity of a large island in the delta, which is ^"%'«?«l^WftS8*^S^-^s*^ MACAO. 2(11 rdllcctffl l>y INtrtii)4:ucse nsjM'ct of ft strndcs, and iiihuhituntH 13' IS' poached upon irtcr, buy up la with their lie 12 square 3lta, which is coiiiu'ctcd with the niainland by a sandy diiiio loniuTly forlilicd. The roadstead, bciii^ Nhcltcivd by liilly isK'fM from the full fury of the typhoons, is ucci'ssibU. to lurjf<» vc'hmoIh from the Hca, as well as to river craft l)otli from the l*carl Itivcr and the western estuary of the Si-kianjj;. I*'or nearly tliree hundred years Macao onjoyefl a monopoly uf the Kuroj)ean trade with C'hin:i, but the op<'nin>r of the treaty ports at hnt depiived it of its (exclusive advantages. Since then its dealers turned to tlie traflic in slave lalHuir, and the " barracoes " of Macao became a depot for the c(M)lies captured or purchased on the sj'alwtard, and forwarded as voluntary hirinl laliourers to IVru and the West Tndies. The protest)* of the Pekinj; (lovern- inent put un end to this shumeful traffic, and sine • 1H7.'{ most of the contracts are Fin. 123.— Pakiioi. Prnle I : lUo.iNlo. :: El' I09r5- 'Ot:s oFG. to 10 Feet 16 to AS Feet. Hi Feet and upwiinla. .<_^— — ^_^.^— ^ 3,300 Yard» signed at Wham|K)a, with every guarantee against fonner abuses. And now Macao has turned to gambling and lotteries, its notoriety amongst Ea.stern cities iH'ing chiefly due to these attractions. The local trade, almost exclusively in the hands of native dealers, consists chiefly in tea, rice, sugar, silks, and indigo, mostly shijiped on Chinese junks. The few EuroiK'aa vessels that take part in the traffic import salt from Cochin-china. The Municipal Council (ZtY// Svitado, or Loyal Senate) is elected by universal suffrage. Macao is famous in the literary world. Canioens resided for eighteen months, in 15o0 and 1560, in this place, where he is said to have composed a jxirtion of the " Lusiad." A rent rock forming a sort of grotto is still shown, where he is trudi- ^m 202 KAHT ASIA tioiiiilly mii>|MiN( <»l' MorriKon, one of the iiKisf (listiiij:\ii^..-s^r3^pi3es?sgj-p=^- YUNNAN. 20B > of Morrinon, |)liil(>l iHliiiul of St. biivn ii('(iuir(Hl EaPG. ^iilnrly on this the peninsula It (^Pci-hdi^, or ilf of Toiikinj? ide is salt fish, und ulthouffh no Kuioiwiin vcssrls visited th<' place till the year ls:!>, I'aklioi seeniH destined to u hrilliant future. It is liic Icruiinus of u lii>,'luvay rutiniu); directly through LiniHtric and Yiilin to the fertile districts (.f the Vu-kianjf, whose produce is at present forwanU'd hy the h.n^ and () or (50 feet. South of Takhoi the volcanic island of Wei-chew ruisos its hlackened walls in the middle of the jrulf. At its southeru extremity the crater, whi.h has fallen in. forms a regular cinjue, facinj,' soutiiwards, and nearly ;> miles in diameter from headland to headland. Till the mi(hlle of the present ccnitury this island was exclusively inhahited by pirates, hut is now occupied hy a peaceful population of about ;{,0()0 souls, mostly innni|,'rants from the liiechew peninsula, engaged chiefly in agriculture and fishing. YUNNAN. Tins province, the richest in mineral wealth and one of the most important in the variety of its produce, is at the same time the least solidly attached to the empire. A portion only of the land, and that the most rugged and thiidy peopled, behmgs to the Yang-tze basin, while the western half is drained by the two great rivers of Indo-Chinu, the Sahvin and Mekhong, and the southern extremity sends its waters through the Ilung-kiang ("l{ed River") to the Gulf of Tonking. Recently a large part of the province had even become politically independent, cutting off the communications between the loyal inhabitants and the rest of China. The authorities then turned for assistance beyond the frontier through the Red River. This route thus for a time acquired a vital importance, and the oppor- tunity was turned to account by the explorer Dupuis, who followed the course of the stream, and opened it to trade and science. But after the suppression of the Panthay rebellion the imperial highways have been reopened, the peasantry are now returning to their villages, and the gaps made by massacre and famine are being filled up by fresh settlers fro.n Sechuen, Kweichew, and Kwangsi. Rut although it has thus again become an integral part of the empire, Yunnan remains none the less an outlying region, of difficult access, and far removed from the seat of power. Of all the provinces it has always been the most thinly peopled, and since the recent disasters its population has been reduced probably hy one-half. Its area is somewhat vaguely estimated ut 127,000 square miles, but the frontier- line is ill defined towards Tibet, Rurma, Siam, and Annam, where numerous inde- pendent hill tribes occupy the border-lands. Broadly speaking, Yunnan may be describcnl as a rugged plateau inclined in ■H--jfef^ .aWj3>^^^ lw W^V»-t- a- J t #" » -2iyi KAST ASIA. ^^, I! dirt'ctioii from llic iiorth-wt'Ht l<» the nonth-rast. On tlio TilM'taii and Hechuen frontici'H t)it> uiu'X|>l<>n>«l ran^oN riHi> alMtvo tli«< Nnow-linc, whili> tho central part of the i)lafcau lian a int'un I'lfvatiim of |M'rlia|tN T.OOC fret, al)ovo which the red wind- Ntoiie rid^fCM maintain u nniform ch'valion. Lar^e hikes till the de|)res.sionN of thin talilcland, liie outer Ncarp of which is furrowed h\ deep river n;orj<:es, while Koutii- wards I lie Irawadi and lied Uiv(>r Ijasins expand into liroad plains, scarcely moru than fl'M) fi>et al)ovo tho sea. Kvery transition of teni|H>rature is met betwi'en iho northern uplands, with their Hnuw-clad ranges, and these southern lowlands, which penetrate into thu torrid /.one. At Vunnan-fu, on the inti>rniudiuto plateau, thu snow lies at times for weeks together on the ground. A pri'-eminently mineral region, Yunnan exported wrought-m»'tal wares even In'fore tlie arrival of the Chinese. Tho aborigines had everywhere niincH and workshops, oHiK'cially for the treatment of iron, which of all minerals is here the nntst abundant. Itich copper orcH are also found, and tho ini|H>rial taxes raised from the mines and metal workers amounted Ind'orc tho relH'lIion to nearly {>,{){)() tons of copper yearly, (iold-washings are also nuniorous along tho Kin.sha-kiang ami other watercourses. Hut far more productive aro tho silver mines, besides which Yunnan also possesses deposits of cinnal>ar, zinc, lead, and in tho Red Uiv«>r basin a rich tin hxle, while its coal measures aro both extensive and of excellent (piality. "NYith such vast and varied treasures, the province promises to lu'conu; some day tho great mineral mart and metullurgie workshoj) of the empire. It also abounds in precious stones, such as rubies, topazes, sapphires, and emeralds, while costly varieties of jade and nmrble are found in the highlands. I'arts of these highlands are still covered with vast forests, supplying valuable timbers, notably the nunmu laurel, which, owing to its extreme hardness and ])enetrating perfume, is much enudoyed in temples and ])alaces. Since tho suppression of the Mohanunedan insurrection, Yunnan has become tho chief seat of the oi)iinn industry, and notwithstanding tho pretended Government edicts, at least one-third of the cultivated land is now under tho poppy. The upland pastures support large Hocks of sheep, whoso wool is utilised, but whoso flesh is never eaten. There uro few Asiatic regions where an improved system of communication would be attended by greater results than in \''unnan. Not only does this province rc(piire good routes and railways to export its minerals and other proc)uiPn ■lit ml part of tho ic«l Mind- 'HMIOIIH of tlllH whikt Hoiitli- cai'ccly iiiort) t bftwrcii llu« vlaiulM, wliicli ) plutcuu, thu 111 wuros even 1-0 niincM and iIh in hero tlio 1 tuxoH riiiM(>(l ) Hourly (H) Kinsha-kiuii^ niiios, l>osi(loM 1 in the Red I'usivo and of inco proniisoH kshop of tlio Ka))])liir(s, and he hi^rhlands. yinj; valuable hardness and Since the e chiof seat of ent ediots, at The upland ivhoso flesh is was a^ain visited liy l''rantis (larnicr, \h\ Tliorel. atid othei llurnpranH lor the liixt tinu> hinro the days of Marco I'nio. In |M(;s CnijMM', stiirtin;; I'min tlie Yanjf-fze, atteniplid in vain to reaili Ahmiiu through Matanjf and Tiili-lii. lie npiin failed the next year to \in\u the plateau from the llrahuinputni liasin ; while Sladrn, aiming; at the sunie fjfoal from the Inuvadi and its atHucnt, the 'I'lipiii^r, Imd to retraec )iiv;S5=:[i7V' m -» is 200 EAST ASIA. « But pondiiif? free intercouiso with India through Bhunio, Yunnan hiis direct access to the foreign market through the navigable Ilung-kiang, or Red River, ex])lored for the first time by Dupuis in IH70. In 1872 he ascended the Song-koi, as this river is caUed in Tonking, and through this channel penetrated into China as far as ^lanhao (Manghao), in the neighbourhood of a district abounding beyond all others in metals and precious stones. By a treaty concluded in 1874 between France and Annam, the Red River had been declared open to foreign trade. But this treaty has remained a dead letter, and since the expedition of 1873 no foreign vessel has visited the Song-koi. Nevertheless the advantages of this trade route have been recognised by the Chinese merchants, who might save by this way a detour of 600 miles by tlie Canton River. Inhabitants of Yunnan. Although Chinese supremacy has been established for some two thousand years in Yunnan, tlio population is still far from homogeneous. The highland regions continue to be held by unsubdued tribes, such us the Miaotze, Mantze, Lutzc, Lisu, Lolo, Shiin, and Kakhyen. The Miaotzo belong to the same family as those of Kweichew, the Mantze and Lolo to those of Sechuen. The latter are generally divided into " Black " and " White " Lolo, more perliaps from the contrast in their habits than from a difference of complexion. The Black, known also as '"Jiaw " Lolo, mostly occupy the alpine valleys in the north, while the White, called ai.so " Cooked " or " Ripe," are scattered in small groups all over Yunnan, and are everywhere subject to the Chinese authorities. IMany shave the head and wear the pigtail, emblem of civilisation in the Middle Kingdom, but they are easily distinguislied from the Chinese proper by their muscular development and energy at work. But for the somewhat flat nose and sparse beard, their regular features and symmetrical figures might suggest the European type. Many have even chestnut hair and a white complexion, while the women are much stronger, more cheerful and agreeable than their Chinese sisters. Hence the Chinese often choose their wives amongst these aborigines. The Lutze-kiang takes its name from the Lutze, or Anong, who dwell on its banks in a region of West Yunnan bordering northwards on the Lolo country. Some Lisu tribes are also scattered in the valley of this Tibeto-Burman river, as well as in that of the Lantze-kiang (Mekhong), which in this part of its course traverses Yunnan. The hills on the right bank over against Weisi-f u are almost exclusively occupied by the Lisu. Those dwelling near the Chinese to^vn^ and near their more civilised kinsfolk, the Moso, pay the tribute regidiirly ; but those residing in the more inaccessible highlands have maintained their indei)ondence, and they have a tradition requiring them every twenty or thirty years to make a plundering expedition against the people of the plains. Like certain North American Indians, they never fail first to warn the enemy of their approach. At the stated time they make their appearance at the stated place, and such is the dread of the Chinese settlers that they are generally vanquished by these savages armed with bows and '^pT^SlKT-JY^^rei wm^wM^i^^:.' INHABITANTS OF YUNNAN. 2G7 nnan hns direct kiang, or lied ic ascended the innel penetrated )d of a district reaty concluded ledared open to e the expedition le advantages of 10 might save by ) thousand years lighhmd regions tze, Lutze, Lisu, raily as those of er are generally contrast in their also as '• Iiaw " 'hite, called ai.so funnan, and arc ead and wear the thej' are easily lent and energy regular features Many have even h stronger, more aese often choose who dwell on its le Lolo country, man river, as well 8 course traverses Imost exclusively i near their more J residing in the and they have a ke a plundering merican Indians, stated time they i of the Chinese 3d with bows and arrows dipped in aconite. The Lisu carry off the women and children, and sell them to the Burmese. They also seize the silks and jewellery, and consign the houses of their enemies to the flames. Yet the mandarins deny the existence of these dangerous neighbours, and even forbid their names to be pronounced. Their complete destruction having been announced to the Central Govei-nment some generations ago, these tribes have ever since been ojficialh/ (>xtinct. In peaceful times the Lisu are very hospitable, and are distinguislud amongst the surrounding peoples for their spirit of clanship and solidarity. The land is held in common, every family settling down wherever it pleases, and cultivating the open tracts, or the clearings obtained by firing the forests. Tliey trade with the nei»»h- bouring tribes, and thus obtain the cowries (^Cyprwn monda) from the Maldive Archipelago, with which the head-dress of their women is entirely covered. They have rejected the Buddhist missionaries, and still adhere to the kShainanist practices formerly universal throughout the extreme East. Their wizards cast lots to attract the gowl spirits, and beat the tom-tom to scare the demons of the springs, rocks, and woodlands. The Shans, or " White Barbarians " of the Chinese, are more numerous in Burma than in the Middle Kingdom, where they only occupy the south-went corner of Yunnan west of the Salwin or Lu-kiang. All are subject to the mandarins, who appoint the village head-men, making them responsible for the taxes. The Kakhyens (Kachin), or Sing-jjo (Chingpo), as they call themselves, are one of the most enterprising races in the country, and regard the Shans as an inferior people, good enough to supply them with muleteers and porters. Of small stature, but robust and energetic, they pass much of their time in feasting and attending to the toilet, tattooing arms and legs, and covering their dress with shells and all kinds of ornaments. The women do all the work, even tilling the land and carrying burdens. Hence the wife is chosen, not for her beauty, but for her physical strength, and he is reputed the happiest paterfamilias who possesses the greatest number of daughters, all destined to a life of ceaseless labour. Although surrounded by Buddhist populations, the Kakhyens have retained their old animism, still addressing their prayers to the nat.% or protecting genii. As in certain parts of West Europe, they place a piece of silver in the mouth of the dead, to pay their passage over the great river that flows between the two lives. The Pei (Pai, Payi, Payu), an aboriginal people in the south and south-west of Yunnan, and especiallj' in the Salwin basin, are divided, according to their respective domains, into Highland and River Pei. At some remote period they traditionally inhabited the banks of the Yang-tze-kiang, whence they were gradually driven south by the advancing tide of Chinese migration. Neighbours of the Lolo, and kinsmen of the Slums, they associate litth; with them, dwelling in isolated villages, with flat- i-oofed houses like those of the Tibetans and Miaotze. Their complexion is whiter than that of the Chinese, and, like the Lolo, they are also distinguished from them by their physical strength. All insert in the lobe of the ear either a silver cylinder or a bamboo tube, an ornament replaced by the women with a cigar or a tuft of straw. Most of the latter smoke tobacco, while the men have taken to opium. The women "'^'Wm^g^^m^m^^se 268 EAST ASIA. >^^ .-4'^ aro very inclustn'ous, fiiul aro skilled at woaviii}^, iiiid even at the goldsmith's art. In speech, and prohabiy in hlood, the Pei arc allied to the Laos of Tndo-China, while the Loh) speak various more or less mixed dialects of IJurmese, Chinese, or Tibetan. The Tape, a tribe related to the IVi, arc the only survivors of a fonncrly powerful nation, which the annals tell us were condemned by the Son of Heaven to send him a tribute in objects of fjold and silver, rhinoceros horns, and tusks of elephants. The local fauna wtnild therefore seem to have undergone a change within the historic period, for all these large mammals have long disappeared. Neither the Pei nor the Pape have any idols, but when they come amongst civilised peoples they freely enter the temples, nutke offerings, FiK. 126.— CifiNEgR OF Yi-NNAii. and burn incense, like the ordi- nary worshippers. Chinese culture is in other respects gradually prevailing, while the original types are being moditied by intermixture. Anumgst the half-castes sprung of these alliances are several com- munities which, while speaking Chinese exclusively, still betray the presence of aboriginal blood in their muscular development, independent spirit, and rude habits. " We aro not Chinese," they insist haughtily ; " we aro Yunnan people " They have more than once sided with the Pauthays or natives against the mandarins. They differ also from the Chinese in their cheerful spirit and love of music. Nearly all the muleteers or carters accompany the pace of their animals with their mandolines. \-> '■ill '3 Thk Panthav Insurrection. The insurrection of 1855, which for a time raised "West Yunnan to the rank of an independent state, began with a quarrel between some Buddhist and Mohammedan miners at Shivan"- about the source of the Red River. Nowhere else in China had Islam made so much progress as in Yunnan. Sprung of a few early Arab immigrants and of some Uokhariot soldiers brought hither by Kublai Ehan in the thirteenth century, the lloi-IIoi of Yunnan cannot now be physically distinguished from the surrounding Chinese. But the different rites, and especially the clash of interests in the mining districts, fostered mutual hatred and brought about frightful massacres. At the same thne the most varied elements were found uTiiongst the rebels, collectively known abroad by the Burmese name of Panthay. In the Mohammedan ranks were Buddhist and Taoist Chinese, ;^gji^4f^7^:; ii^m'i^ismmw^fs' \ .- TOPOGRAPHY. 209 nith's art. Tn -China, while le, or Tih(>tan. erly i)o\vcrful II to send liim of t'h'phants. in the liistoric ■ the Pei nor OS thoy freely lake olferings, iko the ordi- ! is in other prevailing, 1 tyi)es are intermixture, stes spnui}^ i)i several com- iiilc speaking , still hetray iriginal blood development, , and rude lot Chinese," ly ; " we are ley have more . the Panthays inese in their rs accompiiny to the rank of 3uddhist and Nowhere else )f a few early Kublai Khan be physically and especially [ hatred and most varied \' the Burmese 'aoist Chinese, besides Lolo, Pai, Miaotze, and many other tril)os. On the other hand, many Mussulmans remained faithful to the Imperial eause, and it was one of these who, after fighting successfully on the rebel side, brought alxmt the ultimate triumph of the Chinese. A number of the vanquished Panthays withdrew to the Slum and Kakhyen hill tribes on the frontiers of Siam and IJurma. IJut the gaps thus made have k^en tilled up by immigrants, chiefly from Seehuen. Besides civil war, Yunnan has also recently suffered from the spread of leprosy and of pestilence, whidi lias made great ravages amongst men and animals. The epidemic seems here always to begin with the rats. Topography. Momein, or Tengyue/i-tincf, the only important Chinese town in the Trawadi basui, lies in a vast rice-growing plain enclosed by steep mountains. It is regarded by the English as the natural gate of South-west China, and its name constantly recurs iu all railway projects. Farther cast there are no large places in the deep Fig. 127.— KolTE BETWBBN MoMEIN AND TaLI-FC. Scale 1 : 2,600,000. The Heights are decuple of the Distanoes. •— — »-^— — — ^— ^ 60 Miles. valley of the Lutze-kiang (Lu-kiang, or Salwin). But Ynngchanii-fu, on one of its affluents, is a busy mart largely inhabited by refugees from Nanking, whence its title of " Little Nanking." It has been identified with Marco P n wiiw^wn-i— >i also, which t hike of like suiTouiidiug t standinj; in 1 for ull its i^ W I il ifg: h iu u uurrow I strengthened a vast citadel, fang), was the na. Recently m g o U a H 9. O » r< Id 5 :|,,-.f.,.vit-,-"«!-'&ri«iI^:s;-;:?;,V-V,-lUff-, . r5!r ; >i I '^ TOrOOEAPUY. 271 it again aoquirod the rank of a cupital, liaviug been (Oioson as the rosidoiico of llio Mohainniodaii King Tuwhonsia, or Sultan Soli man. On the entry of llu> Imperialists in ItST^J, over half of its 50, ()()() inhabitants were massacred, and the ooiuinaiider of the forces was able to send to Yunnan-fu twenty-four large hami)<>rs full of human cars. The suburbs were fired, and the city half ruined. IJut Tali can scarcely fail to recover from its disasters. Besides its administrative importance, it enjoys the advantage of its fertile plains, mines of salt and the precious metals, marble quarries, besides which it is the natural entrepot of trade between Bhamo and Ningyuen ; that is, between Bunna and Sechuen. Lying over 0,500 feet above sea-level, near the tropical /one, it enjoys an excellent climate, without a winter season, although the mountains rising 10,000 feet above the west side of the lake are snow-clad for eight or nine months in the year. The lake, better known by the name of Erh-hai, is 30 miles long according to Gill, and develops a crescent stretching north and south, with a mean breadth of about () miles. In the deeper parts there is over 300 feet of water, but elsewhere it is much shallower, and in the south studded with a few islands. During the rains its level i," sometimes raised 10 or 18 feet, when the torrent is changed to a copious stream, whi(;h carries its outflow through the Yanghi-kiang to the Mekhong. Jjike all its influents, the lake abounds in flsh, which the natives take with the aid of water-fowl trained for the purpose. Shidiniiiff-Jit, Yiiii chew, Scmao, and the other places in the Mekhong basin .south of Tali-fu, also suffered from the consequences of the late outbreak. Menghoa-hieu, near the source of the Red River, 30 miles south of the lake, was distinguished beyond all others for its heroic defence, and when further resistance became impossible, all valuables were hastily collected together and burnt. Poison was then distributed amongst the old men, women, and children, the four corners of the city were fired, and the handful of surviving combatants mostly perished in the attempt to cut their way through the besieging forces. Likimig-fu, in the Ujjper Einsha-kiang basin north of Tali-fu, has not yet been visited by any European traveller ; but w^hen Gill passed west of it he was told that it had been ruined by the oppressive rule of the mandarins. Other places in the same district had been completely destroyed either by the Panthays or the Imperial forces. In the portion of Yunnan draining to the Yang-tze only three large towns remain intact. One of these is the provincial capital, Ynnmn-fn, situated in a plain near the northern extremity of the largest lake in North Y'unnan. This lake, known as the '• Sea of Tien," from a kingdom of that name formerly comprising the greater portion of the plateau, lies about 6,500 feet above the sea, and sends its superfluous waters through the Pulu-shing emissary northwards to the Yang-tze. The district is productive in cereals, flax, tobacco, and fruits. But the introduction of the opium industry is said to have ruined that of wax, of which large quantities were formerly produced. The natives state that the bees, attracted by the poi)py flower, all perished from its poisonous effects after the second season. Yunnan-fu, identified by some with Marco Polo's Yaftlii, is the centre of one of the chief mining regions in the province. It controls the current price of copper for the whole of China, fij^gp" ™'i3^i»iM «w*aitWM4 -j maBiitMfe^ 272 EAST ASIA. 11 m mill Imssninc liiif^c iiu'tallurj?i(^ works, including; ii mint over two lnni(lrc of alioiit t'l.OOO. A hill towiirds tlu« imitli-wfst is crowiu-d l)y ii (••ipjit r temple, wliieli wiis spared i>y the rebels lucnuse it eoiiiiiieiuorated the national Kiu^if I'sankwei, wiio dared to resist tile authoiity of Kaiii>-hi. Still farther nortli aiiotiier hill on the Secliiien frontier is occupied hy a ;:^roiip of l)uildin''s, including; a ciiurch and Neniiiiary, which the Catholic missionaries have converted into a forniidahle stronj^yhold ajjainst tho incursions of the Mantze tiilxs. Tho Lffiii;f-s/iini hijj;hlands, on the connnon frontier of Kweichew, Secdiuen, and Yunium, are occupied hy a peaceful {xipnlatioii of Ituddhists, Mohaniinedaiis, and abori«;iiU's, who continued to live i'ig. lU!i.— YiNN.w in perfect harmony throiiirhout tho Scale 1 • l,nrt),(iO(>. , r a\ \ , • -i seventeen years ot tiie latt> civil war. I lerc one of the chief mineral products i^ a salt of lead emphn'cd in porcelain paintinj^, and cxjjurted by tho Yan,()()() feet. Hut whatever bo their altitude, these c(Mitral highlands s(>nd down nunuTous toirents in ull directiuna to the coast, which forniH an irregular oval 4X0 niibs in extent. Hainan is one of tho Icnst-known parts of China. The rivorH have lH>en tracwl on the maps either from old Chinese documents or from native rej)orts, while oven the seaboard has been carefully surveyed only on tin; north side. It is uiuiertain whether tho Nankien-kiung, Howinj^ north-west, really ramifies into the two naviiraldc rivers, Peimen-kianjo; and Kien-kiang, or 1 .lianj^, with a total development of ISO miles. It is even said to thri>w olf a third branch, also navifjable, directly to the (iulf of Ttmking, forminjj; altogether a disposition of running waters in a hilly island elsewhere unparalleled. Ilauian abounds in natural resources of all kiiuls. Its mountains rontain gold, silver, copper, iron, and other metals; hot springs bubble up, especially in its western valleys; the hillsides ure clothed with dense forests, supplying excellent building nuiterial, and still harbouring the tiger, rhinoceros, a species of ajK! resendtling the orang-outang, deer, and wild goats. Lower down floui-isli the co(!o, areca, and Ix'tel-nut palm ; while pine-apple hedges line the fields under the sugar- eane, mango, banana, litchi, indigo, cotton, tobacco, rice, potato, sesanio, and tropical fruits. Here is also the Coccus pila insect, which yields the vegetable wax of com- merce, and tho surroundinj? waters abound in Hsh, the turtle, and pearl oyster. Lying in the tr.iek of tho south-west monsocms, the island is abundantly watered, while the tropical heats are tempered by cof)l sea breezes from the north-eust. Although within the zone of tho typhoons, Hainan suffers much less than Formosa from these fierce whirlwinds. When speaking of its inhabitants, Chinese writers compare the island to a circle enchtsing two concentric rings. In the centre live the wild al)originos, in the outer zone the Chinese settlers, and between the two the civilised natives. The various tribes that have withdrawn to the valleys of tho interior are collectively known by the name of Li, or Loi, and speak a language akin to that of the continental Miaotze. Some of the Song-li, as the more savage tril)es ure called, go almost naked, dwelling in caves or narrow retreats covered with a straw roof, and split up into nunjcrous hostile septs, with different dress, arms, ond customs. Tho Nawtcmg wear the hair gathered in curls on the forehead, while the Kac Miau plant bits of bamlwo like horns on the top of the head. The Shuh, or " Ilipc " — that js, settled and civilised — Li have been joined at various times by Miaotze refugees from Kwangsi and West Kwangtung, whom they resemble in speech and habits. liiit tho dominant race have long been the Chinese, of whom ii3,000 families colonisetl the coast lands some two thousand years ago. In 1835 they numbered 1,350,000, aiid are now said to exceed 2,500,000. Mostly from Fokien and Kwangtung, they have suffered much from the pirates formerly infesting these waters, but they ■ '^W^^i^^M'^s:W4 ^^mmmmt FORMOSA. 275 itluT flic Htars ti tluH tropiral I'd with Hiiow y an olcvulion li^lilaiidH Ncnd 1 un iii'i'n;idar vc l)oon traced ts, while oven [t w uiioertuin into the two with a total I hniiu'h, uIho (liNposition of < contain {»old, ipecially in its yin<» exccUent [M'cies of ajxi uriMh the coighbouring nuiiidand, the Ciiinesc communities are divi(U'd into hostile I'unti and llakku factions, In'tween which the hereditary feuds have even recently given rise- to tierce outI)reaks. h'iiiHyc/ii'W, the capital, and the largest cit}' in tlir island, naturally lies on the north side over against the mainland, at the most convenient point for hinding and forwarding the local produce to Ibmg Kong and Canton. The surrounding district 18 extremely fertile and densely peopled, and the ci'y, enclosed by a wall JO feet high, lies (> miles from the sea. iJut its outport of //o/-//o*r (//«/-/««•), also by foreigiu'rs generally called Kiungchew, stands on a bay on the south side of the strait, and has been opened to Kuntpcan trade si. ice iHoM. The chief exports are sugar, sesame, dressed leather, pigs, poultry, and pigeons for the markets of Macao and Hong Kong. The harlxiur is ho shallow that large vessels are obliged to anchor nearly 3 miles off, under a sand-bank, which protects fh(>m from the sui-f. Next to the capital the most import4(nt places are Tiittfoii, on the Ta-kiang, the largest mart for agricultural produce ; Liidno awl 7\iii('/itir,im the north-west coast, surrounded by sugar plantations ; Aic/icir, on the south; W'unclirir and Lu/itii, ou the east sido. FORMOSA. LiKK TTainan, which it somewhat exceeds in size, and probably in population, Fonnosa belongs geologically to the mainland. Close to the east coast the sounding- line ])lunges ut once into depths of 7,000 feet, whereas Fokien Strait, on the west side, has a mean depth of scarcely 140 feet, and contracts to a width of 80 miles at its narrowest part. Even about the southern entrance of the strait the sea is studded with the Pescadores (Panghu) Islands, which are continued westwards and south-westwards by dangerous shallows. Politically and ethnically, also, Fonnosa is simply an appendage of the neighbouring province of Fokien. Known to the old geographers by the name of Great Luchew, and now officially called Taiwan, from the name of its capital, this island presents the form of an elongated oval, some 240 miles long north and south, and traversed throughout its entire length by a regular water-parting, which falls abruptly eastwards, while sloping gently towards the mainland. This Ta-shan, or "Great Range," as it is called, scarcely exceeds 8,000 feet in the south, but in the centre Mount Morrison attains a height of over 11,000 feet, while the system culminates northwards with Mount Sylvia and other peaks rising to elevations of 12,000 feet and upwards. The Ta-shan consists mainly of carboniferous limestones, with igneous rocks cropping out here and there. Mention is even vaguely made of an active volcano, the Eiai-shan, in the centre of the range, and earthquakes are still frequent in many places. The coast seems even to be rising, whereas the opposite sealward ■^m'^'^&ii mSl|»5*»«:«f<>. mim^mtmm»f) -*!a85SWa-#>T«»r4^-V,^ti-!?>*:^W»TfeH 87^ KART AMIA. ^ iM'txvccii Nirijf]M) uml rimlon i> Miilwidinjf. Wlicn the l>iitcli litld Taiwiin, on fho Muiitli-\\t'>l side, a iiii\ipil>U' strait, accrHNililf lit HcitH, tlnwcd iM'turni the two fitad<'l>, Itiit tliix cliaiiiicl ir* now dry land, iiili't'M'rlt'd ItyrniialM and i-inmIn, wliirli ui')' partly covt-rrd diirin^^ the Hprinf^ tiduN, n<> that tlic Hliippin^ now an«'liiii-H alM)ut 2 iiiili'N from tlu> old fort. Till' iirnt Kuro|M'aii iiavipitorN wlio Hi^lit«>d Taiwan early in the Nixtcenth cen- tury were HO Mtnii'k witli its |)iftiirt>Hi|iu> apiHNinince that they aptly nani(>d it i'S '"» fig. lai — FuHMOIA AMI) FoKIKN KtRAIT. H«ili> 1 : 4.fin«l,'ti'iO tu lau Felt. 1«0 to 820 feet. 310 to a,200 Fett. 3,'AJO Feet ana iipwanU. ^^^^—^^—^— tw«» il t'lHulN, wliii'h iiiicliurH iilMiiit MixllTlltll ft'li- ptly iiiiiiH'd it M ^i m fg :j )^r !5« ^- i .■■ ^ ? - " — 25" ^ ^ =^-=^-;^eg' I2S' 'ards. 8 better claims 1 range throws jlit and aspect, riety from the its everywhere he bright tints FoilMOSA. KIr. J3J. — |||(imi,ani, Fmnimmai-b, Foit«i(w.». 277 of a dense sub-tropical forest vegetation clothing all the surrounding valleys. The native villages are suspected rather than seen, embowered in bamboo and palm .•■i--:-;^jr -^ri(ltS!.!a»SS«te:»- -..-.■ ■: ■■■^■r3iCSC,er«:*,-SaiSft«yxi«VJ«-J3Sft«,.!5»S5^^ --y,. ranp- 278 EAST ASIA. 11 ^ #! f thickets, wliich flodrisli down to tlic verge of tho ocean, and crown the cliffs that are i-veiy where cut by the beating waves into a thousand fantastic forms. Tho extraordinary wealth of the Formosan flora is due partly to the neighbour- hood of the continent, partly to the different climatic zones superimposed oneal)ovo the other along tho mountain slopes. The coast lands belong to the trf)pic8, while the hills and mountains rise to the temperate and colder atmospheric regions. There is further a regular succession of monsoons, the wind blowing in summer from the Malay Archipelago, in winter from Japan. With this disposition of the atirial corresponds that of the oceanic currents, which on the cast side set north- eastwards in the direction of the Japanese Kuro-siwo, or " Black Stream," but which in the shallow waters along the west coast flow alternately north and south luider the action of the shifting trade winds. The island is thus exposed to the varying influences of the northern and southern climates, while also enjoying the advantage of an abundant rainfall. Tho greatest amount of moisture is received, not in summer, as mostly elsewhere in the extreme East, but in winter, during the prevalence of the humid north-east monsoon, when a rainfall of over 120 inches has been recorded at the Kelung station on the north coast. On tho east side the atmospheric currents are occasionally iicverscd by the typhoons, which rarely pene- trate westwards to the Fokien Strait. On the 18th and 19th of August, 1858, the naturalists on board the Novam, en route from Shanghai to the Carolines, observed one of these cyclones, which, while revolving round itself, described a vast curve above the southern limits of the Liu-kiu Archipelago. From hour to hour they were able to follow and record the successive points gained by the hurricane, which reversed the normal direction of these typhoons. Although Formosa probably possesses no vegetable or animal species distinct from those of the continent, some forms occur which have not yet been met else- where. The prevailing species, corresponding with those of South Japan and Fokien, arc often distinguished by their symmetrical and vigorous growth. Nowhere else in the Chinese Empire do tho bamboos attain a greater height, being sometimes 100 feet high, with a girth of 24 inches. The large forests of the interior con- sisted chiefly of the camphor-tree before the ravages committed by the rapacity of modern traders. One of the most common plants on the coast lands is the Aralia papyrifera, a shrub with bare stem terminating in broad leaves, used in the manu- facture of " rice paper." Amongst the thirty-five species of mammals and one hundred and twenty-eight of land birds, there are fourteen and forty-three respectively which are found neither on the mainland nor on the neighlxjuring islands. This local fauna shows that the island has long been separated from the continent, although not long enough to greatly modify the prevailing types. Thus the tiger, wild Iwar, deer, antelope, monkeys, insectivora, and various species of ruminants and rodents cor- respond with those of the mainland, although several of these mammals are more closely related to those of India, Malaysia, and Japan than to those of China. The "rock monkey " recalls some of the Indian and Burmese varieties rather than thos6 of South China and Hainan ; while the beautiful deer discovered bv Swinhoe, the '■■^mm FORMOSA. 279 the cliffs tliut ms. le nci};libour- ised one al«)ve tropics, while leric regions, ng in summer (osition of the iide set north- Stream," but rth and south sxposed to the enjoying the ire is received, ;er, during the ver 120 inches 3 east side the h rarely pene- Tust, 1858, the lines, observed d a vast curve hour they were irricane, which species distinct been met else- an and Fokien, Nowhere else eing sometimes le interior con- the rapacity of 8 is the Aralia in the manu- d twenty-eight lich are found al fauna shows lougt not long kild boar, deer, lid rodents cor- nmals are more of China. The thcr than thosfe v Swinhoe, the flying squirrels, and the Macroacelin ape arc allied to those of ^lalaysia. More than half of the Formosan avifauna is also more nearly related to those of the Jiimalayas, South India, the Eastern Archipelago, and Japan than to those of the more adjacent Chinese lands. Amongst the new forms discovered by Swinhoe the most remarkable are some gallinaccic and pigeons, a magnificent pheasant, some tomtits, sparrows, and the white-headwl blackbird ; but there are no parrots, as in Fig. 133.— Tyi'hoov of the "Novaka." Scale 1 : 8,520,000. 160 MUes. the central and southern provinces of China. While the continental yellow- hammer migrates in vast numbers between India and Manchuria, the Ft)inu)san variety never leaves the island, merely passing with the seasons from the plains to the uplands. In the Tamshui River singing fishes are heard, like those of Trinco- mali Bay, Guayaquil, and San Juan del Norte. Being visible from the mainland on clear days, Formosa has from the remotest ■^"Vwjp'v ■" • L^,.;r{W-*r;' "'-^- ■ ■""'■"'^™m^i3^i*ttm®^fi)«J^J$f»»&*rVC*$ic^-»^'t^^»'-.H> -tsm 280 KAST ASIA. 1^' ■^ periods 1)0011 known to tlio Cliiiiosc. 15ut al(hou{?h the Pnnf^lm proup had hoen lonf» occupied hy Home fishornion, llio island was never visited till the year OOo of the vulf^ar era, nor were any setllenients made till the fifteenth oentury, when the nor.h coast was occupied. An orfjaiiized system of immigration was at last dovo- loped during the second lialf of the seventeenth century, after the expulsion of the Dutch traders and the d(>s1 ruction of the pirates. Yet within two hundred years the settlers, mostly from Fokien, have already occupied all the w(' x^-'- ^>»'^ Kelung there if Tamsliui, is f^. According ai)proacbcd at lignites, some if the district neighbourhood itu being oaten •ados. ;MoHt of the islands, worn away at the base, have assumed tlie form of colossal mushrooms. On a headlaiul at tlio east side of the entrance to llie port are the iiiiiisof soiuo old Spanish batifieations. The Iiiu-l thoHo ol' Vniiiikuin", iirr still in the snvii;;*' state. Towards its s. IJut tlu? yield of rice and millet heing iiisufHcient for their wants, they de])eiid jiartly on Kormo.su for their siistenanco. Here the fierce winter j»alps sometiiuL-.s blow Fig. 130.- CiiiA.M) Lu-oiiKW, Act'OitnLNo TO AN oi.n CiiiNKHK Mah. r^ ^-r^.5v"^ mm 5 W down or tear up the trees by the roots. The village of Mnkvng is the capital of this group. MATERIAL AND SOCFAL CONDITION OF CHINA. Aftkr the tremendous losse.s aftendinj; the civil wars and other disasters, bv which the country has been wasted since the middle of the present century, the population has again entered on a period of increase. Celibacy outside the monasteries is almost unknown in China, where all marry young, and where the average number of children is greater than elsewhere. " There are three sins against filial piety," says Mengtze, " and of the three the greatest is to leave no posterity." Celibacy is even forbidden, and the mandarins have the right to compel men after their thirtieth, and women after their twentieth, year to get married. The poj)ulation would double in about twenty years but for the civil wars, massacres, and famines, and the universal peace now prevailing has certainly already added tons of millions to the population. The increase is, moreover, largely due to the migrations of the natives of Sechuen, Fokien, and Shansi ; that is, of the most industrious and enterprising citizens of the Middle Kingdom. The actual density of the population can only be surmised from old estimates, whose real value has never been clearly determined. Nevertheless it is certain that in this respect China cannot be compared with Western Europe, parts of the THK CIIINKSH TOWNS. 286 )0M, 8()ino (>f til' I'linnnsii ii< west side, s a Khii>piii)? iiihal)itimts, n>. Hut i1k) <]»fii«l ]>iiitly iiutiiiiL's blow tlie capital of disasters, by t coiitury, the outside the ud where the re three sins s to leave iio the right to , year to get for the civil has certainly ■cover, largely that is, of the old estimates, it is certain 3, parts of the United StiitcM, and even of Austnilia. There are doubtless many liir<;(> cities, such as Canton, llmikow, (!iiangclic\v, l''u( liew, Sin;raii, 'i'itntsiii, and i'duiig; l)ut even tliese only take the second rank compared witli London, or even with Paris. Wliile the url)an exceeds the rural population in manufacturing' countries, the reverse is the ease in China, still mainly an agricultural region. Nnr can its political centralization be conipured with that of most Kurii|ti'an states, the want of Fig. 1U7.— Dbnsity ok tiik CiriNKBK Poi-llatjos in 1S42. Boalo I : SO.oon.rn. , EoFG. Per Square Kilometre. n p: 13 ^ ^ H Oinhftb. OtolO. 10 to 20. 20toI(H», IdO to 200, 200 nnd upwards. I Towim with over 1,000,000 Inhabitants. • Towng with over oOD.OOO Iiihubitants. ._i___i^..^____ 1,900 MUes. communication preventing the great emporiums from developing such a vast trade as that enjoyed by the leading cities of the West. The Chinese Towns. Speaking generally, the Chinese towns, of which the ancient Singan-fu may be taken as the type, belong to a different period of evolution from those of Europe. Their quadrangular enclosures of lofty castellated walls still attest the frequent recurrence of civil wars, while the inner city, lying within u "second enclosure, recalls the Manchu conquest. On the least alarm the four or eight gates of the city are closed, and the towers occupied by armed men. The Manchu quarter is in the '^'«a?«?rr-- ; ^ ^y*wft » MU 1 ^ tinu>.>4 of cdiisidtMalilc t>\tciit. Hut althmi^di the ('liinrHc t|iiarti>r is iiuicli iiioru uniinat(>d, the tiadiuff I'las^t's still [MrftT tin- (ipiii sidmrhs hcyoiid the outer walls, where they are free i'roin the police and military re^'ulatious, and where aeeess uiid c'^^ress are peniiifted thronjjhoiit the iii<,dit. These suhurhs, often stn'tchin^ for miles aloii};; tile roads and canals, heeonu- tlu-niNclves real towns, and thus is social life iirks, H much luoro .< (tutcr walls, re m'ccKM 1111(1 trctchiiig ior thus is social «ul)urlw coin- iind many of nsolvoH. The m ents — are soon met with in 8, while fires uthern gate of ■ansformcd by a rule, inde- ll-kept fields. pidoniics, and uropo ; while liabits, commit ewhere. Pro- l»ah|y iiiiic-fcnths oT liic wliolc pojuilatiHH an- afTcctcfl hy culancuus diM-ascs, which arc lurn:t'ly due to the |)i»«ti!cMtial cxhidatioiis from tin rice j^ruunds. Yet the Chines.' easily resist the hauoful inHueiu*es of climate, and adapt thenisejve-. inure readily than others to the extreme variations of temperature, humidity, and elevation of the land. A remarkalile fact in Chinese ethno^rraphv is the importance attached to himily names, which may l)e said to constitute close hlood relationship. KiK. 130.— luRKlATIXO VVMV, ISol TU ClUNA. Hence alliances between men and women bearing the same patronymic are strictly forbidden. The whole nation has thus come to bo divided into 150 distinct groups, which can intermarry indirectly only through the female line. AoRicti/ruRE. The fertile soil of China has been under cultivation for thousands of years wthout showing any signs of exhaustion. It not only still suffices to support all 888 KAST ASIA. the iiihiiliitiititH of tlif I'lnpirc, liiit tiloo yirliU ciiiisidi'nililr Nii|)|)li(>s for th<< rx]K)rt trtiili'. Willioiit tilt' rlu'iiiiciil knowlfd^c and |i<>i'f(>*'t«>d iiiipliinriit^^ (d' lMini|H ]M>asut)l Iium gradually IkhiIIU' ai(|uaiMt('d with the (jiiality of t!i(> iaiiil and the ri>(|iiiri'iiu'nfn of flic cultivati'd plaiilN. lie iumI. ■if.ds tlic iH'«!e»wiry rotation of «TopM on tin- Name isoil ; n-j^ulatcs the due pro^x ,i m ol lime, jdiosjdiati's, ashfM, aiiinial and vc^n'taWlo rcinaiiiH, and ollitr niannr«< ' t .«'4 of his instruinriits with manual Hkill. \lo I'ari'ludy w(H>dM tiM' ground, uad irrigates it l)y ii thouHuiid dillVrciit ntntrivuncoH, all kinds ot punipt) und Pig. HO.— lULATivi Impohtanc'i or the Chops i.s thi; ( hinkkk Puovincm. Snilc 1 ; .■in.iKKi.rino. dO' 25: FoFG. v«.....> "p-^\i GOO Miletk hydraulic wheels, worked by the hand, animals, or the wind. The system of tillage thus resembles market gardening rath(>r than the broad methods of cultivation common in Europe. In the fertile plains, especially about Shanghai, a single acre sufHces for the support of seven or eight persons, and before the country was thro^vn open to foreign trade it yielded sufficient for all the wants of the ijcoplc. There are, moreover, vast tracts still uncultivated, and according to the official rt>turns for the beginning of this century, while the land under tillage amounted to 120,000,000 acres. Shantung was the only province where more than half of the soil was actually cultivated. H AdHKUI.TrilK. 2HI) or the rX|Ktrt il' Kuio|M'im«t, ty of llw land tlic iufcsHiiry U', J»lH)(*Jiluit('M, |l)lll'lllt'lll'4 tlll^ ■4 \hr J4?(illll(l, it puiiipH und NCM. un stem of tillage of cultivation ghai, u single le country was of the people, to the official e amounted to m half of the Liohig luiH w«'ll poiiifcd out the rrniurkuhlo contrast pr('s«>nt»'d l»y CliincHi" huHldindrv to that ol' houic otlicr counlrics, wImtc the soil lias nhrady Ixrn cxliaustcd. Palestine, now so arid, at one time ' flowed with milk and honey." Central Italy has alno lieeome impov(>rislied, and how many other regions have hei'ii reduced to wildernc'sses hy ignorant and wastel'nl systems! Kven in ihi Uniteil States many formerly prodiictivi- tracts are now harrcn, while Mngland, France, and (Jermany are already ohliged to import much of their supplies, as ,vell as the guano and otlier fertilising substances riMpiircil to restore its produilive energy to the exhausted land. Ilut in China, apart altogether from the " Yellow liands," which need no niaiuire, the arable regions have maintained their fecundity for over four thousand years, entirely through the thouy;htful peasantry in restoring to the soil under another form all that the crops have taken from if. At th(> sanu' time " the ploughing of the Chinese is very ])oor and unscientillc. Tliey scarcely (h) more than scratch the surface of the gnuind ; and instead of the Htraight lines so dear to the eye of an Knglish farmer, the ridges and furrows in China are as crooked as serpents. Hence it Is difficult to understand how flu! Chinese have acquired such a high rej)utati(m amongst Muropeans for Krirndftc fanning. The real secret of their sjicccss lies in the care they take that nothing is wasted. In many districts they use no other nuinurc than the sewage of the towns, but not one particle of this is h).st." (CJill, i. 1 14.) Of the crops the n»)st important is rice, which is the staple food throughout the central and southern provinces, und which occupies at least one-eighth of uU the luiul under cultivaficm. There are several varieties, one of which is suitable for the higher grouiuls, where it is grown on terraces ahuig the sh)pes of the hills. North of the lloang-ho, wheat, millet, and sorgho are the prevailing cereals, and to eacli h(»use is generally attached a kitchen garden, yielding all the J'luropcan and other vegetables according to the climate. But the forests have nearly everywhere l)een sacrificed to tillage to such an extent that the material for coffins has now to be imported from abroad. The only fuel consists of dried herbs, straw, roots, and other yegetablo refuse economized with the greatest care. In the eastern plains, especially north of the Yang-tze, no large growths are met except bamboo thickets, orchards, rows of trees between the fields, and hero and there clumps of trees about the pagodas and cemeteries. The whole country would be covered by these grave- yards but for the old practice of ploughing them up at the accession of every new dynasty. After a careful investigation of the subject in several parts of the country, G. W. Cooke concludes that on the whole Europe has nothing to learn from China in the art of agriculture. It is true that the Chinese have no summer fallow lands ; but, on the other hand, they have no stiff clays. They have no couch-grass ; no thistles contending for the full possession of the land, as we see in many parts of "Wales and Ireland ; no uninvited poppies ; no straggling .stalky crops, the poverty-stricken covering of an exhausted soil. At rare intervals we see a large, richly coloured coxcomb flaunting himself among the cotton. But, generally speaking, there is not a leaf above the ground which does not appertain to the crop Jf- ,r-< .-- jK-i7Tr-«T(jrai8 l» W* . *..*Krti-i-r]w^ ':-?x-'?»f-nLi*wrf* . r^s*^ •-■ ^lifmT 290 EAST ASIA. to which tho field is appropriated. In the districts where rice and cotton arc the staple products these crops often extend in mibroken breadth over tracts of thousands of acres. The peas, and wheat, and indigo, and turnips, and bringalls lie in patches round thi< villages. The ground is not only clean, but the soil is so cxcpiisitely pulverised that after a week's rain the traveller will sonictinies look about in vain for a clod to throw into a pond to startle the water-fowl.* Pasture lands are as scarce as the forests in China. The land is too valuable to be devoted to stock-breeding, for a tract required to support a million oxen would yield centals and vegetables enough for 1*^,000,000 hunum beings. But for thousands of years both the ox and horse have been domesticated. The mythical Emperor Fo-hi, said to have flourished fifty- three centuries ago, is supposed to have been the first to domesticate the six essentially tame animals — horse, ox, pig, dog, sheep, and fowls. But the larger animals, including the buffalo, are little used except for carriage. They are carefully tended, protected from the cold M-ith warm cloths, and from the rough roads with straw shoes. Owing to the Buddhist precept and his natural attachment to his companion in labour, the peasant eats the flesh of these animals with great reluctance. The penal code even forbids their slaughter without exjiress permission. Nevertheless, apart from the numerous vegetarian societies, which also abstain from wine, garlic, and onions, the Chinese add a little meat to their ordinary diet. They are partial especially to the flesh of the hog, of which there arc several varieties. On the rivers and reservoirs flocks of three or four thousand tlucks are also met, which arc looked after either by children in boats, or even by cocks, which are taught to keep them together by crowing and flapping their wings. A large traffic is done in these water-fowl, which are dried, like botanical specimens, between two boards, and in this state forwarded to the most distant provinces. In the southern provinces, and especially in Hunan, a particular breed of dogs, and even rats and mice, are prepared in the same way. The locust, silkworm, and snake enter into the diet of the poor, while sharks' fins and swallows' nests are served on the tables of the rich. Another delicacy consists of ducks' eggs steeped while fresh in a solution of salt and lime. Penetrating through the shell, the lime turns the contents quite black, and imparls to the egg a decided flavour. In this state it is encased in clay and baked, after which it will keep for a long time, the white being reduced to the consistency of a jelly, while the yolk becomes about as firm as a hard-boiled egg. After the death of Commissioner Yeh in Calcutta, where he had been detained a State prisoner, several large boxes of eggs prepared in this way were found amongst his effects. The Chinese have discovered a means of increasing the fecundity of their poultry, whereby the relative production of eggs is much greater than in Exirope. The hen is prevented from hatching by being taught to bathe, and artificial incubation has been practised long before the art was known in the West. Pigeons arc protected from birds of i)rey by means of a bamboo whistle no thicker than a sheet of paper inserted between the wings. Marvellous devices have been intro- " China in 1857-8," p. 247. THE TEA TRADE. 291 cotton are the vcr tracts of and bringalls tlie soil is so Huctiuics look 1.* is too valuable I million oxen ings. But for The mytliical pposetl to have !, ox, pig, (log, are little used the cold with 3 the Buddhist e peasant eats ■n forbids their the numerous ns, the Chinese ■ to the flesh of eservoirs flocks after cither by m together by esc water-fowl, id in this state provinces, and I and mice, are into the diet of )le8 of the rich, tion of salt and uite black, and lay and baked, the consistency gg. After the itained a State nd amongst his uidity of their ban in Europe, and artificial "West. Pigeons thicker than a ave been intro- duced for the capture of fish, which are tiikon without nets or traps, and great skill is displayed in rearing and propagating both salt and fresh-water species. The samli, a kind of shad, is produced almost exclusively by arti cial means, and sent in large earthenware vessels, far and wide, in every state of development. TiiK Tka Trade. Of the natural products, tea supplies the largest element in the foreign export trade. Tlie quantity consumed by the inhabitants, certainly moro than in all the rest of the world together, can only be approximately estimated. Yet its use, although introduced some twelve or fifteen centuries ago, is not yet universal in the empire. In the northern provinces the rich alone can afford to indulge in the tea from the Yang-tze basin, others remaining satisfied with various preparations in which the precious leaf forms but a small part. f]ven in the tea-growing provinces the poorer classes are obliged to replace it by infusions of the willow and other leaves gathered in the thickets. In certain districts this industry has even acquired some commercial importance, thanks to the fraudulent practice of the Hankow, Shanghai, and Amoy merchants, who use these leaves in adulterating the teas destined for the European market. The so-called " brick tea " is prepared especially for the Tibetan and Mongolian markets. In the Russian factory at Hankow " bricks are made of green and black tea, but always from the commonest and cheapest ; in fact, for the black tea the dust and sweepings of the establishment are used. The tea-dust is first collected, and if it is not in a sufficiently fine powder, it is beaten with wooden sticks on a hot iron plate. It is then sifted through several sieves to separate the fine, medium, and coarse grains. The tea is next steam'^'d over boiling water, after which it is immediately put into the moulds, the fine dust in the centre, and the coarse grains round the edges. These moulds are like those used for making ordinary clay bricks, but very much stronger, and of less depth, so that the cakes of tea, when they come out, are more like large tiles than bricks. " The people who drink this tea like it black ; wherefore about a teaspoonful of soot is put into each mould, to give it the depth of colouring and gloss that attracts the Mongolian purchasers. The moulds are now put under a powerful press, and the covers wedged tightly down, so that when removed from the press the pressure on the cake is still maintained. After two or three days the wedges are driven out, the bricks are removed from the moulds, and each brick is wrapped ui> separately in a piece of common white paper. Baskets, which when full weigh 130 lbs., are carefully packed with the bricks, and are sent to Tientsin, whence they find their way all over Mongolia, and up to the borders of Russia. " I was told that this tea could be sold retail in St. Petersburg with a fair profit at the rate of twenty copecks the pound. The green tea is not made of such fine stuff, but of stalks and leaves. The 3Iongolians make their infusion by boiling. In this manner they extract all the strength, and as there is no delicate flavour to lose, they do not injure the taste. The manufacturer here told me that the ■ ■WWA-^J'/Sfe'tiSJ^iVfe.- 1 m'tniniHiniiln H'l i ^teiAw I !'*1>^ 292 EAST ASIA. n tea the Russians usually drink in their own country is taken direct to Odessa from Hankow by the Sue/ Canal, and in answer to an inquiry that I made, he assured nic that even before the canal was opened it never passed through London. "A better price is given by the Russians in Hankow than the English care to pay. This is the real reason why the tea in Russia is superior to any found in London ; foi- caravan tea is a delicacy even amongst the nobles in St. Petersburg." (Gill, i. 170.) Other Agricultukal Produce. Of the seventy cultivated plants mentioned by explorers, the sugar-cane, cotton, mulberry, wax, tallow, and varnish-tree, boihmeria nettle, and especially the bamboo, are economically of the first importance. In the south, the orange, peach, and mulberry are the most productive fruit trees. Opium, although officially interdicted, is cultivated in nearly all the provinces of the empire, and especially in Ilupeh, Sechuen, and Yunnan. During the American War cotton was largely grown in the Tjower Yang-tze region, to the detriment of other plants, which have since recovered their ground. Of all pursuits, agriculture holds in China the foremost place. The Emperor himself is regarded as the first husbandman in the " Great and Pure Empire," and till recently he was bound, towards the end of March, to plough three furrows, dressed as a peasant. The work was continued by the imperial princes, great mandarins, and others invited to the ceremony, and the corn thus grown was presented the following year to the God of Heaven, as the offering of the whole nation. At the same time, the Emperor is in theory only the jjroprietor of the land, which belongs really to the peasant and his posterity as an absolute freehold. Land Tenure — The Chinese Commune. Notwithstanding the pretended immutability of the Chinese people, the posses- sion of the soil has undergone almost more frequant changes amongst them than elsewhere. In the first historic period the laud was the common property of the " Hundred Families," all able-bodied adults between their twentieth and sixtieth year having a direct right to a share in the soil. Nevertheless the idea of private property was graaaally developed, to the advantage of the emperor and grandees, and twelve hundred years before the present era the land was already divided into appanages and fiefs, as happened later on in West Europe. Still the forests, pastures, or open spaces remained undivided for every group of eight families, and the Chinese commune was, on the whole, organized in much the same manner as the modern mir of Great Russia. Some traces of this system still survive, not only in China, but in Korea and some other countries affected by Chinese influences. Towards the middle of the fourth centurj' before the vulgar era another change took place. Agriculturists were allowed to settle on any vacant spaces, and sot up landmarks, regardless of the communal limits. Thiis the mir was dissolved about the same time that the feudal system disappeared, and the peasantry became LAND TENURE -THE CHINESE COMMUNE. 293 to Odessa from ado, he assured jondoii. le English care to any found in >t. Petersburg." proprietors, with the right of selling or bequeathing their possessions. Thus was aceomplished a transformation sonic two thousand years ago in China, which political economists foresee must take place in Russia at no distant date. lUit the consequences of this dissolution of the communal group soon followed. All (hose who had been enriched by trade, industry, imperial favour, or other circumstances, bought up the land at the expense of the peasantry ; large estates wore developed ; and the small holders, being gradually dispossessed, became at last, for the most ar-cane, cotton, especially the ! orange, peach, lough officially , and especially ton was largely ats, which have t place. The Jreat and Pure irch, to plough •y the imperial the corn thus the offering of ( the j)roprietor as an absolute Fig. 141— Chief Chops op China. Scale 1 : 24,000,000. iple, the posses- ngst them than property of the 3th and sixtieth idea of private • and grandees, dy divided into till the forests, lit families, and ime manner as irvive, not only 3 influences, ir era another iant spaces, and ir was dissolved asantrv became ^^ PastnreB. Maize, Millet, &c. Rice. Cotton. Tea. Silk. Sugar-cane. Varnish. . 600 Miles. part, slaves of the wealthy classes. Those considered themselves fortunate who were allowed to continue as farmers, to rent the lands of their forefathers. Misery became widespread, frequent outbreaks took place, the State itself was impoverished, and great difficulty was experienced in collecting the taxes. An incessant struggle took place Li.-*veen the partisans of the new regime and the old communal .system, and for over one thousand years the political history of the empire resolved itself into the history of the agrarian question. In the ninth year of the new era the EAST ASIA. minister AVangmang, after seizing the throne, declared the whole land henceforth imperial projierty. " No subject shall keep more than one tsin (about twelve acres), or possess more than eight man slaves. The sale of land is forbidden, so that all may keep what yields them bread. All excess of land in the hands of any one reverts to the Crown, and shall be distributed to the communes according to their needs. Whoever (|uestions the wisdom of these measm'es shall be banished, whoever resists them shall be put to death." Yet a few years later on the magnates had recovered their donuiins, and the attempt to reconstitute the old communal system again failed. " Not Yu or Shun himself," said u contemporary philosopher, " could now restore it. All things change ; the streams shift their courses, and what time has elfaced disappears for ever." After many social convulsions and changes of dj'nasties, the Chinese political economists, abandoning the old conception of coramuiud property, attempted to introduce a new system. No similar revolution was ever elsewhere essayed by the governing classes for the transformation of the whole social fabric. Wanganche, having become the friend and adviser of the Emperor Chentsung, boldly set about the destruction of the old order of things. In 1069 he issued a decree abolishing all individual property. The State became sole owner, and imdertook to distribute equally the produce of the soil amongst the people. Wealth and poverty were alike suppressed, labour and sustenance being secured to all on an equal footing. The industries were placed under State control, and for a period of five years capitalists were required to hand over their capital to the Government. Notwith- standing the opposition of the mandarins and the old feudatory lords, Wanganche succeeded in peacefully maintaining this imperial commmiism for fifteen years. But a change of rulers sufliced to overthrow the new regime, which met the views neither of the people nor of the great, and which had, moreover, created a class of inquisitors, who had become the true owners of the land. Under the Mongol rule properties changed hands abruptly, and a new feudal system arose, based on the right of conquest, ^he imperial grandees seized the gr(Hit fiefs, comprising thousands and ' ! s of thousands of acres, and every private soldier received an estate all to himstlf. Being at the same time anxious to extend the pasture lands for their horses, the Monj^olians conceived the strange idea of converting the land under tillage into grassy steppes, and driving the Chinese peasantry southwards. The cultivation of the plains of Peking was officially forbidden, but the attempt completely failed. Instead of driving the natives beyond the Iloang-ho, the Mongolians themselves were compelled to withdraw, with their families and herds, beyond the Great Wall, The regime at present prevailing in China is that of small holdings. But under the direction of the elders the land often remains undivided in the hands of all the members of a family, or even of a village. Thus are traces everywhere preserved of the old communal system. Large capitals are invested chiefly in trade and the industries, while the land in certain provinces remains almost entirely in the hands of the cultivators. Nevertheless there still remain many vast domains rented to small farmers and others, who share the summer crops with the INDUSTRIES. 295 nd licnceforth (iilxjut twelve I forbidden, so the hands of ines uccordin<^ II bo banished, 1 later on tho itituto the old contemporary ms shift their inesc political , attempted to assayed by the Wanganche, oldly set about ;rce abolishing >k to distribute I poverty were equal footing. I of live years 3nt. Notwith- Is, Wanganche fifteen years. met the views Dated a class of d a new feudal idees seized the i every private sious to extend strange idea of ig the Chinese was officially ig the natives withdraw, with loldings. But n the hands of es everywhere isted chiefly in almost entirely tin many vast crops with the landlord, and keep 'he winter ones for themselves. They supply the live stock, manure, and implements, while the owner pays the land tax, which is not a heavy charge. Tn the fertile coast lands, where the soil is more divided, an estate of 15 acres is considered a large domain, and the holdings do not probably exceed 3 acres on the average. The head of tho family may sell or mortgage his pi-oporty, but he must first Oil'er it to the next of kin, and so on, according to tlie order of blood r(;lationship. At his death it must be divided in ecpiul shares amongst all his sons. lie is compelled by law to keep it in good condition, land lying fallow for three years being forfeited and assigned to a fresh occupant. Even the head of the comnmne is made responsible for the state of the arable tracts, being subject to twenty blows of a bamboo in case of neglect or slovenly tillage. Tho right of settling on waste spaces belongs to all, nothing being required beyond an intimation to tho authorities, with a petition for exemption from the iiiipoHt, which is usually granted for a certain term. The Government itself founds military or penal colonies in remote districts, and especially in Kunsu and Zungaria. The Crown lands, relatively of small extent, lie mostly beyond China proper, in Mongolia, near the Great Wall, and in Manchuria, home of the reigning dynasty.* The plantations round tlie temples, lands set apart for educational purposes or bequeathed to hospitals and other public foundations, and lastly, portions of the marshy grounds and the foreshore on the coast and estuaries, are all administered by the commune. IxnrsTRiEs. The Chinese industries are many centuries older than those of the West, and some of the more important discoveries made in Europe towards the close of the Middlf" Ages had long been anticipated in the extreme East. Marco Polo and the early liluropean explorers speak with admiration of the woven goods, chased metals, and other products of the " Manzi." But the first trustworthy accounts of the native manufactures was not received in Europe till the close of the seventeenth century. Several manufacturing processes were revealed by .he missionaries, and the work has been completed during the present century by the translation of numerous technical trtatipes. The ready wit and manual skill of the Chinese artisans are rot merely preroc^iitives of the race, but are also due to the fact that our minute division of labour hits not yet been introduced amongst them. Every artistic object is the work of one artist, who designs, models, and paints it. In many provinces the peasantry themselves are craftsmen, spinning and weaving their cottons and linens. The^: excel especially in wicker-work, and so closely plaited are their baskets, that they serve, like wooden or metal vessels, to hold all kinds of liquids. The Hoa-huei, or " embroiderers," have also been at all times renowned for the skill and perfection of their workmanship. " On fabrics of • Crown Innds in 183! : — AppanHgcs of tlio Imperial B'nmily . Lands of tho Eight Dannors Lands of Temples, Schools, and H'spituls Marshos and Foreshore on tho ('oast Total 750,000 acres. 2,152,000 „ 327,000 '„ 1,667,000 „ 4,7y«,000 „ •»,^>vis-i.«:W ,1 Jirril ml "I " ' 290 EAST ASIA. marvellous texture uiul il}i'il with inimitable shades the Chinese embroider with flat silk fif^ures of the natural size, eoinplicated seenes, ornaments, birds, and flowers, with unecpialled truthfulness, elegance, and freshnesy. In the midst of this rich needle jjicture rise golden dragons, worked either in rotic/iure or low relief, often ornamented with spangh's md lama."* Nevertheless, except in a few cases, the Chinese can boast of no superiority over the " Western Barbarians." They even condescend to imitate European wares, and the implements, ornaments, clocks and watches, and other objects made in Canton and Fachan, and thence exported to all parts of the empire, are mostly copied from specimens introduced from the West. Of the old local industries, some have remained unmodified for four thousand j'ears, and these may disappear or be replaced, but cannot now be changed. In some cases the very processes have Fig. 142.— Mines of Shantung. Re lie 1 : 6,000,000. Cnal. r Irou. r Cojper. • OP Lead. Gold. Precious Stnnes. __— 120 MUes. alrrady been entirely lost, and the best hands now fail to produce inlaid bronzes, rviamels, or porcelain vases at all comparable to the old specimens preserved in the mu.seums. In the i-^t of "ral colours elsewhere unknown. Mineral Resources — Metal Work — Bronzes. The country abounds in metals, salt, and coal. Great skill is shown in working the saline springs, and in obtaining the salt, either by solar heat, artificial means, • Jacquemart's " History of Furniture," p. 154. ■■^'li* m MINERAL RESOURCES— METAT; "WORK— RRONZES. 207 ombroi'flor with :>nts, birds, and 111 the midst of roiic/iure or low superiority over Europcuu wares, )l)]ects inado in pi re, are mostly industries, some disappear or bo processes have 55' inlaid bronzes, ireserved in the the Chinese are 11. own in working artificial means, or by the }?ttses of the fire-pits, as in Sechuen. But the rudest appliances are still used in coal mining, bamboo tubes and ladders replacing the complicated machinery of European engineers. Yet the annual output amounts to several million tons, and China now takes the sixth place amongst the coal-producing countries. The Sechuen coal-fields cover an area of at least 100,000 square miles. Those of irunan are also very extensive ; but the most important, if not in extent, at least in facility of access, are those of South Shansi. Here railways might easily bo constructed from the plains right into the mines. At the prcsoh, rate of consumption, South Shansi also might supply sufficient anthracite to the whole world for thousands of years. Mining operations are still oft(>n interfered with for superstitious reasons, and it was reported early in the year 1882 that the coal mines of the ^irovince of Pechili had been closed by the Government on the ground that the works were displeasing to the great earth dragon. The working of these mines was wholly a native enterprise, foreign machinery was imported in large quantities, and for a time all seemed going on well. A canal between the mines and Tientsin was nearly completed, and it was calculated that 200 tons of fine coal could be forwarded daily to the latter port. It was stated that 0,000 tons were ready at the pit's mouth for conveyance as soon as the canal was opened. With proper appliances it was believed that about 1,000 tons a day could be raised for many years from the present pits, while as many as fifty collieries of equal productiveness might be opened in the Kai'ping district. Then came the news that the works had been everywhere suddenly stopped by the Peking authorities. In a memorial presented to the Emperor by the public censor it was complained that the long galleries in the mines and the smoke of the foreign machinery disturbed the repose of the earth dragon, who in his turn disturbed the spirit of the Empress, who had died some months previously, and had been buried about a hundred miles off. Ihe angry spirit of the departed princess took prompt vengeance by afflicting the members of the imperial household with measles, which affliction was thus distinctly traceable to the Kaiping coal mines. Hence the report that the works had been stopped. But later information showed that this report was premature, and that the collieries had never been directly inter- fered with.* In Formosa, Pechili, Manchuria, and some other districts, European methods have already been introduced both in the coal and iron mines, and for reducing the iron ores, although in the latter case the local processes differ little from those of foreign metallurgists. The native steel is always preferred even to the English, and great skill is displayed in the preparation of copper, lead, tin, zinc, arsenic, and silver and gold alloys. The quality and colour of the bronzes are unrivalled, and the "male" and "female" gongs yield the most exquisitely modulated tones. From the technical point of view many of the Chinese bronzes are very remarkable. Enormous figures cast in several pieces are put together by ingenious processes which insure their solidity, while smaller articles are modelled with a perfection * Nature, June 8th, 1882. 52 "wrr- 298 EAST ASIA. that Ima never been surpassed, except perhaps in Japan. Others, ajyain, are chased with a finish worthy of the gohlsinith's art, and evidently executed with instru- ments specially made for hollowing out the metal and cutting into the intricate folds of the draperies. Amongst the more curious bronze wares are the gigantic symbolic birds used us perfume-burners or candelabra, the large tripods with pierced covers surmounted by the imperial dragon or animals of happy omen, and Fig. 143. — Mines of Yunnan. Scale 1 : S,fiOO,O0n. CoaL V C m A * m •• S- Iron. Copper. Lead. Gold Silver; Tin, Quicksilver. _ 180 Uiles. Oems. Polt. ^m -»«; the many-storied pagodas, their jirojecting roofs ornamented with bells, and sheltering the household lares. Thanks to the possession of the raw material, China, like Japan, still maintains its pre-eminence in the production of lacquer-ware as well as of ink, while marvellous skill is betrayed in the carving of wood, ivory, and hard stones. Inventors of paper, the Chinese still prepare several varieties unknown in Europe, although they themselves prefer those of Korea and Japan. In the j'ear 153 of the vulgar era Tsailun first replaced bamboo tablets by paper made from bark, hemp, old linen rags, and fishing nets. Since that time, bamboo sprouts, seaweed, rattan, the fibre of the Brousnotietia papyri/em, silkworm cocoons, and other sub- stances are used in its maniifacture. Irfl-^v M .-Stw. & t, * fain, are chased ;d with iustru- :o the intricate ire the gigantic e tripods with ippy omen, and 9. Salt. irith bells, and , still maintains of ink, while id hard stones, own in Europe, ;he year 153 of ade from bark, prouts, seaweed, and other sub- B J eu il:li"Vfi i. THE LABOUR MAlUvKT. liii ■ii',. i!'UI' 1 ■.".i.« I ■■316? aa b J d 99 a. PRIXTINCI. The Cliiiu'MO ulso unticipiitcd Kuntpcaiis in tho invcntum of printing. Towimls tho end of the wixth contury tlu> art is wpoki'ti of us alr«'ii(ly long pracliwid, and if tho IVrniun luMtorianH hud been studied in the West, it would have iM'en known here a hundred and fifty years sooner, for it is clearly ex[)lained in a work by ]lashid-ed-din, composed about tho year IJJIO. Not only were they uccpiuinted with the process of printing from wooden blocks, but they also pructised stone und copper engraving, und towurds tho middle of tho eleventh century movuble terra- cotta types were invented by u blacksmith. Hut the immense number of cliuructers required in (Jhmeso writing has hitherto prevented tho adoption of this method, except for populur works und journals, for which u limited number of signs suffices. Ilenco blocks of peur-wood, curved with tho graver in intaglio, or copper plates ?a relief, still c«»ntinuo to bo employed. Nevertheless udmirablo editions have been publisheil from movable types. Such is tho collection of G,0()0 old works edited by tho Emperor Kang-hi, and for wliich 250,000 movable copper types had to be cut ; such ure ulso tho works issued b he Imperiul Librury, the elegant churucters of which are known as the " col! pearls." The Labour Market. The Chinese artisans are in general paid at a much lower rate than those of Europe and the New World. In Peking, Shanghai, Canton, and Hunkow it varies from 5d. to lOd. a duy ; so that, notwithstanding the cheaper price of food, few except the silk-weavers, who are better paid, have even a sufKcient diet, living mostly on boiled rice, cabbage, and occasionally a little fish. Yet these pale-faced, feeble-looking labourers have really great muscular strength, and in the central and southern provinces they transport nearly all the merchandise not forwarded by water. Like the other social classes, they have organized extensive unions, which often arrange strikes, as in Europe, to keep up the price of labour, and which have even founded co-operative societies. Thanks to their spirit of solidarity and admirable discipline, they nearly always get the better of the capitalists, and so fully recognised is their power, that in muny places the employers even decline the struggle. At the beginning of every industrial season the workmen themselves fix the rate of pay, which is generally faithfully adhered to on both sides. They might easily get possession of the whole industrial plant of the country, but for the fact that the trades unions form so many independent and rival societies. These associations subject apprentices to two or three years of downright slavery ; they constitute a sort of aristocracy of labour, weighing heavily on all outsiders, the most fortunate of whom in ordinary times are the professional mendicants. Like the traders and artisans, these mendicants have their recognised imions, with statutes, feasts, and assemblies. G. W. Cook dwells in forcible language on the evils of co-operation amongst the Chinese, whom he describes as a people essentially addicted to co-oper^itive ''i'Sii jfta.-'-fi**<**~--— .,A '^' WM KAST ASIA. ImhitM. Thoy <'Vi'ii coiiiliiiw- to^t'tlu r for tho purpose "* rohhinff, or n'sistinj? rnldicry, and lor all niaiiiuT of I'amiriil oltjcfts. " lluf uw sorii-tii's liiivc all one tc'iKh'iicy — to H(|ui'«'zc tlic iioii-mciiilKis. Vumi tho 'i iad Soriity, which wan at the Itottom of the lal.- rclulli to tlio TailoiV Union ui Hoiifj; Koii^, the ruh's and rof^ulations of which luivo Ikcm puhlislicd in the yorth C/tiiiu llcnthl, all havo tho Haiiic practical object in view. The 'Tintc Urothcrhood,' tho 'Triads,' tho ' llcavcn and Karth Society,' the '(iuceii of lleaven'H Company,' the ' h'lood I''aniily,' the ' Pure Tea Set,' are all obnoxious to the j,'eueral description j;iven in a memorial published in the I'lhiny ^Ao7A'eoiitaininf>; the InUowin^^HpeeihiicliarKeH: — 'They carry olf persons in order to extort ransoms lor them; they falsely assume ♦ho characters «)f police otiicers; they build falst; boats professt-dly to ^uwyA th«' grain-lields, and into these they i)ut from ten to twenty men, who cruise ulong tho Fig. lU.— l'OKTAOi IN ClIKKUNO. "^ rivers, violentlj' plundering tho boats of travellers, or forcibly carrying off the wives and daughters of the tanka boat people. Tho inhabitants of the villages and hamlets fear these robbers as they would tigers, and do not offer them any resistance. The husbandman must pay these robbers a charge, else as soon as his crop is ripe it is plundered, and tlie whole field laid bare. In the precincts of the metropolis they set fire to places during the night, that under pretence of saving and defending, they nuiy phnider and carry off." * Inland and Foreign Tkade. The value of the connuerce of China can scarcely be even approximately estimated, except perhaps for salt and the other produce burdened by Government • Op. cit. p. 101. r, or ri'Mistiii^ '« Imvo all ono wliii'h wan at , tii(> nilcH aixl /, all liavi' tht' ' Triads,' tho •,' thf 'I'luod :ion f^ivcM in a ifuM'har^cM: — fulHcly assunu' to ^uai'tl till' 'liiMe uluiig tlu; -^ carrying off of the villages lot offer them else as soon as he precincts of er pretence of approximately V Government .• ri' M mii n!>.Tm!^i?^.vitrti '! ^ ' i>^mi'K^^J!i'SSf0ii0ii-^X-- ' '- ~ t "'M8P--^- ' -'-^^ ' "'^ ' -B<:-JM § IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 'ML// V Ml* * 1.0 1.1 ■so |i6 13:2 2.2 IL25 III !.4 2.0 1.6 Hiil Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 145C0 (716) •72-4503 Wh ^ 4^ V^^ /^.4^ 'v.%^ f/. ^o CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques > THE OriUM QUESTION. 801 monopolies. In the iu'if>;hhourlioo(l of tho y also began to quarrel among themselves, and looking upon all of them as members of one nation, tho Chinese asked in amazement why they thus plundered and murdered each other. At last the seaports were closed against them, or ojjened only on humiliating and burdensome conditions. " The barbarians are like beasts, and are not to be governed by the same principles as civilised beings." Such was the language of a contemporary official document. " To attempt to guide them by the great maxims of reason could only end in disorder. The arbitrary plan is the only true method, and best means of governing the barbarians." The Opium Question. Then followed the opium trade, swelling the list of complaints against the foreigner. The use of this drug did not begin to spread till the close of the last century, when it was still imported as a simple medicine. In 1800 an imperial edict forbade the people to exchange their money for the " vile stuff ; " but it was too late, and the poison continued to spread rapidly. The East India Company soon found millions of accomplices in the opium smokers, and amongst them were most of the mandarins officially charged to put an end to the traffic. The contraband trade increased from year to year, to the serious loss of the imperial treasury, and as the exports of tea and silk remained greatly inferior to the importation of opium, the country began to be drained of its specie, " swallowed up in the insatiable abysses of tho lands beyond the seas." At last the Government had recourse to force. All strangers settled in Canton, 275 altogether, were imprisoned, and the British Commissioner had to purchase his liberty and that of his fellow-countrymen by the surrender of over 20,000 chests of opium, valuwl at about £2,000,000, and consigned to destruction by the Viceroy Lin. This was the signal for the " Opium War" of 1841-2, during w^hich the English successively seized the Chusan Archipelago, the Canton River forts, Ningpo, and Cliing-kiang. Under the very walls of Nanking a treaty Avas dictated to (^hina, abolishing the moiu)poly of the twelve hou -. — ^. ..^.i^--^-.^--.i^y| p HIGHWAYS OF COMMUNICATION. 805 Next to •eccivcd in y. Under 1 the East years. In : takes the liich yields 30 there is of specu- a Govern- t. Which In tobacco, je Govern- acitly con- mandarins prohibited have been on without 88 no doubt But they ng classes, tvith a few hy that the stinguished not a whit aboard and ikenness is ng a single ong Kong, is on the s, generally has known s who have jkers. Yet ;hem. One of business, oloration of le generally they brush ral of Chinese ig, while those two or three times a day. Mr. Brereton, who speaks with kindness and respect of the English missionaries, considers that on the question of opium smoking " the zeal of their house hath eaten them up." Highways of Communication- — Railway Prospects — Tei.eoraphs. Thanks to steam, the relations of the coast lands with the rest of the world have become much easier and more frequent than formerly. But the inland routes and canals are probably in a worse state than during the Ming dynasty, some three hundred or four hundred years ago. Except in Shantung, Kansu, Sechuen, parts of Ilonan, and in the neighbourhood of the treaty ports, the old roads are everywhere out of repair, and the bridges in ruins, while in many places mere tracks follow the line of the former highways. In the rice grounds, which cover such a large extent of land, most of the routes consist merely of blocks 2 feet broad, and raised at most 3 or 4 feet above the water. Such of the twenty- one imperial highways as are still in good condition attest the high degree of civilisation reached by the nation during mediajval times, and enable us to understand the admiration with which Marco Polo and other early travellers speak of that epoch. These highways are cut through the spurs of the mountains, which are sometimes even tunnelled, and they are carried over mounds and embankments across the low-lying grounds. Some 70 or. 80 feet broad in the plains, and paved with granite blocks, they are mostly lined with rows of trees like the avenues in Europe. Signal towers occur at intervals of 3 miles, and inns, troughs, regular stages, and military posts for the protection of travellers are also met all along the line. Everything is provided for on these model routes except an efficient postal service, which is left to un association of merchants. Dispatches, however, are seldom lost, even when forwarded from one end to the other of the empire. But outside of such places as Shanghai, the only service organized on the European model is that of the Russian couriers, who reach Peking from Eiakhta through Ealgan in twelve days. "China proper is intersected in every direction by two thousand imperial highways, which with the great number of navigable streams, and the extensive system of canalisation, renders the country one of the richest in the means of communication in the whole world. Unfortunately the State has neglected to keep either roads or canals in repair, or protect them from the wear and tear of time and weather, so that they are now partly impracticable. Morrison gives a deplorable account of the present condition of the Grand Canal, on which Peking largely depends for its supplies. In 1880 some parts were in such a ruinous state that the boats could not pass through, and portages were formed at the sides for discharging and re-shipping farther on. " The most direct trade route between China and Europe runs from Hankow through North Eansu and across the Gobi desert to Hami, and thence by the Pe-lu route through the Zungarian depression, or the alternative Irtish valley, to Orenburg. The Russians are beginning to see that the future trade route must 806 EAST ASIA. follow thin lino, which is practicable for carriap^ps throup^hout the whole diHtance of '^.•j(SO miles IVom Zaisan to Hankow except a section of IGO miles, which presents no (UHiculty (o pack animals. It can be traversed in 140 days, whereas by the tar more dilHcult Kiakhta road, which is 1,800 miles longer, it takes 202 days to reach I'eking. The whole of the routo between llunkow und Zuisan was traversed by Sosnovski in the year 1881." * Hitherto the construction of railways has not been sanctioned by the Imperial Government. Except in the neighlwurhood of the coal mines and dockyards, there Fig. 140.— Ornbral View of Nanking. are not even any tramways in the empire. Yet the success of the short line between Shanghai and Wusung, tolerated for a few months by the authorities, shows that the locomotive would soon become as popular in the extreme East as elsewhere. The plans of the main lines from Tientsin to Peking, Shanghai to Fuchew and Hangc"ue>-.'-'u, Canton to Nanking, have already been prepared by the English engineers, and abundant capital would be forthcoming for their • A. H. Keane's " ABia," 1882. ilTTi i H ii rirTfrri1rr"'rr'^rr*r f f' 1' 'i Ailwfr'n'rfii^firti'rt ■ u ■iI'h'm . i iw RAILWAY I'ROSf'ECTS. 807 (tunce of j)rosi'nl8 f the fur to reach crHcd by Imporial •ds, there ^.•.■ short line uthorities, reme East anghai to prepared for their construction, if once authorised hy thc^ ixhiiiiiistration. Tlie ohjeetions advaneod by the niunthiriuH were ecjuully applicable to the introduction of Hteainers. They pretend to plead on behalf of the niillionM of porters and iMtatnien at prcNcnf engaged in the trans|K)rt traffic ; they also appeal to the femj-Hhiti, as tiicy did Fig 147.— UolTEM, TEliEOUArilH, A'VI) IilNES OK StKAM NaVKIATION IN ChINA. Scale 1 : tW,00O,O0O. English, Fr(;nch, and Japnneae ChineM Lines. Unes of Steam Navigation. Main Routes. .800 MUes. when they opposed the erection of lofty buildings on the European " concessions." But the graves might easily be removed by practising the suitable rites, while the Emperor, " master of the spirits," might indicate to them the proper route to take, • and reassure his subjects by informing them of the orders he has given to the 808 EAST ASIA. circuiimnibifiil jycnii. Hut flu* (ruo roiiHou of tho opposition is the fpiir that 11 (l»'v«'lop('(l railway nystotn inipfhl iiifroiisc foreign inHuonffs, ii four wliii-h is not perhaps altogether groundless. Ilenee it is nulural thut China shouhl plaeo itself in a state of defence hefore throwing open the country to the projects of Euro])ean engineers. "China for the Chinese" is the universal watehword in tho ein])ire. Kven most of the iron and coal mines are aUowed to l)e worked only on the express condition of not employing l-luropean hands. Hesides this fear of the stranger, the provincial governors have unctther motive for opposing tho railway projects. At j)resont the difficulty of communicating with tho capital makes them almost independent of tho central authority in their local adminis- tration. But more rapid means of locomotion would have the immediate effect of bringing them more under control, and elieeking their systematic misgovem- ment of the provinces. Hence their hostility to the inconvenient invention of the " Western Harharians." But it is not likely that their resistance can much longer avail, and a recent number of tho London and China Telegraph informs us that a railway miles long was actually constructed early in tho year 1882, in connection with the Kaiping collieries in the north.* The telegraphi(! system is also rapidly spreading. All the treaty ports are already connected by submarine cable with Singapore, Japan, Vladivostok, and tho rest of tho world. After much opposition, a double line of wires was completed towards the end of tho year 1881 by a Danish company between Peking and Shanghai, and other projects aro now under consideration. The old tnrntai, or " atmospheric " telcgrajdis, have already fallen into abcyauco. They consisted simply of cone- shaped towers resting on square piles of masonry, on which bonfires were kindled, and the signals thus rapidly transmitted to great distances. But such rudo contrivances could scarcely do more than warn the Government of outbreaks and other troubles in the remote provinces. Foreigners in China — Chinese Emigration. The handful of foreigners settled in China is out of all proportion to the great influence exercised by them, both politically and socially. In 1879 their commercial houses numbered altogether 451, with 3,985 European merchants and employes. Even including the missionaries and travellers, there cannot be more than 5,000 actually domiciled in the country. Yet, few as they are, they have already modified the trade, industry, customs, and thought of the nation to a far greater extent than the Chinese are themaolvcs aware. Along the seaboard a sort of Ihtfiua franca, the already mentioned " Pigectn English," has been deve- loped, which has acquired some literary standing, and is even current among the natives speaking different dialects. Many colloquial terms have entered into this jargon, but most of the expressions are so changed that they can no longer be recognised either by Chinese or foreigners under their new forms. Its s»d)stratum is rather I'ortuguese than English, and its true origin must be sought, not in • The locomotive was made on tho spot by native workmen, and is said to be very creditably done. —Nature, March 23, 1882. CinNKSK KM I(} RATION'. 800 four that ich is not uld placo riiji'ctK of ord in the mI only *>ii is fonr of osing the ho cupitul I ndniinis- itito effect iiisgovern- vention of can nmch )h informs year 1882, lire already the rest of od towards inghai, and iiosphoric " y of cone- re kindled, sucli rude breaks and ion to the 1879 their chants and lot be more they have ation to a seaboard a been dcve- iiiiong the 1 into this longer he substratum jht, not in ;ditablv done. 1 Cunton, but in Goa, on the west const of India. Tlius the word /ms, applied to tho statues of liuddha, to the ginls and saints, is a corruption of the i'ortugucs*' Vion. Chinese einignit' m is yearly accpiiriiig increased iin])ortance, although still far inf»'rior to the movement going on towanls the nortluTU regions of the empire. The ("liincHt> already settled iu'vond the (Jreat Wall in Mongolia, Manchuria, imd (hiter Kansu are estimated at no less than 1.1, 000, (MX), whereas there ar(> ])rol)alily not m<»re than ;{,000,(>00 altogether in foreign coinitries. It will thus 1k' seen that tlu" part played by Chinese emigration in the general movement of the human race Fig. 148.-Hio.VAL TowBitH. has been greatly exaggerated. At least, the anticipation of formidable struggles between the rival Mongoloid and white peoples is somewhat premature. The distinctive feature of Chinese migration lies in the fact that it consists almost exclusively of male adults. Hitherto no women have been seen in America or Australia beyond the few that have been specially contracted for. None of them have crossed the seas voluntarily, and their number is of no account in the general movement, except in such places as Singapore and Penang, which, from the ethnical point of view, may be regarded as Chinese territory. Hence the increase of infanticide in many of the seaboard villages, where the girls are often sacrificed by their parents, in despair of finding them suitable husbands. Being neither free nor entitled to hold property, the Chinese woman cannot leave the paternal home without express permission, and even in the interior this permission nio EAST ASIA. in Noldorn j?rtiiit«'y ihfir fiimilirs, pn'fnrin^ to Hct up new uiid ti'miM)rury f^^tuldiNliiiu'iitM in thu ri'iimti* (liHtrictN, whoru tlu-y iiiukt' pt'iitMlicul or ])r()frii('t«'(l viHitM. Male ("iiii-f ration, cHiMV-ially aiiioiig tho Ilakka of Koki«'i» and K\van>?-tun^, huH uccpiircd considcrahlf proportioiin. and iw now ri'Kulatcd Ity treaty arran^f'-nicnt iH'twfi-n the Iinpt-rial (lovi-rnnicnt and foreign jMtwi'rH. Tho innnigruntH already form an iniiM>rtanl eh-mcnt of the iH)pulati(in in Momo placi-M, whoro their oxtremoly frupil and industriouM luibitH, their perMevenince, verwitility, undnpirit of Holidarity, onahh' them to found Htjurishing eonnnunitieH whore others fail. In the NtruggUi for exiHteneo th«'y have the advantage of easily aecpiiring the language of the eountry, and whatever be the nationality of the njother, whether SiamcHC, Tagul, or Javanese, the new family ulways becomes (Jhinese, even in physical type. The regions whore the race has Wn most solidly established uro the basins of the Fig. 149.— Ranob op Ciiinebb Mioratiok. BaOe 1 : 3-i&,UUU,00a O • O KtniirTnnti 10,000 to 100,000. 100,000 to 1,000,000. Over l,C0O,00a under 10,000. — ^-— ~— — ^— ^-^ 6,000 MilM. W:'.' rivers flowing from Yunnan and Sechuen to Further India. Here, as in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, at the other extremity of the empire, they have gradually appropriated the laud by trade, agriculture, and the civilisation of the aboriginal tribes. By following the course of the rivers, the colonists advancing from the interior must sooner or later join hands with their fellow-countrjrmen who have reached Sium by the sea route. In the neighbouring Eastern Archipelago, where they have been long established, the Chinese settlers enjoy a high reputation for thrift, industry, and intelligence. John Chinaman's motto is " small profits and quick returns," and goods of every sort can be bought cheaper in the Chinese than in the European or native establishments. "But in money-lending transactions John Chinaman never charges less than twenty- four per cent, interest, and always insists on good security, lie is polite to a degree. If a chance customer, or any one merely lookii ; about, enters the shop, John asks him to sit down, and offers him a cup of tea, or if a m FOIIHIOXKUS IS CHINA— CIIINKSK MMIOHATION. 811 jiliico to iit'W uiid iudicul or ■tunf?, liUH llllK'-'IUt'Ilt tH ulruudy I'Xt n-moly Nolidurity, le Htruggle kgu of tlio ?8e, Tugal, licttl type. iHiiiH of the 90' Manchuria gradually aboriginal ng from the n who have established, intelligence, d goods of in or native iman never )od security. )kii ; about, tea, or if a KurojM'an ii n\unn of lictT. Uv is upcii to l)art«'r, auning, when businesH is over, they will Hit with a friend or two under the verandah, lighted, up with a grotescpu! ('bineHo lantern suspended fn)m tho eeiling, smoko the indisjwn- Hablc opium \)'\\h}, and have a gaiiu^ of eards, over whieh tho betting is fast and furioUH. When it happeuH that John is entirely ruined by eard-playing, his gdld buttons and everything eonoeivablo gone, ho will proceed to the gold and diamond mines, and try to repair Iuh hist fortune." * In tho countrieH whore they do not compete with tho dominant race the Chinese immigrants soon become indispensable. Thus thoy have created the prosperity of Singapore, where, but for them, all industrial and eomnu'rcial activity would soon be arrested. But elsewhere they often come into collision with com- petitors in tho labijur market. Thus, while tho thinly peopled colony of West Australia gladly welcomes Chinese settlers to tend tho herds and develop a few local industries, the more prosperous states of Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria, in East Australia, resent the presence of this frugal, thrifty, and laborious element, which has too decided an advantage in tho competition with the European labouring classes. They aro reproached with gradually monopolizing certain industries, such as mining, and tho more feminine occupations of washing and domestic service. Such is their thrift that they contrive to grow rich where others starve. But the poll taxes imposed in spite of the treaties, the vexatious measures of all sorts, and in many cases open violence and massacres, have greatly reduced their numbers, and even diverted the stream of migration altogether from some parts of Australia and California. The Imperial Government has consented to sign a treaty with the United States, limiting the right of its subjects to settle in the republic. The authorities in the Philippines and Dutch East Indies also oppose every obstacle to their intrusion, restricting them to certain districts, excluding them from various professions, burdening them with special taxes, and subjecting them to all kinds of obnoxious police regulations. But the movement can no longer be permanently arrested. The Chinese Mohammedans have even begun to take part in the pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina, and some of these have already settled in the Arabian Peninsula. Thus the relations of the white and yellow peoples become constantly more frequent, and at a thousand :uiifferent points we are brought face to face with the urgent question how best' to reconcile the conflicting interests of the two races, differing so profoundly in character, traditions, habits, and ideas. * Curl Rock's " Head Hunters of Borneo," 1882, pp. 169, 170. tr n i ii. | . M i ^ |ii i_ .i|, y | n , ,| I 1 ^ 1 ^ || „ 11,1 1) i. jn i M,, i „^^,, p ^^, 812 EAST ASIA. TuK New Ideas — Sociai, Progress. The residence of so many Chinese abroad tends quite as much as the presence of foreigners in China to bring about the inevitable renovation of the land. Careful observers, the Chinese preserve in their memory all the lessons taught them by the hard struggle for existence. They thus learn to adapt themselves to the new conditions, modifying their methods and adopting foreign arts, not with the youthful enthusiasm of the Japanese, but with determination and indomitable perseverance. Proud of their ancient culture, ond fully conscious of the superiority of some of their processes, they are never tempted blindly to accept foreign ideas and fashions. Unlike the Japanese, they refuse to conform in dress to the " Red- haired Barbarians," but they are fully alive to the advantages to be derived from Western inventions. Apart from the mandarins, who have privileges to safeguard, and who arc consequently wedded to the old ways, the bulk of the people perfectly understand how much they have to learn from Europeans. Patients crowd the English and French hospitals in Tientsin, Shonghai, Amoy, and other places, and the fanciful native pharmacopa'ia, in which magic played such a large part, is thus being gradually assimilated to that of the West. Vaccination has already replaced the dangorous method of inoculation by the nostrils ; and enlightened practitioners, with a knowledge of anatomy, physiology, and hygienics, begin to make their appearance here and there amid the countless tribe of quacks and charlatans. European schools have been opened in the treaty ports, where the students have readily followed all the instructions of their foreign teachers. They have even learned the music of the " Barbarians," to which they were formerly supposed to be absolutely insensible. In spite of the great difficulties presented by works translated from such totally different languages, thousands of scientific books have already been published and largely circulated. The native journals issued by foreigners in the treaty ports are eagerly read, and amongst others the Shunpao, a daily paper published in Shanghai, had recently os many as 8,000 native subscribers. Yielding to the pressure of public opinion, the Government itself established in J 868 a bureau in the arsenal of Kiangnan, for the purpose of publishing Chinese editions of the chief European scientific works. It has also founded in Peking the Tuugicen Kwan, an administrative college, where English, French, Russian, and German are taught, and where physics, chemistr)', medicine, physiology, astronomy, and other branches are intrusted to foreign professors, assisted by native tutors. Most of the courses are conducted in English, and this college, which had about 100 students in 1876, now supplies a portion of the officials engaged in the administration of the empire. On the other hand, the Government establishment hitherto maintained at Hartford, in Connecticut, was suppressed in 1881, in consequence of the dangerous influence of American customs and ideas on the students. - . Public Instruction — The Literati. In Chinese the word kiao is applied equally to instruction and to religion, and study is, in fact, regarded as a religious cult. For thousands of years the obliga- PUBLIC INSTRUCTION— THE LITERATI. 818 he presence »f the land, isona taught lemselves to •ts, not with indomitable e superiority foreign ideas o the " Red- lerived from to safeguard, pie perfectly ts crowd the jr places, and i part, is thus >ady replaced practitioners, > make their d charlatans, students have ey have even r supposed to ed by works ic books have als issued by le Shunpao, a re subscribers. If established jhing Chinese in Peking the Russian, and y, astronomy, native tutors, ich had about jaged in the establishment in 1881, in ideas on the ) religion, and irs the obliga- Fig. 160.— M. Yano, Attach^ op the Chikbsb (.BOATIOX IN Pauih. tion of parents to instruct their male offspring has been universally recognised. All towns and villages must be provided with schools, whose teachers arc supjiorted by the commune, and freely chosen on the recommendation of the householders. Wealthy families generally keep one or two tutors, and in the largo towns there are evening classes for the convenience of those engaged at work during the day. Thus has been developed a deep-rooted respect for learning amongst all classes. A sort of reverence is inspired by the inscriptions and sentences of the ancient sages, which adorn the houses and public buildings, and which convert the whole country into a vast library. The very paper is revered, as if the words covering it were the essence of all know- ledge. " After reading and writing the Avhole education of the Chinese con- sists in the knowledge of the iiucient classics, which in themselves con- tain many excellent doctrines, but are hardly sufficient to form the beginning, middle, and end of a man's education. Moreover, in these ancient classics there are many exceedingly difficult and obscure passages ; a certain fixed interpreta- tion of these is prescribed by law, and woe betide the unfortunate candidate at an examination who should venture to think for himself, suggest any new meaning, or cast additional light on that which has once been explained by the sages in a certain way, and of which in consequence any further illumination would be profane. " Can it be possible for any nation to devise a system which would more effectually crush out all germs of originality or thought from the mind of the people P " * Yet the superstitious respect for this system has been transferred to the literati, and to the Government which they represent. Men who have had the good fortune to penetrate into the mysteries of writing seemed almost like demigods. But recent events cannot but tend to diminish the traditional veneration of the masses for the literati. The hollowness of their vaunted science has been revealed, and it was discovered that, without having studied the "five classics," foreigners have succeeded in making discoveries immeasurably more important than the dry-as-dust commentaries on the words of Confucius. Here are already the germs of a moral revolution, which cannot fail to have its political consequences. The prestige of authority is on the wane, and no efforts of the mandarins will * Gill, op. eit. i. p. 307. " 58 ' .> ' ""■■•WWBW^'J??" 814 EAST ASIA. ■t: succeed in again reviving it. The peasantry and labouring classes, a great part of whose existence has not been spent in the study of the written language, perceive how much reduced has been the distance separating them from the literati. The centre of gravity in the empire is being displaced, to the advantage of the people and at the expense of the authorities, and political revolutions are the inevitable consequence of the intellectual evolution now taking place. Pending Changes in the Social System. To speak, as many do, of the immobility of the Chinese Empire, is altogether unjust, for nowhere else have more revolutions been accomplished, or more varied systems of government been essayed. " To improve, renew yourself daily," said one of the ancient sages quoted by Confucius. But it is not difficult to understand why great changes arc now slower in China than elsewhere. The people have the consciousness of their ancient culture, and they may have well believed for centuries that they were the only civilised nation, surrounded as they were either by barbarians or by populations whose teachers they had been. Suddenly from beyond the seas and over the plateaux and deserts they behold other nations advancing, who with a more recent history outstrip them in knowledge and industry. The world becomes enlarged and peopled around them, and those outer spaces, to which they attached such little importance, are discovered to be ten times larger and twice as populous us China itself. Their assumed superiority thus disappears for evj-r. Assuredly such a proud people could not without bitterness contemplate the relative diminution of their impor- tance in the world, and it must have cost them many a pang to have to learn new lessons of wisdom in the school of the stranger. Nevertheless these lessons they are prepared to learn, without, however, losing their self-respect. They study the European sciences and industries, not as pupils, but rather as rivals, anxious to turn their opponents' resources against themselves. It was high time that this outward impulse should come and quicken the nation into a new life. Science had been reduced in China to the art of skilfully handling the pencil in the reproduction of empty classic formulas. Proud of possessing in their ideographic signs a really universal language, the literati, who are also the rulers of the people, had come to regard reading and writing — that is, the instruments of science — as science itself. Hence they were content to pass their life in learning to read. The measure of their reputation was filled when, after a long course of studies, they had mastered all the mysteries of their written language. Short indeed was life for this long art, which left them no time for independent studies. Ignorant of the present, indifferent to the future, they have hitherto lived only in the past. Everything must be judged by tradition and the precedents found in the classics, where must also be sought the rules of government. To write and understand the official dispatches, to discover the formulas of the rites accompanying all important social and political acts, consti- tuted, in fact, the distinctive functions of the mandarin, the foundation of bis prestige, his only claim to the obedience of his subjects. FILIAL DEVOTION. 815 «, a great language, the literati, vantage of ons are the 8 altogether i, or more rself daily," difficult to here. Tho y have well surrounded 3y had been, they behold ip them in iround them, ortanco, are self. Their »roud people their impor- ive to learn these lessons pect. They ,er as rivals, quicken the t of skilfuUy Proud of iterati, who ing — that is, tent to pass filled when, their written lem no time future, they by tradition ;ht the rules discover the acts, consti- atiou of his GOVERNMKNT AND AUMIXISTHATION. Theoretically the State is a large family. The Emperor is iit once •' Father and Mother " of hi.s children, and the affection due by them to him i.s that of a twof(jl(l filial piety. If he commands, all hasten to obey ; if he requires the life or property of a citizen, both must be surrendered with a sense of thankfulness. He may even control land, Avater, and the air, for the invisible genii all execute his mandates. He is the " Son of Heaven," the Sovereign of tho " Four Seas " and of the " Ten Thousand Peoples." Ho alone has the privilege of sacrificing to heaven and earth as the High Priest and Head of the great Chinese family. He speaks of himself in lowly language, as an " imperfect man," and is even distinguished amongst the grandees of his court by his modest garb ; but he accepts the most extravagant expressions of worship. Present or absent, he receives from his subjects divine honours, and the highest dignitaries full prostrate before his empty throne, or before his yellow silk umbrella adorned with the five-clawetl dragon and the turtle, emblems respectively of good fortune and power. In the provinces the mandarins burn incense on the receipt of an imperial dispatch, and strike the ground with their head turned towards Peking. S> hallowed is his name, that tho signs used in writing it can no longer be employed for other words without being modified by a diacritical mark. "Tremble and obey ! " is the formula invariably terminating all his proclamations. Under him all are slaves, and his representative in Tibet during the expedition of Hue and Gabet wore the chains of a criminal in the form of a gold necklace concealed imder his robes, in token of the imperial displeasure. Filial Devotion to the Head of the Family and of the State. The veneration of the people for their " Father and Mother " is not merely a political fiction. All the national institutions are so constituted as to establish a perfect parallelism between the duties of the son and those of the subject. From his childhood upwards the Chinese learns that the paternal authority belongs to the head of the great family, us well as to the head of the smaller family of which he is a member. P^ven in the school a coffin inscribed with tho word " happiness " reminds him that his first duty will be to appease the manes of his parents. " Unruly conduct implies a lack of filial duty, as do also treason to the sovereign, negligence in the exercise of the magisterial functions, insincerity towards our friends, cowardice under arms." The father is always regarded in the family as representing the emperor ; hence domestic revolt is punished in the same way as high treason. The national annals are full of incidents which bear witness to the care taken by the Government to uphold this fundamental principle of the empire. Sons guilty of crimes against their parents are put to death, and their houses demolished ; the magistrates of the district lose their office, and the examination halls are closed. The spot where the crime took place remains accursed, and whole communities have even been displaced, as was the city of "m i !i.„ > i* i j iij i. i i i nn' 816 EAST ASIA. Luchow, on tho Upper Yuiig-tzo, in couseqiienco of a parricide. According to law, old men after their seventieth year must be regarded as ancestors, and tho honours accorded to them increase with their years. At any cost tho empire must remain "filial," as the imperial edicts express it. Of the sixteen public lectures delivered periodically to tho people on the subject of their duties, the first deals Avith filial love. Tho very official designations of tho cities, palaces, streets, and public places form, so to say, a complete moral course inspired by the domestic virtues. Amongst tho twelve temples required by the law to be erected in Fig. 151. — Chimese Qi/'AUTEit, Siia.vouai. 1. MagriBtnitcs' Hotue. 10. Tfempleofniesrinpi. 2. University. 11. Oovemmcnt FiUaoe. 3. Besidenoe of the MiUtarjr Com- 12. Tower of the Goddess Kwan Yin mander. 13. Honseofallthe Benevolences. 4. Com DepiH. 14. Foundling Asylum. B. Depot of kioe for Pekiner. 18. Honseofallthe Virtues. 6. Literary Institute. 16. Temple of the Fire Genius. 7. Temple of the Defender of the City. 17. Palace of the Heavenly Queen. 8. Temple of the God oi War. 18. Httllofthe Blue Mist. 9. Temple of the Protector of Earthly 19. Hall of the Xine Flowers. Goods. 20. Mound of the little upaque Sun. SI. Peace street. 22. Street of the HeaTenly Eminences. 23. Street of the House of Eloquence. 24. Street ofthe Head looking backwards. 25. Street ofthe Approving Ueid. 26. Street ofthe YeUow Head. 27. Canal of Excellence of the Starting- point. 38. Serene Sanctuary of the Ancestors. 20 Bridge of the Thousand A ges. every town, one is always consecrated to ancestry. Not a shop nor a wayside inn but its signboard has some reference to virtue and justice and the " harmonies of heaven and earth." The natural relations of father and son are thus confounded with those of emperor and subject, and this has been the mainstay of the State in tho midst of countless internal revolutions, foreign invasions, and dynastic changes. The revolutionists do not seem to have ever aimed at the subversion of this fundamental principle of government. Even the most advanced socialists have always accepted the sacred character of the Emperor as at once the " Father and Mother " cording to law, nd the honours re must remain jtures delivered irst deals Avitli ;s, streets, and y the domestic be erected in MTenly Eminenoes. >u*e of Eloquence, lad looking bnckwardi. [>proving Ueid. 'llow Head, ence of the Starting- ry of the Ancestors, hoiuand A ge». nor a wayside he " harmonies with those of i in the midst changes. The is fundamental have always r and Mother " M. T9ENQ-CHINE8E MINISTER IN PARIS. ■"■^•* m eT' m^j,A < mj immm''-~- ' LIMITATIONS OP THE IMPERIAL AUTHORITY. 817 of his people. In recent times only the Chinese freethinkers, acting under the influence of foreign ideus, and probably unconscious of the ultimate consequences of their revolt, have for the first time attempted to throw ridicule on the supremo ruler, scrawling ribald sentences on the walls, which passers-by read with amazement. According to the old theory, the sovereign, ascending the throne in the name of Heaven, was none the less to be worshijiped, whatever might be his personal virtues or vices. "However old the cap, we put it on our head; however clean the shoes, we put them on our feet. Kie and Chew were vile wretches, but they were kings ; Ching-thang and Wu-wang wore great and holy persons, but they were subjects," writes Confucius in the Shuking. Limitations of the Imperial Authority — The Emperor's Household. Yet although absolute in principle, since it is of the di>'ine essence, the sovereign power is practically limited. All the provinces enjoy certain traditional rights, which have the sanction of ages, and which the Government always respects. Public opinion also, however submissive, is none the less intelligent, and in its eyes " the emperor and the subject who violate the laws are both equally guilty." " Secure the affection of the people, and you will secure the empire, lose the affection of the people, and you will lose the empire," says a popular proverb. The law is laid down for the sovereign himself ; it is summed up in the " nine rules " of Confucius, which recommend to the Emperor moral perfection, respect for the sages and parents as well as for officiuls and magistrates, paternal love of the subject, encouragement of learning and the arts, hospitality towards stxtingers, consideration for his allies. Guided by the Censors, whose duty it is ever to remind him of these precepts ; bound on all sides by the rigorous rules of a ceremonial filling two hundred volumes; attended by two-and- twenty historiographers, who daily record for posterity all his sayings, doings, and commands, the Emperor almost necessarily loses all individuality, all personal impulse, and becomes a mere instrument in the hands of a minister or a faction. He ceases to be responsible for his own acts, although by a State fiction held none the less responsible for the happiness and misfortunes of his subjects. In this respect the theory of the imperial power is more logical in China than in other monarchical states. Sovereigns are usually inclined to take credit to themselves for the prosperity, but seldom for the calamities, of their people. The moral code of the Chinese emperors is more consistent. " Are my subjects cold P " said the Emperor Yao. " I am to blame. Are they himgry ? It is my fault. Have they met with any disaster P I take the responsibility." Yao also charged himself with the national calamities. " During the reigns of Yao and of Shun, all felt it a duty to follow the example of their virtues. I must needs be far from resembling them, seeing how many criminals now exist." " I alone am guilty," said Ching-thang when speaking of the woes of his people ; " I alone must be immolated." Responsibility thus increasing with power, Mengtze goes the length of sanctioning regicide when the • IT ai8 EAST ASIA. sovereign outrugcH juHtice. " There is no difference," he suid, " between murder by the sword or by nmludniiiiistrulion." The Government being nuHlelled on the fumily, both the mother and consort of the Emperor are entitled to the highest honours. Like him, the reigning Empress has the golden seals and jade stone, symbols of supreme power, and to her poetry has consecrated the fomj, a fabulous animal analogous to the phunix. She receives the homage of the l«)mperor himself, who every five days pays her an official visit and bends the knee in her presence. The three other legitimate wives yield her implicit obei7.f I-ionr, Rmblemr op thb Imi'IUIAL TowKn. of ceremonies to one hundred and thirty. A special minister takes charge of the imperial household, and directs the education of the princes, who have mostly no rank except in the Manchu armies. From their number the Emperor chooses his heir, who is nearly always one of the Empress's children. At the death of the soA'ereign all social life is suspended. The grandees put on white, the colour of mourning, for a twelvemonth, the others for one hundred days, during which period no feasts or weddings can be celebrated. Bright-coloured garments are laid aside, all leave their hair unshaven, and the barbers, whose office is interdicted, become for the time State pensioners. " Lost in his greatness," the Son of Heaven, called also the " Man of Solitude," niMiililrtHIMWI MMM ■ttii LIMITATIONS OF TUB IMPERIAL AUTIIOIIITY. 810 lurdcr by •oiiHort of ; Empress joetry bus ci'ivos tbe I visit and sr implicit ^ tbc book large of tbe re mostly no • cbooses bis leatb of tbe be colour of jrbicb period e laid aside, , become for )f Solitude," probably Immjuuso no one bas tbo right to be his friend, delegates his functions to the Nciko, u Cabinet composetl of Munchus and Chinese in«oquul numlK'rs, which draws up the laws, issues decrees, and sees to their execution. In virtue of the principle by which instruction and the public examinations are the source of all honours, the two presidents of the Ne'iko— that is, the two Imperial Chancellors — are the directors of the Academy of the Hanlin. Their office is to propose tbe laws in the supreme council, to determine the form of public mandates, to submit official documents to the Empt>ror for his signature with the vermilion pencil, and to publish all decrees in the Khif/pno, or official journal, known in P^urope as tbo PekiiKj Gazette. Before being prt^sented to the Council of tbo Neiko, all State questions are submitted either to tlio tribunal of the Censors, the High Court of Justice, or the Lit-pu, which comprises the six Ministries of Finance, Civil Service, Board of Works, War, Rites, and Penalties. Besides these, another department bas charge of the Colonies; that is, of the imperial possessions beyond the eighteen provinces of China proper. But the Tsingli-iinmen, or Foreign Office, constituted in 1801, and now the most important of all, has no official existence, being com- posed of the members of the other departments. The Emperor may, if ho pleases, suppress all discussion, in wbi^b case he addresses himself to his private Cabinet, which deliberates in secret. His acts may doubtless be controlled by the tribunal of Censors, who have the right of remon- strating, while petitioning to be beheaded or torn to pieces if their warnings be not justified or their statements revealed. But this tribunal usually confines itself to watching over tbe public and private conduct of tbe mandarins and their sub- jects by an organized system of espionage. The result of this is that their lucrative posts easily enable the mandarins to come to an understanding with the Censors, and thus continue the work of extortion to their mutual benefit. Hence it is not surprising to find that instances of extortion and oppression of all sorts are so universal as scarcely to excite any surprise amongst the people. Meadows mentions the case of a military mandarin of low rank stationed some years ago near Wbampoa, who in the course of his exactions demanded money from the head boatman of a watch-boat, employed by the inhabitants of the district for the prevention of night robberies on tbe river below Canton. The boatman, relying on the support of his employers, among whom were several literati, refused to give anything. The mandarin thereupon induced a man, taken for some trifling offence, to make such declarations in bis depositions as went directly to prove that the boatman had been guilty of robbery, and then issued a warrant for his appre- hension. The inhabitants of Whampoa, represented by a literary graduate named Fung, would not, however, permit the man's being seized ; but knowing him to be innocent, said he should himself go to Canton and demand a trial. This he accordingly did, the graduate Fung at the same time petitioning the Governor- General on his behalf. But the mandarin had already reported the case to his chief, the admiral at the Bogue, and the latter had written to Canton about it. In addition to this, the mandarins are at all times loath, from a kind of esprit de corps, and a feeling of the necessity of mutual support in their extortions, to aid the people 890 EAST ASIA. when in opposition to a member of their own class, and were, moreover, at that time, as now, (loin^ all they could to regain the jMiwer over the people, which they had lost througli the weakness displayed during the wars with the English. The conseciuence was that, for these various reasons, the death of the unfortunate man was determined on. He was accordingly beaten and otherwise tortured till ho confessed himself guilty of the charge brought against him, and soon after executed, with several other eqiuilly innocent people who had Iwen implicated in the same manner by the Whampoa mandarin. The graduate Fung had his degree taken from him for having interested himself iu behalf of u robber.* Education — Pithlic Examinations. There is no special board of education, because the whole machinerj' of the administration is assumed to have no other object except the instruction of the people. Students able to read the five KiiKj and the other classics may already look forward to a brilliant career, one of the fundamental principles of government being that place is the reward of merit attested by the public competitive examinations. " Here is taught the art of government," says an inscription over the gate of the Peking Academy. Promotion to higher posts is still obtained by fresh examinations, so that the whole administration may be regarded as u vast scholastic hierarchy. When the coffers are empty, the Government no doubt often departs from the rule, conferring honours for "presents," or bribes; but the people do not forget the origin of these functionaries, and will even taunt them with having obtained pro- motion by money instead of merit. Many of the Manchu military mandarins also owe their oppointment to their nationality, and they are consequently held in less esteem than the civil functionaries. At the annual feasts the learned mandarins take the east side, which is the post of honour, while in the temples of Confucius the military officers are excluded altogether from the ceremonies in honour of heaven and earth. In all the large cities one of the chief buildings is the public examination hall, which consists of a multitude of rooms and courts, surroundetl by cells for the candidates, who are supplied with nothing but white paper, pencils, and inkstand, and guarded by sentinels from all communication with each other. Sometimes as many as 10,000 or 12,000 present themselves, remaining for several days imprisoned, writing moral and political essays, commenting on selected texts of the sacred books, composing sentences and maxims in prose and verse. Candidates have been known to die of exhaustion in their cells, in which case the outer wall is pierced, and the body secretly removed. Except certain despised classes, police agents, actors, barbers, palanquin bearers, boatmen, mendicants, descendants of rebels, all are allowed to compete, and the examiners will even shut their ej'es to the status of the candidates, provided they have a fixed domicile. There is no limit as to age, old men and precocious youths often presenting themselves; but such is the severity of the tests, that, on an average, less than a tenth of the • •' Chinese Notes," p. 170. PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. 821 thut time, they bad i«li. The unutc inun cd till ho r executed, 1 tho Mtino greo tukcn lery of the tion of tho ilreudy look mcnt being aminutiona. ^to of the uminutions, } hierarchy, am the rule, forget the tained pro- idarina also held in less L mandarins [ Confucius honour of nation hall, cells for the td inkstand, )metinie8 as iveral days texts of the Cuadidates )uter wall is isses, police cendants of leir ej'es to There is no themselves ; enth of the competitors obtain the siiilstii, a rank correnponding with our B.A. Those who have pasmd, even l)ofore obtaining an upiiointment, iMH'oini; ulinoMt indoiMMidont of tho communal authorities, and constitute a sjHH-ial and numerous class in t\w State. Amongst them are found the most onlightened men," take place every throe years only in tho provincial capitals, under tho ])re8idency of two members of tho Ilunlin. Tho successful competitors, scarcely more than l.JJOO for tho whole empire, receive tho congratulations of the magistrates, and public rejoicings take place in their honour. Three years afterwards they nmy present themselves in Peking, to undergo tho examination for tho rank of Mm^, or '• full doctor," entitling thorn to a special dross, precedence at the ceremonies, and a high post in the Government. Other examinations admitting to the Academy of tho Hanlin take place in the Imperial Palace, under the very eyes of tho Emijoror, or at least of the highest court dignitaries, amongst whom they intrigue for promotion. For the reality is far from corresponding with the brilliant picture often drawn of this system. Even supposing that appointments always depended on tho results of the examinations, it may be asked how a good memory and a profound knowledge of the classics can be any guarantee of political .intelligence and capacity. Is it not rather to be feared that by being restricted to antiquated studies, over twenty centuries behind the age, the future statesman will become a victim of arrested development, and thereby rendered incapable of imderstanding the present conditions P However perfect his penmanship, the magistrate is none the less exposed to the temptations of venality and peculation. The unanimous testimony of travellers, as well as the popular comedies, ballads, and political squibs, accordingly show that the lettered functionaries are by no means inferior to the ignorant Manchus in the arts of oppression and maladministration. As a rule, the people are less afraid of the mandarins who have purchased their office than of those appointed by competition. Being richer, they are less avaricious, and although less familiar with fine maxims, they are more upright and loss enslaved to official " red-tapeism." Nevertheless there can be no doubt that the surprising stability of the Chinese political system in the midst of countless foreign invasions and internal convulsions is in a large measure due to these public examinations, which are conducted with great impartiality, and which render the highest offices of the Government accessible to the meanest citizen. A great number of the only class of individuals whose abilities would enable them, if subjected to continual oppression, speedily to overturn the Government, are by the existing system of public examinations continually raised above all oppression, and become, in fact, the parties who commit Mm .')22 EAST ASIA. I it. A Htill jfroatiT numl)(>r ho\w to ruiw thoinfM'lvoM to tho «arao ponition, und uro, topift'tluT with tlu'ir rt'lutioiiH, thuH induccHl to riiduru nucIi ovilH putiontly ruthor than Hcck to overthrow u (iovornincnt, thu churactcriNtic foaturu of which in u HyHtcin thoy hoi>c eventually to derive more imthoiuiI advautaj^eH from than would bo Hutficieiit to eom]H>nwite tliem for what thoy Huifer. With tluH latter Ixnly of literati, rising HeholarH and their near relatioMH, the aetual holderH of ofHuo are, nior(H)ver, alwayH obli^etween two ('(pially iniperiouN duticN, olHnco and filial piety. Hereditary titles are rcNcrved for the deNcendantH of (JonfueiuM and the erniK'rorH, but ev< /> the luttev irc Hubje(!ted to the regular oxaniinationH for public; otfieeN. The only priv ilej^es of the nicMubcTH of the iin{>orial family consiMt in a mcKlent iKMimcn fho right to wear a red or yellow girdle or a pcuu'ocdc'M feather in their cap, and to be carried by a toant of eight or twelve palancpiin bearerH. In the adminintralion they eount for nothing, and special nianchiriiiH are appointed to ke<>p them in duo subjection, and oven to apply the hmI in ca»e of inNubordination. Like tho Kmporor, every maiularin is at onco "father and mother" in his reH|)octive juriNclietion. They were formerly spoken of as "clouds," because they wore supposed to »' Hhed tho healing showers on tho thirsty soil." All local functions are centred in their hands. They levy tho taxes, build roads, organize tho militia, and are, in fact, littlo potentates in their several districts, but with tho threat of deposition always hanging over them. As tho father is respcmsiblo for tho faults of his children, the mandarin may bo denouncc^d for all the crimes murders, and outbreaks that may take place in his jurisdicticm. Hence, although bound to make a yearly report of his errors in a spocnal memoir addressed to the Emperor, ho generally omits to mention the disorders that have occurred in tho district. Formerly the mandarins were frequently condemned to capital punish- ment, but now the usual sentence is banishment to Manchuria, Zungariu, Formosa, or othor outlying regions. Recently tho foreign powers have unwittingly aimed a great blow at their power, and tended in no small degree to promote tho political centralization of tho empire, by refusing to treat directly with the provincial governors and viceroys, and by always addressing themselves to the court of Peking. One of the most serious defects in the existing administrative system is the totally inadequate pay given to the lower officers, and tho low rate at which tho salaries of the higher mandarins are fixed — low especially when the wealth and extent of the territories over which they rule are taken into consideration. The mandarins are, in consequence, obliged to gain their incomes by means of extortion, bribery, and illegal fees levied by their underlings. These retain a certain portion themselves, but the greater part goes in different ways to the purses of the mandarins. Perhaps the total amount of revenue, public and secret, derived by the actual governing power in China is not larger in proportion than that obtained in England. The great evil is that by far the larger part of it is levied in a very unequal manner, that at once demoralises the nation and damps its energies. The people, knowing that the mandarins cannot possibly live on their salaries, excuse and acquiesce in the imposition of certain generally understood irregular fees, which every one who applies to the courts must pay. On the other hand, the -tM 824 EAST ASIA. mandarins as a natural consequence take advantage of a system thus endured as a necessary evil, to enforce arbitrary extortions, and oblige people to offer bribes. Hence in the whole country corruption and injustice are rife. In fact, all mandarins without exception take money over and above their salary, and even beyond their anti-extortion allowances. The great difference between what the Chinese call the " good " and the " bad" mandarin is, that while the former makes people pat/ for jmtke, as indeed is largely the case everywhere, the latter uUh JHHticc to the highest bidder. This irregular state of things, moreover, renders the mandarins themselves dependent on their clerks and police officers, and obliges them to wink at infringements of the law by which they personally gain nothing. Thus some of the lower functionaries continue to serve after the legal period of five years, and in fact maintain permanent possession of their posts, merely by changing their names, although the mandarin is liable to a heavy punishment for permitting it. Were Ke to attempt to enforce the law, these officers would resist in a body ; and as it requires great experience and tact to levy the illegal fees without getting into trouble, the new functionaries would find it very difficult to transact public business and raise the irregular revenue, which is, of course, the main object of the mandarins. A case occurred some time ago in Canton, in which a new super- intendent of finances, who had at a previous period held a lower post and then been insulted by the underlings, in revenge immediately forced them to leave on being made superintendent himself. But he was eventually obliged to receive them all back again after putting himself to much trouble, and making what practically amounted to an apology.* At once military commanders, administrators, and judges, it is in the latter capacity that the mandarins are most dreaded by their subjects. Notwithstanding the stringent measures taken against venality, the bribes of suitors still continue to compensate for the low rate of their salaries, originally fixed according to the income they might earn as artisans. The old edicts decree the penalty of death against unrighteous judges, but there is practically no appeal from their sentences. " It is well," said the Emperor Kang-hi, " that all men should have a wholesome fear of the tribunals. I desire that all having recourse to the magistrates be treated mercilessly, so that all may dread to appear before them. Let good citizens settle their disputes like brothers, submitting to the arbitration of the elders and maj'ors of the communes. Let all obstinate and incorrigible litigants be crushed by the judges, for such is their desert." In many places differences are still settled by the heads of families according to the imwritten code, and the lex talionis is everywhere respected. Private vengeance is also often carried out by suicide. Debtors pursued bj"^ their creditors, farmers oppressed by their landlords, the artisan injured by his employer, the wife harassed by her mother-in-law, can always adopt the expedient of hanging themselves in order to obtain redress. The whole community then takes up their cause and avenges them — symbolically. A broom is placed in the hand of the victim, and this broom, being moved to the ♦ Meadows, op. eit. p. 168, 169. *^%J^ViWyVtf^llllilllt^ill^WMi''' tJH IHHi'lMOUd MM MiiM ■MM 18 endured as offer bribes. In fact, all ary, and even reen what the former makes he latter scUh ns themselves 1 to wink at Thus some of ive years, and hanging their permitting it. n a body ; and ut getting into ransact public n object of the a new super- post and then 9m to leave on god to receive making what s in the latter otwithstanding itill continue to cording to the ?nalty of death their sentences, re a wholesome magistrates be iva. Let good >itration of the ible litigants be differences are code, and the I carried out by their landlords, ;her-in-law, can II redress. The 'mbolically. A f moved to the THE MANDARINS. Fig. 163.— Vaouaxt Convictk. 826 right and to the left, sweeps away the fortunes, the pro.sperity, the whole household of the tyrant. 826 EAST ASIA. Pexal Code. The penal code is clear, precise, and logical, but extremely harsh. Moot sentences are passed after a simple examination made in public. There are no recognised advocates, and if the mandarin allows friends or relatives to plead for the accused, it is entirely an act of condescension on his part. Being relatively far less numerous thiin in Europe, the nuigistrates decide cases in a nmch more summary manner. Still armed with the right of inflicting torture, they exercise it with the sjime severity as was practised in the West until recent times. Scourging, tearing out the niiils, crushing the ankles or fingers, hanging by the armpits, and a hundred other excruciating torments are inflicted for the purpose of extracting confessions or revelations of accomplices. Atrocious sentences are daily inflicted, and besides the three ordinary methods of putting to death, by Iwheading, strangling, and garotting, the cotic provides for the punishment of " slow death." Formerly flaying alive was protracted for days together, but at present a few gashes on the face and hands are substituted, after which decapitation puts an end to the victim's sufferings. Fortunately the nervous system of the Chinese is far less sensitive than that of Europeans. The doctors attached to the hospitals in I long Kong and Shanghai all speak with astonishment of the indifference of the patients under the severest operations. For lighter offences the usual punishments are the rod and the canguc, a wooden collar weighing about 75 lbs. The convict condemned to wear this horrible instrument of torture, finding no rest asleep or awake, and exposed night and day to all the inclemencies of the weather, breaks down under the pitiless burden, and implores wayfarers to put an end to his intolerable sufferings by death. The pris(ms arc loathsome dens, where the condemned are huddled together, and exposed to the brutality of gaolers, often chosen from the criminals themselves. Those who are unaided by their relatives or the charitable societies run the risk of being starved to death. Women are seldom punished with severity, their husbands or sons being considered responsible for their faults. The principle of substitution is fully recognised, not only in the case of a son presenting himself instead of his father, but even when a stranger offers, " for a consideration," to undergo the sentence. As long as the debt is discharged, justice is satisfied, whoever be the victim. Even in the case of torture and death, suppliants are found willing to endure everything in order to secure some advantage for their families. During the Anglo-French invasion of Pechili, some Chinese assassins having l)een sentenced to death, substitutes presented themselves, and loudly denounced the injustice which refused to allow them to take the place of the criminals. Those sentenced to the rod easily find crowds of ready volunteers, whence the remark that " in China there are thousands who live by blows." In some districts a substitute may be prociired to confess himself guilty of a felony, and suffer certain death for about fifty taels of silver, a sura equivalent to £17 sterling, but worth in China perhaps as much as £100, regard being had to the relative price of provisions and other necessaries. Hence it is that the MMM* iiitiMiii ■W M MIU I mfm!t(!i0m» ! t9' -flf fi wpyf ^ i P^ n PENAL CODE. 827 irsb. Moot here arc no to plead for datively far much more «y exercise it Scourging, armpits, and >f extracting lily inflicted, ,' l)cheading, slow death." resent a few 1 puts an end Ihincse is far hospitals in arouce of the igiir, a wootlen this horrible ight and day i burden, and death. The together, and us themselves, in the risk of leir husbands ' substitution instead of his undergo the hoever be the and willing to dies. During Mjen sentenced the injustice lose sentenced lark that "in )lf guilty of a equivalent to being had to it is that the murder of mandarins and riots arc so frequent in those districts. When any of the richer classes are dissatisfied with the conduct of a mandarin, they are never preventetl from instigating the lower classes to make disturbances by the fear of personal punishment. Some years ago a magistrate having been killcMl during an outbreak in the east of Kwangtung, the proviiu-ial judge was sent from Canton with a strong force to seize and punish the criminals. On his arrival, however, be found a large body of men assembled in arms to oppose him, and the matter was disposed of by a secret compromise, as so fretjuently happens in such cases in China. The wealthy members of the community, who hud instigated the murder of the district magistrate, awed by the force brought against them, bought about twenty substitutes ready to personate the true criminals. They then bribed the son of the nmrdered man with a large sum to allow these men to call themselves the instigators, principals, and accomplices. The judge, on the other hand, being obliged by the code of the lioard of Civil Office to execute somebody, or see himself involved in punishment, knowing also that if he attempted to bring the real offenders to justice they would employ all their means of resistance, ending possibly in the defeat of his force and his own death, gave way to these considerations, supported as they were by a bribe, and ordere??■'w»r- *!*• THE ARMY. 820 i (luring tbo tho different sugar, whi(!h two montbs' cigar, and tea I for driving a 8 with a stick, •oughfare had like 'orderly own in some darin, politely lations on his ;ly in all parts their papers, ploraas of any i is generally police. Even I to close the it does not for- » give them a for ages main- families take from the agri- yors, notaries, ly differences, Is are attached ;ers, surveyors, iO ki'ichang, or form a Muni- le other muni- ict magistrates directly on the the European s. The people very man who em entertained ect that " good men are not required to make soldiers, or good iron nails." Hitherto the recent changes have only affected two anny corps — that of Tientsin on the Lower Pei'-ho, and the 50,000 men who, since the reduction of tho Duugan rebels, occupy the western regions of tho empire on tho llussian frontier. Apart from these, the various armed bodies are little better than those dispersed in 1800 by the Allies near Peking. The army of the " Eight Banners," which was formerly the main- stay of the dynasty, has retained its old organization. It consists almost exclu- sively of Manchus and Mongols, all married, and each with a plot of ground or a garden, so that they are rather military colonists than soldiers. Numbering about 2'30,000, they are probably more dangerous than useful, their presence in the Fig. 164.— Dbfbncbs of thr Mouth of the Pei-ho. Scale 1 : 133,000. ia B BaHary /■■■■■:r- '::.\:^/- ■.■,-.'r.." ■ ■^■■'^•■•^'■'■'■■' 59 9 .' 'ilL******^" /Xi ■.•'••'.•■.•■ •■.•.'■.'••.■•■'•!••' :•■■■•.'•.■;••■•'?•■■;■. '• ' V' J 'l\ /ill '•-'.'. ;:': •■.■•'•'. ■.•^' "'■■■<<•;. ■•'c^ s ^^tTZ ^^ sMiMm ■ - — ^Hl ^ #^ atUiciii^rwn 3 ft^-' .:-'\y\'\ •'■'•"i*".'*/*. ■;• • "■ • - ■^^^^^^Ti^mll T«Bt«k«» ^ ^^m • ■.•■■■.;-•.'■/.•.'/'•'••.''•■'/. -' ' ' ^^^^^m » :,: ,^ liS JSffi^ — ■ : ■ ; /■;.'•/•■•'••■ .. •'■•T* .'•..*.•■'' t-^Hi^p^^ys Moat — : a:.- • \ :..-.. 58 f- '■•>••'■' ^^]Sr 1 - ..'•'••■■ iff 5(3 M% • ■■■•■;• .•■■.■-■ -■■:^ 56 Eol-G. M7M0- |l7'4e to 8) Feet. .Hi Feel and upwards. Und or Sand expoeed at high water. — ^— ^^-^— -^-^-^ 8 MilM>. Manchu quarters constantly reminding the nation of its defeat, and thus keeping alive a spirit of rebellion against the Manchu power. The only efficient Manchu corps is the Hiaokiying, which occupies the Peking district, and is said to comprise 36,000 men and 26,000 military students. The highest military title, that of Siangkiun, answering to the Japanese Shogun, can be held only by a Manchu. The Lutying, or " Army of the Green Banner," divided into eighteen corps, corresponding with the eighteen provinces, is composed of 600,000 volunteers, all of Chinese nationality. This militia is chiefly employed in the police, in forwarding cereals, in maintaining the embankments, and repairing the highways. The men serve only within the limits of their respective provinces, beyond which they can seldom be induced to march, even in urgent cases. Thefutai, or general, is always a 64 880 EAST ASIA. civilian, on the principle universally accepted in China that ann8 must yield to the peaceful arts. IJodics of militia are also raised in the various departments at the expense of the communes, and in time of war the Government has the power of enrolling all able-bodied men. Rut such levies, without any previous training, are found to be worthless in the presence of disciplined troops. Military exercises are almost always carried on in the imperial hunting park, which is an immense tract of country surrounded by a wall, access to which is jealously forbidden to foreigners. In addition to the land service, the Lutying mans the navy of the seaboard provinces, and has a distinct organization of divisions and garrisons, each under its own general. The strength of these provincial armies varies with the size of the province and with the duties they have to perform. But the average for each province may bo about Jio.OOO men and 640 officers. Properly led, the Chinese " would make magnificent troops, for by nature they are singularly obedient to authority, and would not question the demands of those who once established an influence over them. In this they are like other Easterns, but more than others their national characteristic renders them particularly incapable of military combinations. A Chinaman can learn anything, but he can conceive nothing. He may readily be taught any number of the most complicated military manceuvres, but place him in a position slightly different from that in which he has learnt, and he will be found utterly incapable of conceiving any modification to suit the altered circumstances. This national characteristic is the growth of centuries of a narrow education ; its roots are deeply seated, and lie in the insane reverence for antiquity, which is almost the beginning and end of a Chinaman's belief. Prompt action, readiness of resource, ability to seize on the smallest advantage, or to neutralise a misfortune, and the power to evolve rapidly fresh combinations — these are the qualities that make a soldier, and these are the very qualities that cannot co-exist with the Chinese want of originality. This is no unimportant matter, for it proves that, as they are, the Chinese cannot be feared as a military nation, but that with a large number of European officers, their almost unlimited numbers, their obedience to authority, and personal l>ravery, when properly led, would make them almost irresistible. " Further, there is in the Chinese mind a great dread of Europeans. Supernatural powers are popularly attributed to foreigners, and, although they profess to hold the barbarians in contempt, in reality the feeling of fear predominates in their mind, although, perhaps, they would not own it even to themselves. But with good and skilled European officers, they would, as they have done before, make magnificent soldiers." * The naval are relatively more important than the land forces, and are also more needed for the defence of the empire. In 1880 the navy consisted of 40 steamers, of nearly 20,000 tons burden, and carrying 238 guns The crews, mostly from Ewangtung and Fokien, are generally skilful sailoia, -ud on many occasions have given proof of signal courage. Fortifications have been erected at the entry of the Canton, Fuchew, Shanghai, and Tientsin Rivers, and for these • Gill, op. eit. i. p. 164-6. »i^»*- THE CURRENCY. 881 8t yield to the rtmonts at the 8 the power of 8 training, are hiintiu}? pirk, 38 to which is 3, the Lutying ion of divisions ovinciul armies VQ to perform. officers, by nature they mands of those other Easteras, m particxdarly ing, but he can ost complicated it from that in conceiving ony racteristic is the eated, and lie in ig !\nd end of a to seize on the o evolve rapidly id these are the inality. This is inese cannot be >au officers, their al bravery, when 18. Supernatural r profess to hold iminates in their jlves. But with me before, make ces, and are also consisted of 40 Ins The crews, o, Aud on many been erected at rs, and for these and other defensive works over 400 Krupp guns had already been supplied down to the end of the year 1879. A vast amount of war muteriuls is also being pro- duced in the Government arsenals, over half of the revenue, estimated nt £25,000,000, being employed in these military preparations. The foreign loans contracted at various dates since 1874 are also devoted to the construction of forts and ironclads. The eleven wooden ships built at Newcastle for the Government, and almost unrivalled for speed and weight of metal, form an efficient fleet, admirably suited to the defence of the seaboard. The Chinese make excellent sailors, and an experienced American skipper assured Captain Gill that he preferred them to Europeans or Americans. " They never give any trouble, never drink or quarrel ; and although, in cases of danger, he admitted that at first they slightly lost their heads, yet he declared that, with proper leaders, this lasted a very short time, that then they really had no fear, and would work as quietly and as well as under the most ordinary circumstances." * The Revenuk, The chief source of revenue is the customs, which have been reorganized by Euro- peans, of whom nearly five hundred are employed in this important service, the official language of which is English. But this branch has charge only of the foreign exchanges, and is replaced in the interior by the likin, which is in the hands of native officers, and which doubles, trebles, and increases even tenfold the value of com- modities according to the rapacity of the mandarins. By the terms of the treaties a tax of 2 J per cent., added to the import duty of 5 per cent., ought to exempt merchandise from all supplementary dues. But, besides these, tolls are levied at the octroi of the large towns, on the highways, canals, and bridges, and there are many other vexatious charges which greatly hamper the trade of the interior. But " give us free access to China ; protect us in the exercise of our privileges, until the Chinese are accustomed to us and understand us, and fix our duty pay- ments firmly and explicitly, and everything else will follow. The custom-house bugbear will disappear, for the goods will be put down at the door of the customer. Teas and silks will be bought cheaper, for different districts will be made to com- pete when we buy direct from the producer ; and European manufacturers, with moderate energy and enterprise, will make a fair start." t < . J > -'■*''' The Currency. The want of a convenient currency is also a serious obstacle to traffic. The old monetary system, consisting of gold, silver, and bronze, was abolished in conse- quence of its depreciation by Government falsifications of all sorts. Nothing is now issued except the cheti, or sapeks, an alloy of copper and tin in the form of discs, and strung together by means of a hole in the centre. A thousand of these, •Op.eit.p.n. "j ' ■ .. i t G. W. Cooke, op. eit. p. 208. m Ill II ifl I! li 15 882 EAST ASIA. weighing over 10 lbs., form the Urn, or monetary unit, valued at about 48. But numbers have no precise meaning, and change with every district, so that in Tientsin, for instance, the tiao is worth only KOREA. HE peninsula which projectfl between the Japanese and Yellow Seas southwards in the direction of the southern islands of Nippon is completely limited landwards. Like Italy, with which it may bo compared in extent, and even to some degree in its orographic con- figuration, it is separated from the mainland by the Alpine Taipei- shan, or " Great White Mountains," of Manchuria. It has also its Apennines stretching north and south, and forming the backbone of the peniiiKula. As in Italy, the western slope of the highlands forms, throughout their central and southern sections, the vital portion of the peninsula. Here is developed the course of the Han-kiang, the Korean Tiber, and here is situated the city of Seul, present capital of the kingdom. In Korea, as in Italy, the eastern seaboard is uniform, and almost destitute of inlets, while the west aide is deeply indented by gidfs and bays, rich in islands and small archipelagos. Nevertheless these general resemblances do not descerxd tu minor details. The north-east frontier, towai-ds Russian Manchuria, is very mountainous and of diffi- cidt access, whereas the plains of the Yalu-kiang valley present towards the north- west an easy natural passage from the interior of the peninsula to the Chinese province of Liaotimg. In this direction the two frontier states thought it neces- sary to create a sort of " marca," or neutral zone, as a line of reciprocal defence, by leaving a broad tract uninhabited and uncultivated on the north-west side of the Yalu-kiang. Till recently peaceful settlers in this region were liable to capital punishment, although banditti made it their camping ground, endangering the trade route running to the " Gate of Korea," near the city of Fungwang-shan (Fenghoang-cheng), or " Castle of the Yellow Wind." But according to the latest accounts the neutral zone, which has an area of about 5,600 square miles, is begin- ning to be brought under cultivation. Chinese settlers are gradually encroaching and reclaiming the land, while some Koreans have on their side already formed settlements beyond the frontier. Like most regions of the extreme East, Korea is known to foreigners by a name which has little currency in the country itself. This term, belonging formerly to the petty state of Kori^, has been extended by the Chinese and Japanese to the KOREA Hi3ft whole poninmtila, uiult>r the furmn of Kiiokiuli, K itU, qgl MtttDt AVhcn till the priiicipiilitii's woro fiiswl in oiio inoiiiircliy, towards u- vlnne of <• fourficnth cen- tury, tin? foumry. ut that t-'rac Hubject to Chiiiu, t( tlie offici, titi*' ul liiutNien (Tsioseii) — that is, '* Scieiiity of the Morning " — in allimion to if m ^'f«)gr;»p il jjosi- tion east of the empire. Thus it is now designated by a poetical exprch .ii Mhich exactly indicates its position l)etween China and .Iiii)an. While for tl» >eoyU' i»t Fig. 166. -OiNMHAL Yiiw or Kano-rua, Lowkk Hano-kiano. id Yellow SeaB I of Nippon is ich it may bo rographic cou- Alpine Taipei- ita Apennines liiisula. As in ir central and >ped the course if Seul, present lard is uniform, 3d by G^s and )r details. The 18 and of diffi- ^ards the north- , to the Chinese lought it neces- iprocal defence, rth-west side of liable to capital ndangering the Fungwang-shan ing to the latest miles, is begin- illy encroaching already formed gners by a name »ing formerly to Japanese to the ,^^1^ -'„'...■> '\ " ■■'^*^' ., ' -» -/*. X***^..,,'*'"' • ^ "»i'*t-.;,i.-i.,»i.>- -, ' V ■•;^-.':-. :i2i^P5 .^^a r Mt ^-Mm ^ mm •1 III"" ••■ .^ s--^>, •:- ■ BT^ an ■•■ *a ■0^ f « , ■;^?v '.j::r..ai%: ^- ii« the continent Japan is the land of the Rising Sun, Korea is the " Serene " land, illumined by the morning rays. Although washed by two much-frequented seas, and yearly sighted by thousands of seafarers, Korea is one of the least known Asiatic regions. Even the seaboard, which presents so many dangers to navigation, has been so imperfectly surveyed that its contour, as laid down on the charts, is still largely hypothetical. Before the seventeenth century European geographers supposed that Korea was an island, 880 EAST ASIA. and it in mo fij^unHl on tin* nioj)H of Mcrcntor, ('rtoliuH, nnd Snnw)n. Hut itH ponin- Kulor cliaractcr waM rovoalcHl liy the map wnt l»y tlu' niiMMionarifs fnmi iVkiii^, and rcpriMliinHl hy D'Aiivillo. The tii'Ht a<'ciimtt' ohrn'rvatioiiH date oidy from the i'ij<;lil»'t'Mth (M'litury, and it wan not till 17H7 tliat \m IVtoumo di'tonMincd tlio |Mmi- tion of tlio lai'^t> island of (hiclpacrt (tiic 'l'an^:lo of the Cliincsc, and Tamiiro of till' Jupant>M>), and Miirvi>y«'d tlu? Strait of Korea U'tweon the two inland HoaH. Ten ycarH aftcrwardH Itrou^hton coaNtcd the Hoiithcrn oxtrnnity, paHsin^ through tbo strait which bcurH his nuino, and which flows In'twuen the muinlund and thu double Fig. 157.— KoRiA Sthait. fi<>mle i : ■.'.HiW.OOO. to 820 Feet. mo Fact aad ninnidt. aOMIlCT. island of Tsu-simu. Later on Krusenstcrn extended our knowledge of the coast north from the island of Kiu-siu, and the work of exploration was continued during the present century by Maxwell, Basil Hall, and others of various nationalities. At present the seaboard is being most carefully studied by the Japanese navigators, who have already taken extensive soundings throughout the thousand channels of the islets, and dangerous reefs fringing the south-west coast, and figuring on the Chinese maps as part of the mainland. Thanks to all these survej's and discoveries, the area of the peninsula may be approximately set down at about 95,000 square miles, or nearly half that of France. PaOUlUiSS OF UISC'UVKUY— FOUKION IIKLATIONS. 887 Hut it» ponin- 11) iVkiiiK, uiul ,nly J' rum the iiiH«ut 95,000 square Pro(jkksm ok Discovkky — FoHKKiN Uki.atioxh. The interior of the peninsiihi ninnot Ih» said to Ih) ultogothcr unknown, «inre its niountuins aro visible from the couHt, whonce even many plains and valluys may Fig. 1S8, -Kxfl.UHATIIiNH OK KollKA ANI> Ml KHULMltNU NVaTKUII. Soula t : 700,000. M )^r^-.^,T ISS' IS6* LofG 190 Miles. be recognised. But although D'Anville's map, of which most others are a mere reproduction, is based on native documents, the direction of the ranges, the river valleys, and the sites of the cities are figured on it without any attempt at accu- racy ; nor have previous labours hitherto been checked or rectified by any explorer 888 EAST ASIA. worthy of the name. In 1653 the Dutch writer Ilamcl having been shipwrecked, with thirty-five companions, on Quclpaert Island, he was brought captive to the capital, and during the thirteen years of his captivity devoted himself to the study of Korean manners and customs. But he had no opportunity of exploring the land, and his itinerary is confined to the west coast. The western slopes have also been traversed in almost every direction by the Catholic missionaries, who have penetrated into the country since 1835 either from Manchuria or by sea from Shantung. But although obliged to travel in disguise, generally by night and along unbeaten tracks, to their reports we are mainly indebted for our most trust- worthy information regarding the geographical features of the land. From its very position between China and Japan, Korea could not fail to have been a subject of contention for its powerful neighbours. Before its fusion in one state it comprised several distinct principalities, whose limits were subject to fre- Fig. 159.— SotTH-WEST AUCHIPELAGO OF KoKKA. Scale 1 : 1,300,000. to 82 Feet. 33 to 80 80 to 160 IflO and upward*. _____ SO Mile*. quent changes. These were, in the north, Kaokiuli (Kaoli), or Korea proper; in the centre, Chaosien and the seventy-eight so-called "kingdoms" of Chinese foundation, usually known as the San Kan (San Han), or " Three Han ; " in the south, Petsi, or Hiaksai (Kudara), the Sinlo of the Chinese, or Siragi of the Japanese ; besides the petty state of Kara, Zinna, or Mimana, in the south-east, round about the Bay of Tsiosan. The northern regions naturally gravitated towards China, whose rulers repeatedly interfered in the internal affairs of the country. But the inhabitants of the south, known in history by the Japanese name of Kmaso, or " Herd of Bears," were long subject to Japan, while at other times they made frequent incursions into Kiu-siu and Hondo, and even formed settlements on those islands. The first conquest of the country was made by the forces of the Queen Regent Zingu in the third qentury. Towards the end of the sixteenth the cele- PHYSICAL FEATURES— OROQKAPHIC SYSTEM. 889 een shipwrecked, it captive to the iself to the study of exploring the 1 slopes have also •naries, who have I or by sea from Lly by night and jr our most trust- nd. 1 not fail to have I its fusion in one sre subject to fre- arda- Korea proper ; in ioraa" of Chinese hree Han ; " in the ■, or Siragi of the in the south-east, gravitated towards irs of the country. Bsc name of Kmaso, !r times they made ettlements on those orces of the Queen sixteenth the cele- brated Japanese dictator and usurper Taikosama, having conceived the project of conquering China, began with that of Korea, under the pretext of old Japanese rights over the country of the Kmuso. After wasting the land he compelled the King to become his tributary, and loft a permanent garrison in the peninsula. A fresh expedition, although interrupted by the death of Taikosama, was equally successful. Tsu-sima remained in the hands of the Japanese, and from that time till the middle of the present century Korea continued in a state of vassalage, sending every year presents and tribute to Nippon. According to the missionaries, thirty human skins at first formed part of this tribute, but were afterwards replaced by silver, rice, linen fabrics, and medicinal plants. Thanks to the aid sent by the Ming dynasty to Korea, in its victorious struggle with the other petty states of the peninsula, and in its resistance to Japan, its relations with China continued to be of the most friendly character. Admirers of Chinese culture, the native rulers felt honoured by the investiture granted them by the " Son of Heaven." But after the Manchu conquest of the Middle Kingdom, Korea remaininj,, faithfid to the cause of the Mings, the new masters of the empire invaded the peninsula, and in 1637 dictated a treaty, imposing on the Koreans a yearly tribute of 100 ounces of gold, 1,000 ounces of silver, and a certain quantity of furs, roots, textile fabrics, and other natural and industrial products of the land. But although since that time the native ruler takes the title of " Subject," China exercises no real sovereign rights in Korea. No Chinese emigrants are allowed to settle in the peninsula, and even the envoys from Peking are obliged to leave their suites outside the walls of the capital, where during their stay they remain confined to the palace, more like honoured captives than the representatives of a master. Thus, although for over two hundred years a vassal to both of its powerful neigh- bours, the peninsula has practically retained its autonomy. A third empire, having become conterminous with Korea, has begun to make itself felt. Conflicts have already taken place between Bussians and Koreans, and the Government of St. Petersburg has more than once assumed an aggressive attitude. A well-sheltered harbour on the south coast of the peninsula would certtiinly be of the greatest advantage, both commercially and strategically, to Russia. From such a station she might command at once both the Chinese and Japanese waters, and thus become supreme in the Eastern seas. But a reasonable pretext for attacking the feeble kingdom of Korea has not yet been discovered, and meantime the influence of Japan has recently been most active in the peninsula, where she has secured certain concessions and commercial privileges still denied to all other foreign powers except the United States of North America. Physical Features — Orooraphk; System. According to Dallet the chief mountain range of Korea branches off from the Tai-pei-shan at the Paiktu-san, whose crest forms the parting-line between the waters flowing north-east to Tiumen-ola, and south-west to the Yalu-kiang. South-east of these highlands, which are still held by independent tribes, an I i 840 EAST ASIA. extensive depression is filled by the Tai-ti, the only large lake in Korea, stretching apparently some 24 miles east and west. Several peaks rising alwve the main ridge bear the name of Paik-san, or " White Mountain," so that this term might be extended to the whole range from the frontier of Manchuria to Broughton Bay. The summits seem to be here very lofty, but none of them have yet been visited, and elevations have been taken only for the peaks on the coast visible from the sea. The Hicu-fung, near the north side of Broughton Bay, has an altitude of 8,200 feet, while several others rise to a height of 6,500 feet and upwards. There can be no reasonable doubt as to the generally mountainous character of the interior. In every direction the view is broken by hills, some denuded, others covered with dense forests, bounding the horizon with their peaks, cones, sharp summits, and rugged crags. The valleys are everywhere narrow and connected by savage gorges, so that no plains of any extent are developed except near the seaboard. The surface of the land presents the general aspect of an inclined plane falling abruptly eastwards to the deep Sea of Japan, and sloi^ng westwards far more gently towards the shallow waters of the Yellow Sea. As far as can be judged from the available data, the complex orographic system would seem to be produced by the intersection of the main axis, running in the line of the meridian along the east coast, with transverse ridges belonging to the Chinese system. The very form of the inlets on the west coast seems to show that the elevations follow in Korea the same direction as on the neighbouring mainland. A tongue of land projects far into the Yellow Sea towards the Shantung peninsula, thus enclosing the Gulf of Pechili from the outer waters. In the same way the south- west extremity seems to be continued between the Yellow and Eastern Seas by quite au archipelago of islands, forming a pendant to the Chusan and Ningpo groups on the Chinese coast. Two at least of the Korean ranges also run south-west and north-east, parallel with the highlands of Manchuria, Mongolia, Pechili, and Shansi. One of these, forming a continuation of the Shantung system beyond the Yellow Sea, intersects the Paiksan chain, east of which it skirts the Korean seaboard as far as Possiet Bay. The other, beginning at the southernmost extremity of the peninsula, gradually merges in the eastern uplands on the convex east coast commanded by the Tsiongyan-san, or Mount Popov of the Russians. The islets attached to this ridge rise abruptly from the water to heights of 1,500, 2,000, and even 2,200 feet. The island of Quelpaert itself, now a Korean convict station, forms a small chain running in the same south-west and north-east direction, and culminating with the white cliffs of the Aula, or Hanka-san, the Auckland of the English surveyors, which attains au elevation of 6,700 feet. 'i li The Korean Archipelagos. The west coast is fringed by numerous islands and small archipelagos, which have not yet been accurately surveyed, and the extent of which was a constant source of surprise to the early navigators. " We threaded our way," writes Basil Hall, " for upwards of a hundred miles amongst islands, which lie in wmttm ' 1," ' J !i J ' J»" MINERAL WEALTH— FLORA AND FAUNA— CLIMATE. 841 rea, stretching )ove the main lis tenn might roughton Bay. t been visited, isible from the an altitude of wards. us character of lenuded, others 8, cones, sharp id connected by xcept near the 1 inclined plane twards far more ographic system running in the elonging to the sms to show that ing mainland. A 5 peninsula, thus way the south- Sastem Seas by I Ningpo groups south-west and ia, Pechili, and stem beyond the irts the Korean le southernmost ds on the convex B Russians. The of 1,500, 2,000, 1 convict station, ist direction, and Auckland of the immense clusters in every direction. At first we thought of counting them, and even attempted to note their places on the charts which we were making of this coast, but their grt at number completely baffled these endeavours. They vary in size from a few hundred yards in length to five or six miles, and are of all shapes. From the mast-head other groups were perceived lying one behind the other to the east and south as far as the eye could reach. Frequently above a hundred islands were in sight from deck at one moment. The seu being quite smooth, the weather fine, and many of the islands wooded and cultivated in the valleys, the scene was at all times lively, and was rendered still more interesting by our rapid passage along the coast, by which the appearances about us were perpetually changing. " Of this coast we had no charts possessing the slightest pretensions to accuracy, none of the places at which we touched being laid down within sixty miles of their proper places. Only a few islands are noticed in any map, whereas the coast for near two hundred miles is completely studded with them, to the distance of fifteen or twenty leagues from the mainland. . . . Farther on we passed for a distance of five miles amongst islands, all except the very smallest inhabited. The villages are built in the valleys, where the houses are nearly hid by trees and hedges. The sides of the hills are cultivated with millet and a species of bean ; and in the numerous small gardens near the villages we saw a great variety of plants. "As the peaked island which we had undertaken to climb was steep, and covered with a long coarse grass, it cost us a tiresome scramble to gain the top, which was about 600 feet above the level of the sea. The mainland of Korea is just discernible in the north-east and east from this elevation. But it commands a splendid view of the islands, lying in thick clusters as far as the eye can reach, from north-west quite round by east to south. We endeavoured to count them. One person, by reckoning only such as were obviously separate islands, made their number one hundred and twenty. Two other gentlemen, by estimating the numbers in each connected cluster, made severally one hundred and thirty-six and one hundred and seventy, a difference which at once shows the difficulty of speaking with precision on this subject. But when it is considered that from one spot which, though considerably elevated, was not concentrical, one hundred and twenty islands could be counted, and that our course for upwards of one hundred miles had been amongst islands no less crowded than these, some idea may be formed of this great archipelago." • all archipelagos, of which was a •eaded our way," mds, which lie in MiNERAi, Wealth — Flora and Fauna — Climate. Amongst the volcanic islands on the coast, OUonto, the Japanese Matsu-sima, and the Dagelet of European geographers, forms a cone over 4,000 feet high, while its spurs plunge into depths of 4,500 feet and upwards. But the reports of the missionaries throw no light on the geological formation of the highlands on • " Voyage to Korea," &c. p. 42 tt leq. 842 EAST ASIA. tho muinluud. Gold, however, is stated to be abundant in several places ; but mining operations, both for it and for silver, are forbidden under severe penalties, for fear of exciting the cupidity of the neighbouring peoples. Korea also possesses deposits of lead and copper, although copper and bronze ware are imported from Japan. There are said to bo whole mountains of iron ores, which are washed down by the rains in quantities sufficient to supply the smelting works. The forests consist of the elm, willow, birch, pine, spruce, and other Manchurian species, besides some cryptomeria? and the Rhus vernici/era, or lacquer-tree of Japan. But Fijf. 160. — Entrance to the Gulf of Ficuili. Scale 1 : 4,7M),00O. to 80 Feet. SOtolflO 160 and upi^aiiM. — . 120 Miles. the beech and oak are absent. Most of the timber employed in Peking and North China comes from Korea. Of great economic importance is the ginseng plant, which is extensively cultivated for the market of China. It is raised from the seed imder sheds covered with pine bark, the roots arriving at maturity in about five years, when they are collected, dried, and exported in considerable quantities to Peking. Here the Korean variety, although less esteemed than that of Manchuria, nevertheless commands high prices, ranging from 60s. to 80s. per lb. The wild fauna includes the bear, tiger, panther, wild boar, and fox, whose skins and furs form the staple exports of the country. In some districts the man- 'i " ■ / ^iii ] iii j$i i |_y i| i tw i iii >iwife'^i I MINERAL WEALTH— FLORA. AND FAUNA— CLIMATE. 848 ;ral places ; but severe penalties, I ea also possesses ! imported from ire washed down ■ks. The forests ichurian species, of Japan. But eating tigers enter the villages, prowl about the houses, and even penetrate through the thatch roofs for their human prey. They are hunted chiefly in winter, when they are often overtaken floundering in the half-frozen masses of snow, and easilj' dispatched with spears and knives. The Korean horses, imported cspoeiallv from the island of Quelpaert, are very small, like Shetland ponies ; but the oxen, used as mounts, are powerful beasts. Pigs and dogs are very numerous ; but the latter are cowardly curs, useless for the hunt, and chiefly bred for their flesh, which is largely consumed, and regarded as a great delicacy. The surrounding waters Fig. 161. — Island op Quelpasrt. Pnale 1 : nno.OOO. IBS* to 160 Feet. leotosao 890 uid npwaiilt. ISUilee. Peking and North ch is extensively ider sheds covered irs, when they are eking. Here the luria, nevertheless ar, and fox, whose districts the man- abound in animal life, and here is taken the species of sknte whose skin is used in the manufacture of sheaths. Although washed by marine waters, the climate of Korea resembles that of China and Manchuria. This is due to the shallowness of the Yellow Sea and Gulf of Pechili, which are rapidly heated and cooled according to the seasons, and which have consequently but a slight influence in regulating the yearly temperature. As on the mainland, the isothermals corresponding with those of Europe are deflected in Korea several degrees south of the latitudes which they cross on the Atlantic sea- board. Thus the mean temperature of France will be found in the south of the peninsula under the same parallels as Gibraltar and Morocco. But while the mean temperature is lower, the extremes are much greater than in Europe, a fact due to the prevalence of cold north-east winds in winter, followed by the warm south-west monsoons in summer. Even in the southern provinces the glass falls ~iWe n JCkM lU m'' fW w 844 EAST ASIA. in the cold season several degrees below freezing point, and in the central region a temperature of — 7^ Fahr. has boon rocordo-*TS«!paia5S^?!BS!S3?. INIIA]11TANT8— LANGUAGE. 845 thick lips, scant boiml, copjiory complexion. Another, winch may In* called the " insular" tyjM', and of which nativesofthe liiu-kiu Anhij)cla^'o\vouldsccni to he the purest representatives, is characterized hy oval features, prominent nose, protruding teeth always visihle between the half-open lips, tolerably well-furnished Ix'ard, and delicate skin, approaching in complexion to the almost greenish Mahiy tint. Many are noted for their light chestnut hair and blue eyes, u trait nowhere else observi'd in the extreme Kast, except jK'rhaps amongst the aborigines of the Nan-shan uplands in South China. Hut for the speech and costume, one might often fancy one's self surroundnl by ]Cur«)iK>an8. The women nt ver mutilate the feet, as in Clunu ; but one of the ]lan tribes was formerly accustomed to flatten the heads of the chihlren, while unnc of the coast jwoplo hud adopted the practice of tattooing from the JajHinese. These various races, which have become more or less cf)mpletely fused in the common Korean nationality, are afKliateShantung, who migratetl to Korea in the fourth and fifth conturii's of the vulgar era. The various local dialects present very slight differences, from which it would seem that the different ethnical elements have long been fused in one nation. This common speech differs essentially both from Chinese and Japanese. It is u polysyllabic and agglutinating language, with u varitnl phonetic system, includuig as many as fourteen vowels and several gutturals and aspirates. In structure it approaches the Ural-Altaic type, while the verbal inflection resembles the Basque in modifying the endings according to the sex and condition of the speakers. The alphabet, said to be over two thousand years old, is at once syllabic and purely phonetic, with altogether rather more than two hundred lelters, much simpler than the Chinese idtnigraphs. But the lettered classes despise this orthographic system. The grammars and dictionaries prepared by the missionaries having been burnt during the persecutions, there have hitherto been no available means for the study of this language. But one of the priests, who escaped from the massacres, has recently publishetl a large Korean- French dictionary, and a Korean grammar in French ajjpeared in Tokio in 1881. The preference given by the lettered classes to the Chinese ideographic system is partly due to its greater convenience for holding communication with the neighbouring nations amongst whom that system is current. " In China, Japan, Korea, ond the islands in the adjacent seas the spoken languages are different from one another ; the written language, on the contrary, is the same in uU. Thus a native of China is unintelligible to a Korean or Jjipanese while he is speaking, but they mutuoUy understand one another when their thoughts are expressed in writing. The cause of this moy be thus explained. We in Europe form an idea in the mind, and this we express by certain sounds, which differ in different countries ; these sounds are committed to writing by means of the letters of the alphabet, which are only symbols of sound, and consequently a writing in Europe is 65 1i' ii 840 EAST ASIA. uniiitolHjfible 1o every one who is ij^norant of the spoken lunj?un}?p in which it hupiM'iiH Id 1m> wriltou. "The ChiiU'Hc mid the other iui'Ivoh in these sens huve, on the eontrury, no ulphiihet — no symljols of sound [in jjfenerul usej. Their ideas urc committed to writinf^ ut onco withoul the intervention of sound, and their churftcters may therefore he cuUed symliols of ideas [ideojjfruphs]]- Now, us the 6amo characters are a(h)i)ted in all these countries to express the same ideas, it is clear that their writinj^s will be perfectly intelligible to each other, although their spoken languages may bo (piite ini-omprehensible. " The case of the Arabic numerals in EurojH) furnishes a ready illustration of this symbolical language. There is nothing in the symbols 1, 2, 3, &c., by which their pronunciation can be ascertained when presented to the eye. Yet they communicate meaning independent of sound, and are respectively intelligible to the inhabitonts of the different countries of Europe, while at the same time the sounds by wh'ch a native of one country distinguishes the written symbols 1, 2, <'i, &c., are unintelligible to all the rest." * The introduction of numerous foreign words, Chinese in the north, Japanese in the south, has given rise to certain jargons current in the trading-places. The Japanese variety is widely spoken in the southern seaports. But the language of culture is (vhinese, which all the lettered classes are bound to know. But as spoken in Korea it is us unintelligible to the natives of China us liutin in the mouth of an Englishman would be to the ancient Romans. Every place, person, and object has two names, one n more or less modified Chinese, the other Korean, and these two elements are u.versely intermingled in the speech of the different classes. Chinese prevails in the official style, while the national language has been preserved especially in the religious services. The mass of the people use both, in accordance with their various degrees of instruction and social position. According to the missionary Daveluy, the current form in many places consists almost exclusively of Chinese words provided with Korean inflections. Social Condition — Religion. Chinese influences altogether preponderate in the Korean civilisation. The administration and usages of the official world are servile imitations of those of the Middle Kingdom, to which Korea is tributary in an intellectual far more than in a political sense. Neverthei 'ss the ix>ople have preserved their national customs, which often present a striking contrast to those of the Flowery Land. While in the empire the whole people are regarded as forming but one family, the various sections of the Korean nation constitute real castes. Under the King and his family, the nobles descended from the old tribal chiefs enjoy the privileges of fortime and power in various degrees, according to the class to which they belong. The civil aristocracy, more instructed in Chinese science and letters, monopolizes the higher functions. Next comes the military aristocracy, which takes precedence * Basil Hall, op. eit. p. 17. 8t)CIAL CONDITION— HELIOION. M7 > in which miu}?( m tho contrary, lire coiiuuittod to churactorH may same churacters H clear that thoir HlMjken languages :»dy illustration of , 3, &f., by which e oye. Yet they tively intelligible the same time the en Byrabols 1, 'i. •!. north, Japanese in ading-places. The iut the language of to know. But as na us Latin in the <:very place, person, the other Korean, ch of the different anguagc has been le people use both, ind social position, lany places consists jctions. civilisation. The tions of those of the far more than in a national customs, y Land. While in family, the various the King and his ly the privileges of whicb they belong. letters, monopolizes lich takes precedence ir of all tho nobility «>f more rec«lM>iaus must dismount in their presence, scarcely dining to l(H)k ut, much Utss address, them. Tlu>y are exempt lioth from tu.vatiuii and military service, and their dwellings serve, like the muilia'val sanctuaries, as places of refuge for all their retainers. A class of " half nobles," including the secretaries, translators, interpreters, and other secondary otticials, serves as a transition from the full aristocracy to the burgesNt-s, who comprise merchants, dealers, and most of the artisans. Another (juite distinct caste is that of the jHiasaiitry, pastors, hunters, and fishers, comprising tho great bulk of the nation. Then come the " despised " castes, subdivided into several groups, which hold ahmf from each other, and which include tho but'^hers, tanners, smiths, and- bon/es. Helow all is the mjcial sub- stratum of the serfs, belonging, some to th(> Crown, others to the nobles and burgesses. They have the right of purchasing their freedom, and many marry free women, in which case their offspring belongs to the class of freedmen. They are in other respects treated with kindness, and are in practi(*e scarcely to be distin- guished from tho ordinary workmen. Buddhism, which is the official religion, was introduced towards the end of the fourth century of the vulgar era. Rationalism of the (/'liinesc type is professed by the literati, nor has the old animism yet disappeared ; while traces are even found of a fire worship, which connects the inhabitants of the ])eninsula with the Siberian wild tribes. In all the houses the embers are kept alive under the ashes, for were they to be extinguished, tho fortunes of the family would l)e extinguished with them. At the change of the seasons, and ut other important periods, tho (ire must be rekindled from a flame obtained by the" friction of two pieces of wood. The official ceremonies ussociatc in unattrndtHl by uny loug Hyiobolical cfn'MionioM, aH in China. On [>ayinont of tho purchaHC money the huHlmnd oarrioH oir hiH " projHTty," and Ijenccfurth trcatM hor aH he ph'aNON, for tlie Korean wifo hiH neither a name nor even a h'j^al existence. liein^ without roHjMtnHihilitieH, Mho can Im) neither jnd^ed nor punished except in time of relM>lIion. Althougli Hel(h)ni badly treated, tho women enjoy still Ichh lilH'rty than in China. Thow of tho upjH'r claMHCH are contiiuHl to an apartment inviolable even to tho police, and they are never seen abroad during tho day. Hut in tho oveninj? tho Btrcetn are given up to the women. The men still lingering behind hasten to return home, and shouhl they m(>et any hulies on tho way, they must cross to tho other side, and hide their face in a fan. To act otherwise would betray u lamentable want of propriety. Dallet menticms instances of Korean women who committtnl suicide because strangers had touche, unci thoy Btrei'tH arc given ri'turn homo, and bo othor Hido, and miontublo want of committHl miiiido Thoy are Huid to lian weddingH. In nippod in a shroud, Eton confonn to the m into abeyance in rhich the son must tions and ordinary and wears a long ntly took advantage out into sobs and el them in courage , and good-naturc>g. It appears to he made of liorw«-hair varniMlu'd over, and in fastened under tho chin by a hand strung witli hirge ImmuIh, mostly black and white, but occuMionally rekano, oh Sbul Kitrb. Boole 1 : 600,000. 13 Wltm. Right;" six of the second order: the ministers of ranks and degrees, of finance, rites, war, justice, and public works. According to the regulations all the man- darins ought to belong to the lettered class, receiving their promotion, as in the Middle Kingdom, by a series of three competitive examinations conducted in the Chinese language. But these regulations have long been a dead letter, and func- tions are now openly sold to the highest bidder. The penal code, also modelled on that of China, has fortunately been considerably modified, thanks to the natural gentleness of the people. Prisoners are often temporarily released to take part in the feasts of the family or of the new year. Great honours are rendered to old age, and at certain times septuagenarians are entertained by the King ; while the Queen gives a private reception to a deputation of virtuous wives and daughters. But '•ill ' . \ f ft'i» ii.:M mik TOPOORArHY. 8S8 iipcd with yellow :lo of an inferior, ssumc the titlo of ity-scvcn months, ited, the course of ed. •ite," chosen from iro dispensed, and premo Comicil of Jhief of the Just Governor of the degrees, of finance, itions all the man- iromotion, as iu the 18 conducted in the ad letter, and func- le, also modelled on nks to the natural ■used to take part in rendered to old age, g ; while the Queen nd daughters. But notwithstanding all this, and in spite of many Iwncficent provisions for the protec- tion of the people, they continue none the less to In; oppri'8.sc(l, crushed hv taxes, and exposed to famine and mist>ry. The faniino of 1M77-8 is said to have curried off a million of Koreans, or about one-eighth (»f the wliole population. The army, theoretically comprising ull uble-bodied uien, or ulM)ut a million alto- gether, consists in reality of a very sinuU number of combatants. Before the (»pen- ing of Fusan to Japanese trade the only weapons were spears, swords, and mat(!h- locks of the sixteenth century type. At present the Govern- *'>8' l*** — ^Admimstuative Divibions of Korka. ment imports rifles from Nip- scale j : 10,000.000. ]X)n, and manufactures others on the same model. The guardsmen of Seul are drilled by Japanese officers, und gun- boats of the latest description have been purchased in Japan. On critical occasions the tiger- hunters are called out, and these were the men pitted against the French in 1866. Till recently the guard wore coats lined with thick wadding, and said to have been proof against musket shots and sword cuts. But this uni- form was so cumbrous that it greatly impeded the free and rapid movement of the men. A considerable force of native troops, equipped in this way, would have been almost at the mercy of a handful of well- armed, and efficiently com- manded European soldiers. Topography. Hnnyanri, or Hanchung-fu, _^__^____ isoMJie*. better known by the name of Seul, or " Capital," is the seat of the Administration and the royal residence. It is a largo city, built on no particular plan, and surrounded by a wall nearly 6 miles in circumference. According to the census of 1793 it had a population of 190,000, but modern writers estimate it at 100,000 or 150,000. Well situated at the southern foot of the Hoa-shan and west of the Kwan-ling chain, which shelters it from the cold north-east winds, it is enclosed southwards by a bend of the Han-kang river, which ■•^«?B^1S!^^^^iES 854 EAST ASIA. ii is here crossed bj' a stone bridge. Towards the north-west the river gradually develops the estuary of the Po-hai on the Gulf of Pechili, with which it communi- cates thi'ough two channels nortli and south of the large island of Kanghoa. But they are accessible only at high water, and according to the pilots all craft have to anchor 12 miles below Seul. The capital contains no conspicuous buildings except the vast royal palace and the academy, which is attended by live hundred students. The approaches of Seul are defended by four strongholds, including Kanghoa, which has a population of 15,000 or 20,000. In the neighbourhood is the royal borough of Sou, at once the Windsor and Westminster of Korea, where the kings are reported to he buried in " golden coffins." In 18G8 some American and German adven- turers entered the country secretly, for the purpose of carrying off the treasures of this necropolis, but being discovered in time they were driven off by the peasantry. Sunto {^Siongto, Kainriirj, Karc/iaiiff), the ancient capital, destroyed by the Japanese towards the end of the sixteenth century, has again acquired great importance as a trading place. Lying nearer to the coast than Seul, it is more accessible to foreign shipping. A still more ancient capital was Piiiynn (^Piengan), one of the chief cities of the north-west province. Like its neighbour, Ic/m, near the mouth of the Yalu-kiang, it enjoys a considerable local traffic. In the extreme south the chief emporium is Taiku {^Daikio^, where are held two large annual fairs, at which the imports from Japan are distributed. According to an official geography, partly translated by Dallet, there are altogether one hundred and six walled towns in the kingdom. Korea is divided into eight provinces, all bearing Chinese names, and each again sulxiividefl into circuits and districts. Communal interests are intrusted to the Council of Elders, who, in the more remote villages, enjoy a certain degree of independence. At the end of the volume will lie found a table of the eight provinces, or to (" routes "), as they are called, with their chief towns. F I Since these sheets were passed through the press, news has reached Europe that Korea has at last been induced to remove the barriers of exclusiveness by which she has hitherto been shut out from the rest of the world. In the month of June, 1882, the Governm' p.t of Seul concluded commercial treaties both with the United States and England, granting to these States equal privileges and " all the advantages of the most favoured nations." By one of the clauses of the treaty with England, the importation of opium is expressly forbidden. iWsl tt the river gradually h which it communi- d of Kanghoa. But (ilots all craft have to nous buildings except ive hundred students. , including Kanghoa, ourhood is the royal I, where the kings are in and German adven- S off the treasures of off by the peasantry. i\, destroyed by the ignin acquired great than Seul, it is more :as Piiiynn (^Piengan), neighbour, Ic/iu, near iffic. In the extreme wo large annual fairs, I . i : : by Dallet, there are ese names, and each aterests are intrusted oy a certain degree of eight provinces, or to 3 reached Europe that xclusiveness by which d. In the month of treaties both with the rivileges and " all the ascs of the treaty with >m " / ■ . ■■■ "L H 'l' iW Iii . i IM o .« z O [- u a. < o mmmmtmimmmmmv' (Klj hM m M m 'M "M, mmmm CHAPTER VII. JAPAN. jLTHOUGII comprising thotisatuls of islands and islets, Japan is a very small state compared with its great neighbour, the vast Chinese Umpire, of which it looks like a simple geographical dependence. But notwithstanding its limited size, Japan is one of the most interesting countries in the world, both as regards its physical features, its inhabitants, history, and especially the transitional state through which it is now passing. Of all non-European nations the Japanese ah)ne have fully and spontaneously accepted the culture of the West. They alone have honestly endeavoured to adopt all its manifold material and moral conquests. They had not the misfortune, like so many other pcojjles, of fir-st losing their political in(le|)endence, and then reluctantly accepting the culture of their conquerors. Nor has the supremacy of a foreign religion grouped them together, like a flock of sheep, in the fold of their evangelisers. Thus enjoying full political and religious liberty, they have adopted European ideas, not as subjects, but in the character of free disciples. As they had formerly endeavoured to enter the Chinese world of thought and culture, they are now essaying, with a certain youthful ardour, to assimilate themselves to the West ; whereas the Chinese themselves, proud of their ancient civilisation, conscious of their latent strength, and distrustful of those " foreign barbarians " who came bombarding their cities and burning their palaces, accepted the teachings of the stranger with much hesitation, and under the pressure of irresistible events. Whatever be the success of the experiment, Japan henceforth belongs, in all that regards scientific knowledge and industrial progress, to the comity of those nations amongst whom has been developed the so-called " Aryan " or " Western " culture. These peoples, who, at the opening of the present century, numbered collectively, perhaps, one hundred and fifty millions of human beings, now comprise as many as five hundred millions, distributed over Europe, the New World, parts of Africa, Australia, and Asia itself. The geographical position of Japan adds a special value to this new accession to their numbers. Lyin^ midway between San Francisco and liondon by the rout« mmm 856 KAST ASIA. of tho Pacific and Rustua, tho Empire of the *' TUsiiifi; Sun " coniplotos the zone of lunds brought within the sphere nl' NN'cstorn ideas in the nortliern hi iniKph«Te. It enahleH Mast and West to join hands, whih> l>y sea it coniniands all the hi^hnays 1*'iidin^ towards Malaynia, Australia, Inchi-China, and the lands Ixmlerin^ on tho Indian Ocean and Pacific sealMtards. Its |M)pulution is, njori>()ver, sutKciently large and industrious to enable it rapidly to aeipiiro an important position in the general niov(>meiit of commerce and modern history. Nipjiou is already fuiuiliarly sixiken of as tho " Great liritain " of the extreme East. FoUM EXTKXT NaMK. Tho Japaneso Archipelago forms u perfectly limited gon^cnphicul wliolc, at least if in it be still included the island of Sakhalin, taken by Russia in IST/) in exchange for the Kurile group ; for Sakhalin obviously <-onstituteH the northern section of a long chain of olevaie,uuo,«w. enoMileo. by the name of Nip-pon, or Ni-hon. But this term, meaning tho " Rising Sun," in reference to the position of Japan east of China, belongs projxjrly to tho whole archipelago, and is always so used by the natives. It is the Ji-p6n-kweh of the Chinese, whence Marco Polo's Zipungu, or Zipang, transformed by tho Malays into Zipang and by Europeans into Japon, Japan. Tho history of this word Japan is extremely curious and interesting. It is not merely synonymous, but absolutely identical with the corresponding native term ■^i>«ttm KAHI A»U. 1 Nip-|M»ii. "The ori>;iiiul rhincw fomi wud Nit-pon, mpiniinf? tho Tiiiiul of the Uisiii^r Sun, lli<> Orient, from ml, tiww, aiiil /^o/j, origin. Tlie word wiis in iliiH fmin luliiptrd alMiiit tli<> m-Vfiitli rcntiiry ot' the CiuHtiiin imii liy tlit> 'liipantHc, who WMHi aMMiiiiilati'd tlir t tu tin" /», wIn'Mcc Xi/i-fxni, Nip-lion, and t'Von A\t/-/iiiii. Hut in riiina tin* / wuh HrHt dmpprd, whoneo Ni-jmii, or Ni-pcti, und ihc initial iV tlirouyfli Mon^olif inHiu-ncf,* aftcrwardH clian^cil t<) ./, wlu'nco .li-pcn, thr form I'ur- ront in tho tinif of Marco lN»lo, wIioho Vt-nt'tian Zipnnijii dcrivon directly from it, and is tin- parent of all the Kuropean vurieticM of the word Jit/mn. TIuh word waH, 08 Htated, from I lie tirst applied to the whole archipelago, and not exclusively to the larp> island, for which the Japanese had no general name till that of Hondo, that in, Original, or Main Division, wus intriMliiced Homu hIx years a^^u. Iloncu in our maps Nip-pon oujj^ht to Iw eitlior altogether supprcsHod or extended to the whole group — thut is, made synonymouH w",th Japan, both being varieties of tho common prototype Nit-p :»n." t Pkoorkss ok Discovery. Japan was first reached in 154:} by the Poituf,'ue8e navigators Mendez Pinto, Bit go Zamaito, and Horrallo, driven by stress of veather to the island of Tanega, nouth of Kiu-sin. They were well received, oommerciul relations were established between Japan and Malacca, und marriages were even contracted between the strangers and some wealthy native women. Hut the missionaries soon made their appearance, and religious wars had already broken out before the close of the six- teenth century. The Christians were ultimately expelled or massacred, and tho country closed to all Europeans except the Dutch, who were allowed to retain their factory of De-sima, near Nagasaki, on the condition of spitting or trampling on the cross. Confined to this remote corner of tho archipelago, the Dutch found opportunities to study tho natural history of the country ond tho manners of its inhabitants, and the great works of Kiimpfcr und Siebold still rank amongst tho most valuable documents we possess on tho Empire of the Rising Sun. Even the geographical works published by tho natives themselves during tho eighteenth century bear evident traces of European influences. On a general survey of the land, begun in 1778 and concluded in 1807, tho learned Yino prepared map of the islands on a scale of 1 : 500,000, in which ho endeavoured to reconcile thfc observations of the natives with the contour of the seaboord as traced on the Dutch chorts. Towards the end of the eighteenth century Mogami Tokoudai had already explored and described the Kuriles, and the islands off the south-west coast of Japan had been visited by tho two bi others, Simo-dani. Lastlj', Mamiya Rinzo surveyed the coast of Manchuria, and by sailing through the strait between Sakhalin and Siberia, which now bears his name, proved Sakhalin to be an island, thus solving a problem which hud successively baffled La P^rouse, Broughton, and * During tho Yen, nr Mongol dynasty (1260 — 1366), the Mandarin or court language woa greatly influenced by the ^Mongol phonetic system, t A. H. Kcane's • Asiii," p. 609. 11 1:!^ j PUOOUKHS OF DISCOVKIIY. KruBonntorn. "Tlw •liipiiiii>m> have viinquiHlu'd iiic," <'xcliiiiiu' I{uM«(iaii travrllor Uulovuin wuH dutuiiioU u captive hy tho •lupancHo (iovcrniiivnt, Kinzo uiid otlx't Fig. 10ft. Htiiait "k Ymo. 0lofl4Fe< 64 Feet and upwanls. , 12 MUes. savants, who were already familiar with the ordinary methods of determining latitudes and longitudes, acqmred from him the art of calculating longitudes directly by observation of the stars, and solar and lunar distances. /^ a»h litHfiaVF-.^. 860 EAST ASIA. Since the recent changes forcip'-era and natives are working harmoniously together in the exploration of the country. On the seaboard the Japanese navy, jointly with those of other powers, takes part in the preparation of special charts, while geologists and minnig engineers study the relief of the land and the character of the rocks. Several maps of Nijj-pon have thus been already prepared, which are superior in accuracy to those of Albania, Macedonia, and other parts of Europe. Altogether the people display a surprising love of geographical studies. Traders, excursionists, and artisans seldom make a trip without taking a map of the district Fie. 166. — The Kurile Islands. Scale 1 : 9,000,000. I Volcanoes- ISO Milen. with them, and guide-books to the large cities and famous sights of the land are both more ancient and far more numerous than in Europe. The Kurile Archipelago. The chain of partially submerged mountains forming the Kurile Islands develops a curve of almost mathematical precision some 400 miles in extent. Separated from Kamchatka by a strait scarcely 8 miles wide and 60 feet deep, the " Thousand Islands " (Tsi-sima), as the Japanese call the group, begin with the volcanic Sumchu, followed by the long and mountainous island of Paramushir, which forms I ,^t\,,<. ifu >m i Pi wmi i y fH I i« iliHtric* aiul in the AfifatNumii flrpiirtinont of thoprovinrrof Kcxlzuko were s\\v\A iiway with all their iiilnil)itaiits. MonkfyN, (Uht, ddj^H and oIIut aiiiiiiulM woro l)uri('(l iiiulcr tin- .sliowtTs of red hot »tono« and uhIivh, nhilo thow tiiat had ('Hcapcil inmu'diatc (h'Mfriiction pcriHlicd of hunger. Kor tyu' fullinff rock, lava and aslu's had rovorod tho ground to u depth of from two t«) tivc ftft for many miles roiMul ahout, and had completely dostroyed the vegetation. Another ernption, hut of a much less formidahle charucter, took place, in tho your 1M70, when the ashes ejected from tho crater formtnl u luyer soveral inclioH in thickness on tho roofs of tho neighl)(turing houses The crater of Amimu-yumu is circular, and nearly u mile in cireumfercnco, with vertical honeycomlxHl and churrcd sides, usually full of sulphurous vapours welling from the hottom and from all tho crevices in its rocky walls. On tho south side of the volcano are two precipitous r(M;ks, ono outsiilc the other, separated by a con- siderahle intervening space. These rocks, ono of which is nearly (covered with vegetatittn, look like the remains of two successive concentrii! craters, the present cone being the third and most recent. Unfathomable crevusstw extend tho greater part of tho way down to its base, and from the summit, which may be reached in less than six liours, an extensive view is obtained of the surrounding highlands. Hut the typical volcano of the archipelago is tho sacred (Fuzi-san Fusi-yama), guardian of the land, and the most hallowed object in the empire. Formerly wor- shipped by the Yama-buzi Buddhist sect, this mountain, which takes its name from the flowering Fuzi ( V'^i/ntrriu Japonciimii'^ co\ormg its slopes, is the everlasting theme of j)oetry and art, and is reproduced often in a somewhat conventional man- ner on lacquer- ware, porcelain, woven fabrics, earthenware, fans, books, furniture, and artistic articles of every kind. To give it a greater appearance of height, it is usually represented with steep sides and pointed peak, whereas in reality the slope is very gentle, yet still high enough to dominate all the surrounding lands, and display every transition of climate, from the rich semi-tropical plains at its base, to tho snows of an almost Arctic region on its rounded crest. Covered with snow for ten months in the year, and glittering in the bright solar rays against the azure or hazy sky, it often mergoe imperceptibly in the circumambient aerial spaces. It exceeds by some !i,000 feet most of the other Japanese volcanoes, and completely dwarfs all eminences within the horizon. Almost round in form, its base has a circumference of no less than 90 miles, and according to the local legend its huge mass was upheaved in a single night during a terrific eruption in the year 286 of the old era, when lake Biva was also formed. At present eruptions take place only at long intervals, not more than six having been recorded since the year 799. The last, which occurred in 1707, continued for a space of two months, during which the secondary cone of Hoyei-san (9,500 feet) was formed above a crevasse on the south slope. The neighbouring plains were buried in ashes to a depth of 10 feet, whole villages disappeared, the sky was darkened above Yedo, 60 miles off, and black clouds of dust were borne seawards beyond the bay. Since then the towns and villages have reappeared, and the 15,000 or 20,000 yearly pilgrims have resumed their visits to the holy mount. Those who make the ascent are clothed I " ^■•* !T "disfr' ^^iW .■.,•» »,i->/«- ■ THi: HKJULANDS OF SOUTH lloXDO. 871 in whito, and on rcnphin^f flm crfttor drink flrsf of the " f^ttldcn H|irin>,'" iitid llicii of tlio " HilveT Nprinff," iiftiT which, at ii j^ivcii Migiial, they rinj,' thrir Ixlls iiiid lull proHtnitn in honour of the Nun. Hctuniinjf to the ha.sc, they j^ct t' i fr white rok'N NtanijH'd by tho priest of u toniph', lK'(|Uca(hin>( them un a prt'cious hcirhtom fron> father to non. Sir Ilutlierford Ah-oi'k was the firHt Knmpean to aNeend Ku/i in IMIK), wince when the not very dilKndt feat has been performed hy huudredM of travellern. The crater, alnrnt !)00 yards in diameter, contains two diNtinct fiinnelH, which niuv ho doMceuded by mounH of proj«'ctin>|; U;df;feH. TllK Ill(i|(l,.VNI)S OK fcJoiITH HoNrM). The system to which Fuzi iK'ton^^N in continued AouthwardH to form the long volcanic peuiusulu of Idzu, ut the neck of which ia the picturesque district Fig. 173.- OuLr OF Simoda and Oho.rima. ScbIp 1 ! i,!!00,nno. I39*50, to itX) itai. ItiU t\- THE INLAND SEA. 875 t, says the which has lieir native edicated to the tenth a dragun, ima, which the bridge ith eyes as ping jaws, ster's back en a dwarf i just been ) task, and ' walking a purple and jade. The lidesato to ach of the jh required teen hand- huge dark Hidesato off without effect, and moistened t as before, itself up to enormous IS prowess, 2;rew again } temple of le western the ^reat rest of the one of the ; the pame owards the by several , The Inland Sea. The winding marine inlet which separates Hondo from the southern islands is in reality a mere succession of fiords and nada, or independent basins, which have been united in a common " Mediterranean " sea stretching for about 240 miles east and west, and everywhere studded with innumerable wooded islands and islets. Sailing through these placid waters, the traveller is surprised at every turn of the Fig. 174.— Lake Biva. Scale 1 : 760,000. '--J SSr EofG .I55*50- i5G'80' 18 Miles. channel by a fresh vista, a continuous panorama of enchanting scenery thus unfold- ing itself in endless variety. In the Seto-utsi, or " Inland Sea," as it has been appropriately named, the coastline resembles that of Norway, but under an Italian sky, and clothed with the vegetation of che Eastern Archipelago. At the dawn of time, sing the national poets, here the divine pair, Isanagi and Isanami, were seated on the heavenly bridge upheld by pillars of clouds, whence they delighted to con- template the white-crested sea-horses chasing each other beneath them. Listlessly reposing on the clouds, the immortal dipped his bright red spear-head in the deep, .■.*• f"'*-'****.:juw»t!JNt»wWii*.' -r - .isa*a»%-'-.'*r * ^- ., .'-*-."■ ^-."' . ^TZ-"^ 870 EAST ASIA. and for every drop tliat fell there arose one of those verdant isles which are now dotted over these waters, and one of the first to appear was the fair Avadzi, which still stands sentinel at the eastern entrance of the fairy scene. Geographically the Japanese Mediterranean itmst be regarded as little more than a Himj)le (lepression produced by erosion. Even in the deeper cavities there are scarcely more than 1 'jO feet of water, while the mean depth is less than 80 feet. The Simono-seki Strait, as the western entrance is called, has hardly 30 feet, so that large vessels unaided by steam cannot safely enter into this narrow marine channel, obstructed as it is bj' numerous reefs and dangerous currents. Of the other straits by which it is approached, the Tomoga-sima, being freer from strong currents, is generally chosen by shipping, while the Naruto Channel between Avadzi and Sikok is more dreaded than any other in the Jaijauese waters. At the westerr mi* ranee stands a picturesque island, with a lighthouse built by foreign engineers and supplied with dioptric lights, with the lantern poised so as to resist the effects of earthquakes everywhere so frequent in Japan. Through the strait the course is tortuous, running first north then eastwards, when vessels passing :o or fro seem completely landlocked "As the boat progresses a distance of f.i>mc ten or twelve miles, a varying panorama of great be.iury discloses itself at e\c-ry tnile. On either hand rise high lands, sometimvjd wooded from base to samiiit, sometimes diversified by hills clear of timber, but ' with verdurii clad,' some- ii.nes crested with trees, sometimes fringed at the foot with forests, or with strips ui tirig-'it green turf or yellow sands. Rocky heights rise behird, with sparse tufts of vc'^'etatxon, or stunted shrubs on theii ,-jxdes, showing the effects of severe weather, or riven clefts into which bountiful nature has crowded trees, lending majesty to the smiling foreground. " Bays and inlets of enticing pictuvesqueness appear, whore trim native craft of various dimensions are seen at anchor, while clear-looking villages lying low near the beach, or built up the hills in terraces, give life to the scenery. Rounding the last point, which, like several others, seems to bar all further advance, the spectator is induced to fancy, perhaps not regretfully, that the huge steamer must remain landlocked within this terraqueous Paradise. The fortified city of Simono-seki then looms in the distance on the northern side of the waters, the strait widening at every mile. Slowly the picture unfolds its details and discovers to the view a walled town with iuany large buildings stretching aloxig the shore for several miles, and for some distance inland. But this port is not open to foreign traffic, so the steamer pui • aes its course to the eastwovd, passing several islets and another strait, until it emerges in a wide expaiat of waters." * The Island ok Sikok. The island of Sikok, which skirtfi the south side of the Inland Sea for about half of its entire length, consists of an irregular mass of schistose hills rimning mainly east and west. The Sikokno Saburo, which is the chief stream, runs • 8. Mossman, " Japim," 1880, p. 13, 15. THE ISLAND OF SIKOK. 377 ;h arc now (Izi, which little more 8 there are m 80 feet. 30 feet, 80 BW marine 3, Of the freer from Channel ;se waters, se huilt by jed so as to Trough the ion vessels 1 a distance les itself at >m base to jlad,' some- with strips sparse tufts of severe (es, lending ive craft of S low near unding the e spectator lust remain lo-seki then idening at the view a ?eral miles, affic, so the »ther strait, parallel with the axis of these old schistose rocks, and the same direction is followed by the narrow western headland, which projects towards a corresponding promontory in the island of Kiu-siu, thus leaving only a very narrow passage for the waters of the Inland Sea. Although of comparatively moderate elevation, rising nowhere above 4,620 feet, the main ridge presents none the less a serious Fig. 175.— Narvto Stkait. Scale 1 : 300,000. 34: 15^° 30' I54''40' E of G. ,6 Miles. for about lis running ream, runs obstacle to the communication between the two slopes of th ! island. Some of the passes are considerably over 3,000 feet high, and above the mam ridge rise some peaks of volcanic origin. The hill sides are clothed with a rich and varied vegeta- tion, which, in the neighbourhood of the streams, often assumes an almost tropical aspect. ~'W^ 878 EAST ASIA. TiiK Isi,Axi) OF Kn-siu. Like those of Sikok, tlio Kiii-.siu rocks, rumiiiiff north and south, consist mainly of crystalline schists, overlaid with trachytes, which are interspersed with tufa and lignite. But hero also occur some volcanic cones, a few of which are either constantly or intermittently active. Such is the Aso-yama in the centre of the islaiKl, on whoso slopes are some sulphur and alum beds, besides ochrous formations coutainiufr u white fatty substance, which has not yet been analyzed, and which is eaten by the inhabitants of the district. The eruption of 1874 changed the surrounding streams into torrents of a milky colour, a phenomenon apparently of frequent occurrence, to judge, at least, from the name of the chief stream — the Sira-kava, or " White Iliver." Although of moderate elevation, the crater of Fig. 170. — Yama-oata and Mount Kaimu.n. Scale I : 220,000. *:?€?!!*£ i«vn»4n fi Mllea. Aso-yama resembles those of the moon in its vast proportions, being no less than 14 miles long by 10 miles broad between its vertical walls, which are from 700 to 1,000 feet high. Within this extensive area dwell over 10,000 people, who seem scarcely con.scious that their villages stand on the very mouth of a volcano. The peninsula of Simabara, stretching east of Nagasaki, consists of a single mass sloping regularly down to the sea. This is the famous Unzen-ga-tako (Unzen-sauj, or " Mountain of the Hot Springs," whose vast crater swallowed up thousands of Christians in 1638, during the revolt of the recently converted Catholics, at that time very numerous in this part of the empire. Although quiescent for the last one kundred years, the cone still emits sulphurous vapours, which in the time of Kiimpfer were so dense that birds on the wing kept many ^JL. sist mainly h tufa and nro either itre of the foriiiutions d which is luiigcd the larcntly of trcam — the 3 crater of 10 less than Erom 700 to who seem xno. of a single zen-ga-tako /^allowed up converted Although us vapours, kept many THE ISLAND OF KIU-SIU. 870 niik's I'rom the mountain. Mud and ga.st>H (>scapcd from innunjorahlo (Issiiri's, and during the rains the whoU« ground huhlilcd up liUi- n licpiid mass. A former cruptitm of the noigliljouring Miyi-yama, attended by tremendous flotKlings, cost the lives of OOjOOO persons. South of Kiu-siu a group of volcanoes has received tlio name of Kiri-sima, or "Fog Island," on account of the sulphurous vapours constantly emitted by them. Here all the rocks consist of tufas, trachytes, pumice, and otlier igni'ous matter, and the plateau supporting the twin i)eaks of Kiri-sima is an arid region, strewn Pig. 177. — Kaoo-hima AM) Mi-take Volcano. Scale 1 : liiMi.uuo. to leo Foul. 160 to 320 Feet 820 Feet and upwarda. . 6 Miles. with ashes and reddish scoriae, relieved only by a few dwarf pines and other shrubs. These appear to. be the culminating points of Kiu-siu, and they arc certainly more elevated than Aso-yama and Komats-yama in the south-east. The peninsula enclosing the picturesque bay of Kago-sima on the west is one of the most remarkable regions in Japan. The long tongue of land bending round the bay is dominated by the superb Mount Kaimon, the Cape Horner of European maps, which is almost unrivalled for its beautiful form and symmetrical contour. North of it formerly stood a still more elevated volcano, the pyramidal crest of which was destroyed during an eruption, aU memory of which has M^ '••-.VI (ftfj I! ■%<*" § ife 860 EAST ASIA. pcrislunl. Tlic circular bnsin (bus formed is now fiUod by the wat^ r^ if lake Mi-iko, while u (similar lacustrine formation oNcrlooks the town and roudMt: ;id oi V, 'ua-gavu. Ka(3;o-sinia Hay also contains the remarkable Mi-tako volcano, whose rui)tured cono tills the whole islet of Sakura-sima, Above the cultivated and woode. 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 \ '.<^ ctsnta •'!€>- Ma \/. ^T^ <^^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques »;Bs^-"--t\; liVUf^^fs^mtM' .fpifyse*'' ( t £ e 1 r s b li tl n r( tl CI THE RIU-KIU (LU-CHU) AND GOTO ARCHIPELAGOS. 881 of Japan, whicb is nearly as high (2,400 feet) as its Sicilian rivals, and which from its crater and side fissures, incessantly emits vapours, white by day and red by night. Its rich sulphur beds arc one of the Prince of Satsraa's chief sources of income. Tancga-sima and Yakuno-sima, the largest islands of the group, are now quiescent ; but Naka-sima, Suva-sima, Yoko-sima, Ivo-sima, and the other islets stretching south-west parallel with the chief axis of Riu-kiu are all still active volcanoes. The chain of igneous rocks is continued towards the northern extremity of Formosa by a line of reefs also probably of igneous origin. The Riu-kiu (Lu-chu) and Goto Archipelagos. Siunanguto and the small Liushoten group adjacent to Kiu-siu, belong geographically to the Riu-kiu Archipelago, which is better known by its Fokien name of Lu-chu, and which the natives themselves call Du-kiu,* that is, " Land of the Precious Stone," or of the " Transparent Coral," as the tenn may be variously interpreted. The geometrical curve described bj' all these islands between Kiu-siu and Formosa, the radius of which corresponds to that of Nip-pon itself, probably represents the remains of a highland region by which Japan was formerly connected with the mainland. Lu-chu comprises a number of secondary groups, the two most important of which stretch about half-way from Kiu-siu to Formosa, and form the so-called " Kingdom " of Lu-chu. Politically, this " kingdom " is at present a simple Japanese department, while the southern group of the " Three San " (Nan-san or Sak-sima) is still a subject of dispute betwen China and Japan. The Mikado's government, however, seems now disposed to surrender these islands to its powerful neighbour. Like Korea, Lu-chu was long a vassal state of the neighlwuring Empires of China and Japan. * Towards the end of the fourteenth century, the Chinese, after various incursions into the archipelago, compelled the King to declare himself tributary of the " Son of Heaven," and accept the investiture from him. Within fifty years of that event the Japanese presented themselves in their turn, and enforced " presents," which were gradually chnnged to a regular tribute. In 1609 an expedition, undertaken by the Prince of Satsma, ended with the formal recognition of the suzerainty of Japan over the archipelago. Akin in race and speech to the Japanese, the islanders nevertheless preferred the Chinese, and even boasted of their vassalage to Peking. The distant master, of whom they knew little except through his presents, seemed a more agreeable potentate to serve than the Emperor of Japan, represented on the spot by their troublesome neighbour the Prince of Satsma. But after the revolution of 1868, which restored the Mikado to power, some Japanese officials were sent as direct adminis- trators of the islands, and the King was called upon to break all his relations with Peking. In vain the unhappy monarch pleaded : " For five hundred years we have enjoyed the protection of the Emperor of China ; him we regard as our * All those fomiB aro merely phonetic Tarintios of the same word, the Japanese •' changing to / in Chinese, and to d in the local Lu-chu dialect. Compare the Latin and French iilnnu and orme, and the Greek and T/atin fnxpv and lacrymn. — Euitob. 882 EAST ASIA. father, and to Japan we turn as to a mother, . . . Has not Confucius said that fcaltv is hotter than lif(>!'' Ask us not to bo disloyal, and forfeit our honour." He was fain to yield, and in 1874, after the victorious expedition of the Japanese to Formosa, the kinry little with rc'lichu," p. 203, «( teg. I ! a88 EAST ASIA nYDuofiKAVFiic System — Chief Riveus. Owiii}? to the imrrowiu'sa of the Uind, which is nowhere '^00 inih^s wide, and to tlie extremely niountiiinous chamcter of its surfaee, no mom is U'ft for the devehtp- nient of hirgo streams. The rivers, wliieli are numerous enouj,'h, esju'cially in Yeso and IIi>n(hi, in faet, resemhU> mountain torrents, with short and rapid courses, and, in tlieir htwer reaelies, subject to sudden and disastrous inundations. They arc eonsiMpjently more damaj,Mn<; than beneticiul even for irrij^ation purposes. To navi<^ation they are not merely useless, but a positive hindrance, in (jonsecjuence of the large (piantities of sedimentary matter which they wash down, and by which several of the best harbours in the archipelago have already been choked up. Such has especially been the fate of Osaka and Nihi-gata harbours on the east and west sides of Nip-pon, which were formerly accessible to the largest vessels, but which can now be approadied only by small craft. In Japan " a river-bed is a Avasto of sand, boulders and shingle, through the middle of which, among sand- banks and shallows, the river proper takes its devious course. In the freshets which occur to a greater or less extent every year, enormous volumes of water pour over these wastes, carrying sand and detritus down to the mouths, which arc all ob- structed by bars. Of these rivers the Shinano, being the biggest, is the most re- fractory, and has piled up a bar at its entrance through which there is only a passage 7 feet deep, which is perpetually shallowing." * Subjoined is a table t of all the Japanese rivers, w hich have a total course of more than oO miles : — Name. Source. Sliinaiio E. Sliiiiano Tone N. Kodsiike Kitiikamo N. of liikuchiu I shikari N. of prov. 1 shikari, Ycsso Tonriu Lako Sua Kiso S.W. Shinano Sakata S. of r.scn Okimia S.W. of prov. Iwaka Noshiro W. of prov. Kikuchiu Akiino Lake Imiwashiro SumiJa E. Musashi Toshima S.E. of prov. Ugo Fujii Koshiu Yodo E. Iga Baniu Yamanaka (Knshiu) Oi N. Koshiu Ootlet. Nihi-fjata (lulf of Tokio and Pacific Ishinnmaki and Murohama, E. coast (if liikuzen \V. coast of Ishikari I'acific Pacific W. coast of Ufcn Wiitari, E. coast of Iwaki Noshiro, W. coast of Rikuchiu Near Nihi-gata, W. coast of Echigo Gulf of ToKio Kubota, W. coast of Ugo Pacific Osiika Bay Pacific Pacific T.«nuth in milei. 180 170 140 130 120 115 110 110 100 90 90 70 70 70 GO 55 Climate of Japan. Being washed by marine waters, and enveloped in an atmosphere charged with oceanic vapours, Japan enjoys a much more equable climate than the continental regions, from which it is separated by the Sea of Korea. "While Peking has the winters of XJpsala and the summers of Cairo, Tokio suffers far less from such extremes of heat and cold. The oceanic current, to which the Japanese have given 130 120 115 110 110 100 90 91) 70 70 70 GO 55 ed with tinental has the jm such ve given f ! 11 a c 11 CI,IM.\TK OK JAl'AN. 8R7 tlu* niinio of Kiiro-Mi'vo, or "IJIiK'k Sirciiiii," corn'MpoiulM in itw coiirHc uiul cliniiitic I'lifluciMcs with llic (Jiill' Stn'iim of the Norlli Alliilitic. It flows clnsc hy llic cast HJdo of flic l:irj,'(' islmids, and iis frpid waters, (•i>ininjj; from flic Straits of Malaysia and tin* I'liilipjiincs, brinji; with tlicin an afniosplicric curri-nt far niildci' than that of the nci^lihonrin)>; mainland. Its mean temperature, some four or five dej^reos lower than tliaf of the (julf Stream, varioH from 74' to 81^ iMihr., and thus exee«'(lM hy ahout nine* dej!;reeH the normal temperature of the marine waters under the same latitudes. I )urin;if tlie south-west summer nionsoons, the stream flows directly to th(> coasts of Kiu-siu and Sikok, and the s(mth side of Hondo; while in winter it is diverted by the polar winds towards the north-east. Its velocity varies frofn about '\0 to 4-0 miles u day, and the phunmot has recorcU'd depths of ;J,()()() feet and upwards. In the north the Oyu-sivo polar cnrront, emorgin}? from the Sea of Okhotsk, moots the Kuio-sivo, one branch of whica ponetrutoH through Tsugar Strait. Ah in the Atlantic, the two streams niOV(» side by side in parallel lines, but in opposite directions, under a sky frequently charged with dense vaj)ours. The ( )ya-sivo, which in winter fringes the east coast of Yoso with drift ice, also brings large (pnintities of marine animals from the nortliern latitudes, thus contributing abundant supplies of food to the inhabitants of Nip-pon. The coasts of Yeso, which arc exposed to the two streams of the North Pacific, correspond in this resijcct to the banks of Newfoundland. West of the Japanese Archipelago, a branch of the Kuro-sivo flowing round the ishind of Tsu-sima also contributes to raise the normal temperature in these latitudes. Its influence is chiefly felt on the north side of Hondo, where its waters have an average temperature of about 09"^ Fahr. But the Tsu-sima stream, as it has l)een named by Schrenck, does not flow constantly in the direction from south to north. Under the action of the polar winds it is deflected in winter towards the south at least on the surface, and it then sweeps round between the liU-chu Islands eastwards to the Kuro-sivo. But, owhig to its small volume, its influence even in summer is of secondary importance in determining the oscillations of the tempera- ture. Between the two slopes of the Japanese Archipelago the contrast in this respect is most striking. Here the isothermals traced from west to east are far from coinciding with the parallels of latitude. The mean temperature at equal distances from the equator is much higher on the east than on the west side, where the mountains of like elevation remain snow-clad for a considerably longer period of the year. Pending more numerous and accurate meteorological observations, it may be stated in a general way that the isothermals are deflected more and more towards the north as we approach the Arctic zone. Thus, while the difference between South Japan and the corresponding coast of China is scarcely more than 3° Fahr., it exceeds 8° Fahr. between Yeso and Russian Manchuria. Thanks also to the moderating effects of the Pacific throughout the year, the periods of extreme cold and heat are delayed till February and August respectively. September is normally a warmer month even than July. * "Unbeaten Tracks," i., p. 212. t A. H. Keane's "Asia," p. 612. UH8 MAHT ASIA. Ncitw itlislaniliii;,' tlir mlviiiitiigiH of itH insular |)OHiti(>ii, •! mu is iioiu! the less iillVi'tcd l»y tlic ffc'iHTuI intiui'iicoH, which on tho inainhind ovorywhcro tend to lower tin* t('iiiiM'ratiin> as we protrt'd eastwards. Under the sauio ])arallcl .lapan has, on the whok<, a eliniate ei^ht or ten de^'ri^es eoicU'r than that of lliuope. No part of the arehipelaj^o is free from snow and ice, .md ni the; central districts of lloii(h) the ^M'ouiid lias occasionally remained for several days covered with snow to u depth of over lU inches, while in Veso the j^lass has heen known to fall uh nuich as twenty-ei^ht degrei-s helow freezing point. Ah olsewherc iu the cviromu Fi|f. IHl.-^ Ikothriimai.n ok Japan Nnilc 1 ; lft,"ii(i,()iX). 1 t I , 300 Miles. east, the winter period in Japan coincides with the prevalence of the northern, and especially of the north-west polar winds, whose normal direction ought to be north-cast and south-west, but which are deflected to tho south-east by the influence of the Pacific basin. On tho west coast the winter gales are so fierce as almost to arrest the navigation during their prevalence. Even the steam service between Nihi-gata and Hakodate is interrupted, and in several of the coar^ towns tho houses arc protected from the fury of the storms by screens constructed of hoardings Vt'ith the interstices filled in with brushwood and moss. CLIMATE OF JAPAN. 889 Tho*o poliir winds am followed in April or May l)y flio tepid south- western monsoons, wliieli, however, are ln'jj;ions of West Europe. Hence the various expressions introduced into the laiif^uaj^e, to d(>noto at once tho sea.son of the year and he state of the weather, which oug:ht to nornudly correspond with it. Formerly it was fashionable to begin corrcspondonco with long piinises referring to these regular changes of tho weather. " Now that tho icohas molted, tho trees are budding, and you flourish moro and more in tho enjoyment of perfect health, I address you the.se lines, written with the pencil. . . ." Such was the invariable opening of letters written in spring. Tho ruinfull as well as the temperature is regulated by the monsoons. Except in Yeso and on the west side of Hondo, the winter sooson is nearly everywhere very dry, and the contrast between the two slopes is easily explained. The north- west winds, always accompanied by fine weather along the coast of Russian Manchuria, become charged with moisture while crossing the joa, and when thej' strike the Japanese uplands this moisture is precipitated in the form of snow. In some of the higher districts tho snow lies so thick on the ground that the people are obliged to take refuge in the upper storeys of their houses, and snow-shoes then become universal, as in Canada. But beyond the crests of the hills, the atmosphere is free from clouds, and the sun sliines brightly throughout the winter months on the lands facing the Pacific. On the other hand, both slopes are exposed to heavy showers throughout the summer monsoons. Tho downpours will at times last for days together, and on one occasion, when it rained incessantly for thirty hours at Yokohimia, all tho brooks rose from 10 to 16 feet, while tho rivers were transformed to lakes. The rains coinciding with tho summer heats and with the evaporation from the rice grounds, which cover such a largo surface, the whole land now becomes sodden with moisture, and while vegetation flourishes with a rank growth, men and animals pine in the oppressive and dripping atmosphere. Tho rainfall h altogether scarcely inferior to that of the tropics, and is about double that of West Europe. Thanks to these do^vnpour8, the Sea of Japan is far loss saline than tho Pacific, and consequently freezes much more rapidly. In this almost land-locked basin the tides are also very low, rising on the coast of Sado scarcely moro than 22 inches. The climate of the archipelago agrees on the whole very well with tho European ■•»(*- ««Ca«MMlMMMMlHHB!Hk«4Mli "tmimiimmms^ JAPANESE FAUNA. 895 lo as far in East its, nine inials, of r thirty }T in no 1, rcsem- lugo was lainland. found of in the id North Iso uttri- j of dry the two Never- ices now tie allied all land ecu inter- geological avifauna, the mam- lan might the prox- VTiile the sses over ton has no idred and all resem- mainland. ds migrate >akhalin or cording to >nly eleven iigst those remarkable hus a kind lid Japan, 3 of t),000 ing spaces, me extinct, oir former domain. Altogether the Japanese ornithological world presents much analogy to that of temperate Europe, each species being represented in both regions by corresponding forms. Nevertheless the ototo-gisu, the king of Japanese songsters, fetching as much as £80 in the market, is not a nightingale, as in Europe, but a member of the cuckoo family. " The crow forms a salient feature of the landscape, especially in Yeso. Here there are millions of them, and in many places they break the stillness of the silent land with a baliel of noisy discords. They are everywhere, and have a degree of most unpardonable impertinence, mingled with a cunning and sagacity which almost put them on a level with man in some circumstances. Five of them were so impu- dent as to alight on two of my horses, and so be ferried across the Yurupugawa. In the inn-garden at Mori I saw a dog eating a piece of carrion in the presence of several of these covetous birds. They evidently said a great deal to each other on the subject, and now and then one or two of them tried to pull the meat away Fig. 184. — Fac-8Imilb of a Jai'Anesb Biku Druion-. from him, which he resented." * The Japanese crow is considerably larger than the European species, being about the size of our ravens, and fidly a match in strength and courage for small dogs. Legend fills the popular fancy with monstrous dragons, with whom the heroes of the olden times had to do battle. These reptiles have now degenerated to harmless snakes, the only venomous animals iu the archipelago being a trigono- cephalous species, from which a healing drug is extracted, and a little crustacean of the order of the cloportae. One of the most remarkable local reptiles is a gigantic salamander, the sanzio-uvo (^Sicbotdia tnajcima), that lives on fish and frogs, but is now becoming rare even in Japan. Beetles, butterflies, and other insects are extremely numerous, as is also the marine fauna, although several species of fur- bearing cetacea have already been extenninated. The beaver has also disappeared from several of the Eurile Islands, where it was formerly very common. • « Unbeaten Tracka," ii., p. 129. Ilji ff'r- !!i! 890 EAST ASIA. Cotnparod with European peoples, the Japanese possess a very small number of (linnostie animals. The. horse, imported from Korea, is of a small, shaiiolcss breed, vi'ry vieious, but vifj;orous, and 2)()SHes.sed of {^reat staying powers. Tlic Satsma breed, mentioned in the fourteenth century by Matouanlin, is nearly extinct, and most of tlie horses now employed in the Yokohama circus arc brought from ^longolia. Holding very small farms, the peasantry have no great need of live stock, henco oxen are rare, and in some districts ab.solutely unknown. From the eighth century of the vulgar era till recently the use of meat was forbidden, and all knackers and tanners were regarded as infamous, and under the name of Etas classed with actors and mendicants, as /// tiin, or " no men." But under the influence of European ideas, the townsfolk have recently taken to an animal diet, and the breeding of cattle for the market has already made considerable progress. But owing to the damp climate, goat and sheep farming has not proved successful. The ass also suffers from the prolonged ruins, while the European pig thrives well. Imiahitaxts — The Aixos. Except in the outer islands of Yeso, the Kuriles, and Lu-chu, the present population of Nip-pon is one of the most homogeneous on the globe. From Kago- sima to iVvomori Bay, across ten degrees of latitude, the natives have everywhere the same speech and customs, with the full consciousness of their common nation- ality. But although now thoroughly fused in one peojjle, they do not seem to belong to one stock originally, and are only indirectly connected with the aborigines of the archipelago. The oldest traditions and records all sjieak of the ancient savages, the " Eastern Barl)arians," Yebsis, Yebis, Yemisi, Mo-sin, or Mao-jii ("Hairy Men"), who formerly occupied the northern portion of Hondo, and who were the ancestors of the present Ainos. There is certainly no direct evidence to show that the Japanese arc the civilised kinsmen of these northern barbarians, and the only probable relationship between them is such as may be due to crossings continued from ago to age on the border lands. Although no Yebis may now be found in the north of Hondo, it is, nevertheless, certain that all were not exterminated by the conquering Japanese in the fifteenth centurj'. Under the name of Adzma Yebis, they have become intermingled with the civilised intruders, and their physical features may still be traced in the present mixed popidation of the country, just as the stone weapons and other implements used by them are occasionally found in the ground. The women have here, as elsewhere, best preserved the aboriginal type, and the inhabitants, especiallj' of the secluded Oga-sima Pc^ainsula, still show a marked resemblance to the Knrile islanders. Ainos blood has even been traced as far south as the plains of Tokio, although the pure type is at present confined to Yeso, the Southern Kuriles, and the south of Sakhalin. According to the census of 1873, there were only 12,281 Ainos at that time in Yeso, and the whole race numbers at present probably less than 20,000 souls. The few Kurilo families occupying the northern i.slands of that archiiielago are not to be distinguished from those of the ■K 'wrj ^' ■'••nrwiir'Wf'^IBffWWh^'^ ^i number hapcless •s. The ; neurly brought need of . From rbiddcn, name oi luler the nul diet, progn^ss. iccessfid. J thrives 'imn ; present m Kugo- erywhere n nation- seem to borigiues " Eastern i"), who jestors of Japanese probable from ago 3 north of )nquering :hey have ures may the stone e ground. ), and the a marked I far south Yeso, the 1 of 1873, ambers at pying the jse of the ?'^f«g**P' ^ — ^ ' - ; ^ - -jji-?,— ^ --y*^-**,.,..—,^. ■,:,-_ wm l^!^:r^M :r.|!,;'iv;; ■T-'"."''' - — ^ INHABITANTS— THE AINOS. 807 m i u D f 8 Q S5 ■< «1 Ed O 2 < P iioin-hbouriiijif Kaincliiitkii IVniiiHulii, and some Alcutiuns arc also found in tho isluw'a of Sinuisir and Urup. Acfdnliiif? ti» (jiolovnin, tho word " Alnos," like the nanios of so many primitive pooi)li>s, simply nu'uns "Men." Tliinkiii<,' tlicmsclvos tho trntro of tlio uiiivorso, thoy snuif of old, " Gods of tho soa, oju-n your di\ ino oyos. \Vhorov(>r vour ovos fall tlioro oohoos tho Aino Njjooch." Jtut a Japanoso otymohtfjy (piolod liy Satow explains tho word "Aino" to moan "Dog" (Inu), and an old tradition rofors tho origin of the race to a dog and a Japanoso prinooss banished northwards. Tho Aleutians have a similar tradition, and seem to bo very proud of their eanine desoent, pretending that for a long time they had paws and tails like those of a dog, but wore deprived of them on acoount of their crimes. Most writers ufhliate tho Ainos to tho other Mongf»loid pooj)los surrounding them, and their snudl size, clear complexion, black hair and eyes, are taken as proofs of their affinity to tho Japanese. ]{ut others group the Ainos with the Kamchadalos, Koriaks, AleutianS; and some other northern pco2)les in a separate division of mankind, while they arc by others regarded as a branch of tlie Eskimo or of tho Polynesians, or even of the Western " Caucasic " stock. Certainly tlie ordinary Aino type dilfors greatly froju the Japanese. Tho com- plexion is lighter, the forehead broader and higher, the cranial capacity' vastly superior, the nose more prominent, the eyes larger, more open and perfectly straight, like those of Europeans. But they are distinguished from all their neighbours chiefly by the great abundance of their hair, from which circumstance thoy were commoidy alluded to by Siebold, Krusonstern, Golovnin, and other older writers, as the "hairy Kurilos," from the name of the islands occupied by several of their tribes. The Japanese annals also describe them as a species of wild beast, with manes and beards 4 feet long. "The first Aino," says the legend, "was suckled by a she-bear, whence he and all his descendants became covered with hair. Proud of his long board, which distinguishes him from the other races whom he meets, the Aino regards it as some sacred appendage, which nothing will induce him to shave. In this respect, as well as in his features and expression, he bears a singular resemblance to the Russian peasant, with whom he might easily be con- founded. Most travellers describe the women as repulsive, and apparently belong- ing almost to a different race from the men. But notwithstanding their small eyes and thick lips. Miss Bird, who visited them in their mountain homes, tells us that she met many women of very comely appearance even amongst tho old people. The children, of whom their parents are extremely fond, are models of grace and beauty. The average Aino is about the middle height, broad-shouldered, full-chested, very strongly built, with short muscular arms and legs, and disproportionately large hands and feet. The bodies of most adults are covered with short, bristly hair ; and travellers have compared that on the backs of the children to the tine soft fur of a cat. The foreheads are generally high, broad and prominent, at first sight giving the impression of an unusual capacity for intellectual d(n elopment. The nose, although short, is straight and the cheek-bone low, while the full eyebrows a U'tiliP III IW- ^^^W^ii ao8 EAST ASIA. I form H Ntrni'f»ht lino nearly across the face. Tlu^ eyes arc somewhat deep-set and of a rich liquid l)r()\vn colour, with u siMjj;uhirly soft expression, corresponding? to the fjenfle and l;indly character of the people. The skin is described as almost white, or else of u delicate olive brown tint, thin and lip:ht enough to show the chunfjfcs of cohmr in the cheeks. What little is known of the Aino huifjuapfe is sufficient to show that it has no sort of affinity to that of the Japanese, which greatly surpasses it in softness. Hut although many words end in sibilants, it is modulated with an almost musical accent, and spoken with such slight dialectic dilferences, that the interpreters from the Kurilc Islands have no difficulty in understanding the people of South Yeso. There is no literature, and hitherto none of the Ainos have learned to read or write, except a few youths sent to the schools at Tokio. liut they have an excellent memory, and arc quick at sums. By means of little notcher. These marks uro begun at the age of fiv«', and continued till she is marriageable, when her toilet is complete. Jiy means of soot rubbed into the incisions a sort of moustache is described on the upper lip, while the hands and fore-arms are embellished with an intricate aral)es(pie piece of embroidery. All the patterns are strictly determined by traditional usage, but the practice of tattooing has recently been forbi(hlen by the Japanese Government. Still independent of, and even feared by, the Japanese dowti U> the middle of the sixteenth century, the Ainos continued to occupy the northern part of Hondo, where the town of Akita served as the common mart for the two races. But they have long disappeared from the large island, and are now seldom seen on the south coast of Yeso. Honest, good-natured, active, individually courageous, although inspired with a superstitious dread of the government, they have neither the moral force nor the material resources needed to hold their own against their powerful neighbours. The use of fire-arms, with which they pursued the prey, has been forbidden, and the Japanese fishermen come to fish at their very doors. With no companions except their dogs, they arc unable to turn their attention to stock- breeding, and the little agriculture which they have learnt is limited to planting a few vegetables round their houses. They wear coarse, but almost indestructible, garments, made by their women from the bark of trees, and in winter lined with skina and furs. Without being actually ill-used, they are always cheated by the Japanese ; and, notwithstanding the protection afforded by the authorities, they are demoralised by want, alcohol, and all its attendant evils. Many have married Japanese women, and all are more or less familiar with the language of their rulers, so that they must inevitably soon die out or become absorbed in the superior race. Like so many other obscure and half-savage races, they are threatened with extinction by civilisation itself. As if conscious of their approaching doom, they have become indifferent to life, and, although gay and cheerful, they will commit suicide at the least check or trouble. But infanticide is not practised except in the case of twins, when one is dispatched to save it from a life of hardship. * ll iljiJEi. »r^».;. 400 KAST ASIA. Till. AllOKUilNKS (»l JaI'AN. The doiiiiiiimt jMopIc in .liipaii arc evidently u inixi'd nice, in which the Aino i«h>iiicnt iH but nUkIiII)' n-prcHciitcd. Accurdiii)^ to the prcposHCHMioii nf «)l)s..rviTM, tht>y hiivo Imji'Ii ulliliiili-d to vuriouH HtockH; but althou^^h Whitney and >r<)rt.iii regard them as nicnibiTM nf the* Caunisic laniily, most anlhiopolo^iMts class tli.iii witli the Mont,'t.l nu-es <»!' SilK-ria and Kast Asia. The Chinese records rei'errinj,' to the land ol' Wu, that is, of Japun, hol'oro tho inhabitants were accpiainted with tho Fig. 186.— I'lllMlTlVB rol'lLATIONB UV No'-ION, Al IllRUlNO TO THK JxrANtllK AnNAM. Hcilf I ; jri.uuo.iM). Kinaau or Ynioa. Yamato. YemiBl or Yeb«i» Itinerary of Knmnu Yamato Aiuo. Iviirc biko. 800 MilCB. art of writing, mention certain facts attesting the preponderating influence of Chinese civilisation even at that romoto epoch. Migrations must have taken place from the Yang-tze basin to the adjacent archipchigo, and according to one legend the ancestors of the Japanese race were three hundred young men and women sent across the seas by the Emperor Tsin-Shi-hwangti in search of the " flower of immor- tality." Many have suspected the presence of Malay elements amongst the inha- bitants of Nip-pon, while the curly hair and dark complexion common in the south have been refeired by Siebold to a mixture with " Alfuros," Melanesians, and Caroline Islanders. Vessels may certainly have often drifted northwards with the equatorial m i i i »m^y\f ' »-M.i <.',"..-"'>. ■ -W'^'i l^ MUiaH !" '- ' -,. -Vj ^ H ' .. THK i'im:si;nt jai'an'khk hack. 4U1 ciirrciif mid tlic Kum-Nivo, niul it is |>(issili|c tlml .liipim tuny liiivc in this way Imtii |)ciij»U' tlu< iinival of thu KiinipraiiM. Tlic annaU sju-ak (^luly of the rclalionH of tlic .lapancNc willi llic nii^fli- iMiuiinj; i.xlandcTH und with the |iropU'H of the mainland, wlu'iico tlir coniniuni- cutions wtTf in uny oumi« n»on< msily i'Bl,il)li-hod. I'assinji; from Hondo and Kiu- sin to Iki, and thrncc l>v THU-siniu and the Kon-an Anliiju'lajjo to Korea il.sflf, matiniTH l\avo tlu' land alw, vs in si;r|ii. wliili', acrordinjj; to tlio direction of tlio tradi' windN, cvi'n li^ht craft ar«' coiiHtantly eariicd from ono oouNt to the ollior. Thns it waM that tho KnniMo or Vnsu orcnpicd Nimnltanoously tho nouth-cuNt corni-r of Korea und tho country of tho Yoniodz or Nono Knini in tho west of Japtui. They were not "pacified," that is, sulKlued, till tho him ond century of the vid^'ar era. The Yamato, or Japanese properly so called, Hoem to have originally dwelt on the Houthern slKtres oi the archipelapi facing the I'aciHc. Hut before any mention occurH either of Ainos, Yusu, or Yamato, the islands were already peopled. On tho plain of Yeeak with (, which tcept the . dignity >f liberiy. ire borne •d classes es of the ans wear forbidden pins and iiey may re of low feet to 5 ind under The lower with a javy load ascending r's horse strength r amongst atavism, generally a defect ac prema- ' thirtieth ice. ths of the whole population, and which is attributed to the almost exclusive use of rice and vegetables, possessing little albumen and fat. Small-pox is also very prevalent and much dreaded, although the Chinese methods of inoculation have long been known. Even since the introduction of vaccination by Siebold at the beginning of the present century, this scourge still continues to leave its mark on the features of about two-thirds of the people. Notwithstanding their extreme cleanliness, the natives are affected by the taint of leprosy in every part of the archipelago, and especially in the Tokio district. Diseases of the chest and lungs are almost as fatal as in Europe ; but scarlatina, erysipelas, puerperal fever, and many other Western maladies are absolutely unknown in the archipelago. Few crossings have taken place between the natives and the Chinese settled in the seaports, although the number of children sprung from alliances between Europeans and Japanese women is already relatively considerable. The Fig. 187.— Japankse Giul. type of the mother invariably pre- vails, and according to Wemich, the children of English or German paternity seldom survive, while the issue of unions between Frenchmen and native women thrives well, and are even more vigorous and sprightly than their pure-blood Eastern play- mates. The descendants of Portu- guese Christians and the women of the southern islands call themselves Europeans, still bear the names of their Lusitanian forefathers, and generally make it a point of honour to speak English. But nearly all take Japanese wives, and the race has thus become assimilated to the indigenous type, except that the hair remains slightly undulating, the forehead higher, the face less prognathous, and the eyes less oblique than amongst the surrounding populations. It is no longer obligatory to wear the national dress, and in their eagerness to imitate foreign ways, the lettered and trading classes have adopted the European costume, which, although very unbecoming, has the advantage of helping to get rid of the old class distinctions. Formerly the style and colours of the clothes worn by both sexes in every social position were strictly regulated by law or custom. The usual material was cotton, silk being reserved for the rich, or for grand occasions. The Kimono, or robe of the women, differs only in its greater length and brilliancy from that of the men. In both the wide sleeves serve as pockets, and are usually filled with rolls of paper used as handkerchiefs or table- napkins. Hence also " sleeve editions " answering to our small " {jocket editions " 404 EAST ASIA. of Imoks. The costuino is coiiiplotcd by u skirt in the upper classes, or drawers ainoiif^st the jwor, while several robes are worn one over the other in cold weather. Duriiiy; the rainy season tlie artisans and peasantry cover their clothes with struw I'ij^. 188 Japanbhe MusiciA.NH and Dealeh. or oil-paper cloaks. All except the coolies and couriers wear the so-called /iata, high wooden clogs, which require great care in walking, and are even the cause of nervous all'tctions. The EuroiR'au boot is ill-suif«d for the muddy «treets, and Sir THE PRESENT JAPANESE RACE. 405 indoors thoy wnlk bare-footed on the fine mattinj? of tlie floors. The hond-dress, ospocially of the fair sex, is quite a work of art and mucli imtiont labour, cotisisf in;; of a vast chi{j;non of real and artificial hair, cunningly devised, and over which many hours arc usually siKMit. Fig. 189,~JArANrsE Tattooino. lieing imablc to afford all this tune every day, women engaged in work have their hair dressed once or twice a week only, and in order not to disturb the elaborate superstructure, they are obliged to sleep with the nc>ck resting on a wooden pillow, so as to keep the head free from contact with the bed-clothee. A white cos- metic on the face and neck, crimson on the cheeks, the eyebrows black- ened, the lips covered with gold leaf, and the teeth with a brown pigment, and the toilet of the high- born lady of the olden times may be pronounced completed. Tattooing has been almost entirely abandoned by the women of all classes, and its use, even by the men, has now been forbidden by the Government. We learn from Matou- alin that the nobles were formerly more richly decorated than the plebeians. But in recent times the most elaborate art has been lavished on the couriers and others, obliged, by their occupation, to appear almost naked in public. The designs, mostly in red, white, and blue, are diversely interlaced without any symmetrical arrangement, but al- ways with great taste, so that a graceful projM)rtion is observed be- tween the birds, dragons, flowers, and other more conspicuous objects. Thus a tree will be represented with its roots twined round the right foot, the stem growing up the left leg, and covering the back or breast with its outspread leafy branches, on which arc perched birds of various kinds. Made up as they are of so many heterogeneous elements, it is extremely diflicult "■"'""l-j'r T-'-l 406 EAST ASIA. to form a just estiinute of the Japanese people, and the difficulty is increased by thoir eonsciousncsa that they are just now, so to aay, on their trial. They are con- sequently apt to assume false airs ; and as they have endeavoured to assimilate thonisolves outwardly to Europeans, by adopting a foreign garb, they, in the same way, affect the manners and tone of a nation long accustomed to Western culture. Except, perhaps, certain triI)os of the New World, no people have developed to a higher degree the faculty of concealing their inward sentiments and jjreacrving their ecpianimity under the most trying circumstances. Extremely reai>rved and sensitive' to the opinion of others, they speak only after having well weighed their words, and maintain a sort of self-restraint in the presence of Europeans. Many officials have even taken to blue or coloured spectacles, in order the better to conceal their inmost thoughts ; and even among themselves their outward indications of Fig. 190.- Japanbsb Wumen. anger, contempt, affection, or other strong passions, are singularly moderate, com- pared with the vehemence of many Western peoples. They suffer impassively without wringing their hands in despair, or appealing to the Deity with outstretched arms and upturned eyes. They have learnt from Europeans the custom of shaking hands, but it never approaches the hearty grasp of an Englishman. Mothers even rarely embrace their children ; and this general reserve extends even to the demented classes, so that a " dangerous lunatic " is almost an unheard of phenomenon in Nip-pon. The very effort to make a good appearance in the eyes of strangers speaks highly in favour of this interesting people. They are essentially kind-hearted, and nothing is rarer than instances of men rendered arrogant by their social position, and treating those beneath them with harshness. Those in the enjojTuent of ruiiif ■' j8 i ^ML ' ,J.:li!i.Wffyj,WW.ft!;,- 'i W'»JW*^«WfljS f gBa^ THE PRESENT JAPANESE RACE. 407 ./ power and privilege seek rather to avoid envy by their courtesy and consideration for others less favoured by fortune. No one, whatever his rank, assumes that haughty air which so many functionaries, great and sniall, elsewhere regard as their most higlily prized prerogative. From the custom of bowing gracefully to each other, the Japanese have gradually acquired a natural attitude of deference, while the expression of the features generally reflects their kindly disposition. Even under extreme suffering patients preserve a mild glance and endearing tone. This innate amiability, conspicuous especially in the fair sex, is usually accompanied by the domestic virtues of temperance, order, thrift, and common sense. The young women united by temporary alliances with Europeans, as is the custom of the country, seldom fail to ingratiate themselves with them by their careful fore- thought, assiduous attention, and orderly management of the household. Strangers are surprised at the cheerfulness and calm resignation of the hard-working labouring classes, who adapt themselves to everything, and submit uncomplainingly to the greatest hanlships and privations. Yet this resignation cannot be attributed to the want of a higher ideal. The eagerness with which the European arts and sciences have been welcomed shows how keen is the desire of progress amongst all classes. The Japanese are now committed to the new social evolution by a sense of honour, which has ever been one of their main springs of action. The practice of hai'akiri, or sappuku, maintained for centuries amongst the nobles, attests the strength of will with which they are capable of asserting their personal dignity. Although not of native growth — for frequent mention is made of it in the Chinese annals — this custom has nowhere else become a national institution. Whether com- manded by the government in order to spare the nobleman a dishonourable death, or voluntarily performed in order to be indirectly avenged on an opponent by com- pelling him to give life for life, the act was always executed with scrupulous nicety. No instance has been recorded of one of these determined suicides ever uttering an unworthy complaint in the presence of his friends assembled to witness his self- immolation. Many cases, on the contrary, are mentioned of heroes resolute enough to compose verses or write their last wishes in their own blood after disembowelling themselves. Yet these men did not throw away their life rashly, and except where honour, rightly or wrongly imderstood, was at stake, voluntary deaths have always been rare in Japan. J3ut wherever the test of courage is demanded in either sex, the Japanese are excelled by no other people. The history of the forty-seven ronin, so determined in exacting vengeance for the murder of their master, so heroic in their self-sacrifice, is the most widely known in the country, and the graves of these daring men are still piously tended by the citizens of the imperial capital. The recent wars and revolutions also show that the people have not degenerated from the prowess of their forefathers, and we may rest assured that should Russia or any other Western power become engaged in hostilities with them, it will meet with a formidable adversary. Hitherto the European powers have obtained easy triumphs over most Eastern nations, thanks to the superiority of their armaments and dis- cipline. But the Japanese people are not one of those which will henceforth * i 408 EAST ASIA. I ill allow thomsclvca to bo conquered without a struf^gle, nor will civilisation have to (loploH! the disfrraceful subjuj,'atiou of 40,000,000 human beinj^s who arc rapidly idacinj^ theinsLlvcs on a level with the most advanced states of Christendom. While reco'-ws»u'Mm^ \^r7- h^^;^}ml l^l ^■^.i ^.■ f It \ 1 'iTt3wc*5r^5sr??n*?'-3Kr9C7«'Tvr;Trsrr T.*>S«SK»lli;E^3^' •m-A LANGUA()E AND LETTERS. 409 ■ '. M \\ u If 1 !(■'' 1 u 111' ' ■ Q !!i= % •i' ^ ' li 1 flu ^ Is ll t- 1 ' i ' u 1' i 8 wi' 1 IMl ' i -t llll ►» iWi'i i ; 0\ Toutonic und Lutiii ok'inont.s havo been thoroujjhly fu"«od, whorouM in Siuico-.rapu- noHo tlic Yaiimti) uiul Chinese lie, wj to Hay, in juxtaiiositiim. The liU-ehu diaU'ct is rejifarded as u distiiiet hins^ua}?e, although nearly related to Japanese and written with the same syllabaries. It also eoiitains many Cliinese words introdiieed l)y the lettered classes. A portion ol' the JJible has been translated in. 'lis dialect by the missionary Hettelheim. In Japanese there arc two syntemH of transcription, of which the oldest are the Chinese ideographs introduced with the germs of the national culture. Hut these signs are so numerous that it reijuires u whole life to master them uU. In the elementary schools as many as U,(t(M) are taught, but no one can claim to 1m> edu- catei 410 EAST ASIA. I'i ! wliicli if not " luminous" may ut k'ust Ik* (IcscrilM'cl im " voluminouH." I'tu'try, the (li-umii, luNtory, uml the nuturul scicncoN have Ikh'H cultivated, and the iiili'lh'ctuul (ivolutinii III' .Fii|nin mity hv sii'ul to have run in parallel lines with that ol the West. In llie monasteries the (lid manuscripts were copied, chronicles compiled, lheolo>,'icul and metaphysical tri'atises composed, wliile the " Courts ol' Lovi* " were held durinj^ the tweli'th and tliirleenth centuries in the castles of the feudal lords, when; the lctt«'rcd warriors and strollin^if minstrels wrote their romances of chivalry, and re- cited tlu'ir lyri(!al sonj^s just as in Kurope. The perio«l of literary Jtenaissance coincides with the seventeenth century, after which comes the a^e of the encyclo- piedists. At jm'sent journalism and political writings are sw«'llinf; the hulk of the national literature, which has lieen more or less alfeeted l»y Kuropean influences since the middle of the eijjhtecnth century, when wicret societies were formed for the truns- lution of Dutch works. Tiir. AiiT OK I'liiNTixo IX Japan. From Mr. Satow's recent investififations, it apiieurs thut to u religious lady belongs the honour of having introduced the use of printing in Japan. In the year 764 of the new era the impress Siiiyau-toku, in fuliilment of u solemn vow, ordered a million small wooden shrines to Ihs distributed among the Buddhist pagodas and monasteries throughout the archii)elago, and directed that eaeh of these shrines should contain a dharani or extract from the liuddhist sacred writ- ings. The Sanskrit or Pali text of the dharani was to be printed in Chinese characters, on slips of paper about IH inches long by '2 inches wide, so as to be easily rolled up and (leposit(iicyth)- V (.f the •I's wiufe 10 truiia- )U8 lady In the inn vow, HiKldhist ; eush of red writ- i Chincise ns to be umber of , and fac- in works, ions were )jw)8ed to sive steps lat it was tt, where© jreviously remained ween this i the date e Empress nsidcrable } regarded the whole done for ifuciunism py of the existence, HKLIOION— HINT* )ISM. 411 n iH liijjlily valued on account of the many variations which it cc itiiih!*, and liich often throw much li>,'ht on the rcccivc«l text. Apart from the Huddliist bks not nmrc than forty or fifty \so?ks are known to have been printed in .lapan down to tlu- bc^finniu),' of the sevcntecnlli cenlurv. A j^rcat stimidus was, liowever, tlu-n ^•iven to the art chicHy tiirough the iiitUiciicc of the Koreans, After his first victorious canipaiji;n in Korea, Ilich-yoslii had broujfht back a lar>?e number of Inioks current in lliat country, and the literary activity rcj)rescnted by flu'se works, compared witl> the sta^jnaiit state of letters in Japan, wounded the national pride of the coiKjuerors, an typ«'s, which lliey liad no doubt derivese, always apt imitators, siHm adopted this metlKxI, and the first hook printed in .lapan with nu>v- able copjH^r types Ix-ars tlie date I ■")!)(». From that time onwards the jiress, in various parts of th«' Kmpire, has l)een busily en^'ajjed in reprcKlucing every important book in Chinese literature. The native literature also soon bejfan to avail itself of the same easy means of circulation. Hut recent indications seem to make it pro- bable that the time is approachinn; when Japanese translaticms of Kuropean, and esjK'cially Knglish, works will be mainly substituted for llic ])ublications both of the native and the Chinese writings. Mr. Fukusawaof Tokio has greatly distinguished himself in this direction. One of his classes lately translated the whole of Adam Smith's " Wealth of Nations" into Japanese, and several other important FiUropeaa works, especially those treating of philosophy, natural science and politics, owe their appearance to this learned teacher and his pupils. Religion — Sixtoism. The religious thought of Japan, as of so many other countries, is just now in an evident state of transition. Most of the educated classes and even the lower orders in the towns entertain or affect a profound indifference for the various religions of local or foreign origin. Yet some of the outward observances are still generally retainefl, mainly through the influence of the women. As in China, three cults co-exist side by side, and the sumo individual may even conform to all three. Of these the oldest is the national religion known as Sintoism, or the "Way of the Genii," which represents the conservative and reactionary element, which from the first protested against the intrusion of the Chinese language and culture. The Koziki, or " History of the Things of Antiquity," which cm- bodies the Sinto teachings, is the oldest and most renuirkable work in Japanese literature. The Confucian system is little more than a moral code. But Buddhism is at once a metaphysical and religious system, which consoles its votaries for the miseries of the present life, and holds out prospects of happiness or repose in the after state. Thus according to the times, places, and other circumstances, these elements may beconio diversely intermingled without being antagonistic, although 412 KA»T ASIA. „„,l..r ..xcrplmnul n>n.Uti..nH uimI pditi.-al mictioiiK rrliKiouH warn Imvo ocraHionally brokt'ii out. I 1 • • 11 Liko tlu< rhincHO, Komin, and Sn.rriai. alM.ri^in.'s. \hv Jupunoso luul onK'niaUy no other .liviiiitirs rx.vpt th.> fnirrs ..I' Naturi.. with wl.ich tl.ry usH<,ciatiMl the houIh of thr (Inul an.l th.. n^rU n.illion a.rial and trmslrial K«"nu. Mow Hvo »t pcaco with thrsr counth^sH hosts without nidh-ss n.njurinKH anpitiato thol)t.ncficontHp.nts, Fig 191.-NIKK0 AND TIIR IJi'PKK ToNR-OAVA. 8oiUo 1 : iXW.mo. I50°20' E of G I59MO- _ 6 Miles. without addressing them as mortals, and honouring them with feasts and banquets P Such is the oUl ancestral cult, associated with that of the Kami, or genu, and ot natural phenomena, which still prevails under the Chinese name of Smto. Ihe rites of this extremely simple worship, which asks of its followers nothmg but purity of soul and thought, are usually performed in the midst of the grandest natural surroundings, where have been raised the miya or pasiro, shrines consecrated to the genii, and containing the crystal mirror, symbol at once of purity and of supernatural foreknowledge. In the ceremonial the heads of famiUes have been ;^^'"- -:j5rK>;'S^!i3jJ?''St?!S5'.i5:s'i»5 UI;M(H<»N— SINTOISM. 418 loiuiUy j;iimlly 10 houIh t peace (»\V WllM Hpii-itH, ^ 561 45 J janquets P nii, and of nto. The (thing but grandest onsecrated ity and of have been n'liliicitl hy a cumIc ((f lu'n'ditary prioMt^, who invoke tin- jjcnii on Iwluilf of tho imiltitiidt', wild Itiiiijf iho «>IV('riiijf>*, iiml ii' tlicir liniiour nlcliratc tlir nuttsuri, (»r paiitoiiiiiiu-K and tlicatrical rcpiTMnitatioiis. Ily on«i of thow coincidciicoH ho frcMiucnt in histoiy. tint rcvohitioii of 1M()7, whifh introducwl tho now oulturo from tho Wost, was aooonipaniod by a roaotion in tho roli^iou.N wmld, whon>by tlio ohi Sintoist niiinuHni again booauio tho ofhoial roligion of the Krnjiiro. Hnl tho fniu nil ooronionios, which formerly plnyod such a hirgo part in thin NystcMn, arc gradually losing their original hieratic character. Thoro wuM a tii e when human Hacritiees were associated with tho burial of the groat — woim II, ^lavoM, and horses following their masters to tho griivo. Kvon ho rocontly uh l(i44, it was found nocossary to forbid tho rotainors of tho daimioH to immolate themselves on tho body of their feudal lords. As in C'hinu, thoHo victims wore replaced by clay images deposited in tho graves or funeral urns. Hut the most romantic natural sites aro Htill cho.sen as the last resting plac 's of (ho dead. Tho superb mauHolcuniH of Yoyas and one of his successois have heen erected in tho loveliest valley in Japan, surrounded by tho glorious woodlands of Nikko. liut tho most sacred shrines of the Sinto worship arc tho two lomples of the Sun- Goddess nnd the Goddess of Food, which are situated near Furnichi, in the province of Ise, about 90 miles south-east of Kioto. They hiive for the Japanese the same importance as Mecca and Medina have for Mohammedans, and are yearly visited by thousands of pilgrims from cvorypart of tho Fmpiro. In tho capital no artisan considers it possible to gain a livelihood, unless he has invoked the protection of these goddesses by performing the pilgrimage at least once; and tho ] asantry are even more constant votaries at their shrines. Formerly it was a common thing for the little shop-boys of Ycdo to abscond for a while from their employers, and wander along the public highway as far as Ise, subsisting on the alms which they begged from travellers ; and having obtained the bundle of charms, consisting of the wood of which the temples are built, they returned rejoicing to their homos. The Ise pilgrims are all distinguished by large bundles of these charms wrapped in oiled paper, and carried suspended by a string from their necks. I'opular stories are even current of dogs having performed the pilgrimage by themselves. These places derive their sanctity neither from antiquity nor from their magnificence, being in fact remarkably plain and even primitive in their architecture, but from tho sacred metal mirrors forged in heaven for the Sun-Goddess. In every native house there is a small Sinto shrine containing paper tickets, inscribed with the names of various deities, one of whom is invariably the chief Goddess of Ise, and the paper box marked with this deity's name is supposed to contain some pieces of the wand used at the Ise festivals. At one of these festivals called oni-osiii/e, or " keeping down the demon," two fishermen used formerly to be brought in a cage to the temple, with flaming torches on tlieir heads, and it was their part, as demons, to enter the shrine and carry off tho imago, while others of tho confraternity repelled them with naked swords. Wounds were frequently inflicted, and it was in fact considered that the shedding ot blood on thefie occasions was neeessary to insure 4i»v m'i'-kJm, iSI^'^jr^^r ■^^WMi 414 EAST ASIA. PiiT. 192.— BunnmsT Tbmpi.b at Nikko. iJt'/^f'I'H^^^v^'JTr. '■-■_:_: -tj^l-'-g^^ the prosperity of the fishing craft. A quieter festival, held in March, has recently been substituted for this sanguinar} rite. ■■'•.s^m^-x^J:!7S's^^.^m&~i'-"'^^'i^^^ :,:::fSm!m^^r^0^:^y^ BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY. 416 Buddhism and Ciiristiaxity. The ethics of Eosi (Confucius), introduced in the sixth century with uU the accompanying Chinese ceremonial, exercised, as in China itself, a preponderating influence on the political and social institutions of the country, but it in no sense offers the character of a religion properly so called. The Se'ulo, or " Halls of Holiness," are rather assembly rooms for the learned than true temples, and the great Seido of Suruga-dai at Tokio has already been converted into a library for European, Chinese, and Japanese works. Buddhism, however, has preserved its sway over a large section of the community, notwithstanding the suppression of some monasteries, the conversion of bells into copper coinage, and the forcible trans- formation of numerous temples into Sinto sanctuaries. Introduced apparently about the middle of the sixth century, the worship of Shaka (Buddha) had the advantage of being identified in the minds of its adherents with Western civilisation, for with it came the writings, arts, and sciences of India. It also attracted the people by its pompous ceremonial, by the uogmas of transmigration and final redemption, and by the infinite variety of its gods and saints, amongst whom it eagerly hastened to make room for the shades of the great national heroes. Since its establishment Japanese Buddhism, almost entirely cut off from all communication with the Buddhist world on the mainland, has become divided into numerous sects, some claiming to have preserved the old faith in its purity, while others have become modified by the sanction of new revelations. But all had long lost the knowledge of the language in which the sacred books had been written, and it is only quite recently that, at the repeated suggestion of Max Miiller, bodze8 educated in the "West have at last discovered in the temples of Nip-pon some precious Sanskrit writings hitherto supposed to have perished. The type of some Hindu idols has also been preserved from the time of the early missionaries, neither sculptors nor workers in metal venturing to modify the traditional forms. Of the sects by far the most popular is that which, under her thirty-three different images, worships Eannon, the Kwanjrin of the Chinese, "Goddess of Mercy with her thousand helping hands." According to the census of 1875, the seven principal Buddhist sects possess between them no less than 88,000 temples, while the Sintoists have over 120,000, many, however, of which are used in common by both religions, a simple bamboo screen separating the two altars. The " prayer mills," so imiversal in Tibet, are rarely found in the Japanese temples, although the devout are incessantly muttering the name of Buddha. They also write their prayers on scraps of paper, which they roll up in little pellets, to pelt the idols, and thus obtain their petitions through the efficacy of the divine contact. The inside of the statues is sometimes crammed with these papers, or else boxes are set going on which are inscribed the words " ten thousand prayers." The brooks and streams are also by some simple contrivances transformed to " flowing invocations." The Shin-shiu, or " New Sect," founded by Shinran-shonin in the thirteenth century, probably ranks next in importance and influence. It differs in many 41G EAST ASIA. respects from all the others, rejcctinf^ ull Buddhas and deities except Amida Buddha, to whom alone prayers and invocations arc to be addressed. Hence the charge brought against it of being a pure Theism, although Amida Buddha is not regarded as a creator, nor as having existwl in his present state from all eternity. He is neither the preserver of all things, nor onmipotent, nor the regulator of events in this world, nor a punisher of sin in the next. In fact, he has no true personality at all, so that his votaries seem to be rather Atheists than Deists, differing but little from the materialistic agnostics of Europe. Nevertheless their immense infl.ienco in every part of the Empire has recently been strikingly illustrated in connection with the rest«)ration of one of the great temples in Kioto. Towards the fund raised for this purpose the province of Owari alone contributed no less than 500,000 yen, or about £100,000. Offerings of all sorts in coin and kind also poured in from Kaga, Mino, Yechizen and other provinces famous for their devotion to liuddhism. Women and young girls are even said to have cut off their hair and twisted it into cords to drag cedar trunks to the capital, where these trees were hewn into pillars for the new temple. Buddhist priests also went about the country selling shares in a new railway company which has been projected to connect the remote provinces with Kioto. From all this it is evident that, contrary to the general opinion, a great deal of superstition and religious zeal still remain. On the other hand, there are many indications to show that the Japanese are not on the whole a very religious people, and that " at the present day religion is in lower repute than probably it has ever been in the country's history. Religious indifference is one of the prominent features of new Japan. Shortly after my arrival I was at a picnic held within temple-grounds near Tokio. The main hall of the temple was put at our disposal, and there our collation was spread, right in front of the altar. One Buddhist priest let his temple to one of my colleagues, by whom the altar was used as a sideboard. Another, finding the chanting of prayers not sufficiently remunerative, took some time ago to selling beer and taking photographs at the great image of Daibuts, near Kama-kura. Decaying shrines and broken gods are to be seen every- where. Not only is there indifference, but there is a rapidly growing scepticism. Among the better educated classes this is widespread. The bare mention of Buddhism is enough to provoke a laugh from the student who has imbibed foreign science and philosophy. But the masses also are becoming affected by it. During a discourse on Infinite Vision, which a priest recently delivered at a temple in Shina-gava, one of the congregation stood up and spoke thus sceptically ; " Truly, the more we reflect on these subjects, the more are we plunged into the vortex of perplexed thought. All that the priesthood affirms on the subject of heaven and hell is a mere fabrication, an assertion of which any plain man can easily perceive the truth. If you explain the visible, which the eye can see and the understanding grasp, well and good. But as to the invisible, who can believe ? " * Christianity, which formerly claimed so many adherents in the southern provinces, is now reduced to very narrow limits. Soon after the arrival of Francis • " The Land of the Morning," p. 616. Buddha, B charge a is not eternity, of events no true a Deists, less their trikingly in Kioto, ntributed coin and imous for have cut ;al, where iests also has been at deal of are many us people, t has ever prominent jld within r disposal, Buddhist used as a unerative, : image of sen every- icepticism. lention of ed foreign . During temple in ■ : " Truly, 3 vortex of leaven and [y perceive erstanding 3 southern of Francis BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY. 417 Xavier, in lo49, the worship of Yono (Jesus), at first regarded as a Buddhist sect, made rapid progress. The J uits founded a seminary at Funai, and within thirty years of the first conversions, the Christian communities, grouped round two hundred churches, numbered over 150,000 members. A native prince, zealous for the new faith, boasted of having burnt on his lands ;J,000 monasteries, and dispatched an envoy to convey his homages to the " Great, Universal, and Most Holy Father of the whole World, the Lord Pope." But an unguarded reply of a Spanish pilot wrecked on the coast of Nip-pon caused the dictator, Taiko-sama, to reflect. To the question, " How has your sovereign been able to acquire so many lands P " the Spaniard had answered, " By arms and religion. Our priests prepare the way by converting the people to Christianity ; then the task of subjecting Fig. 193.— Nagasaki and Unzen-san. Scale 1 : 800,000. EofG i&o-so liO'QO' OtoSSfeat. 32 to ISO Feet. ICO to S2U Feet. —^ IS ItUes. 320 Feet and opwaids. them to our authority is a trifling matter." Thereupon Taiko-sama issued a decree, in 1687, banishing the Jesuits, and although his threats were not carried out at the time, ten years afterwards some Franciscan friars, who had given themselves out as ambassadors, and who had been denounced by their rivals, were condemned to be crucified. Nevertheless, the new religion continued to be tolerated till the year 1614, when some repressive measures were taken, and its practice finally interdicted after the return of an envoy sent to Europe to collect information on the religions of the West. Condemned to renounce their faith, the Catholics of Kiu-siu revolted, in 1638, but they were defeated and mercilessly put to the sword. Thousands were on this occasion thrown into the sea and down the crater of Unzen near Nagasaki. In 1640 four Portuguese ambassadors from Macao were put to death with most of their suite, and thirteen sailors sent back with the warning, " While 418 EAST ASIA. the sun warms the earth, let no Christian dare to set foot in Nip-pon ! Let all know I If the King of Spain in person, or the God of the Christians, the great Shaka himself, violate this decree, their heads shall fall ! " Nevertheless, a number of Catholics continued to practise their religion in some remote villages, and at the revolution of 1867 about 4,000 of them were exiled to the Goto Archipelago and other islands, for having refused to take part in the religious ceremonies in honour of the Mikado. Christianity is at present allowed to be openly preached in the treaty ports, and the government has even sanctioned the conversion of Buddhist temples into Protestant or Catholic chapels. The English and American missionaries, numbering over one hundred altogether, are the most zealous evangelisers, although the results of ten years' efforts are very slight. On the other hand, the Buddhist priests, mostly of the Manto sect, which rejects celibacy and mortification of the flesh, have gone to Europe in search of arguments to be afterwards used against the Christian missionaries. Most of the numerous recent sects, such as the " Poor Brethren," the " United," the " Dis- contented," the " Sea-weeds," have only indirectly felt European influences, and occupy themselves more with social reforms than with religious changes. The adventurers landing in their ports are not calculated to inspire the natives with much respect for the religion of the foreigners, for, as they say, " the tree should be known by its fruits." The prevailing moral tone of foreign residents in Japan is admittedly low, even though it might be unjust to speak of it as absolutely immoral. Nor is this low tone the only obstacle to the progress of Christianity. " There are many respectable men altogether indifferent on religious matters, and many professing Christians, who, with an inconsistency almost incredible, take every opportunity of giving vent to the unreasonable animus which they feel towards their fellow- countrymen who have come to preach the Gospel to the Japanese. The sneers and invectives, however, of such critics are invaiiably in exact proportion to their ignorance of the actual work which missionaries are doing. " The missionaries of the various Protestant denominations work together amic- ably, and the Japanese have no sectarian warfare to perplex them in their consideration of the new religion. The three Protestant Churches represented, viz. the American Presbyterian, the American Dutch Reformed, and the Scottish United Presbyterian, have united in the one Presbytery, and together maintain the Union Theological School, an Institution which, in 1880, had seventeen students preparing for the Christian Ministry."* Topography of the Kuriles and Yeso. The cold, foggy climate of the Kuriles and the northern division of Yesc have prevented the development of agriculture in those bleak regions. In 1875 there were only 453 settled residents in the Kuriles, besides those of the temporary fishing and hunting stations on the islands of Kunashir and Iturup. The more • W. G. Dixon, op. cit., p. 670. Let all the great I ill some exiled to irt in the allowed motioned Is. The Dther, are i are very ct, which search of 3st of the he "Dis- jnces, and ;eB. The tives with •ee should low, even OT is this are many professing )rtunity of ^ir fellow- sneers and n to their sther amic- 1 in their sented, viz. tish United the Union I preparing : Yesc have 1875 there temporary The more TOPOGRAPHY OF THE KURILES AND YESO. 410 northern islands of the group have in recent years been ulinost dosertod, the whole population having been reduced in 1874 to seventy-two souls, couHiicd to the three islands of Sumshu, Unekatan, and Sinskatan. Even the interior of Ycso is mostly unin- habited, while the so-called towns of Soi/a, on La Perouse Strait, Sihetz, and Xrnioro, facing Kunashir, are mere fishing hamlets. The population is conocntratod chiefly in the towns of the south-west, where the temperature is milder, and whore supplies of all sorts are more abundant than in the north. Sapporo {^Satsporo^ capital of the island, lies in an open alluvial plain watered by the Isikari and its affluents. It is a recent town, built on the American model, Fig. 191.— Hakodatk Bav. SoMe 1 : UO.OOO. EoFG I4Q'40' I40'45' to 64 Feet. 64 to 198 Feet. va Feet and upwank. I 2 Milei. and boasts even of its " Capitol." Here is a School of Agriculture, established by some professors from the United States, and the lands in the neighbourhood have been distributed amongst about 1,000 military colonists. A more important place is the fishing town of Isikari, at the mouth of the river, where as many as 1,200,000 salmon were taken in 1860. Otaru (Otarunai), lying on the coast, west of Isikari, and connected by rail with the capital, also exports large quantities of fish even as far as China. Here about fifteen million pounds of salmon are yearly cured, and vast quantities of herrings are used in the manufacture of manures. On a creek farther 420 EAST ASLV. to the south-west lies the port of Icanai, whore tfco chief export is coal from the noifjfhbourinjjf pits. On the more tliickly peophnl south coast are the towns of Sani, also a centre of the coal industry ; Ytihitfs, a much frequented tishinj? station, and Morornn, on the deep bay of Yedomo, where the bar lias 'Z() feet at low water. Here truvellers embark to cross Volcano Hay and visit the city of Hakodafr, which stands on one of the safest and most spacious harliours in the world. Thrown open to foreign trade in 1H54, this port, which in clear weather commands a view of the Hondo ! It ! Fig. 195.— Hakodatk. Scale 1 : 40,UU0. 140*45 I40'45' EofG. to 18 Feet. 16 to 82 Feet. 82 Feet and upward*. __^.^___ 1,100 Yards. i? mountains, has made rapid progress since the middle of the century. The popida- tion has increased five- fold during that period, and about one hundred Europeans have settled in the town, Avhich has become the chief station of the whalers frequenting the Sea of Okhotsk. A Japanese squadron visits the roadstead every year, but the foreign shipping is inconsiderable, the native steamers having almost monopolised the export bu.sines8. One of the staples of this trade is the kampii, or " sea cabbage," an wiible seaweed 20 to 40 feet long, which is dried on the strand and forwarded to Hondo and South China. Some tine country-hoiLses have sprung up here and there on the slope of the hill, 1.1 oO feet high, which commands the approach to the roadstead and to the peninsula of Hakodate. ■" ^ivssHmm -'Si- •mg^r. im.'^-^"'v^/^^^^-^^'*^-9'^^i^-e':i^y'~'^^s^!^iS'fSm'wm^^ :r7wmmm' From the centre of I, on the ruvollcrs < on one ) foreign B Hondo II' 46 he popnla- peans have requenting sar, but the lonopoliscd II, or " sea strand and sprung up imands the TOPOORAl'IiY OF Nir-i'ON. 421 Tczasi, on the west coast of Yeso, is also a large town ; but Malnnifii, or Fiihu-yama, the southernmost town in the island at the western entrance of Tsugar Strait, has lost much of the importance it possessed in the old feudal times, when it was the residence of a native prince. The anchorage is bad, especially during the soutliorn winds, and it has been deprived of the commercial advantages now transferred by the treaties to Hakodate. TornOHAPHV OF NiP-PON. Lying beyond the rice zone, the northern extremity of Hondo is but thinly peopled, no numerous conmi unities occurring till we reach the valley cf the Fig 196. — Niiii-OATA ANIJ Sauo Iklanu. Scale 1 ; 1,400.000. I58'20- E Of G iso-eo' 'A to 32 Feet. 32 to 100 Feet. 100 to 320 Feet. .320to6IOFeot. 640Feetnii(liipwird.t. ^_____^^.^ 1& Miles. Kitakami River. Avomori [Aomori), on the south side of the large inlet opening towards Tsu^^ar Strait, derives some importance from the movement of passengers who embark here for Hakodate. A larger place is Hirosaki, formerly capital of a vast principality. But no other large town is met till we reach Kuhata or Akita, 70 miles farther south, near the mouth of the Mimono-gava, and Morioka, on the upper course of the Kitakami. The produce of the rich copper mines in this basin is forwarded on flat-bottomed boats to Isiiiomaki, at the mouth of the river in the island-studded bay of Sendai. The populous city of SciKlai, which gives its name to this inlet, lies 9 miles from the coast, in the midst of extensive rice grounds. Sendai, which does a large trade in foreign wares, is noted for its production of fancy articles made from a kind of fossil wood collected in the district. Amongst r^i 422 EAST ASIA. i the curiosities of the pluce are the presents j»iven hy the Pope to tlie Mission which was sent to Home in the year KJio by I'rince Date Masamune. Senthii was formerly the castle town of the feudal prince Date Mutsu no Kami, wiiose stronjf- hold was i)artlv ruined durinvc the revolutionary war of 1'^-v^'^:?;vr:r^-' .^^^mip^immmt- ■~nisfli'5S!'" loll which luhii was ic stronj;- used us u cture. era in the I the west wns, such I'o is ulso lot springs, ied in the s in Japan. Sinano, or where the lokrokudo. nany roads, (rsected by ipan. But ible, owing I J m P |3sis.|riP!(PI!3^'4-ftS^ —?«? "^W ^wmiam ^imm^^^mMmmmm^mMmi4imim- TYPK8 AND CO8T0ME» OF CITIZENS OK TOKIO. -■:7^rr;y7'^ri S^^Mm' ki^:ti^c--X M«»^ ^ fk^'-''*^- ^m^BSs^^^^^MM^mw^^gm.. "^■:?^'i^-;V--Qir-r,,.. "-,-^^v ^,' Iff TOKIO AND ITS ■^Bff" r X. '•^ \ »^^iiii?j«ki «*, / ' KOFOU (YAMAHAtl Ktlt) ' ,„ . . < k, , .» '.VlHkl KodKlkAVA -^ M Hnko^ii f 4V V .- •--;■ m:'> JkiV/tirMiim i/ffff'ni . k i R A Jbuttuiui, l.> ;i39"E.of Gr. "rii ,, ! ] u I L J 1 , ( De|»th8 u ta eejft sewiea lesto, 1. 5 85 .QUO NEW YOKK . I C ■r^'^ni-w^t^'T:^^^:-?^;^^^ OKIO AND ITS BAY. ^ ^ " ■ ■ ' ^^ffii'/i ^^ Jbtvkfbutai .<*>' or YK D KoviisjiJcif 4 Taoupoiur^ "\ ihC y ,^A \'^!^' -V /iuMUi'adx (rutin KiUliMUVU t£uva ^'^ "'" Y^kdHA // \ i'oijziMnyijA, -\ •' . tr^I* T, ■/ 'f' ■, So* % Tomit'tou ,v,|j, (, V '>-,■;.*, 4k 'JStt^itt, I' ISjr'K.of Gr. -♦'^.. ■iip.it\'lktm\ iiMpim A - 36' Depths i.sas.ouo NEW YOKK, :: ---^'- :-ETON * c>^ SSO£upwardt ^w^^&mMB^mmmm- . -•™sts;'-:v ^!?S??'SS!>^S61'.-' '""■t ■■f^m^sm'^mkmd: TOPOGRAPHY OP NIP-PON. 428 to the bar at the mouth of the river, and to the prevalence of fierce gales in winter. Hence the rice, silks, teas, lacquer, ginseng, indigo, and other products of the rich Nihi-gatu plains have to be mostly forwarded by bad mountain roads across Hondo to Tokio. Tcradomari, lying 30 miles farther to the south-west, had threatened to supersede Nihi-gata altogether by depriving it of the Sinano-gava, which might be diverted by canalisation directly to the coast at Tcradomari. But the vast cutting, 300 feet deep at one point, undertaken for this purpose, has never been completed, and Nihi-gata, such as it is, still continues to bo the best seaport on the coast. It is partly sheltered by the neighbouring island of Sado, and several native and foreign engineers have been invited by the Government to report on the best means of improving its approaches. Murakami, Kanicazaki, Imamatsi, and the other towns on this seaboard all suffer from the same want of convenient harbours or sheltered roadsteads. In the neighbourhood of Aigava, capital of Sado, are some old gold and silver mines, which have been worked for ages. The profit from these mines under their present management was estimated in 1881 at about £17,000. But for many years previously the value of the precious metals obtained appears to have been more than absorbed by the working expenses. Limestone is the pre- vailing formation in the island of Sado, which is very hilly, consisting of two groups of mountains separated by an intervening cultivated plain. On the large bay, protected westwards by the long promontory of Noto, are situated the trading towns of Uvots, Sin-minato, To-yama, Takaoka, while towards the south-west lies the manufacturing city of Kanezava (^laikava-ken), famous for its chased bronzes, painted porcelains, and textile fabrics. In the same district are several other industrial centres, such as Komats and Mikava, both on the coast. Farther south are the sea-ports of Takamats and Sakayi, whence are forwarded the products of the surrounding towns of Ohono, Maruoka, and Ftikuyi, lying at the foot of the lofty Siro-yamo, or " White Mountain." South of the rich Sendai plains there are no large towns on the rocky east coast till we come to the decayed city of Mito, at the mouth of the Naka-gava. But the population becomes more dense in the fertile plain watered by the Tone-gava and its tributaries to the north-west. Here Takasaki and Mayebasi are noted centres of the silk industry, and at Tomioka the Government has established a model silk spinning factory, which has become the most important in the Empire. Near the mouth of the Tone-gava is the large town of Diosi (Chosi), with its port of Fnabasi at the northern extremity of Tokio Bay. Diosi, which consists of a group of villages extending over a space of about two miles, is chiefly occupied in the fishing trade. Large quantities of the itcaahi, a kind of pilchard, but of smaller size, are captured all along the coast and brought to Diosi, where they are boiled down in huge cauldrons. The oil thus obtained is used for lighting purposes, and the residue, after being dried in the sun, is sent inland for manure. The smells arising from this process render Diosi and the neighbouring villages almost uninhabitable by strangers. Tokio {Tokiyo, Toke'i), the present capital and largest city in Japan, is the old Yedo ( Yeddo), or " Gate of the Bay." Its new name, synonymous with the Chinese 424 EAST ASIA. Tongkin{», means " Eastern Capital," and dates only from the year 1869, when it became the residence of the Mikado. Nothing existed in this region except fishing and rural villages until the close of the sixteenth century, when Toku-gava Yeyas, founder of the last Shogun dynasty, built his stronghold here. Under one of his successors all the daimios were ordered to reside in Yedo for half the year, and to leave their families and most of their household in the place, as hostages for their good behaviour. A multitude of nobles, soldiers, employes, and retainers of all sorts thus came to be grouped round the hill on which stood the palace of the Shogun. Trade followed in their wake, and at the height of its prosperity, about the middle of the present century, Yedo certainly contained over a million inhabitants. In- cluding the 800,000 armed retainers and attendants of the daimios, some authorities have estimated their numbers as high as 2,000,000 and even 2,500,000. But the civil wars, the departure of many nobles with their households, and the commercial ruin caused by the fires and massacres, reduced a large part of Tokio to a wilderness. But with the return of peace it has gradually recovered, and is now perhaps nearly as populous as under the Shogun regime. Its commercial and industrial pre- eminence is at the same time insured by its position as capital of the Empire. Covering about as much space as Paris within the fortifications, Tokio occupies the north-west extremity of the bay at the mouth of the Sumidu-gava, which is here connected with the Tone-gava by the Yedo-gava branch of that river. It is en- circled south, west, and north, by low wooded hills, while a central eminence, sur- rounded by grey walls and a moat 3 J miles in circuit, is crowned by the On-siro, or " Noble Castle," formerly residence of the Shoguns, now of the Mikado. The old dwellings of the daimios have been mostly converted into government offices and schools, and beyond this middle zone, also enclosed by walls and canals, stretches the city properly so called. The busiest commercial quarter lies eastwards, between the Siro and the mouth of the " Kava," where stands the " Bridge of the Rising Sun " {^Nip-pon Basi), regarded us the central point of all the impei'ial highways. Here the Ginza boulevard has already begun to assume the aspect of a European city. Within a small space, handsome brick houses stretch in a continuous line, broken elsewhere by gardens, tea and mulberry plantations, and clusters of cryptomeria). But most of the 250,000 houses are still constructed in the old native style. During the day these little houses, with their black tiled roofs and white ledges, are open to the street, showing the kamidana, or sacred images and ancestral tablets, disposed on their stands of honour. In a country like Japan, where earthquakes are so frequent, these frail bamboo and cardboard structures are much safer thon stone buildings, but are also far more liable to the risk of fire. They are supposed to have an r.verage existence of about six years, and " fire," says a local proverb, " is the blossom of Yedo." At the first signal of alarm the more costly objects are carried off to the nearest fire-proof warehouses erected against such contingencies. Some 10,000 houses were consumed by a conflagration in 1879. But a far more terrible fire broke out in the year 1657, when as many as 107,000 persons are said to have perished in the flames. Over 500 palaces of the daimios, 770 residences of other nobles and officials, 350 temples, and 1,200 streets of common houses were TOrOORArHY OF NIP-rON. 425 destroyed on this occasion. In UUtH tlicro was another groat fire, which consumed nearly the whole of the city. Tokio has also sulfered {greatly from earthtjuakes, epidemics, typhoons, and fioodings. The eartluiuakc of ITO'-i is said to have destroyed over 37,000 souls, and no less thiin !!)(), 000, chiefly of the poorer classes, were swept away by the fearful epidemic of 1773. (Jn the 11th of November, 1HD5, Fig. 108. — Monster Hell in the Sijia Quauteu, Tojuo. the last great earthquake took place, and on this occasion over 14,000 dwelling- houses, besides 16,000 fire-proof " Godowns," were levelled to the ground. The loss of life was estimated at over 100,000, but there is no trustworthy authority for these numbers, nor, in fact, for any of the statistics of lives lost during similar disasters in former times. Tokio may be described as an aggregate of about one hundred small towns and 426 EAST ASIA. villupfos, which, hy oxpaiuliiijr in every direction, have gradually become united in one city, while leaving here and there several open spaces occupied by gardens, groves, and tields. There are no remarkable architectural monuments, although a really imposing eilect is produced by the cyclopean blocks of the castle walls, relieved at intervals ])y kiosk-like towiM's, and at some points rising fully a hundred feet above the bi'oad and deep outer ditches. The ifdaihi, or i)alaces of the ancient daimios, arc low buildings walled round and adorned with ear\ed wooden porches. ]iut the most curious and ornate structures are the Huddhist temples, of which there are upwards of a thousand scattered over the city, and especially in the Asakusa quarter, where is the temjde of the Golden Dragon dedicated to the Goddess Kwannon. This is at once the most frequented and the most venerable for its historic memories, occupying as it does the islet where the first monuments of Yodo rose above the surrounding swamps and waters. The neighbouring hills, such as Siba in the south, and Uyeno in the north, tower above the vast sea of liouses and sacred edifices, and arc themselves crowned with temples and tombs not^ible for their rich woocl carvings, elegant decorations, noble torii, or jjorchcs, and enormous bells. Of the two museums recently erected on these hills, one contains a natural history collection, the other Japanese artistic works, besides an ethno- graphic exhibit i(m of the greatest value for the study of the aborigines of Yeso and the Kurilo Islands. The surrounding parks, planted towards the end of the sixteenth century, are amongst the finest in Japan, which is so rich in plantations of magnificent timber. The cemeteries, one of which near Siba contains the tombs and effigies of the forty-seven ronin, are also laid out as public grounds, shaded with trees, and made bright and cheerful with flowering shrubs. Tokio has now also its lM)tanic garden, besides numerous nurseries anC horticultural establishments, but no public squares or free open spaces for popular gatherings. The people having been formerly excluded from political life, the Japanese cities contained no such meeting-places, the forum being useless in the absence of free citizens. But the re(!ent changes will necessarily require a corresponding modification in the plan of the towns. The above-mentioned renin are the subject of a famous story highly character- istic of the chivalrous period of Japanese histroy. Early in the year 1701 a young noble named Asnno Takumi no Kami having been appointed to entertain the Mikado's envoy to the Shogun, happened to give offence to Kira Kodzuko no Suke, an old gentleman learned in court ceremonies, who was his instructor in the proper etiquette to be observed on this occasion. For some time he endured the taunts of K(xlzuke no Suke, but was at last so provoked that he could no longer control his indignation, and attempted to kill his insulter with a dagger. This occurred in the palace of the Shogun, where to draw a sword in anger was a capital offence. Hence, although defeated in his attempt by the bystanders, Takumi no Kami received orders to (lisj)atch himself according to the usual hamkiri fashion. His castle of Ako was also confiscated, and his retainers were turned adrift into the world, thus becoming ronin, or " masterless men." Amongst them was O-ishi Kui-a no Suke, one of Takumi's chief counsellors, who formed u league with others L TOPOORAPnY OE NIP-PON. 427 litcd in ardons, louf^h a Willis, iiiiulrcd ancient porches. 1 which i in the I to the cnerablc nunients ng hills, st sea of id tombs ^hes, and contains n cthno- , of Yeso id of the antations ;he tombs s, shaded has now ishmcnts, le people tained no ins. But )n in the character- iT 1701 a entertain adzuke no tor in the idured the no longer ^er. This 18 a capital 'akumi no ri fashion. Lft into the was O-ishi vith others to avenge the death of their chief. After a short time their number haviiif^ been reduced to forty-seven, all of whom could be lli(»rouANR8F. IlAXn-r-AHT. shore. The numerous canals intersecting the lower town in everj- direction are also usually crowded with craft loading and unloading at all the quays and wharves. The Sumida-gava, which is crossed by five bridges connecting Tokio with the great suburb of Hondjrt, is sometimes completely covered by barges and junks of every form, besides gondolas and pleasure-boats impelled by wind or tide. Hut the bay,* in which forts have been erected on artificial islands, is tiHi'-(/fifft, lying 6 miles to the north, where the great Tokaido highway ti'rns inland from the coast. But the neighbourhood of this highway, where the daimios and their suites were constantly passing, seemed dangerous for the security of the foreign settlement, while its shallow roadstead prevented the approach of large vessels. At Yokohama, on the contrary, the water is so deep that the largest vessels are able to ship and discharge the cargoes close in shore. The new city already covers u considerable area, much of which was formerly occupied by rice grounds and gardens, forming part of the flat land which extends along the shores of the bay, and which is backed by a semicircle of low wooded heights. A largo export trade has been developed in teas, silks, rice, camphor, lacquer- ware, and other local produce, exchanged chiefly for European manufactured goods. Yokoska Bay, lying south of Yokohama, has become a Japanese naval station and arsenal. A largo military encampment has also been formed near the fortified city of Sfikura, between the Tone-gava and Sumida-gava Deltas, towards the neck of the peninsula of Ava-kidzusa. The barracks occupy the site of an ancient castle, former residence of the princely Hotta family, famous in the annals of the Toku- gava Shoguns. Close by is the old execution ground, where Sogoro with his wife and three sons suffered death in the year 1645. Some 14 miles south-west of Yokohama, near the east side of Sagami Bay, arc situated the ruins of K^* "V "^frm^^^i^:,^m;p^mx;~^m^!m^^^m^m mmm^ ^ lis place lOAvllolo res silks I is tho also tho 3 and 12 ortcd by !tcd by a and the id other t, dating; imuktcd lutions is ^oholiama first been highway I'hore the ) security )roach of that the The new nipied by along the ghts. A uer-ware, ed goods, ation and tified city 3ck of tho nt castle, ;he Toku- 1 his wife i Bay, are fifteenth lake, but from this e hundred nemory of ear Kama- statue 40 ling in the ^~■■^<;v;v^^;iSv^■'^■'"jTll^KI^S^^^"-;M? ■^;«v^> *i. TOPOaUAl'IIY OF NIl'-rON. 429 'f/j. Y^ I Ji'i/r' o H > o O inlorior a Hiniill Huddliist l«'iiii)l(\ The Iiair (»f tlio iina>,'(< is stippoHod to bo troalod in Hucli a wav as to rcprcsciil fli(> Hiiailn tradilidiially said fi* liav»< crawled up to ])ii)tt'ct Ills hare licad imin the rays of \\u\ sun. Nciir Kaina-kura is the ln>ly island of Vnio-sima, which is also on(> < ." the most in'rriniay:t' in Ja^)an. It id connected at low water l»y a tongue of sand with the niainhiud, ^^g. 200.— 8iM(ii)A Hay. Scale 1 : 4.'^,nO0. 138154, i5a-!ja' to 64 Feet. 04 to IW i'txL 128 Feet and upwards. ^ 3,2(10 Yards. whence a muf^nificent prospect is commanded of the bay, with its wood(>d .shores and the snowy crest of Fuzi-san in the distance. The ports of Odovam and Nuinmtz, on the Tokai-do highway oast and west of the peninsula of Idzu, have a considerable coasting trade as the outlets for tho jJi'oduce of the fertile district of Fuzi-san. Sittioda, at the extremity of the peninsula, was nearly destroyed by the terrific s''bmarine earthquake of 1854, and since then most of its trade has been transferred to Yokohama. Ko/ii, now Yamannsi-keu, lying in .*^«(*wi«i»(W*^^ ■ '• ■■''■•'■—• - 480 EAST ASIA. W< 14 a rich |)liiiu north of Fiizi, is one of tlic f,'r<'at cciitros of tl»o silk iiuhistry, und possosscs a spiuiiiii;; fiictoi y iiiiidtllcil on tliosc of Kniiicc. Mcyoiid it follow tlio towns of Sii/zKokft, Jf(ii)i(iinu(z, and 'foi/ofxisi ( Ymiiln^, all lyin^ nnir tho h\wvv. of Toliofoini-nada 15ay. Haniamatz was formerly the castle-town of a powerful feudal chief. in the neiiriiliourh'iod are two famous Siiito temples, noted for their nia;.'nitiei>n1 internal ind external decorations. lUil since the downfall of the Toku-j,'ava family, l>y whom they were endowed, their revenues have been secularised, and these splendid l)uildin;a;,M'd in the nuinufacturo of woollen and silken ;;oods, enanuds and jiorcelain, and a school of medicine has recently been founded here. Kiifiiiii(^h'>ir(in(iy,uul Ahwdt, the latter much frequented on account of its famous Sinto sanctuary, serve as sea-ports for the capital of the ken, as well as foi" Yoitdtji, Knudiiifitii, (lifii (^liii(iiilzini), Olioijdlii, and tho other cities of the plain. The maritinu' town of Tnu [Aiio-Ihh'), on the west side of the sanu- hay of Ovari, is also much frecpionted by junks, and its blue ( )vari porcelain, so named from the province whence i< is exported, is in most {general use throughout the Empire. Farther on is the important city of Y(inia\ari Hay in the province of Ise. Near it are the most renowned tem]»l(>s of Sintoisni, th«' Ge-ku and Nai-ku, yearly vi.sited by multitudes of pilgrims. Traditionally :},0()0 years old, these temples date at any rate from tiie Iwginning of the vulgar era, although the present edifices are no nioro than exact reproductions of the original buihlings. They are pulled down every twenty years, roeonstrncted with tim])er of the same species, and thatched with straw. Nothing is ever changed in the arrange- ment or character of the fittings ; none of the Huddhistic innovations so prevalent in othei' temples have yet desecrated these revered moiunnentsof the Sinto worshij). Scarcely a Japanese house but has amongst its sacred relies a scrap of jjaper b(>aring inscriptions as mementos of the temples of Ts{>, and some objects in consecrated wood from the same locality. The eastern entrance of the Inland Sea could not fail to become the site of a hvrge centre of populat ion. Vulia-iiaiiui, lying at the mouth of the Yosino-gava, north of the strait to which the Dutch have given the name of Lin.schoten, is accordingly an important trading place, and is moreover famous for the beauty of the surround- ing scenery, the fertility of its plains, and the abundance of its fruits. Tn the samo valley lies tho monastic city of Koijd-mii, containing no less than ''{70 Huddhist temples aiul monasteries, formerly sanctuaries and places of refuge, where criminals and the su.spected from all the surrounding lands found shelter. The curved :.s*iv "-i^^m^wK €? '.#^%S^Kfe"«?^ TOI'OORAPHY OF NIl'-I'ON. 481 woo(1h, iKiiiiliiijifs, 1111(1 liicquci'-wuro of Koya-sim dutc fn»in the HouriHliiiiH; ('|)(ich oi Jiipiiiicsf art, and isncli Ih tlic maj^iiiticnit't' of the sacn'd proves planted round tlu! (ciiiplcs, tliat one ol' the most majestic spirit's of coiiifors in ilapan lias rcccivt'd tlio muuL' of Koya. A strt'am in tho vicinity of Koyii-san is cnmscd by a irmarkablc l)rid;>t', the plunks in the Hour of which nuniU'r tliirty-Hovcn, and arc marked with the namoH of the thirty-Hcvcn lluddhas (tf the Ivonf,'o-kai. It is pojiularly supposed that nooiu" who is unacceptahlc to Kobo Daishi, the patron of the spot, can jiass over this lirid^o. When Hideyoshi made a piljjjrima^e to tin' place, after bavin;,' liscii to suj)iem(> jiowcr, he iMHuid to have gone Hteulthily by ui^;ht as far us the bridj^'c, wh'" h he crossed, and Fig. 201. — Nauoya ASM) Dki.ta of the Kiro-oava. Sonlo 1 ; HTiO.OOO. 59F 50! EoFP l56'40 I57'I0- _C«nal - 13 Miles. then turned back again. Tie thus satisfied himself that the slaughter he had been compelled to make of his enemies, in order to obtain the protectorate and restore peace to the naticm, was approved by Kobo Dui.shi, and that he might now safely venture to pay his formal visit in full state, accompanied by all the nobles of the Empire, without fear of being put to shame in their presence. The basin of the Yodo-gava, vhich comprises Lake Biva, fringed with its " eighteen hundred villages," and where are situated, the cities of Kioto, Nara, and Ohosaka, is pre-eminently the historic laud of Japan. On the very .shores of the lake itself stands the populous city of Jlikoiic, the ancient residence of the duiniio who was entitled to the regency during the minority of the Shogun. East of this place, which became famous during the intestine troubles towards the end of 9«*itsi*" m^;:^^, .^ ife sfes^;^! ■.'■(Asiflf^fe'i^srvfiiJSE'iSS . " J Vijc-.tf-?::.; 482 KAST ASTA. I I |.:l till- sixteenth century, is Nituiited the station of /rzr, is now a connnenial city, and may he re^^arded as an advanced (piarter of Kioto, with which it comnnmicates i)y a hranch of tli<« nHM'iitly (tpened railway, lly means of its steanjers it has also ac(piired the mono- p(dy of the local traih^of hake Miva, from whose waters sailinj^ vessels have already nearly disappeared. A speciality «d' the industry (d' Ohot/ iu the munufucturo of ahacuses (soruhtiii^, or calculating' uiachineH, The city of Kiiifa, tliat is to say, "Capital," caH(i[ hoen the soat of K)ni)ire for nearly eleven hundred years, it wuh HUpjdanted by its east«'rn rival, Yedo, in INOS, whi'u th(> sweepin<>; revolution took place, which chan<,'cd at once tin; frovernment, administration, and national customs. Since then the population has diminished hy mon- than one-half, and whole ([uarfers have renuiined almost uninhahited. Xevertheless, Kioto, with its historic associa- tions, still renuiins the city of beauty, eh'<,'ance, and refinement, Tt also excels the new capital, if not in industrial acrtivity, at least in the artistic tusto of its pro- ducts. 1 [ere are found tiu> most skilled Japanese artisans in the manufacture of silks, bi'oi'ad(>s, embroi(U'red fabrics of every kind, enamels, porcelains, ornamental bronzes, and other metal wares. The ancient palace of t lu' ^1 ikados at Kioto covers a space of alrout twenty-six acres with its enclosures, and is surrounded by a roofed wall of earth and plaster with six gates. The inner court Is approached by a Hi<^ht of eighteen steps, corresponding in number to the orijjinal series of grades into which the Mikado's officials were divided. Outside the court is a building called Kashiko-dokoro, where was kept the copy oi the sacred mirror given to the Mikado's ancestor by the Sun-(jfoddes.s» the original of which is supposed to be still preserved in her temple at Ise. When the palace was destroyed by fire in 900 the mirror flew out of the shrine in which it was then deposited and alighted ndauts of the Mikado. Henceforth the NaK-shi always had charge of the sacred emblem. Since the beginning of the seventeenth century the ])alace has been six times destroyed by lire, the last occasion having been in 1S04. In the follitwing year it was restored exactly in its previous size and style, but very nearly experienced the same fate again in 1804, '-*i'^f^^^-^m^M^umm^^^smi^s$^w^mM i,S«y^- Toi'oaiiAi'uy uF Nir-i'UN. 4])a wlirn rrincr niu-sliiti uttomptcd to soizr tli(> Mikado. On thin occuMioii Kioto it. self frll II prey to the fliiiiics, and iwarly oiic-liull' of il wiis rcdiicffl to iimI'cs. Si(ic(> tlu'ii lui'j,'!' Npact's loriiit'i'ly covi rc^l Ity hoiists liavr 1mm>ii coiivfrli'd into inatkrt jl[iirdcns, and the !)(>,()()() rfsidrnecH nu'iitiont-d l»y Knini-iN Xiivirr in one of his lottcrs Imvo now Won ivdui-cd to about half tliat nmnlx'r. Tlio Miihurl) oi .tnifo, lyin^ I'ant of tho lity, Iium for ccnturicH l)«'i«n inliuliitcd by a coninmnity of far-f'mncd potters, ori^'inally from K<»n'n. They work in tbcir homes, where they prepare and niouhl their paste, (h-eoratin;^ and baking' il them- Nidves. Their products an; tlins jj^enuine works of art stamped with the orijiiiialitv und perfect workmanship of each individual aitisan. Few towns in Nip-jxin can Ik) compared with Kioto for the re^uhirity and order of its streets, all of which inter- Hoct each other at ri^ht an«?les, liko thoHC of so many Ajneriean cities. The limpid waters of tbt^ Kamo-jjfava sweop round its east side, liero soparatiiif? it from souk* irre^idarly built oullyin^j; (pmrters. It is crossed by several i)ri in Kioto no less than nine hundred und forty-five buildings of all sorts erected to the vt- ship of Buddha, wmie of whicli date fnmi the ninth and tcw'i' > nturies. " Tt/ 'lio westward stands the great temple of Kennin-ji, on a height, i tid lo\»cr down towards the south another named Ilongan-ji, both now in use for the exhibition buildings. Tier upon tier, and in close proximity along the sides of the hills, are temples of various sizes and celebrity, from the one containing the colossal innige of Uai Ihtiz, or 'Great liuddhu,' to the smallest wayside shrine."* Tho Daillutz here referred to is preserved in the temple of Todai-ji, and is said to be 53 feet high, consequently 7 feet higher than the Kamu-kura statue. It is in a sitting posture, with the legs crossed ; the right hand ui:)lifted with the iialm outwards, the left hand resting on the knee. The body and all the ancient purls of the lotus flowers on which it is seated are apparently formed of bronze jjlatcs soldered together. But the head looks like r : i';;vcle piece, although the temple is so obscure and the height so great that it would be difficult to distinguish seams if there were any. A peculiar method of construction is said to have been adojjtod, namely, of gradually building up the wuUs of the mould as the lower part of the casting cooled, instead of construct I ii{. the whole mould first, and then making the casting in u single piece. This process would explain the aj)pearance of scams. On a hill near the temple . tands a tower containing the huge bell cast in the year 732 A.u. This bell is 13 feet by (5, with 9 feet extreme diameter und 8 inches extreme thickness at the edge, and about 36 tons of copper with one ton of tin were used in the casting. (Sa'i^^'c-'^^/^^Mf^^'-'^''^^'^ 484 EAST ASIA. The vast and fertile plain of Kioto, which amongst other produce yields the best tea in the kingdom, contains a number of other towns, wliich deijcnd for their trade and industries on the capital. Thvis Fiisimi, which might be regarded as a suburb of Kioto, is its chief port on the Udzi-gava, now regularly navigated by steamers. Another outlet of its trade is the port of Yodo, lying lower down at the confluence of the Kitzu, the Udzi, and the Kamo, whose joint streams form the Yodo-gava, or " Sluggish River." The Kitzu, which here unites with the emissary from Lake Biva, flows by Nara, one of the oldest cities in Japan, and amongst the earliest imperial residences. Here are some magnificent sacred groves, and especially a park, in- Fig. 202.— Lake Biva. ecalo 1 : 320,000. 133?3o* . 6 Miles. m habited for a thousand years by herds of tame deer, whose antlers arc worked into all kinds of little fancy objects, wliich are regarded as sacred. Here also is the sumptuous temple containing the Dai' Uutz, a bronze statue over 50 foot high, and weighing 450 tons. It is one of the largest and oldest in Japan, dating from the eighth century. Knnim-bava, one of the suburbs of Nara, is the ancient Axiafra, capital of the Kingdom of Zinniu Tenno, founder of the dynasty of the Mikados. From the name of this place, Nip-pon was long known as Asivara, the " Valley of the Pliant Keeds." Not fur from Nara is Kori-i/atiia, another city of some importance. Kioto is connected by rail with its seu-port of Ohomka, which, like the two •"^m^^ I TOPOGRAPHY OF NII'-rON. 435 capitals, is honoured with the title of fa — that is, Imperial City — and which ranks as the second in Japan for pojmlation, and iirst for its trade witli the interior. From its geographical situation Ohosaka was naturally destined to acquire a com- manding position amongst the cities of the Empire. A general survey of the Japanese Archipelago shows at a glance that the most favoured region is the coast Fig. 203.— Ohosaka. Scale 1 : 160,00a EofG ISS'PS . . 155° 50- I m to 16 Feet. 10 to 32 Feet. 32 Feet and upwoids. — — i^-^~->^^ 3 Miles. of the large island watered by the inland sea. The west side, facing the inhospi- table shores of Manchuria, is exposed to cold winds and a heavy surf. The eastern sea-board again is turned towards the boundless wastes of the I'acific Ocean. On the other hand, vessels from China must have first reached the southern shores, which enjoy the three-fold advantage of a genial climate, good harbours, and immm>a,x ,v.$ t mma>f t mmi i i Sgmms^r* 486 EAST ASU. :if proximity to civilised lunds. The ports of tbc Inland Soa also enjoy the sareo jmviiegcs as inland marts, standiiif^, as they do, at the converging point of numerois trade routes. Ohosaka, which lies near the eastern entrance of the Japanese Mediterranean to the north of Sakahi, which it has succeeded as a large sea-port, occui^ies a central position relatively to the southern division of the great island, while it is connected by a navigable stream with an extremely fertile and densely peopled plain. In the surrounding waters, which present one of the easiest ap])roaches to the I'acific, storms arc rare, and the prevailing south-west and north- west winds elsewhere obstructing the coast navigation for months together, are here replaced by breezes alternating with the morning and evening, and thus facilitating the progress of sailing vessels. Thus everything combines to secure u large trade for the sea-port of Ohosaka. Deep-sea vessels are, doubtless, obliged to anchor at some distance from the muddy canals which intersect the city in all directions. But the local merchants have contrived to preserve their foreign relations, and conduct the exchanges through the medium of other ports, By means of numerous steamers of slight draught, this emporium still retains a monopoly of the local traffic in rice, fish, edible sea-weed, timber, and other products, which are distributed from this place throughout the whole of South Japan. Here is prepared the best saki in the country, and Ohosaka has also become an important industrial centre, where arc manufactured many wares formerly imported from Eurojjc. The fancy goods of this place are now forwarded in large quantities to Europe, and as many as four millions of fans, worth about £26,000, were exported in the year 1877. Watch-making has been recently introduced by a young man who acquired a knowledge of the trade in Switzerland. Ohosaka is the " Venice of Japan," at least in its lower districts, which are intersected in every direction by rivers and canals, crossed by hundreds of bridges. But one of the quarters rises gently on the north-west side towards the castle, wliose half-ruined granite walls still present an imposing appearance, owing to their groat size and solidity. From this point a fine view is afforded of the surrounding district. The imperial mint is a model establishment, erected at great expense, and fitted with all the appliances found in similar edifices in the West. The plant was brought from Hong Kong, where it had proved a failure ; but under Japanese management it has succeeded so well that the Government has been able to dispense with the further assistance of nearly all the origiuii' English staff. The usurper Hideyoshi, having resolvetl to make Ohosaka the seat of Empire, caused a castle and palace to bt . rected here in the year 1583, which were probably the most magnificent group of buildings ever raised in Japan. The palace sur- vived the storming of the castle by lyeyasu in 1G15, and in 1867-8 the members of the European legations were several times rccei\ed within its walls by the last of the Shoguns. Vast sums were lavished by Hideyoshi on the decorations, and the enormous blocks used in the construction of the principal gateway still attest the magnificent plan of the founder. In February 1868 the buildings within the castle were set on fire by the Shogun faction, and were completely destroyed in a few hours. Since then the fortifications have been occupied by the head-quarters all TOPOOEAPUY OF NIP-rON. 487 of the Ohosakn Milittiry Dopartinont. The castle domains arc nearly !{ miles in circmnforcnce, and although smaller than that of Tokio, the castle itself is still the strongest in the Empire. Some of the granite stones composing the hastions range from 20 to 42 feet in length, by 10 to 20 in width, and 6 to H in thickness. They arc said to have \y^r,^ quarried in the immediate neighbourhood, but even so il is difficult to underst'.nd jow they were raised to their present position. Even yet the place would be impregnable to any except the heaviest modern guns, and in the hands of skilled engineers might hold out for a long time against European ironclads. Some of the temples of Ohosaka are amongst the most remarkable in Japan. Such is that of Si Tennozi — that is, of the " Four Heavenly Gods," the " Maha Haja " of the Hindus. It lies in the south of the city, where it has given its name to a suburb classed in the statistical returns as a separate town. Another temple, situated near the shore on the road to Sakahi, an industrial dependence of Ohosaka, is an ancient Shinto sanctuary, frequented esiieciully by tt,*hermen. The turtles and fishes here preserved in the sacred ponds, overgrown Avith the lotus plant, are fed by the piety of the faithful. But the multitude is at present attracted to the other side of the city, where stands the railway station, centre of the passenger and goods traffic for the whole of South Japan. The HiogoHne, at the junction of the Kioto and Hiogo lines, which is twenty-two miles long, passes by Amaynsaki, Nisinoitiii/a, and some other large towns in the neighbourhood of the bay. The ancient city of Hiogo, which stands near the neck of a promontory, often gives its name to the new town of KoIm', from which it is separated by a dry ravine. The headland overlooking Hiogo shelters on the south-west side the harlM)ur of Kobe, which is deep enough for large vessels to anchor close to the shore. The 400 or 500 Europeans settled in Kobe constitute the most important foreign colony in the Empire next to that of Yokohama. The roadstead may be regarded as the advanced outpcrt of Ohosaka, the foreign trade of which passes almost entirely through the new sea-port. During the summer months the strangers residing in Kobe visit the famous hot springs of Arima, which lie in a romantic upland valley farther north. Near the springs is a dry well called Tori-ji-goku, or " Bird-hell," the deadly exhalati(ms from which are said to be fatal to birds and small animals approaching too near the spot. Close to Hiogo is the artificial island of Tsuki-jima, said to have been constructed by Kiyomori in the year 1161 a.d. According to the legend, this island was twice swept away by the waves, when a learned sage being consulted discovereratsuwo placed in a stone coffin, which was sunk in the sea Fig. 204. — Hiofio-KonE. Poiile I : 4.').000. 155* 10 I35'I5' EOfG. to 32 if cet. 32 Feet and upwards. ^^1^ 1,100 Yards. to the entire satisfaction of the monster, who opposed no further obstacle to the construction of the island. On the north side of the large island the two cities of Tsuruya and Obama on Vakasa Bay corresjjond to those of Ohosaka and Iliogo, with which they com- niunicate through Lake liiva and the neighbouring depressions. These northern ports of the isthmus, turned towards the stori'i-tossed seu of Japan, and possessing merely a narrow strip of arable land at the foot of the hills, eould scarcely hope to compete with the commercial cities of the southern shores. But carriage roads and ii TOPOGRAPHY OF NIP-PON. 489 that even railways will ore lonjic serve to forward the produoe of the soutli to the northern coast lands, wliilc (he adverse winds of llu' western waters have heen already overeomc by the introduction of steam navigation. Tlie harbour of Tsuriiga, which is of small extent, but which is accessible to the lai-gest vessels, inid which is slieltered by an amphitheatre of hills from all winds except that of the north-west, is the best on the inner side of Hondo, and will probiddy become the chief station for vessels trading with the ports of Korea and Russian ^Maucliurla. Tsuruga is already one of the enircjjufs for the edible sea-weeds and fish forwarded U Piff. 205.— Matsuye. Scale 1 : 900,000. ISS-JO' Eof-C3 53°50 '<(' 15 Uiles. from Hakodate, a traffic in which hundreds of junks are yearly engaged. The question of opening this port to European shipping has been frequently dis- cussed. West of the isthmus, the centre of which is occupied by Lake Biva, nearly all the towns stand on the shores of the Inland Sea, or at least on the southern slope of the peninsula, which is by far the most fertile and populous. Nevertheless a few busy places are also found on the opposite side. Towards the western extremity of Vakasa Bay lies Yum, in the midst of orange groves which yield the best fruit in Japan. In the neighbourhood is found the " third wonder " of the country, the Amutate-basi, a natural causeway of rocks projecting far into the sea. Farther on the highway along the coast traverses the towns of Toitori and Yoiiafjo. A little west of the latter place stands the picturesque town of Mntrntye, or Siiiiane-hen, on the banks of the winding brackish lagoon of Sinzino-ike, which communicates through a narrow outlet with the sea. Akasi, the first place lying west of Hiogo near the coast of the Inland Sea, f *te«* ,|^jfef« ' ^#I»M ^ *4 ^ »^g^'M^■^B l J^WA«^»w■v■«^j^a^J^^^^ ^' -^-Lv ' ' ^ ! '.-^U i n^. ' -W.i^^ ^r^'^^''' ij 440 EAST ASIA. H I ! *;,; (iL'ciipica on tho south side ii comuiiiiuliiip; site, wlionrp is iiffordod n niafjnifioont panontinu of tlio ishiiid of Aviid/i iind tlic 1\vo fine bays surround in jjf it. FartluT on llimcdzi, a.ssociati>d witli the meniory of Taikosaina, lies at thi> outh't of an oxtrcniely fcrtik' vaUcy, and at th(! junction of several routes, one of which, built by FrencOi engineers, is the best in Japan. It leads to the interior of the peninsula and to the productive mines of Iknito, the chief nu-tallur^ic establishment in the Kmpiro. The French directors, by whom it is nianajj^ed, reduce the gold and silver ores for the imperial mint at Ohosaka, but they have not yet begun to smelt the rich copper ores of the same district. Tlu' chief industry of Ilinied/i is the leather ware still prepared according to the old Japanese method, and rivalling in beauty and durability that formerly produced in Cordova. Tho inland town of Tm-iitiiua is occupied chiefly with spinning, dyeing, an'" ironmongery. ]}oth Oka-i/aina and Faku-tjama, which lie on deep inlets or creeks of the Inland Sea, were the former residences of powerful daimios. But they have now been outstripped by the commercial port of Onomitui, one of the chief stations of tho coast steamers plying between the two sides of the winding Inland Sou. East of Ohosaka and lliogo-Koln? the most important port in these waters is Ilii'O-sima, which, like Ohosaka itself, lies at tho northern extremity of a crescent- shaped bay, and on the mouths of a river winding through a fertile plain. With its immerous winding -canals, hvidges, and boats plying in all directions, this place might also claim to bo regarded as a sort of Japanese Venice. On oiie of the islands studding the bay over against Iliro-sima stands another of the " three wonders " of Japan, the much frequented Shinto temple of Itsku-sima, or " Isle of Light," con- secrated to the three divine virgins sprung from the broken sword of the God of the Winds. The sanctuary contains some curious antique wood carvings, but the finest objects in the island arc the magnificent woods, which are never touched by the axe. Previous to the revolution of 1868 no food was allowed to be consumed on the island, where all burials were also interdicted. At the death of any of tho priests, pilgrims, innkeepers, or fishers, who form the whole population of the island, those engaged in removing tho body to tho mainland were obliged to remain away for fifty days, and on their return were confined in a sort of quarantine for the same period. It is still forbidden to cultivate the soil of this holy island of Itsku-sima, so that all provisions have to ha brought every morning from across the Avater. On the arrival of the boats hundreds of tame deer collect from the depths of the forests, to receive their share in the distribution of the food. Ueyond Iliro-sima, and on the west side of the bay, stands the industrial town of Ivakmii, noted for its pajjcr, matting, and woven goods manufactures. Farther on several less important places follow from inlet to inlet as far as the Simono-seki (Akamaga-seki) channel, the north side of which is occupied by the straggling town of like name. Enclosed between wooded hills and the sea, Simono-seki has been called the Constantinople of the Japanese Bosphorus, although occupying a secondary place amongst the cities of the Empire. The neighbouring shores yield the edible sea-weed of commerce. The large city of Uagi, standing on a roadstead ■ '■-iS'*!?.- vr.iii^P^-1*^^^^;' .iisw TOI'OGKAl'IIY OP SIKOK, KIU-SIU. AND KIU-KIU. 441 «tucl(l(Hl witli islands inul islets, 1ms boon roccntly succrcdod us rui)it;d of tlu> ])n)- vincc of \ii<,'iito by YamaijiitHi, which lies fiirthor iidaiid on a small alllucnt of Iho Jttpauesc Mediterruueuu. In the neighbourhood ure uunieioiis tliornuil sprinjjs. Tni'ooKAPHY OK SiKOK, Kn-sir, and Hit -kiu. All the important towns of the island of Sikok stand cither on the coast, or in the immediate vicinity of the sea. JSIost of them facie the mainland of Hondo, from which they ure separated by straits, whicih may easily be traversed in a few hours. The attractive force of Kioto and Ohosuku has drawn the inhabitants especially to the north side, where, going east und west, the towns of Tokii-nima, TakatimtH, Manii/dinp, Imabai; and MittsH-i/ama follow eueh other in quick succession. Umziiua alone stands on the strait which separates Sikok from the island of Kiu-siu. On the south coast, which faces the open sea, there is only one town, Kotxi, capital of the formerly powerful feudul principality of Toza. Thanks to the intelligence und industry of its inhabitants, Kotsi has become the busiest place in JSikok, and the centre of the paper manufacture for the whole of Japan. The most animated part of the largo and populous island of Kiu-siu, or the •' Nine Lands," is turned towards the south and west — that is to say, towards China and the southern waters first reached by vessels from the West. On the east coast the only important place is Mii/asaki, and on the north-east, facing the Inland Sea, the only large centres of population are Umhi and Nrikafs. Oitu-kcii, or Fundi, where the Catholic missionaries founded the first Christian community, is now in a state of decay, as is also Kokura, which stands over against Simono-seki, south of the entrance to the Inland Sea. The silting of its harbour now prevents large vessels from approaching Kokura, while the passenger and goods traffic, which formerly followed the coast route from Nagasaki to Tokio, and which was, conse- quently, obliged to use the ferry at Kokura, is now conducted by steamers, which are no longer obliged to stop at this place. The marine channel here, about 1,800 yards broad, will, ere long, be probably crossed by an already projected railway viaduct. The twin to^vns of Ftikmka and Ilaknta, separated by the mouth of a small river, which falls into a picturesque bay, concentrate all the trade of the north-west side of Kiu-siu, Fukuoka, lying to the south, comprises the administrative and aristocratic quarters, while the traffic and industries are centred in Ilakata, where are manufactured some fine silk and cotton goods. Some temples and old flat- roofed houses in the neighbourhood are the only stone buildings which existed in Japan before the late revolution. The two cities are connected by much frequented routes with the populous towns of Kurume and Saga, situated farther south, near Simabara Bay. In the neighbouring peninsula of Hizen are some coal and kaolin deposits. Here, and especially near Arita, in the same district, are produced the finest Japanese porcelains ; amongst others, the small delicate and transparent shell- shaped cups. Over two hundred ovens are constantly burning round about Arita. These wares, which have long been imitated by the Dutch, are indifferently known Gl Sss ■'^ms^m^sm^sm^i!&m;mxm^B,is^i'^.3m-mmcr-^mwm:ir<'f.:u' -^ ■ -*x^-K/.^,^r^.7r?r — ^"'' 0' « 442 EAST ASIA. i! I as Hi/en, Arita, or Iinuri porcclaiiin, from tlio numcs of fho province, the industrial town, and the soa-port wlionco they an? forwarded. Tlie town of J/iradi) nr Firanffo, in file island of like name at the extremity of the peninsula, is much fre(piented hy the .steamers plying' alon;,'' the eoast. In the seveutoeiith century, for the ten years from KiUJ to Ki'JM, this place was thrown oj)en to the Knj^lish und Dutch traders. NtiijaHnki, or " Cape \An\\r," which became famous in the West as the oidy place in tlie Empire not closed to foreij»n trade after the expulsion of the i'ortugueso in lG2>'i, is by no means one of the largest cities in Japan. Although its excellent port, or ratlier the inlet, is from GO to 100 feet deep, and well sheltered by the surroimding hills, it has the disadvantage of being situated ut the extremity of u narrow i)eninsula destitute of fertile or productive lands. Hut while its foreign trade has remained almost stationary, the local traffic has, nevertheless, considerably increased, entirely, however, to the profit of the native shipping. Naga.suki export)^ little agricultural produce, but does u large trade in lacquer und mothcr-of- pearl wures, enamelled luid clomnue pottery, und other products of the local industries. A portion of its export trade is now shared by Fukubori, und some other neighbour- ing towns. But, thanks to its historic associations, Nagasaki still remains one of the most interesting places in Japan for all intelligent European truvellers. Its buy also presents one of the finest prospects in these waters, although the view has been somewhat marred by the erection of unsightly fortifications on the surrounding headlands. The bay is encircled by an amphitheatre of green hills, rising to u height of 1,000 feet, laid out in well-cultivated, terraced plots, or clothed to their summits with a dense forest growth. The entrance of the buy is studded with numerous islets, amongst which is the solitary rock of Takaboko, or the " Lofty Spear," the Pupenberg, or " Priests' Hill " of the Dutch, so named in memory of the missionaries and Japanese converts said to have been hurled from this spot into the sea in the yeur 1622. Above the city the place is also shown where twenty-six priests were crucified in 1597. The narrow artificial fan-shaped islet of iJe-sinift, where the Dutch traders were confined, like victims of the plague, is now connected with the mainland, and the buildings whicl\ served us the prison houses of the foreigners from 1G39 to 1859 have been destroyed by a fire. In the interior of the city is shown the quarter where the Chinese merchants were confined. The neighbouring town of Inaaa possesses some dockyards, reluctantly ceded to the Russian Government for refitting its vessels. Further south, and beyond the buy, are scuttered several islands, amongst others Taka-sima, which has some coal mines worked according to the European method. In 1881 the daily yield was about 1,000 tons, or as much as that of all the rest of Japan. The town of Simabara, which was destroyed by an eruption from Mount TJnzen in 1792, lies at the east foot of this volcano, whence flow numerous hot springs. It commands the west entrance of the large bay of like name, while to the east of the opposite side, and some distance inland the town of Kmamoto {^Kumamoto), is grouped round an ancient stronghold, whose sloping bastions are crowned with verandahs and elegant houses under the shade of camphor trees. This is the most -K '■''v%i^9Sfi- 'Mi- I rrJT?:i g r ;. ' -;;j'4 '>iMn» ^- «WAg ir 'TT-.'i'jB-.-. .Bg ferifcfe.. ' .',. ' ;- ' Wf - ".: '. i.<« -j.-'j tm I i! li -t — r:*r -r-;H,f^-"^^fM' ^.-^.-^^^ TOl'OUUAI'llV OF 81KOK. KIU-SIU, AND lUU-KlU. 11B central an well as thplarj^e-Mt city in the iMlaiid : hut there are few iinpdrtant oentres (tf populalinii in tlie district, and the phice ha.s no harlxjiir, altlinuj>:h it in urcessihh' toHat-hottonii'd cnil't, which are hen- h>ad(il witli ])rndiice tor the Najjasiiki market. On the other hand the I'anious principality ol Satsnia (Siit/mna), " hind of the hrave and intelligent," in the southern part of the island, has no lar^e cities. Hut idon^ tlic ooaMt or in tlu> vicinity of the seu there are wveral husy jdaci's, such as Ii/zmi, AkiiHc, iSnii/iti, Kiisri/(i, luiijo, Jlit/aiiozio, Yditifi-f/ani, h'ii(/:iJ,i, h'i>/,ii/iii, and on Kiiijo- sima Hay the town of like name. TIum famous place, whose citadel was boniharded by the English in 1HG4, Htrctches along the west side of the bay over Fig. '.'Ofi.— Nafa AM) Sirni in tiik Imland of Okinava. Soale 1 ; IStt.OOO. I37<'40 EofG ;27'50' 16 to 64 Feet. MoUrepore Reefn. <>l Feet and upwurds. against the magnificent solitary volcano of Sakura. The trade of Eago-sima is in- significant, and it has no noteworthy industries except faience and imitations of all the " Old Satsma " porcelains. Recently some Japanese capitalists have here established a cotton spinning mill and a manufacture of arms. Kadziki, at the north-west angle of the hay, is much better situated for trade, its harbour being far less exposed to storms, while it enjoys easy communication with the productive districts in the north. According to Voycikov, it would soon become one of the most flourishing sea-ports in the Empire were it thrown open to European shipping. The tobacco of Kadziki is already exported to Cuba, whence it is distributed over the rest of the world under the form and name of " Ilavanna cigars." ifei*^-- ::-^ t;>iSB».w^awtt a ». . .■^ligrr-icu- */(,wA«^itcv?'^ ' - i--.*xv»»^^.t' -^ ■■ 444 i:ast ASIA. Tlir iiiliiil)itiintH<)f Tiiu-kiii (Iliu-kiii), lirin^ Ncattcnfl uvit t)it> iiuiiiiTotiH iNlutidM of tilt' iiri'liipi'lii^ro, iiri> iiiohiIv (tiiicciiti-atrd in Niiiall vilhi^fCM Iviii^nn tlir IxitikMof (lii> crt'ckn. 'I'lir only tdwii^* woitliy nrc t'uiiml in ttir larj,'c itla;: ! tlio central ^roii]), < )kina\a-MiiMU (I'kinia), tlic ('liiinj^-chin^-tai) ul' tlic CliiiU" ' lltTO Nii/inw Xuru, Hlandinj; «>n a l)ay coniplrlrly mIicIi* red from all winds, Iuih Iji •. > lio inoHt fri'(|n(Mitcd M>a-|)ort in the an lii|i('la^r<>, notwitliNtandin^f tlic iiunitToUN rctd's olmtru('tin)( the approach to tlic roadHtcad. ItH chief ex}M)ilN are HU^:ar, cotton, and Bilks, which arc shipped l>y .la[)aneHo vcHHelH for the northern islandM U> u yearly value of alM)nt i' 1(1,0(10. A jtaved ronte, one of the tinest in the I'inipirc, wincU hetwcen wooded hills tlirou;,'h a pleasant valley from Nafa up to Sinn' [Siiiii, S/iiii, Kliirliimi^, cajjital of IJiu-kin. Stan^ on a plateau which overlooks the two seas, this town is regularly laid out, and Hurrounded i»y Hne plantations cd' urocuand other tropical plants. One of its huildinfifs Ikmu's the tith' id' University. The lar^;e island also containH two other towriM, Toman and Knintii, and the urhan population ninnhers alto^'cther (lO.OOO souls, or half <»f the ])opidation of Okinava, consisting «'.\clusively of Siziihii, or " nohles." All the peasantry ar(; hi'imiii, or " pleheians," and are disliuguished from tho uobluH by the bronze pins Avorn in their huir.* TiiK HoNiN Aitcmi'i'.i.Afio. Besides Liu-kiu and the numerous islands geoffraphically dependinp; on tho main arehipela«'ip-])on, the Ja])anese (iovcnnnent also lays claim to a small group lyinj^ in the I'aciiie Ocean, (iOO miles in a straij^ht line to tho Houth-south-eust of Kioto. This solitary group is known in Kurope astlio Ilonin Archipelago, limiiii being a corruption of the Japanese Jlinn'n-fo, or " I'ninhabited Islands." Hut having been again occupied in recent times, they should, properly s])eaking, resume the name given to them at the end of tho sixteenth century, when I'lince Sadayori, driven thither by a storm, took possession of them on behalf of the Government, and gave them his family name of (hjnHtimra. At tlmt time they had already been sighted by the Spanish explorer Villulobos, when navigating those waters in 1543. A century later on the Dutch ( ■aptain Matthys (Juast, uccompanied by the illus- trious navigator Abel Tusman, also surveyed the southern islands of tho group, which already figure on various contemporary charts of that part of tho Pacific C)cean. Nevertheless tho memory of those discoveries had been completely for- gotten when the American whaler Coffin visited the southern i.slands in 1823. Next year he was followed by his countryman Ebbot, also a whaler, who explored the central islands of tho archipelago. In 1827 the English Admiral Beechey occu- pied tho Ogasavara group, and the English continued to claim possession of it till the year 18G1, when tho question was finally settled in favour of Japan. Although frequently visited by whalers and others since tho hydrographio surveys of Beechey, LUtke, CoUinson, and Perry, tho Benin Archipelago is still far from being fully explored, and only a very few points have been astronomically determined. The great discrepancies still prevailing in the outlines and nomen- * Gubbins, in Proceedings of the lioyal Geographical Society for October, 1881. '^^smJi^mXWWi TUK BONIN AUCIIirELAGO. 146 cluturc of the vnrii»UH iNliiiiiil j^roupH of I'l'cl iiikI ('olliii. < 'n \\\v I'luiojnan iiiii|)s (he (wo uortlirrii f,MdUits, far less iiiipoitaiit than llic others, hear the iiiiiikh t)f KatiT 1111(1 I'lin-y. Tlu'ri- arc altoj^ctht r four ^;idup.H, ciMiipiisinjr ci^rliiy-nin,. iNhiiids, with a joint iimi of Wl Mipmic iiiiU'M, iiiul a total hiifjth of nn U direction of the nieiiiiiaii, nuiy he ief,'ai(led as a j^coloj^ical continuation of the volcanic chain of the "Sevtii Ihlands " lyiii;;: south of Ycdo May. Ilatziseo is distant M!)0 miles from (he J'arry proiip ; hut other intermedia(e isle(s rise ultove (he surface, while teiiipdrnry volcanoes arc known (o liavc made (heir appearance in these wa(crs. The hills of the Oj^asavara Archipela;;:o, Nome of which rise to a hei^;ht of l,'-UH) feet, arc alwi mostly of volcanic formatiim. They ahound in lavaM, tufa, basalt columns, while the crt'HtH of the cones terminate here and there in craters. Hut schists and crystalline rocks also occur, nor did the naturalists of I'erry's American expedition ohserve any traces of recent igneous action. Lying hetwcen (he '-itSth and 'idth parallels of latitude, luyoiid the idld oceanic current, these islands enjoy a tropical climate, warmer than those of th(> I,iu-kiu Archipelago, although the latter are situated nearer to the equator. The forests eh)t]iing the hillsides behnig to the vegetation of the torrid zone, consisting mostly of palms such as tho urcca and pandanus, besides the sngo phint and a species resembling the cocoanut. Here are also tree ferns, but the camphor tree has not yet been discovered. The giant of these woodlands is a species of mull)erry, the stem of which exceeds !.'{ feet in circumference. The .soil, being composed of \iAvumv (k'hm, isextremely fertile, yielding all the Japanese cereals, the sugar-cane, banana, pine-upjjle, taHow tree, and wax plant. In the valleys the edible mushroom grows in the greatest profusion. There are no indigenous (piadrupeds, and the sheep, goats, pigs, cuts, and dogs found in the wild state are the descendants of domestic animals landed on the i.slands by the early navigators. A few hannless reptiles glide amidst the rocks, and tho forests are tenanted by a very limited number of birds. When tho first explorers landed on the islands these birds betrayed no fear of man, and allowed themselves to be taken by the hond. The islets abound in various kinds of fishes, cctacea, Crustacea, and turtles. The archipelago was first occupied in recent times in the year 1HJ50 by immigrants, who traded with the whalers. At the time of the American expedition the island of Peel, the Tsitsi-sima of the Japanese, had a population of thirty-one souls, Americans, English, Portuguese, and Polynesians In 1880 their numbers had greatly increased, for in that year there were no l(w.s than a hundred and sixty houses, of which a hundred and thirty belonged to Japanese subjects. Peel is the only inhabited island, and here is Port Lloi/d, the Olio Miiiato of the Japanese, and the centre of the administration. It occupies the interior of u crater whose sides have fallen in, and affords good anchorage i)i 130 feet of water. \^:''ir-^i>''.'*h^lSi!n^if^='-^'**i**Vi't^^^ .^i»i ..»s*s;w- 446 EAST ASIA. Vital Statistics — AoRiruLTuuK. Although Japan is to a largo extent covered with mountains, and in the north too cold to be tliickly peopled, the population of the archipelago is, nevertheless, fur denser than that of France or of many other countries in the west of Europe.* In Nip-pon proper, that is in the "Eight Islands," there are about 230 inhabitants Fig. 207. — BoNIN, on OOASAVAUA AuCHirBLAOO. Scale 1 : 900,000. Accordinp to Perry. Accordinir to the Japanese. 18 Miles. i to the square mile, and the increase has been very rapid since the revolution of 1868, when regular official censuses began to be taken. The returns gave 35,110,825 for the whole Empire in 1871, and 35,925,000 in 1880, so that for the * Area and population of Japan :- Nip-pon Yeso and Euriles Liu-kiu . Aiea In aqaare miles. 112,000 38,000 900 160,900 Population, 1880. 35,4.51,413 163,35.5 310,546 35,926,313 MCE AND TEA CULTUEE. 447 intervening nine years the increase was at the rate of about 90,000 yearly. Iloi e in the natural excess of births over deaths Japan stands nearly on a level with Great Britain, while the population of both countries is about equal, Should it continue to enjoy internal peace, there can be no doubt that the archipelago will outstrip France in the number of its inhabitants long before the close of the nineteenth century. The returns having been carefully made, the general results may be accepted as approximately true. Consequently there can be no reasonable doubt that in Japan the male is in excess of the female population, a remarkable fact already attested by the ancient national records. The excess seems to be about three per cent., whereas in European countries, or in those in the enjoyment of European culture, this pro- portion is found to be reversed in favour of the female sex wherever systematic returns have hitherto been made.* How such a large relative population can be supported in the land is explained by the diet and habits of its inhabitants. The national tradition recognises five sacred plants, rice, wheat, barley, sarasin, and the azuki pea, which the Wind-God, brother of the Sun, extracted from the body of the Goddess of the Great Air, and which he planted in the soil of South Nip-pou. Amongst these five plants rice holds by far the first rank, and supplies the chief food of the people. Every person usually requires about two and a half pounds daily, but the vegetables, fruits, and farinaceous preparations added to the staple article of diet do not average more than ten ounces. The poor scarcely ever touch meat, which is little eaten even by the upper classes. Thus all the arable land, formerly valued at scarcely more than 11,000,000 acres, is directly employed in the production of food. Wherever it can grow, even on the slopes of the hills and mountains, which cannot be irrigated without great labour, rice is planted, Nor is it loosely sown, but disposed by the hand in parallel lines, carefully manured with animal substances and constantly watered. Rice and Tea Culture. " Riqe being the staple produce, the seasons for sowing, growing, and reaping, are diligently watched by the farmers, who formerly cultivated the land under the daimios as part of their retainers, but now farm under the Mikado's government, paying an annual tax or rent. The rice lands generally lie fallow all the winter, and consequently yield only one crop in the year. In the last days of April, or about the 1st of May, little patches of ground are prepared in the corners of the fields as seed-beds for the young plants. Here the seed is sown thickly, sometimes having been steeped in liquid manure previously to its being sown. It vegetates in the wonderfully short time of three or four days if the weather be moist or warm, as is generally the case at that season of the year. " In the meantime, while the seed-beds are vegetating, the labourers are busily employed in preparing the land, into which it is to be transplanted. This operation commences at the beginning of June. About three inches deep of water then cover • Proportionof the sexes according to the census of 1880:— men: 18,210,500; women: 17,714,823. 4 Ill I E<1 ! 448 EAST ASIA. the fields, and the planting goes on with astonishing rapidity. A labourer takes a lot of plants under his left arm and drops them in little bundles over the inundated soil, knowing almost to a plant what number will bo required. Others, both men and women, take up the bundles whieh are thus thro\vn down, and the planting commences. Tbri proper number of plants are selected and planted in rows by the hand in the muddy soil. When the hand is drawn up the water rushes in, carry- ing down with it a portion of the soil, and thus the roots are immediately covered. The planting season is at its height about midsunnner, and is generally over by the middle of July. By November the bright green crops are waving in the breeze, the ears arc ripe and harvest is concluded. " Besides this great summer crop of rice there are winter crops of wheat, barley, buckwheat, peas, beans, onions, and potatoes. The three first mentioned may be considered as the staple winter productions which are cultivated on land above the level of the rice valleys. The wheat and barley are sown in the end of October or beginning of November ; these soon vegetate and cover the hillsides with lively green during the winter months. As the land has been carefully cleaned and prepared previously, scarcely any further labour is necessary until the following spring. " By the beginning of May the plants are in full ear, and harvested in June, the corn being cut with a small reaping-hook. When housed the heads are struck off by a short bamboo and fall through a grating from the straw. These are then laid on a broad flooring of cement, hard and smooth, and the wheat or barley threshed out with a flail." * Nevertheless, a portion of the land has to be reserved for the cultivation of economical plants, such as the mulberry, ginseng, indigo, and trees yielding vege- table wax, lacquer, and paper. The tea pi nt is carefully cultivated, and yields a produce highly appreciated by the Ameri(;an buyers, who prefer it, notwithstand- ing its roughness, to that of Hankow and Shanghai. In some districts of the southern islands the facilities of exportation have given a preference to the grow- ing of oranges even over that of cereals. Siebold enumerates altogether about five hundred plants cultivated in Japan for economical, ornamental, and other purposes, and of this number over one half have been introduced from abroad. Next to rice by far the most important plants are the mulberry and tea, " Silk is more or less produced in almost every province of the main island north and east of Osaka. But the four districts in which it is cultivated in the greatest abundance are Oshui, Joshui, Koshui, and Sinshui. Oshui produces the largest quantity, but the silk does not equal in quality and fineness of size that of the other districts. Joshui and Sinshui are noted for the fine size of their silks, which fetch the highest prices in the London market. But the greater part of them are sold on the Continent, as baing better reeled than any other silk from the East. Duj'ing the failure of the silk crops in Italy and other continental states, through the deterioration of the silkworm, eggs were imported in very large quantities from Japan, which improved the culture. . * Mossmim, op. cit., p. 108, ~-^ mm! J is $ RICE AND TEA CULTURE. 449 "Tea IS still more important than silk, and its cultivation and manufacture employ a considerably greater number of people. The tea plant was introduced from China into Japan about the beginning of the ninth century by a Buddhist bodze named Yeitsin, who presented the first cup of tea to Saga, the reigning Mikado, who patronised the cultivation of the shrub. Since then its use has become universal, and the home consumption is now so great that there is not nnicli left for exportation. So genial are the climate and soil of some districts for its growth that the plant grows wild, while it forms hedges in gardens. " Tea is produced throughout the greater part of Nip-pon and in all the provinces of Kiu-siu. The finest qualities come from Yanm-siro, but the two largest producing districts are Isay and Owari. Suringo, Simosa, and Koshui are the provinces which supply the Yokohama market with the earliest new teas, " Tea of the finer qualities requires special care in the cultivation. The planta- tions are situated remote from the habitations of man, and as much as possible from all other crops, lest the delicacy of the tea should suffer from smoke, impurity, or emanations of any kind. Manure of a special kind is applied to the roots, con- sisting of dried fish like anchovies, and a liquor expressed from the mustard seed. No trees surround the plantations, for *bey must enjoy the unobstructed beams of the morning sun, and the plants thrive best upon well- watered hillsides. The plant is pollarded to render it iuore branchy, and therefore more productive, and must be five years old before the leaves are gathered. " The process of harvesting the leaves, or rather of storing the tea harvest, is one of extreme nicety. The leaves of the finer and the coarser teas are sorted as they are plucked, and no more of a kind are gathered in a day than can be dried before night. There are two modes of drying, called the dry and the wet process. In the one the leaves are at once roasted in an iron pan, then thrown upon a mat, and rolled by the hand. During the whole operation, which is repeated five or six times, or till the leaves are quite dry, a yellow juice fxudes. This is called the dry preparation. " In the wet process the leaves are first placed in a vessel over the steam of boiling water, where they remain till they are withered. They are then rolled by hand and dried in the iron roasting pan. When thus prepared, less of the yellow juice exuding, the leaves retain a lighter green colour, and more of fine flavour. When fresh dried, the tea is delicately susceptible of odours and requires to be carefully guarded from their influence. The finest qualities are packed in jars, in order to retain their aroma.* " The Japanese are excellent husbandmen, or, at least, market gardeners. They till the land in the same way that the European gardeners work their plots with the spade and hoe. No weeds are allowed to sprout, and everything available for manuring purposes is ca: ;. ally utilised. The quantity of animal refuse used in this way probably exceeds that which is actually consumed, for enormous quantities of fish are imported from Yeso for the sole purpose of enriching the land. Ne\'er- theless, the soil is inadequate for the ever-increasing population. All the plains • Mossman, p. 180. .t ^feaiSWaWiMSi JBaaaWlHilWW lillMIMIIN'**WJ<^ife* 450 EAST ASIA. urc under tillage, and nothing now remains to be reclaimed except some marshy alluvial tracts and the slopes of the mountains. Natural Resources of Yeso. The island of Yeso no doubt presents a vast field of colonisation to the Japa- nese. Larger than Ireland, and yielding the same description of plants, it might support a population of several millions. But it is too cold for the cultivation of rice, so that the people emigrate reluctantly to a region so much more inhospitable than their own. Nearly all the Japanese attracted to Yeso by the Colonial Office regard themselves as exiles, and never fail to seize the first favourable opportunity to return to their homes. But although offering such limited agricultural advan- tages, Yeso must soon attract attention in consequence of its vast resources in timber and minerals. The whole island may be said to constitute a boundless forest, consisting of various species, amongst which are thirty-six kinds of trees useful to the carjienter and cabinet maker. Scarcely does the traveller leave the beaten track when he finds his progress arrested by thickets of creepers, bamboos, and other undergrowths, overshadowed by trees of great size. It is difficult even to cross the clearings, where the clusters of the Etilalia Japonica grow in dense masses to the height of a man on horseback. Until good roads are opened Yeso must continue to derive its importance exclu- sively from the coast fisheries. lu the abundance of its marine life this island resembles Oregon, on the opposite side of the Pacific. Some of the nets employed in the salmon fisheries are 4,000 feet long, and require seventy men to manipulate them. At the end of the day, after three draughts, as many as 20,000 fish are found to have been taken in these nets. Even the worst seasons will yield 1,200,000 salmon, with a total weight of 3,000 tons. Fishing is also successfully pursued along all the co^ : of Japan proper and of the Liu-kiu Archipelago, and fish is far more generally ".onsumed by the people than meat. Piscicultural establishments have even of late years be'^n formed on a large number of streams in Central Nip-pon. Mother-of-pearl is collected by divers in the Liu-kiu Islands, while the rorqual and other species of cetacea are pursued by daring fishers in the open seas. A favourite subject of pictorial representation is the fleets of smacks pursuing these large animals, and driving them with the harpoon towards strong wide-meshed rope nets. Land Tenure — Mining Industry. The land belonged formerly to the State, under which the peasantry held it as hereditary tenants. Thanks to this perpetual tenure from father to son, the culti- vators had at last acquired a certain independence, ranking in the social scale immediately after the nobles, and above the merchants and artisans, who, however wealthy, were regarded as their inferiors. The land-tax varied according to the nature of the crops, the abundance of the harvests, ana the caprice of the prince. '^^m. LAND TENURE— MINING INDUSTRY. 451 Fixed in some districts at no more tlian one-tenth, it rose in other places to a third a half, and even three- fifths of the whole yield. The recent revolution, by which the whole social system has been so profoundly modified, could not fail to deal with the land question. By a tax of two and a half per cent, the peasantry have become the virtual proprietors of the soil, and the Japanese law of land tenure may in a general way be said to have been conformed to the Roman right. Large landed estates have already been developed in Yeso, in the northern section of Hondo, and even in certain central districts, wherever the land was found lying fallow. Some of these recently formed domains rival in extent those of Ireland or Russia. There is one estate near Nihi-gata entirely under rice, which is no less than twenty square miles in extent, and yields an income of about £16,000 to the owner. The laws of inheritance still bear traces of a matriarchal social order. The eldest son inheriting a patrimony cannot abandon it, and his wife must occupy it with him and take his family name. The daughter inheriting, Avhen the father has had no male issue, must in her turn remain on the paternal estate, in which case residence also becomes obligatory on her husband, who takes her name. When a new household is founded, if the dwelling has been furnished by the father-in-law the husband also takes the name of the wife who brings him the residence. The raining industry is of less relative importance in Japan than was formerly the case. In the seventeenth century the Portuguese are said to have annually exported from the archipelago six hundred barrels (?) of pure gold, valued at nearly £800,000. This metal was at that time comparatively plentiful, for it was only twelve times the price of filver. In many mines the copper ores contain a considerable proportion of gold, and these ores were accordingly reckoned amongst the most lucrative articles exported by the Dutch. The Sado gold mines, which are the oldest in Japan, have been worked for centuries, but most of the other mines are not sufficiently productive to continue the works Tho only minerals at present mined are silver, copper, and iron.* Considerable deposits of iron are found in various parts of the archipelago, and Ui up, one of the Kurilo Islands, harbours immense reserves of ores containing as much as eighty per cent, of pure metal. The mines in the neighbour- hood .v; -lendai supply the smelting works with orep sufficient to jdeld as much as fifty tons of iron daily. Other metals, such as lead, tin, cobalt, quicksilver, are produced in insignificant quantities, and the petroleum wells have deceived the hopes of speculators, who expected to find in Japan " oil rivers " rivalling those of Pennsylvania. On the other hand the archipelago is extremely rich in coal deposits. The island of Yeso especially contains carboniferous measures estimated by Lyman at 400 billions of tons, a quantity sufficient to supply tho present consumption of the whole world for the next 2,000 year^. Yet the output in all Japan was no more than 350,000 tons in the year 1879. Most of the Japanese mines belong to the Government, which has also begun • Yield of gold in Ji-pan (1877) : 1,000 lbs., valued at £52,000 76,000 lbs. „ 233,000 silver » copper 3,800 tons 220,000 |x«&i^»;itsM attOi-^ ~>A«R!«l'«-iM>f mSH -r-ft**; V »l« I EAST ASIA. to work the marble quarries, hitherto neglected on account of the hardness of this material. J{iit from various adverse eircumstanees the mining industry bears no proportion to the great natural mineral wealth of the archipelago. " The methods of working, which were until comparatively lately in vogue, were crude and unremunerative; and even now there arc nuuiy mines which, although worked on foreign i)rinciples, yield little or no profit, chiefly on account of their imperfect comnuuiication with l'"ig. 20S. — MiNwiAi, Dei'osits of 1'ebu. Scale 1 : 5,&OU,000. t40" 14 5" EoFG Iron. Railway. i Coal. .,__ 60 Miles. centres of trade. Far up among the inountains thero.iu. leading to them are often wretched bridle-paths, accessible only t() pack-horses, so that transportation is both slow and expensive. The present Government, however, have turned their atten- tion to the improvement of the highways. The recent outlay for costly machinery, and the heavy expenses incurred in sinking shafts, constructing furnaces, &c., have also tended to consume any revenue derivable from the GovernTncnt mines. Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, sulphur, coal, basalt, felspar, greenstones, granites (red and ;^rey), maible, rock-cirystal, agate, carneliau, amber, pumice-stone, talc, - ' *::'!** S£;■35.■ TAPER. 455 L.VCQVKR-WARK AND PaPKK. Tho .TapimoHo artisans have also been for centuries acquainted with the art of weaving heavy linen and silken fabrics, and their brocades, interwoven with gold and silver thread, still form admirable hangings or festive robes. In one of the temples at Nara an; preserved some lacquer boxes, said to date from the third century of the Christian era, which attest the superiority of the Jajjaneso in this industry for a period of one thousand six hundred y(>ars. The Japanese lacquers of the bettor epochs fixed on copper, or more frequently on the wood of the Pinua Fig. 209.— ScKNKB or Txdvstkiaj. Life. i'ao-timile from a JapaaeBc Album. retimspom, and ornamented with gold, silver, or mother-of-pearl, are amongst the choicest contents of our museums. The most highly esteemed are those of the sixteenth century, a period answering to that of the Renaissance in the West. The finest specimens have a metallic lustre, and are almost indestructible. The Nile having been wrecked on the Mikomoto reef, near Simoda, all the treasures she was conveying to the Exhibition of Vienna remained for eighteen months under water. Yet when the lacquer objects were at last brought up by the divers, they were found to be perfectly intact, their polish having lost nothing of its original splendour. 450 EAST ASIA. Jiipaiu'sr Iiu(|U('r-wiin' far HurpasHOs even tho finest ChiueHO H»eci)ncjiH in flclicacy and finisli. It also possossoH an unt'Xplaincd property — a hardncsH enabling it In rcsi.st tlio rou^jflient n.sajife without being h( latelied, and to endure high temperatures, wliile its polish is the most perfect known. The pro('e.sH of its manufaeture is tlius described by 'ractpieniart. "The wood when smoothly planed is covered with a thin sheet of paper or silk gauze, over which is .spread u thick coating, made of powdered rod sandstojio and huffalo's gall. This is allow<'(l to dry, after which it is poliMhed and rubbed with wax, or cIhc it receivop a \\a.sh of gum-water, holding chalk in Holution. The varnish is laid on with n fl.il urush, and the article is ])lated in a damp drying-room, whence it passes into the hands of a workman, who moistens and again polishes it with a piece of very Hne-grainod soft clay slate, or with the stalks of the horse-tail or stave-grass. It then receives u second coating of lacquer, and when dry is once more polished. Those operations are repeated until the surface becomes perfectly smooth and lustrous. There are never a])i'lied less than three coatings, but seldom more than eighteen, although some old Japanese ware are said to have received upwards of twenty. " The most highly esteemed varieties are the gold, the black, and the rod lacquer, the last of which .seems peculiar to Japan. It is nearlj* always of a pure bright colour, and the ornamental ])arts are very carefully executed. The black variety is distin- guished by the number of its coatings and the perfection of its polish, which has the elfect rather of a metal than a varnish. The illusion is enhanced by the delicacy of the reliefs in gold, certain pieces looking like burnished steel incrustod with j)ure gold. Some of the specimens, especially those known as " mirror lacquer," are remarkahle for the puritj' of their lustre, and for their peculiar style of ornamenta- tion, the ])rocess of which has remained a mystery. On the surface are brought out th( details of plants executed in gold, with the most delicate reliefs. Then, according as the sti -ns sink in, the reliefs disappear, the details vanish, and the whole continies to fade away, as might an object immersed in water, and gradually oblit(>rated by the depth and absence of light. Black lacquer is applied to every conceivable object, from furniture, panels, folding-screens, tables, seats, and stand.s, to the caintiest artistic conceptions, such as fruits, flowers, figures, armorial bearings, plants and animals." The Japanese are also pre-eminent in the manufacture of certain kinds of paper, which they prepare from the pulp of the mulberry, the Briissonetia popi/rifcm, tlie JiihisciiH, and several other species of pLtnts. If, as has been pretended, the rank of nations in the scale of civilisation is to be determined by the quantity of paper consumed by them, the Japanese might certainly claim the first place. They use paper, not only for printing and painting, but also for a multitude of other purposes. Quires of paper replace our handkerchiefs and table-napkins ; the stools used as pillows are covered with paper ; the windows have panes of paper instead of glass, while panels of the same material form the movable partitions of the houses. Paper garments coated with vegetable wax are worn in rainy weather ; paper is still the substitute for the leather coverings of the vehicles drawn by hand ; and in machinery paper bands are found more durable than those uiade of II ^*^>IS!&^:Wt«*S^lKfSi|s^ LACQUEllWAllK AND I'Al'EU. 467 leather. All attoinptw to imitate Home of the Japanese paj)ers have hitherto failed, but for perfect whileiieHM the Kiij^lish and French products uro superior, those of Japan always sliowinj,' a yellowish tin^,'e. The Kiiji, or paper-tree, and the process of its conversion into paper are tlms dcserilH'd hy Mossinan. " From ustronfjf-hranehed wochI nnit rises a straight, thick, equal trunk, very much branched out; covered with a fat, tirm, clammy, chestnut- coloured bark, roug;h without, but Hm(M)th on the inside, where it adhcTes to the _ wood, wliich is h)ose and brittle, with u larp^e, moist pith. The branches and twif^s are very plump, and covered with ii snudl down, or wool, of u fj;re(>n colour, in- clining; to j)urple. Kvery year, when the leaves have fallen «)lf, in the tenth Japanese month, which answers to our December, the twigs are cut into lengths, not exvT'eding three feet, and put together in bundles, to be afterwards boili'd in an alkaline lye. These fajrgots are placed upright in a large kettle, which nmst bo well covered, and boiled until the bark shrinks so far as to allow about half an inch of the wood to appear naked at the top. When they have beciu sufficiently boiled they are taken out into the air to cool, aft' \hich the burk is stripi)ed from the wood, which forms the pulp for making t ,)er. For this purpose it has to be washed and cleansed, and this process is oi no smuU consoquenco in producing smooth, white paper. " The washing takes place in a running stream, the bark being placed in a sort of sieve, which lets the water run through, while it is stirred constantly with the hands until it becomes u soft woolly pulp. Ifaviug been sufficiently washed, the pulp is spread out upon a thick wooden table, and beaten with a wooden nmllet until it is reduced to the requisite fineness. Then it is put into a narrow tub with a slimy infusion of rice, and of a root called Oreni. " The moulds on which the paper is to bo made arc formed of the stems of bul- rushes cut into narrow strips. The sheets are then lifted one by one from the mould, and laid xip in heaps upon a table covered with a double mat, and a small plank or board placed on each heap. Weights are gradually piled up for a daj', after which the sheets are lifted off singly on the palm of the hand, and transferred to a rough plank, on which they are placed, and afterwards dried in the sun. The finest quality is of a white, smooth surface, although, as already remarked, never quite approaching the pure white colour of the best European paper." The Japanese are also our masters in wicker-work and in the preparation of straw objects, of which they have a surprising variety, ranging from waterproof cloaks to marionettes of all forms and sizes. The leather industry is represented in several towns by some choice articles, but as a rule this material is very little used in the industrial arts, owing to the contempt in which the tanner's trade is held. Those engaged in the dressing of skins were formerly included in the despised caste of the Etas. Amongst the noteworthy products of Japanese industry, mention should bo made of those " magic mirrors " whose dazzling brightness, according to the legend, induced the inquisitive and jealous Sun-Goddess to emerge from the cave to which she had withdrawn. The images projected by these mirrors on walls, under the influence of heat and of the pencil of rays, are due to 62 ._^... «. J 468 EAST AHIA. tlu) fact tliiit tln' inctui Hiirfiico Im nnt of uniform fhicknoss imd ('oiiHi'sfonc^ ifonco wlicn heated it cxpaiidi^ iircf^uliirly, aixl thus rcvcaU, by the cnlculnlci' ■cHcctioii of itH viiryiiiH; rclicI'M, the dt'si^Mis or writiiigM which arc, an it wen , i'ml)odicd in it. The strikiiifj; orij^iiialily and cndh'ss vcrsatality of thp national artistic jfcnnis an- well illiisl rated liy the Japanese ivory carvinjifs, tiiany of which chaUeMfj;e our hij^liest praise and athniralion. AnKHijj; these ohjects are the i)i(on(jH, or pencil-cases, no less vi;i;orous|y executed than thosu of China. The pliant material is also fashioned into curious buxcH und cubinotH, cunninfj;ly embellished with tine reliefs Fig. 210. — Hthbkt HcESEi. Fnc-iimlln from a JaiHtiiPw Albiim. divided into compartments most skilfully put together, forming those medicine- chests that look lik(^ a single piece, and on which stand out figures of the dairi in their rich costumes, their emblems carefully reproduced and often held by attendant officers crouched behind them. All this microscojjic work is occasionally heightened by touches of lacquer and gold, and incrustations of mother-of-pearl or of pietrn dura. Yet it is not this, nor even the miniature caskets with their endless divisions, that excite the greatest wonder. In them we, of course, recognise a marvellous art, but still traditional, and like the Chinese, somewhat mechanical, so that the ' ■^''^!i^!i^>'kii!&'$4■:'}p^^^^'A^,i^^ ml I I m. P«.. ^^-m vrr-'F^ ?™-ftSirf'«fg!4JPi^ii"pri5i!^-fjt«5.j~;a!ii*-''?S IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1 1.0 I.I Hi wm 140 I. ^ L25 u. |J4 « ■a 6" - ► Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 .-•*,^. i/.A K' CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques ^^ '^ -'mmij. J^~^-^ ■■5Sj*!*i LACQUER- WAEE AND PAPER. 4S9 style of Olio piece prepares us for another. Rut it is in the minute little ncrzlces, as thoy are callod, that to the astonished ohsorver is revealed the unforeseen, the mind of each individual artist, with its manifold types, its surprises and constant flashes of genius. These little trinkets or charms, known in Europe as Japanese buttons, were the only ornaments with which the upper classes relieved the somewhat sombre hues of the old national costume. Each minute ivorj' object, with its studied expression, attitude, and dress, often profusely adorned, is an original composition, a chapter, so to say, on history or manners, a caustic satire aiming its darts at the social vices, and not unfiequently at religion itself. One represents the Sinto God Cheu-lao jeering at the followers of the Tao-tso cult, and making the most comical grimaces beneath his prominent skull, which assumes the form of a cucumber ; another shows the same divinity typified by a rival artist as a cuttle-fish impaled upon a rock. Elsewhere groups of devotees arc groujied in the most grotesque attitudes, and making the most hideous faces. Nor is there any lack of graceful forms. Jacque- mart mentions a group of young women, carved out of a solid piece of ivory, decked with elegant head-dresses and richly attired, one of them suckling a child. ( )u examining the little head bent over her nursling, we are astonished at the fkill displayed by tlie artist, in dejiicting on such a minute scale the tender care of a mother, and her total abstraction from everything except the child of her affections. Very wonderful also are the figures of professional beggars, which exist in great variety. Nothing can be imagined more curious or more jiicturesque than these real or sham cripjiles, borne on the backs of animals, or themselves leading monkeys about, and grouped in all manner of grotesque associations. The representations of animals are no less correct and amusing in their infinite humour and variety. Here we have a most lavish display of the most fanciful and whimsical conceptions — frogs dancing a wild sarabando on an old straw slipper ; rats huddled together with their lively faces peeping out in all directions ; a mouse that has taken possession of a fruit, and ensconced itself like the rat of the fable in a cheese. Here is a chestnut pierced by the gnawings of a worm, which has traced out in the ivory a narrow passage, emerging at last through a hole in the brown rind, and crawling to the surface, where it seems as if still creeping, so lifelike is the imitation. Here again is an egg, an irregular fracture in its broken shell giving a peep inside. As far as the eye can penetrate it detects the microscopic figures of a IJuddhist pantheon ; each separate divinity may be recognised by his features, as well as by his distinctive attributes. After studying these ingenious objects, distinguished at once by their technical skill and inspiration, we remain more than ever convinced of the enormous differ- ence between the Japanese and Chinese schools of art. The latter, at once j)ains- taking and skilful, repro!Mti>if»!t''-^:-'i^^''-^^''>^ - -t^fi~.ie^\<'*ir:.- 4G0 EAST ASIA. sluifts of their satiro ap^iiinst flio inunnors of the times. Th(^ Japanese ivory trinkets tlius present some anal()<>y to the Puiic/i, Cliarimri, uud other illustrated caricature literature of the European nations. Dkcuxk ok Art— Tram'tc in " Cirios." Sineo Japan has begun to trade freely with the rest of the world, the national industries have ent«>red on a period of suspense, if not of actual decline. In order to meet the increasing foreign demand, the native craftsmen have been chiefly Fig. 211.— Thr Gods Fac-simile from a Japiiuesc Album. occupied in the production of cheap wares, whereby their artistic skill has been impaired. .Foreign competition has also ruined several of the local industries. Nevertheless, the best traditions of art have been kept alive in the production of bronzes, lacquer- ware, pottery, silks, painted and figured papers. In these branches the works of the Japanese artists are still distinguished for the harmonious dispo- sition of the colours, the sobriety of the ornamentation, the natural grace and variety of the designs. Flowers, foliage, branches, insects, fishes, birds, small quadrupeds, and all natural objects, are depicted with an almost miraculous happiness of expression, a boUbicss of foreshortening, and a freedom of execution beyond all praise. In the LACQUER- WAEE AND PAPER. 461 most offhand wiiy the luitivo artist will dash off vast decorative compositions, in which all the partsare iiert'ectly balanced, and syinnieti-yseeuredwithouta repetition of forms. Kven in strewinjj; the floors with many-coloured sands, the conunon people, who are by no means artists by profession, improvise ornamental patterns of surpiisin<^ truth and lifj;htnes8. ])c8iji;n enters into the ordinary course of instruction, and the native of Js ip-pon is always ready with his pencil. Shrewd observers of nature, the Japanese artists display remarkable skill in seizin<»' the characteristic traits and attitudes of individuals, and the shafts of their satire arc aimed not only at the lit] !1 a! Fig. 212. — IUts as IIicb Meuchants. Fuc-simile from a Jiipanexe Album. m. t 1 3 39 & c ^ ^ ^ despised bodzes, but also at the grandees, always represented, however, under the figure of foxes, apes, wild boars, or such like animals. Although Japau received its first lessons in Art from China, it soon escaped from mere servile imitation, retaining nothing but the method and processes, which it applied to the objects of its choice with a perfect freedom, full of sprightliness and endless fancy. Even in the traditional art of the Buddhist monasteries the motives imposed by religion are reproduced with a surprising variety of details. But if the human figure is always treated with great energy of action, an astonish- ing intensity of expression and a remarkable ai)preciation of types and characters, it is seldom that the limits of the grotesque are not passed, so that the representation usually degenerates into caricature. At the Exhibitions of 1807 and 1878, Japanese li !',t 4m '"'■>■','' m ''smms^(k-im- '^mi&am^.i^ffX^ii'. 462 EAST ASIA. Art, which had long been appreciated by European experts, revealed to an astonif^hod public its incontestable superiority over the Chinese school. It has already ex(>rcised considerable influence on modern ornamental designs, especially for porcelains, wall paintings, and woven fabrics. The Japanese school deserved to iind imitators in the West, altliough its fame was established in foreign lands at the very time when it began to degenerate at home through a love of gain and hasty workmanship. The trafhc in " Curios"— that is, in all sorts of artistic objects, old and modern, real or sham, has already become a hiding feature of Anglo- Japanese life in the sea-ports open to foreigners, and Dixon gives us a graphic account of the " Curio- men " engaged in this lucrative business. " I had not been long in Japan before I was scented out by the Curio-men. One day at luncheon my boy entered with the information that a (foijit'i/fi (curiosity-dealer) had come, and was waiting in tho hall. When the meal was over I went to see him. lie was a little man, with a simpering countenance, and on my appearance touched the floor repeatedly with his forehead, muttering something the while in a tone of the most perfect courtesy. It was to tho effect that ho had taken tho liberty of coming to hang on to the august master's eyes, in order that he might bo so fortunate as to sell to the august master a few old and rare Curios, which ho hud recently bought from some great daimios. "Around liim his goods were laid out — lacquered cabinets, bronzes, pieces of pi)rcelain, swords, and the like. With a look of the most thorough deference, ho squatted while wo examined these, his assistant keeping humbly in the background. A cabinet took my fancy. I asked if this were really old. He at once replied in an assuring voice, and pointed with satisfaction to a daimio's crest imprinted on it. ' How nvach ? ' I asked. ' It is really a good article, and as this is the first time I will make it cheap, although by so selling it I shall not make a single tempo (cent) of profit. Because it is the first time, and the gentleman will no doubt give me his honourable custom in future— -it is really old, and I am not telling a He— I will make it 20 yen and 50 sen (about £4 10s.).' ' Nonsense ! that is far too dear ; I believe after all it was made in Birmingham.' This evoked a hearty laugh, and a look at my boy, as much as to e-iy, 'Your master is a knowing one, isn't he?' But the imputation was vigorously repelled. ' No, honourable master, all my goods are genuine ; English imitations are in Yokohama only. As this is the first time, I will sell it for 19 yen. I have some cheaper things behind here, but I know the honourable gentleman would not condescend to buy such inferior things. Just look at the difference. This article is really good ; 19 yen, even a little more I cannot reduce the price.' ' I ofPer 12 yen.' The two men look at each other, and laugh incredulously. ' I will reduce the price to 18 yen. I cannot go further without losing on it.' ' Let us split the difference— 15 yen.' There is a thought- ful pause, then a low conversation with his assistant, the result being that he bows his head to the floor with a resigned expression, and the bargain is struck. " A few minutes later there is a sound of much laughter and joking in tho servants' quarters, whither the Curio-men have betaken themselves, and my boy. FOKEIGN TIJADE. 4G3 when ho ncxi cntrrs, iU>vh not fail to admin" llio artichi I liavc bought, and commend til'.' cliiiructor of tho dcidor who him noM it. rrcsciitly 1 catcli a sif,rht of that worthy bowing to mo through tho window, as lio walks oil with hi.s pack on his back. " From that diiy forth the visit ol tho dogu-ya was an occurronco that couhl bo roliod upon almost us surely as luncheon itself. Thero were about half-a-dozen men with whom I had dealings, and it was not uncommon for two or more of them to arrive at tho same time. No doubt all of them alike had learned everything ubout mc from tho servants— my tastes, my hours of leisure, whether or not I was hard to drive u bargain with, on what day of tho month my pay-day fell, whether or not I was a rigid Subbutariun, &c. Tho right of entering tho house was possibly purchased from tho domestics, in whose qiun-ters th(>y would, in tho event of my absence, sometimes wait for mo several hours. Their plausibility was as irrepressible as their sagacity. According to their own account they wero always giving bargains. At their first visit it was because it was tho first time that they agreed to sell their wares ut a clear loss. But on every succeeding occasion they professed to make the same sacrifice for some reason or another, often one of an elaborately fictitious character. No exposure could dis(;oncert them. They were always ready to disarm reproof by making an opi)ortune confession. It was (juito true that they had once or twice taken advantage of a newcomer's inexi)erience, but the honourable gentleman with whom they were now dealing was too sharp to have u like fate ; he could not be taken in. Tho august master know well Avhat he was alK)ut, didn't he ? And with that the one would look knowingly at the other. If all their customers More as well versed in Curio buying as the honourable master, they would make no profit at all ; they would need to start a jinrihma. And here they would all laugh good-naturedly. " They were always ready for any amount of banter, and did not hesitate to reply to a piece of irony. ' It is a lie ; ' an expression which in English seems an insult, but which on account of the inadequate appreciation of truthfulness that prevails amongst the Japanese, in common with other Easterns, often moans little more than ' You arc joking.' "Even the most artful of these Curio-men were generally kind-hearted fellows, so much so that it was difficult to lose one's temper even when most flagrantly cheated. And some of them were certainly more honest than others. There was one jolly fellow who, I remember, brought mo a present at the New- Year time, and on the morning after a serious fire had occurred at the college several of them called to congratulate me on my escape." * Foreign Trade. After the expulsion of the Portuguese, and the extirpation of the native converts, the trade of Japan with Europe had fallen in the year 1685 to the sum of 300,000 taels, or a little more than £80,000. At this time the Governor of Nagasaki also took every precaution to prevent the imports from exceeding the stipulated value. • Op. cit., J). 274, H seq. I -■•--■t -«u'.^,- 404 EAST ASIA. 1 I Tho CliiiioHO traders had JiipanoHo iinportcrH Imvo been infr(tii-l)(»ar(l and the oliHtaclos imwntcd to iiilaiul ooin- mmiicatioii l)y llic Ml^'^'(d surface of llio land, combined with tlic facililicK oircrcd to shipping by the inniiniciablc circkH and inlets. esi.(>cially <.n the east Hide of Hon(b), and p'lifi'idly in the southern districtK of the aichipelajjo, could not, fail to niak(! till' .lapancHo u Hcafarinj,' people. Small cruft loo frail to veuturo beyond tho Fig. 2U.— .Iai'ankhk I.inkh ok Navigation. S.'ule 1 : 12,(X)0,(X)0. Lines of Japiiiese Btciimers. Lines of Foreign gtcuincrs. lUilwur. Main Iloul«. .'100 Milrs. Navigable Biver, or Canal. H ! 5 1 inlets arc counted by hundreds of thousands, and in the coast villaj^es every family has its boat. Of vessels over 20 feet long, and strong enough to face the open sea, there were numbered over 30,000 in 1872, and before that time the English Admiral IFope, when traversing the Inhind Sea, met upwards of 1,500 junks, besides barges and boats. I'revious to tho i-evolution of 1S(!8 there were no keeled ship.s like those of Europe, the mercantile murine consisting exclusively of junks built on IfOADH-UAlIAVAYS -TKLKOltAI'ilS. 1(17 nuHlols iiiipcscl by tlio Stat. . * Vi't soiiu^ even of th.-m- vcmscIs were (.vcr •,'(»(» toiin Ixirdcn, uiul frwly imvi)?af(>(I all tlu« watoPH of tlic aicliii).laKo. All (liiTft roininorciiil rolati. mh with forcijr,, l„,„|.s |„.i„jr hitmlictcl, tlio lar-fo junks which convfyod muiuhirius and anilmssadois to the l.iii-kiu Aichii)cla>,'o, iMinnosa, an.l China, l)(lonj,'<-d(«.\clu.sivoly to tlio Govenuncnt. Hut Hin.c the oii<-n- in^: of this tn^aty port.s to Kuropcan triido tho nu«irantili' navy has Ix-cn rapidly (k'veh)pi'd. Japan already inpials l-'rant'c, whih- HiirimssinK scvnal Murop.-an slates ill the number and tonnage of its steamers, as well as of its whole fleet. Thi' Ihir- racoittit, which was tho Hrst puddle-bout that made its appearance in a Jupanese poi-t, liud scarcely entered tho Nagasaki waters when tho natives, eager to h-am, usked permissicm to study tln^ action of the engine, und obtained from tho chief engineer u plan und section of tho works. As soon as tho Japanese daimios fouiul themselves in direct relations with foreigners they hastened to purchase Rtenmers, with tlu> view of enlianeing their prestige in tho eyes of their subjects. About two hundred of these vessels were pre- Hontly seen lying at anclu)r before the palaces of tho duimios. Jhit most of them being cru/y old boats, sold at exorbitant prices and manned by inexperienced crews, tlu'y soon becamo useless hulks. Tho era of real deep sou navigation had not yet begun. As early as tho year 1H72 u Jupanesi! vessel had alieady crossed tho ocean, bound for San Francisco, and since that time tho flag of the Uisiiig Sun has appeared in tlio ports of the West. Tho Mitsubisi Steamship Company, which, lu)wover, enjoys a government subsidy, owned in l«7(j more than forty vessels of 2,000 tons burden, plying between all tho sea-jwrts of the archipelago, und running us far as JTong Kong, Shanghai, and Vladivostok. This company is gradually monopolising the local curi-ying trade to such an extent that foreign shipping has notably diminished during the last ten years. Tho English flag uloue has hithorto suHerod nothing from this native competition. The Chinese also take a consider- able share of the profits derived from the trade of Japan. As brokers und ao-ents they are gradually rephicing the Europeans and Americans in all tho treaty iwrts. In every commercial house the situation of compmdor or commissioner, is invariably occupiod by a native of the Middle Kingdora.t Roads — Railways — Telegraphs. Although the sea, now lit up by numerous ligbthou808,+ still offers the readiest means of communication, road building has not been completely neglected. Carts * Jupanese mercantile navy in 1879: — 8ailin)|^ vessels of European build . . . 7H of Steamers 160 „ Junks averaging 31 tons . . . .18,174 I'otal, exclusive of fishing smacks . Iy,0u4 t Foreign Shipping engaged in the trade of Japan (1878) :— English vessels . . . . 487 of 417,691 tons. Others 3.J1 „ 331,181 „ 838 „ 748,872 „ Foreigners residents in the Japanese Treaty Ports ( 1878) :— English 1, 1 70 ; other Europeans and Americans 1,410; Chinese. 3,028; total 0,505. X Lighthouses in Japan in 1881 : 45, besides the harbour lights. 27,650 ions. 42,070 „ 745,134 „ 815,444 „ it III ly oxen wcrt' till rccciitlv rniiiid only in tin- nfijjliln)mliiMnl <>l Kioto, ilut lur r ciipiliil ol till' Mikmlos. Here llu' loiiil^ liiivf Itt'cn rrpairctl anil cxti-mlrd, wliilc clsfwlu'if tin- iout«'M, lor tin- most purt nicrr mult' tmrliM.arc Itcinj,' >fra«liially widrnt'd I'or llu-.///(r//l'(»Vt tndlic. A llniopran uHpoct is ulw» Itfin^ slowly imparted to llic lour historical nuiin liiKliways, which take their name from tho proviiU'L»« truverscd hv thcni. These are the Tokai-do and Nakusen-do, eonneetiiif? Tokio Fix- 'ild.— V'iKW TAKKN ON Till TuKAI-l)(> IIlOIIWAV. with Kioto, one by the coast, tho other over the hills ; the Hokroku-do, which follows the western slope, and the Tosan-do, or great northern route. As regards railways, Japan has hitherto remained satisfied with setting an examj)le to China by constructing the two lines from Yedo to Yokohama, and from Ohusaka to Kioto and Kobe, which arc quite as nmch frequented as the busiest linos in Europe. But since the completion of these works, little has been done beyond building a few short mineral railways. Recently, however, the town of K' ■ M Hvih.jf i^isA i,^ ; '<% I 'I MTKUATI'UK AND I'UHLIC INSTUU(^TION. 4flO of Oliot/ tiiiN bmi coniKMifc*! willi F\i(»t(), aiul in Yi'ho, Sii|»|iiiri>, ciipifnl nf the inlutKl, iiiiw nijovN Ht(>aiii (■oiiiiiiiuiinitidii will) tlic |Miit n|' Otaiuiiiii. A iK'^n'niiiii^ Iiiih also Ix'cii iiiiiilc with th(> fj;rt'iit prDJcet of ooiiHtnictiii^ a triiitk liiir from ih(< iioilhcni to the Hoiitht'iii cxtrciiiity of Hoiuhi, throiijjfh Sciiihii, Tokio, Nay'ova, • uiiil Kioto, willi hraiiihcs raiiiifyiii)^' to all the lar^c towns on tlu> west side of the island. The firnf sirtions to !«' coinph'tcd of this schfint' an< those rnnninj^ from (Miot/ to Tsnru;];a, and from Tokio to Takasaki. All ihr plant of the nrw linrs will he of lot-al production, cxtrpt only the h)Comotivi snpplicd from Anu'rica. The prnpfross of the tclcjjrajiliic and postal srrviccM has Immmi far more rapid. Till' first f('lt>^:rapliic line was oponi'd in |M(1!>, and in ISMO the network comprised idlojjether ahonl 7,M(MI miles, inclndinj; several snlimarine eahles connectinfj; it thron^h ,Shan^hai and Vladivostok with the continental systems. At the same dato the postal routes had accpiired a total devehqnnent of ;J*),(HK) miles. In tli<> adnnnistratiiHi of this mervice, Japan, which wan one of the first jjowers to join the Universal Postal Union, is fully on ti level with the leadinjif states of the West, and fur in advanco of sovorul Kuropean countries, LlTEUATrUE AXl) Pmi-lC IxSTRlfTION. The circulation of newspapers luis increased at a surprisinp; rate. The first puhlication (»f this sort ap])(>ared in the year IWI, and in 1H7H there were already ytit) periodicals in Ja])anese and !> in forei}^n lan}j;ua,0()(). Duriufj; the same year 0,;{17 new works were puhlished in 1),{)()7 volumes, so that, in this respect, Japan takes the third place amoiii>;st the nations of the world, exceeding even Great Dritain in the numher of its printed works.* Of late years, unscirupulous Japanese editors have begun to compote with those of Europe, by issuing counterfeit ediliims of English publications. Nearly all the more important European ^(•ientifie works arc also regularly translated into Japanese, and the names of Darwin, Huxley, and Jlerbcrt Spenser are household words um()ng.st the educated classes in the Empire of the Rising Sun. The rapid progress of general literature shows how earnestly the Jajjanese bavo taken up tho question of public instruction. Education bus been placed on u democratic footing, and all, whatever their social position, are now enabled to study tho arts and sciences in the public schools. According to the law, elementary schools must bo founded in the proportion of one to every 600 souls. Tho educational machinery, us now organized, is completed by secondary and technical colleges, acudemics of art, industrial institutions, the university of Tokio, and several scientific high schools. Of these, the first in point of time is the Nagasaki Sohool of Medicine, opened in 1829. Even the prisons are transformed to systematic educational establishments, in which the political criminals usually act as monitors. One of tho heaviest items of the national expenditure is that administered by tho Board of I'ublic Instruction, while, apart altogether from tho action of tho State, * London and China Exprest, K. 4, 1881. '■^vfc-,(*^'!'.' 470 EAST ASIA. the Jai)unosc people are distinfruished beyond all others for their generous zeal in llie cause of education. In the five years from 1875 to 1870 the voluntary con- tril)uti()ns for this purpose exceeded £1,080,000, exclusive of lands, buildings, books, instruments, and donations of all sorts. Amongst the numerous associations of recent creation, is a society founded especially for promoting education, and which has already no less than ''},000 members in every part of the Empire. Nevertheless two-filths of the boys and four-fifths of the girls arc still absent from the public scliools. Many children, however, arc taught the elements at home, and tlie chief fault hitherto found with the Japanese educational system is that its courses are far too comprehensive for the primary and secondary schools. Instruc- tion loses in dei^th what it gains in extent. The violent athletic exercises of the Samurai youth have also been indifferently replaced by inadequate gymnastic discipline, much to the detriment of the health of the pupils. The number of foreign teachers invited by the Japanese Government from Europe and America, to instruct the peoijle in the arts and sciences of the "West, is diminisliing from year to year.* The salaries also have been gradually reduced to a very modest figure, a circumstance which exijlains the general substitution of rjerman for E.iglish and American professors. Engineers engaged to lay down I'oads and railways, or to build and work steamships, physicians to whom the management of hospitals had been intrusted, officers invited to instruct the native troojis, jurisconsults chosen to draw up the laws, financiers arriving in the hoi)o of maiu'ijulating tlie national funds, were all reduced by the gentle but firm attitude of their hosts to the exclusive position of teachers each in his special province. They were requested, not to apply their talents to their own direct advantage, but to render themselves gradually useless by training jjupils destined soon to rejilacc tliem. In this way New Japan, which aspires to renovate itself by its own forces, nas able rapidly to dispense with the services of many burdensome and indiscreet foreigners, who have always been regarded in the lij^ht of necessary evils. " As the eagle is contained in the shell, so the future of a people lies within itself," proudly says a modern Japanese writer. V fi I Historic Retrospect — The Revoi-ution. The reigning family descends traditionally from Zinmu-Tenno, the "Divine Conqueror," son of the god Isanami and great-grandson of the " Sun-Goddess." The Mikado now occupying the throne is supposed to be the one hundred and twenty-third emperor bearing the three divine insignia of the mirror, sword, and seal. For the dynasty of the Sun, whose emblem is the chrysanthemum, suggestive in its form of the luminous globe encircled by rays, is said to have reigned uninterruptedly for twenty-iivc centuries and a half, in other words, from the time of Nabuchodonosor or of Tullius ITostilius. The first nine centuries, however, of this dynasty belong exclusively to the legendary epoch, and authentic history dates • They numbered 705 in 1875. *t ! HISTORIC RETROSrECT-TIIE REVOLUTION. 471 only from the close of the third century of the riiristian era, when the Chinese ideof:^riij)hic writing system was introduced. Previous to the recent revolution, which changed the form of the governments the authority of the 3Iikados was little more than nominal. Since the end of the twelfth century they had, so to say, heen relegated amongst the gods, and their power was exercised through the medium of a Shogun, who had become the virtual sovereign. When in 1853 the Americans, and after them the Russians, pre- sented themselves to demand the conclusion of a treaty of commerce with the Kingdom of the Rising Sun, the only part taken hy the Mikado in the deliberations was to " address fervent prayers from morning to night to the Kami and the ancestral shades." Shut up in his palace, or rather his temple, and a complete slave to etiquette, ho was allowed neither to tread the ground, expose his person to the oi)en air, nor let the sun shine on his head. Rut the Shogun himself was no hmger in possession of the supreme authority, which the famous Yeyas, founder of Yedo, had bequeathed to his family at the end of the sixteenth century. Although closely watched by the Government, tho imperial feudatories, that is to say, the eighteen great dairaios and the three hundred and forty- four lesser daimios, constituted none the less a political estate far more powerful than the official representatives of the so\ereignty. When the Sliogun, alarmed by the appearance of tlie American squadron under Commodore I'erry, found himself obliged to renounce the traditional policy of the Empire, and authorise foreigners to trade directly Avith his people and even to take up their residence on Japanese soil, such a radical measure could not fail deeply to affect the opinion of the feudal lords and of the whole Samurai class. So loud became the clamour, that the first time for many centuries outward rumours penetrated into the sacred en- closure of the Mikados. At the instigation of the nobles, the reigning emperor was compelled to intervene and issue orders to the Shogun. Fierce struggles broke out in various places between the aristocratic septs, some siding with the " King of Yedo," others with the Mikado, othersagain acting still more independently, and tak- ing part, now with one now with the other, according to their caprice or personal feel- ings. The league of the daimios of Satsma, Toza, and Nagato, always opposed to the free admission of foreigners, acquired the upper hand in 1863, and ordered the Shogun to abrogate the treaties of commerce. But these feudatories had themselves European instructors in their armies, physicians and teachers from the West or the New World in their households, while the strangers also supplied them with guns and ammunition. Accomplished facts could no longer be undone, the barriers of seclusion had been once for aU burst asimder, and the social revolution henceforth followed its normal course. While steps were being taken to call together the Gak/iuyin — that is, the general assembly of the Samurai — with a view to the settlement of all urgent internal and external matters, a " cohort of the heavenly wrath " was being formed in the western districts, and foreign vessels penetrating into the Inland Sea were being bombarded by the coast batteries. Rut not only did the foreigners refuse to withdraw peacefully, but they returned with their fleets, forced the passage of i 'Tr??^$iit>.,.r ■'WKv^ ■;;,it;«3,.=^4!ft,-A:Wfe>;,. 472 EAST ASIA. Siinono-soki, and exacted a war indemnity, followed soon after by an extension of their privileges. IJut although all their demands had to be granted, the Shogun, looked upon as responsible for these humiliations, was compelled to abdicate. After n vain attempt at resistance, he was deprived of all his functions, and the Mikado re-entered into the full possession of the supreme power. The daimios themselves petitioned for the abolition of their privileges, and one of them intrigued for the honour of razing his castle and converting the site into arable land. The feudal system was abolished, together with all class distinctions ; the right of receiving instruction was granted to every citizen ; marriages were permitted between all social ranks, and plebeians [/lei-min) were even admitted to the administration. The despised Ufax were placed on a footing of ecjuality with all other subjects, and the Samurai were obliged to lay aside the two swords by Avhich they had hitherto been distinguished from the populace. Nevertheless the official census still recognises the aristocratic or plebeian origin of the people.* In order to indicate that the accomplished changes were irrevocable, and that the new era of the Meidzi, or " Enlightened Law," was definitely established, the Mikado removed his residence from the sacred city of Kioto to the much larger city of Yedo, in the very heart of the radical circles of New Japan. The last insurrection he had to put down was that of the crews of the imperial navy, who had seized Hakodate and set up an independent republic in that place, on the model of the United States of North America. In 1809, just one year after the revolution had swept away all the rival powers of the imperial authority, the Mikado himself paid homage to the hitherto unheard- of power of public opinion. In language that had never yet been uttered in Japan, he solemnly promised in presence of his ministers that a deliberative assembly should be summoned to discuss the organic laws, that justice for all alike would henceforth be his guiding principle, and that he would on all occasions have recourse to men of sterling worth and intelligence. These promises, sworn " in the name of the ancestral shades," have not yet been entirely fulfilled, and Japan still awaits the convocation of its constituent assembly. The envoys sent to Europe, in order to study the popular forms of government, reported in favour of the system calculated to insiu'e for themselves the greatest amount of personal influence, and the State has consequently reserved its absolute forms. The press, not even excepting that conducted by foreigners, is regulated by extremely severe laws, which have been aggravated since 1878, and which permit the approval but not the free discussion of imperial measures. Public meetings are not authorised, and the continual watch- fulness of the " head of the xillage," combined with an organised system of espionage, still renuiins the chief instrument of government. • Japanese nobles in 1875 ; — The Mikado's Family .... 31 persons. Kiipjho and Daimios 2,829 „ 8aimirai 1,")84,.568 „ Sotsii Samurai ;m;!,881 „ Jisi Samurai 3,330 „ ADMINISTRATION. 473 of Admixistratiox. The only representative institution is that of the provinciiil assoniblica, which bears some analogy to the Russian Zcimtvo, on which it has been modelled. But the electors must belong to the proprietary classes, and pay at least twenty shillings of taxes, None are eligible unless they pay forty shillings, and have resided for three years in the district. The deliberations of the assemblies thus elected are limited to the discussion of the taxes and local expenditure, and the session is limited to one month in the year. The ministerial department is modelled on that of European constitutional governments. The supreme council is presided over by a Prime Minister, assisted by a Vice-President, and comprises the secretaries of all the chief administrative branches — Interior, Foreign Office, Finance, War, Navy, Education, Board of Works, Justice, Imperial Household, to which has recently boon added a Board of Trade and Agriculture. Below the Ministerial Council is the legislative body, which prepares the laws under the presidency of a prince of the blood, and submits its labours to the ministers without further right of intervention. On some special occasions the Government also summons an assembly of the provincial functionaries, to consult them on the question of imposts. But over the deliberations of this body the prefect exercises a power of veto. In this country, where the communes enjoy merely a fictitious autonomy, although the mayors are elected by the heads of families, the administrative hierarchy comprises altogether seventeen ranks, divided into the three categories of the Shoknin, Sonin, and Ilannin, Till recently the Church was connected with the State by means of a public grant, which in the year 1879 amounted to £27,000 for the " temples of the gods." But the expenses of public worship are now left entirely to the devotion of the faithful. The " Colonies," that is, the outlying dependencies of Yeso and the Kurile Islands, were hitherto administered by a special department ; but this so-called Kaitakuzi, or colonial department, has now been replaced by a company, which is virtually invested with a commercial monopoly. The ancient laws of Japan, modelled on the Chinese jurisprudence of the Ming and Tsing dynasties, and on the decrees or " Hundred I^aws " of Yeyas, have been codified since the revolution of 1868. But while their severity has been greatly mitigated, certain actions, formerly regarded as indifferent, are now subject to penalties. Thus the head of the family has been deprived of the absolute power he heretofore enjoyed over his children, and the formerly widespread practice of sell- ing his female issue can no longer be exercised with impunity. Woman also, whom the ancient jurisprudence regarded as destitute of all rights except when defended by her husband or father, has also now acquired a legal status as a respon- sible human being. The pillory as well as torture has been abolished, although according to the accounts of foreigners the latter is still practised under the relatively mild form of the lash. Murderers, rebels, highwaymen, and dealers in opium are liable to capital punishment by hanging or beheading, although the courts have seldom occasion to inflict this sentence. Compared with the prisons of G3 * y-^%1 ja^ 474 EAST ASIA. the W(>st, those of Japan arc almost pnipty. In 1(S7<'J they contained alto{»ether only (i,4()o criminals, amongst wliom there were less than 500 women, a proportion relatively ten times less than in European countries. Some French jurisconsults, invited to Japan in order to study and recast the national laws, prejiared a civil and penal code, which the Japanese Government published in 18S0 as the laws of the iState. ]iut it is to bo feared that several of these innovations may have a tendency to disturb the sense of justice in the minds of the i)eople, many acts, such as tattooing and bathing in public, hitherto regarded by them as perfectly harmless, being nov/ treated as criminal. The chief object aimed at by the Government in changing its jurisprudence is to offer such pledges to the foreign powers as may induce them to renounce their privilege of exterritorial i i Fig. 216. — The I'ili.okv in Japan ukfuke thk Uevolution. 11'/, i .;---.,— ^i- -■ . «>'■•■'' — ^Cii'. jurisdiction, and allow their subjects to become amenable to the local authorities. At present all foreigners in Japan depend exclusively on their ambassadors and consuls. But they are strictly forbidden to meddle with the politics of the country, or even to publish Japanese periodicals under jiain of imprisonment, fines, or hard labour, inflicted by the consular courts. For judicial purposes Japan is divided into four circumscriptions, with courts of appeal at Tokio, Sendai, Oliosaka, and Nagasaki, respectively. With the exception of a hospital founded by the Dutch physicians at Nagasaki, Japan possessed no public establishments for the treatment of disease previous to the revolutionary ejroch. lUit with its usual zeal for imitating European institu- tions, the country has begun to found hospitals in many places. At the end of the |iatW,.M ' K ' l ?-*-fti-S< riNANCE- MINT— AEMY AND NAVY. 475 year 1878 there wore ultogcther as iiuuiy us 109, of which 35 had boon cntiivlv built by means of voluntary contributions. As in most European states, vaccination has become obligatory. of Finance — Mint— Army axd Navy. The finances of the Empire are not in a very flouri.shing state. Being anxious to stand on a footing of equality with the European nations, whose systeujs of credit it was studying, Japan has not been able to resist the temptation of creating u Fig. 217. — Adminwtkative Divisions op Jafan. Scale 1 : 16,000,OUO. I SOOHflea. The nnmben inaoribed on this mnp correspond to thoae of the tables. public debt. Including paper money,* its liabilities amount altogether to upwards of £72,000,000, of which no more than £2,400,000 are due to foreign banks. The pensions of the nobles and the redemption of their privileges represent over £40,000,000 of the whole debt, the annual interest on which now amounts to £3,200,000. Fully two-thirds of the national income arc derived from the land tax. Being protected by the sea, Japan could scarcely stand in need of a standing anny. But during the critical times following the revolution, the new government • Paper money circulating in 1881, Je22,600,000. ^■^a^:Jf:tni:^S*]*S^i5«;3Jc4«i?5iSE?«-sSr7e;C- tl'^ 476 EAST ASIA. I. i ,1 li rcquiml to be protected from the possible insurrections of the old military caste of the Samurui, henceforth deprived of its privileges, und only gradually transformed to a class of public functionaries or police agents. An army is now being con- stituted on the basis of conscription, drilled, equipped, and organised by French officers on the European model. The service, which is obligatory in principle for all Japanese subjects, except the Ainos and inhabitants of the Liu-kiu Archipelago, lasts for three years in the active forces, and three in the reserve. The territorial army with its reserve further comprises all male adults between their twenty-third and fortieth yoar not in active service. The peace footing amounts altogether to 35,000 men of all arms, raised in time of war to 50,000 exclusive of the reserve. These forces suffice not only to maintaui peace within the Empire, but to defy China and Korea, and even to resist Russia. It is even to be feared that, confident of her strength, Japan may be induced to adopt an aggressive policy against her weaker neighbours. Hitherto, however, the national forces have only been called upon to undertake one foreign expedition to the island of Formosa, on which occasion they distinguished themselves by their perfect discipline. But in the year 1877 they had to repress the terrible Satsma rebellion, which cost them over 30,000 men killed and wounded. The Empire is divided into six military circumscriptions, Tokio, Sendai, Nagoya, Ohosaka, Iliro-sima, and Kmamoto. Two military schools have been founded at Tokio, and the two chief arsenals are those of Tokio and Ohosaka. The Japanese navy, which has been organised under the direction of English officers and engineers, consists exclusively of steamships, including several iron- clads. In 1879 it comprised altogether 29 vessels, mounting 149 guns and manned by 4,240 sailors and marines. The chief dockyard is that of Yokoska, near Tokio, and the whole archipelago is divided into the two maritime uistricts of Tokai, or the " Eastern Sea-board," and Saikai, or the " Western Sea-board." The ancient political divisions of Japan, still familiar in the mouths of the people, are those of the four Do, or main highways. But in order to break with the national traditions, the old provinces have been replaced by Ken, or departments, which are again subdivided into Kohori, or districts. Formerly the province of Kinai constituted the personal domain of the Mikado, to whom its revectues were specially assigned. A complete list of the administrative departments will be found in the statistical tables. I a. wtrn, t-ai *min ■ ' ^ u ^ ^ fg^y !"*WiW-'' STATISTICAL TABLES. CHINESE EMPIRE. Aran in sq. Estimated popu China proper Korea Manchuria Mongolia Tibft Kukii-nor and TeaMam Kasligariu Zunjifuria Kulja Total Provinces. PeohiliT . . Shantung . . Shansi . . . Ilonan . . . Kiang-BU . . Ifganwhei Eiang-si . . Fokien . . . Che-kiang Hnpeh . . . Hunan . . . Shen-si . . Kan-su . . . Scchuen . . Kwangtiing . miles. l.S.iG.OOO 116,000 380,000 1,350,000 650,000 120,000 260,000 120,000 26,000 lation, 18H0. 350,000,000 K,000,000 12.000,000 4.000,000 0,000,000 150,000 1,000,000 300,000 150,000 Estimate of tub Popuj.atiox of the Chinehe Empire accokdinq to IUces. 4,667,000 381,600,000 CHINA PEOPER Area in square miles. 67,260 53,762 65,949 66,913 40,138 63,980 68,875 46,747 36,659 69,459 83,200 81,192 269,620 184,997 90,219 Chinoso Proper Si-fan, Man-t/e, Mino-tze, Lolo . Koreans Manchus .... Tibetans Mongoliarii! Tani{uts, Sok-pa, and Hor-pa Kashgariana ..... Kirghiz Tarouchi, DunganM,SoIon8,andSil)os Europeans and Sundries Total 335,000,000 20,000,000 8,000,000 8,000,000 5,500,000 4,000,000 250,000 750,000 30,00'» 60,000 10.000 381,600,000 Pop. 1842. 36,879,838 29,529,877 17,056,925 29,039,771 39,646,924 36,596,983 26,513,889 22,799,656 8,100,000 28,684,564 20,048,7fi9 10,309,769 19,612,716 36,000,000 20,152,603 Cliiif Prefectures ( Ku > , bhuntien (Peking) ; Paoting; Shunte; Hokiiin ; Kwan- ping; Siwanhoa; Taiming; Tientsin; Chingte; Chingting ; Yungpina. Tslnan ; Liiichew ; Uting ; Taingan ; Tengchew ; Tungchang ; Tsaochew ; Tsinchew ; Yenchow ; Yichew. Taiyuan; Fonchew; Lungan; Ningwu ; Pingyang ; Puchew ; Soping ; Tatung ; Tsecliew. Changte; Chin^chew; Kaifung; Honan ; Hoaiking; Juning; Kweite ; Nanyang; Weihwi. Nanking; Hoaingan ; Sungkiang; Suchew ; Chang- chew ; Chingkiang ; Yimgchow. Nganking; Fengyang; Hw'eichew; Luchew; Ningkwo; Taiping; Chichew; Yingchew. Niuichang; Fuchew; YHOohew; Swichew ; Kanchew; Kienchang; Kingan; Kiukiang; Kwangsin ; Liu- kiang; Nangan ; Nank'ang; Yuenchew. Iniehew; Chaowu ; Hinghoa ; Kienning; Taipe; laiwan; Changchew ; Tswanchew ; Tingchew; iongping. Hiingchow; Shaohing; Huchew ; Kihaing ; Kinhoa ; Kuchew; Ningpo; Wenchew ; Taichew; Chuchew ; Ion chew. Wu.hang; Hanyang; Shinan ; Hoangchew ; Hing- yang; Nganlu; Chingchew ; Tengan ; Ichanj?; Yunyang. Changsha; Hengchew; Packing; Chnngte; Cheiichtw; Yochew; Yuanchew; Yungchew; Yungshan. Singan; Fenghiang; Hanchung; Hiiigan ; Yulin; I'ungchew; Yengan. Unchew; Kanchew; Kingyang; Kungchang; Liang- chew ; Ninghia ; Pitiffliang ; Sining. (hingtu; Shunking; Kiating ; Kweiohew ; Lungan; Ningyuen; Paoning; Switing; Suchew; Chung- Cheng; Tungchwen; Yachew. Canton; Shaochew; Hwiohew; Kaochew; Liechew; Lienchow; Chaohing; Shuochew ; Kuingchew. ..,.„..i_ 478 r~~; ■ Area in aqusra I'rovincei. mUe«. KwiiiigBi ."".I 81,'200 STATISTICAL TABLES. CHINA PUnrER-(co»^MMcrf)- 122,624 64,654 14,600 16,000 T„Ui\ of (;hitm . J 1 554014 I'riipcr . ! ) Yunnan Kwoichow Hitinnn IhIiuiiI . ForinoKii IhIiiihI . Pop. 1842. 8,121,a27 5,823,670 6,079,128 2,000,000 2,600,000 404,940,614 Chief rrefeoture* (Fu). Kwcilin ; Kinn> imn ; LiuehowT Niinninu;; /Wurhcw ; Pinglo; SochoriB; Sutichow ; Swon; Imping; th»m- Yunnan; Shunning; Kiiihoa ; KnitHing; Kwai.gniin ; Likiiing; Lingiin ; I'uol; TiiH ; Chiiotung; (Jung- kiung; Chu'liiung; Tunnchwan ; Yiingchiing. Kwfiviing; Shikieii ; llintryi ; Lii-ing; Nic«nshun ; Smhow ; Hunan; Tilling; Clienyuun ; lungjun ; Tuyun ; Tsunyi. Okkicial Retuhnh oi 1711 1763 1792 Pechili. < Shantung. Shan-bi. 8llES-BI. KaN-8U. Sechuen. IIUPEH, Hlnan noanwiiei Tientsin Poking . Kalgan . Pftoting Tungc)icw 8iwiin-lioii . Pfitang "^Chingting . Woi-hicn Tongchow-fu Tflinan-fu Cho-fu . Tsingchcw . Yonchow-fu . Kiaochow Ltviyang-fu . Taingan-fu . Poshan . Kinfao . .Tsimi . Tiayuan-fu . Yucnching . Tungkwan . Pingyao-hien Chi-hien Hiowkao Pingilingchcw ~ Pingyang-fu . ( Singan-fu X Hanchungfu j-Lanchcw-fu . I Tsingchew . Sining-fu Pingliang-f u . Kunchew Chingtu-fu . j Chungchong-fu I Suchew-fu . I Batang . [• Hankow, ■with j chang, and \ yang Ichang . ( Siangtan-fu . I Changcha ( Wuhu . \ Nganking . THK PorULATlON 2«,(i06,000 io;»,o6o,ooo 307,467,000 CuiEi- Towns ok , 020,000 I , 500,000 I . 200,000 . 160,000 . 100,000 . 90,000 20,000 10,000 . 260,000 . 230,000 . 200,000 . 120,000 . 70,000 . 60,000 . 60,000 . 60,000 . 46,000 . 36,000 . 26,000 18,000 . 260,000 . 90,000 . 70,000 . 60,000 30,000 . 22,000 20,000 . 16,000 . 1,000,000 . 80,000 . 500,000 . 160,000 60,000 . 60,000 . 60,000 . 800,000 . 700,000 . 300,000 3.000 OK China PuorBU at Vauioi » 1812 . . . . 1842 . . . • 1880 . . . Datrh. 302,447,000 406,000,000 350,000,000 KlANO-si. I Che-Kuno. Wu- llan- 1,500,000 30,000 1,000,000 300,000 92,000 40,000 China Puoper. (Shanghai Suchow Yangchew Chingkiang Nanking llukow . Kiukiang Hangchow-fu Shaohing Lanki . Wcnchow Ningpo . Huchow Yuyao . Tsekye . Kiuchow VTinghai / Fuchuw-f u Changchow Liangkiang Yungping Tsongan Amoy . \ Nganhai Wuchow Canton . Fachan . Shuiing Tu.igkung ShihVing Swatow . Sainan . Pakhoi . Lienchow / Yunnan-fu I Chaotung ' Tali-fu . Kiungchow Lohui . Tingan . Iloi-how Taiwan-fu Tamshui Chang-hoa ISinchew Mengka Tangkang Kelung. FOKIEN. ( KWANO-SI. KWANOTUNO. Ycnnan. Hainan FOBMOSA. 600,000 600,000 360,000 170,000 130,000 300,000 50,000 800,000 500,000 200,000 170,000 160,000 100,000 66,000 00,000 50,000 36,000 600,000 600,000 260,000 200,000 100,000 88,000 00,000 , 200,000 , 1,500,000 , 600,000 . 200,000 . 120,000 . 100,000 , 28,000 . 20,000 . 16,000 . 12,000 50,000 , 50,000 . 23,000 . 200,000 . 80,000 . 60,000 . 10,000 . 70,000 . 05,000 . 60,000 . 40,000 . 40,000 . 10,000 8,000 r--wriWE»^«^"--«S»'^^*»?**'' ^s^^^^g3:f<^C^^^fSB0tll^^^'iit:^i^i^ '■•^■^i^^WM'^ STATISTICAL TABLES 479 NrMnFU op ClIINERF. HRTTLFD AnHOAP. 1 , vim Miitichiiriii (1800) . . 10,5H0 Jaiiunt'8(> I'',in|)iri' (IH71>) .... U.O'.'H I'liiti'd Stiit.H(lssi) .... 105,72") llritixh North America .... 12,8.50 I'.m, liriizil, Cuba li),),000 (liiiiina, WrHt huliiu .... lO.oOO Kamlwich MandH (IHSl) .... U,.")00 Oth r PaciHc InlaiulH .... 20,000 HritiHh Iiiilia, Mauritius, South Africa . 19,000 AuHtralia(lHHO) 4»,220 I'hilii.piii'H 2.-)0,000 Dutch EaHt Inlics 325,085 Malacca and StraitH Settlements . . 170,000 Anmim, French Cochin China (1880) . 152,200 Siam, Cambojtt, Burma .... 1,020,000 FoKEifix Resident* in China. English Commercial Houses 220 Residents 2,070 American „ „ 31 .. 401) (lerman „ ,, 04 ,. 384 French „ „ 20 „ 228 Kussian „ „ 1'"' .. 70 Japanese „ „ 2 „ 01 Yield op the Chinese Coal Mines (1878V Shan-»i 1,700,000 tons. Traiib op Tie\t-«in (1879). Imparls : £r.,!>0(),(l()0 ; exports : £170,000. Kussian transit trade, i 1,080,000. /IJritisli .... 194,580 tons. „.. . Chinese . . 20;),!I50 .. ' lAmtincan . . i<),ii-> „ \SundrioB . . 37,950 „ Trade of Chn-fii (1879): £4,200,000. Sliippinjj „ 1,370 ve8M;lg of 804,000 tons. FOUEION TUADK OP I-CUANO. 1878 l«,so £20,000 ooo.ono Hunan Shantung . IVchili Other Provinces Total Silk exported (1870) . Tea „ (1878) . Opium imported (1879) Cottons „ „ Linens ., Metals „ „ 000,000 „ 200,000 ., 150,000 ,, 350^00 „ 3,000,000 ., £9,.';00,000 9,355,000 11,000,000 7,600,000 1,486,000 1,237,000 Total Foheion Tkadb, Imports. 1844 . . . £5,400,000 18.55 . . . 11,465,000 1879 . . 24,068,000 British exchanges with China (1879) Average trade with British Empire : — 92 percent. of all the imports; 74 per cent, of all the exports. Exports. £2,900,000 15,344,000 20,500,000 £36,000,000 TiiAui OP Hankow. Tea shipped nt Hankow (1880) : 111,000,000 lbs. ; vhIuo £4,200,000. Brick tea prepared at Hankow for the Russian market (1880), 20,300,000 lbs. Shipping of Hankow (1879) : — 1,320 vessels of 733,835 tons, of which British 474 „ 40.',90'> „ Chinese 058 „ 302,000 „ Total cxchnngos of Hankow ;— 1878 £9,204,000 1879 11,300,000 Foreign trade of Wuhu (1879) : £1,100,000. TuADB OP Siianohai (1879). Importa. Kxports £19,034,000 £17,423,000 Tea oxpoited from Shanghai (1879) :— To England . . 38,593,.')C0 lbs. United States . 20,830,000 Russia . . . 1,772,000 Silk exported from Shanghai (1879) :— To England . . . 20,240 bales. Franco . • . 16,172 America . . . 6,390 India . . • 2,075 Switzerland . . 1,038 Shipping Retuilvs (1880). Veraela. Tonnage. British . . . 12,397 9,000,156 Chinese . . • 6,335 4,699,255 German . . • 1,501 632,044 America . . 1,070 287,369 French ... 128 150,207 Japanese . . . 128 138,000 Sundries ... 709 162,000 Gitoss FouEiON Tbabe or the 19 Chinese Treaty Pouts. Shipping of Shanohai (1879). Vessels. British Chinese . Japanese . French American . German . Total with Sundries 1,974 1,.581 157 62 271 192 4,37i) Tuns. 1,309,505 1,078,588 138,208 121,731 93,884 90,049 3;002;6S2 Trade of Wencbew (1880) Shipping ,, ,, £122,000 19,780 tons. Tuadb of Fuchew (1879). Imports. £1,741,000 Exports. £3,200,000 1870 1880 £35,250 46,278,000 Shipping . . . 677 vessels of 418,083 tons. Of which British . 433 „ 345,569 „ Tea export( d (1879), 92,000,000 lbs. ! »SW*f;ife-, -Si3&MSa^HSeS«*li!Si!st«'S V^'iJ^ ,:iSH^ 480 aTATISTICAL TAHLl'^S. Tkaiik op Amiiy (IH'O). IiMiHirtK. KxixirtK. t2,,S.-.II.O()0 £ I, M 10,000 8uKar .•xix.rto.l (IH80), IH.OOO toiiH. Wiii>i>iti;r(lt*70) . 1..-.I0 v.-HnrUof HIl'J.OOOtonB. Uf which lliitish . 1.000 „ T'JO.OOO „ Kiiiii?iiiiiti fniin Amoy (1H7U). '20,.'il2 ImmiKriiiitrt to ,i ». 20,007 TlUllE Ol' SWATOW (IH70). Kx(h;iiiK<''<. t.'>,lK-2.<'""- ShippiiiK', ■»r)0,2.'iO toiiH. 'I'llADK OF ('ANTON (1H70). ImpcirtH. KxpciitH. £2,r)()0,000 Xl,»')2,000 Of which UriliHh iiboiit fl') por ctut. SlIUM'INO OP WllAMl'OA (1870). V('lt«'ln. Uritinh, l,l.')!l Total 1,H'J2 ToiiiiiiR''. 1,4.')1,7.'>0 . 1,004,000 TuADB OK I'AKiioi (1880), .£;170,000. TllADK OF KlUNdCllEW (IIaINAn). Imports (1S7U). Kxp(irtii(lB7!l). £1-82.000 £188,000 ShipiniiB (1880), 212,724 tons. TiiADB OP Taiwan, Foumoha (1870). Imports. ExportH. £493,000 £.-)80,000 ShipiiiiiR, 104,37.') tons. TuADE OP Tamshii, Foumosa (1880), £1,074,000, Sliipping (187'J), 294 vessels of 88,828 tons. Toa exportod (1880), 14,025,000 tons. | Siiii-J-iNo OK Ho.No KoNo (187'J), 4,000,000 tons. | Trade op Macao (1878), £.-)00,000. | Tua oxiHirtfJ (1878), £2.52.000. Receipts from the lottorios and gamblin^'-houses, £81,000. Imi'ekiai. BunoET op China (1876). Land tax £.i,0 (0,000 Orain and foddor tax .... 4,100,000 Likin, or local charges on merchandise . 0,200.000 Foroi^n customs 4,090,000 Salt tax 1,564,000 Sale of public offices, &c. ... 2,180,000 Sundries 438.00P Total Revenue . £24,862,000 Public Debt (1878), £2,232,000. AnMY. Ciiipp Towns, Tt^ismi HhiBa-tzo and Tiishi-lumpo . Chetnnn .... dyan/i' .... C'hoim-jonK . . . ■ Kironf; .... Bhakiii-joii^' . . . ■ Trade op Tibet with India (1879). Exports to India . . . £150,000 Imports from India .... 14,000 Annuiil import of brick tcu from China, £350,000. KASIUIAUIA, OK CHINESE TrUKKSTAN. Katlmnlfd I'Mpiiliitlim • . 15,000 . 14,001) . 13,000 . fi.OOO 0,000 4,000 3,000 Manchn Regulars Chinese Militia, &c. . 270,000 . 800,000 Total . 1,070,000 Tibet Proper Kuku-Nor and Twiidam TIBET. Area in square miles. . 6.iO,000 120,000 Estimated population. 6,000,000 150,000 Area in nqiiiiro miles. 250,000 Population. 1,000,000 Chief Towns. Yarkan K ash gar Khotan . .'^anju Aksu Kiria Yangi-hissar . Yargalik Korla . MONGOLIA. Area in square miles. Outer Mongolia \ 1^350,000 Inner Mongolia ' 60,000 50,000 40,000 35,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 10,000 6,000 Estimated Popiilation. ^ 2,000,000 ( 2,000,000 North MuNOOLIA. Mongolian Kansc. Socrii MoNOOLIA. Attached to 811AN-SI. Inner MoNOOLIA. Attached to Pechili. Chief Towns. I'rga .... 30,000 Kobdo .... 3,000 Uliasutai .... 3,000 Khailur .... 3,000 Kerulen .... 1.600 / Urumchi .... 15,000 Turfan .... 10.000 I Ilami .... 6,000 I Kuku-khoto (Kweihutt- ) Cheng) .... 30,000 I Dolon nor (Lama-miao) . 30,000 r Jehol (Chingte-fu) . . 40,000 ' Paku (Pingchwen-hien) . 20,000 \ Ilada (Chifeng-hien) . 10,000 Zungaria . Kulja ZUNGARIA AND KUUA. Area in wjunre miles. rqP»l"_'i°"' 120,000 26,000 Chief Towns. Old Kulja Suidum . . • ■ Chuguchak Manas . . . • Shikho .... Bulun-Tokhoi Tultu .... Karkara-DR u . Exclusive of lamas ond Chiutse gmiison troops. 300,000 150,000 15,000 4,000 4,000 3,000 2,600 1,700 1,700 1..500 (?) j-.f-,-.?'-"'^,?^^^ ^«<4S^Sa4.*-ai ^ J STATISTICAri TAHLllM. 481 MANniirinA. Area in w]iMre mllcn. I'liptilntiiin. 3HU,0UU 12,000,000 ClIIKF ' ['l)WN> , Mlirin . , , I'O.OOO NiiiKutik (10,000 I'rovinoo of | '['"'t'''**"'' • 30,000 Aiiheho , 40,000 'I«U.klmr. 1 j,,;;^^,, 10,000 r),ooo I'lloVtNrK 1 KiiiyiU!!) II01I1111H ' (I'itimu) ' ' 3r»,«oo 30,000 / ^liik(li)n . I'roviiK'H of ' Yiinf-t/ii . 180,000 .11- (J IKIN. SwunKchftTiK 30,000 . ' 40,000 SitiHfriiiiitiin , 30,000 Jiiuotuiig;. 'l 'riikiiHhiin [ Fiikii-min M.'i.OOO Tii'iichwann-tui , , L'.'l.OOO IJ.OOO liKlin . , , '.'0,000 'i'i'ling , . 20,000 ^ Sansinff • 16,000 KOREA. Area In tqnarn tnllen. I'ltimntoil popuhtion 116,000 8,000,00;i Trovlneei. So. nf HouMi. Chief Towni. No. of niitrioti. ricnjftan-to •230,400 I'i(^n(fyiinn' 42 lliiiiiki(^nfi;-ti) 103,'JOO lliiiiihi'iiK 24 ll(iangliiii-tn 138,000 Ilai-tniii 23 Kaiinwcn-to 03,000 Wcn-tHiu 20 Kiciif,'kci-to 180,000 llanyiin^ (Suull 36 'rnotifft8i('iiK-to 244.080 Konf^-tHiu 64 KioiiRsanK-to 421,500 Taiku 71 Tsiuula-tu . 290,550 T8icn •tNlU 56 1,566,330 332 JAPAN, Nll'-J'ON. IslandM. Area in iqunre miloii. Population, IH74 Hondo . 90,500 25,478,834 Kiu-Biu . 14,200 4,t)8(),(ll3 Shi-kukii . 7,100 2,484,638 Sailo . 24 \ 'J'gti-Biniii 17 Awnji . Oki 12 8 362,177 Iki 3 ^ Tsluts in Nip. pon . . . 60/ Yc«o . Kurilcs . 3.5,700 \ 4,900 144,690 Liii-kiti Islui ds . . 830 167,073 lionin Island t . . . 38 09 Total Japanese Empire . 153,384 33,623,373 Total population (1880), 35,925,313 ; per squaro mile, 230. Departments (Fu and Ken). Tokoi-fu Saikio-fu Ohosaka-fu . Kanagava-kon Hiogo-kon . Kagasaki-ken Nihigata-kcn Aitsi-kcu Isikavu-kcn Hirosima-kcn Vakayama-kcn Sakahi-kcn . Miagi-kcu . Kotsi-krn . Kmamoto-kou Adminihthative Divisions. I'opulation, 1881 957,121 . 822,098 . 582,060 . 757,462 . 1,.391,928 . 1,190,335 . 1,546,338 . 1,303,812 . 1,833,778 . 1,213,151 . 597,728 . 957,407 . r,i9,l2u . 1,179,247 . 986,095 . Chief Towns. Tokio Kioto Ohosaka Yokohama Kobe Nagasaki Nihi-gata Xagoya Kanazava lliro-sima Vaka-yama Sakahi Sendai Kotsi Kmamoto I ] ^__»,rf** 4H'2 HTATiaTlt'AI' TAllLKH. OtpurtmciiU (Fii i>ni> Ken). Simiiii''-''' II Akitti-Ucii . Kiiitiiiimkin 'ruiliiikcii • lliiiraUi-Win Tiit«iKi-l4''n (liiiiliu ki'n . Miyii-kni Hi(l/.wi)Uilo-l»i n Yiiiimniuii-kcii SiKik-lii'ii (iifu-kiJi NiiKiiiiD-ki.'n FiikiiMtiim-ki'U Ivuli-krii Avomoii-ki'ii yumuKutii-ktii Okiiyiiiim-koii yiuimf?ul»i-ki'n Yctliimc-kiii Fukiiokii-ki'ii Oitii-kiii Okinavtt-kcn Admimimiuti i ClrcuitH. Arcii in wiuiiri' iiiileN Kiniii-do Tokiii-do ToHim-do . Hokiiroku-tli) ISauin-do . . ■ fanyo-do . . • Nnnkai-do . • Ijakai-do . ■ ■ llok'kni-do (Ycmo and Kurik'M) . '2,007 16,t7H 40,478 0,7H' 0,490 8,407 8,7H4 10,79.) 9 Circuits. W. KlVlXlONn— ((•OM/i»M'<') i)iiiUlli>n, IHHit. l,o;i7,'24,;t7ii . oHl,:t.)H . M\,rm . u'io,o2i ■ :i!t.-i,447 . 7;is,iil . h;iii,(11;» . 1,0(1(1.411 . h(is,'j:J7 . AU1,«81 . 476,4 1;» . 68i,'.»'2i) l,0()(),.")70 . 877,014 . l,i;tS,8'J.i •. I,i)y7,'213 . 731,004 . 1, '270,403 . 310,64.5 . CiRCVIM AND rmiVINCEH. Fovulition, IWe. ClilcfT.iinn. Mutiny u Akitu llmva 'ritil>a Mito i'ntHiKi Mity<'-))a*i AllO-tHII Siil/.wukai) Knfll Oob^iwio Iiniiid/.nii /I'liko/.i Knkii-Himit Morioka Avomuri Yiiinii-Rata Oka-yaiim Yiiniiimi-tHi MiitMii-yuma Kukiioka Oita Ka(;o-Hima Hiuri (Liu-kiu I»limd») •2,094,3')4 7,V 10,28-2 7,279,408 .1,448,109 1,000,755 3,048,170 3,37.'J,724 5,'280,740 149,654 34,047.480 Provlncet. Yainu-Hiro; Yamato; KavaUi; Id/.ii. ; Het-!. S.mmii- Id/.; Kiihi; S.iruKa ; 'lootoim ; M'ka%a , OUri; iH.'-. f^ima, Iga; Muza»i ; Ava; Kudzuna; SiinoKii; HitatHi. i.i,„. T„,iVi. (J,ni- Minu; Hid.i ; Sinano; Kod/.k.-; Simodzko; Ivaki, Uiio; IvaHiio; llvkux.^n ; Mutn; l'/'"- . „.„„.„ Vakasa- Kt«i/..'ii; Kaga; Not..: Ktmtsm ; htwRO Sado. I'aSirj'Tango; Ta/.inm; lloki; I.ml.a; Idzmu; Ivam.; HuHma; Mimazaka; Ilizoii ; Bit«iu ; Bigo ; Aki ; Suvo ; k'nir*^Vviid/,i • Ava; Sanuki ; lyo; Toza. T kuz^a T^ikugo; lluzen; Hugo; Hizon ; Il.go; Hiuga; Ohosmi; Satsina; Ik> ; Tsu-B.n.a. OHima; Siribon ; Isikari ; IWho ; Kitami ; Iburi; Tnllaka; Tokatsi ; K.iBiro ; N emoro ; 'fa""'"'*- __ 84 rrovinces. riiiEK Yeho. CrucuiT OF KiNAI-DO. Hakodate 8aru . Yczasi llatsmai Sapporo Otani . Ohosaka Kioto . Hiogo-kobo Sukalii Fiisimi Naru . ^ Kori-yama Towns 28,800 18,000 1,730 10,300 8,000 5,400 290,000 240,000 41,000 39,000 23,000 21,000 15,000 PoputATlON (1873) Scndai 62,000 / Akita . . • • 38,000 Hirosaki 32,900 Sionai . 25,000 Yonezava 25,000 Hikono 24,400 CincuiT OF J Morioka 22,000 1 TOSAN-UO. ^ Vakainats 21,500 Takasaki 20,000 1 Sakata 18,000 Y'ama-gata . 18,000 Ohotz . 17.926 ^ Kanuina 10,060 c.TTCS&!!^>ite»«i-*«f-.*ei^*'Wsff'ar^-#3 BTATISTICAIi TAIILKS. 4RB ki; iilo. mi: ,vo; go; iiri ; riiiKf Tow <<: Popi-i.ATioM (1873)— (<•< Htinutil). ' MnyrbnsI . 16.000 Tokio(l880) 1,037,000 tTtHiiiiMiia , 16,000 Naifoya . , < l:io,ooo MiitmiinDti) 14,300 Yok 32,000 CmrriT oi* NihiiniiiatN 11,000 Yaiiiuda . . 28,000 ToUAN-llO— Aviiiiiiiri li.UOO T»u 23,000 {lunliniiiil). (lira . 1 r ,io«l . . . . 18,1100 IlKiiki . io,i((o 1 Ciiu'vir nv Kiinnn , . 18,000 NciHini |((,((0() ' 'roKAI.DO. Kofii 111,000 ItiitNiiiDyo 10,000 Nuiiiail/ , . lu.ooo ^ KaiHzuvii 110,000 AtNiiila . 16,200 'rii-yiiina 46,000 OhiiMiki . . 13,000 Fiikiiyi 30,000 Odoviira 13,000 Nilii-Kata 34,000 Uyi'iio 12,600 'I'likiita 27,500 lljiniamutis . 11,000 Nattaiikit . 24,000 FiiliiiHi 0,600 'I'likaoka 24,000 Nankai-do. Vaka-yimm . 62,000 Siii-miiiuto 18,000 ' T()kii-»iiiia . 48,0((0 CincriT OK Sitmta . 18,300 KiitHi-kia 30,800 [UKI'UUKU-I)(>. Oilziyii l.>,OilO Takaiiiat* . , 32,800 Kiixivu/uki 1 1,000 SiKOK. MaHtu-yaina . 20,150 Ai^ava 13,000 MuruKaiiu> 14,000 'I'MiiruKa 11,600 Uva/.iina • 12,2(10 Miirakuiiii 10,000 Itnalmr 12,000 Uvots . 10,000 / Kmamotu ■ . < 46,000 KomutH 10,000 Fukiiuka and Ilakata 42,000 < thuno 10,000 KagL'da 31,600 \ Sakayi 10,000 Nagauaki 30,000 MatHiiyo 37,000 Ka);u-Hima . 27,300 Ciuri'iT OP Toltori 20,800 Kagu . 24,000 HaNINoDU. Yoiiago 10,260 Haga 21,700 1 lliro-sima Ha^i . Oka-yama 76,000 Ktiriimo 21,000 46,400 33,000 KlU-BIU. UHuki . Sitna-bara . 18,860 18,700 Iliinudzi 25,000 Idzmi . 18,000 CincuiT OP Simono-Huki 18,700 Fukabori 17,800 8anyo>uu. Fuku-yama 17,700 Kokubu 17,150 Tsii-yama 16,500 Miyasaki 12,000 OiiomitBi 15,000 Nakttts 11, 000 AkuHi . 14,600 Akuno 10,900 Yaniagutsi 11,600 Ilirado 10,000 \ Ivakuiii 10,000 V Kadzikl 10,000 !,000 «,000 2,900 5,000 5,000 4,400 2,000 1,500 0,000 8,000 8,000 17,9'i6 15,060 TiauB Returns. Year. 1866 1869 1873 1878 1880 Importa. Exports. Total. . £2,800,000 £3,090,000 £6,490,000 3,470,000 2,290,000 5,760,000 5,480,000 4,130,000 9,610,000 6,660,000 6,250,000 11,910,000 7,250,000 5,510,000 12,760,000 FOHBION TllADB (1880). Imports. Exports. Great Britain £4,645,000 £787,000 British PossessionB . 420,000 62,000 China .... 1,183,000 1,128,000 Franco .... 762,000 1,140,000 United States . 594,000 2,240,000 Germany .... 335,000 6,600 Italy .... 31,000 100,000 Sundries .... 116,000 30,000 ^M«!^>" ?^T^°'Jr!r«B;[assss»s5.tE,.^;i:«,5;s^ic. r 464 Year. \mr> 18611 iH7;t 187S STATISTICAL TABLES. SiiirPiNO. TonnnRC. 1(16,872 1,0G(),;W8 l,o:«i,407 -4'.),529 Japiiiifse Steam Tonnage (1880) ,, Junk ,1 •• „ Fishing Cralt ,, Of wliiehlJritiali. 'J',),t)49 410,105 234,4')9 417,091 :i(i,543 tons. 408, 7oO ,, 4 33,000 bouts. Chief Stai-i ,ES OF TllAUE Import H. (1879). Yarns £1,510,000 Cottons. l,03r.,000 Woollens 1.158,000 Kiiw Cotton . 614,1100 Metills . Kxports. 377,000 Silk and Cocoonn 1,841,000 Toa 882,000 Ui.o . 928,000 Dried Fish . 206,000 Coul . 171,000 Porcelain (IS.S >' 100,000 FOUF.IOX 'i'llADK OF HAKODATE (1880). Imports. ,?'iTnrm £45,000 .1.1.)0,000 FouEioN Trade of Yokohama (1880). Imports. KxportB. Shipping. £5,190,000 £3,710,000 l,.i22 vussolg. FouEiGS Trade of Ohosaka and lIiofio-KoiiE (1880). ImprrtK. Exports. Shipping. £1,750,000 £1,160,000 237,000 tons. Foreign Trade ok Naoasaki (1880). Imports. Exports. Shipping. £280,000 £487,000 £522,000 tone. Tu.tDE OF THE LlU-KIU IsL.\NDS (1880). Imports. Exports. £52,800 £26,6.i0 Foreign Residents in Jafan. BKITISII. OTIIEllS. Year 1874 1878 jfirms. 155 92 Residents. 1,170 1,067 Firm". 310 191 Eisidcnis. 3,901 4,438 Japanese Aouitii.TVRAL Ii!ind under timber Arable land . . Land under cultivation „ „ rice . ,, ,, other crops Rice crop .... Karley crop Wheat crop Tea crop .... Sorf;hum sugar crop . Tobacco crop Pulse crop .... Silk, total yield . Silk and cocoons exported . Returns (1880). 60,000 sq. mile'--. 50,000,000 acrpH. 12,530,000 „ 6,800,000 ,, 4,2.i0,000 ,, 205.000,000 biishels. 60,000,000 38,000,000 ,. 90,000,000 lbs. 65.000,000 „ 90.000.000 „ 50,000,000 bushels. £11,000,000 £2,310,000 Javanese Mineral Returns (187^)— (continued). Iron , 21,000 Ooal „ 342,000 Petroleum raised . . . 63,500 gallons. Coal-fields of Yes , . 1 50,000, 000, 000 tons. Totpl yield of minerals (1881) £1,000,000 Japanese Uudoet (1880). Income. Direct taxes .... £9,075.000 Indirect 1,672,000 Customs 477,000 Miscolliincous . . . 592,000 ICxpenditure. Interest on the Debt . . £4,638,000 Civil List and Pensions . . 423,000 Army and Navv . • • 2,150,000 Kdueation .... 250,000 I'ublic Works . . . 224,000 Civil Service, ic . . . 4,500,000 Total Re'cnue and Expenditure, balanced (1880), £11,130,000. National D.bt, £72,070,000. Chief source of Revenue, the Land Tax, 87 per cent, of the whole. .i»H-i/.— Peace footing, 35,560; War, 50,230; Reserve, 20,000. .V«fv.— Ships, 23; Men, 4,242; Guns, 149 7V/(>e.-23,334. Railways open (1881), 70 milts. Patset.jjer traffic (1879), 3,000,000. Rai^vays projecltd. 500 miles. Postal Returns (1879). Letters forwarded, 55,775,206. Money orders issued, 249,429-vnlue £740,^76. Post Offices, 3,927 ; Mail routes, 36,062 miles. Telegraph lines, 3,344 miles. Telegiaphic dispatches, 1,045,442. Submarine cable system completid, 1880. Public Instruction. Elenientiry schools (1879), 2.5,459. Teachers, 59,825 ; Pupils, 1,594,792 boys; 668,220 " Middle schools, 389 : Attendance, 20,522. Technical schools, 52 : Attendance, 3,361. University (Tokio) : Professors, 56; Students, 710. Schools teaching English, 25; other languages, 3: .Vttendancc, 1,522. Foreign teachers in Government employment, 97. Literature. VVoiks published during the year ending Julj-, 1879. liegislation, political economy . 543 Educational 470 Japanese Mineral Returns (1879). Gold raised .... £46,000 Silver „ 90.000 Copper ,, 28 (,000 Lokd , 5-000 Geography Philology Mathematics . History .... Ridigion Novels, poetry, miscellaneous Newspapers, 211 : Circulatioi 454 313 225 180 107 . 2,925 29,000,000. Miscellaneous. Coinage stiuck at the Ohosaka Mint (1880), £17,000,000. Paper Money in circulation (1881), £22,600,0110. Native Christians: Protestants, 7,500; Roman Catholics, 4,000; Gseek, 4,000. J55;^33Sn"^tiW*U*i-'.'»i-fcJSlMlii-,j;^l(ii»f,- Ei&«*afe* Abdalli, 63 Aberdeen (Hong Kong), 259 Aborigines of Japan, 400 Abors, ^2 Abulitna River, 422 Administration of Tibet, 56 Kashgaria, 74 Kuku-nor, 80 Mongolia, 110 China, 315, 324 Korea, 351 Japan, 473 Adzma-yania, Mount, 369 Adzma-yebis, 396 Agriculiiire, China, 287 Japan. 4 16 Aichcw, 275 Aigava, 4'J3 Ai'gun, 123 Aikhun, 123 Aimaks, 110 Ainos, 396 Aitsi "ren, 430 Akano Hiver, 386 Akasi, 439 'Akitu, 390, 421 Akkcnt, 93 Aksu Town, 63 Akunc, 443 Alaid Volcano, 362 Alaknanda River. 25 Ala-shan Mountains, 100 Almi-tu, 93 Altai-nuru Mountains, 95 Altin-tagh, 17, 75, 76 Alti-shahr, 58 Ambun, 56 Amdoans, 42 Amne, 76 Amno-kang River, 344 Ainoy, 245-247 Andijani, 69 A nouta Mountains, 17 Anking, 230 Anong Tribes, 266 Ano-tsu, 430 Ansi, 84 Aoniori, 421 " Apricot Tilwt," 13 Arabian Sea, 23 Araido Volcano, 362 Arbuz-ola Mountains, 101 INDEX Arima, 437 Arita, 441 Armv of Tibet 57 China, 327 Japan, 475 Arru Tribe, 42 Artush, 72 Asania-yania. Mount, 369 Ashe- ho, 12') Asiiio-umi, Lake, 371 Asivara, 431 Aso-vania Volcano, 379 Aten'tze, 209 Atsiula, 430 Auckland, Mount, 340 Aula, Mount, 340 Avata, 433 Avoniori, 421 Avoniori Bay, 307 Avo-sima Isle, 367 Avo-umi Province, 373 Ayar-nor, 88 Az-sind River, 76, 81 Baba, Lake, 62 Bagarash-kul, 62 Bai, 7o Bakha Xamiir, Lake, 20 Baknak Puss, 24 Bakti, 92 Balkha.sh, Lake, 13 Baniu Uiver, 386 Banka, 2l^2 liantai Cone, 367 Baotu, 194 Bar, Lake, 86 Barantola, 14 Barkul, 86 Barlik Mountains, 88 Batang, 220 Bay oi" liengnl, 23 Bayan-gol liiver, 78 Bayan-ingir Pass, 95 Bayan-khaia I'lateau, 207 Boduneh, 125 Botcl Tobago Island, 284 Bhatno, 30 IShutan, 17 lihutancse, 43 DishbiUik, 87 Biva, I.iko, 373 Black Irtish River, 88 Black Lolo Tribe, 211 Bocea Tigris, 219 Bodyul, n Bogdo-kuren, 111 Bogla-nor, 62 "Bogue" River, 24!) Itoiiin Lslaiuls, , ChiiiKtu-fii, 221 l;lliIl^'-l>') Tribos, 207 ChiiigtiiiK, 174 liiiiisi-fu, «G I'hira, 71 C'li..k-kul, G3 CluMigwri, 193 Chonlo-iloiiK, Lake, 24 (Ihoiia-joiig, 53 Choslii, 4;!3 t:ho\vkia-kow, 196 Cluistiaiis of (.'liiiia, 151 Chiirttiaiiity in Japan, 41u (Ihiiguchak, 92 I'hiiiiHihciig, 224 Chungcliiug-t'ii, 272 Chungking, 224 Climig -Miat) Tribe, 21'! Cliungiie-hitn, 193 (.'hiioan Islands, 218 Climate of Tibet, 38 Mongolia, 97 Mongolian Kansu, 81 China, 132 South C;hina, 250 I'onnosa, 278 Korea, 341 Japan, 387 Coal Measures of China, 297 ComnianiBm in China, 293 Confucius, 142 Currency of China, 331 Daba, 27, 50 Daban-shan, 87 l)absun-nor, 78 Daibuts, statue of, 428 Daikil), 3i>4 Haizen Cone. 374 Dalai- lama, 44 Dalds, 79 Itanura-yuni, Lake, 21 D'Anville'B Map. 32 Dapsmg, Mount, 62 Dams, 121 Daiisi'-alin Mountains, 116 Debang, 63 Delangle I'eak, 36a De-sima, 3'i8, 412 Devil's Mountain, 362 Dialeets of China, 138 INDEX. Dibong River, 33 Di.hu River, 199 Dignrehi, ol Dihong River, 33 Diosi, 423 Dogthol, 51 Doker-la Mountains, 269 l)olon-nor, 114 Donkir, 192 Dorkhats, 105 Doikia, 22 ' Double" Island, 253 Dn-kiu Islands, 381 iMik-pa, 44 Diingans, 91 l)us-alin Mountains 1 "Dutch Folly," 249 Dzunibur, Mount, 101 Ebi-nor, 88 Kdsinii River, 81 Ediiealion in China, 312, 320 Japan, 4(>9 Kktiig-Altai, :»IouT>t, 95 Kliuts, 83 Kmigratiou , Chinese, 308 Kmil River, 92 Kmper.r's Household, China, 317 Kiurkak, 108 Krh-hai, Lakes 271 Krlit/.a llalf-eastrs, 110 Et/.ina River, 81 Exploration of I'ibct, 15 ('hina, 161 Japan, 3.')8 Korea, 337 Extortion in China, 319 Fachan, 255 Faku-min, 127 Fangcbeng, 229 Fauna of Tiliet, 40 Kashgaria, 66 China, 134 Hainan, 274 Furmosa, 278 Korea, 341 Japan, 393 Yeso, 364 Fenghoang-eheng, 'Sd FtMig-shiu, 143 Firand.), 442 Floni of Tibet, 40 191, Kashgaria, 66 fJhina, 134 Hainan, 274 Formosii, 278 Korea, 341 Japan, 389 Yeso, 364 Fnabasi, 423 Fog Island, 379 Fokien I'rovinec, 240 Fori igners in China, 308 Formosa Island, 275 Fuehang-hien, 194 Fueliew, 195, 225 Fuehew-fu, 242 Fu. n-ho River, 195 Fujii River, 386 F'ukabori, 442 Fukuoka, 441 Fuku-sima, 422 Fuku-yama, 421, 440 Fukuyi, 423 Funagava Channel, 367 Fuuai, 441 Fungtiao-shan, Mount, 187 Fungwang-shan, 127, 334 Funing-fu, 242 Funiu, Mount, 187 Fu»han, 255 Fusinii, 434 Fusi-yama Voleano, 370 Fusung River, 223 Fuzi-sau Voleano, 370 l''uzi-»ava, a91 Uakpo River, 33 (ialdan, 53 tianfu, 2158 (iang-dis-ri Mountains, 24 (iangri Mountains, 24 Gargunza, 51 tJarlok, 61 Oeluk-pa, 44 (Sensan, 351 tJeolofjy of East Tibet, 31 i (ihion Tribe, 42 tlifu, 430 (iirin, 124 ttobi Desert, 93, 96 Uol, meaning of the term, 62 Oomi, 192 Gordon's Course of the Isaugbo, 35 Goto Islands, 385 (iraud Canal, IS5 Chusiin, 239 Lu-ehew Island, 284 Great Tibet, 13 Wall, 102- Guchen, 87 Gulf of Tartary, 356 (lulf of Tonkin, 2 tiuniu, 72 Gurbu Naiji, Mount, 17 Gyakharuia Mountains, 23 Gyanzeh, 62 Gyarung Tribe, 43 Hada, 115 Hani, 440 Haiihung, 127 Hai-kow, 275 Hainan Island, 273 Strait, 273 Hakabt, 441 Hakka Race, 252 Hakodate, 420 Uakone, 371 Pass, 371 Haku-san, Mount, 373 Hanianiatz, 430 Ilami, 8.) Han River, 201, 202 Hauehang-fu, 214, 229, 363 Hangehew, Gulf, 204 llangehew-fu, 230 Hangtzen, Lake, 183 Ilan-hai, 03 Han River, 201, 202 Ilan-kiang River, 243 Korea, 334 Hankow, 227 Hanyang, 353 Hanyang-fu, 227 Ilaramukotan Island, 361 Harinoki Pass, 372 Hasibe Gni, Mount, 364 He-nhui River, 214 Iliaksai, 336 Hianien, 246 Uiaug-hien, 178 Tr!T^T^.-a« -sei&fiW^fWV******? ■ INDliX. 487 1,62 Tsaugbo, 23 1,363 361 64 Hirta Mountainfi, ^72 Hinn-fuii),', Mount, 340 iricwkao, 19i') Ili^aHiyuma, 442 HiKliwiiVH, China, 305 Ja)ian, 4G7 llikonr. 4.tl llinicd/i, 44U Uioi^o, 437 Jliolo Uapc, 2o2 llii-adu, »8o, 442 lliroHa'rfi, 421 lliro-Hima, 440 ]Iiti^i-Hha iHland, 203 llivoi-san, 373 IIoach')7 Uivcr, 232 IIoa-s)mn (Koron), 363 Muunt, 105 Ilochow, 103, 22.'} ll(>p:^'s Dctilc, 38 ]Iui-huw, 21 n Hokchcw, 243 lloklo Uaci>, 2')2 Ilokow, 230 Jlo-lao-ltj-kia, 64 Ilolin, 113 ]Ioiiaii-fii, 10>> Hondo, 306, 364 Hong Kons;, 267 llon^-minii;, 281 IlontHi, 357 Hor-pa, 20 llor-sok, 20 IIov<.'i-8an C'ono, 370 lluVhow, 140, 236, 237 Hunan I'rovinvo, 217 Hiindos I'rovinco, 50 lliuig-kiang Uiver, 263 IIu]H!h I'rovinco, 190 Hwi'i-hwei, 149 Il'wL'n Tsang, 5 Ibuki-vnma, Mount, 373 l-chang, 225 Ic'hu, 354 Idzii I'oninsulu, 371 I-jfn '1 ribog, 210 Ikt! Nanidr, Liiko, 20 Iki Island, 357, 385 Ikuno, 440 Ilchi, 71 Hi Province, 88, 90 Rivtr, 90 Imalmr, 441 Imaidznii, 430 Iniumntsi, 423 Inavasiro, Jjiko, 367, 422 Indus Hivor, 24 luduHtring i>( Tibet, 54 Kavbgaria, 60 China, 295 Korea, :<60 Japan, 453 Inhabibuits uf Tilwt, 41 Kutthgaria, 67 Kuku-nor, 70 Mongolia, 103 Mongolian Kansu, 83 Zungariti., 90 Kuija, t/1 Cbiua, 136 iiechucu, 209 Inhabitants of I,owcr Yang tau IJiiHin, 211» Fokicn, 241 South China, 251 Yunnan, 266 Hainan, 274 Fornu)8a, 280 Korea, 344 •lapan, 396 Uiu-kiu, :c, 214 Kitian, 72 Kilicii-shan, 70 Kilning, 17!t Kin(li.'W,_127, 104, 226 Kinfai), 177 Kirgihiw-fu, 127 King-ho Rivrr. 1S8 Kiiigtij-chon, TM Kin^V/.c, 2'M Kiii-kiaiig, 229 Kinkipao, 149 Kinliing-kiaiig. .'i7 Kiiiniu-lao, 2.;2 Kiiipai l'"i)rts, 241} Kinsha-Uiaiig Uivcr, 199 Kii.to. 4:i2 Kirghiz Nomads, 68 Kiria, 71 Valley, 19 Kiri<'liai, 56 Kiri-sinia Island, 379 Kirong, 51 Kisciiuiua, 366 Kiso Uivcr, 372 Kitai, 7 Kitiikiiini River, 365, 386 Kitao Trilw, 214 Kiii-siti, 356, 378 Kiting-chow, 222, 275 Ki/.il-ait, 62 Ki/,il-sn, 62 Kizil-tigb, 62 Kmamoto, 442 Kiiiaso Uacc, 33l> Koac'hew, 231 Kobdo, HI Kobdo Plateau, 95 Kobdo, Lake, 96 Kobe, 437 Kobu-ga-hara, Mount, 369 Kofu, 429 Kok-nor. 73 Kokubu, 443 Kokura, 441 Kok-su, 62 Komaga Volcano, 363 Koinats, 423 Komats-yama, Mount, 379 Koncho River, 62 Kong-kio, Luke, 26 Kongor-Adzigan Mountains, 86 Koakir, Mount. 76 Korea, 334 Koreans, 344 Korea Strait, 385 Kori-yiiiiia, 434 Korlu, 73 Kosheti-davan, 86 Koso, Lake, 96 INDEX. Kotsi. 441 Kowhin, 259 Koyasan, 430 Kozakov ("ape, 356 Kiiaiia, 430 Kuliati, 421 Kublai Klian, 221 Kucha, 73 Kuilara, 336 Kui'ii-iiin Mountains, 17 Kuituii, 92 Kuku-Khoto, 114 Kuku-nor Province, 75 I-akc,77 Kulja. 88, 90 Old, 92 New. 93 Kulu-ho Uivcr, 184 Kuiuai, 444 Kuinanioto, 442 Kuuiis, 107 Kunitag l)(>scrt, 07 Kunasiro Island, 361 Kiiiilmm, 192 Kiinchcw, 194 Kungcs Uiver, 90 Kutigtau Uivcr, 225 Kurilo Islands, 360 Kuro-sivo Ciirri'nt, 386 Knruk Mountains, 02 Kurunie, 441 Kiiyvi-sbu, 125 Kwaciicw, 84 Kwangchcng-tzp, 125 Kwangning, 127 Kwangsi Province, 247 Kwjtngtuiig Province, 247 Kwan-liiig, 353 Kwan-sai, 371 Kwanta'ilu, 267 K wan-to, 371 Kwanyin, '40 Kweichew-fu, 225 Kwciti-shan, 117 ],iaotuiig (iulf, 119 liiaoyang, 127 l.iiinchcw, 203 I.ikiang-t'u 271 Liniin, 224 l,ingan-fu, 2V2 Liiiicao, 275 Linshoteu Islands, 381 Lintsing, 175 Lisu Tribes, 260 Litang, 208, 220 Literati, China, 312 Little Uokhara, 58 Tibet, 13 Liu-kiu Islands, 283, 381 Loli-niir, 02 Lofu Hills, 247 Lohit River, 33, 38 Lo-ho Riv( r, 187 Lohui, 275 Loi Tribes, 274 Lokao, 170 Lolo Tribes, 210, 266 Lo-»han, Mount, 174 Loyang, 190 Luchew, 222 Lu-chu Islands, 381 Lui River, 220 i^uiyang, 226 Lu-kiang, 37, 269 Lungkew, 178 I^uting-chao, 221 Lutzc-kiang, 37, 75, 266, 269 Lutzc Tribes, 266 Macao, 259 Maimaclien, 111 Malays, 136 Manas, 92 Manasse Saruar, 27 Mancbu Race, 120 Manchuria, 115 Mandarins, 322 Maudzi, 122 Manegrs, 120 Mungnang, 40 Mang-ko, 272 Manhao, 206, 272 ftlansaraur. Lake, 26 Mantzo Tribes, 210, 266 Mao-jin Uacc, 396 Map-chu River, 50 Maralbashi, 73 Mariam-la, 24, 28 Markham's Course of the Isang- bo, 34 Marugamc, 441 Maruoka, 423 Matsmai, 421 Matsmayo Strait, 364 Matsu-sima, 365 Matua Island, 361 Matsuye, 439 Matsu-yama, 441 Mayebasi, 423 Mazar, 86 Mci-kiang River, 248 Mci-ling Moimtains, 218 Pass, 241 Mekbong River, 37 Mclam Language, 42 ; .c, ■6VS?*S«?;.»5E'i 'i" yy^if^.i^m^fmmmi->.(:^ssme»Sf«Xt^fi'^^^SS^^!^XS^S&miiieK,- I TNDEX. 489 M.'lvillo, .183 Mciiufho.i-liicn, 271 ]Mi'iii,'kii, 'JH'i MlT!,'CIl, 12 J M.rkain, .">! Mi'i'ii, .Mount, 2') Mitiko, 4:i'i Miiiofinjjf-Hliiiii, 170 Jliiii) Weil}; 'IVibp, 215 Miaot/.i' 'IVibcH, 211, 2J2, 2GG Mi-ike, ;{80 Jlikiiv.i, (2;! Jli-kiimjjr liiviT, I'll Mikomoto Island, a7l iMimiinu, ;i:ii) MiiiKirio JtiviT, 421 Min Uivcr, 2(10 {l''<)kicn\ 241 MiniTiiis iif Mongolia, 98 Knxh^riiria. 71 liiiinim, 274 <'hina, 2!Mi Kciia, ;iU Japan. 401, 462 Mi»)iMii9, 42 Mi-tako, Mount, 372, 379, 1)80 Mito, 423 " Mixiiil Courts " in Chiuii, 327 Aliyanozio, 413 MiyaHaki, 441 Miyiilci'M, 432 Miyi-yania, Mount. 379 Mi>u:anii Uivcr, 422 Moy:nalari. Lake, 29 M Xestori.ins, 1 19. 152 Xnanbai, 21 6 Nganlnvei Mountains, 206 NjrankiuK:, 230 Nifinsi. 81, 85 Itivcr. HI Xffanyi. 195 Xj^aoriicn. 259 N^chcw, 254 X,Lren-kio River, 37 Xgiiclmiipf Tribe, 214 Nffomi-sban. .Mount, 208 Niacbu River, 199 Xif-hon. 358 Nibi-gat:i. Niigata, 422 Ni-bon, 357 Xiboiiinats, 422 Nikko, -112 Highlands, 356, 367 Xilam, ol .Vinchi Rare, 121 Ningbai, 127 Xiiigbia, 194 Ningpo, 239 River, 238 Xiuguta, 125 Xingyiien, 127. 222 Xiiijiii-tang-la, 22, 24 Nin-yuan. 92 Nip-pou, 356 Nip-pon It isi, 424 Nit-piJn, 358 Niiiehwang, 119, 127 Noh, Lake, 29 Nonni River, 1 16 North Mongolia, 93 Noshiro River, 386 Noto, 423 Nu-kiang River, 37 Xuniadz, 429 Xyaring-tso. 23 Nyenshhen-lang-la, 24 O'Aknn, Mount, 364 Ob River, 197 Obama, 438 Odovarii. 429 Oduntala Steppe, 78 Odzu, 432 Oechardes River, 62 Ogasavara Islands, 356, 44 1 Oga-sima Island, 366 Ohogaki, 430 Ohokata-bntsiro Sen, 366 Ohono, 423 Ohosnka, 434 Oho-sima Island, 371, 383 Ohots. 432 Oho-ya-sima, 357 Oi River, 386 Oitaken. Ill (Mwake. 30'.» Oka-yania, 440 Oki IslaU'ls, 357. 367 Okiiiava Island, 383, 444 OUunia River, 3S!i Oliin-diba I'ass, U5 Onii I'rovince, 373 Oiiiii'kotan I.sland, 361 ()iinniit.si, 410 OmiIjo Jtasiii, lO OiM-clm liiver, 37 Oiion River, 90 On-taki'. .Mount, 372 Opium Smoking, 12, 301, 304 Ord.w I'latcau, 100 Oring, Lake, 79 ( b'ocbones. 120 O.saka. 434 Os(U'i>-.san. Mount, 367 Olaru. 419 Outer .Mongolia. 109 Oya-sivo Current, 387 I'a-fan TribiR, 215 I'a-ho River, 224 I'aik-san, Mount, 340 I'aiktu-san, Mount, 339 I'a-i 'i'rilie, 42. 215, 267 Rakhoi, 261. 262 I'aki Race, 121 I'aku, 115 I'ak-wan-.shan Mountains, 247 I'algu-tso, 24 I'aiti, Lake, 24, 30, 31 I 'amirs. 19 I'anchcn-rimbochch, 51 I'ang-hu Islatids, 275 I'ang-kong, Lake, 28 I'anliwei-pan, 15i» I'antliay Insurrection, 268 I'anthavs, 149, 268 I'aote, 194 I'aoting-fu, 173 I'apeh Tribe, 215, 268 I'aranmshir Island, 360 I'avu Tribes, 267 "Reirl" Kivcr, 249 rccbili I'rovinee, 163 I'ei 'I'ribe.s. 267 I'ci-hai, 262 rei-hi, Mount, 195 I'ci-ho River, 163 I'cima-hu, Lake. 175 I'eimon River, 274 I'ei-shui River, 214 I'eiyun-sban Mountains, 247 Pe-kiung River, 248 Peking, 164 Pekuan, 125 Penal Code, China, 326 Pentapolis. 8" Pepohoan Tribes. 281 Pescadores Islands, 275 I'eshui-kiang River, 199 Petsi. 336 J'etuna, 125 Philippines, 1 Pialma, 72 Piengan, 354 " Pigeon English," 308 Pijan, 85 Piiichew, 194 Pingchwen-hien, 115 Pingliang-fu. 194 Pingsban, 222 Pingtu, 178 ■ifarriVr . . 490 I'innyiiiiK-fu, 196 I'inviui, U')4 rishiin S5 I'ltlK.. 'JHI Volini Uiv.r, 354 I'dmi, •'»" I'opov, Mount, 340 I'lisiiiiin, 7- I'dssirt IViv, Via. 3tO rovunur, I'iil"-. ••!"- " l'ri>ytT-Mills," 40 I'liliuiij?, •'j3 riititint?. Chinii, 29!) .Iiipiin, 410 I'rovini'i's of Tibet, 67 KiishRiiriii, 74 Cliinu, 333 Korea, 3.')4 Tiihlie Kxiiiuiniitions in (.hina, 320 rmhew-fu, 195 I'lu'-kiimg River, 248 I'liUuheh. 124 I'ulin)?. i>0 I'liiiti Knee, 252 rutni, 1H4 I'uto, 240 (iuclpacrt Island, 336, 340, 343 liiulolth. 51 Valley, 2S Uailwuy Projects, China, 305 Hailwavs, .Japan, 407 Hiikiis-tal, I,ako. 20 Hashua IhIuikI, 361 Itaskolnika, 74 Red River, 263 RiMnipanK 'I'ribo, 42 Reveiiun of China, 331 llixiri. Mount, 363 liiu-kiu Islands. 356, 3S1 Rivalry of White and Yellow Uac('s, 9-11 " Uobher " Islands, 250 Roiiin, history of tho, 426 Sado. 357 Island, 423 Saga. 441 Sagaini Hay, 428 Saikio, 432_ Sainan, 255 Sainoin, 110 .Sakahi, 436 ijukata, 422 Uiv^., 386 S ikayi. 423 Sakhalin, 356 Saki-siina, 283 Sakura, 428 Sal Tiii-pci-Hliun Muuntuiui), 334, 339 Tiiijiiiif^M, l')9 Tiiiwai), 2Hi Tuiyiiiiii-fii, 195 Tultiil)()k<), U2 Tiikanmts, t23, 411 Takaokii, 423 TakaHaki, 423 Tu-kiang Kivor, 274 Takla-kliar, fto Takla-iiiukuu, U4 Takow, 281 Taku Korts, 173 Takii-Hhan, 125, 127 Tali, Lak(), 271 Tali-fii, 270 Taiki Muuiitains, OU Talki I'aBS «8 'lainHhui Uivtr, 279 TaiK'how, 275 TancKa IslunJ, 358, 381 Taiif? DynuHty, 5 Taii(^kati(^, 281 Tang-la Mountains, 22 Tangutans, 79 Tankow-chen, 19G Taiiksth UivtT, 29 Taunu-ulii Alouutuins, 05 Taiit-la MountaiuH, 23 Taoism, 44, 140, 145 Tapui-shan, Mount, 187 Taranatli-lania, 108 Taranchi, 08, 91 Tai'bagatai Mountains, 88 Turgut-leh Mountains, 23 Tai'got-yap, Mount, 21 Tarim Basin, 58 Kivor, 62 Tarim tzi, 73 Tsrtiiry, Gulf of, 356 Tarumai Volcano, 363 Ta-8han, Mount, 174, 275 Tash-kurgan, 72 Tashi-lama, 61 Tashi-luinpo, 51 Tatu Tribes, 103 Tatar Nomads, 19 Tato-vama, Mount, 372 Tatsii'nlu, 220 Tatu-ho Kiver, 221 Tatung, 230 Tatung-fu, 173 Tatung-gol, 76 Tawan-ho River, 176 Tayang-ho, 127 Taying, Mount, 237 Tayu-ling Mountains, 218 Tea Trade, China, 291 Tea Culture, Japan, 447 Tekes Kiver, 90 Telu Tribe, 42 Tengri-uor, 21 Tengyueh-ting, 269 Tenriu Kivor, 3(>7 Teradnniari, 423 Torek-davan, 70 Terekti, Mount, 70 Tcshu-lamu, 51 Tesilio Kiver, 302 Thok-yalung, 24 Tian-shau, 1 Tian-shan Nan-lu, 58, 88 IV-lu, 58, 88 Tibet, 13 TibetaUH, 41 Tib(!tan Language, 42 Tiemon-kwan, 185 T'icnchwaiig, 127 TienNliu Hills, 171 Ticnl.iiii, 172 Tihiia-chew, 87 Ti'ling, 125 Ting in, 275 Tingliai, 240 TingUi, 17!) Tiokai Volcano, 367 Tisc, .Mount, 25 Tiunii'ii-ula itiver, 314 Toatuti.., 282 Tobi Island, 367 T'okatsi Kiver, 302 Tokatsi-tuke, Mount, 362, 364 'I'ok-daurappa, 51 Ti)-kiang, 214 Tokio. 423 Hay, 3()G Tok-yaiung. 51 Tokii-sima, 441 Tola Kiver, 111 Tolai Kiver, 81 'I onuio, 444 Tomari, 361 Tomioka, 423 Tone-gava Kivor, 365 Tongkatu, 233 Toshinia Kivor, 386 Tottori, 439 To-yania, 423 Hay, 367 Toyobasi, 430 Trade of Tibet, 54 Kashgaria, 69 China, 300 Korea, 351 Japan, 462 Transbaikalia, 3 Tmus-Hinialayas, 23, 24 Traniskuenlunian, 15 Tnins-Ordos, 101, 18(1 T'roaty Ports, China, 303 Tsagan-khoto, 114 Tsaidam, see Chaidam. Tsakars, 105 Tsang Mountains, 24 I'rovinee, 50 Tsangbo Kiver, 30 T'saprang, 50 Tsiitung, 245 Tsctien, 110 Tsiambo, 5* Tsiontang liasin, 239, 240 Tgi-jen, 121 Tsikubu Island, 373 Tsimi, 179 Tsinan, 175 Tsingchew, 194 Tsiilgchow-fu, 178 Tsing-hai, 77 Tsing-ling Mountains, 187 Tsinhai, 237 Tsin-hion, 178 Tsiongyan-san, Mount, 340 Tsiosan, 330 Tsiosen, 335 Tsi-siiua, 360 Tsitsikhar, 124 Tsiudo, 357 Tsiuscuzi, Lake, 367 Tuo-gumhuMi, 77 THo-iiia|7 NVhiti' Cloml, Mimnt, 208 Mimtzf Tribo. 210 I, old, 211 " White Mountains," 373 Kivcr. :t78 \Vi-nhiin, Mount, 244 \Vu( tiiini?-fu, 227 Wuclidw. 2'>1 Wu-lni, 2;iO WukiiiiK-slian Mountains, 217 AVulin, Mount, 1 17 WuuKkuni Isliinil, 250 Wusliili-shan, 273 WuHUii',', 2y.j Yiuli('\v-fu, 221 Yakuno-sima Island, 381 Yania-ijava, 441! Yalu-kianK Kivor. 334, 344 YalunB Uivcr, 190 Yaniada, 430 Yan>a-gata, 422 Yaniau;>itHi, 441 Yainan-(lii);, 108 Yauiiito Kaco, 401 Yanulok Lako, 31 Yani,', 197 Yaii|,'an, 19,5 Yan>r-<'how, 231 Yan^i-hiHwr, 72 Yungi-shahr, 72 INDEX. Yanf):tzo-kinnpr, 190 Yanjii. 2.11 Yao'Trihr. 21.'),2.'iO Yarkand, 72 Kivcr, 18, 01 YailiinK Hivor, 199 YaHhi. 271 Yashil-kul. 01 YfliiH, ;)90 Y.bori, Mount, 364 Y<'l)His, 390 Yedo, 423 Hay, 300 Y'i;do-t?avtt, 424 YodoMio Bay, 420 Yollow I^nds. 189 Uivor, 7i> Sea. ISC. YcmiNi Uac.', H90 Yt'nchow-fu, 177 Yi'iiisdi River, 197 Yi'iitai. 178 Yrrkftlo. 38, 209 Y.'HO, 350, 302, 460 Y(iturui) iHland, 361 Yc/nn, M()\int, 364 Yt'zasi, 421 Yiihiiw, 179 Yinkoa, 118.127 Yingtzo. 127 Yiu Tribes. 250 Yo, Mount. 188 Yochew. 227 Yodo,434 River, 386 Yokohama, 428 S'oko-sinm Island. 381 Yoniodz Raee. 401 Yonakuni Hills, 284 Yonugi, 430 YonnRo, 430 Yone/.ava. 422 Yonida, 430 ^'aangudnK-yuan, 170 YubutM, 420 ■ Yuen River, 201 Yuenching, 19") Yuen-kiang, 272 Yuiuiinsian. H.'j Yu-kiang Uivur, 247, 248 Yiilin, 203 Yulin-fu, 195 Yunchew, 271 Yung-ehenn, 243 YunR-ehing, 178 YiinKchaiiK-fu, 269 Yung-ki'ing, 237 Y'unnping, 244 Yiuinping-fu, 173 Yunnun-fu, 271 Yunnan rrovince, 203 Y'upi-tatze Tribe, 120 YuBU Knee. 401 Yuvari, Mount. 364 Yuyao, 237, 240 Znisan, 89 Zakuenhinskiy, l/i Zangbo River, 30 Zarafshan River, 61 Zayton. 245 Zeguntola. 14 Zeze, 432 Zinisa, 87 Zinna, 336 Zipangu, 367 Zkivu. 240 Zunsaria, 88. 90 ZuBgarians, 00 THE END. V- Fi~T7xrr-z?-/-«..7^«s?«w«F^-'**'^&«s^ ^ .■'.SS^"^**)'