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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est filmd d partir de Tangle sup^rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcesRsire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. irrata to pelure. □ 32X 1 2 3 i 1 2 3 4 5 6 ^ 1^ National Library Bibliotheque naiionale of Canada du Canada ! Cmtnirmn |Tiitrointl Scries o( Btlml §00li«. AN ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, WITH AN APPEISTDIX ON PROSODY, PUNCTUATION, &o. gitttl^onjtb bg i\t (JTountil of IJitblic InstnuUon for ©ntiino. TORONTO: AND FOR SALE AT THE BOOKSTORES. 1869. c ,?> Entered according to Act of t]»e l^arliauuMit of Canada, in the year Oiio Thousand Eight Iluudred and Sixty-eight, by the PtKVF.RF.NB Egektox Ryerson, L[. D., Chief Superintendent of Education for Ontario, in tlie Office of tlio Minister of Agriculture. 3^0T PREFACE. In laying before the Teachers of the Province a new work on English Grammar for use in our PuLlic Schools, it may not })e out of place to say a few words respecting this particular treatise. For many years Bullions' Grammar has been extensively used in the Schools of the Province, and has met with a great amount of success. It was felt that with certain alterations, which the investigations of other authors into various grammatical constructions, &c., have rendered necessary, it would be the best suited for the i)urpose of forming the basis of a Text-book for general adc»ption. Wherever there has been miy deviation from the opinions advanced by Bullions, such deviation has not been made without due care and nttention being paid to the conflicting opinions of different writers, and without a just balance being struck. In order that there may be as much uniformity as possible in the definitions of the Parts of Speech, &c., in the author- ized Latm and English (irammars, the phraseology has been adapted, as far aa practicable, to that found in the Latin Grammar. This was thought the preferable plan, for the following reason: — that, when a pupil has thoroughly mastered this Grammar, he may, in this way, be prepared, if necessary, to take up his Latin Grammar, and, finding himself at home with its phraseology, may not bo compelled to learn an entirely new set of definitions. The Editor has deemed it more advisable to let the Analysis extend through the whole of the book, from the point where it could be judiciously introduced, than to confine it to one particular portion of the Grammar. The object sought to be attained is the leading of the pupil, step by step, in order that he may be more interested in this particular branch of Grammar, than, perhaps, he might be, were he to take up Analysis as c. separate and distinct portion. The subject has not been treated more fully than it deserves, for a pupil's ability, to fead intellifjently, depends not a little upon his being able to analyze correctly. Many valuable hints have been gathered, both in this and other parts of the Grammar, from Morell's excellent treatise. IV niEFACE. The jiart on Syntax is not oxliuustive, but it is hoped that it will be found to contain a great deal that ia useful, which may be turned to good account by a judicious Teacher; for in this branch of study, as in every other, a text-book is but a poor instrument to work with, unless there be a master-hand to guide it. With respect to examples of False Syntax, it has been deemed best to place them in the Appendix, that they may not mar the unity of the plan, and that they may be used or not as each Teacher may think advisable. If we wish our pupils to speak and write with grammatical correctness, it does not seem to be the most judicious plan to place before them examples of incorrect Syntax. It would, in the opinion of the Editor, be equally unwise to place before a pupil a drawing out of all proportion and otherwise faulty, and then expect him to produce a correct copy of what the picture should be. We must always re- member that instruction is conveyed to the mind through the eye, equally with the ear, and that the impression conveyed by the former is very likely to be the more lasting. In this view of the case, it is suggested, that instead of the pupil being required to correct these examples and to give his reasons, the Teacher himself should be care- ful with respect to his own grammatical accuracy, and correct every mistake that he may detect in his pupils, and explain to them in what way tliey have violated the Rules of Syntax. The Appendix on Prosody has been taken from Dr. Collier's English Grammar, and will be found to contain all that is requisite for tlie generality of pupils to know respecting that branch of Grammar. The articles on Punctuation and Composition— two very important branches— have been carefully prepared, and will doubt- less commend themselves to both Teachers and Pupils. Free use has been made of the works of Dalgleish, Angus, Fowler, iMulligan, and others ; and the Editor gladly avails himself of the opportunity of acknowledging the valuable assistance which he has derived from their respective Grammars. In order that this Grammar may be thoroughly useful, it is sug« gested that the Teacher should take his pupils over the Introductory Grammar before he places this larger work in their hands i Education Office, Jvly, iSCS. ••I CONTENTS. Grammar, Definition and Division of, Pagr . I I Part I. -ORTHOGRAPHY. Letters, Division of, Syllables and Spelling, Part II.— ETYMOLOGY. Words, Definition and Division of. Parts of f^peech. Definition of, Do. lutlections of. The Noun, Kinds of Noun, . Gender, Persouific.tion, . Person. Number, Irregular Plurals, Plurals of Foreign Nouns, Nouns Irregular in Number Plural of Proper Names, Case, .... Nominative and Rules, Possessive, . Rules, Objective and Rule, Parsing, Analysis, ... Subject, The Adjective, The Distinguishing Adjectiv Inflection, . Adverbial Comparison, Irregular do. Adjectives not Compared, Ride and Parsing, Analysis, Phrase, o 3 4 5 5 (> 7 9 IL 11 13 14 15 IG 17 IS 11) 20 20 20 oo oo 23 25 2G 2t> 27 28 29 ao VI CONTENT*. The Pnoxoiiy, . Personal Pronouns, Reflexivo do., Adjective do., iJistribu'tivo do., Demonstrative do., Indelinite do., llolative do.. Compound Relative Pronouns, Inter rogat ^ do., .Rule and J'ar jin^, Analysis, . \ TiieVkiui, Rognlar, Irregiilai', Det'ectiv*', Impersonal, Auxiliary, .... The Progro,s.sive and Knipiuitic 1' •Shall; and 'Will,' . Inflection, .... Voice, .... Reflexive \erb,s, . Mood, .... Indicative and Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, Analysis, Predicate, Inflnitive, .... Participles. Present and I'asfc, Perfect and Future, Analysis, .... Tense, .... SiMPLK TfxsDs: Present and Past, Future, .... CoMPorxD Tkn.ses: Present- Perfect, . Past- Perfect, Future-Perfect, . Analysi.g, Compound Subject and Tenses in each iMood, . Person and Number, . Conjugation, Do. of Auxiliaries, Do. of 'To be,' Rules and Parsing, Conjugation of 'To love,' . Analysis, Compound Sentence, Passive Y«ice, orni, Predicate, Taok . 32 . 3'2 . .14 . 35 . 35 . S5 . 3(i . 36 . 39 . 39 . 40 . 42 . 44 . 45 . 40 . 4(' . 47 . 48 . 49 , 49 . 50 . 51 . 52 . 53 . 53 . 55 . 5G . 57 . 58 . 59 . 60 . 61 . 61 . 62 . 63 . 64 . 64 . 65 . 65 . 65 . 67 . 69 . 70 . 71 . 73 . 76 . 76 . 79 . 81 V.u.y. 35 35 S5 m 30 39 39 40 42 I roxTi<:NT?i. ('<.n,inK:itiou of 'To 1)C luvtnl, lnv'L;ul:ir Vrrbs. . Aiiiilvsis, ()l.j"ct, . Do. ('oiiipl'-x Sonti'iioo, Do* Subonliiiate St'tiU'iici'H, V(.rl)S frocni'.-ntly inisiipplift), Active Voicf, Syiioptifil \ K'W o' Auiilysis, Noun Soiitcnof, . I'iisi^ive Voi<'<', Syiioi»tic;il N i<>w « Aiialyisitf, Adjct'tivc SeiitciKH', Do. St'lu'im; of, . Till". AnvKi-H, . . • • Adverbs of Timo, Do. I'lace, iJo. ■Miiuiu'r, Do. I 'an so, An!ilysi><, Adverbitil Sentciue, |),». ^-01101110 of, . Tullection, . • • • TaM'.'S, . • • • Hiile and rarsin;.', TiiK ruF.posnioN, Kelations cxprossiMl, . Kule rai-.siii^', . • • • The CoN.n NrrioN, . Divisions, . • • • Table, . . • • • t'orrelativo, . . • • Analysis, . • • • Co-ordination, liules, Parsing, • • • ' The Inteh.ifjtion, . Parsing, • • . ,. Analysis, Co-ordination, continue Do. Additional romnrks, CJKAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS^, . .1, Part III. -SYNTAX. Definitions, . • ^. • . /. Kules atlecting the Nominative, Do. Possessive, Po'_ Objective, Do'. Adjective, Do. Pronoun, Do. V.rb, . The .Siibjunctivc Mood, VU rAiii; . S2 . 85 . 88 . 89 . JM) . IH) . 02 . 94 . 90 . 98 . 99 . lOl . lOl . 102 . 103 . 104 . 104 . 10« . 107 . 109 . 110 . 112 . 113 . 114 . 115 . 116 . 11<> . 118 . 119 . 119 . 120 . 121 . 122 . 123 . 124 . 124 . 12« . 128 130 131 134 137 140 146 151 156 • • • Vlll CONTENTS. ^YHTW— continued. The Infn.itive Mood, . Participles, .... Kuli; for 'JVaiKsitivo V.Vl., '. i>o. I'mlicato Subhtaiitivc, Do. tlio Advc.-rlj, . 1^0. tlie Preposition, Choice of Prei)osition8, Kuk's for Conjunctions, L)o. Interjections, PRO.SODV, PUNCTrATIOX : Coninin, .... Semicolon and Colon, . Period, .... Interrogation and Exclamation, Parenthesis, &c.. Other Marks, Ellipsls FlOURES, Poetic Licences, Composition, .... Examples of False Syntax, . . 157 . 160 . IGO . 100 . 101 . IG4 . IGO . 1G8 . 171 . 172 . 17r> . 170 . 178 . 178 . 179 . 180 . 1^ . 184 . 188 . 189 . 20G • i 4 ENGLISH GUAMMAB, 1. Grammau is both a soiknck ami an aut. 5. As a SCIENCE, it investigates the pvincij.lcs of kn- „„ tc in -general ; as an aut, it teaches l.c r.ght method S nPI Win- \ z; and ?« and // at the bcginniiig of a syllable. 6. Diphthongs. — A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. Diphthongs are of two kinds, proper and Improper. (1) A Proper Diphthong is one in wliich l)oth the vow(;ls are sounded; as, Oh, in out; oi, in oil : ow in coa\ (2) An Improper Diphthong, or digraph, is one in which only one of the vowels is sounded; as, 0//, in court ; on, in hoaf. 7. Triphthongs.— A Triphthong, or trigraph, is the union of three vowels in one sound, as can in beautij. Triplithongs are proper or improper, according as the tliree vowels, or one, or two are sounded ; as, Buoy, beauty, Jieauteous. bl( SYLLABLES. (5. A Syllable is an articulate sound uttered by one effort of the voice, and represented by one or more letters ; as, Farm, farin-er, ca-gle, a-e-ri-al. 1. Every word contains as many Byllaljleii as it has vowel sounds, either simple or complex; as, (Jroiu-iiia-ri-dii, thouijht, 2. A word of one syllable is (tailed a Monosyllable. 3. A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. SYLLAIUCATIOX. 3 4. A word of three syllables is oalleil a Trisyllable. 5. A word of more than three syllables is called a Polysyllable. SYLLABICATION. 7. Syllabication is the division of words into sylla- bles. General Eule.—Place together, in distinct syllables, those lettns which make up the separate parts or divisions of a word, as hear.l in its correct pronunciation; or, divide the word accordiug to its constituent parts. By tlie former plan we obtain the Bound of the letters ; by the latter, the etymology of the word. SPELLING. 8. SpELLiNd is the art of expressing,' ii Avord l)y its proper letters, correctly arranged. 1. The Orthography of the English language is so anomalous, and in many cases arbitrary, that prolieieney in it can be a.:y practice, and the use of the spelling-book or dictionary. 2. The pupil is referred, for guidance in the special ndes for spell- ing and syllabication, to ' The (Companion to the Headers.' PART SECOND. ETYMOLOGY. 0. Etymology treats of the Classification, the Inflec- tion, and the Derivation of words. In its widest sense, it means the true and .'xact force of thr wor.l, based upon its derivation. In its restricted meaumg, it treats of the classification and tlie inliection of words. WORDS. 10. A Word is an articnlate sound used as the sign of an idea. A few words consist of vocal, or vowel sounds only, without articu- lation ; as, /, ah, awe, oh, owe, ej/e, &c. 4 ETYMOLOGY. 11. Words admit of a tliree-fold division, — I. As to Formation. II. do. Kind. III. do. Inflection. ^ 12. Formation of Words.— With respect to forma- tion, words ai'e — 1. Primitive or Derivative. 2. Simple or CoMrouND. 1. A Primitive word is one that is not derived from any other word in the language ; but is itself a root from which others spring; as, Boy^ jiid, father. 2. A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word ; as, Boyish, justice, fatherly. 3. A Simple word is one that is not combined wihh any other word ; as, Man, house, city. 4. A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more simple words; as, Manhood, horseman. 13. Kind of AVouds.— With respect to kind, words are either, — 1. Nouns; 5. Adverbs; 2. Adjectives; 6. pRErosmoNs; 8. Peon GUNS; 7. Conjunctions; or, 4. Vei{Bs; 8, Interjections. 14. Inflection.— AVith respect to inflection, words are either, — 1. Inflected; or, 2. Uninflected. Inflected,— Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, and Adverb. Uninflected,— Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. PARTS OF SPEECH. 15. The Parts of Speech are, — Nouns, Adjectiv s, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Inti ejections. DEFINITIONS. A Noun, or Substantive, is a name, as of ai^crson, place, or thing; as, Cicero, Rome, hoy, house, &c. An Adjective is a word Mhich is used to qualify nouns; as, Goad, great, &c. TARTS OF bPEECII. ^ A Pronoun is a word whicli properly supplies the place of nouns; as, /, tJioUf &c. A Verb is a word wliich expresses existence, condition, or action; as, lie is ; he is sleeping ; he reads. An Adverb is a word which is used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, To run swiftly; so swift; so swiftly. A Preposition is a word which shews the relation between ita object and some other word in the same sentence; as, To be in Italy. A (Conjunction is a word which shews the particular manner in which one part of a sentence is joined to another; as. The father and the son resemble each other. Either the father or the son must go. An Interjection is simply used as an expression of feeUng, or as a mere mark of address ; as. Oh! Alas! Hail! INFLECTIONS. IG. The inflections of Nouns are Gender, Number, and Case. The inflection of Adjectives is Degree. The inflections of Pronouns are the same as those of Nouns, together with Person. The inflections of Verbs are Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. The inflection of Adverbs is the same as that of Adjectives. 1. Person is also ascribed to nouns in addition to the inflections given above. 2. Number and Person are ascribed to verbs in virtue of their sub- jects. THE NOUN. 17. A Noun is a name, as of a person, place, or thing ; as, Cicero, Toronto, bo\j, house. 18. Nouns may he divided into three classes,— Proper, Common, and Abstract. 19. A Proper Noun is a proper name, as of a person, or ])1ace ; as, John, London. ({ ETYISIOLOCJV. Use of a Proper Noun.— A Piioriiu Noux is used to distinguish the ditlerent persons or things, of the same kind, from one another ; in short, to distinguish individuals. Its nature, therefore, is specific, 20. Proper Nouns may be regarded as Common, — 1. When an individual is taken as the type of a class. The limithuj adjective will, in that case, be prefixed ; as, He is a Cke.ro. 2. When works of art are spoken of; uh, That is a Claude : this, « Raphael. 3. Wlien family names are pluralizcd; as. The Cn'sars, the Georges, &c. 21. A Common Noun is a name common to all the members of a class of objects ; as, Man, horse, 1. Use of a Common Noun. — A Common Noun is used to denote, by one word, a class having a common resemblance. Its nature, there- fore, is generic. 2. Common Nouns may be subdivided as follows: — (1) Class Nouns — designating any one of a class ; as, Horse. (2) Collective Nouns — designating a collection of objects; aa, An army. (3) Material Nouns — designating materials as such ; as, Gold. (4) Names of weights, measures, «&c.; as, A pound, a bushel. 3. Common Nouns may be made equivalent to Proper Nouns: — (1) By i)laciug some distinguishing word or words with them; as, This hook; the Norman invasion. (2) By personification ; as, Come, gentle Spring. 4. The same word may at one time represent a whole olass; at another time, an individual member of that class ; as, Man is mortal. He is an upright man. 22. An Abstract Noun is a name of some j^^'ojyertt/ or quality, which can only be conceived of as having an existence ; as, Virtue, justice, 1. Abstract Nouns derive their peculiar name from the fact that, by a certain mental operation, the property or quality is separated from the object in which it is inherent ; and we think of the property or quality alone, without reference to the object to which it belongs. 2. They may be thus subdivided : — (1) Names of actions, induding verbal nouns; as, Study : walling is a pleasant exercise ; to err is human. (2) Names of qualities; as, Courage, &c. (3) Names of states, conditions, or periods; as. Health, war^nth^ morning, &c. (4) Names of degree; as, Excess in anything should be avoided. ^S THE NOUN. 7 EXERCISE. 1. In the following list distinguish between proper, common, and abstiuct nonns ; and give a reason for the distinction. Toronto, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, horse, house, nm- iiiiij,', garden, London, river, Ottawa, conntries, England, poverty, &xni, luoou, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, man, girl, John, Mary, moun- tain, stream, an ounce, mid-day, Tuesday. 2. In the following sentences point out the nouns. Say \\ hy they are nouns; tell whether they are proper, common, or abstract, and why; and to which class they belong, and why. Thus, 'Arnn/j a noun, because the name of a thing ; common, because applied to all tilings of the same kind; and collective, because it is a name of a number considered as one. The table and chairs in this room belong to John ; the book-case, writing-desk, and books, to his brother. They landed at Quebec on Monday. The peace of the country is disturbed. His forbearance is remarkable. The iron of Marmora is excellent. I bought a dozen pencils for a shilling. It is pleasant to travel by moonlight. His decision was commendable. Contentment is the best fortune. Coral is produced by marine animals. I am impatient to depart. Ottawa is the capital of Canada. Canada is one of the brightest genis in the British crown. The roofs of houses are sometimes covered with slate. There is a great deal of wood in Ontario, but no coal. 3. Go over this exercise again, and point out the noun part and the verb part of each sentence, 23. The Inflections of the noun are, — Gender, Number, and Case. GENDEE. 24. Gender is the distinction of Sex, — i. e., it enables us to tell whether the individual person or thing belongs to the male or the female sex, or to neither. 25. There are three genders, — ^Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 1. To the Masculine gender belong the names of individuals of the male sex. 2. To the Feminine gender belong the nances of individuals of the f<'mo.le sex. 3. To the Neuter gender belong the names of individual things that are neither male nor female. Note, — The teacher cannot be too careful in impressing upon the pupils the great diflference between Gender and Sex, It is with the former, as applied to the names of things, that grammar deals : the latter being a naturalf and not a (jrammatkal distinction. 8 ETYMOLOGY. 26. The Masculine and the Feminine are dis- tinguished from each other by — I. Different Inflections. II. Different Words. I. DIFFERENT INFLECTIONS. 27. The inflection of most frequent occurrence is ESS: the other is INE. 1. Examples of the Termination *Eb8.' Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. Abbot Abbess Lion Lioness Actor Actress Marquis Marchioness Adulterer Adulteress Mayor Mayoress Ambassador Ambassadress Negro Negress Arbiter Arbitress Patron Patroness Author Authoress Peer Peeress Baron Baroness Poet Poetess Benefactor Benefactress Priest Priestess Count Countess Prince Princess Conductor Conductress Prior Prioress Deacon Deaconess Prophet Prophetess Duke Duchess Protector Protectress Elector j Electoress, or Electress Shepherd Shepherdess Songster Songstress Emperor Empress Sorcerer Sorceress Enchanter Enchantress Sultan Sultaness or Giant Giantess Sultana Governor Governess Tiger Tigress Heir Heiress Traitor Traitress Hunter Huntress Tutor Tutoress Host Hostess Viscount Viscountess Jew Jewess Votary Votaress. 2. Examples of the termination *Ine.' Masculine. Feminine. Hero Heroine Landgrave Landgravine Margrave Margravine 28. ExAikiPLES OF Different Words. Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine. Bachelor Spinster Cock Hen Boar Sow Drake Duck Beau Belle Dog Bitch Boy Girl Earl Countess Brother Sister Father Mother Bridegroom Bride Friar Nun Buck Doe Gander Goose Bull Cow Gentleman Lady m dis- ESS: S3 or 33 THE NOUX. Feminine Masculine. Feminine. Roe Papa Mamma Mare Kam, Buck Ewe Wife Son Daughter Queen Sir Madim Lady- Stag Hind Lass Sloven Slut Woman Swain Nympli Mistress or Miss J Uncle Aunt Nun Widower Widow Niece Wizard Witch Masculine Hart Horse Husband KiiiK Lord (a title) Lad Man Master Monk Nephew 29. The distinction is also marked by placing Mascu- LTNE and Feminine words before the Noun of Common Gender; as, — Masculine. Feminine. Man-servant Maid-servant He-goat She-goat J Cock-sparrow Hen-sparrow, &c. 30. — 1. Common Gender. — Nouns which denote either males or females, such as parent, neighbor, friend, &c., are sometimes, for the sake of convenience, said to be of the common gender, — i.e., either masculine or feminine. 2. Words originally Latin, ending in *or' or 'us,' take the Latin termination *ix' or 'a;' as. Testator, testatrix; alumnus, alumna. ^ 3. Though the feminine is usually formed from the masculine, the word loidoiocr is an exception to the rule, being formed from the fciniuine word vndow. Compare the word gander. 4. Many masculine nouns have no corresponding feminine; as, Jjid'er, brewer, dandy, &c. ; and some feminine nouns have no corre- Epouding masculine ; as, Laundress, seamstress, vixen, virago, &c. 5. Some nouns naturally neuter arc often, by a figure of speech, con- verted into the masculine or feminine ; as, wlien we say of the sun, '7/(.' is setting;' of the moon, 'She is eclipsed;' or of a ship, 'She sails.' ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON GENDER. 31. — 1, This inferior species of personification, exemplified above, which is peculiar to the English language, is often used with gi'eat beauty to impart animation and liveliness to the style, without render- # ing it iuflaled or passionate. No certain rule, however, can be given as to the gender assumed, except that noims denoting objects dis- tinguished for strength or boldness, are usually regarded as mascu- line; while, on the other hand, those denoting objects noted for softness, beauty, and gracefiiiness, are considered feminine. 10 ETYMOLOG V. 2 111 speaking of animals wliose fcux is not known to us, or not re- garded, we assign the masculine gondor to the names of those dis- tinguished for bohlness, lidelity, sagaeity, size, strength. &e., as, *The dog,' 'the horse,' * the elephant.' Thus we say, *Tliedogia remark- ably various iii his species.' On the other luuul, we absigii the feminine gender to the names of animals eharacterized by weakness and timidity; as, 'The hare,' 'the cat,' &e. ; thus, 'The cat, as ahe beholds the light, contracts the pupil of lier eye.' 3. Sometimes, however, in speaking of animals, p^uticiilarly tliosj of inferior size, we consider them as without sex, and therefore the name is of the neuter gender. Thus, of an infant, we siiy, ' /(' h a lovely creature;' of a cat, ^Jt is cruel to Us enemy.' 4. The masculine term has, sometimes, also a general meaning, ex- l^ressing both male and female, and is always to be used wlien the office, occupation, profession, &e. , and not the sex of the iiulividunl, is chiejly to be expressed. The feminine t^-rni is used only when dis- crimination of sex is necessary. Thus, v. hen it is said, 'The Poets of this country are distinguished for correctiies.s of taste,' the term 'Poets' clearly includes both male and female writci's of poetry. But, 'The best Poetess of the age' would be said, when the co..trast is drawn between female writers. 5. Collective Nouns are considered as neuter, when the reference is to the aggregate as a wdiole, or wlien they are in the pi ur.d niimber ; as, 'The army destroyed everything in its course ;' but when the refer- ence is to the objects composing the collection as hidividuals, they take the gender of the individuals referred to. 6. Abstract Nouns, when personified, are generally of the feminine gender; as, 'Charity seekfcth not htr own.' EXERCISE. 1. What is the Feminine of— Father, prince, king, master, actor, emperor, biiJegrooin. sla", buck, hart, nephew, friar, priest, heir, hero, Jew, host, liuuter, sultaiK execu- tor, horse, lord, husband, brother, son, bull, he-goat, &e. 2. What is the Masculine of — Lady, woman, girl, niece, nun, aunt, belle, duchess, abbef^s, (im- press heroine wife, sister, mother, hind, roe, mare, hen-sparro^^^ shepherdess, daughter, ewe, goose, queen, songstress, widow, &c. 3. Of what gender are the following nouns, and why?— ^ Man, horse, tree, field, father, house, mother, queen, count, lady, King, prince, castle, tower, river, stone, lien, goose, seamstress, moun- tain, cloud, air, sky, hand, foot, head, body, limb, lion, tiger, mavor. countess;— friend, neighbor, parent, teacher, assistant, gitide :— sun. moon, earth, sliip;— cat, mouse, liy, bird, elephant, hare. THE NOrK. 11 It is suggested that the answer 1)C given in the following form:— The noun 'man' is of the masculine gender, hccause it ia the name of an individual of the wale aex. PERSON. 32. Person, in Grammar, is the distinction between the speaker, the person or tiling spoken to, and the person or thing sj)oken of. A noun is in the first person, when it denotes tlio speaker; as, ^I, Fauf, have written h: A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or thing spoken to -. as, ^ Tliou, Goi/, sccst me.' * Hail, Lihertij / ' A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, ' Truth is mighty." 1. Person belongs properly to the Pronoun; hut a noun is said to 1)0 of the fii-st, second, or third person, heeausc the pronoun which takes its place is of that person. A noun by itself is impersonal. 2. The Third Person: how Used.— A word that is usually of the third person is sometimes used in the firet; as, "Thy servant became surety for the lad to my father,"' (Gen. xliv. ;]2.) Sometimes, par- ticularly in the language of supplication, tlu} third person is used for the second; as, "0 let not the Lonn bo angry," (Gen. xviii. '60.) 3. The first and the second person can belong only to nouns denot- ing persons, or things personified; l)ocausc persons only, or things personified, can speak or be spoken tt'. 4. The third person may belong to all nouns, bccau.se every object, whether person or tiling, may be spoken of. 5. The subject of a verb, if a noun, must be in tlie tliird person, A noun in the first or second person is never used as the subject of a verb, but only in apposition with the lirst or th<^ .second personal pro- noun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis. 6. A noun in the predicate is generally, though not always, in the third person, even when the subject is in the first or second; as, 'I am the Master who teaches.' So with tlie pronouns / and thov ; as, 'I am Ac' *Thou art the >/;r^».' NUMBER. 33. Number is a variation in the form, to express one or more than one. 12 KTVMOLOGY. 34. Nouns have two nnmbeiN, tlic SmaULAU and the Plural. The singdar denotes but one object ; as, Booh, tree ; the plural more than one ; as, Books, trees, 35. Nouns form th-ir plurals in four different ways,— I. By adding 'b' to the singular. II. Do. '68' do. III. Do. *en' do. IV. By changing the vowel of the singular. EULE3. 36. — 1. By adding 'a. '—The plural is commonly formed by adding 's' to the singular; as, Bool;, hooks. n. By adding 'es.'— 1. Words cndinf in a sound that will not unite with the sound of 's,'— i. c, in 's,' 'sh, ''ch' (soft), 'x,' and «z,'— form their plural by adding *e3;' as, Fox, foxes; match, matches. 2. Most nouns, ending in *o' preceded by a consonant, form their plural in 'es;' as, Cargo, cargoes. Exceptions. — Canto, memento, octavo, two, zero, grotto, junto, portico, quarto, solo, tyro, halo; also nouns ending in 'eo, 'io,' *yo.' 3. — (1) Nouns in 'y' after a consonant form their plural in *es,' clianging 'y' into *i,' because the additional syllable begins with a vowel ; as, Lady, ladles. (2) Nouns in *y' after £u vowel follow the general rule; as, Day, days. But nouns ending in 'quy' form their plural in 'ies;' as, Soliloquy, soliloquies. 4. Nouns in 'f or 'fe' form their plural in *es,' changing 'f into *V;' as. Wife, wives; life, lives. Exceptions. —Gulf, safe, fife, strife, and nouns ending in 'ff,' *f,* preceded by two vowels, and in 'rf,' form their plural in *b.' To this, liowever, there is an exception in tl^e case of a few words, such as staff, leaf, loaf, sheaf, thief, &c. The compounds of the first of these words form their plural regularly ; us, Flagstaffs. 5. Nouns in *i' form tlieir plural in 'es;' as, Ilourl, houries. in. By adding 'en.' — This termination is found only in nouns of Anglo-Saxon origin ; as. Ox, oxen; child, children. The word children seems to be a double plural. IV. By changing the vowel of the singular ; as, Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Man Men Tooth Teeth Woman Women Goose Geese Foot Feet Mouse Mice Louse Lice Cow (formerly) Kine (now) Cowa «' 4 -TT ■0):^ THE NOUN. 13 nd tlie , Doohy ays,— Y actcllng lot unite ,' — form rm thoir portico, ill *es,' 18 with a as, Day, ies;' as, ; *f' into 's.' To 'ds, such ! first of aouus of ■* EXERCISE. 1. Give the plural of the following Nouns, and the rules for forming each; thus, For, plural /ores. Ki:le. — Nouns in *b,' *b1i,' *ch' (softj, 'x,' 'z,' form tlie plural by adding 'es.' Or more briefly, Nouns in *x' form tho plural by adding 'es.' Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, box, coach, sky, anny, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, Btreet, potato, sheaf, boobj', Iious(>, glory, monarcli, llower, city, dilli- culty, (listress, wolf, day, bay, chimney, journey, needle, enemy, vale, ant, hill, sea, key, toy, tyro, grotto, nuncio, embryo, gulf, handker- chief, hoof, stall', muff, cliff, reef, safe, wharf, lief. 2. Of what Number Is each of the following nouns, and why ? — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, houses, prints, spoon, })ears, lilies, roses, churches, gloves, silk, skies, hill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach, porch, glass, pitcher, alleys, mountain, cameos. NOUNS IREEGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 37. Some nouns have an irregular form of the plural, but with different significations from the regular plural ; as. Shir/ular. Brother Die Fish Fowl Genius j» Index »» Pea »> Sow, or Swme »» Penny I* riiiral (one of the same family) Brotliers ( ,, ,, society) Brethren (a stamp for coining) Dies (a small cube for gaming) Die j (individually) Fishes (collectively) Fish (individually) Fowls (collectively) Fowl (a man of learning) Geniuses (a kind of spirit) Genii (a table of reference) Indexes (a sign in algebra) Indices (as a distinct seed) Peas (as a species of grain) Pease (an individual animal) Sows (the species) Swine (a coin) Pennies (a sura or value) Pence 1. Though pence is plural, yet such expressions as fourpence, six- pence, &c., as the name of a sum, or of a coin representing that sum, are often regarded as singular, and so capable of being pluralized ; as, Three fourpences, or two sixpences, make a shilling. A new sixpence is heavier than an old one. 2. Compounds in *ful,' &c., and generally those which have the important word last, form the plural regularly; as, Spoonful, cupful, u KTYMOLOOY. coac/i/al, 'itDu/fuf, uwuftc-lvrtp, ox-oo'l, coini-ijiiril, vniiicm-obscnm, &.C. ; plural, tipoonfnls, cupfnls, cooc/ifuh, kc. 3. Compounds in ^vhich the principal word stands first pluralizc the first word ; as— S'liKjnIiiv. Plural. CominandL'r-iii-(;liiLf t'oimnandors-iu chief Aide-df- tunj) Aides-de-camp Kni^'lit-.-rraiit Kniglits-crraut. (..'ourt-niartial Courts-martial Coiisiii-j,'ormau Coiisins-^ermau Fatlicr-iii-law, &e. Fathcrs-ni-law, &c. 4. Compoxinds of Man, -These form tlic plural as the simple word; as, Fisherman, Jifilarmcn. But nouns accidentally ending in 'man,' and not compounds of it, form the plural by the general rule ; as, TurcoiiKin, Jfiissnli)ia», &c. ; plural, Turcomnnft, Mussulmaus, &c. 5. Plural of Letters, &c. — Letters, marks, and numerical iigures are made plural by adding Vs',- as, Dot your Vs and cross your ^'.s. Your a's arc not well made. The -t-'.s- and the — 's are not in line. Four &8 = eight '.Y.'i. 6. Words Used as ITouiis.— -Other parts of speech, used as nouns, or mere names, form the plural like nouns of similar endings; as. The fl>/cs and the >;or,isors, shears, tongs, &c. Some words usually plural have a singular form, when only a part or portion is referred to ; as. The right lung. 3. The same in both Numbers; as. Deer, sheep, S7vine, vermin; grouse, salmon, tench, trout; apparatus, hiatus, series, congeries, sj^ecies, suprjicies; head (in tlie sense of individual), cattle ; certain building materials ; as, Brick, stone, plank, in mass ; but several of these, when taken individually, have the regular plural also ; as, Salmons, trouts, &c. The word heathen is singular or plural, according to the limiting adjective that is used. 4. Many words, such as brace, couple, ^mir, yoke, dozen, score, gross, hundred, 'housand, and some others, after adjectives of number, are either singular or plural ; as, A brace, a dozen, a hundred; two brace, three dozen, six hundred, &c. But without an adjective of number, 16 ETYMOLOGY. or in other constructions, and particularly after hi, hy, &e., in a rlis- tributive sense, most of these words assume a plural form; as, In braces and dozens. By scores and hundreds. Worth thousands. 5. Words Plural in form, 1) at either Singular or Plural in application. — Such words as amends, means, riches, 2Jains (meaning laborious effort), odds, alms, wages; and the names of certain sciences (ending in 'ics'), are used either as singular or plural. Observations. — Means and amends, referring to one object, are singular ; to more than one, plural. Mean, in the singular form, is now used to signify the middle between two extremes. Alms {celmesse, Anglo-Saxon) and riches {richesse, French) are really singular, though now used commonly in a plural sense. News, formerly singular or plural, is now mostly singular. Mol.isses and measles, though ending like a plural, are singular, and to u?ed. Oats is plural; gallows, both singular and plural. 6. Words singular in form idso vary in construction ; thus, foot, and horse, meaning bodies of troops, and j^eople, meaning persons, are always construed as plural; cannon, shot, sail, cavalry, infanti-y, are singular or plural. People (also folic), when it signifies a com- munity, or body of persons, is a collective noun in the singidar, and sometimes, though rarely, takes a plural form; as, 'Many peoples and nations.' PROPEH NOUNS. 40. — 1. Proper names, for the most part, want the plural. 2. When used in the plural, they generally follow the rule of common nouns; as. The Stuarts. 3. The Terminations 'o' and 'y.' — Nouns ending in *o' and 'y' follow the general rule for the formation of the plural; as, The Scipios; the TuUi/s. But those in 'y' usually follow the special rule, when, through frequent usage, they have become class or common nouns; as. The Ptolemies, the AUeghanies. 4. Proper names with the title of Mrs. prefixed, or with any titlo preceded by the numerals two, three, &c., pluralize the name, and not the title; as. The Mrs. Howards; the two Miss Mortons; the two Mr. Heni'ys. 5. But when several persons of the same name are spoken of individually, "ud distinguished by a particular appellation, or when persons of different names are spoken of together, the title only, a7id not til 1 name, is made plural ; as, Misses Julia and Mary Robinson ; Mtsma. v^rtorge and Andrew Thomson ; Messrs. Pratt, Woodford, & Co. f i THE NOUN. 17 6. In conversation, however, the name is generally made plural. 7. Other Titles than those above given are pluralized; as, Lords Russell and Stanley. EXERCISE. NOUNS IRREGULAll IN THEIR TLURAL. Give the Plural of— , ., i ^.^ TVTnn foot T>cnnv mouse, ox, child, woman, brother, goose, tooth ; sow Sie covrStXfatheJMn^a; cupful, spoonful; erra um, Sus Viius, lamina,' automaton, phenomenon, stratum, axis, ellipsis, stamen, index, cherub, seraph, &c. Of what Number is— Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, dormice, teeth, ^^^'et M^tXt martial, apparatus, miasma, genii, gemuses, mdices, mdexes, Mattilt^^, James? CASE. 41 C\SE is the relation wliich nouns and pronouns bear to the other words with which they are connected in sense. How Indicated. -As Case is an inflection, it implies change of form, and therefore is properly indicated by such change. It is, however, also indicated by difference of position. 42. Nouns in English have three cases,— The Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective. Obs -If change of form constitute case, the last cannot properly be called a case. Stnctly speaking the nonn has but one case ihat ♦ falls away ' from the Nominative. In the pronoun we find the three cases. DEFINITIONS. 43 _-l. The nnchano;cd Noun or Pronoun standing as the suhject, or chief word in the noun part of the sen- teiUi^ saidtobeintheNo.^^^^^^ Case; as, il/cm is mortal. 2 When the name of the owner is placed just before the name of the thing owned, so as to express propeHi/ TpZsslon, it is said to be in the POSSESSIVE Case; as, Mans life is but a shadow. 8 When the word stands after a transitive verb or a pl-eposltion, it is said to be in the Objective Case; as, The son of that man killed another man. h IS ETYMOLOGY. \\\-\ w THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 44. Besides tlic oi'dinaiy Subject No^linattve, there arc other positions "which the noun, or name assumes, also called the Nominative. 45. The Xo^iiXATiVE may, therefore, be subdivided as follows : — 1. Tlie Subject Nomii-ative, or tho nominative l)efore the verb; as, Time flies. 2. The Predicate ITcminative, or the nominative after the verb; as, Edward became Khirj. 3. The Appositive Nominative, — /. c, a nominative meaning the same person or tiling as the subject nominative; as, Milton, the poet, was blind. 4. The Nominative of Address, used when a person or thing is spoken to; as, '■O AJisalom, iwy &o\\.^ 'Come, gentle /S'^jW/?^.' 5. The Nominative Absolute, when the noun used has no depend- ence on any other word ; as, ' Your /o/'//er.9, where are they?' ^Sprintj returning, tue sw^dlows appear.' Note. — The Predicate Nominative will be found after Intranst- TiVK verbs, and verbs in the V ;siVE VoiCR; and the !J,ominative of Address corresponds to the Latai Vocative. PtULES FOR THE NOIVIINATIVE. I. The subject of a finite verb is put in the Nomina- tive ; as, The king reigns. II. A Predicate Noun, denoting the same person or thing as its subject, agrees with it in case ; as, I am a messtmjcr. III. An Appositive agrees with its subject in case ; as. The cities Toronto and London are in Ontario. ly. A Noun whose case depends on no otlier word is put in the Nominative Absolute ; as, The rain having ceased, the day was delightful. V. A Noun, which is the name of a person or thing addressed, is put in the nominative of address ; as, ^PlatOy thou reasonest well.' Note.— The Fuilc respecting the Appositivo will also apply to tho other cases. ii f- 1 THE NOUX. 10 ladioH ladies' ladies Mail Man's INIan Phi. men men's men S>)i(i. Jolin John's John THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 46. The possessive singular is formed by adding an apostrophe and s to the nominative ; as, Johiis, 47. When the phiral ends in s the ])ossessive is formed by adding an apostrophe only; as, Ladles'. But wlien the plural does not end in s, both the apostrophe and .s- are added ; as, McnSj chUdren's. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 48. Nouns are thus declined,- Sh)eiine each, and give an example. How are ,'ords divided m respect to kind ? Define each, and give an example. 22 ETYMOLOGY. ■I 2. Division of Nouns. — Into what classes are Nouns divided? De- line eacli, and give an example. Into what classes are common nouns subdivided ? Give an exami)le of each. Into what classes are ab- stract nouns divided V Describe cacli, and give an example. What arc the inilections of nouns ? 3. Gender. — What is Gender ? Why so called '> Name the genders. Deiine each, and give a reason for its name. Wliat are the different methods of denoting the masculine and the feminine ? What is the feminine corresponding to Brother?— King? — Author? — Heir? — Hero? — Gentleman ? — Landlord ? Mention two words which are masculine only. Two which are feminine only. 4. Number. — What is Number? How many numbers are there? What does each denote? In what different ways may the plural be formed? Give the Rule for oaeli. Mentioji any exceptions to these llules, &c., &c. 5. Case. — W^hatisCase? Name the three cases, and define eacli. What different names does the nominative bear? Upon what do tliese names depend, &c. , &e. 6. Person. — What is Person? To wliat part of speech does it really belong? How is person attributed to a uounV To a verb? &c., &c. 7. Sjoitax and Parsing.— Wliat is the Ptule for the nominative case? What is the Ilule, «fcc. ? What is parsing? How sliould a noun be parsed ? ANALYSIS. 52. — 1. Analysis is the separation of a sentence, or a complete thought expressed in words, into the jiarts of which it is composed. 2. These are tlie NOUN part, or subject, and the VERB PART. 3. This combination of tlie two parts forms a sen- tence. 4. The subject of a sentence is cither a noun, or some word or words used as a noun. 5. It will be either simple or comple.r. DEriNITIONS. 1. Simple. — The subject is called 'Simple,' when it is not modified by any other words ; but, 2. Complex, when it is so modified. Example of a Simple Subject. --J/<7/o?i was blind. THE NOUN. 23 /; 53. A dmple subject may be changed into a comphw, by (1) placing a noun in apposition, (2) by using the Saxon, or (3) the Norman Possessive, antl (4) by means of a preposition followed by the objective. EXAMPLES OF A COMPLEX SUBJECT. (1) Milton tlie poet ^\i\B}Am(\.. ('!) il/i/tWs la is ii despot. (4) London on the Thames is tlie capital of Englaud. The numeral preceding the example corresponds to tlie numeral in 513. TIIE GEAIVBIATICAL AND THE LOGICAL SUBJECT. The terms Grammatical and Logical are also applied to tlie simple and tlie complex &ul>jeet. EXEECISB. 1. In the following sentences read the sul)jeet of each, and .state ^\■hL■ther it is simple or complex; and v/liy. Salt is procured from mines. Winter comes after autumn. AhoVs fiacriiice was aeee])ted. Children should ohey their parents. Napo- leon, First Consul of France, died at 8t. Helena. Jni])roviden(<' is the parent of poverty. Wen of honor are always respected. 2. Compose four sentences, and distinguish clearly Lctweeii the C.h-ammatical and the Logical ^nihject in each. the THE ADJECTIVE. 51. An Adjective is a woi-d used to giudlfi/ nouns ; as, A (jood boy; ^ve found him 2^(^^'^' A noun is qiialijicd by an adjective when the ohjcet named is thereby deser'ihed or dlsthujalshvd from other things of the same name. hi}. Adjectives are divided into different classes cor- res[)onding to the vaiious ways in which they affect the meaning of the nouns to which they belong, and the manner in which they are used. CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. T. Dtstinptivi:. ^ Tl. Qualifying. * III. QUANTITATIVi:. 24: ETYMOLOGY. ! t }■ ! I.' i -I 1. Distinctive, or Definite. — Under this class wc place those adjec- tives wJiieli mark out, in a general way, a thiii(j from a class; such as *a,' 'an,' * the,' 'tlus,' &c. It may he suLdivided as follows :— (1) Distingiiisliing Adjectives; ns, A; an, the. (2) Demonstrative do. as, This, that. (3) Interrogative do. as, What? ivhkh? 'What' and •Which.'— The former is sometimes used with the force of an exclamation; as, What a glorious sunset! The latter, also, lays aside its interrogative force ; as. Which thing is an allegory. 2. Qualifying. —Under this class we place those adjectives which mark the peculiar quality of a thing, such as, Blach, lohite, good, &c. This class will also include — (1) Proper Adjectives.— Those derived from proper nouns; as, Canallan, British. (2) Verbal, or Participial Adjectives.— Those derived from verbs; as. Amusing, &c. 3. Quantitative. —Under this class we place those adjectives which tell us the number or quantity. They may be subdividetl as follows :— / Cardinal. — Those used in counting; as, /IN -n e •! XT 1 J ^'^^> f^'-'O, three. (1) Definite Numeral. — < ' , , . I Ordinal.— Those used in numbering; as ^ First, second, third. (2) Indefinite Numeral. — Those which do not denote any exact number; such as. All, any, some, few, other, several, certain, divers. (.3) Multiplicative Numeral. — Those which indicate the repetition of the noun ; as, Tivofold, &c. (4) Distributive.— Those which point out separately and singly the objects that make up a number. They are, Each, every, cither, neither. Note. — When any of the words here classed as adjectives arc not joined to nouns, but stand instead of nouns, they will, of course, be parked, not as adjectives, but as pronouns. ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON THE ADJECTIVE. 50. — 1. Adjectives standing in the Verb part of a sentence may qualify an inlinitive, a pronoun, a clause of a sentence used as a sub- stantive, &c. ; as, To play is pleasant. IJe is unhappy. That the rich are happy, is not always true. 2. Adjectives variously Used. — (1) Several adjectives sometimes qualify the same noun ; as, A smootli round stone. (2) One Adjective qualifying another. — An adjective is sometimes used to qualify the meaning of another adjective, the two forming a sort of compound adjective; as, A bright-red color; a dark-blue coat; a cast-iron ball. 1 :«" THE APJECTIVE. 25 (3) Adjectives without a Substantive are sometimes used as nouns ; as, God rewards the good, and punishes the had. The virtuous are the most happy. Adjectives used iu this way are usually precedel iiiatorialH, 2. The Adverbial Comparison can scarcely, in strict a])]>lif.i.tioii of tlu! word, be termed an inflection, as it cilVets no cluuige in the word itself, as terminational comparison docs. 3. Adjectives in *y' after a Consonant change ?/ into / before er and est; as, JJri/, Or'ur, dries'; Ikipjhj, Imppicr, happhM; but 'y' after a vowel is not changed ; as, ihi>j, (/ni/cr, {/'ifjcsf. 4. A Dhninution of Decree is expressed by prefixing less and liast to the ])(>sitive ; as, Sweet, less surety least sweet. This may be termed comparison descending. 5. The Snperlative of Eminence.— The snporlative degree, when made by prelixing the adverbs most, verij, exceed In'jbf, or extremeJi/, kc, is often iiS(>d to express a very high degree of a quality in an object, without directly comparing it with others ; as, You are rerij kind. He is a remarhahly clerer man. 6 The Snperlative of Comparison is the name given, by way of dis- tinction, t< the inflection 'est.' 7. The Sub"^ -jsitive.— The meaning of the positive is sometimes diminished Avith')i;t employing comparison, by annexing the syllable ish; as, W/iile, whUlsh; hlarl; hlachlsh. This may be considered as a step, or degree under the positive. 8. Varions Shades, Degrees, or Modifications, of quality arc fre- (juently expressed by connecting with the adjective such words as ndher, snmewJietf, slh/hth/, a lUtle, too, (jrcathj, &'C., and, in the com- parative and superlative, by such words as much, far, altotjether, hy far, still, yet, &c. lEHEGULAR COMPAUISON. CU). The following adjectives are compared irregularly, viz.: — Positive. Comparative. iiS fClood better sS g I Bad, evil, or ill worse ~ '^ ] Little less {sometimes lesser) 1 I Much or many more Snperlative, best worst least most Far '|.2 I Fore £; 2 J liate farthest foremost or first farther former later {irregular, latter) latest or last •- S I Near nearer nearest or next Old older or elder oldest or widest •8 KTYMOLOGY. Positive. Comparathr. fiuperhilh'e. > ♦J & u p rAft (adv.) Forth (iulv.) In (prep.) Out (adv.) niter further liither inner nether outer, utter under aftermost furthest hithermost innermost, inmost nethermost outermost, utmost undermost I Up (prep.) upper uppermost Add to these — Ilathe (A. S. early) rather (adv.) 1. How Applied. — Much is applied to things weighed or measured ; many, to things that are numbered ; more and viost, to both. Farthei and farthest generally denote plaee or distance; as, The farther th'jy went, the moro interesting was the soene; further m)(\ furthest ref }r to quantity or addition; as, I have nothing further to say. This dis- tinction, however, is not always obfierved. Older and oldest are applied to persons or things, and refer to age or duration; as, HomcT is an older poet than Virgil. The Pyramids arc. older than the Pan- theon. Elder and eldest (from the obsolete eld) are applied only to persons of the same family, and denote priority of birth ; as, A\i elder brother. Later and latest have respect to time; latter and lastf to position or order. 2. The word *than' which generally follows the comparative de- gree, cannot be used after many of those given in the preceding list, fiuch as hither, nether, under, &c. 3. Latin comparatives, such as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, &.C., though tliey involve the idea of comparison, are not considered of the comparative degree in Engl".h, any more than such words as preferable, previous, &c. They have neither the form nor the con- struction of the comparative; and are generally followed by 'to;* as, His claims are superior to yours. ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED. 67. Adjectives whose sigiiification does not admit of increase or diminution, cannot properly be compared. These are, — 1. Numerals; as, One, two, third, fourth, &c. 2. Proper Adjectives; as, English, American, Roman. 8. Adjectives that denote figure, shape, or material; as, Circular^ square f loooden, &c. 4. Such Adjectives as denote posture or position; as, PerpendU cular, horizontal. nmost itmost easured ; FartfiO 'her th'jy hest ref ir Ihis (lis- Id est are , Honic^r ihe Pan- l only to Ad elder I laatf to tive de- ing list, Interior, isidered ords as lie con- to;* as, flit of 3ared, ''cular, pendU M THE ADJECTIVE. fQ 5. DiBtribntivefl ; as, Each, every. 6. Adjectives of an absolute or Bupeilative signification; as, True, •perfect, un'tvcrmf, chief, extreme, injinite, complete. Of these last, liowever, comparative and superlative forms are sometimes used, either to give greater force to tlio expression, or wlien the words are used in a sense not strictly superlative, bub rather opproximatiiKj to that degree. The following arc examples:—. Extreme. —'The cxlremeHt of evils.'— /?oco//. * The extremest verge.' — ^hak. ' Hia cxtremest state.'— Spencer. [So in Greek, ^(rxaTciroToy.] CMqI.—' Chiefest of the herdsmen.'— i?/6/e. ^Chiifcst courtier.'— Shak. 'First and chiefesl.^ — Milton. Perfect.- -'Having uture perfect knowledge; of that way,' — /. r., knowledge ncaror to perfection. — Bible. .So, 'Tlic 7)iost perfect society.' — E. Everett. ^ Less p)crfect im\ta.t')ow9.'' — Macaiday. More complete, most complete, less complete, are common. RULE FOE THE ADJECTIVE. G8. — IX. An Adjeci.ive limits or qualifies .i noun, or its equivalent ; as, A truthful person is always respected. Definitive, Qualitative, Quantitative, ORDER OF PARSING THE ADJECTIVE. Poss. ] Limiting, — Conip. > Degree. Qualifying, — Sup. ) &c., Inflection. Example,— I love the beautiful flowers of spring. Relation. The flowers. Beautiful flowers. Etymology and Syntax. The, Definitive, limiting— flowers. (Rule IX.) No com})arison. Bcautifid, Qualitative, qualifying — flowers. (Rule EX.) Beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. EXERCISE. In the following sentences parse the Adjectives according to the form and example given: — The greatest men are not always the best. A benevolent man helps the indigent. Each individual fills a space in creation. There are seven days in a week. The distant mountain, seen through the blue mist, alone remained. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward throu^li life we go. Heaven opened wide her ever-during gates. The first fleet contained three hundred men. 30 ETY>[OLO(}Y. ) ! 4 I I ANALYSIS. 69. Besides the methods named in (53) for convert- ing the simple subject into the complex^ we may now specify the Adjective and the Adjectival Phrase ; the PAKTicirAL and the Participial Phrase ; and any combinations of these methods. 70. A Phrase is a combination of words not making complete sense ; as, Of course ; by-the-bye. 71. These Phrases may be — I. Adjectival. II, PARTICiriAL. III. Adverbial, IV, Infinitive. definitions. 72. An Adjectival Phrase consists of a preposi- tion followed by the objective ; as, He was a man of his word. An adjectival phrase always qualifies a noun. [As the Participal partakes of tlic nature both of an adjective and a verb, wc may here anticipate what will hereafter be said re- specting it. ] 73. A Participial Phrase contains a participle followed (by virtue of its verbal power) by the objective case; as, The Earl of Richmond, having defeated Richard, became king of England. 74. Thus we see the different ways in which the Grammatical Subject may be converted into the Logical. 1. By placing a norm in Apposition. 2. By using the Saxon Possessive. 3. By using the Nonnan Possessive. 4. By an Adjective. 5. By means of a Preposition, followed by its case,— t. c, an adjectival phrase. 6. By (1) a Participle, or (2) a Participial phrase, 7. By a combination of ;iM thcs<.', i k THE ADJECTIVE. ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES OF COMPLEX SUBJECT. [These 'Complements of the subject' (as they are called) may also be enlarged in a similar manner.] 1. Solon, the wisest man of Greece, gave Athens a code of laws. 2. Longfellow'' s 'Evangeline' is a beautiful poem. 3. ]n«ia»i, o/AVmamZy, conquered England. 4. Diligent scholars are sure to succeed, 5. ne #/m-5« /or j/o/tHs degrading. 6. (I) Coming events cast their shadows before them. (2) The general, having draivn up hisforccs,vfii% ready for battle. 7. Charles, the farmer's son, of Millhanlc, a youth of great abllUn, being industrious and fond of study, succeeds well at school. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON THE ADJECTIVE. 1 Definition.-What is an Adjective? Into what general classes are adjectives divided? What (^lasses are given imder the geurnil head of Distinctive Adjectives? Give seutc-nces containing an ex- ample of eacli. How are the Definite Numerals subdivided .' 2 Comparison.— What is the general rule for comparing adjectives of one syllable? The rule for comparing adjectives of more than oim; syllable? How is a lower degree than the positive usualy cxprossnl Is there any other method of varying the d^groe o q^;''^/i^y f p.vss.d by the adjective? Compare 'good,' 'bad,' 'little,' 'much, &c. AMiat class of adjectives does not admit of bumg compared? 3. Difference of Use. -What distir.ction is made in the use of tl.n foltwing adjectives:-vi. 'much/ ^1/-^: , '^'-^1--, --l ♦further;' 'older,' and 'elder;' 'later,' and lattei .' 4. Parsing and Syntax. -Give the order for Parsing, and repeat tlio Rule. EXERCISE. In the following sentences parse tlic Ad.iective8 and the Nouns according to the forms and examples given :— Numbers are expressed by ten Arabic characters. Few young ,.oon lo 1U.C ic-lusion. I have some line trees m the garden. lo G^^Zirlnty to peHonn. '^-t book belongs h, you t^jj. 1 1 „e. 4-,^ «io Tli(> former lecture was the better. >vnac tnuo mo ve u Sits inher loin Imi tliest the vocal vale, Unto whieh pro- ]uil c 1 twdvc tribes hope to come. Tins house is colder than yours. Is-uv her several times. England expects every man to do his duty. Which of these large oranges will you have t Oo over this exercise again and point out the Cramnmticv.l Sid>jeet in each sentence ; also shew how it is completed. 32 ETYMOLOGY. THE PRONOUN. 75. A Pronoun is a word which properly supplies the ])laco of a noun ; as, John is a good boy; he is diligent in Ids studies. Pronouns of the third person re they applied? &c. 12. Syntax.— Give the Pvule for Pronouns. Why is there double Syntax ? 13. Parsing. — 1 To v»' arc Pronouns to he parsed? .1 THE VERB. 100. A Verb is a "word "which expresses existence, condition, or action; as, lie is ; he sleej's; he I'uns. 1. Why so Called. — It is called a 'verb' because it is the most im- portant tcord in a proposition. 2. Its Essential Quality. — Its essential quality is to make an asser- tion, without which there can be no comnumication of thought. 3. The Subject. — The 'subject' of a verb is that person or thing whose leii>g, state, or act, is expressed by the verb, 101. Verbs, in respect o? meaninq, are of two kinds — TuAXSiTiYE and Intr.\nsitive. 102. In respect of fovjii, tliey are divided into Eegu- EAR, Irregular, and DEFEcrnE. I. KIND. 1. A TRANSITIVE VERB. 103. A Transitive Verb is one which expresses an action that passes from the agent or doer, to some person or thing which stands as the object of the verb; as, Jame3 struck Wilham. 2. AN INTRANSITIVE VERB. 104. An Intransitive Verb is one wliich makes an assertion, without expressing action as done to anything; as, The boy ran across the held. 1. How Distinguished. —(1) Transitive v-erbs in the active voice require an object after thorn to complete the sense ; as, James strikes the ^/?//t' ; —Intransitive verbs do not require an object after them, but the sense is complete without it; as, He sUm ; you ride ; the wind hlnn\'*: the wheeW«r/M<. ■ : I THE VEIIT). '15 ?l (2) As the object of a transitive active verb is in the objective case, any verb which makes sense M'ith vie, thee, him, hev, if, them, after it, k transitive. A verb that iloes not make sense with one of these v,-or(^ after it is intransitive; thus, * striked' is transitive, because we jan say, 'James strikes 7?ie;' 'sleeps' is intransitive, because we cannot say, * James sleeps vie/ Hence — When a verb in the active voice has an object, it is transitive; >vlien it has not an object, it is intransitive. (3) In the use of transitive verbs three things are always implied, — the act07', the act, and tlie object acted upon ; in the use of intransi- tive verbs there are only two, — the subject, and the beiiif/, state, or act ascribed to it. 2. Of Both Kinds. — The same verbs are sometimes used in a transi- tive, and sometimes in an intransitive sense. Thus, in the sentence, 'Charity thinketh no evil,' the verb is transitive. In the sentence, ' Thi7ik on me,' it is intransitive. 3. Intransitive Verbs made Transitive. — Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive — (1) When followed by a noun of the same, or similar signification, as an object; as, I run, intransitive; I run a race, transitive. This may be called a cognate object. (2) By the addition of another word; ay, I laugh, intransitive; I laugh at, transitive. 4. Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. — Verbs really transitive, are used intransitively when they have no object, and the sense in- tended, being merely to denote an exercise, is complete without it. Thus, when we say, 'That boy reads and icrites well,' — 'reads^ and * writes ' are realiy transitive verbs ; because a person who reads and writes, must read or write something. Yet, as the sense is com- plete without the object, nothing more being intended than simply, 'That boy is a good reader raid writer,' the verbs, as here i.sed, are intransitive. 5. Double Form. — Transitive verbs are sometimes derived from Intransitive, and go in pairs, thus : — Intransitive. Transitive. Rise Raise Lie Lay Sit Set Fall Fell Drink Drench IL FORM. 1. A REGULAR VERB. 105. A Regular Verb is one that forms its pa$t ie ETY3IOIiOGY. I'- f kl ^ It \] tense in the iiulicative active, and itspY.s^ participle, by adding cloved to the present; as, present, /or^?; past, loved; past participle, /oi' distinct forms, (3) Tliose having three forms. 3. 'A' and ♦ U ' in Past Tense.— Where ' a' and 'u' are both fouud, our present tendency is to use 'a' for the past tense and 'u' for the past participle. 3. A ri^FECTIVE VERB. 107. A Defective Verb is one in which some of tha parts are wanting. The following list comprises the most important. They are irregnlar, and chiefly auxili- ary:— Past. should would wist wot Present. Past. Pre.se nf Can could Shall May might Will Must Wis Ought Wit Quoth quoth Wot Imperative and 1) {/initive- Beware. •V '•U *'1 THE VERB. 41 1. * Ought* and 'Must.'— The former, orii^dnally the past tense of *owe,' is now used to signify present duty, and 'must,' to denote pre- sent obligation or necessity. It has no other inflection than 'oughtest ' for the second person singular. If used in one tense only, that tense must be settled by the infinitive that follows; as, He ought to hnow better. He ought to have known better. 2. 'Shall' and 'Will.' — These verbs used as auxiliaries have itv7« and shall in the second person singular. They are both without in- flection in the third person singular. 'Will,' as a principal verb, is regular. 3. 'Wis' and 'Wit.' — The former of these, which signifies to knoio, to imagine, is now obsolete. ' Wit,' of the same meaning and origin, is now used only in the infinitive, 'fo U77,'— that is, 'namely;' or it is used as a formal expression, by which a call is made to know or to loitness the legal setting forth of something that follows. This verb is often met with in the Bible. 4. 'Beware.' — This verb (propei-ly he and wore, cr icary) is now generally used in the imperative, and sometimes after an auxiliary; as, Beioare of him — We should beware. It has also the form of the infinitive ; as, I bade him beioare. 5. ' Quoth.' — This verb, which means to say, to speak, is used only in ludicrous language; its nominative always comes after the verb, and it has no variation for person, number, or tense ; as, Quoth I — Quoth he— Quoth they, &c. The form ' quod ' is also found. 108. To this class also belong I^ipersonal and Auxiliary Verbs. Viti 1. IMPEESONAL VERBS. 109. Impersonal Verbs are those which assert tli(? existence of some action or state, but refer it to no par- ticular subject. They are always in the third person singular, and are preceded by the pronoun it; as, It rains ; it hails ; it behooves, &c. 1. Proper Impersonals. — They are called proper when the pronoun *»<' preceding the impersonal verb as its subject, is the substitute for some unknown and general, or well-known cause, the action of which is expressed by the verb, but which can not, or need not, itself be named ; or when a logical subject must be conceived of ; but either is not expressed, or is expressed grammatically, in an oblique case; as. It strikes four. 48 ETYMOLOGY. ■ i 11! f S 5J 4 2. Improper Impersonals.— They are called improper when the pronoun ' it ' preceding is only a substitute for a clause, or a part of a sentence ; as, It hai^pmed that Robert returned from Palestine. 3, Impersonals without 4t.' — To this class of words belong tho expressions, methinlcs, methought; vieseems, meseemed; melisteth, me- listed, &c, ; sometimes used for It seems to vie — It appears to me, &c, 'Some such resemblance metldnls I find.'— J/«VY.«JcnJ jjar/ici^;/^ active of a principal verb, gives the Progressive Form; as, I am running. (2) Tliis form is employed to denote an unfinished action or state with definite time, and is sometimes called Continuous. 2. THE EMPHATIC FORM. (1) The verb *to do' is used as an auxiliary in the present and the past tense, to render the expression emphatic j as, I do love ; I did love. (2) This use of the verb must be distinguisliod from its use to avoid the repetition of a verb, or a phrase containing a verb ; as. If you can grant his request, do so. (3) This auxiliary *do' is also used when the verb in the present or the past tense is used interrogatively, or negatively; as, Docs he study? — He does not study. Did he go? — He c?icZ not go. *Do' is also used as an auxiliary in the second person singular of the impei'a- tive ; as. Do come. (4) Other tenses may be made emphatic by laying the emphasis on the auxiliary; as, I will do so. •SHALL' AND 'WILL.' 112. — 1. 'Shall.' — The original meaning of this word is 'to owe,' as seen in its past tense 'should' = 'ought;' hence it primarily and strictly denotes present obligation. It is the oldest English form of the future, and is always used except when it would be ambiguous. It expresses future time, as the result of foresight. 2. 'Will.' — This word denotes volition, and expresses future time, because that which is an object of will or desire, which we are willing or desirous to do, is not yet done. The following example will illus- trate the word : — * Thou who art the author of life canst restore it if thou wiWst, but whether thou wilt please to restore it or not, thou alone knowest.' — Atterbury. EXPRESSINa 'RESOLUTION,' 'PURPOSE,' &c. 3.— (1) 'Shall' denotes the resolution, &c., of a person with respect to the acts of others over whom he has control. (2) 'Will' denotes the resolution, &c., of a person with respect to his own acts. In the aecotid and third persons 'shall' implies constraint, a threat, or ft promise. ii sign (o before it, 113 it is now used after such vcrl)3 as fice, hear, fed, Itt, &c. Gram- marians now generally combine them as one wonl, constituting a particular foi'in of tlie verb, to which they have given the name of 'potential mood, from its leading use, 3. The Potential, Declarative. — The indicative and potential both declare, but they declare difTerent things: the former declares what the subject does, or is; the latter what it may or can, &c., do or be. The declaration made by the indicative is simple : that made by the potential is always complex, containing the idea of liberty, jwicer, &c., in connexion witli the act. * He lorites,'' is the indicative of the verb to vmte. *He can write,' is the indicative of the verb can^ with the infinitive of to write ; or, combined, the potential of the verb to lorite. 4. The Potential, Interrogative. —Both the indicative and the potential mood are used interrogatively; as. Does he love? Can he write? 5. The Potential, Independent. — The potential, as well as the in- dicative, is used without dependence on another verb, both expressing a complete idea in themselves. 'James writes a letter,' and 'James can write a letter,' are etpially complete and independent sentences. G. Power of the Auxiliaries. — The auxiliaries of this mood are, — (1) 'May' and 'Might' expressing 'leave.' 'May' sometimes expresses mere possil)ility; as, He may vfv'iie, perhaps; It may raiw to-morrow. Before the subject of a verb they are used to express a wish or prayer; as, May you be happy. Might it but turn out to be no worse than tliis, (2) 'Can' and 'Could,' expressing; 'power.' (3) 'Should,' expressing 'duty.' (4) 'Would,' expressing 'will.' (5) 'Must,' expressing 'necessity.' With the first person it often implies 'determination,' and when a fact is stated, 'certainty.' (G) 'Might,' 'Coi.ld,' &c., how Used.— As these are really 'past' tenses, they must, in dependent clauses, follow 'past' time in the principal clause ; as, I told him that he might go. I said that I would do so. 7. 'Should' and 'Would,' ejtpressing an opinion or a wish. — (1) These verbs are used as softened modest expressions of opinion ; as, 1 shoidd think so, — i. e., if it was not that I defer to your judgment. (2) 'Would' is sometimes used as a principal verb, equivalent to the present of wish or desire ; as, When I make a feast, I would my guests should praise it — not the cooks. * When T would [when I wish * i Ill" I THE VERB. II to] Jo good, evil is present with me.' Thus used, the subject iu the first person is sometimes omitted ; as, •Would thou hadst hearkened to my words.'— J/<7/o/<. (3) •'Would,' with a negative, used in this way, is not merely nega- tive of a wish or desire, but implies strong opposition or refusal ; as, • How often would I have gathered tliy children— but ye would not ;' 'Ye icoiild none of my reproof.' 8. When to be Used.— (1) 'Should' is used in a dependent clause, when the event is under our control; as. You said it shoiihl be done ; but 'would' is used when the event is not under our control; as. You said it tvould rain. (2) Expressing a Duty or a Supposition.— 'Should' is used to ex- press a. present diify ; as, You should not do so ; or a supposition, as, If it should rain I cannot go. (3) Expressing Custom.— 'Would' is sometimes used to cxpre.ss what was customary in past time ; as, The old man u'ould shake hi.s years away. He'rf sit him down. (4) 'Would' and 'Had.' — Instead of the former auxiliary we some- times find the auxiliary 'had' in poetry and iu idiomatic expressions such as, I had rather, &c. Tlie form '/'(?' is an abbreviation for ' I woukl.' This auxiliary sometimes takes the place of 'woiUd have;' as, 'My fortune had [would have] been his.''— Dri/dcn. 9. Compound Auxiliaries. — (1) These auxiliaries combine with the verb 'have,' and form compound auxiliaries. Wo must, however, remember that, though 'may' denotes present liberty, 'may have' does not denote past liberty, but only tlie present possibility ; thus, ' He mai/ have written,' means, It is possil)k> tliat ho lias written. So also, 'must have' does not denote past necessity, but present certainty; thus, 'He mnst have written,' means, There is no doubt he has written ; it can not be otherwise. (2) 'Might have,' &c. — Tliis auxiliary of the 'Past-perfect Poten- tial' never represents an act, &c., as completed at a certain past time, but expresses the liberty, ahiliiij, purpose, or duty, with respect to the act or state expressed by the verb, as now past ; thus, ' He could have written,' means. He was able to ti-r/tr. 'You should have learned your lesson,' implies a past duty. 3. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 123. The Subjunctive or Conditional Mood ex- presses the fact not as actual, but as conditionaL defiir- (ihh'y or contingent ; as, If it rain I shall not go. ? It t I, Mi 1 ! I'' ■In V r^ 5G ETYMOLOGY. 1. Why 80 Called. — This mood is so called because it is always aiib' joined to, and dependent on, another verb expressed or understood, and implies condition or contitujency ; as. If he studi/f he will improve, — i. e.f His improvement depends upon one condition, viz., study. 2. Sign of the Subjunctive. — The conditionality or contingency, &c., expressed by this mood, is usually intimated by such conjunc- tions as //", thonrfh, hsf, vnltus, &c., prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb. 3. Conjunction Omitted. — The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunction, by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject or nominative ; as, ^Jlad /,' for ^ If I had'— * Wtre fn'y for ^J/he were' — ^Ifod he f/one,' for ^ 1/ he had gone.^ 4. Indicative and Potential Moods used Subjunctively.— Both the indicative and the potential, with a conjunctive particle prefixed, are used subjunctively; that is, they are used to express what is con- ditional, or contingent, and with dependence on another verb; as, *If he sleeps he will do well.' He would go if he could (go.) In parsing, that only should be called the subjunctive mood which has the subjunctive form. When the indicative or potential is used sub- junctively it shoiUd be so stated. 5. The Subjunctive and the Indicative used Subjunctively. — Tlie use of the one or the other of these moods may be thus decided. If we mean to express doubt or to leave a question undecided, we use the 'Subjunctive;' if no doubt c Indecision is expressed, we use the * Indicative ; ' as, If he is not guilty (a thing I do not question) you will be able to prove it at the trial. If he he guilty, (a thing I doubt, or will not affirm, or cannot admit,) he belies his Avhole life. 4. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 124. The Imperative Mood expresses a command or an entreatij ; as, Read thou. 'Bless mo, even mo also, O my father.' 1. Name. — In this mood the assertion is made in the form of a command: hence the name. 2. Person.— As expressive of command this mood is found in the Mec'ond person; but when it expresses a wisli or prayex', it is found in the third 2^erson; as, 'Some holy angel Fly to the court of England and unfold His message, ere he come.''— S ha k: It is also used in the frst jierson plural; as, * Retire vp to our chambers.'— *9/*o/C\ THE VERB. ;ood, •ove. mcy, unc- inake >; as, ) In I EXERCISE AND ANALYSIS. 125. — 1. Subject. —As every sentence must contain a verb in some mood which makes an afllrmation, it must also contain a sub- ject respecting which the affirmation is made. Tliis subject stand.«i in the 'Nominative Case,' except in the Inlhiitive Mood, t)ui subject of which is in the * Objective Case.' (Sec. 11)2, 7. ) 2. Object.— A transitive verb, in the active voice, tells what its subject does to some person or thing. That person or thing is the object of the verb, and is in the 'Objective Case.' He loves us. I will love him. Good boys studv their lessons. (/hildren love play. God created the world, llomcmbcr thy Creator. Do good to all men. Forgive your enemies, lie that giveth to the poor lendeth to the Lord. You should study grammar. We should read the best books. Bad books injure the character. War makes rogues, and peace hangs them, ('hildren, obey your parents. A good cause makes a strong arm. Shew mercy and thou shalt find it. Time flies. Evil communications corrupt good manners. Punctu- ality begets confidence. Columbus discovered America. 1. In this exercise tell which words are verbs, and v hy ; — whether transitive or intransitive, and why; — what is the subject, and why; — and if transitive, what is their object, and why. 2. Select the 'grammatical' and the 'logical' subjects. 3. Specify the particular 'grammatical subjects' that have been completed, and shew how the change has been effected. ANALYSIS. 12 G. As the verb is the word that makes the affirma- tion, that part of the sentence which contains the verb is called the Predicate, 127. This Predicate asserts of its subject (1) What it is ; (2) What it does ; (3) What is done to it. 128. It is either a Grammatical or a Logical Predi- cate. 129. The Grammatical Predicate is simply the verb. (In the case of the verb 'to be,' which forms a predicate by itself only when it is equivalent to the verb * exist,' we have to connect with it 'an adjective,' 'a noun,' 'an adverb,' or * a phrase,' to form a complete predicate.) 130. The Logical Predicate is the Grammatical Predicate with all its complements. ^ \vel3 forms a diphthong. Works of art cannot vie with the beauties vf natur';. The torrid zone lies b) It may stand in the 'objective' after a preposition ; and (c) may also have an ' objective ' after it ; as, He spends all his money in buijiiia useful books. 1-. a i if THE VERB. 59 I.I ill I i (2) This luthiitive is, in form, sometimes the same as the ' ludefi- iiite Intinitive,' and is foiui'l (a) after 'intransitive' and 'passive' verbs ; as, • 1 dare do all that may become a man ; Who dares do more is none.' — ShaL: They were told to do so. (/>) After adjectives; as, Man is liable to ei'r. The primary object (jf this Infinitive or Gerund, is to express 'purpose,' and in old writers ia not uufrcqucutly preceded by 'for.' 6. Anomalous Use of the Infinitive Active. — The Infinitive Active, by an anomaly not uncommon in other languages, is sometimes used iu a ^jtrs'iirc sense; as. You are to hlamc (to be blamed) — A house to It't—A road to make — Goods made to sell — Knives to grind, &c. These are cxiuuples of the Infiniti\- >poken of in last paragraph. 7. The Subject of the Infinitive Mood. — In regard to Subject, the Infinitive Mood differs from the others, by having its 'subject' in tlie ' objective ' case ; as, We believe 1dm to be honest. Here the whole expression 'him to be honest' is the objective after the verb, but the pronoun 'him' is partly the objective after the verb, and partly the suliject of the infinitive 'to be.' 6. PARTICIPLES. 1 33. A Participle is a word wliicli, as a verlj, ex- presses an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies a noun ; as, He came fieewg. Having jimshed our task ve may play. Why so Called. — Participles are so called because they belong partly to the vcrli, and partly to the adject tve. From the former they have .-iiijiiijiralio)!, voice, and tense ; and they perform the ojjice of the latter by attributhig a quality without formally asserting it, 134. Tliere arc four Participles iu eacli \'^oice of the Transitive Verb. 135. Tliey may be thus arranged, — Active. Passive. 1. Present, Striking. Being strucli. 2. Past, Stnick. Struck. 3. PerfoL't, Having struck. Having Ijcen struck. 4. Future, About to strike. About to be struck. Time Expressed, Eelative. — The participle, like the infinitive, denotes relative time; tlie time of the act, Avhether progressive or finished, being indicated by tlie verb with which it is connected, or by some other word ; thus, I saw him writing yesterday. I see him 'Mu ii »> - 60 ETYMOLOCrY. a ^ M' m writing now. I will see him tvrithuj to-morrow. In all these ex- amples writing expresses an act present, and still in progress at tlie time referred to ; but with respect to the time of sjJeaJdng, the act of writing expressed in the lirst example is past, in the second it is pre- sent, and in the third it is future, as indicated by the accompanyiiig verbs, sato, see, will see. 1. The Present Participle. 13G. The Present Participle Active ends ahvays in * ing.' In all verbs it has an active signification, and denotes an action or state as continuing and progressive ; as, James is building a house. 1. Not to be confounded with the Infinitive in 'ing.' — As this termination *ing' belongs to nouns, infinitives, and participles, the precise character of words ending in 'ing' can be ascertained only by the Syntax, (1) If they are simple 'nominatives,' they may be • nouns ' or * infinitives,' (Sec. 132, 5 ;) as, Seeing is believing. (2) If they agree with nouns they are 'participles used as adjectives,' or * participial adjectives;' as, He is a very amusing person. (3) If they involve the idea of 'time' as well as 'action,' they are 'partici- ples;' as, I found him amusing himself with the children. (4) If they are governed by prepositions and are descriptive of 'acts,' not 'qualities,' and are followed by an objective, they are 'infinitives' either absolute or gerundial; as, To put a person to death after giving a promise of pardon, is unjust, (o) If they are connected with words descriptive of 'purpose,' and are followed by an objective case, they are the true gerundial form; as, Microscopes are used for examining minute objects. 2. It is in this way we have to explain expressions which are occasionally met with in English, such as *a going,' 'a fishing,' 'a liunting.' Tliese are gerundial forms of the Infinitive standing in the objective case, after the preposition 'in,' or 'on,' which has be- come converted into 'a,' in the same way as the preposition 'on' in such words as 'afloat,' 'ashore,' &c. 137. The Present Participle Passive has always a passive signification, but it has the same difference of meaning with respect to the time or litate of the action as the present indicative passive. 2. The Past Participle. 138. This Participle is formed in some verbs by the addition of *d' or *ed' to the present; in others by I a< f( THE VEKB. 61 or *a m I adding 'en;' in others by some internal change. Its form is the same in both voices. 1. How Distinguished. — In the active voice it belongs equally to transitive and intransitive verbs — has always an active sense — forms, with the auxiliaries, the Present-perfect and Past-perfect tenses — and is never found but thus combined; as, 'Has loved,^ 'had lovedy &e. In the passive voice it has always a passive sense, and with the verb '^0 6e' as an auxiliary, forms the passive voice ; as, *He is loved ;' or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun ; as, * A man loved by all, hated hy uone.^ Tli ■ difference between the active and the passive participle will be sceu in the following examples: — viz., Active — 'He has concealed a dagger under his cloak;' Passive — 'He has a dagger concealed under his cloak.' 2. The Anglo-Saxon Prefix ' ge.' — There is a trace of this prefix to be found in the particij^les 'yclept,' (called,) and 'yclad,' (clad.) 3. Adjectival. — This participle, like the 'present participle active,' when separated from the 'idea of time,' has the force of an 'adjec- tive;' as, A concealed plot. 3. The Perfect Participle. 139. The Perfect Pakticiple is always compound, and represents an action or state as completed at the time referred to. It has always an active sense in the .'ic'tivc voice, nnd a passive sense in the passive ; as, Active — Having finished our task, ive may play. Pas- sive — Our task haviny jeen finished, we may play. 4. The Future Participle. 140. This participle, also, is a compound one, and represents the action as * about' to take place; as. He is about to leave Canada. Another Mode of expressing Futurity. — The same idea of futurity is expressed by the progressive form of the verb 'to go;' as, I am icate consists of two or more simple predicates affirmed of one subject; as, Truth is great and will prevail, EXAMPLES. 1. Gram. Subject.— 7)oi»;/ his duty is the delight of a good man. 2. Logical Subject. — Dohuj Ids duty, &e. 3. Compound Subject. —Good men and bad men arc found in every community. 1. Gram. Pjrethcate. — Good boys study their lessons, 2. Logical Predicate. — Children ^ore ^j^a?/. 3. Compound Predicate. — The leader of the rebellion ivas con- victed and harifjed. EXERCISE. 1. In the following sentences state whether the predicate is Simple or Compound:— Man is mortal. ''.Visdom is the principal thing. God is good and merciful. Honesty is praised and neglected. Tlie heart is the best and the worst part of man. The use of travel is to widen the sphere of observation, and to enable us to examine and judge of things for ourselves. Avarice is a mean and cowardly vice. Talent is strengtli and subtilty of mind. Genius is mental inspiration and delicat^y of feeling. Talent is tlie lion and the serpent — genius is the eagle and the dove. 2. Assign reason for this classification. 3. Construct sentences containing 'Compound Subjects.' 154. When the verb is transitive and in the ^active voice,' the Grammatical Predicate is completed by the addition of the object, which may be, — 1. A noun. 2. A pronoun. 3. An adjective used as a noun. 4. An infinitive in either of its forms. 5. A noun sentence. EXAMPLES OF COMPLETED GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE. 1. 'Who steals my /)?/r,s6 steals S'/m^'. 2. ^Tfhn the Almighty PoM'er Hurled headlong.' — Milton. . ' TTTE VET?n. it 3. ITo rouM not approciate tho phturrsqur and heavt'iful. We should j)ity the unfortunate. 4. 'Learn /o labor and /o ?<;a<7.' — Lonr/fcUoir. 5. Plato thought (H't to something present, and implies a denial of the thing supposed ; as, 'If I had the money now I would pay it,' implying, '1 have it not.' Used in this way, the verb 'to be'' (ami, of course, the passive voice of transitive verbs) !!;!! ■I I, lt!i i Hi ^ 68 ETYMOLOGY. lii i\ 1 'i: uus a separato form in the singuliir, l)ut not in the iilural, — viz., I were, thou ivert, he wei'e; for I teas, thou uv7^^ he ?t'««/ thus, 'If my kingdom war, of this worhl, then wouhl my s. : vants fight,' implying, •it is not of this workl ; ' ' that thou wert as my brother,' implying, •thou art not.' 4. The Fast-Perfect. — Thi.s tense is used when a supposition, &c., respecting something jKiat, is expressed, and a denial is implied ; as, •if 1 had hnd the money yesterday I would have paid it,' implying, •I had it not;' 'O that thou hadd been ii& my brother,' implying, 'thou wast not.' 158. The Imperative Mood has two tenses, a Pre- sent and a Future. The Futiu'e Tense. — This tense is used in commands involving future, rather than present action; as, Thou shalt write. The softened form of the third person singular, and plural, 'let him,' 'let them,' may be regarded as future. 150. Tlie Infinitive Kood has two tense,", the Present and the Perfect; as, To write. To have written. 1. Signs of this Mood. — The Present has for its sign, *to,' the Per- fect, *to have.' 2. Time not Absolute, but Eelative. — In the other moods, the time expressed by tlie tenses is estimated from the time of speaking, which is always regarded as present; as, *I wrote,' (that is, in a time »?()?« past;) 'I write,' (that is, in time noip present;) 'I shall write,' (that is, in time now future.) But the infinitive represents the action or state expressed as j^resenf, not, however, always at tlie time of speaking, but at the time indicated by the preceding verb, or &.ome other word in the sentence ; as, 'He wishes to write' — now — to-mor- row — next week, &c. ; 'He wished to ^vrite' then (viz., at the time of wishing, now past) — ne.rt day — this day — to-morrow, &c.; 'He M'ill wish to write '~7/(f» (viz., at the time of wishing, now future)— Hf .<;< day, &c. 3. Force of tbo Teases.— (I) The Present infinitive expresses an act or state not ccMpletcd indefinitely, or at any time referred to, expressed or implied; as, I wish to write — I wished to j/o— Apt 'o teach. After the verb ' to he,' the present infinitive is sometimes used tc express a future action or event; as. He is to (jo—li he were to go. (2) The Perfect infinitive expresses an uct or state as perfected or completed, at any time referred to, expressed or implied ; as, ' He is said to have iiritten'— already— ycderdny— a year a > in. kc. !s*-i*. THE VERB. 09 4. Use of the Tenses.- The Present must never be usetl m circum- stances which imply a completed act; nor the Perfect^ in circuui- stancea which imply an act not completed. Thus, it is improper io say, * He is said to write yesterday,' becauso the language leads us to regard the act as finished, since it took place in past time. It should be, *To have written yesterday.' Nor can we say, ' I hoped— I de- sired — I intended, kc.j to hare vrltlen yesterday,' because an act re- garded as perfect or finished, the doing of which, of cours*', is past, can not be the object of hope, desire, intention, &c. We should say, *I intended to tvrite yesterday,' because the mtention of writing was present at the time, though now it is spoken of as j^nst. IGO. The Participle has four tenses: the Present, the Past, the Perfect , and the Future; as, Striking — struck — having struck — ahout to strike. IV. PERSON AND NUMBER. 161. Every tense of the verb has three Persons and two Numbers corresponding to those infl'^ctions of nouns and pronouns. 1. How Applied to Verbs.— These inflections belong to the verb in virtue of the * subject nominative ;' because a verb, not being the name of a thing, cannot express one or more than out-, neither can it be the name of the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. 2. Change of Termination. — The only distinct terminations arc to be found in the second and third persons singular. In the present * indicative active,' the three persons in the plural, and the first in the singular, are alike, except in the verb * to be.' The same may be said of the first and the third person singular, and the three persons of the plural of the past tense, with the same exception. Since this is the case, we must know the person of the * subject,' before we can ascertain the person of the verb. 3. Imperative Forms. — (1) Such expressions as, *Let vslove,—*!. t him love,^ — *Lct them, love,'' — may be thus explained: 'let' is the proper imperative, in the second person, with its subj^^ct understood, and love the infinitive without the sign. Thus, ♦ Let [yoii'] us [to] love,' &c. (2) This mode of expression is sometimes used even when no defi- nite individual is addressed; as, * Let there be light.' (3) Among the poets, however, we sometimes find o. first and a third person in the imperative; as, — * Confide we in ourselves alone.' •With virtue he we armed.'— //io?^'^ Tasso, '!;lil i • -I J' 1 ^ J U ! ' ♦ 7' I KTYMOLOUV. ' \m\ rt'dt v'C ]n'Vi\ MaLikla saitl.' — Sroll. ' Fall lie that must l)i;iJoath his rival's arm, Aiul lice the red seoiiru from future harm.' — Pope. • Lau(jh those that can, iccep those that may.'— >S'cu<<. The first person plural is not unfrc(iucnt in prose. ^4) Sudi expressions as •Hallowed ho thy name'— 'Thy kingdom eome '— ' Be it enaeted'— * So be it,' &e., may be regarded aa examples of the third person in tiie imperative. CONJUGATION. li)2. The Conjugation of a verb is the rei^ular coinbinatioii and arrangement of its several Voices ^ Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 103. The two forms of verbs most frequently met with are, — 1. The Common. 2, The Progressive. 1. The Common Form expresses the simple existenee of the fact ; as, He tipeaksShe tvritcs — They talk. 2. The Progressive Form represents an action as begiui, and in pro- gress, but not completed. It is formed by annexing the 'present participle active' of a simple verb to the verb ^to be;^ as, I am ivrit- iiiij ; I was li'riliiuj, &c. (Sec. Ill, 4.) This form is also called the 'Continuous.' Both of these forma are found in all moods and tenses. 164. Besiiles these two forms there is anotliei*, used ill the Present and the Past Indicative, called the ^Em- })hatic Form.' How Formed. — This form of the verb is obtained by prefixing the auxiliary 'do' for the Present, and 'did' for the Past, to the simple verb; as, I do write ; I did write. (Sec. Ill, 4.) 105. The principal parts of the verb arc the Present Indicative, the Past Indicative, and the Past Pay'ticiple. In ])!irsinn:, the mentioning of these parts is called con- jiKjutimj the verb. Thus, — Eegular, or Weak, Iiregular, or Strong, Present. Past. Past Participle. Love loved loved. Write wrote written. t THE VKUn. CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIABIDS. 'MAY.* Presentf May. Past, Might. Indicative Mood. rUKSENT TENSE. 71 Singular. 1. I may. 2. Thou mayst. 3. He may. Plural 1. We may. 2. You may. 3. They may. PAST TENSE. 1. I might. 2. Thoumightst. 3. He miglit. 1. We mi^'ht. 2. You might. 3. They might. 'CAN.' Present, Can. Ptiisty Ctmkl. ■ • Indicative Mood. Singular. 1 . I can. 2. Thou canst. 3. He can. PRESENT TENSE. Plural 1. We can. 2. You can. 3. They can. . PAST TENSE. 1. I could. 2. Thou couldst. 3. He could. 1. We could. 2. You could. 3. They could. 'MUST.' • Indicative Mood. Singular. 1. I must. 2. Thou must. 3. He must. PRESENT TENSE. Plural 1. We must. 2. You must. 3. They must. 'DO.' Indicative Mood. Singular. 1. Ida 2. Thou dost. 3. He does. PRESENT TENSE. Plural 1. We do. 2. You do. 3. They do. PAST fElfSE. 1. I did. 2. Thou didst, 3. He did. 1. We did. 2. You did. 3. They did. -J iii i 72 I ?: I I (I ,4 ! *l I El'.- I ! , . < «;i li'-l^ Singular. 1. I have. 2. Thou hast. 3. He has, or hath. 1. I had. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. ETYMOLOGY. ♦HAVE.' Indicative Mood. PRESENT TENSE. 1. O 3. Plural. We have. You have They have. PAST TENSE, 1. We had. 2. You had. 3. They had. •DO,' and 'HAVE,' as Principal Verbs. [These two auxiliaries, like the verb 'to be,' are also principal verbs, and form their tenses in the same way as other principal verbs ; thus: — ] Present, Present-Perfect, Past, Fast-Perfect, 1. I do. 2. Thou doest. 3. He does. &c. 1. I have done. 2. TIiou hast done. 3. He has done. &c. 1. I did. 2. Thou didst. 3. He did. &c. 1. I had done. 2. Thou hadst done. 3. He had done. &c., &c. 1. I have. 2. Thou hast 3. He has. 1. I have had. 2. Thou hast had. 3. He has had. 1. I had. 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. 1. I had had. 2. Thou hadst had. 3. He had had. Singular. 1. I shall. 2. Thoushalt. 3. He shall. 'SHALL.' Indicative Mood. PRESENT TENSE. Plural. 1. We shall. 2. You shall. 3. They shall. PAST TENSE. 1. I should. 2. Thou shouldst. 3. He shoidd. We should. 2. You should. 3. They should. V( JL... Singular. 1. I will. 2. Thou wilt. 3. He will. 1. I would. 2. Thouwouklst. 3. He would. THE VERB. 'WILL.' Indicative Mood. PRES£>'T TENSE. 73 PAST TENSE. Plural 1. We will. 2. You will. 3. They will. 1. We would. 2. You would. 3. They would. ti CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB 'TO BE.' The irregular and intransitive verb ' to be ' is used as a principal verb, and also as an auxiliary in the passive voice, and iu the pro- gressive form of the active voice. It is thus inflected through all its moods and tenses,— rPJNCIFAL pAins. Past, Was. Pa.^t Participle, Been. Present, Am. Singular. 1. I am. * 2. Thou art. 3. Hois. Indicative Mood. rUESENT TENSE. Plural. 1. We are. 2. You are. 3. They are. PPvESENT-PERFECT TENSE. Sign, have. 1. T have been. 1. We have been, 2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 3. He has been. 3. They have been. PAST TENSE. 1 . I was. 2. Thoi. wast. 3. He was. 1. We were. 2. You ^vcre. 3. They were. PAST-PERFECT TENSE. Sign, Iiad. 1. I had been. 1. We had been. 2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 3. He had been. 3. They luul been. * Be and hevst were fovmerlv used in the pnsont indicative; as, 'Wo he (rue men —Bible— Un; 'We are true itien.' '11' llmu bu'st hv.'-MUlun. 'Tliere he as many iiii.^encs beyond ridi. s as v\i tliis Hide oftla in.' - Walton. '1 liis us:i-e i.s now obsolete. m ill' ■I'll ■Ill I) i i, J 74 ETYMOLOGY. S'nir/ular. 1. I shall be. 2. Thou wilt he. 3. He will be. FUTURE TENSE. (Signs, shall, it'Ul. Plural. 1. We shall bo, 2. You will be. 3. They will bo. FUTUEE-rERFECT TENSE. Signs, shall hair, will have. 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have \toxm. 2. Thou Avilt have been. 2. You will have been. lie will have been. 3. They will hr . c been. •> o. Potential Mood. PRESENT TENSE. Signs, mau, can, must. — luticct with each. Shigular. 1. I may be. 2. Thou mayst be. 3. He may be. Plural. 1. We may be. 2. You may bo. 3. They may bo. I'RESENT-rERFECT TENSE, Signs, may have, can have,* or must have. — Inflect with each. 1. I may have been. 1. We may have been, 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may L^ve been, 3. He may have been. 3. Thoy may have been. PAST TENSE, Signs, m'ujht, could, ivould, should. 1, o 3, I might be, 2, Thou mi^Iitst be. He might Ije. -Inflo';t with each. 1 , We might be, 2, You might be, 3, They might be. TAST-rERFECT TENSE, Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect Mith each. 1, I might have been. 1. We might have been, 'i'hou mightst have been, 2, Y''ou might have been. He might have been, 3, They might have been. o 3. Singular. 1. Iff I be. 2. If thou be, 3» If he bo. Subjunctive Mood. PRESENT TENSE. Plural. 1, If we be, 2, Ifyo.ibe, 3, If they bo. * Can have Is uoi used in (iffirmntivr soiitoncos. t Tlic; (■ciiijunctinDs, if, Ihni'ijti., list, nnJis^, &(■., On not fonnpart of tlinsnlitunrtivo iii'iuil, l,iit arc I'larcil 'icfmi' it, to cxjirrss u conditiim or (•oiitii)L''iiK'y. Tin; jiiipil iiiii.V t<'', //yv / Uii. iiiilii'iitivc, as a .•iufijUiirtivc, Willi nnc (ir KllurOt' tiirsc coiijiiii.'- tions inxii-idi. i 1* I Slng^dar. 1. If I were. 2. If thou wcrt. 3. If he were. Singular. 2. Be, or be thon. 3. lie he, or let him be. THE VERB. PAST TENSE. Plural. 1. If we were, 2. If you were. 3. If they were. Imperative Mood. rP.ESENT TENSE. Plural. 2. Be, or be ye or you. 75 3. Be th oy, or let them be. FUTURE TENSE. 2. Thou Shalt be. 2. You shall be. Infinitive Mood. PRESENT TENSE. To be. PERFECT TENSE, To have been. 'lir ■J: 11 PRESENT, Beincr. PAST, Been, Participles. PERFECT, Haviii!^ been. FUTURE, About to be. 1G6. — 1. The Indicative and Potential used Subjunctively. — All the tenses of the iiidicativc, and also of the potential mood, are used subjunctively, by placing the conjunction before tlieni, thus, — Pre- sent— 'U I iun,' 'if thou art,' 'if he is,' &c, Pndud-pc7fcct—'U I have beeu,' &c. Pa6«— 'If I was,' &c. 2. Pecidiar Future,— The verb Uo he,' followed by an inllnitive, forms a particular future tense, whicli often expresses du(i/, necessity, or imrpose; as, 'Government /;> to be supported.' 'We are to pay our debts.' 3. Progressive and Emphatic Forms. — This verl) has no 'progres- sive form.' The 'emphatic form' is used only in the imperative; as, 'Do thou be,' 'Do you be,' 4. Anomalous Usage,— ' JFt' re ' is sometimes used for ' would be,' and 'had been' for 'tvould have been;' as, 'This icere excellent advice,' — Coivkij. ' It were a folly, ' — S'ulneij. *My fortune had been his,' [for 'would have been.] — Dri/den. ' If 'twere done, when 'tis done, then Uuyre [would lu'J well it were done quickly.' — >^/ial:. nil I J u ETYMOLOGY. f i'i RULES FOR THE VERB. XI. A Verb agrees ^vitll its subject nominative in person and number; as, I ycad. Thou reddest. He reads, Scc, XII. A Transitive Verb, in the Active Voice, is followed by v.n objective case; as, A7e love hlin, lie loves us, XIII. The Predicate Substantive, after a verb, is put in the same case as the subject before it; as, It is he. She walks a queen. I took it to be huHy &c. ORDER OF PARSING THE VERB. Voice ) w Trail. ) r-: Tvcg. ) .^ ]\Iood /.S [ I Prin. Parts. Tense Intraii. ) l4 Irreg. ) --> Person Number J ^f^ ExAMi'LE. — They have been. Concoril accc.rding to Rule. Relation. Hare. They Itare hcoi Etymology and Syntax. Have, an auxiliary of time, (perfect.) Have been, lutrans, Irreg., Ain, was, been, Ind. Perf. 3 Plu. agreeing with subject they. Rule XL EXERCISE. Parse the Verbs in the following exercise: — Am, is, art, I was, we were, they are, you have been, I have, she had been, he was, we will be, they shall be, we had been, hast been, hadst been, wast, they did, let him be, he can be, we may be, they may have been, he might be, you might have been, if I do, you must be, they should have been, if I be, thou wert, though he were, if I liad been, though I were, if we could have been, they might be, he does work. Be, to be, do thou be, be ye, to have been, being, been, having been, be thou, he had had. CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB 'TO LOVE.' 1G7. The remdar transitive verb Ho love^ is iii!le«'tv.'d. through all its moods and tenses as follows: — ACTIVE VOICE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Past, Loved. Present, Love. Pad ■ Pa rt ie tpJe, Lo ' • ed. J THE VERB. Indicative Mood. PRESENT TENSE.* 77 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. o Singular. I love. Thou lovest. He loves {or lovctli.) Phiral. 1. We 'ove. 2. You love, 3. TLoy love. rRESENT-PERrECT TENSE. Sign, have. I Lave loved. 1. We have loved. Thou hast loved. 2. You liave loved. He has loved. I loved. Thou lovedst. He loved. PAST TENSE. 3. They have lovtc. 1. We loved. 2. Yf)U loved. 3. Tluy loved. 1. o Ad, O. 1. 2, 3. 1. 2. 3. PAST-PERFECT TENSE Sign, had. I had loved. 1 Thou hadst loved. 2. He had loved. 3 We had loved. You had loved. They had love. FUTURE TENSE. Signs, shallf loill. — Inflect with each. I shall love, 1, We sli all love. Thou wilt love, 2, You will you. He will love. 3, They will love, FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, sliall have, iv'ill have. — Inflect with each, I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. Thou wilt have loved, 2, Yoii will have loved. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. Potential Mood. PRESENT TENSE, Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. Shujular. Plural. I^ may love. 1, We may love, 2. You may love. 1 2. Thou mavst love. 3, He may love. 3. They may love. 'EMPHATIC FORMS. Sliig^tJur. PiiKSENT TENSE. Plurol. 1. I do )ovc. 1. Wc do lovo. 2. Thou dost lovi''. 'J. You do Invc. 3. He does love {or doth love.) 3. They do lo\-e. 3. I did love. 2. Thou didst love. 8. Ho did love. TAST TE.\3E. 1. We did love. 2. You did love. 3. They did love. i ■ f J" L«'t| I.' nJ I^< i 78 ETY^lOLOOY. 1: TnR'>EXT-rKRFErT TKNHE. Signs, virnj Jutrp, can hair* viust have. — Inflect with each. S'Difiular. Plural. 1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 2. Thou mayst have lovdl. 2. You may have loved. 3. He may have loved. o. They may have loved. TAi^T TEXSE. (Signs, m!i/ht, could, voukl, HlionhL — Inflect with each. 1. I might love. 1. We miglit love. 2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. ?i. Ho might love. 3. They might love. PART-rEnrEf'T tense. Signs, migJit have, could have, vonld have, should have. Inflect with each. 1. I miglit have loved. 1. Wo might have loved. 2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. Y^oii might have loved. 3. Ho might have loved. 8. They might have loved. Subjunctive Mood, rilESENT TENSE. SJnftular. Plural 1. If 1 love. ]. If we love. 2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 3. If ho love. 3. If they love Imperative Mood. rPtESEXT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love you. 3. Let him love. 3. Let tliem love. rUTUEE TENSE. 2. Thou slialt love. 2. You shall love. fl ! i! f\.r 2. Do thou love. Emphatic Form.. 2. Do you love. Infinitive Blood. PRESENT, To love. PERFECT, To have loved. PRESENT, Loving. Participles. PAST, PERFECT, Loved. Having loved. FUTURE, About to love. • Can have is not used iu uflirniative sentences. THE YZRB. 79 ANALYSIS. 168. When the verb is Intransitive, or in the Passive Voice, the complement is in the nominative case ; as, On the death of Harold William became /,-/urOLOGY. • I Bf 173. An Interrogative Sentence lias tlic form of a question ; jis, Who did it ? 174. An I^.iperative Sentence has the form of a command, exhortation, or entreaty; as, Love the brother- hood. 175. An Excla:matory Sentence has the form of an exclamation ; as, How beautiful is the snow ! 1. Interrogative Sentences, — These arc of t^Yo kind?. — (1) Direct, whicli require an offirmailve or a negative answer. (2) Indirect, ■vvliicli require a spocJJic answer. 2. Optative Sentence. — Tliis kind of sentence, expressing a 'wish,' nay be added to the others ; as. May you be happy. It may, how- over, be differently analyzed by supplying the ellipsis; thus, I wish —that you may be happy; the latter being a 'noun sentence.' NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE FORMS. 176. — 1. The verb is made to deny, by placing the word 'not' after the simple form ; as, Thou lovest not; and between the auxiliary and the verb in the compound form ; as, I do not love. When two auxiliaries are used, it is placed between them; as, I would not have loved. 2. In the infinitive and in the participles, the negative is put first ; as, Not to love. Not loving. 3. The emphatic form is most frequently used with the negative. 177. — i. The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nominative, or subject after the simi^le form; as, Lovest thou? and between he auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms ; as. Do I love? When there are two auxiliaries the nominative is placed be- tween them; as. Shall I have loved? 2. The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, can not have the interrogative form. 3. The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. The emphatic form is most frequently thus used. 4. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the nega- tive either before or after the nominative; as, Do not I love? or, Do I not love ? ADDITIONAL EXERCISE. 1. Change the following Verbs from the Simple into the Progres- sive Form : — He writes. They read. Thou teaehest. We have learned. He had written. They go, You will build. I ran. John has done it. f-iiJ I n of a of I THE VERB. We tauctlit. ITo stands. He stood. They will stand. They may read. Wo can sew. You should study. We might have read. 2. Change the following from the Progressive into the Simplo form: — We are writing. They were singing. They have heen riding. Wo might be walking. I may have been sleeping. They are coming. Thou art teaching. They have been eating, lie has been moving. We have been defending. 3. When it can be done, change the Verbs above given into the Emphatic form, 4. Parse the Verbs that are in the Progressive form. 5. Change the exercises, No. 2, into the Negative form ; thus, We are not writing — into the Interrogative form; as. Are we writing? — into the Negative Interrogative form ; as, Are we not writing? or, Are not we writing? PASSIVE VOICE. 178. The Passive Voice is inflected by acldinr^ the past participle passive to the verb Ho be' as an auxiliary, through all its moods and tenses. 1. The same thing Expressed by both Voices.— The Passive Voice, in the finite moods, properly affirms of the subject the receiving of the act performed by the actor ; and in all tenses, except the present, expresses passively precisely the same thing that is expressed by the same tense in the Active Voice ; thus, 'CiBsar com^-iered Gaul,' and 'Gaul was conquered by Ccesar,' express the same thing. 2. Meaning of Present different in different Verbs. — The Present Passive has a somewhat different meaning in different verbs. In some, it represents the act as now in progress— in others, as now completed. In the former, it expresses passively the present con- tinuance of the action, just as the present active does. Thus, * James loves Robert,' and 'Robert is loved by James,' express precisely the same thing. In the latter, the present passive expresses not the con- tinuance, but the result of the act now finished, as a predicate of the subject ; as, * The house is built.' The act of building is here repre- sented, not as continuing, but completed, and the residt of the act expressed by ' hiiilt ' is predicated of ' house.' 3. Difference in Ideas Expressed. — In all such verbs, the idea expressed by the present passive differs from that expressed by the present active ; the latter expressing a continuing, the former a com- pleted act. :|! i'lf i! rail 82 ETYMOLOGY. fiV. w 1:1 li'' ':^ "4 CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB ♦ TO BE LOVED.' Presmff Am lovcil. Sivgidar. 1. I am loved. 2. Thou art lovctl. 3. He is loved. I'RTXC'IPAL r.VllTS. Pad, Was loved. Past Participle^ Loved. Indicative Mood. Plural. 1. We are loved. 2. You are loved. 3. They are loved. 1. 1 have been lovod. 2. Thou hast been loved. rPvESENT-PERFECT TENSE. Sign, have. 1. Wo have been loved. 2. You have been loved. 3. He has been loved. 1. I was loved. 2. Thou wast loved. 3. He was loved. 3. They have been loved. PAST TENSE. 1. Wo were loved. 2. You Avere loved. 3. They were loved. PAST-PERFECT TENSE. Sign, had. 1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 2. Thou liadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 3. Ho had been loved. 3. They had been loved. FUTURE TENSE. Signs, shall, loill. — Inflect with each. 1. I shall be loved. I. We shall be loved. 2. Thou wilt be loved. 2. You will be loved. 3. He will be loved. 3. They will be loved. FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, shall have, tvill have. — Inflect with each. 1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 2. Thou wilt liave been loved. 2. You will have been loved. 3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. Potential Mood. PRESENT TENSE. Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. Singular. Plural, 1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved. 3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. M THE VEl?n. rRESENT-rERFEfT TFN'SE. 83 1. o 5! 1. o a. Signs, mrn/ Iirnr, cdu liavo* 'unist have. — Inflect with o .cli. Shxjiihir. PJiiral. V may Ikivo bi'cu Invoil. 1. We in:iy have l)oon lov< d. Thou imiyst hav»! been loved. 2. You may have been loved. lie may have been loved. .*i. Thiy may have been loved. PAST TENSE, Signs, mhjht, rnuhl, would, should. — Inflect with cr.fh. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. PAST-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, 7niglit have, could have, woidd Itavc, s^'ould have. — Inflect with each. I miiilit have been loved. I. ^\e might have been loved. 2. Thou mightst liavo been loved. 2. Y^on might have l)ecn loved. 3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. Subjunctive Mood. PRESENT TENSE. 1. 2. '3. Shigidar. Iff I be loved. If thou be loved. If he be loved. Plural. 1. If we be loved. 2. If you ye loved. 3. If they be loved, PAST TENSE. 1. 2. 3. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. If thou wert, or were loved. 2. If you were loved. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. Imperative Mood. 2. 3. Singidar. Be thou loved. Let him be loved. PRESENT TENSE. Plural. 2. Be ye, or you loved. 3. Let them be loved. 2, FUTURE TENSE. Thou sh alt beloved. 2. Ye or you shall be loved. Infinitive Mood. PRESENT, To be loved. PERFECT, To have been loved. * Can have is not used in affirmative sentences. tThe coniunctions, if, thovgh, lest, unless, &c., do not form part of thesubjuno- tive mood, but aro idaced before it to express a condition or contingency. Tho pupil may go over the indicative, as a subjunctive, witli one or other of these con- junctions prefixed. it: M i IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 [f la 1^ I.I i: i:£ llllio 1-25 1 1.4 |||.6 ^ 6" ► Vl ^l. V w Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. MS80 (716) 873-4503 ^\^ ^>\ WrS ^^- B 1 « 84 ■i 1 1:1 1; PRESENT, reing loved. ETYMOLOGY. Participles. PAST, Loved. FTTTURK, About to be loved. PERFECT, Having been loved. EXERCISE ON THE PASSIVE VOICE, AND ANALYSIS. 1. In the following exercises tell the Moods to whicii the different Verbs belong, and why. 2. Tell the Tenses, giving reasons, so as to shew clearly the forco of the auxiliaries. They are loved; thou art loved; thou hast been loved; ho was struck ; I shall be hated ; he is commanded ; they have been taught ; to be chosen ; it has been fought ; thou slialt be taught ; let them be heard; the lesson is read; the bell was rung; it niight have been learned; he may be struck; if I be struck; to have been found; having been loved ; moved ; be ye bereaved ; if thou wast loved ; if thou wert strack; thou canst be taught; thru wilt be loved. 3. In the following examples, change the construction of the Verb from the Passive to the Active Voice. The grain must be sown, else no crop need be looked for. Abel's sacrifice w^as accepted by God. The innocence of the accused was established by the evidence. Salt is procured from mines. The robin's nest is constructed of moss and dried leaves. A man's mind may be compared to the tillage of the ground. The pupil was severely punished by the master. The camel is wonderfully adapted by its structure for travelling in the deserts. 4. Parse the Nouns and the Verbs in the last exercise. 5. In the same exercise divide each sentence into Logical Subject and Logical Predicate. 6. Shew how the Simple subject in each sentence is completed. 7. Classify the following sentences, giving your reasons: — The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. The busy bee makes honey all the day. Come here, John. The boding owl screams from the ruined tower. The Welsh found a leader. Has the train arrived? What a lovely day it is! Night came slowly on. May you succeed in your undertaking. What o'clock is it ? The evening breeze gently sighed. Who told you so? How did you succeed at your examination ? They grew in beauty side by side. Ring the bell. Strike, and but once. 8. Compose six sentences of each kind. 9. Complete the Predicates in the following examples : — The brooks and the ground . The boat and they . He was a , therefore he Avas not by . Trees are to a farm , and at the same time are . ), 1' THE VERB. 85 i 10. Compose four comijoimd sentences with Simple Subject. 11. Compose four compound sentences with Compound Subject. 12. Compose four sentences with Compound Subject and Compound rrcdicate. IRBEGULAR VEEBS. 179. The Irregular Verbs, or those of the * Strong Conjugation/ may be conveniently divided into three classes, — I. Those with one Form in the Principal Farts. II. Do. two distinct Forms do. do. III. Do. lliree distinct Forms do. do. Present. Burst Cast Cost Cut Hit Hurt Let Put Hid Sc^t Shred Shut Slit Split Spread Sweat Thrust Abide Awake Beat Behold Bend Bereave Beseech Bind Bleed Bless Breed Bring Build Burn Buy Pihsf. rast Participle. burst burst. cast cast. cost cost. cut cut. hit hit. hurt hurt. let let. put put rid rid. set set. shred shred. shut shut. slit slit. si)lit si)lit. spread spread. sweat sweat. thnist thrust. n. abode abode. awaked or awukc awaked. beat beaten. beheld behtld. bent bent. bereft bereft. besoutiht besought. bound bound. bled bled. blessed or blest blessed. bred bred. brought brought. built built. burued or burnt burnt. bought bougiit. II •' 't'.V I i I il i:j| ii Pi itf = Present. Catch Cling Come Creep Crow Curse Deal Dig Feed Feel Fight Find Flee Fling Get Crind Hang Hear Hold Keep Knit Lay Lead Leave Lend Load Lose Make Meet Pay Head Rend Run Saw Say Seek Sell Send Shine Shoo Shoot Sit Sleep Slide Sling Speed Spend Spill Stand Stick Sting ground ETYMOLOGY. Past. caught clung came ci'cpt crew cursed or cinvst dealt dug fed felt fouglit found fh■'/; f I tn-if. u«, 11 I I i\', 1 sit. 1 Sft. Thou Host, Tlioii layofit. Thou sitti St, Thou si'tte.Tt He lies, Ho lays. Ho sits, \\v set. l\iHt Tense, I lay, [ laia. I sut. 1 .sot. Thou layout, Thou laiilost, Thou satt L'st, Th(.u .sottost He lay. He laid, He sat, He set. I The other verbs may l»e conjugated in a similar manner. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON THE VERB. 1. Meaning. — What is a Verb? Why is it so cidlod .' What is its ts.sontial quality? How are verbs divided? kr. 2. Kind. — What is n Transitive vorl)? What is an Intransitive verb? How are they distinguished? May a verb be l)otli transitive and intransitive? AVhenmaytransitiNe verbs be u.sed intransitively? &c. 3. Form. — What is a IJogular verb? lly wliat othtr name is it called? What is an Irregular verb? Suggest another name. Into what tliree classes is this Itind of verb divided? ki-. 4. Defective Verbs. — What is a Defective verb? (live example. What is tlie difference between 'ought' and 'must'? &c. 5. Impersonal and Auxiliary Verbs, — What is an Impersonal verb? W hat is a Proper Impersonal ? & c. W hat are Auxiliary verl is ? N a nu* them. Of what use are tlicy? How may they Le divided? Wluit are the Auxiliaxies of Voiee? &c. 6. Inflections. — What are the Inflections of a verb? Define each. How many Voices have transitive vcibs ? Distinguish l^etween the Active and the Passive voice? How is a change of construction effected? &c. Explain the 'Middle ^oice.' Define lleflexive verbs, &c. 7. Moods.— How are Moods divided? Define each, and classify the different moods. Define the Indicative mood, &c. Define the Po- tential mood. How is it formed ? What is the power of its auxili- aries? &c. Define the Subjunctive mood. Why is it so called? How do you distinguish between the use of the indicative and the sub- junctive? &c. What does the Imperative mood imply? Illustrate the use of other persons than the second. Why is the Infinitive so called? How is the 'Infinitive Proper' known? &c, 8. Tense. — How is Time divided ? How are Tenses divided ? Name the 'simple' tenses. Name the 'compound' tenses. What does the Present express? &c. How many tenses belong to eaeli of the moods? Explain the Future Imperative, &o. 9. Person and Number. — How are tliese applied to a verb? &c. 10. Conjugation. — Explain this term. What forms of the verb are most frequently met with? Distinguish between the dillerent forms, &c. 11. The Auxiliaries. — Give the Present tense of each of them. CJive tlic Past tense. Shew how they are used as auxiliaries, either 'simple' or 'compound,' &e. 12 Syntax. — Give the lUdes for the Verb What is the order of Parsing ? &c. 13. Passive Voice.- Hew is this Voice formed ? Give examples, &c. i r W ::>' I ? 1.1 'n l! ► if' «s O o M o M H I I KtYMOLOGY 1 I sliall have moved. I shall have beon ' [moving. Future Tense. I sludl move. I shall be moving. Past-Perfect Tense. I liad moved. I had been moving. « a; Si I moved. I was m -iving. I did move. 1 a I have moved. I have been moving. 1 I move. I am moving. I do move. o5 1 Simple. Progressive. Emphatic. ^ y "§ «d ft. » ♦-» u, "3 O II hi e s^i > 2^ "t. rt .a K (S: .4 S ^ ^ •a to (S B 6 1-4 *-i • 0) i'^ ii s S''^' e o s d e4 •IJ ,a ''J 1° ^ c tc Cs E HH to , .S ^ -a > o o S ts s a •^ i" 0) t ^ R, 0) > rt >. rt ,« s 5;? M rt ■-- to u « .g S > a ^ o s IS ^ 3 ta s t? ^ M s ^ 6 , . > V • pH 1 ■ft s CO 09 1 I THE VEKB. u «' •2 ib 1<" ^ '-4 ^ o s io ■fc* »4 " 3 y 0) aji •tf, > > M J ^ 1 ^ "3 "w a fi <-H ^ Cm o t'l > 1 fl "g" •^ CI 4; ■ >" c4 .a s ^ <— ^ -^ 5t ►-H rt *^ Ri l-H hH 9 tM *-H > ^" ^'7 a h 1 ^ § t^ S 3 S 2 1— 1 a «^ l-H <-l <« l-H HH u to eo a •d •.-* > ^i IK o > 3 d ii o J- 0) 0^. ^ .3 .J. i2 u l-H t l-H HH a, Cm ^ '^o ,; g a (u a> •r* "^ 1 > o 2 § ^ak a r- •"■ s HH 2 -2 2 -i s. l-H •"' <« (s Sh - -^ — — » - 3J > O 33 a p _3J gressi iphati Ui cn 3 S 1 1 1 to a •r ■> y o S 3 ? i ^ 1 ••Ht i 3 a Simple. Progressive. s a 3! o In* «■> ^ =1 •i to B -3 > 'J o > a o to a "»< •1 ■• '■0 ^ -J O I to S 3 "3 .a .a a H o CO ^n OJ A Ph >3 tn , V > o o ^ 3 a O o ^ ■♦-» •♦-• o Q si t- o .4^ 71 c3 O jr\ tn Ch u to to a a '^ ^ ^ .a ^ m 1*1 To 5 1 p^ H-* 1 > n 1^ o p4 o 1 •-1 • 1 *^ o O > > g •rH u h- 1 ! ^ n 9 to •5 G f5 CJ O H > CQ 1 2 'ij p— ^ M 9 o H ^ O f^ P4 a t5 a O }2^ "D ^ d tu "Si. o >i « t* *J CQ g G. s u _..^_ to "S o 2 % 2 - S C3 1 O a^ i >. rt 1— ( P-H 0) V ii -^ rA P< 05 fe .5 '^: — - . .- - ^, THE VERB. 97 I > U I CO S I 3 ■5 a: 11 -6 o 3 o •43 " OS > CO 0) ^ •«>.» Tt CO £; l-< (ii oi r^ « a ■Jl ^ izj to P, 13 o I fe" 'd a 13 > H "d \^ H Ph Simple. 1) "-I Be thou moved. Pi o • r-t U About to be moved. 1 •d CJ a '-0 1 i.'— ! !.- - C ■ — Simple. I. • if rf i ' Ml 98 F/rY.M()L()(JV. I; i>''' I t I': ' !!• } I I III M \ 111 h: II. THE ADJECTIVE SENTENCE. 180. As tilis sentence occu])'o:j the plnce and follows the construction of the adjective, it may he attached to any part of the sentence wliei*e an adjective is admissible. [It may be attached to clt/icr object, or to any part of the predicate that admits an adjective.] EXAMPLES. 1. Attached to the .Subject.— The person [who sakl that was deceived. ] 2. Attached to the ()r,Ji:cT. — Tliey consumed all the provisioii."? [which we had collected. ] 'To me the meanest tlower that blows can gi\e Thoughts (Iiat tlo often lie too 'hep for taos.' — Wordswortli. * But grant me still a friend in my retreat, W/iom I may tolmpcr — solitude is sweet.' — Coirper. 1. The Connectives.— The words that connect the 'adjecti\'e sen- tence' with the 'principal sentence' ai'e cither relatives or words equivalent to relatives; as, 'when,' 'where,' 'whence,' 'how,' ^tc., as, 'In that iirst budding Spring of youth, Wlien all its prosj^ects ^>/f rt.se.' * The land ?t'//ere her dead husband .^hpt.'' BeWs Mari/ Queen of Scots. * I know a bank tvhereon the wild thyme grouis.'' — Shah. 'Old Tubal Cain was a man of might In the days when earth was young.' — Maclcay. ' I charge thee by the law, Whereof yow are a well-deserving pillar.' — Shah. 2. The Relatives 'Who,' &c.— As explained, (Sec. 87, 3,) the rela- tive pronouns 'who' and 'which' may be either restrictive in their nature, and thus introduce an 'adjective sentence,' or they m.ay be simply connective,— joining 'co-ordinate' sentences, (See Syntax, KuleX.;) as. The master irlio taught us is dead. Here, 'who' is 'restrictive.' — I met your brother ?t7/o {and he) told me the news. Here, 'who' is 'connnective.' — 'That' is 'restrictive;' as, ' How wi tolled is that poorman that hangs on princes' favors !' — Shah. 'And tearful were the vigils that many a maiden spent.' — McGee. 3. Relative Omitted — Somctinu s tho P^elative, both in the 'nomina- tive' and the 'objective' case, is omitted; as, 'There is no power in Venice Can alter c> decree established.' — Shah. M. Tin: ADJECTIVE SENTENCE. f)r» 'Tis distance lends enchantment to tlio view.'-C'a»*/>/;t//. ,,, •— -'There were an Antony n oukC ruffle up your spirits. '—^Slitd: In these the 'nominative' relative is omitted. , , , , 'Our douLts are traitors, And make us lose tlie good vc oft mUjIit icin.'-ShaL The friends thou hmt, and their adoption tried, Oraiiple tliem to thyself ^vith hooks of steel. In tliese the 'objective' is omitted. Tlie following line furnishes an example of the omission of both 'relative' and 'antecedent.' 'Some haunted by the ghosts they have deposed. '—Shah 4. 'But' as a Connective. -As this word has the force of a 'ncr^i- ivo relative' (See Syntax, Rule X.) it frequently introduces "a. t 'atijective sentence;' as,— 'Thci-e is not tlic smallest orb m l.icli thou bohohlest Hut in Jiis motion like an angel sings.'— A7le : When = At which time. Where = At which place. Whence = From which place. Wliy — For what reason? &c., &c. III. THE ADVERBIAL SENTENCE. 201. The Adverbial Sentence is one that takes the place and follows the construction of an adverb. 1. Its Use. — It is generally found as a modifier of the predicate, but it may take other positions. 2. DiflFerent Kinds.— It is chiefly employed to specify conditions of Time, Place, Manner, or Cause. 3. The Connectives. — These may be found under the subordinate division of conjunctions. Time:- THE ADVERn. EXAMPLES. ['When kindness had his wants supplied, And the ohl man was gratified,] Began to rise his minstrel pride. '—aS'co<^ 'And [when the talc is told] bid her be judfro Whether Bassanio had not once a lo\c.'—^ /taL 105 Place:— I stand ['Where God I .s ordained me to he.^]—Titp})er. ' Lord paramount of life and death, he slew [Where'er he willed,] and [where he willed] men lived.'— Mil man. Manner: — 'And he, amid his frolic play, [As if he would the charming air repay,] {Shook thousand colors from his dewy limbs.' — Collins. 'and lilled up, [As 'twere anew,] the gaps of centuries.'— .ffj/ro«. Cause:— 'I weep the more [because I weep in vain.']— C?ray. ^ 202. The Grammatical Predicate of a sentence, be- sides having an * Objective Complement/ may also be extended by the simj^lc adverb, or an adverbial phrase, or a compound adverb. 203. An Advekbial Phrase assumes different forms. (1) A noun phrase used adverbially; as, They fought hand to hand and foot to foot. (2) A preposition followed by its case ; as, He acted from jealousy. (3) A combination of adverbs ; as, We travelled very rapidly indeed. (4) A participle or a participial phrase ; as. He came running. Parrhasius stood gazing iipon his canvas. (5) The nominative absolute ; as. And on he moves to meet his latter end, Angels around befriending virtues friend. (G) An adjective used adverbially; as. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. EXERCISE. 1. In the following examples select the 'adverbial sentences' and classify them according to the division given: — )\ !l r ! n' I. lOG ETYMOLOUY. 1^1 [i 'f* w ' H R' « 1 ^ * ^» * rj [ ■d 1 «• t\ f I Where'er we tread 'tis haunted ground. The gardener is planting the shrul)3 where they will have tlie most sliade. Whih; tiie eartli rumaineth, seed-time and harvest ahull not fail. Where thou hast not sowed thou eanst not reap. Live so, that thou mayest never have rea.son to repent. After the most violent shock had ceased, the clouds of dust began to disperse. 1 will go whenever you wish. As we were crossing the stream a violent storm arose. The boy cannot write because he has hurt his hand. Fishes ha\o no voice becauso they have no lungs. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 1 will go as soon as he returns, lie will never siieoecil, because he is so indolent. 2, Explain how the grammatical predicate of each has been com- pleted or extended. 3. Compose seuteucca with the ' advcrbiiU phrase ' in ita different forms. ADDITIONAL SCHEME OF ANALYSIS. EXAMPLES. 'I condemn no Hocks to slaughter That range the valley free.' When he took his seat the House cheered him. [In tlio lirst example 'free' may be an adjective used adverbially, or an adjective qualifying either 'valley' or 'that.'] Sentence. LOCICAI, SUIiJECT. Logical Pukdicate. Kind. Graui. Subjeet. Its Comido- llU'lltS. Cram. Predieate. Couiph.'tion. Exten- sion. a I ('(HKk'iun no lliiclis to .shiiiyliter. Priu.tot. T Condemn noflocks'dir.) to siau;;liter (iud.) h tliat free (If or 1 Adj. to ('.. ' tliat (/() 1 do do \ do free range do do tlio valley do the free valley free. a The House clii-'fred him. Prill, to Z;. ThoIIousc cheered him h ■When ho took lii.s seat. Al)v. to n. he (time.) ' took his seat ICxamples for practice may be selected from any of the Exercises already given. I Tin: ADVKi^n. 107 I INFLECTION OF ADVERBS. 204. The only Inflection tliat tlio adverb imcloi'fToe's, and that in comparatively few cases, is Co.^lPAiJisox ; as, I run y(^s^ ; lie runs //a'^c?' ; f^ho yuwh fastest. 1. What Adverbs Compared.— (.J onerally adverl>,s of manner ami sometimes adverbs of time arc compared. 2. How Compared. — In the majority of iiistuucos, adverbs are com- pared by viKJir ami most ; as, More beautifully; vio.'it beautifully, 3. Parsing of the Prefix.- It must be parsed separately from the adverb, as an adverb of 'degree.' ADDITIONAL REMAEKS ON FORMATION, &c. Adverbs arc formed and devivod from otiier vrordfi in various ^vays:— 1. Primitive. —A few adverbs, such as, i/e.^, no, not, now, off, in, out, &c., are primitive, or derived from no otlior words iu the lan- guage. 2. Derivatives.— (1) From noun.s; as, har/avards, &c. (-J) From numerals; as, once, twice, kc. (.']) From adjectives, by adding ///, ixadiligcnf, il'di(j<:))tly; hftppj, Iiapp'di/: or 1)y changing Ic into ///; n.s, able, ably; suiipJd, ,v),ipli/. But adverbs arc .seldom formed from adjectives in ty, the adjunct being used in preference. Thus, we would not say, 'lie acted imndily,'' but, in a iiianhj iinnincr, or, like a man. Still we have holi/y, vi/i/y, and .sonic othors. (4) From jiro- nouns; as, Itcre, t/mr, vliither, Lq. 3. Compound Adverbs,— .Many compound adverbs arc formed by combining words togetlicr, so as of two or more words forming an adjunct, to make one compound term; a^, indeed, lierehy, thereby, wherewith, therefore, icheresocnr, ncrertheh.t.s', &c. With these we may class such words as, abed, eiahore, aloft, ahead, astern, ayround, apart, adrift, afresh, (dike, asleep, &c., Avhich have been formed by prefixing the Saxon 'a,' signifying r//, in, on, t'tc. 4. Words Varionsly Used. — ]\lany words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as other parts of speech ; thus — Jfiieh is used (1) As an adverb; as, ITe is miirh 1)otter. (2) As an adjective; as, In much wisdom is much grief. (.']) As a norm ; as, Wiicvc rc(|nired. ■m mneh is given much is f? 108 KTYMOLOOY. ¥ i % 1 as, Yesterday is used (1) As an adverb or a noun ; as, He came yci^terJny, (2) As a noun; as, Yesterday is past. But is used (1) As an adverb; as, Give but one kind word. (2) Asa preposition ; as. None hut the bravo. (3) As a conjunction; as, He is poor hut honest. (4) As a conjunction followed by a negative; (.'>) As a negative relative ; 'Tlicre is no flock, however watched and tendcil. But one dead hinib is there ! Tliere is no iireside, liowsoe'er defended, But has one vacant chair.' W/iat is used (1) As an interrogative; as, What is that? (2) As an adjective; as, What difference does it make ? (3) As a relative ; as. We speak ichat we know. (4) As an adverb ; as, What [partly] witli one thing, and tvhat [partly] with another, we had enough to do. (5) As an interjection ; as. What! he so famed above his countrymen. 5. Adverbial Phrase. — Circumstances of time, place, manner, &0,, are often expressed by two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase; as, at length, not at all, hy no means, in vaiuy in order, long ago, by-and-hy, all over, to and fro, for ever, &c. Such phrases may be taken together as one word, and parsed as adverbs, or sejiarately, as other words, where it can be done, supplying the ellipsis when necessary. 6. Interrogative Adverbs. —Several adverbs, such as 'why,' 'when,' &c,, introduce questions, and maybe called 'adverbs used interro- gatively.' It will be noticed that, being derived from the Belative Pronoun, they may be explained in a similar manner to that adopted with the Interrogative Pronouns. 7. How Generally Known.— The adverb may generally be known by the fact that it can be moved by itself to any part of the sentence in which it occurs ; whereas a preposition cannot be so moved. 8. 'Like.' — This word, which is always followed by an objective case, is very frequently and improperly used to introduce a sentence. This should be carefully guarded against. If a new sentence must be made we shwild use the proper Subordinate Conjunction — 'As.' THE ADVEUB. KM) ns, " I ...._ M WIS •lajl c4 w b o >» -a -=3 £3 H P= — — — w 1 7 is' o i ^ 0) S ^ g g fl? • • i V I S I M a> o • IH I i Of CO o 2 . X s S 3 M -j:S O « H H o 0) O ill ,1 . I 1! 1 ' 1 Hi t w ■ i- : I li i. i I i 110 ETYMOLOCY. EULB FOE THE ADVERB. XIV. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs ; as, He speaks distinctli/; lie is remarkahhj diligent, and reads verij correctly. ORDER OF PARSING THE ADVERB. Time, Adverb or Place, AT Tf • ( 1 v'^\- ) InHection Modifying \ Adjective, ( ^,,^,, the j Adverb, when admissible. Example.— ILj reads very correctly. Relation. Reads correctly, Very correctly. Etymology and Syntax. Correcthj. — Manner, modifying reads, (Rule XIV.,) correctly, more coi'rectly, most correctly. Very. — Degree, modifying correctly. (Rule XIV.) EXERCISE. 1. Form sentences containing the different kinds of adverbs. 2. Form sentences containing adverbs that modify 'verbs.' 3. Form sentences containing adverbs that modify * adjectives.' 4. Form sentences containing adverbs that modify other 'adverbs.' 5. in the following sentences parse the Adverbs, according to the form and example given above: — I have not seen him lately. I have not called upon him yet. They have almost all their wants supplied without labor. He looked quite ill. The weather was exceedingly stormy below. They often call to see me. The news arrived early in the morning. AVhy, my friend I are you here? Perhaps you will return eai-ly. Wo are far from tlio city. Twice two is four. You may possibly be iiiistaken. I will return when you send for me. He discovered the mistake whilst on his way home. He was preparing to leave as I entered. I have been here since morning. I believe I have seen you as often as was neces- sary. I went wherever you wished. He talks as if he meant it. The more you talk the worse you make it. 6. Go over this exercise again, and parse the 'nouns,' 'adjectives,' 'pronouns,' and 'verbs,' in full, according to the prescribed form. 7. In this exercise point out the 'Conjunctive Adverbs.' 8. Assign the r.dvcrbs in the following examples to their proper classes; — THE ADVERB. Ill Tlic hall was richly decoratod witli flags and banners. '\\'lien do you return? I once went there in tlic middle of Avinter, but I soon re- turned Avhen I saw the snow so deep. I have searched for him every- where, I cannot say how long. No man can lawfully govern himself according to his own will, much less can one person be governed by the will of another. 9. In the following sentences compare those adverbs that can be compared, and parse the others: — Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went away yesterday. They came to-day. They will perhaps buy some to-morrow, Vo shall know hereafter. She sung sweetly. Great men are not always wise. Mary rose up hastily. They that have enough may soundly sleep. Cain wickedly slew his brother. 1 saw him long ago. He is a very good man. Sooner or later all must die. You read too little. They talk too much. James acted wisely. How many lines can you repeat ? You ran hastily. He speaks fluently. Then were they glad. He fell fast asleep. She should not hold her head still. The sliip was driven ashore. No, indeed. They are all alike. Let him that is atliirst drink freely. The oftener you read with atten- tion, the more you will improve. Will you be at home when I come ? James will sit here, while you stand there. 10. In the last examples parse all the words, according to plans given. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON THE ADVERB. 1. What is an Adverb ? To what is an adverb generally equiva- lent? Give an example of an adverb modifying an adjunct, &c. 2. Division. — How are Adverbs divided ? Define * simple adverbs. Define ' relative adverbs.' 3. Time.— How are Adverbs of 'time' divided? How is this class known ? &c. 4. Place. — How arc these Adverbs divided? How known? &:c. 5. Manner. — What do these Adverl^s express? How are they divided ? What adverbs are included in this class ? &c. 6. Cause. — What is expressed by Adverbs of tliis class? How are they divided? &c. Explain 'conjunctive adverbs," Sec. 7. Inflection. — How are Adverbs inflected ? What class generally undergoes infiection ? &c. 8. Distinguish between primitive and derivative 'Adverbs.' What are compound adverbs ? Shew that the same words often belong to a diiTerent part of speech. What is an advirbial phrase ? Sec. 9. Parsing. — Wliat is the order of parsing an Adverb ? What is the Rule ?&e. n 112 ETYIMOLOGY. 1, I I V I ■ i i'-'i til k ' lil 'I THE PREPOSITION. 205. A Preposition is a, word wliicli slicws the relition between an object and some other word in tlio same sentence ; as, He came from Hamilton to Toronto br/ rail. 1. Why so Called. — This part of speech is called a 'Preposition,' because as a general rule it is j)l(iced before its object ; as, It is con- sistent tcith the character of a man of honor, Tn poetry, however, it frequently stands after tlie object; as, When Echo walks the steep hills among. 2. The Belation Expressed. — The principal relations which are expressed by prepositions, are, 'place,' 'time,' 'causality.' This is an adverbial relation, the object being related to a 'verb,' an 'adjec- tive,' or an 'adverb.' If the object is related to a 'noun' or a 'pro- noun,' the relation is adjectival. 3. Time. — Since we derive our notion of * time mainly from those of 'place' or 'motion,' — i. e., change of place, — many Propositions of ' place ' are used to expressed * time ;' as, (Place) He vfeu^from Canada to England. (Time) From rosy morn to dewy eve. 4. Place. — Tliis is the simplest and most obvious of all relations, and may imply (1) 'rest,' or (2) 'motion,' or (3) both; as, (1) The book is on the table. (2) He ran down the street. (3) It lies under the table. I throw it under the table. 5. Causality. — This must be taken in its widest sense, so as to em- brace (1) the 'agent and means,' (2) the 'condition in' or 'under which,' (3) the 'motive' or 'final caiise;' as, (1) He was slain hy Lady Macbeth xmtli her dagger, (2) in cold blood, and (3) from ambition. 6. Other Relations. — Various other relations are expressed, such as Separation; by, 'without.' Inclinatiox; by, 'for.' Aver.sion; by, * against.' Substitution; by, 'instead of.' Possession; by, *of.' Reference; by, 'touching.' Opposition; by, 'against.' Exclusion; by, 'except,' 'but,' &c. THE TRErOSITlOX. ii;^ the 1 tlio •onto TABLE OF THE RELATIONS EXPRESSED BY 1. Time, . . Time as well as place, Time only, . . . . PREPOSITIONS. At. Till, since, until. w d o • 1-4 ^-» m m re]). followed by 'wall' in obj. i (Rule XV.) EXERCISE. 1. Parse the Prepositions in the following sentences, according to the order and example given : — I was standing on the deck at the time. Such an effort is beyond ail praise. I returned from Montreal last week. The horse was running through the pasture yesterday. He went on instead of re- turning home. We are liable to such things. He has a heart of iron. Do you still adhere to that opinion? I must laitgh at your comical attempts. I heard the story of the child. It is, on that account, not consistent with the profession of sincerity of purpose. The letter was written by his brother. Let us walk around the enclosure. We were overtaken by a storm. We toiled on from that time until we were out of danger. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate. 2. In the following sentences classify the words that seem to belong to the same 'part of speech,' giving reasons for the classifica- t'on: — It is just above the door. He was absent about two hours. He came after I left. The horse ran down the hill. Wrap your shawl about you. All but him had fled. I told him long suice. He could not hold in his horse. I have no silver. He is no better. I have not seen him since liis return. Do not go untd I return. I shall not return until to-morrow. I shall call in an hour. He lay above. He is able to run about. I have but three left. Lay that book down immediately. He ran about the field. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON THE PREPOSITION. 1. Meaning.— What is a Proposition? Why is it so called? What is the relation expressed? Give examples of the different divisions of prepositions denoting 'Plaoe,' &c. 2 Change of Construction, &c. —How does the addition of a pre- position affect a Verb? Wliat is meant by 'Verbal' Prepositions? Explain their construction. What are ' Compound ' Prepositions, &c. 8. Syntax.— Give the order of parsing a Preposition, &o. ill -\: If \\ IIG ETYMOLOUV. I : ■ : I f } f) m i f lilt THE CONJUNCTIOII. 207. A Conjunction is a word which shews tho particular manner in which one part of a sentence is joined to another ; as, You and James may go, hit John must stay at home. 1. Different from other Connecting Words. — Tlio 'conjunction' differs from the 'preposition' in not having an objective after it; from thG 'relative,' in joining propositions and forming no part of cither; from the 'adverb,' in that it cannot be moved without destroying tlie sense. 2, Primary TJEe. — The primaiy use of th*^ conjunction is to connect two affirmations. Sometimes it appears to connect two words ; but a little examination will shew that it joins two propositions. Thus in the sentence, 'Chai'les and Mary survived William,' there are two distinct statements: * Charles survived William,' and 'Mary survived William,' the conjunction 'and' uniting them into one statement, 208. Conjunctions are divided, according to their use, into — 1. Co-ordinate, 2. Subordinate, ' ( Conjunctions. DEFINITIONS. I. Co-ordinate Conjunctions are those which connect similar constructions; as, God sustains the worki, and He governs it. II. Subordinate Conjunctions are those which connect subordinate, or dependent, with principal con- structions ; as, Men learn quickly ivhen they are atten- tive. 1. CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 209. Co-ordinate Conjunctions comprise four sub-divisions. 1. CoruLATivE Conjunctions, denoting unw7i ; as, Both, and, &c. 2. Disjunctive Conjunctions, denoting separation; as, Either, or, &c. 3. Adversative Conjunctions, denoting opposition; as, But, however. 4. Illative Conjunctions, denoting either a conclusion or a co/i- sequence; us, Therefore, hence, &c. THE CONJUNCTION. 117 2. SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 210. Subordinate Conjunctions comprise five sub-divisions, answering, in a large degree, to the division of adverbs. 1. Those relating to Time; as, When, before, &c. 2. Do. do. Place ; as, Where, tchence, &c. 3. Do. do. Mx^^ER; as. How, than, &.C. 4. Do. do. Cause ; as, Since, that, Sec. 5. Do. do. Fact ; as. That, (/", &c. 1. Duty of the Conjiinction.— (1) The Co-ordinate Conjunctiona serve as links to join assertions of equal importance, keeping the con- nected classes on a level with each other. (2) The Subordinate Conjunctions unite statements in such a way that the one modifies the meaning or application of the other. They serve as steps leading from a higher to a lower clauae. 2. Correlative Conjunctions. — Several of these Conjunctions go in pairs, and may be called Correlatives; such as, Both— and; neither —nor; either— or; so— that; as — as; though — yet, &c. 3. Compound Conjunctions. — Those Conjunctions which are made up of two or more other words are called Compound Conjunctions; such as. As well as, as soon as, in as far as, inasmuch as, as far as, as if, as though, &c. 4. 'Neither,' 'Nor.'— When either of these Conjunctions is used without its 'correlative,' the co-ordination may be made 'copiUative,' each being equivalent to * and not ;'aa, 'Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard,' — i. c, and ear hath not heard. (Sec. 213, 2.) 5. Eelative Pronouns sometimes express a copulative co-ordination. This happens when tlie relative is not ' restrictive ; ' as, He answered the question, which was quite satisfactory. Here * which ' is equiva- lent to * and this. ' 6. The Relative Adverb.— The same remark may be made respect- ing the Pvclative Adverbs 'where' and 'when;' as, \Vc walked to- gcther as far as the bridge, where {and there) we parted. He reached this part of ^iie story ivhen (and then) he suddenly stopped. 7. ♦ As.'— This Conjunction, which sometimes expresses 'time,' but generally 'manner,' may, if its relative character be taken into con- sideration, be resolved into Uind this;' as, He is, as {and this) I have said, a diligent scholar. 8. 'Than.'— For this Conjunction sec ?"'ec. 200, 7. 118 ETYMOLOCtY. i i TABLE OF CONJUNCTIONS. L" f 11 prU i ■fc ' 1. Co-ordinate, 1. Copuliitivo, 2. Disjunctive, 3. Adversative. And, also, likewise, as well as, moreover, further, f iirtlicrmore, not only . . . but also. \ Either, or, neither, nor, ( otherwise, else. But, only, nevertheless, however, notwithstand- ing, on the one hand, on tlie other hand, yet, still. 4. Illative, Therefore, thereupon, for, Avhert'fore, accordingly,, consequently, hence, whence, then, and so. [These are used to unite co-ordinate sentences.] Point, Duration, llepetition, S (-Ilest in, . •i^, -! jNIotiou t ), '"! liSIotiou frc m). /■t II. Subordinate, i CO \nalogy. o Oi Ilelationorcom parison, . Effect or con • sequence, . Ground, . . Condition, . Concession, . Purpose, . . As soon as, now that, as, when, before, ere, after. Whilst, until, as long as. J When, whenever, as often ( as. (Wlierc. ■ Whither. ( Whence. As, as if, as though, how. As,... as, than, so,.. as ac- cording as. That, so that. Because, for, as, whereas, inasmuch as, forasmuch as, since, seeing that. If, unless, in case, as. Though, although, yet, not- withstanding, however. That, so that, in order that, lest - - that not. o r Fact (simple,) fThat, ^ - Alternative, -I WiK'thcr — or, \ ic *>- Contingent, 'If. THE CONJUNCTIOX. lU) nor, 0)' do. do. Than do. do. That do. do. Xor do. do. [These are \ised to imito a subordinate clause to a principal, and also a subordinate to a subordinate. (Sec. 225, 10.)] Mi;.M.— It will be noticed that many of these conjunctions are also I correlative with some adverb or coujuuctiou which lui.s preceded them; for instance, (Sec, 210, 2,) As is used correlatively with so, as, such, the s;uue, &c. Yet do. do. do. though. do. whether, either. do, more or less, do. so. do, neither [The second conjunction is the actual coiipkr, the former being only an assistant.] EXERCISE. 1. In the following sentences assign the Conjunctions to their pro- per classes: — Take heed lest ye full. I have cut my linger; therefore 1 cannot write. I fear I shall fail ; but I will make the attempt. Time ami tide wait for no man. The memory of the just is Ijlessed; but th<.( name of the wicked shall rot. If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small. George or John will go. They v, ill suc^-eed because they are industrioxis. Of Him, and through Him, and to Him, are all things. Though He slay me, yt-t will I trust in Him. Itcmain where you are until I return. He did not deserve to suc- ceed ; for he made no effort, and shewed no intere;jt, 1 shall not go unless you call over, nor will 1 remain if I can avoid it. 2. Assign the Conjunctions in the following sentences to their pro- per subdivisions : — 'When my time was expired, I worked my passage home; and glad I was to see Old England again, because I loved my country.'— (Hikhmith. ' I can wonder at nothing more than how a man can be idle ; but of all others, a scholar.' — Hall. Ask John if he is ready ; and if he is ready, tell him to follow as cpiickly as he can. ' Some murnuir when their sky is clear. And wholly bright to view, If one small speck of dark appear In their bright heaven of blue.' — Trench. ' ANALYSIS. 211. The principal sentences Avliich make np a 'com- 1 sentence' are joined by co-onllnate conjunctions. pount ly 120 ETYMOLOGY. ' -r i' ■! » U' They, therefore, fall under one or otlier of the foui classes, — I. COPULATIVK. II. Disjunctive. I [I. Adversative. IV. Illative. I. COPULATIVE CO-ORDIITATION. 212. The unithif; of two assertions ^ copulatively ' implies the addition of a second to the first, so as to give a ijjreater extent of meaning; to the whole. 213. The connectives used are the conjunctious ui- cluded in the list of Copulative Co-ordinate Conjunctions, (Sec. 210.) EXAMPLES. The man walked and the hoy ran. He will be there as ivell as j'ou. She was not only beautiful hut modest. 1. Connective Wanting. — Sometimes the connecting particle is omitted, especially when we wish to draw attention to each fact separately; as, The present flies swift as an arrow; the past stands ever still. 2. •Neither,' *Nor.' — When either of these connectives is used by jfef//" the co-ordination may be considered * cajnilatu'e ; ' as, * Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard; ' — i. e., and ear hath not heard. 3. Eelative.— If this pronoun is 'connective' rather than 'restric- tive,' the sentence introduced by it is classed among those that are *copulatively co-ordinate.' (Sec. 210, 5.) n. DISJUNCTIVE CO-ORDINATION. 214. In sentences of this kind the two clauses com- posing the entire sentence are united in one whole, but one of them excludes the other. They are united in grammar, but separated in sense. 215. The connectives used are the conjunctions in- cluded among the Disjunctive Co-ordinate Conjunctions. (Sec. 210.) EXAMPLES. Either you or I must go. Be industrious, otherwise you will come to want. Thou desirest no sacrifice : else would I give it Thee. ( THE CONJUNCTION'. ll>l EXERCISE. 1. In the following exiinii)lea seltct the sentences that are co-oivli- nate with each other : — 'We cannot all bo masters, Nor all masters cannot be truly followed.' — Shah. 'We are such stuff As dreams are made on ; and our little life Is rounded with a sleep.' — Shak. 'Age after age shall pass away, Nor sliall their beauty fade, tlieir fume decay.' — Jioiclea. • Ha ! bind him on his back ! Look ! as Prometheus in my picture here I Quick, or he faints ! ' — Willis. 'But what strange art, what magic can di.spost* The troubled mmd to change its native woes. Or lead us willing from ourselves to see Others more wretched, more undone than we?' — Crohhe. * * * * If * 'Or when they climb the sky, or when they sink.' — ColerUhje. 'Soon the storm Burst forth ; the lightnings glanced ; the air Shook with thunders.' — Athemtone. 'We must look up to God, and calmly die. Come to my heart, and weep there ! For a while Give nature's passion way, then brightly rise In the still courage of a woman's heart.' — Hemans. 2. State the particular kind of co-ordination. 3. Specify the nature of each sentence that is joined to the preced- ing one. 4. In the preceding exercise on the Conjunction separate the sub- ordinate sentences from the principal, giving a general classification of the subordinate ones. 5. Compose sentences introducing the subordinate clause by such connectives as 'when,' 'where,' 'how,' 'as,' 'as if,' 'although,' &e. RULES FOR THE CONJUNCTION. XVI. Co-ordinate Conjunctions unite similar con- structions ; as, He and / intend to go. He gave it to him and me. XVII. Subordinate Conjunctions connect dependent with principal constructions ; as, // 1 have erred, pardon me. i*' f ■ i\ I , 1 . f ',- K ^''■. :i i Li 122 KTYMOLOCJV. ORDER OF PARSING A CONJUNCTION. [For convenience in Parsing, coiijiuutions may Ijc considered iia joining 'words in conbtruction.'J Co-ordiniite \ ^ /'the words, ' = inininu J the chlUS* (the sentences, of which the verbs are iiiul . ('the words, r .a johiing J the chiuscs, yubordiuuteJ W Klli: Example. — He started for India, but sto2)i>ed at the Cupe. Relation. Started, but stopped. Etymology and Syntax. B^if, <'o-ordinate, adversativi', joining the sen- tences of whieii tlie verlw are i<((H'((d ami doiqml. (Rule XVI. ) EXERCISE. 1. Parse the Conjunctions in the following sentences, according to the form given: — It was not the teacher, but the pupil, who was in fault. I will accompany you if you call for me. Wo had no sooner started tha.» he became ill. The fact is so evident that it cannot be disputed. 1 know that you are quite in earnest. You cannot tell, because you were not present. Either James or William is to blame. Precei^t is not so forcible as example. Time Hies rapidly, yet it appears to move slowly. He believes you because you never deceived him. Love not sleep lest you come to poverty. And when tlie day was far spent, we went into Jerusalem. You have great reason to be thank- fiU and contented with your lot. He was industrious, but irritable. Nevertheless, yon must make all the haste in your power. 2. Parse every word in these sentences according to form given. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ON THE CONJUNCTION. 1. Meaning. — Wh. t is a Conjunction ? Is it declinable or indeclin- able? How does it. differ from the 'preposition' as a connecting word? From the relative ? From the adverb? Explain its primary use, &c. 2. Division. — How are Conjunctions divided? Define Co-ordinate Conjunctions. Define Subordinate Conjunctions. How are co-ordi- nate conjunctions divided? DeHno a Copulative Conjunction, &c. How many sub-divisions are tliere of Rul)ordinatc conjunctions? To what do these sub-divisions correspond ? &c. 3. Duty. -—What is the duty of Co-ordinate Conjunctions? OHvc an illustration of each sub-division, Wliat is the duty of Subordinate Conjunctions ? Illustrate each sub-division by an example. 4. Other Kinds.— What is meant by Correlative Conjunctions? Illustrate by example. What are Compound Conjunctions? kc. 5. Syntax. — Give the order fur parsing a conjunction. Give the Rides. !' TIIK INTKIMEC'TIOX. 123 To THE INTERJECTION. 210. An IxTEiMKCTiON is II word tluit expresses feeU ina", or is a mere nmrk of address. 217. Interjections niuy express, 1. Astonishment; as, Ldl 1?. Jiiy; as, ITmnili! '.'. .Siivrow ; US, Aliis! 4. lUsgust ; us. Fie! n. (.'ailing ; us, Halloo ! 0. Praise J as, Well done! i>18. They are of two kinds,— 1. rvKFLKCTIVi:. 2, iMrEUATivi;. 1. Eeflectivo. — These express a feeling confined to the mind of the speaker- as, Oh! alaa! &e., and are interjections proper. 2. Imperative. — These express a eommand or wish; as, Jlark! faretvell! t 3. Origin of Name. — The Interjection is so called because it is, as it were, throion in ainoivj the words of a sentence, without any gram- niutieal connection with them. Sometimes it stands at the begin- ning of a sentence, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes it stands alone, as if the emotion were too stron:.; to admit of otlicr words being fcipoken. 4. ' ' is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be prelixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address ; as, •0 pride of Creece, Ulysses, stay.' — Pope. •Cli' is used detached from the word, with a point of exclamation after it, or after the next word. It implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise: as, Oh ! Avhat a sight is here ! 5. Other Parts of Speech used as Interjections. —Also some words belonging to other parts of speech, when uttered in an unconnected and forciljle manner, to express emotion, are called interjections; as, Koii/^ense! stmnrjo! ii'omhrfal ! shoclbuj! what! behold! off! aivay ! hark! come! well done! welcome! attenthn!- 6. Interjections belong to Natural Language. — By some gram- marians, Interjections are not classed among the 'parts of speech,' i 1 11 I'tle 124 KTYMOLOGY. n !«' ,r ii {}'] ^"■» ' a h' . > since they are closely akin to the cries of the lower animals. We are forced to rank them among the parts of speech, Lecause we have written words to expiess these sounds. 7. Particles. — The indeclinable 'parts of speech' are sometimes styled particles. ORDER OF PARSING THE INTERJECTION. 1. The Interjection, having no grammatical relation, is parsed by simply stating the 'part of speech.' 2, If it be a word used ' inter jectionally,' it may be referred to its proper class, and explained elliptically; thus, — 'Adieu!' may be resolved into *I commend you "to God."' 'Farewell' may be resolved into 'Fare thou Mcll.' in. ADVERSATIVE CO-ORDINATION. 219. When the co-ordinate parts of a sentence pro- sent two assertions in opposition to each other, they are said to be in Adversative Co-ordination. 220. The connecting particle is, in this case, to be found among the Adversative Co-ordinate Conjunctions. [Sometimes the second clause negatives the first, but more gener- ally it presents a limitation or contrast to it. ] EXAMPLES. Not the rich are happy, hut the poor. But mercy is above tliis sceptred SM-ay. The form perisheth; the matter, however, is indestructible. Yet execute thy wrath on me alone. IV. ILLATIVE CO-ORDINATION. 221. When the second of two sentences is placed in some kind of logical relation to the other, the co-ordina- tion is called ' Illative.' 222. The connective will be found among those placed in the corresponding division of Conjunctions. (Sec. 210.) The Relation.—!. The relation is sometimes that of a logical con- clusion, or inference. 2. Sometimes it is one of effect or consequence. EXAMPLES. 1. The mercury has fallen, therefore the weather has become colder. 2. The weather has become colder, therefore the mercury has fallen. THE INTERJECTION. 125 EXERCISE. 1. In the following sentences point out those that are 'adversatively ' co-ordinate. 2. Point out those that are * illatively ' co-ordinate : — *I have ventured, Ijike little wanton boys, that swim on bladders, This many summers in a sea of glory, But far beyond my depth.' — S/iak. Still fear I, and I know not what's the cause, But every joint shakes as I give it thee.' — Maclowe. 'And whei'e he willed, men lived ; His word exalted an'l his m ord dibased ; And so his heart swelled up.' — Milnnvi. * Grieve not that I am fallen to this for you ; For herein Fortune shews herself more kind Than is his custom.' — Shak. 'I chatter, chatter, as I flow To join the brimming I'iver ; For men may come and men may go. But I go on for ever.' — Tenmj.^on. 223. All 'interjection may be clianged into an exclama- tory sentence: thns, O! or Oh! means * I wish/ &c. ; All* ! ' I am filled with wonder/ &c. ; Alas ! * I feel grief,' c^c. 224. The Interjection thus changed may take a sub- ordhiate sentence after it as a complement ; as, ' ! that I had wings like a dovo,' — /. c, I tvish that I had, &c. * Oh ! that I were as in months past,' — i. e , I tc'ish that, &c. ♦Oh! that this too solid flesh Avould melt,' - /. €,f I wish that, &c. 1. 'Lo.'— The sentence following this interjection may be viewed ns a principal one, provided 'lo' be used as a simple exclamatory word to draw attention. 2. 'O.'— This interjection is commonly used as the sign of address, and then cannot be clmnged. The form 'oh' is more expressive of 'pain,' 'anxiety,' &c. ; as, '0 happy peasant! Oh unhappy bard.'— ( 'ii'i'iii I'. 126 AXALYST? it i * f. i 54 I!' Hi', 3. Exclamatory Expressions. — For thoroughly undorstaiulinc; a passage coutainiiig any * exelumatoiy expression,' it -will be better to resolve it into a sentence wliicli will give the sense intended to be con- veyed. ADDITIONAL REMAEKS ON ANALYSIS. 225. — 1- Contraction. — (1) Sometimes a compound sentence is put in a contracted form : One subject {a) has two or more predicates, or one predicate has two or more subjects (6); two or more objects ((■), or two or more extensions of the predicate ((/) ; and sometimes connecting particles are omitted. This may be specified in the analysis, especially if it is done orally. (2) This contraction may take place Avhether the connection be copulative, disjunctive, adver- sative, or illative. EXAMPLES. (fl) God sustains and governs the world. {h) The trade-winds and monsoons are permanent. (c) The sun illumines the nioimtains and the valleys, (r/) ^loisture is evaporated from the water and even from the snow. (r) Readin^g makes a full man ; speaking, a ready man ; writing, a correct man. 'I stood by her cradle; I followed her hearse.' 2. How Analyzed. — Examples (a) and (h) maybe characterized as being contracted in subject and predicate resjDectively; (r,) as having a compound object ; (d,) as having a compound extension ; {e, ) as hav- ing the connective omitted. 3. Conjunction Proper and Connective.— The adverbial connectiv; ^ are frequently joined with a conjunction proper, to form a conne'^tioa between sentences ; as, The town was badly defended, and therefore became a prey to the enemy. The co-ordination here expi'essed is illative. 4. The Infinitive Phrase.— (I) This kind of phrase is frequently convertible into a subordinate sentence, especially Avhen a purpose is implied; as, *I have spoke thus much To mitigate the justice of thy plea.' — Shah. 'I come not. friends, to steal away your hearts.'' — Shale. Hero the ' inlinitivc phrases ' may be converted into subordinato sentences; thus, 'That j^ou may do a great right.' 'That I may steal away your heurts.' (2) Its place may sometimes bo supplied by a noun ; as, ' Anger is madness,' instead of ' To be angry is to be mad ;' and (3) sometimes a noun or an adjective sentence takes its place ; as. ANALYST ?i. 127 ' He cToes not know horv loacf,—i c, He does not know 'how (in what manner) he shonkl act;' or, He does not know tlie manner 'in which he should act. ' 5. The Infinitive and Imperative Absohite.— Sometimes the Inlini- tive (with its complements) is formed grammatically independent of the rest of the construction. Such an Infinitive may be considered as eqiiivalent to a subordinate sentence of purpose, with the principal sentence suppressed ; as, ' To confess the truths I was to blame.' This may bo thus expanded, */ admits that I may confess the truth, that I was to blame.' The same plan can be adopted with such construc- tions as this : ' Take him for all in all We ne'er shall see his like again,' When the Imperative clause may be converted into a subordinate conditional sentence. 6. The Nominative Absolute.— (1) This form of the Nominative is also capable of being converted into a subordinate sentence, the nature of which must be determined by tlie context ; as, Spring re- turning, the swallows re-appear;— i. c, [Wlien Spring returns] the swallows re-appear. The idea is generally one of time or causality. (2) Sometimes no noun is expressed with the participle; as, 'This conduct, viewing it in the favorable light, reflects discredit on his character.'— His conduct, generally speaking, is honorable. In each of these we may substitute a subordinate sentence introduced by the connective 'if.' These la'st two examples may be treated as 'Infini- tives absolute,' as the 'ordinary' infinitive may replace the form in 'ing.' 7. Co-ordinate Sentences. —The co-ordination which exists among principal sentences also extends to subordinate sentences; but the subordination must be of the same kind ; as, 'Till billows rage, and gales blow hard, And whelm him o'er.''— Burns. Here we have three 'adverbial' sentences, ' copulatively co-ordi- nate.' . ,, , ' For Heaven's sake, let us sit upon the ground, And tell sad stories of the death of kings :— How some have been deposed, some slain in war, Some haunted by the ghosts,' (fcc.—*S7irt^-. In these lines there are three noun sentences co-ordinate with one another, the ' connective ' being omitted in the case of the last two. 8. Negative Propositions.- If the sentence is a negative one, the negative particle maybe considered as a part of tlie 'grammatical predicate.' its 128 ANALYSIS. 1^ "1 . 'i i. \ |i|l 4 I ■ is M . 1 . W\ I i q'H. ir 9. Minuteness of Analysia.— For general analysis the schemes and examples given above will be sufficient. It may be made more minute by specifying the particular kind of co-ordination, and the special sub-division of the adverbial sentences ; as, * Were I but once more free, That parchment would I scatter to every breeze that blows.' 1. Pbin. Sentence. — I would scatter, &c. 2. Sub. do. Were I but, &c. Adv. of 'Cause' to No. 1 subdivision, 'condition.' * There was no land on earth She loved like that dear land, although she owed it not her birtli.' 1. Prin. Sentence. — There was, &c. 2. Sub. do. 3. Do. 4. Do. do. do. Which she loved. Adj. sent, to No. 1, completing 'land,' contracted in 'object.' Although she owed, &c. Adv. sent, to No. 2, 'Cause' sub. 'concession,' completing 'loved.' As she loved, S c. Adv. of * Manner ' to No. 2, sub. 'analogy.' 10. Dependence, not restricted. — The last example shews that there may exist a dependence among ' subordinate sentences ' as v ell aa between a * suboi'dinate ' and a 'principal.' 11. Arrangement. — In oral analysis of poetry the parts of the sen- tence may be read in their natural sequence, or as written by the poet ; as, 'But glory, virtue. Heaven for man designed,' may be read in this order, o;* in the natural sequence of its parts; thus, 'But Heaven designed glory, virtue for man.' . 12. Position of the Connective. — As the connecting conjunction simply joins the two sentences together, it belongs neither to the 'subject' nor the 'predicate,' though generally placed in the 'sub- ject ;' therefore, in doing oral analysis it must not be read, and on the written scheme must be enclosed in a bracket to denote that it does not belong to either part of the sentence. The ' Conjunctive Adverb' may, however, be placed in the ' Extension of the predicate.' GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS. 226. One Grammatical Form is equivalent to an- other when the first means the same, or nearly the same, as the second. 1. How Obtained. — (1) In some instances this equivalent maybe obtained by simple change of construction from the one voice to the other of the verb ; as, James struck John, or John ims struck by James. (2) It may be eifeoted l»y the introduction of a new kind of sentence, or (8) by a change of phraseology. V ANALYSIS. n. No. 1 ' V EXAMPLES. 1. True it is that Hannibal was supported by the zealous exertions of Carthage. Changed. — True it is, or it is true, that the zealous exertions of Carthage supported Hannibal; or, (.3) It is true that the Cartha- ginians aided Hannibal in every possible way, and w^ith the utmost zeal. 2. To understand the flower, therefore, we must study its forma- tion. Changed. — (2) That we may understand the plant, therefore, wo must study its formation ; or, (3) If we study the formation of a flower, we shall then be better enabled to understand the flower itself. 2. Importance. — This change of construction is of great value, as it gives us greater command of language, and thus enables us to vary our composition. EXERCISE. 1. Introduce grammatical equivalents, where practicable, into the following examples:— Numerous Greek colonies had settled in 8iiily, and Iiad risen to great wealth and power; they were ahnost all democracies, but tyrants occasionally ruled them. After the death of one of these, Gelon, the people fell into dissensions, and the smaller, which wcro oppressed, applied to Athens for help. Twice in history has thei'e been witnessed the struggle of the highest individual genius against the resources and institutions of a great nation, and in both cases the nation has been victorious. These instances are furnished by Hannibal and Napoleon ; the career of one was closed at Zama, that of the other at Waterloo. Were it not for the land, such would be the uniform and constant flow of the waters of the ocean. The presence of the land interrupts the regularity of this great western movement of the waters, sending them to the north or south, according to its conformation. *0h! Chnldea's worshipped sagcb Oh! men of wisdom that have passed your years — Your long and quiet solitary years — In tracing the dim sources of the events That agitate this world of man — oh ! ye That in the tongues of every clime discourse ; Ye that hold converse with the eternal stars, And in their calm prophetic courses read The destinies of empires ; ye whose dreams Are thronged witli the predestined images < )f tilings that are to be ; to whom the Fates I'nfoM their secret counsels ; *"' * * ^'' m 130 ANALYSIS. !»■« •] ■\ 1; ' ;^ " , ^ ,.i Yon huriiing cliaract'.'rs ! aiul read and say, Why tlio dark Destinies liave hun;,' their sentence Thus visible to tiie sight, l)ut to the mind Unsearchable ! Ye have heard the rich reward, And I but wait to see whoao neck shall wear The cliaiu of glory.' — Milnian. ''Twas evening, and the half-descended .sun Tipp'd with golden tii'c the many domes Of Athens, and a yellow atmosphere Lay rich and dusky in the shaded street, 'I'lirongh M'liich the captive gazed, lie had home \xp AVitli a stout heart, that long and weary day, Hauglitily patient of his many wx'ongs; jiut now lie was alone, and from his nerves The needless strength departed, and Jie leaned Prone on hia massy chain, and let his tliought.s Throng on him as they would. Umnarked of him Parrhasius at the nearest pillar stood, Gazing upon his grief. The Athenian's cheelc Flushed as he lueasux'ed, Avith a painter's eye, The moving picture.' — W'dHs. 2. Give detailed analysis of the extracts given ahove, according to plan and suggestion in Sec. 225, 9. PART THIRD. SYNTAX. 1. Syntax treats of the relations wliicli words bear to one another in a sentence, and of the construction oi sentences. 2. The Syntax of sentences is best presented under four heads, — viz., Construction^ Concord, Government, and Position, 3. CoxsTRUCTiON is the dependent relation of words, l)hrases, and clauses, according to the sense. 4. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another in Gender, Person, Number, Case, ccc. SYNTAX. IP)! 5. GOVERXMENT is the power whU-li one word has in determining the ^lood, Tense, Case, or Form, of another word. The word governed by another word is called its regimen, G. Position is the place which a word occupies in relation to other words in a sentence. Position of Words.— In the English language, which has hut few inflections, the 2wsUion of Avovds is often of the utmost imi^ortance in det rmining the construction. RULES. THE NOMINATIVE. • "Rule I. — The subject of a finite verb is put in the Nominative ; as, JoA/i reads, /run. 7%^^ speak. 1. The Subject.— This is cither a noun, or a substitute for a noun; — ;. c, a pronoun, a clause, or a noun sentence; as,— 'Father, thy /(a »<^ Hath reared these venerable columns ; Thoti Didst weave this verdant vooV— Br ijant. To he virtuous is to be happy. 'That I hare tcCmawaij this old man fi dauiihhr, It is most true.'— *S7/«i-. 2. A Finite Verb.— By this is meant any of the * defmitc moods ' of a verb. 3. Subject of the Infinitive.— This mood has its 'subject' in the 'objective case;' as, I know him to be an honest man. 4. Verb, Expressed or Understood.— Every nominative, not 'abso- lute,' or 'of address,' or 'in the predicate,' or 'in apposition,' is the subject of a verb expressed or understood. 5. Use of Pronounlmproper. — It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun in the same proposition as the nominative to the same verb;— thus. The Mng he is just, should be. The king is just ;— except when the compound personal pronouns are added to the sub- ject for the sake of emphasis; as. The hlng himself hii& come. 6. Verb Understood. — The nominative, especially in the answer to a question, and after than or as, has the verb nnderstood ; as, Who said so?— He [said so] ;— James is taller than / [am] ; but not so tall I A as ];on [arc]. jfi ] AHUJ n JLUChUh'^.nHiailiJft' m »! 4 " 1' " .3 i ^ I ii f! ^ ^ \ l! 132 SYNTAX. 7. Position of Subject.— (1) The subject is commonly placod before the verb. But in imperative or interrogative sentences, and in other sentences for the sake of emphasis or euphony, the subject is often placed after the verb; as, Go thou. Did he go? May you be happy ! &c. (2) In the case of ' noun sentences,' which occupy the place of tlic subject, they may be either, ], the 'subject' nominative, or, 2, the 'predicate' nominative; as, (1) That [trial by jury, in the common sense of that term, was known in Alfred's day,l is a mistake. (2) The lirst symptoms of a really free man, is not that [he resists the laws of the universe, but that he observes them.] (3) Enlargements of the subject (53 (1), 69., 97.) cither precede or follow it, or are placed after the verb. Rule II. — A Predicate Noun, denoting the same j)erson or thing as its subject, agrees with it in case ; as, I am a messenrjer, 1. When Found. — This nominative is found after intransitive verbs, and verbs in the passive voice; as, Who art Thou} He was made king. 2. Verbs most frequently Employed. — Any verb may be the copula between the subject and the predicate substantive, except a transi- tive verb in the active voice. But those most commonly used in this way are the intx'ansitive verbs to he, to becomfy to seem, to appear; verbs implying moth)), position, &c., and passive verbs, denoting to call, name, style, ajtpohit, choose, make, esteem, reckon, and the like. 3. The predicate substantive after a verb may be anything that can be the subject of a verb. 4. Position of this Subject.— The usual position of the predicate sub- stantive is after the verl), as that of the subject is before it, and this is always the order of construction. But in both the direct and the indirect question, and in inverted sentences, its jiilacc is often different; thus. Who is he? We know not who he is. Is he a student? He is the same that he was. The roo it M'as thcit died. A. man he was to all the country dear. Feet was / to the lame. Far other scene is Thrasymene now. Rule III. — An Appositive agrees with its subject in case ; as. The cities Toronto and London are in Ontario. 1. Explanation of Tenn. — The word annexed is said to be in appo- sition with tlic other, and is added to express some attribute, descrip- tion, or appellation, belonging to it. The word so related must of\ before in other t is often e happy ! ice of tlio >r, 2, the coniinon (2) Tlie ;he laws r precede le. same a case; ve verl)s, vas made fie copula J a transi- led in this > appear; noting io the like. J that can Icate suh- ancl this i and the different; NT? He N /jec- rsoii or cldress ; ilifyin iessive ; (f o imits the ingfrom, the pos- substan- joverning s' [book.] anal pro- constrnc- changed ; fee. The line from ession, it in poetry ceive the ! method D express action or itaiiding. the Tus- objective se of w^ SYNTAX. 135 (2) Sometimes the idea cxprcsiscd by 'of v. ith the objoctive, can not be expressed at all by tlie possessive; as, A rin;,' of [/old ; a eiip of ivalcrj a piece of land ; the house of r" from others who may hav " same name. 2. Possessive of a 'Complex' Noun.— When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than one, the sign of the possessive is an- nexed to the last only; as, Julius Cesar's Commentaries, — John the Baptist's head,— His brother Philip's wife, — 'The Bishop of London's charge,' Here JuUils Caesar'' s is a complex name, in the possessive; John and brother are in the possessive, without the sign, that being annexed to the words Baptist and Philip, in apposition. In the last example, 'London' is in the objective case, governed by 'of,' and the •b' annexed properly belongs to Bishop, which limits the word charge. In parsing the words separately, the transfer must, of course, be so made. But the true reason for annexing 's to London, is, that the whole phrase, 'Bishop of London,' is regarded as one term, in the possessive limiting the word charge, and may be parsed as a 'complex noun in the possessive case.' 3. Double Fossessives. —When two nouns in the possessive are used to limit different words, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each ; as. He took refuge at the governor's, the king's representa- tive,— that is, 'at the governor's house.' 4.— Number of the Limiting Noun.— A noun governing the posses- sive plural, or two or more nouns severally in the possessive singular, should not be plural unless the sense require it. Thus, The men's health [not healths] suffered from the climate. John's and William's wife [not wives] are of the same age. }l 1 SYNT\X. 137 e Case •e Scott joined to ler; as, I r's. But Ulecl, the called at s of more ted to the rophet of n Lane. f ter eacli ; ;he double he person, : name. I complex, sive is an- -John the f London's [)ossessive ; that being In the last ►f,* and the the word , of course, on, is, that ne term, in )arsed as a ive are used be annexed representa- the posses- ve singular, The men's d William's ^1 THE OBJECTIVE. Rule VIII. — The Ohjcctlve case follows an active transitive verb or a preposition ; as, He struck the table with his haiuL The Objective after Verbs. 1. The Object. — The object of a verb may be a noun or a pronoun, au iidjectivo, a vorl)al, au iulhiitivc, (tr a noun sciitouco ; as, I kuu' the man who struck /liiii. We should help ilm j'our, &c. 2. Intransitive VerlG.—( I) Intransitive verbs arc not fullowcjective after tliem, by the addition of a preposition; as, '1 despair' (intrans.), but 'I despair of (trans.), thus, I despair of succes-^. 3. Indirect Object after certain Verbs. — Verbs signifying to 'name,' 'choose,' 'appoint,' 'constitute,' and the like, generally govern two objectives, — viz., the Direct, denoting the person or thing acted upon, and tiie Indirect, denoting the result of the act expressed ; as. They named him Jo /i)i. The people elected him j/irsidenf. They n)ade // .1 liool:. 4. The Passive Voice of such Verbs. — In sucli sentences in the passive voice, the direct object is made the subject, and the indirect remains as tlie predicate iioiniuiitivo after tlie verb, according t«) K ■ 138 SYNTAX. in M 1; i>: I, ,* ' ■■■' • 'I J '! Rule II. Thus, lie Avas named John. He was elected president. It was made a hooL 5. Indirect Object with other Verbs. — The same construction is found with verbs that signify to 'ask,' 'teach,' 'ofTer,' 'promise,' 'give,' 'pay,' 'tell,' 'allow,' 'deny,' and some others ; as^ John gave meabooL In this example 'mo' is the 'indirect,' and 'book' the 'direct' ol)ject. When, however, the indirect object comes last, the preposition ' to ' must be expressed ; as, John gave a hook to me. 6. Their Passive Construction. — (1) These verbs properly take the direct object of the active voice as the subject in the passive, and the indirect remains in the objective, which is sometimes governed by a preposition understood ; as, A hook was promised vie, or to me. (2) I'he indirect ol>ject is sometimes made the subject, and the direct remains in the objective case after the passive voice; as, 7 was promised a hook. The verbs 'ask,' 'teach,' 'tell,' &c., frequcutly have this double construction in the passive ; as, I was asked that question yesterday. I was taught geography at school. 7. Position of the Objective. — (1) As the i.ominative and the objec- tive of nouns are alike in form, the arrangement of the sentence shoidd clearly distinguish the one from the other. Tlie nominative generally 2-)recedes the verb, and the objective folloics it. Thus, Brutus killed Caesar. If one (or bot.. , of these should be a pronoun, the order may be varied without obscuring the sense, and sometimes the objective is rendered more emphatic by being placed y?r6'^ ; as, *//im he slew.' ' Such sober certainty of waking bliss I never heard till now.' — MUton. 'This perfection of judicial eloquence Sir W. Grant attained.' — Jj)'oufj/ia)n. 'The rapine, by which they subsisted, they accounted lawful and honorivble, ' — >^cott. (2) When the objective is a relative or an interrogative pronoun, it precedes both the verb and its n'^minative; as, The man whom ^\'e saw is dead. Whom did you send? (.')) The objective should not, if possible, be separated from its vci'b bjf intervening clauses. Thus, We could not dlscove)% for the want of pr(^pcr tests, the quality of the metal, — better, We could not, for want of proper tests, discover the quality of the metal. The Objective with Prepositions. 8. The ObJGct- — The ol)joct after a preposition may be a 'noun' or ' [ii'onouii,' 'an iiiiinitivc mond,' a 'iiouu Poiitence," a 'plirase," or a ' SYNTAX. 139 president. uction is promise,' rohn gave )ook' the 1 last, the ME. take the .', aurl the •iK'd hy a Die. and the as, /was reqiieutly sked that ;he objec- senteuce 3minative ;. Thus, pronoun, lometinics first; as, baincd.' — wful and pronoun, whom ^\■e I from its r, for the joukl not, 'noun' or ■ase," or ;i ' chiuso ;' as, He is about to depart. Oa rccemng his diploma. Much depends ON loho are his advisers. 9. Inelegant Use of Preposition and Objective (1) As a general rule, it is considered inelegant to connect a transitive verb and a preposition, or two prepositions with the same object. Thus, I wrote to and loarned liim. Bettor, I wrote to him and vxmied him. 8o, 'Of Him, and through JJim, and to Him, are all things,'— not 'Of and through, and to Him,' &c. (2) This general rule is so little regarded, even by the best writers, that it is a matter of doubt whether it should any longer retain a place in our Grammars. In many instances, at least, the form of speech condemned by the rule is clearly better in respect of perspi- cuity, brevity, and strength, tlian that whicli it recommends ; and in such cases it should be adopted. lu some cases, again, as in tlio above example, the full form is better than the el]i])tical. In this matter every one m.ust be guitled 1iy liis taste and judgment, avoid- ing equally obscurity and harshness. 10. Position.— Tlie objective should follow the preposition; the relative ' that ' is an exception. 11. Terms Omitted. — Sometimes the antecedent term of a proposi- tion, and sometimes the subsequent, is omitted. Thus, the antecedent : [I say] in a word. All shall know me [reckoning], from the least to the greatest. The subsequent : There is a man I am acquainted with, — that is, with whom I am acquainted. 12. Objectives of 'Time,' &c.— (I) Xouns denoting timk, value, WEIGHT, or MEASURE, are commonly put in the objective case, witii- out a governing word, —after intransitive verbs, and adjectives ; as, He was absent six 7nonfhs last year. CoAvards die many times before their death. A child two years old. It cost a shilling. It is not wortli a cent. It weiglis a prunnl. Tlie wall is six feet high, and two feef thick. (2) This may be called the objective of time, ralur, weight, &c., as tlie case may lie. (.'i) Xouns denoting time 'when,' in a general or indefniite way an, put in tlie 'objective;' as, He came last w(fk. But nouns denotino the time 'when,' definitely or with precision, generally have tli.: preposition cxiirews.'d ; as, 'lie cante last week, .//; \y,dn(:'y an 'objective' ea.si< ; as, 'And eartlily power doth then shew likeM God's, {/><>ir, r) When mercy seasons justice.'- -.S'A^^Z', '' ■ -)'■ - i \ ! 1 1 i 1 !. ! 1 * ■ I \ 1 ■ i 1 4^ 140 SYNTAX. * Him there they fouiul Squat hke a toad.' — Milton. 'That like Pomona's arbor smiled.' — Milton. (2) This is, in the case of ' like,* a remnant of the Dative Case of the Anglo-Saxon. THE ADJECTIVE. Rule IX. — An Adjective limits or qualifies a noun, or its equivalent; as, A truthful person is always respected. 1. What an Adjective may qualify. — An adjective may qualify * nouns,' 'pronouns,' 'infinitives,' or 'noun sentences;' as, * No tcorldly enjoyments are adequate to the high desires of an i ,:• m orta I splint. ' — Blair. They returned to their own country, full of the discoveries they had made. ' To err is human. ^ — Pope. "Tis true this god did shake.' — Shal: 2. How Used. — Adjectives denoting one, limit nouns in the singu- lar; adjectives denoting more than one, limit nouns in the plural; as, This man; these men; six feet. (1) Adjectives denoting one are the ordinals frst, second, third, &c., last — this, that — one, each, every, either, neither, much, and its comparative more — all; denoting quantity, enough, ivhole. (2) Adjectives denoting more than one, are all cardinal numbers above one— few, many, with its comparative more — all; — denoting number, both, several, and enow. This last is nearly obsolete. 3. Idiomatic Forms. — Sometimes adjectives that generally qualify singular nouns, are found with a plural noun; the whole may be regarded as o.ie aggregate; as. The first two iceehs. Every ten miles. The last days of suinmei'. 'This many summers.' — Shak. Also adjectives that usually qualify plural nouns, are found with a noun in the singular ; as, 'A thousand horse and none to v'l^e.'- -Byron. 'Full many a flower is born to blush unseen.' — Gray. Full many a league they rode. Trench considers the 'a' a corruption of 'of.' 4. Adjectives Used as Nouns. — (1) 'Qualifying' adjectives preceded by the 'limiting' adjective 'the' have the force of abstract nouns, if the idea expressed is singular ; as, Longinus on the Sublime. ' The perception of the ridiculous does not necessarily imply bitterness. ' — J fare. SYNTAX. 141 base of (2) If the idea conveyed is plural, tlie adjective tlieu has the forco of a common or concrete noun ; as, The rich and the poor meet together. ' His purpose Avas to infuse literary curiosity by gentle and unsus- pected conveyance into the fjaij, the idle, and the ivealthi/.''— Johnson. An abstract idea is also expressed by an adjective used indefinitely after an 'infinitive mood;' as, To be good is to be happy. Being ijood is better tluan being great. 5. Adjective in Predicate.— (1) The adjective is not unfrequently found forming a part of the predicate of a sentence, and is used when it is our intention to express rather the quality of the agent as seen in or after the act, than the quality of the act itself; as, This /n«7 tastes bitter. The wind blows cold. The rose smells siceet. She looked heautifid. ' Uneasij li«^s the head that wears a crown.'— (S'/zoZ*. 'A yellow atmosphere Lay rich and dusky in the shaded streets.' — Willis. * They sportive wheel, or sailing down the stream, Are snatched immediate by the quick-eyed trout.' — Thomson. (2) This use of the predicative adjective is very frequent witli intransitive verbs, such as, 'become,' 'look,' 'seem,' 'feel,' &c., and expresses an attribute asserted to pertain to the subject in the man- ner indicated by the predicate. It is also found with ' active ' and ' passive ' verbs, and then expresses an attribute asserted to become the property of the object in the manner signified by the predicate. The difference may be thus illustrated : ' The weather groics cold;' here the attribute 'cold' is asserted to pertain to the subject 'weather' in the manner expressed by 'growing.' 'They call him happy;^ here the quality of ' happy ' is asserted to become the pro- perty of 'him' in the manner expressed by 'calling.' The aojective 'complementary of the predicate' must be carefully distinguished from the ' descriptive ' adjective. (3) Adjectives thus used are sometimes called 'adverbial adjec- tives,' but they should rather be considered as 'adjectives used adverbially.' When we wish to express manner, we use a word adverbially; when we desire to express quality, we use the same word as an adjective, even though connected with a verb. This use of the adjective, however, does not justify the use of an 'adjective' as the modifier of another 'adjective.' 6. Participles Used as Adjectives. —When participles are iiscd as adjectives, they retain the form, but not the government of the par- ticiple ; as. The man that is most sparing of his words is often the most deserving of attention. !i; ' 1 r i < ! • if-" f. 142 SYNTAX. 11' I mi: r li^ ii!;-i 'I »! i a 1 : ; • I . i 1 Comparative and Superlative. 7. Comparative, when Used. — When one ohject is compared with one other of the same class, or with more than one of a diffeient class, individuallj', or in the aggregate, the comparative is used ; as, James is the xceaker of the two. He is taller than his father. He is (dller than any of liis brothers. 8. Superlative, when Used. — When one object is compared with more than one of the same class, the superlative is used, and com- monly has * the ' prelixed ; as, John is the tallest amongst us ; he is t/te best scholar in a class of ten ; he is the most dilhjent of tliem all. 9. Use, when more than two Objects are Compared. — In the use of the comparative and the superlative, wlienmore than two objects are compared, the following distinction should be carefully observed, viz.: — (1) When the comparative is used, the latter term of comparison must always exclude the former; thus, Eve was fairer than any of her dauglitcrs; Russia is larger than any other country in Europe ; China has a greater popiilation than any nation of Europe, or, than any other nation on the globe. Thus used, the comparative requires ' than ' after it. (2) When the superlative is used, tlie latter term of comparison must always include tlie former; as, Ivussia is the largest country in JMirope; China has the greatest jDopulation of any nation on the globe. 10. Double Comparatives and Superlatives, — These arc sometimes met with in old writers ; for instance, ' This was the most unldndest cut of all.' — Shah. Their use is to be avoided, as also the use of ' adverbs of degree ' before adjectives which are not properly suscep- tible of comparison. The double comparative 'lesser,' however, is sanctioned by good authority; as, 'Zfsscr Asia.' 'Like Zcswr streams.' — Colerkhje. 'Greater or lesser degrees of complexity.' — Burke. *a' •A,' 'An,' and 'The.' 11. Prefixed to Nouns. — (1) AVhen prefixed to proper nouns, and 'the' indicate likeness of character; as, He is a perfect Samson. He is the Demosthenes of the age. He is the Machiavelll of modern Italy. 'The' prefixed to names of 'places' or of 'institutions' indi- cates a profession ; as, 'Love rules the camp, the court, the grove.^ — Scott. He is a member of the bar. (2) 'The' is sometimes used before a singular i.run, to particularize a species or class, without specifying any individual under it; as, the oak, the rose, the horse, the raven, meaning, not any particular SYNTAX. 143 with com- he is all. oak, rose, horse, or raven, bub the class so called in a general sense. In such cases, whether the noun is used to denote a class or indi- vidual, can be determined only by the sense, as in the following ex- amples : The oak produces acorns. 21ie oak was struck by liglituing. The horse is a noble animal. The liorse ran away. The lUm shall eat straw like tJie ox. The Hon tore the ox in pieces. The nUjht is the time for repose. T'he nhjld was dark. 12. Not Prefixed to certain Nouns. — The article is generally omitted before j)roper names, abstract nouns, and names of vh'tues, rices, arts, sciences, &c., when not restricted, and such other nouns as are of themselv^es so manifestly definite as not to rer^uire it; as, Christmas is hi December. Lo(jic and mathematics are important studies. Truth is mighty. Still certain proper names, and names used in a certain way, have the articles prefixed; as, 1\\q Alps. The Rhine. The Azores. 13. 'A' vnih. Plural Numerals. — 'A' or 'an ' is sometimes put before the adjectives /(>/", hundred, tJiouaa^'d, followed by a plural noun; as, A few men. A hundred acres. A thousand miles: In such cases the adjective and noun may be considered as a compound term, ex- pressing one aggregate, and having the construction of a collective noun. 14. One Noim qualified by several Adjectives. — (1) When two or more adjectives belong to the same noun, the article of the noun is l)nt with the first adjective, but ii^c with ux.o rest; as, A red and irhite rose, — that is, one rose, partly red and partly irhife. The wisest, greatest, meanest of mankind. (2) When two or more adjectives belong eucU to a different object of the same name, the article of the noun is put with each adjective ; as, A red and a white rose, = A red rose and a white rose, — that is, two roses, one red and the otlier white. (3) Sometimes, however, the article is repeated for the sake of emphasis, or to call attention to the qualities expressed by the ad- jectives ; as, 'I returned a sadder and a wiser man.' — Colcridrjc. 'They are singled out from their fellows as the kind, the amiable, the sweet-natured, the upright.' — Chalmers. (4) When the adjectives cannot be considered as describing one and the same thing, the article must be repeated if the noun is ui the singular, or it nmst precede the first adjective only if the noun is in the plural; as, The third and tlie fifth (.-liapter, or the third and fifth chapters. 15. Use of Article, with two or more Epithets. — (1) 8o, also, when two or more epithets follow a noun, if both designate the same person, i S (■ 144 SYNTAX. iiii-' t . 4 J a !«1 1l t the article precedes the first only. If they designate different persons, the article must precede each; thus, 'Johnson, the bookseller and stationer,' means one man who is hoth a bookseller and a stationer; but 'Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer,' means two men, one a bookseller named Johnson, and the other a stationer, not named. (2) When two nouns after a word implying comparison, refer to the same person or thing, the last must want the article; as. He is a better soldier than statesman. But when they refer to two different persons, the last mnst have the article; as. He is abetter soldier than a statesmen [would be]. 16. 'A' with the Adjectives 'few' and 'little.'— The article 'a' before the adjectives 'few' and 'little,' renders the meaning posi- tive; as, A few men can do that. He deserves a little credit. But \\ithout the article the meaning is negative ; as, Fmv men can do that. He deserves little credit. 17. 'The' Trefx^ 1 to Adjectives.— (1) This adjective prefixed to another witho^tt the noun which it qualifies, gives it the force of lither a class noun or an abstract noun ; as, * Then the forms of the departed Enter at the open door.' — Lontjfdlow. 'Idolatry is the worship of the visible.'' — Hare. In constructions like that in the first example the word is generally plural, but sometimes it is singular ; as, ' The righteous is more ex- cellent than his neighbor.' (Rule IX., 4.) (2) It is placed before adjectives in the superlative degree, when comparison is implied ; as, Gold is the most precious of the metals. But when comparison is not implied, the superlative is either with- out an article, or has ' a ' or ' an ' preceding it ; as, A most excellent man. (3) It is sometimes put intensively before adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree; as. The higher the mountain, the colder its top. The faster he goes, the sooner he stops. Thus used it performs the function of an adverb. In such instances its origin is to be traced to the ' ablative ' of the Saxon demonstrative. Compare Latin 'quo plus, eo melius,' 'the more, the better.' In analysis the former ])art of the sentence must be analyzed as a subordinate sentence (Adv. of manner) under the subdivision of Relation. 18. The Article with Nouns in the same Construction. — (1) When several nouns are connected in the same construction, the article is commonly expressed with the first, and understood to the rest ; as. The men, women, and children, are expected. But when emphasis, SYirrAX. 145 persons, Ber ami ktioner ; jen, one xmetl. refer to iHe is a lifferent per than cle 'a* g r>03i- it. But do that. ifixed to force of generally norc ex- e, when J metals, er with- jxcellent verbs in older its )erforms is to be re Latin ; former lentence ) When [•ticle is 2st; as, tphasis, or a different form of the article is required, tlio article is prefixed to each ; as, The men, the women, and the children, are expected. A horse, or an ass. (2) But when several nouns in the same construction are disjunc- tively connected, the article must be repeated ; as, The men, or the women, or the children, ai'e expected. 19. Fosition of the Adjective. — Tlie position of the adjective in a sentence is either before or after its noun. Its general position, wlieii one adjective is used, is before the noun, but it is found after it in the following cases : — (1) In poetry; as, 'Like forms and landscapes waf/ical they lav.' — Willi's. * Shadows dai^k and sunlight sheen, Alternate come and go.' — Lonyfdlov:. (2) When other words depend on the adjective; as, A man nick of the palsy. A 2^ole ten feet lonr/. (3) When the adjective is predicated of tlie subst ntive; as, God is good. We are happy. He icho is f/ood is happy. He looks, ftthle. To ptlay is 2^leasant. That he shoiddfa'd is strawje. (4) When the adjective is an enlargement of the object of the verb ; as, Extravagance makes a man i)Oor. 'God made i\\QC perfect, not vn m utable. ' — Milton. 20. Position, Divided. — When several adjectives qualify one noun, they sometimes precede it ; sometimes they follow, especially when any one of them is enlarged ; sometimes one precedes and another follows ; as, ' Willing to support the just measures of government, but determined to observe the conduct of the minister with suspicion, he would oppose the violence of faction.' — Junius. ' The great cry that rises from all manufacturing cities, louder than their furnace blast, is that we manufacture everything there except men.' — Emkin. 21. Ordinal and Cardinal. — The position of these two kinds of adjectives with respect to each other, gives us, as it were, two difierent statements. This may be illustrated by an example. If we say, *T\\Qjlrst two boys,' it implies that we are taking the two boys who stand nearest the head of the same class ; but if we saj', * The two first boys,' it implies that there are two classes, and that we have selected the first boy from each class. Bespectable authorities, how- ever, can bo quoted for placing the ordinal first. 22. With Two Nouns. — When an adjective qualifies two or more substantives, connected by and, it is usually expressed before the I w\ SYNTAX. rst If f i m M first, and undorstood to the rest; us, A man of f/rcaf, v^isdom and moderation. 23. Choice of Position. — Adjectives should be phiced as near as ]K)SsibIo to tlieir su1)stantive3, and so that it may ho certain to Avliat noun they belong; thus, A now pair of shoes — A lino field of corn — A. good glass of wine, s'.hould be, A pair of now shoes— A field of fine corn — A glass of good wine, because the adjectives qualify shoet-:, com, xrine, and not pair,jh'l(l, (j[ut yesterday I saw many a brave warrior, in all the pomp and circunistance of war, marching to the battle lield, AN'Jiere iue th> y iiowV' 5. Pronouns to be used in Personification. — I'ronouns representing nouns pursonilied, take the gender of the noun as a person; as, " yif/hf, sable goddess, from her ebon throne.' But pronouns repre- senting nouns taken metaphorically, agree Avith them in their literal sense; as, Pitt was the pillar which in its strengtii upheld the state. 6. 'You' and 'We.'— (I) The former pronoun, tlie nominative form of which is also 'ye,' is used with reference to either a singular or a phiral noun, and is always followed by a plural verb ; the use ol a singular verb is incorrect. This pronoun is used by way of respect to the person addressed, as the third personal pronoun singular is used in German, Spanish, and Portugese. (2) In the same M'ay 'We' is used by monarchs, reviewers, and authors, instead of 'I,' and is always followed by a plural verb. 7. 'Either' and 'Neither,' &c. — These two words, which are sometimes 'adjectives' and sometimes 'pronouns,' refer properly to one of two, thus being 'distributive' they are singular. 'Any,' and •none,' or 'no,' refer to more than two. i'i!' 148 SYNTAX, t 11 ■ III , ^ ■ a- i'^ t 1 • r ^ v 8. 'Each' and 'Every.' — These pronouns refer to one of many: tlio first reHtrictively, the second unirersaUy. 'Each' properly signilit-s 'one of two,' jind differs from 'either' in this way, that it signilics two taken si-jHirnteli/, while 'either' signities two taken nlternotely. 9. 'This' and 'That.'— The first of these pronouns refers to some- thing near the speaker ; the latter, to something remote ; as, This is Milton ; that is Burke. Sometimes they simply represent objects introduced into the narrative; as, 'When the Centiles heard sar wept.' — Shah * If that he be " dog, beware his fangs.' — Shak. * After that I was turned, I repented.' — Bih/e. 10. 'Some,' 'Whole,' &c.— 'Some' is used either -with or without a noun. Witlioiit a noun it is jilural. 'Whole' which refers to the component parts of a single body, is singular; 'all' is plural or col- lective. 'Less' (in fpiantity) is singular; 'fewer' (in number) is plural. 11. Change of Foim, when Incorrect. — It is improper, in the pro- gress of a sentence, to denote the same person by pronouns of dif- fei'ent numbers or forms ; as, I labored long to make thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude. It should be ' to make yoii, happy,' or 'thou rewardest.' 12. Ambiguity, how Avoided. — In the use of pronouns, Avhcn it would be uncertain to which of two or more antecedent words a pro- noun rofers, the ambiguity may be avoided by repeating the noun, instead of using the pronoun, or by changing the form of the sentence; thus, When we see the beautiful variety of color in the rainbow, we nro led to consider its cause ; better, the cause of that variety. The Relative Pronoun. 13. Difference of Application. — (1) 'Who' is applied to ;9fr,so?2 9, to things i^crsonified, and to collective nouns in tlie lylural; as, The 7»a?i loho — The fox who liad never seen a lion — The iicoplc who were pre- .sent were dissatisfied. many: tlie ly signilit's it signifies ternately. s to some- as, This is nt objects utard ) It is applied to a noun denoting a person, when the character, or the name merely as a word, is referred to ; as, He is a good writtr, which is all he professes to be. That was the work of Ilvrod, which is but another name for cruelty. (c) In the translation of the Bible 'which' is applied to persons with less of personal reference than ' who ' implies : as, 'Our Father which art in heaven.' 14. * That.'— (1) Besides the examples of the use of ' that,' as given under the 'Relative Pronoun,' (Sees, 90, 91,) it may be observed that this pronoun is used when the gender of the noun is doubtful ; as, He said to the little child that was placed in the midst. (2) Tliis rela- tive does not admit of a pi'eposition before it. After expressions of time it often dispenses entirely with the preposition ; sometimes the relative is omitted entirely; as, 'On the day that thou eattst thereof thou shalt surely die.' 15. emission of Kelative. — (1) The relative in the objective case is often omitted ; as. Here is the book I promised you. The relative in the nominative case is hardly ever omitted except in poetry; as, 'In this, 'tis Ood directs; in that, 'tis man.' — Pope. ' He is a friend runs out into a storm To shake a hand with us.' — Kiiowlcs'. (2) Though the relative is omitted, if it depends upon a preposition connected with a verb, the preposition must be retaimd ; as, * Had I but served my God with half the zeal 1 served my king (with), He would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enemies.' — Shed: (3) Sometimes the antecedent is attracted into the same case as the omitted relative ; as, ^ Him (/. ('., he, whom) I accuse The city gates by this hath entered.' — Shak: 16. Omission of Antecedent— The antecedent is sometimes omitted both in prose and in poetiy, but especially the latter; as, 'There are indeed who seem disposed to extend his authority much farther.'— Camjihdl. Who lives to nature rarely can be poor. Who lives to fancy never can be rich. 17. In the following example both antecedent and relative seem to l)e omitted : 'Sonu^ hauniul liy the gliosts they have deposed.'— .S7/«^'. II ;'IB 150 SYNTAX. 18. Tim Negative Relative.— 'But" 1i;ih frequently the force of a relative uud a iU'<,Mtive ; as, ':"r "I'hcre'n nut the smallest orl> which thou behohlest, lint in his motion like an angel sing.s.' — Shak. * And not a wife hut wail'd a lord, a child hut jnouru'd a sire.' — Buhvor. 19. The Relatives as Connectivea. — As explained under Ivelativi* I'l'onouMs, and in Sec. 21. '5, 3, tlieso words are both connective and restrictive ; as co-ordinate connectives they unite sentenees that arc co-ordinate with each other; thu.s, lie answered the (juestion, irjiich (and this) was otlier, only to a particular individual (ir individuals; as. At death the sold wfiicli is immortal (<, c, every sold) leaves th(! body. The soul f/iut siiuieth (/. e., a cxrtain soul) shall die. Being connective themselves, they recpure no conjunction, unless relative clauses are to be connected. I.'he proper restricting relative is 'that.' 20. Force, how Gained. — The repetition and the emphatic use of [tronouus contribute greatly to the force of style; as, Aly son, it' tlnj heart be wise, my heart will rejoice, even mine. 'These arms of 'm'inv shall be thy winding sheet, jl/// heart, sweet boy, shall Ijc ///?/ sepulchre. For from my heart tlilne image ne'er shall go.'— .'^/.'?/t'. 21. Position. — (I) A: a general rule, pronouns come after the words for which they stand; sometimes, however, the order is reversed; as, ' Who stops to jdunder at this signal liour. The birds shall tear hhu, and the dogs devour.' — Pupc ('!) The pronoun 'It' very frecpiently introduces a sentence. (.'{) When Avords of ditf'(>rent persons come together, the usual order of arrangement, in l']ngli«h, is to place the second pei.son before the third, and the tirst pei'son last; as, You and /<6' and /are sent for. This matter concerns you or hi in or me. This differs from the position of pronouns in the Classic languages, which considered the first as more worthy than the second or the third; so that Woisey was a good grannnarian, but a bad courtier, Avlien he said, ' Kgo et rex metis,' — ' I and my king-' (,4) If two or inorc pronouns iji one sentence diifer in gender, num- ber, or person, the reference of each will bo clear ; but if they agree, care must be taken tliat there be no confusion. As a 'general rule' the nominatives should all refer to the same person, and the objec- tives to the same ; thus, in the following example there is great con- GYNTA.^!, 151 fovea of a St, ■ Uulwor. r lJelativ(? jctive and that jin3 ion, ii'hich Lives they wert'd tli(j )n may l)e 'ing a]»pli- ludividual (., every taht soul) ijiinction, estricting tie use of on, if tlnj shah. the words .n-sed ; as, Pupc nal ord(>r tefore tlie sent for. inguagcs, d or tlie courtier, er, niim- ?y agree, ral rid I' ' le ol)ji'o- eat ecu- fusion : *T/i()f wore .sunimnned ocoaHlonally l>y t/iflr kiug.s, when compelled l)y f/iclr wants ami l)y Ihdr fears to have recourse to thtir aid.' — Iiol)cr(.w)i'd Vlar of Suditi/. 22. Position of the Eelativo.—Tlie relative is generally placed after its antecedent. (1) To prevent ambiguity, the relative siiould be phc'e I as near its antecedent as possible, and so that there can l)e no uncertainty re- specting tlie word to which it I'cfers. (2) In most instances the sunsi' will bo a sutlicicnt guide in this matter; thus, 'J'licy removed their wives and cliildreii in wagons covered with the skins of animals, v/ilch furmed their simple hal»ita lions. Here the sense only can determine to which d the three M'ords, K'ayon^, .d't/is, or (iiniit(il.<, tlie ivlative ir/iic/i refers. But — (3) When the antecedent cannot be deti'rmined by the sense, it should be determined by the position of the relative, Avhieh, as a general rule, should belong to the nearest antecedent. Thus — We walked from the house to the hta-ii ) ; • / i i i i i AA/-. ,.,nii. > 1 4.^ <-i ^ 1 t ii ; • lO'itc I had been erecteil. We walked to the barn trom the /loii.sf. ) Here the relative which, as determined by its position, refers in thi- lirst sentence to barn, and in the second to house. (4) So also when tlu; antecedents denote the .same object, the one being in the subject and the other in the predicate, the relative takes the person of the one next it; as, 1 am the hian who conunands you — not command you. If the relative refer to /, the words should be arranged, ' I ivho command you am the man.' If the correlative con- sist of a noun and a pronoun in apposition, the relative usually agret s with the pronoun; as, Tt is /, your friend, ivho hUl you u'o. l>ut if the relative clause is directly attributive to the noun, the r<'lative agrees witli thiMioiui ; as. It is I, iha fro ii'l tha/ l in the plural; as, Ten mi'd are in sight. (2) Two or more substantives, singular, taken together, have a vei'b in the plural; as, James and John are hero. {',i) Collective nouns take a plural when tlie idia ot' plurality is prominent; as. The (,'ollege of (.'ardinals elect the l'o[)e. (I) Sometime.s the two usages are condjined iu the same seiitence. fl 152 SYNTAX. Pi ii' llf! ^!v : : 2. The Nominative followed by 'With.'— (I) A singular nominative and an objective connected by 'with,' sometimes have a plural verb; ns, The ship with the crew were lost. Tliis construction is incorrect, and should not be imitated. A mere adjunct of a substantive does not change its number or construction. Either, then, the verb should be singular, The ship with the crew u^uh lost ; or, if the second sulj- stantive is considered as belonging to the subject, it should be con- nected by 'and;' fis, The ship and the crew were lost. 3. Nouns Connected by 'And' with Singular Verb. — (1) When sul)- stantiv^es connecteil by 'and' denote one person or thing, the verb is singular; as, Why is dnst and ai^lies proud? 'The saint, the fatJur, and the husband ])rays.'' — Burns. 'Whex'cin dotlt sit the fear and dread of kings.' — Shak. In the same way we may explain the ex- pression 'Two and two is four' — 'Two and two' benig a kind of 'vomplex idea.' (2) Singular nouns, preceded by 'each,' 'every,' 'no,' though con- nected by 'and,' Jiave the verb in the singular; as, Each booh and each paper teas arranged — Every jyaper and every book ivas arranged — No book and no jMj^er v:as arranged. (3) If the two nominatives are emphatically distinguished, thouoh they are joined by 'and,' yet they have a singular verb, eacli nomi- native belonging to a separate sentence ; as, ' Somewhat, and in many ca=es, a great deal is put upon us.' — Butlers Analogy. (4) Wlien a verb, having several nominatives connected by 'and' is placed after the first, it agrees with that, and ; understood to the rest ; as, ' Forth in the pleasing spring Thy beaut J walks, thy tenderness and lore.^ — Thompson. (,")) Sometimes when the nominatives follow the verb, tlie verb agrees with the first, and is understood to the rest; as, 'Ah ! then rnd there vas hurrying to and fro, And gathering tears and tremblings of distress.' — B>/ro:i. (0) When the substantives connected aro of different persons, the verb in the plural prefers the fii-st to tho second, and the second to the third. Tliis can be perceived only in the pronoun. 4. Singulci." Substantives taken Separately. — (1) Two or more sub- stantives singular, taken separately, or one to the exclusion of tlie rest, have a verb in the singular; as, James or John atterals — Neither James nor John attends. John and not [but not] James attends— do\n\ as Mell as James afffud'i ~'Se>t Jdliu but James attends. " lominative lural verb ; 3 iucorreet, lutive dots ^erb should econd sul;- Id be c'on- Wlien snb- blie verb is the fatlur, e fiar and liu the ex- : a kind of hough con- 1 booh and .s arranged ed, thouijli pacli nonii- ;id in many d by * and ' tood to the ipfion. verb agrees — Bi/ro:i. f'r.'<()i).'i, the 3 second to more snb- siou of tlie as James SYNTAX. 153 (2) Singular nouns connected by *nor,' sometimes have a plural verb. In tiiat case the verb denies equally of all, and 'nor' is tMjuivalent to 'and,' connecting the verbs, and a negative which is transferred to, and modifies the verb; as, 'Neither Moses, nor Minos, nor Solon, nor Lycurgus, were eloquent men.' — Acton. Moses, and Minos, and Solon, and Lycurgus, were not eloquent men, — were none of them eloquent. This construction has not been generally noticed, but it often occurs in the best writei's. It will be further noticed that the predicate nominative in such a construction is in the plural number. (3) But when two or more substantives, taken separately, are of diiferent numbers, the verb agrees with the one next it, and the plural subject is usually placed next the verb ; as. Neither the cap- tain nor the sailors vere saved. When two nominatives of different numbers are found in di'^" rent clauses of the sentence, the verb had better be repeated; as, IS either ivere their numbers, nor ivas their destination known. (4) AVhen two nominatives are connected, the one affirmative and tlie other negative, they make two pi'opositions, and the verb agrees with the aflfirmative; as, 'Our own heart, and not other men's opinions, Forms our true honour.' — Colerkhje. Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, bring conviction. (")) When in any sentence there is an ellipsis of a noun and more than one is implied, the verb is plural; as, The second and the third Epi-stle of St. John contain each a single chapter. (6) When substantives, taken separately, are of different persons, the verb agrees with the one next it ; as, James or I am in the wrong. Either you or he is mistaken. I or thou art to blame, [Tlinu.ah scntoiifos firo often formed according to tliia rule, yot they nre generally harsh i;iul inclou'.'int. It is generally better to put the verb with the lirst substaii- tivf, and repeat it with the second; or to express the paine idea l)y arranging the sentence differently; as, James is in the wrong, or I «m; or, One of us is in the wrong. Either ym'i aie mistaken, or he Is. 1 ((7», to blame, or thou ar<. This re- maik is sometimes aiiplicalile also when the .substantives are of the same person, Imt diiierent in number, and reiiuiring each a different form of the verb; as, Either the captain or the sailors wm to blame ; otherwise, Either the captain was to blani;', or the sailors were] 5. Verbs in Different Constructions. — (1) When verbs are not connected in the same construction, each verb should have its own nominative. The following sentence is wrong in this respect: The whole is pi'oduced as an illusion of the first class, and hopes it will be found worthy of patronage ; it should be, either ' He produces the whole as an illusion,' &c., 'and hopes,' &c. ; or, 'The whole is i)ro- duced,' &c., 'and he hopes,' &c. ; or, 'and it is hopcnl,' &c. ! "i'l 154 S V.N TAX. 1^1 It, y Jil' Ih. i' 1 2) When verLs are connected Ly 'and' or 'nor,' and rcfor to acts done by the same person under the same circunistaiices and at the same time, they must agree in mood, tense, person, and even in form; as, 'But where is he, the pilgrim of my song? Methinks ho cometh late and tarrks {eth) long.' — Bijrov. (3) If they differ in person, the mood and tense must he retained. If the tense, mood, and circumstances differ, the simplest form must be placed first ; as, 'Some are and mast he, greater than the rest.' — rope. 6. Tense. — (1) When two or more verbs are connected whicli in- volve different forms of the same verb, such parts of the tenses as are not common to both must be inserted in full; as, Tliis dedication may serve for almost any book that has been, is, or shall be published. 7. Sequence of Tense. — (1) When one verb depends upon another, the proper succession of tenses must be attended to; as, lie t(Hs me that he ^I'tll. He promised that he iroiihl do so. (2) Propositions regarded as universally true are generally piit in the present tense, M'liatever tense precedes them; as, Plato believed that the soul is immortal. (;i) The Present-Perfect, when Used. — The present-perfect, and not the present tense, should be used in connection witli words denoting an extent of time continued to tlie present ; thus, 'Tliey continue with me now three days,' should be, ^hace co)i tinned,'' Sic. But this ought never to bo used in connection with ■words Avhich express past time; thus, '1 hiixe former 1 1/ mentioned his attachment to study,' should be, 'I formerly mentioned,' &c, (4) An Event in Past Time. — To express an event sim[)]y i\H past, without relation to any otlicr point of time than the present, or as taking place at a certain past time mentioned, the past tense is used ; as, 'God created the world.' — 'In the Iteginning God created ilio world.' (5) When we wh\\ to represent an event as past at or before a cer- tain past time referred to, the verb must bo put in the past-perfect tense. Thu^s, when we say, 'The vessel had arrired at nine o'clock,' we mean, at nine o'clock the arriving of tlie vessel was past. J^>iit when we say, 'The vessel arrired at nine o'clock,' we mean, tlio arriving of the vessel was then present. (G)" It is always essential to the use of tliis tense that the event bo past at the time referred to. It is p)'oper to ntjtico here, also, that in ] jointing out the time of a past event, two points or periods of time are often mentioned — the one for the purpose of ascertaining tlie other. Thus, We arrived an hour before sunset. Here the past-perfect is not *ir SVNTAX. 1 0) .'V to acts ml at the . in form ; retained. jvm nui«t c. ivliicli in- tensfs as Letlieation lublisheil. 1 anotlier, 3 tolls nio )po3itions :nt tense, le sonl is ;, ami not denoting 'Inne with his onglit )ast time ; Y,^ shonkl Y ;\s past, ent, or as se is nscd ; eated llio :ore a eer- ist-pei'fect e o'eloek,' Kist. Bnt noan, the ! event l>o so, that in Is of time f the ot/tfV. feet is not used, though the arriving is represented aa past before a past time mentioned, — vi/., snih'^et, ])ecausc HunnQt is not the time referred to, hut is mentioned in order to describe that time; and at the time described, the event, (irridng, was not past, but present. If in tliis example we omit the word 'hour,' and merely say ^ he/ore sunset,' the construction will be the same. This will shew that it is correct to say, * Before I went to Franco T visited England,' because the visitin^y of England is represented as present, and not past at the time indi- cated by the word before. But if the event mentioned is represented (IS pcmt at the time indicated by the ■\\ord Ixforo, or if the sentence is so arranged that only one point of past time is indicated at which tlio event referred to is past, the past-perfect must be nsed ; as, They had i rieed l)eforc we sailed— They arrived after we had w/A'/- I had n-iited England when Ave returned to America. 7. Tenses that should not be Associated.— The present and the past of the auxiliaries, ahaU, viU, maij, can, should never be associated in the same sentence; and care must be taken that the subsequent verb be expressed in the same tense with the antecedent verb ; thus, 1 Duui or can d^ it novv^, if I choose — I rniyht or could do it now, if L chose — I shcdl or vill do it, when I can — I v}o>/do it, if I cnn—1 once could do it, but I vonld not— I icould have done it tlien, but I co}dd not — I mention it to him, that he maij stop if he choose — I mentioned it to liim, that he might stop if he chose — I have inentioned it to him, that he may stop — I Iwal mentioned it to liim, tliat lie might stop — I had mentioned it to him, that he might hare slopped had he chosen. (8) Past-Perfect in Dependent Clauses. — Tu dependent clauses tlie past-perfect indicative or potential is used to express an event ante- cedent to, but never contemporary with, ov sulisequent to, that expressed by . verb in the past tense in the leading clause. Thus, we can s.iy, * 1 believed he had done it,' but not, ' 1 hoped he had done it;' because belief may refer to wliat is past, but hi>i)e always refers to something future. (9) 'Should' instead of 'Ought. '~A\'hen 'should' is useil instead of 'ought,' to express present duty, it may be followed by the present or present-perfect; as. You should study, that you may become learned. (10) Present, vni\\ the Ibrce of a Future.— The indicative present is frequently used after the words u:lieii, (ill, Ixfure, as .s-Kin as^ (fler, to express the relative time of a future action; as, When he comes lie will be M'ek-omo. When placed before the presend-pcrfeel indieedivi , these word.s denote the comjdetion of a future action or event ; as, lie will never be better till he has felt the pangs of poverty. (11) Tenses of the Infinitive. — A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the present tense, when it expresses Avhat is contemporary, in tl i; )i) (SYNTAX. 1 is II ^ P I '" ill i |i ; ' 'i. I H, ! f' flii 'K' 1 vl point of time, \vitl» its j^ovcniing vtvb, or subsequent to It ; as, He appeared to he a man of letters. The apostles were determined to ])reach tlie Ciospel. Hence, verbs denoting hoj^e, desire, intention, or command, must be followed by the present infinitive, and not by the psrfect, unless the act spoken of was regarded as completed before the time expressed by the governing woi'd; as, I hoped to have seen you before the meeting. Such forms generally imply a supposition or intention not .ealized. (12) But the perfect infinitive must be used to express what is ante- cedent to the t""»ie of the governing verb; as, Romulus is said to hare founded Rome. The Subjunctive Mood. 8, —(1) The subjunctive mood is used in complex sentences in the dependent clauses, when both indecision or doubt and futurity are implied; as, If he continue to study he will improve. (2) When, however, certainty or decision, and not futurity, is im- plied, the indicative is used ; as. If he has money he keeps it. * If the^'e 's a hereafter, Tlien must it be an awful thing to die.' — Blair. (3) Indecision or doubt is usually expressed by the connectives, if, though, unless, except, whether, &c. ; but whether futurity is implied or not, must be gathered from the context. In general, when the sense is the same, with shall, will, or sliould, prefixed to the verb, as without it, tlie subjunctive may be used ; otherwise, not. Thus, in the preceding example, * If he continue,' and, 'If he shall continue,' mean the same thing. The particles 'save' and 'except,' which aie now used as 'prepositions,' being originally ' imperatives,' were fre- quently used to introduce subordinate sentences. (4) Sometimes the conditional clause is put as a, question, or as an imperative; sometimes it is introduced by 'were,' or 'had,' or ' would ;' and sometimes it is omitted altogether ; as. Prove that, and I will submit. * Would I describe a preacher such as Paul, Were he on earth, would hear, approve, and OAvn, Paul sliould himself direct me.' — Coxrper. * How else should I have known it, — ?. ronufie is often the surent fo 2'Grfor7n, lie is anxious fo surcccd in liis enterprise. 4. In Appo."ition. — The inlinitive may be placed in apposition witli a noun ; as, Spare, spare your friend the task to read, to nod, to scq[f', coiidcnni. 5. With tho Verb 'to be.'~-(l) The inlinitive active is used witli eome forms of the verb 'to be,' 'to have,' to express what is settled to be done; as, lie in fo ulart to-morrow. Men have to gum their bread by the sweat of their Ijrow. Sometimes it is simply an equiva- lent expression to that Avhich precedes ; as. To oljcy is to otjoy. (2) Similarly the passive infinitive is used to express what is settled to be done, may be or must be done ; as, He is to he married. The dictates of conscience are ahrays fo he treated with respect. 6. TheGerundlal Infinitive.— (1) The form ('ing') of this infinitive i^5 governed by a preposition. If it governs a case, it is a verb, and •liics not admit of the distinguishing adjective ('the'); if this adjec- tive is inserted, the verb has the force of a noun, and requires 'of after it; as, By ol.^errui'j these rules carefully, mistakes may be ;vvoided ; or. By flic careful oh--inplement I if we re- transitive one, or (2) >e. Verl)s in order to [insitive or veen their Aay (obj.) 'xci to study ifter verbs )mise,' &e. "ter nouns nty, and a > perform. ition witli d, to scol}\ used witli b is settled fjahi their [in equivii- b is settled •ied. The infinitive verb, and his adjec- uircs 'of s may be rhesc two ,nd some- sentence ; IKJ of oui* ^hen tlie tive form r form is 3. It waa SYNTAX. 159 (3) This form of tlic inlinitive is frequently preceded by a noun in the ' possessive ' case ; as, Much depends upon the impWs compos'iinj frequently. (4) This form of the 'gerundial infinitive,' or its representative the ordinary infinitive, with 'to,' corresponds to the A.S. form endini,' iu 'aune,' or 'enne,' with 'to' prefixed. It is wavd to express the purpose, end, or design of tlic preceding act. It may be found after nouns, adjectives, intransitive and passive verbs ; an, It is high tinii' to awake out of sleep. Apt to teach. And fools who came to scojj', remained to i^ray. (5) Sometimes, and especially in Scripture, we find the preposition 'for' inserted along with 'to;' as, 'Wliat went ye out /or to seeV In modern English it is retained with the form 'ing;' as. Well adapted /or bnilding. 7. Sign Omitted.— (1) 'To,' tlio sign of the inlinitive, is not nscd r.f ter the verbs bid,' 'dare,' (intrans.,) 'need,' (used as an auxiliary,) 'make,' 'see,' 'hear,' 'feel,' and 'let,' in the active voice, nor after •let' in the passive; as, I saw him do it. You need not go. ('2) To this rule there are some exceptions. As it relates only to euphony and usage, ' to ' may be inserted when harshness will not thereby be produced ; thus. Conscious tliat his ophiions need /o b(! disguised. In poetry the metre sometimes requires the insertion of *t0;' as, ^ 'Thou hast (dnra, To tdl mo what I durst not tell.'— 7) /■•//'?.•/?. ' Vii.e a monster of so frightful mien, That to be hated nccd.i but to he seen.'— Pope. (.S) For the same reason, (euphony.) 'to' is sometimes omitted after the verbs 'perceive,' 'behold,' 'observe,' 'have,' and 'know.' (4) When several infinitives come together in the same construction, the sign 'to' expressed with the first, is sometimes omitted with those that follow ; thus. It is better to be a king and die, than to live and he a prince. This sliould never be done when either harshness or obscurity would be the result. (o) 'To,' the sign of the infinitive, should never be nsed for the infinitive itself; thus, 'I have not written, and 1 do not intend to,' is a colloquial vulgarism for, ' I have not written, and I do not intend to vrife,' or 'to do so.' 8. The Infinitive after 'Than,' «S:c.— Tn comparisons, the infinitive mood is put after 'so as' 'too,' or 'than;' as, Ee so good as fo read this letter. Too old to learn. Wiser than to viidertake it. Sonu; consider this construction as elliptical, and the inlinitive as depend- ing on a word understood. The latter example may ho thus expanded. 180 SYNTAX. 1 I 1^/" - ill i III 'i 1 I S! ill!' SI } ^ ,1 !' !■ , !• 'He is wiser than to undertake it would be wise,' or, *He is wiser than that he should undertake it ;' either way is sutHciently awkward. 9. ether Uses of the Infinitive.— (1) Season assigned.— The infini- tive is sometimes used to assign, in an abridged form, the reason of that which goes before; as. Base cowai'd that thou art! to flee! Un- grateful man! to u'ciste my fortune, roh me of my jieace, &c, Must not one sigh to reflect on so grave a subject. (2) Absolute. — The infinitive is sometimes put alsolutely, without a governing word ; as. To say the truth, I was in fault. Talchnj them as a whole, they are a fair sample. The 'imperative' is used in the same way ; as, * Take him for all in all, We ne'er shall see his like again.' — ^^nak. For analysis, see Sec. 225, 6. (.3) Omitted. — The infinitive is sometimes omitted; as, I consider him [to be] an honest man. Participles. 1. Their Force. — In force they are * verbs,' but in construction tiiey are '.adjectives.' They resemble 'adjectives' in expressing (1) an attribute without formally asserting it, but differ from them in (2) expressing 'time;' as, (1) An anms'wg person. — (2) He, watcMng the coming storm, prepared to meet it. Having slept during the night, the traveller proceeded on his way. ' Toiling, rejoicing, mrroiring. Onward thro' life he goes.' 2. As a Governing Word. —The participles often require other words to complete the sense, and are therefore followed (as verbs) by the 'objective case;' and they may stand either before or after their nouns; as, ^Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to myself the miseries of confinement.' — Sterne. 'For freedom's battle once begun, Beqiieath\l by bleeding sire to son. Tho' haflled oft is ever won.' — Byron. 3. Comparison. — From their adjectival nature they can be compared, when they descril)e qiialities, not acts; as. It was a most exciting scene. Rule XII. — A transitive verb, in the active voice, is followed by the objective case ; as, We love Mm. He loves lis. Rule XIII. — The predicate substantive, after a verb, is put in the same case as the subject before it ; as, It is he. She walks a queen. I took it to be him. SYNTAX. l()l e IS wiser iwkwarcl. 'he infiiii- reason of 'ee! V\\- c. Must ■without iiuj til en) L'd in tlie consider tiaii tlipy g (1) an them in \imtcMnf) he night, cr words 5) by the :er their igure to mparcd, >g scene. oice, is . lie 'ter a •re it ; him. 1. After a Verb.— It will be noted th.at this describts the order of the sense, rather than the actual place of the noun. (Par. 5.) 2. Case of Predicate Substantive. —As the subject of a verb can be only in the nominative or objective, the predicate substantive can bo only in the nominative or objective. 3. The Copula. — Any verb may be the copula between the * subject ' and the ' predicate ' substantive, except a transitive verb in the active voice. But those most commonly used in this way are the verbs * to be,' 'to become,' 'to seem,' 'to appear,' intransitive verbs of 'motion,' 'position,' &c., and passive verbs of 'calling,' 'naming,' 'choosing,' ka, 4. What it may be. — The predicate substantive after a verb may be anything that can be the subject of a verb. KuLii I., 1. 5. Its Position.— (I) For the position of the ' rredic;ate Nominative,' see Rule 11., 4. (2) Care should be taken to observe that tlie proper case is used in the predicate. Mistakes most frefpiently occur in translations from the dead languages, especially in the case of the ' infinitive ' which has its subject in the 'accusative,' corresponding to our 'objective.' Thus the translation, * ]Vhom do men say / am,' is incorrcet ; it should be, * Who, &c. This caution is especially necessary in oi-diuary con- versation ; thus we frequently hear such expi'essions as, ' Who do you think I saw to-day?' th.3 shou.d be ' Whom,^ &e. THE ADVERB. Rule XIV. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and otber adverbs ; as, John speaks dlstindh/y he is renicwk' abb/ diligent, and reads veri/ correctly. 1. As Modifiers of other Parts of Speech. — (1) A few adverbs some- times modify iwuns or j^ronouns; as, A^ot only the men, but the loonicii also, were present. I, even I, do bring a flood. (2) Sometimes an adverb modifies a preposition, sometimes an adjunct, and sometimes a clause of a sentence; as, He sailed nearly round the globe. Verily I say unto you. 'Bi;/ht against the Eastern gate Where the sun begins his state.' — UAUcyro. '1 have ventured But /ar beyond my depth.' — Shak. 2. Adjectives used Adverbially. — Though we find that 'atljeotivcs' are used in the Predicate of a sentence with the force of ' adverbs,' it does not follow that they may Ue used as moditiers of adjectives ; 1()2 SYNTAX. i U : 11 ,1, M; i 1:' i .1 1 • 1 •• r ? ':!. ) .A^ j' t ,1 il; 1 ^' r ■ " w'S • w ! i i i i ?■; I, thus it is incorrect to say, It is an (xasulvc hot diiy, &c. 8cg Rule IX., 5, (.}). 8. Adverbs used aa Adjoclivog.— Advrvhs arc often, thoni^h in- elegantly, made adjectives, and used to qiiidify nouns ; as, The then ministry. 1'ho above remarks, &c. Such cxi)ressions are to he avoided. The exaniples may he better expressed thus : The ministry thoi in j^oti'cr, or the ministry oftltCihuj. Tlieybn'(yo///f/ remarks, or, Tlie remarks made, (ihorc. 4. 'Where,' 'Now,' &c. — (1) 'Where' sliould not he used for 'in which,' nnh^as the reference is to place. Thus, They framed a pro- test, whei'e [ill which] they repeated their former claims. (2) Tlie adve'.'hs non", flun, v/ioi, where, in such phrases as till non', till then, since n'h(n, toiohcrr, kc, are sometimes used by good writers as nouns. Tliis, liowevcr, is rare in prose, and should not be imitated. in poetry it is more conjmon. (.S) Of this character are the expressions at once, far from hence, &e. ; but these are now established idioms, and in parsing are regarded as one AV'ord. 5. Negatives. — ( ) Two jicgatives are equivalent to an ailirmative, and should not be used unless alfirmatiou is intended; as, I cannot driidi no [(niy\ more, or, I can drink no more. {'!) Difference in Usage. — (a) Our present usage is the same as that of the Latin language. The Anglo-Saxon usage resembled the Greek ; the negation being thus strengthened. {h) During a considerable period in the histoiy of our language, double negatives with a negative sense were common ; as, *Xor did they not perceive the evil plight.' — Milton. 'I nei'cr was nor never Avill be false.' — Sliak. ' We cannot all be masters, JS'or all masters cannot l)e truly followed.' — Sihak. {<■) If the two negatives belong to difi'erent clauses we may use them both ; as, {(l) ' We will not serve thy gods, nor (will we) worship the golden image thou hast set up.' In such examples 'or' may be useil, but the negative will then extend over both clauses. {ii) One negative is sometimes connected with anotlier implied in < lie Tjjgative prefixes 'dis,' 'im,' 'im,' 'in,' 'il,' 'ir,' &c.; as, 'You are not tinacqtiainted with liis merits,' — that is, 'You are acquainted,' &c. In this way a pleasing variety of expression is sometimes pro- duced, and a less positive assertion is made. But the word onli/ with the negative, preserves the negation ; as, ' lie was not only illiberal, but even covetous.' ik. FYNTAX. lor. SoG RULK Iionyli iii- , 'I'lic thpii arc to 1)0 e ininibtry miiik.s, or, 50(1 for *in ncd ;i pro- as ilU »()ii', 0(1 writers 5 imitated . tcnCC, &(.'. ; ^!,'artled us lirniiitivr, , 1 cannot lie as tluit he Greek ; i.si(leral)lo L negative may iiise le golden isal, Init iplic'd in as, 'You iiainted,' nes pro- >iih/ witli illiberal, (4) The Negative and Afiirmativo Adverbs.— The adverbs 'nay,' 'no,' 'yea,' 'yes,' often stan/ attentive, behaves well, and is much esteemed. (a) This rule applies generally to adjunct phr.'^'^^cs as well as to adverbs. (h) Tliis is to be considered only as a general rule, to which there arc many exceptions. Indeed no rule for the position of the adverl) can be given wLieh is not liable to exceptions. T!iat order is the Ijest which conveys the meaning with most precision. In order to efTect this the adverb is sometimes placed befor<" the verb, or at some distance after it. (<•) 'Never,' 'often,' 'always,' 'sometimes,' generally precede the verb. 'Not,' with the piirticiple or hiiluitive, should generally be placed before it. ;^l *">! 104 SYNTAX. K-/' ] I I', » ,'i 't ■1!!; ill ■ 1 1 V.f. 11 '5 ('/) Tlie meaning of an tillowed Ity appropriate prepositions. The following list may bo useful for reference: — Ahhorrenee of. Attain fo. Ahound in, infji. Averse to. Absent ./Vo///. Banish /ro?/?, io. Access to. Believe in, sometimes »/,?, Accommodate to. BestoAV «^;o;?, on. Accord irith (intran.), to (trans.) Betray to a percson ; into a thing. Accuse of. Boast of. Acquaint icith. Bind to, in. Accpiit of. Blush at. Ac(piiesce in. Border upon. Adapted to. Call on a ])ersou; (it a place. Adequate to a thing, for a purpose. Capacity ,/'(>;*. Adhere to. Adjudge to. Admonish of Address to. Admission (access) to. Admission (entrance') into. Advantage oveVy of Affinity to, with. Affection for. Careful of in. Catcli at. Change (exchange) y^vr; (^Iter) A), i}ilo. Charge on a person ; vitli a thing. Compare ir<7/;, in respect of quality; to, by way of illustration. Comply, compliance u'ith. Concede to. Agree with a person ; to a proposi- Concur vnth a person ; in a mea- tion from another : upon a thing sure ; to an effect. among themselves. Condescend to. Agreeable to. Confer on, (give) with (converse). Allude to. Confide in, (intr.) to (trans.) Alter to, alteration *;.'. Conformable, conformity to, icilh. Analogy to. Congenial to. Annex to. Congratulate upon, on. Antipathy to, agaiufit. Consonant to or irilh. Approve of. Consist (to bo composed) of, {to Array ^cifh, in. be comprised) in. Arrive at. Consistent n-i(h. Ascendant onr. Contrast with. Ask of ci person ; /or a thing; after Conversant irith men ; in tilings, what we wish to hear of. Convict of a crime ; in a penalty. Aspire to, after. Copy after a i)erson ; frojn a Associate with. thing. As.scnt to. Correspond (to be consistent) tcifh ; Assure of. (answering or suitable) to. SYNTAX. 107 of, (tl) (.'oiTospomlcnce tv'tlli. Cured of. Debai'/yoH/. Defend (other,s)//'o»/; — (ouvselves) (uja'inst. Demand of. Denounce cujahn^f a person. Depend, dependent uinm, on. Deprive of. Derogate />'0)», derogatory to. Derogation /ro»i, of. Despair of. Despoil of. Die, perish of a disease; hij an instrument, or violence ; fiv another. Differ ivitli ((juarrel) ; frotn (disa- gree) ; dillerent /;■()»?. Diminish //'o;/?, diminution of. Disaliled/ro//^ Disagree tcitJi a person ; to a pro- posal. Disagreeahle io. Disappointed of what v;e do not get; ill wh;it does not anL;N\er when got. Disapprove of. Discourage yVo,'// ; discouragement io. Disgusted al, v'ttli. Dispose of; di,sposed (adj.) Io. Dispossess of Dis(pialifyyb>'. Dissent /rc»?. Distinct //'O^/J. Divested of. Divide hdwecn two, ainong more. Eager in, on, of for, ofler. Embark in. Employ in, on, ahouL Eucroaeh on, upon. Endeavour aficy a thing. Engage in a work ; for a time. Enjoin upon. Entrance into. Equal fo^ with. Equiv. lent to. Estimated of. Exception /ro»?, fo. Exclude, exclusion from. Exclusive o/. Expelled //-o/^. Expert at (before a noini) ; //( (be- fore a verbal.) Fall under disgrace ; from a tree ; into a pit ; to work ; ujion r.n enemy. Familiar to, with : a tiling is fami- liar to us — we iri'ii it. Followed h)/- j^'ond of. Foreign to. Founded ujk/ii, on, in. • Yvccfrom. Fruitful ill. Full of Cllad q/* something gained l>y our- selves; (it sometliing tliat be- falls another. (Irateful to a person; for favors. Hinder 7"'"'^/" • Hold of; as, Take hold (f me. He has a hold on liim. Impose Vjioii. Incorporate (active transitive) iin'o: (intransitive or passive) irit!i. In(le])endent of. Indulge viih a thing not liabitn;;! ; in a thing habitual. Indulgent to. liilluence oii, on r, iriih. Iiiform of, (il.oiil, roiic) rniii'j. initiate into a plate; /// an art. Inroad into. Inseparable from . Insinuate in'o. Insist upon. Instruct in. Inspection (prying) into; (superin- tendence) uftr. Intent iqion, on. Interfere vitli. Intervene hctween. Introduce into a place ; to a person. Intrude into a place enclosed; ujion a person, or a thing not enclosed. Inured to. Invested u'ltli, ill. Level with. Eongy<)r, after. Look on what is present -.for what is absent; after what is distant. Made q/" (material); /or (purpose). Itlade much of. i u i i- 108 SYNTAX. ' ' ! I- It i" * i !-■ ! M;ivt3'ry())' a cause ; fo a discaso. Militate afjahi'^f. Mistrustful of. Need of. Obedient to. Object fo, aijn!i}sf. Observance, observation of. Obtrude vpo)i, oi). Orcasion for. Offensive to. Operate ftjwn, on. Opposite, opposition to. l\irtake of; participate hi. Tenetrate into. Persevere in. Pitch iipon. Poor in. Prefer to, over, uhore. I'reference to, over. Preferable to. Prefix to. Prejudice ogainiit. I'reside over. Prevent /ro/n. Prevail (to persuade) with, on, upon; (to overcome) over, ajain.-it. Prey on, upon. Productive of. Profit by. Protect otlicrs from; ouniclvos arjninst. Pronounce ajainst a person ; on a tbin<' Provide with, for. l*roud of. Purge of, away. (Quarrel villi. Jveckon on, npon. Reconcile (to friendship) to; (b make consistent) vitli. Peduce (subdue) nmler ; (in ctht.r cases) to. Reflect upon, on. Regard /o?',- in regard to. Rely upon, on. Replete icitli. Reproached /or. Resolve on. Respect to ; in respect to, vf. Restore to. Rich In. Rob of Rule over Share in, of Significant of Similar to. Smile at. Swerve from. Taste f>/'what is actually enjoyed; taste for, means capacity or genius for. Tax v'ith, (for example, a crime, an act); /(>?', (a purpose, the state). Thankful /or. Think of, on. Thirst ^or or after. Touch at. True to or of. Unite (trans.) to, (intr. ) iviCh Wait 071, at, ovfor. Worthy of. THE CONJUNCTION. HuLE XVI. — Co-ordinate Conjunctions unite similar constructions ; as, He and / intend to go. lie gave it libn and mc. liuLE XVII. — Subordinate Conjunctions connect dcpei'.dent with principal constructions ; as, If I have crrec, pardon me. 1. Subjunctive Mood with Certain Conjunctions. — Conjunctions tliat are intended to express uncertainty are followed by the subjunc- tive mood. Conjunctions of this class are such as d ?note condition, ('if,' 'unless,' &c.,) concession, C though,' 'however,') i^c. See Rulk xr, 8. SYNTAX. ir)9 )) to; (b (in othi.r ./ enjoyod ; pacity or a crime, pose, the With ! similar le gave connect I liave junctions siiLjuno- jondition, See Rule 2. 'Than,' •As.'— (o) Tlie case of the noun or pronoun after the conjunction (1) 'than,' which follows comparatives, and the words 'else,' 'other,' 'otherwise,' and 'rather;' also (2) after 'as,' deponda upon its relation to its ow n clause ; as, (1) I visit the doctor oftcner than le (visits.) Do. do. /(<■/», (I visit liim.) (2) He loves her as nmcli as / (love her. ) Do. do. ?yte (he loves me.) (/>) If addition and not difference is implied, 'else' and 'other' may take 'besides,' or 'but,' after them; as. He can speak of other things bemlcs politics. 'More,' when no comparison is intendi-d, takes 'besides' after it; as, Many more cases hcsldcs the foregoing might be quoted. 3. Correlative Conjunctions, — Certain words in the antecedent member of a sentence recpiire corresponding connectives in the sub- sequent one; thus, (1) In clauses or words simjily connected — Both requires and; as, Both he and I came. Either ■ — Neither ■ — Whether — Though — Xof only — fir; as. Either he or I will conio, }ior; as. Neither he nor I came. or; as. Whether he or I canio, yet; as, Thonqh He slay me, yet will I trust in Him. hut aho; as, Not only he, hut also his l)rother goes. «0r.' (1) This conjunction is used sometimes to connect diiferent things and sometinifs different names of the same thing. Tlie inser- tion^of 'either' or an article will shew wliether different things or different names are joined. In the latter case it is styled a sub- alternative. (2) Sometimes it has the force of 'before;' as, 'Or ever the silvi-r cord be loosed.' — Bible. 'The shepherds on the lawn. Or e'er the point of dawn, Sat simply cliatting in a rustic ro^v.^— Milton. (2) In clauses connected so as to iniply comparison— The comparative degree recpiires than ; as, He is taller than I am. Other requires than ; as, It is no other than he. Else As So than ; as, What el^e do you expect than this? as (expressing equality) ; as, He is as tall as I am. so (expressing equality); as, 'As thy day is, so shall thy strength be.' as (with a negative expressing inc(/uallfy); as. Ho ia luit ■><'> learned ax bin brotlier. i 1i 170 SYNTAX. Ill . t :; ; i So roqiiiros that (expressing coii-'icjaciict') ; as, ITo u i^o weak ffidt he cannot walk. Sack as (expressing simUartfij) ; as, He or such as he. Such that (expressing consajiunce) ; as, The change is .s7K'A thdt any one may perceive it. 4. Correlatives not always Expressed. — Some conjunctions, as 'and,' 'or,' 'nor,' do not re(ii(!rc tlie corresponding antecedent, and 'tliough' does not ahvays re(pr"''i3 'yet.' By poetic license, 'or' and 'nor' are sometimes used as antecedents, instead of 'either' 'iioiiheri' as, '^Vc/- grief, }wr fear shall hreak my rest.' 'Brave though we fall, and honored if we live; Or let us glory gain ur glory give.' — F'qjc. 5. Proper Construction of a Common ' Suhsequent ' Clause. — AVI ion a suhseqnent clau.gc or part of a sentence is common to two dillerent Lut connected antecedent clauses, it nuisb be e(pially applieahle to both; as, That work ahvays has been, and ahvays will be, admin d. He is as tall, though not so handsome, as his brollter. When this rule is violated, the correction is made, either— (1) By altering one of the antecedent clauses, so that the subse(|nent may be ap[)licable to both. Thus, 'Tlie story h;is and will be believed,' is not correct, because, though we can s.iy, iv'dl ha Indlcvid, we cannot s;!.y, IlUs be believed. It should be, ' The story has Ijcen, and will be, believed.' (2) If this cannot be done, Ave may complete the construction of tiio lirst part by annexing its appropi'iate subsequent, and leave the suli- .sequent of the second understood. Thus, 'Ife was more beloved \n\t not so much admired as ('ynthio,' is not c irrcct. It should be, 'He Avas more beloved than Cynthio, Lut not so much admired.' Tlio principle of this rule a}»plies to the appropriate selection of Avords as Avell as to their construction; thus, 'This doctrine is founded and consistent Avith the truth,' siiould be, 'founded upoit, an»l consistent tcith, &c. 6. Auxiliary Understood. — When two or more verbs in the compouiul tenses, or in the progressive or emphatic form, or in the passive voie. , are connected, the auxiliary expressed Avitli the lirst may be under- stood to the rest ; as, He can neither read nor write. Still, however, the repetition of the auxiliary is often more emphatic; as, 'They shall come, and the)] shall dechxre His truth.' 7. Compound Predicate. — (I) Verbs of the same mood, tense, or form, connected as a compound predicate, hu.; ri.e nominative ex- pressed Avith the lirst, and understood co ih-r^'st; as ("lesar tv?///*^', .saH\ and coiif/nered. ("2) When verbs connec\.->i' are r»'»t ui the sauie inood, tense, oi- form, and e.^^peeially if contrast- <.■ ri>;.)e. -Lion, expressed by 'but,' 'though,' 'yet,' is intended, the nomuiat!,..' is frc(pu'ntly 7 veak that le. ;o is -s'/K'/i as 'and,' ' tliough ' 'nor' are 3. — ^V]lon ) (lillbrent licaLle to admired. S'^liou til is ing one of ilical'lc to it correct, ly, lio.s he believed.' xni of tiio e the sul)- ?loved hut ai;e, 'JTo ed.' The of Avords mded aiiel consistent compound iive voicv , he uuder- , however, as, 'They tense, or native ex- esar canw, I the same expressed freipiently SYNTAX. 171 repeated; as, He came, but lie would not stay. Still (3) this is to be regarded only as a gen'..'al direction, in accordance with, perhaps, the majority of cases, but to which, as a rule, there are many l. -^eptions. The object aimed at is to secure euphony and perspicuity; and when these are preserved without repeating the nominative, it may be omitted; as, 'The two charges had hcen, and still an; united in one person.'— A"o?y:A British Bcriew. 8. 'That,' after certain Expressions. —After expressions implying doubt, fear, or denial, .lie conjunction 'that' is properly used— not 'lest,' 'but,' 'but that;' as, 1 do not doubt Ihaf he is honest. I am afraid that he will die. Also, ' what ' should never be used for * that ;' thus, He will not believe but yrhnf I ;im to lame, Rliould be, but that I am to blame. 9. Omission of Conjunction. — (1) By omitting tlie conjunction a M'riter adds to the energy and vividness of his description ; as, (2) on the other hand, by repeating it, the descriptions are amplified ; as, ' O'er many a frozen, many a fiery x\lps, lloeks, caves, lakes, fens, 1>og.s, dens, and siuvles of death, A imiversc of deatli. ' — Milton. 'Seasons return, but not to mo returns Day. or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn, Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or tloek or herds, or linmnn face divine. ' — J/i'7/u/;. THE INIEEJECTION. Rule XVIII. — Interjections have no grammatical connection witli other wor'/'/' . 'Ah ! wretelied "'c, poets of tlic earth.'— ("'»//7c//. 2. In neitlier of those, however, does the ease depend on the inter- jection. The objective is (ommonly thought to be governed by a word understood; tliu.-^. Ah [/"7//] ?»r^.'— Ah [irhnt v'ill b< route of \ i)}f' ! Th(> nominative form is e-^nnnonly the independent by address. I •J rn 1 < J ill II ii' %:l '' i! m I \i ' PART FOURTH. APPENDIX ON PROSODY, &C. PROSODY. 1. Altliondi Prosody belono;s rather to that hltrher department of the study of language which may be called Criticism^ than to Pure Grammar, some account of the Laws and Nature of A'^erse is now ffiven. Of what it Treats. — This branch of study deals chiefly with 'accent,' 'metre,' and 'versification.' 2. Verse differs from Prose chiefly — 1. In possessing metre. 2, In its more elevated style, •which arises from, — (1) the use of less common words; (2) a less usiial order; (8) and the abundance of Figures of Speech. 3. !Metre, or "Measure, is the rff/ular successio)f of accented sijllahles. 1. Metre, how Determined.— The Metre of English Verse is tlunv- fore determined by the falling of tlie Accent. 2. Accent, wh?t it is. — Accent means a certain force of tlio ^•oi(•e given to some syllables and not to others. 3. Feet. — The regular falling of tlie Accent divides a line of Vcr.s'b^ into certain portions called feet. [Feet are so called from the measured frdling of the voice rosenibling the fall of i]\Q.f(-ot in marching.] 4. Tlie principal feet are,~ DISSYLLABIC. 1. Iambus, — - — or s. 1. ; as, rophie. 2. Trochee, — -' or 1. s. ; as, hrml-iiu/. 3. Spondee, or 1. 1.; as, p^'fcn U'arcfi. TRISYLLABIC. 1. Anapaest, — ' ^— — or s. a. 1.; as, on the free. 2. Dactyl, — ^ -^ or 1. s. s.; as, hraii-ti-fuf. 3. Amphibrach, ^ — ^ or s. 1. s. ; as domv'^flr. [To those m!>y Uo .'id>-• ; '■;y T higher may be account 'accent,' the use ot ndance of ^ss'to)) of e is tlier.^- tlie voice of Verse osomLliiig PROSODY. 173 Ijut tlicso may always Lc taken as furiuing p:irts of S(jine of the six given above.] 5. A row of feet Is called a W'vse or Luic. [The word verse is otherwise, but less correctly, used to mean a certain arrangement of lines.] 1. Couplet, &e. — Two lines rhyuiiug together make a couiilet. Three lines rhyming together make a triplet. A stanza is a group of rhyming lines, generally ruugiug in number from four to nine. 2. Rhyme, what it is. — Rhyme is the agreement in sound of ut- cented syllables at the end, or sometimes in the middle, of poetic lines ; thus, Gloom rhymes with bloom. Glory ,, ,, 8! or J. Note. — Tiie needful points in a perfect rhyme aic, — 1. That the vowel sound be the same in both. 2. Tliat the letters after the vowel be the same. 3. That the letters h'J'ore the vowel be diilertiit. 3. Blank Verse. —Verse without IMiyme is called Blank Verso, CHIEF KINDS OF IVIETRE. G.— 1. Iambic Pentameter. — TlWs is the principal English metre, and is a line consisting oi Jive feet, of the kind called Linibus. h -^ — "*-' : Is thi's I the re' | gion, thi's | the so'il, | the cli'me ? This metre, otherwise called our Heroic Measure, was first used in Euglisk verse by the Earl of Surrey, who was beheaded in 1547; and has been adopted by Shakespeare, Milton, Cowper, Wordsworth, Tennyson — in fact, by nearly all our great poets. Dryden and Pope wrote the Heroic Measure chiefly in rhyming couplets. "Without rhyme it constitutes our blank verse ; ^^'ith rhyme it is sometimes called riding rlyme, being the metre of Chaucer' .s "Canterbury Tales." Four heroics rhyming alternately, form the elegiac stanza of our elegists. 2. The Spenserian Stanza. —This consists of chjlit Iambic Pcuta- meters, followed by an Alexandrine, or Iambic Hexameter; as, *A lovely ladie rode him faire l)esidc, Upon a lowly asse more white than snow ; Yet she much whiter; but the same did hide Under a vele that wimpled was full low ; And over all a black stole she did throw ; As one that inly mourned, so was she sad, And lieavie sate upon her palfrey slow ; Seemed in heart some hidden care she had: _ And by her in a line a milUowhitc i;)i'.i''»i? fe!i.. ];i i I '— .«^' P':<: p Id 174 PROSODY. m \i': Thomson iii the "Castle of Indolence," and Byron in "Childo Harold's Pilgrimage," are chief among the more modern writers of the Spenserian stanza. 3. The Iambic Tetrameter (four feet) in couplets, was Scott's favorite metre: — 'Woo wo'rtli I the cha'se ! | woe woHh | the day ! That cost thy life my gallant grey ! ' — Scott. This measure is often used in alternate rhymes: — 'A moment while til e trumpets blow. He sees his brood about thy knee ; The next, like tire, he meetii the foe, And strikes liim dead for thine and thee.' — Tennyson. Or tlius (a couplet between two rhyming lines) : — *I hold it trno whate'er befal : I feel it when I sorrow most, 'Tis better to have lovad and lost, Than never to have loved at aJL' — Tennyson. 1, Common Metre. —This consists of Iambic Tetrameters and Iambic Trimeters (three feet) arranged in alternate rhymes:— 'Let old I Timo' | theus yield | the pri'ze, Or bo'th I divi'dc | the cro'wn: i He raised a mortal to the skies ; She drew an angel down.' — Dryden. Tliis metre, which is also called Service Metre, owing to its use in the English metrical version of the Psalms, is often written thus, in two long lines: — 'Night sunk upon the dusky beach, and on the purple sea; Such night in England ne'er had been, nor e'er again shall be.' Macaulay. 5. Anapaestic Metre. — The use of the Anapaest, instead of the Iambus, produces a beautiful undulating music, much used in lyric poetry. ' For the mo'on | never be'ams, ( without brin'g | ing me dre'ams, | Of the beau' I tiful An'n | abel Le'e: | And the sta'rs | never ri se, | but I fe'el | the bright ey'es, | Of the beau | tiful Ann | abel Lee.' — Poe. Anapaests have their stress upon every 3rd, 6tli, and 9th syllable. The anapaestic verse often begins with an iambus. 6. The Dactylic Hexameter. — This verse, the heroic measure of Greek and Latin, does not suit the genius of tlie English language. Longfellow's "Evangeline" affords, perhaps, the most favorable- example of its use in English: — rrxnuATiox. i(0 "Chiklo raters of Scott'a imiyson. Jters and its use in thus, in II be.' 'acaulay. I of the in lyric ams, I syllable. asure of mguage, ivorable ! 'This is th;.' i forest prim | cval. Tic i lunnniiriiig | imwH and tlio I humlockf-!, Bearded witli | nioss r.p.d uiLh | gavincr.h | grrm, indis | linct in th.! I t\vili:'lit, •Stand, liivc I Druids of | old, ■\vit1i | voieos | ;-;vd aiid [iro | itlutic' 'I'his verse is si^ldoin regular throughout, and the stress is Liid upon the 1st, 4tl), and 7th ^yllabh'H. rUNCTUATION. 1. Punctuation trcnts of iho ]M)ints njid marks now nsed in writinii, and marks off words accordini:' to ilieir isensc. 1. UsG of Points. —The use of points is to ninrk the division of a sentenee, in order to shcv the meaning more clearly, also to serve as a guide in the pauses and inflections rcrpiired in reading; Imt it must be bomie in mind that a coiTect and impressive reader or speaker \\ill make many pauses which are not indicated by the punctuation. 2. Marks Used. — Tlic principal marks used for this purpose are tlie following: — The comma (,), the 8f.mkolon (t), the colon (:), i\\c prrhxl (.), i\\(i note of mterrofjallon (?), the note of cxcknnatioii (I), the danh ( — ), the pareniheaea ( ), the brackets [ ]. COI^IMA. 2. The Comma is generally iipcd in those parts of a sentence in which a short pause is required, and to mark a connection next in closeness to that wliicli is un])roken. Eule 1.— In a short, simple sentence, tlie comma is not used ; as, Hope is necessary in every condition of life. Eule 2. — When the logical subject of a verb is rendered long by the addition of several adjuncts or other qualifying words to the grammatical subject, a comma is usually inserted l)efore the verb ; as, A steady and undivided attention to one su])ject, is a sure mark of a superior mind. [The tendency of modern English is to omit the comma, unless its omission is likely to produce aui1)iguity.] Rule 3. — (1) Sid)ordinate sentences, participial clauses, and adjec- tives with adjuncts, forming a distinct claur"^, are generally separated l)y a comma. (2) If, however, the relative or adjective is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma is not inserted ; as, 'I, that did never weep, now melt in woq,^ —ShfiJc, ♦Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel juat. — -bVtal', 17^ rUNCTUATION. m: I w (3) The roinina is ofU n omitted if the subordinate sentence is very l)iief and closely connected ■with the principal sentence ; as, It ia certain we imagine before yve reflect. Bule 4. — The separate words or jjhrases which represent the clanacs of a contracted compound sentence, are marked olF by a couunaj as, I'oetry, music, and painting, are line arts. "' Rule 5. -AVords that go in pairs take u comma after each pair; as, Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the consequences of civil wai*. Rule 6.— (I) The nominative of address), (2) a verbal clause, (.')) a M ord or pliraso repeated for emphasis, (-4) a noun in apposition when it h^s several adjuncts, are st pped off with a comma; iis, (1) Ml/ son, give me thy heart. (2) The knight, couchliHf his lance, struck spurs to his steed. To con/ess the (ruth, I think 1 A\a3 wrong. (3) Fn\v,fciu, shall part where many meet. (4) Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles;— (but) Paid the Apostle. Bule 7. — (1) Comparative and antithetical clauses, if the connec- tion is not very close; \2) certain adverbs, as, 'firstly,' 'finally,' 'jiamely ;' and conjunctions, as, 'moreover,' ' however,' &c., especially when used to open a sentence or parngraph ; (3) quotations closely dependent on such verbs as 'say,' 'tell,' &c., arc separated by commas; as, (1) Thongli deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. Wisdom is better than rubies. (2) But, by a timely call upon religion, the force of habit was eluded. (3) "The book of Nature," said he, "is open before thee." Rule 8. — (1) Inverted constructions, (2) and an omission in con- tracted sentences, are marked by commas ; though the omission of the comma in the case of single adjectives is admissible ; as, (1) T^o irsf, the cushion and soft down invite. (2) Reading makes a full man ; writing, a correct man ; speaking, a ready man. David was a ^cinej brave, and imident king. A good old sound dry wine. Rule 9. — Two words connected by a conjunction are not separated by a comma, but the sub-alternative 'or,' requires its insertion; as. Virtue and vice are contrary to each other. The figure is a sphere, or globe. THE SEMICOLON AND THE COLON. 3. The Semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence wliich, are less closely connected than those e IS very as, It iH clanaoa luna; as, Jair; as, lul ruin, sc, (.*)) a oil when oil. To )stIo. COllllCC- finally,' pecially s closely ated by Wisdom hit was in con- n of the vking, a A good parated on; as, sphere, 3 of a those I'r.N( TLATION. 177 uliit'h arc scpHrutod by ii coniinn, and moiv clos^'ly tliaa tliose which arc separated by the colon. 4. The Colon is nscd to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connected than those uhich are st'])aratcd by a semicolon, but not so independent as to rcfpiiie a l)eriod. [The general principle, theivforo, wliich regulate.>i the choice (.f either, is tlie closeness of the connection.] Rule 1.— The clauses of an nncontracted componnd sentence are separated by a semicolon, each sentence being cuuiplete in it-si'lf, bnt having a slight connection in sense; as, Perform your duty faitlifully; for this will secure you the favor of Heaven, I'itus Tanpiiu was slvin; the Latin lines were broken, and their cuiup was taken l^y storm. Ru)o 2. — When a general term has several otliers, as particulars, in apposition nnder it, the general term is separated from the particn- lars by a semicolon, and the particulars from each other by commas ; us, Adjective pronouns arc divided into four classes ; possessive, demonstrative, distributive, and indefinite ; but if the word 'namely' be introduced, the separatii^n is made liy a comma only. Rulo 3. — (1) In complex sentences the subordinate sentences are separated from the principal, when necessary, by commas; but the principal sentences are marked oflt' by a semicoloii; as, As the desire of approbation, when it wor' s according to reason, improves the amiable part of our s]>eoies in everything that is laudable; so nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly. (2) This rule is also api)licable in those cases in which the sense being incomplete, the snbject, predicate, or object is repeated, in order to receive an enlargement ; as, An honorable friend near me ; a gentleman to whom, &c. ; a gentleman on whose abilities, &c. ; that honorable gentleman has told you, &c. Rule 4. — In compound sentences, when there is a common depend- ence between the subsequent clauses, the subsequent clause is separ- ated from the others by a colon ; as, Pruices have courtiers and mer- chants have partners; the voluptuous have companions and the wicked liave accomplices : none but the virtuous have friends. Rule 5. — (1) The colon is used in compound sentences when the first clause is complete in itself, and is followed by a remark not strictly co-ordinate, and yet not completely independent ; as, Time is the se,'d field of eternity: what a man soweth, that shall he also reap. N*^.^. \^xa^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) A 1.0 I.I 1.25 ti^U2B |2.5 1^ 1^ 12.2 ■:£ 2.0 m V] .% 7: y >^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 873-4503 o^ TT 1 ■ «: f ■f Ti! l«... 17S r PUNCTUATION. (2) If two co-onlinato sentences arc closely connected, but the con- nective omitted, a colon is used; as, Apply yourself to learning* it will redound to your honor. Rule 6. — The colon is usod to mark a direct f[UotatIon, as, Alway.', rcmemher this ancient maxim : ' Know tliyself ! ' But if in the quotation words expressive of dependence arc use 1, a comma is generally inserted; as, 'Till their fojid mother, with a kiss, shall cry, '"Tis morn, awake! awake!"' — Bowles. THE PERIOD, OR FULL STOP. 5. Sentences wliicli arc complete in sense, and not connected in either meaning or grammatical construc- tion, arc separated by a period ; as. Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity toward all men. 1. Period Admissible. — A full point is admissible oetween two parts of a long sentence, though they are closely connected in sense by a particle, when either of them can be divided into more simple party, separated from one another by a semicolon or a colon ; as, H(; who lifts up himself to the notice of the world, is, of all men, the least Ikely to avoid censure. For he draws upon himself a thou- sand eyes, that will narrowly inspect him in every part. 2. Abbreviations. — The period is used after abbreviations of what- ever kind they may be; as, M.D., B.D., M.A., G.T.R., Art. II., Sec, Obs., &c. GENERAL PRINCIPLE. The following general principle is laid down in Angus' Hand- book: — Generally, it may be said that the 'period' divides a paragraph into sentences; the •colon' and the 'semicolon' divide compound sentences into smaller ones; and the 'comma' connects into clauses the scattered statements of time, manner, place, and relation, be- longing to verbs and nouns. Where the sense is clear without commas, it is better to omit them, and then they may take the place of the semicolon in complex and co-ordinate sentences. In few cases are the pauses in good reading regulated exactly by the stopping. THE NOTES OF INTERROGATION AND EXCLAMATION. 6. As a question is regarded as a complete sentence, the note of interrogation is equal to a period. rrNCTl'ATION. 170 t tlic con- iruing- it ?, Alwayf, re use ], ;i md not )nstrii'> Hoiior veeii two 1 in sense re simple a; as, He men, the If a thou- 1 of what- Art. II., is' Hand- )aragrapli iompound io clauses ition, be- • witliout the place few cases 5ping. •ION. sntcnce, Ifule 1. — This notu i.-s always put at the end of a 'direct' quostinn, whetlier it is iutrocluced or not with interrogatory words; as, Wliat is truth ? I suppose, sir, you are his aiJothecary ? Rule 2. — When tha S7m^. 2 It is often used instead of tJie semicolon to separate tlie parts of a contracted compound sentence, espocially if these parts arc more in number and longer than usual ; as, Tlie cold blue glare of ice — the deadly white stillness of the spreading snow — the dark fringe of pine trees— the perilous zig-zag of the mountain path — began to change by pleasant gradations into the soft foliage of chestnut and olive and the glowing gold of Italian plains. [The last four marks are, strictly speaking, more rhetorical than grammatical in their nature. ] OTHER MARKS. 1. The Apostrophe (') is used when a letter or letters are omitted; as, A"cr for ever, thoi' for though; or to mark the possessive case, man's, ladies', or to form the plural of signs or letters ; as, The ' a's,' •b's,' &c.; the * -f s' and the *— s.' 2. Quotation marks or 'guillemets' ('* ") are put at the beginning and the end of a passage quoted from an author in his own words. A passage regarded as a quotation, a quotation within a quotation, or one in which the sense is given, and not the exact words, is marked l)y the single point. This distinction, however, is not always ob- served ; but, when many quotations are to be made, the single point presents a neater appearance. 3. The Hyphen ( - ) is used to connect the parts of compound words which are not pcrinaricnt compounds, as. Lap-dog ; also at the end of a lino, to shew that tlie rest of the word not completed is at the be- ginning of the next line, It is found most frequently in ne"\v)y formed I PUNCTUATIOX. 181 ivlikh did rhe wisest mpt from irks occur er clause, ! sentence -an iinex- )miuon tu Miliiinn. V-Shak. the parts 1 arc more f ice— tlie L,'c of pine to cliange olive and L-ical than omitted ; sive ease, rhe as. beginning jn words, tation, or s marked ways ol)- tgle point nd words he end of it the be- ly formed I or nmisual compound words ; in those of greater nge or more frequent use it disappears ; as, Gnn-cotton, ChinpomUr. 4. The Section (§) is used to divide a discourse or chai)ter into portions. 5. The Paragraph (H) was formerly used to denote the beginning of a new paragraph or subject. It is frecpiently found in the Bible. 6. The Braco ( ) is used to connect words which have one com- mon term, or tliree lines in poetry having the same rhyme, called a triplet. 7. The Ellipsis ( ) is uaed when some letters are omitted ; as, K—g for King. Several asterisks are sometimes used for the same purpose ; as, IC^*g. 8. The Caret (A) is used to shew tliat some word is either omitted or interlined. 9. The Cedilla (9) is a mark borrowed from the French, who place it under 'c' to give it the sound of 's' before 'a' or 'o;' as facade. It is used in some Dictionaries to denote the soft sound of *g,' 's,' and 'x.' 10. The Vowel marks are (1) the diaeresis; (2) the acute accent; (.S) the grave accent ; (4) the macron, or long sound ; and (.")) the breve or the short sound. (1) The Diaeresis ( •• ) is placed on the hist of two concurrent vowels, to shew that they are not to be pronounced as a diphthong ; as, A irhil. (2) The Acute Accent ( ) marks ( 1 ) the emphasis, (2) a close syllabi*', and (3) the rising inflection; as, (1) K(inal, (2) fancy, (.S) Is it well done? (.3) The Grave Accent (') marks (1) an open vowel, (2) the falling inflection, and (3) the full soujid of the sylhiblc over whieli it is placed; as, (1) Favour, (2) It is well dune, (3) 'Spain Forging the thunderbolts of either Ind To armed thunderbolts.'— />'«/?« r. (4) The Macron, or long sound, and (5) the Breve, or short sound, indicate that the vowels_over which dther is placed, are long and short respectively; as, Ifaven, a bird; r"irven, to seize greedily. 11. The marks of Reference are: The Asterisk (* ); the Obelisk or Dagger ( t ); the Double Dagger ( .t ); the Parallels ( H ) ; the Index («»') which points to something that deserves attention. Sometimes, also, the S and IT are used, and also small letters or figures, which refer to notes at the foot of the i»ng( s. ,wr 7 182 • ...LirSTS. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. GENERAL RULE. In every sentence, the words employed, and the order in which they are arranged, should be such as clearly and properly to express the idea intended; and at the same time all the parts of the sentence should corres- pond, and a regular and dependent construction be pre- served throuiihout. 1. As a general rule, the fewer the ■words are by which we express our ideas, tlie better, provided the meaning is clearly brought out. This may often be done witliout using all the wovds necessary to the full grammatical form of a sentence; and hence, as the tendency always is to abbreviate speech, such words as can be spared, accord- ing to the usage of the language, are properly omitted. 2. This omission of words necessary to the full construction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idea intended, is called ellipsis. RULES. Rule I. — An ellipsis, or omission of words, is ad- missible when they can Ijc supplied by the mind with such certainty and readiness as not to obscure the sense. Tims, Instead of .saying, 'He was a lourned man, and he was a wise man, and he was a good man,' we may say, 'lie was a learned, wise, and good man.' When Admissible. — According to common usage, an ellipsis of the different parts of speech is allowed in the following cases, viz : — 1. Noim and Pronoun. — Wlien two or more things are asserted of tlie same subject, the noun or pronoun is exi>ix>'jscd before the lirst verb, and omitted before the rest. Also, when the same noun or pronoun is the object of several verbs, it is omitted after all except the last; as, 'I love, fear, and respect hiui,' instead of, *T love him, I fear Jiiii}, and I respect /*»/?.' 2. With the Comparative. — A noun is frequently omitted after the comparative degree ; as, T ^^ ill pull down my barns, and build greater [hams]. 3. One Noun and Several Qualifiers. — When two or more adjectives ([ualify the same noun, the noun is omitted after all except the last; as, 'A great, wise, and good inan,^ for, *A givat man, a wise }«««, and a siood vxiii.'' r le order clearly :l at the corres- be pre • e express ight out. ,ry to the tendency I, aceorcl- ition of a is called , is ad- id with 3 sense. nae man, i'ise, and is of tho z : — sorted of tho lirst noun or ,11 except ove fiiiii, after tlio d greater djcctivcs the last; ise man, ELLIPSIS I8;i 4. Adjective and Article. — AVhen an adjective (pialilus two or more nouns, it is omitted before all except the ilrst only; as, Good (pialitios and actions. Ilappu boys and girls. ' lie is an honest, learned, and well-bred man,' for, ^ An honest, a learned, and a well-bred man.' 5. Omission of the Verb. — (1) A verb is often omitted after its sub- jeet, preceded by the comparative degree ; as, He is wiser than I {nm\ 1 am younger than he \is]. (2) When several clauses come together, havmg the same predicate vtrb, the verb is often expressed in the first, and omitted in the rest ; as, The Italians have imitated the Latins ; the English, the Italians ; and the Americans, the English. Sometimes it is omitted in the first, and expressed in the last; as, Not only men, but nations, imitate one another. (3) The verb 'to be,' with its subject, in dependent clau'?os, is often omitted after the connectives, 'if,' 'though,' 'yet,' 'when,' 'ce. ; as. Study, if \it <\s] neglected, becomes irksome. Though [he «ra-s] poor, he was respectable. (4) In poetry, verbs which express address or aiinvv-er, are often omitted; as. To him the prince {t'opVud]. Also, when the words connected readily indicate what the verbs nuist be if expressed; t.s, I '11 litnce to London. I '11 in. 'Avai/, old man ! ' — S/ad:. ' Tp, up, ( ;ienarkin ! '—/t'cott. ' On ! Stanley, on ! '—Scott. {.>) The verb is often omitted in the second clause of a sentence after tho auxiliary, when the same verl) is used in the first clause; ns. You have read, but I have not [read]. Also, verbs connected in the same voice, mood, and ii'use, having the auxiliary with the iirst, omit it with tho rest; as. He will he loved and respected for his virtues. 7. Adverb.— When an adverb modifies more words than one, it is placed only with the last; as. He spoke and acted (jracrfal'i/. 8. Preposition. — When the same preposition connects two or more subsequent terms of a relation with one antecedent term, it is usually omitted before all except the first; as, Onr the hills and the valleys. ThroiKjh woods and wilds. 9. Conjunction. — When several words and clauses come together in the same construction, the conjunction is sometimes omitted en- tirely, sometimes between each pair, and sometimes before all except the last; as, He caused tho blind to see, the lame to v.alk, the deaf to hear, the lepers to be cleansed. We ran liitl er and thither, seek- ing novelty ami change — sympathy and pastime— communion and love. Youth is the season of joy, of bliss, of strength, and pride. 10. Interjection. — 'Ihe interjections are never omitted, but, in the expression of sudden emotion, all but the most import.ant words are 184 -( I I FinURKS. o.;mmonly omittiMl ; rvs, 'Well done!' for, ^ That U well clone!' Also, after interjections, there is often an ellipsis of the obvious word ; as, ' for a lodge,' &c. ; that is, *0 how I long for a lodge,' &c. Rule II. — An ellipsis is not allowable when it wonld oljscurc the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety; as, We speak that we do know, for that tvhich, &c. 1. In general no word should bo omitted by ellipsis that is neces- sary to the usual construction or harmony of a sentence, or to render meaning perspicuous. 2. Articles, pronouns, and prepositions, shoidd always be repeated when the words with which they stand connected are used emphati- cally. Under such circumstances even nouns, adjectives, and verbs, must often be repeated ; as, Not only tlte year, but the day and the hour were appointed. 3. It is generally improper, except in poetry, to omit the antoeo- dent to a relative ; and it is always improper to omit a relative when it is in the nominative. f' '■ ' 1 FIGURES. 1. A Fi^nrc, in grammar, is some deviation from the or dinar y form, or contraction, or application of words in a sentence, for the pnrpose of greater precision, variety, or elegance of expression. Kinds of Figures. — There arc throe kinds of Figures, — viz., of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Ehetoric. The first and the second refer to the form of words, or to their construction ; and the last to their application. FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 2. A Fignre of Etymology is a departure from the usual or simple form of words merelv. 3. Of these most important are eight, — viz., APHiE- RESis, Prosthesis, Syncope, Apocope, Paragoge, Dleresis, SYNiERESis, and Tmesis. 1. Aphffiresis is the elision of the syllable from the beginning of a word; as, ^Gainst, ^gan, ^bove, ^neath, for against, hegan, above, beneath. 2. ProBthesia is the prefixing of a syllable to a word; as, Adown, agohig, &c., for ie we to the last.' *A mati he was to all the country dear.' * He wanders corf/t orouHi^' ' FIGURES OF RHETORIC. G. A F'Vure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary ^iPrLiCATiON of words in speech, to f^ive animation, strength, and beauty to the composition. These figures are sometimes called Tropes. 7. Of these the most important are the following, — viz. : — Irony. Metonymy. Synecdociio. Antithesis. Climax. Exclamation. Interrogation. Paralepsis. Apostrophe. Hysteron-Proteroii. Personification. Simile. Metaphor. Allegory. Vision. Hyperbole. 1. Personification, or Prosopopseia, is that ligurc of speech by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects; as, ' 2'//e sea saiv It umljled.^ 2. Simile. — This figure expresses the rcsembiance that one object bears for another; as, 'JJe ^hall he like a free 2)ian(e(l by the rii'ers oj ii'ater.^ 3. Metaphor. — This is a simile without the sign {like, or as, &c.) of comparison ; as, ' He shall be a tree planted hy,^ kc. 4. Allegory. — Tliis figure is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable. Tlius, the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine: ' Thoti hast brought a vine ont of Er/ypt,' &c., (Ps. Ixxx. 8-17.) Of this style are ^Esop'a "Fables," Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," &c. 5. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents past events, or the objects of his imagination, as actually present to his senses; as, 'Ca3sar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enter.s Italy.' 'The combat thickens: on, ye braves!' 6. Hyperbole. — The iigure represents things as greater or loss, 1 letter or worse, than they really are. Thus David says of Haul ami Jonathan, * They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than Ii0)l8' 7. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of what we say; as when Elijah said to tho worshippers of Bnal, * f^ry alovd, for he is a grxJ,' Ac. 68 in a acn< osition; as, lutry dear. ' from the to f^ive npositioii. lowiii.fi:, — tion. i. lie. ■Proterou. jh by which (C sea saw U ontj object 'he Q'U'crs oj • «*, &c.) of metaphors, ble. Thus, 'ine : * Thou )i this style L* represents yr present to and enters ter or less, of (Saul ami roinjer than ary of what ' Crif niovtf, VKilKKS 1;«>7 8. Metonymy is a ligure by wliich we put the cause for tlic elfcct, or the cfleet for the cause; us, when wc say, 'ilc reads Milton,' \\\' mean Milton's irorh. 'Grey hairs should be respected '-that is, old aije. 9. Synecdoche is the putting of a part for tfio whole, or the whole for a part, a definite number for an. indelinite, &c.; as, the iouvch for the HCAiy the Iteai!. for the itn-mi, and ten thousaiul for any great Jiumber. Tlii.i tigurc is nearly allied to meto>ii/n>//. 10. Antithesis, or Contrast, is a figure by which dillereiit or con- trary objjcts are contrasted, to make them shew (»iie another to udvantage. Thus Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked with tho courage of the righteous, when he says, ' The id"l:td jh' ,rheu HO man intrsmth, Intt the riyhtcoiis are bold as a lion.' 11. Climax, or Amplification, is the heightening of all the ciicuni- stances of an object or action which we wish to place in a strong light; as, 'Wlio shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribuhaion, ur distress, or persecution, or fa mine, or na/Kedn<'s.s-, i,r peril, or sn-ord r kc. See also liom. viii. ;{8, ;{•). 12. Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong emotion of the mind; as, 'Oh! the depth of the riches both of the vis- doni and the knowledije of Cod.' 13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion (.f our mind, and enliven our discourse, by proposing questions; thus, 'Hidh the Lord said it? and .shall lie not do it.'' Jfafh //<' spoken it ! and shall lie not make it r/oodi'' 14. Paralepsis, or Omission, is a figure by which the speaker pre- tends to conceal what ho is really declaring and strongly enforcing ; as, 'Horatius was once a very promising young gentleman, but in process of time he became so addicted to gamuig, not to mention hi.'< drunkenness and debauchery, that ho soon exhausted his estate, and ruined his constitution.' 15. Apostrophe is a turning ofl" from tho subject to address some other person or thing; as, 'Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death, vhere is thy .stiny?' 16. Hysteron-Proteron. — By this figure the ordinary course of thought is inverted in expretision, and the last is put first; as, 'Is your father M'ell, the old man of wlioin ye spake? Ts lie yet alive?' — ^liible. 8. — Besides tho deviations from the u.sual form and construction of words, noted under the figures of ICtymology and Syntax, there are still otiiers, wliich cannot be classed under proper heads, and FT3l "k .1 li 1 1 ■ I V c 188 VKJTJUES. which, from being used mostly in iioetic compoBition, arc commonly called — POETIC LICENSES. 9. These arc such as the followinfr : — 1. In poetry, Avonls, idioms, and phrases, are often used, Mhieh would be inadmissible iu prose ; as, 'A man he was to all the country dear. And passing rich with forty pounds a year.' *By fountain clear, or spangled starliglit sheni.* •Shall I receive by ^ift, what of my own, When and M'here likci me best, I can command.' 'Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey.' •The «7a7e?«, the vaidted shrine around, Seraphic wires were heard to sound.' *0n the first friendly bank he throtcs him down.* * 1 '11 seek the solitude he sought, And stretch me where he Lay.' •Not Hector's stV/" should want an equal foe.' 2. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry than in prose ; as — * Suffice, to-night, these orders to obey.' * Time is our tedious song should here have ending.' * For Is there aught in sleep can charm the wise ?' * 'Tis Fancy, in her fiery car, Transports me to the thickest war.' * Who never fasts, no banquet o'er enjoys,' * Bliss is the same in subject as in king, Jn who obtain defence, or who defend.' 3. In poetry, adjectives are often elegantly connected with nouns which they do not strictly qualify ; as — •The 2)loughma7i homeward plods his weary way.' •The tenants of the warbling shade.' •And droivsy tinklings lull the distant /oW**.' 4. The rules of grammar are often violated by the poets. A noun and its pronoun are often used in reference to the same verb ; as — */< ceased, the melancholy «OMMc?.' •My banks they are furnished with bees.' •For the deck it was their field of fame.' 5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb and * to,' the sign of the infinitive ; as, — •To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell ; To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes.' rnii Ki>. 1.^0 poninionly led, MhieU oetry than v'ith nouna 6. A f'6mmftn pottic liconH*' oonHistH in rmi»loying *or' ami 'nor' instead of ' eithei ' and ' neither ;' as— 'And first Or on the listid pliin, or stormy aea.' *yor grief nor fear shall break my rest.' 7. Intransitive verhs are often made transitivo, aiid adjectives usi d like abstract nouns ; as- - •The lightnings /a/j// a larger curvt>.' * On his low couch The fettorM soldier sank, and with deep awo Listened the fearful sounds.' •Still in harmonious interoourso, they lived The rural day, and talbd the Howing heart.' •Meanwhile whate'cr of ^wf////"/// or JJ^J", By chance or search, was offered to his view, He scanned with curious eye.' 8. fireek, Latin, and otlier foreign idioms ar< allowable in poetry, though inadmissible in prose ; as— •He hmo to sing, and hulld the lofty rhyme.' *Qive me to seize rich Hector's shield of gold.' ♦ There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call. Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame.' 'Yet ; as — ),' the sign COMPOSITION. 1. Composition is the art of expressing our sentiments in spoken or written language. 1. Different from Grammar.— Composition differs from Grammar, as architecture differs from a knowledge of the rules of building; tho latter shapes sentences according to external rule ; the former, ac- cording to feeling and sentiment. Grammar is a means ; compoai- tion, the end. ! t y ■!f! ,- '!. .'! > ;3»n it !ii '^ h ' lt)() COMPOSITIOX. 2. Different Kinds of Composition.— (I) Prose compositions arc those in whieli tlio tliouglits arc expressed in the natural order, in common and ordinary language. (2) Poetic compositions are tho.se in wliicli the thoughts and sentiments ai-e expressed in measured verse, in loftier and more inverted style, by words and figures selected and r.rrangcd so as to please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 3. Direct and Indirect Disconrsc.— In Lotli kinds of composition avo meet with these two forms of discourse, which may be thus defined : Direct Discourse is that in whicli a wi-iter or speaker delivers his own sentiments. Indirect or Oblique disconrsc is that in wliich a person relates, in his own language, what another speaker or writer said. In either case, care must bo taken tluit the correct pi'onouns arc used. An example will illustrate the diftorent usage of the jn-onoun. DiiM'XT DiscouRSK. — 'Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars' hill and said : Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious ; for as I passtal l)y and beheld your devotions, I found an altar witli this inscription : To the Unknown God. Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, Ilim declare I unto you.' Indirect Discourse — The same, repo?-ted in mdircct or oblique dis- course, would run thus: — Then Paid, fjtanding on !Mars' hill, told the men of Atlicns he perceived tliat in all things t/ici/ were too superstitious; for as Jin passed by and beheld Iheir devotions, ho found an altar with this inscription: To tjik Unknown (iIoi>. Whom, therefore, they ignorantly worshipped, Him declared ho unto them. The Direct form is to be preferred, if by its nso ambiguity of ex- pression is avoided. 1. Subdivisions of Prose and Poetry. — (1) Theprincipal kinds of prose compositions arc — narrative, leltam, memoirs, hiHtory, biography, essays, philosophy, sermons, novels, speeches, and orations. (2) The principal kinds of poetical composition are — the epigram, the epitaph, the sonnet, ])a.sforal poetry, didactic poetry, satires, descriptive poetry, ekay, lyric poetry, dramatic poetry, and epic poetry. Having thus defined the difTerent kinds of composition tliat arc usually met with, it will b.e necessary to lay down a fewg(;neral rules which may be useful. In order that a composition may be good, there must be thought, and then we must express that thought in suitable language. In order to do this, we must define or map out, as it were, in our minds, what we intend to prove or illustrate. If, for instance, an argument is to be set forth, it must be shaped into propositions ; if an illustration, the details must be carefully grouped and clearly described. I ho selection of subject is one that generally arc those coinmoii in Mliic'h verso, in ctcd and sition Avo dolinod : ivcrs lii.s cliitoa, in Til either scd. An Vlars' liill '^e are too I found Whom, ique dis- .tlicns Jh> for as lio, w\t\\ tliifj re. they ty of cx- 3 of proso ography, (2) The ! cpilaph, e poetry, til at arc 5ral rides be good, DUght in nap out, ate. If, ped into grouped [enerally ( O.MI'OSITIOX. 191 presents great dirticidty ; but the student need never be at a loss, for he may begin with a description of the objects ot everyday life with which he is most familiar, and from these he can gradually work his way upwards until ho finds himself capable of writing upon any given subject ; but ho must, at the same time, bear in mind, that without toil and pains on his part he cannot become a good writer. One most important es.^ential for correct and elegant writing, is a thorough knowledge of the words of our language. There is no doubt that an acquaintance with Classic languages may materially aid the student, but such knowledge is not indispensable. The study of English literature, as preserved in the works of our most distinguished writers, will certainly enable the student t^ clothe his thoughts in appropriate language. A knowledge of the etymology and history of a word will very frequently guide us in tlie choice of words ; but if wo depend upon this alone, we may be misled. In composition it will be much safer to follow usage; and what good nsage is, may bo learned by reading the following abridgment from Dr. Crombie'a work on Etymology and Syntax. THL LAW OF LANGUAGE. The u«AOE whicli gives law to language, in order to establish its authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, mnst be in the first place reputable ; by which is meant, not the usage of the court, or great men, or merely scientific men, but of those whose works arc esteemed by the public, and who may therefore be denominated reputable authors. In the second place, this usage must be national. It must not bo confined to this or that province or district. 'Those,' to use Camp- bell's apposite similitude, 'wlio deviate from the beaten road may bo incomparably more numerous than those who travel in it; yet, in whatever number of by-paths the former may be divided, there may not be found in any one of these tracts so mnny as travel in the king's highway.' In the third place, this usage must be present. It is difficult to fi.K with any precision what usage may in all cases bo deemed present. It is perhaps, in this respect, different with different compositions. In general, words and forms of speech which have been long disused, should not be employed. And so, on the contrary, the usage of the present day is not implicitly to be adopted. Mankind are fond of novelty, and thero i."? a fasliion in language as there is in dress. AVhim, vanity, and affo-tation, delight in creating new words, and using now forms of phraseology. Now, to adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would argue, not taste, nor judgment, but t I li V 'An 192 00MrOSITIO>^ childish foiuliiess for singularity and novelty. But should any of these maintain its ground > and receive the sanctica of reputable usage, it must in that case be received. Tlie usage, then, which gives law to language, and which is gene- rally denominated good usage, must b3 reputable, national, and present. It happens, however, that * good usage ' is not always uni- form in her decisions, and that in unquestionable authorities are found far different modes of expression. In such cases, the following CANONS, proposed by Dr. Campbell, will be of service in enabling ua to decide to which phraseology the preference ought to be given. They are given nearly in the words of the author: — Canon 1. — When usage is divided as to any particular words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while the other admits of only one ^i^^ification, the ex- pression which is strictly univocal should be preferred. Canon 2. — In doubtful cases analogy should be regarded. Canon 3. — ^When expressions are in other respects equal, that should be preferred which is most agreeable to the ear. Canon 4. — When none of the preceding rules apply, regard should be had to simplicity. But though no expression or mode of speech can be justified which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not follow, that every phraseology sanctioned by usage should be retained. In many such cases custom may properly be checked by criticism, whose pro- vince it is, not only to remonstrate against the introduction of any word or phraseology which may be either unnecessary or contrary to analogy, but also to exclude whatever is reprehensible, though in generjd use. It is by this, her prerogative, that languages are gradu- ally refined and improved. In exercising this authority she cannot pretend to degrade, instantly, any phraseology which she may deem objectionable; but she may, by repeated remonstrances, gradually effect its dismission. Her decisions in such cases may be properly regi'lated by the following rules, laid down by the same author: — Rule 1. — All words and phrases particularly harsh, and not abso- lutely necessary, should be dismissed. Bule 2. — When tVe etymology plainly points to a different significa- tion from what thu word bears, propriety and simplicity require its dismission. Rule 3. — When words become obsolete, or ar^ never used but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the style tin air of vulgarity and of cant, when this general disuse render.s them obscure, V^ roiilPOSITTON'. VX6 Id any of reputable li is gene- onal, aiul ways uni- >rities are following labling ua be given. words or a different the ex<* ual, that 'd should ied which low, that In many 'hose pro- »u of any •ntrary to hough in re gradu- le cannot lay deem gradually properly hor: — lot abso- significa- luire its i but in ,he style jrs them Rule 4. — All words and phrases whicli, analyzed grammatically, include a solecism, should be dismissed. Rule 5. — All expressions which, according to the established rules nf languages, either have no meaning, or involve a contradiction, or, according to the fair construction of the words, convey a meaning dififerent from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed. Having selected a subject for composition, and having thought carefully over it, the student reqiiires but few directions as to the way in which he may acquire the power of giving expression to those thoughts. The following simple directions will be found to embrace every requisite. In the choice of words wherein to clothe our thoughts, we need copiousness, purity, accuracy, and proprroty; in our sentences, clearness, unity, strength, and harmony; and in our paragraphs we need, in addition to these qualities, that skilful com- bination Ok sentences on which so much of the rhythm and eflFec- tiveness of a writer's style depends. I. WORDS. 1. Copiousness. — A copious phraseology is one cure of wordiness, and is essential to effective writing. The great point to be aimed at in our compositions is freedom of expression, which may be attained by a careful reading of the works of our standard writers in prose and poetry, and by the cultivation of an easy and graceful style of conversation. As a mechanical help, which is by no means to be despised, it is suggested that a student, if possible, practice transla- tioi. from a foreign language into his own ; read and then write down in his own words favorite passages; describe scenes, occurrences, characters ; describe them literally and figuratively, now in one style and now in another, until he has acquired the habit of saying the same thing in a dozen different ways. 2. Purity.— This consists in the rejection of such words and phrases as are not strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice of good writers or speakers; and is gained by avoiding the use of foreign words and modes of expression, and of obsolete and unau- thorized words. 3. Accuracy. — This quality teaches us to give each word Hs exact nicanir.g, makes verbiage as nnnecessary as it is always disp!easing, and tends to produce conviction even when the mind is not disposed to be convinced. In oiacr, then, to gain this requisite we must attach to our words a definite meaning, make it clear what that meaning is, .nnd combine them in phrases consistent with the idiom of our tongue. On this point the following suggestions will be sufTicient: — (1) Avoid tautology ; as, Hia faithfuhma and fidelity are im^ equalled. w I If 1 \i' H. ; I' ' If • ' ii 1*^ 191 COMPOSITION. (2) Observe the exact meaning of words accounted sjmonjrmous. Thus, instead of, ' Though his actions and intentions were good, ho lost his character,'' say, *He lost his reputation.' 4. Propriety. — Under tliis head the first point to be attended to is the class of words that should be used. The following general rule maybe laid down: — As a rule, words of Anglo-Saxon origin are most appropriate when we describe individual things, natural feeling, domestic life, the jioetry of nature ; words of Latin or Greek origin, when we describe the result of generalization, or of abstraction, or the discoveries of science. In brief, the words should be appropriate to the character of the audience, to tlie aptitudes and temperament of the author, and to the subject he has to discuss. In order to carry out fully everything that may be embraced under the head of propriety, tlie following hints may be found useful: — (1) Avoid low and provincial expressions; as, To get into a scrape. (2) In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical; as. This morn. The celestial orbs. (3) Avoid technical terms, unless you write to those who perfectly understand them. (4) Do not use the same word too frequently, or in difTerent senses ; as. The king communicated his intention to the minister, who dis- closed it to the secretary, who made it known to the public. His own reason might have suggested better reasons. (5) Supply words that are wanting and necessary to complete the sense. Thus, instead of, 'This action increased his former services,' say, 'This action increased the merit of his former services.' (6) Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as. His riiemorij shall be lost on the earth. (7) Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions; as, I have an opaque idea of what you mean. II. SENTENCES. 1. Clearness. — The first and grand essential quality of sentences is clearness. It is to speech what a good lens is to the telescope ; with- out it, objects appear distorted, or they remain unseen. It is what a fine atmosphere is to scenery. It makes the whole field visible, and bathes the landscape itself with fresh glory. One of the first le- quisites for clearness is grammatical accuracy. Any violation of the Rules of Sjoitax or the idiom of the language is called a solecism, and is as much to be avoided as a barbarism or an impropriety, wliich are offences against lexicography. Unless the rules of grammar be strictly adhered to, the meaning of the writer is not fiUly expressed. 1 COMPOSITION. ll^^ onymous. good, ho bended to g general origin aro al feeling, Rk origin, action, or propriatc 3oramcnt order to e head of a scrape, iical; as, perfectly it senses ; who dis- ilic. His plete the services,' memory , I have. tences is e; with- 3 what a ble, and first le- •n of the olecism, r, wliich imar be pressed. If there be such a thing as 'bad grammar,' it is injustice to trutli. Clearness demands a proper collocation of words;—/, r., that words which express things connected in thought should be placed as near to each other as possible, unless another arrangement be required by the emphasis, therefore — (1) Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be placed ns near as possible to the words whicli they affect, and in such a situation as the sense requires. (2) In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. (3) Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for which they stand. Here it may be remarked that clearness does not necessarily imply a minute description of every part of a subject, and the pointing out of every step of an argument. Something should be left to tlio imagination or thought of the reader. No more does it exclude tho use of figurative language. Plain writing may be higlily figurative, and this is the language best adapted for an abstract or a spiritual theme. In its use we may adopt these cautions: — 1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never, except when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said. 2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued too far. 3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended to- gether. 4. When figurative language is used, tho same figure should bo preserv'^ed throughout, and different figures never jumbled together. 2. Unity. — The second important quality is unity. In the gram- mar the different kinds of sentences have been considered ; a careful examination will shew that substantially a sentence is one thought, not many. It is upon this definition of a sentence that all rules with respect to unity rest ; and it must be carefully noted that unity docs not forbid any extension of the predicate, or any enlargement of the subject, or of the complement of the predicate. These may be ex- tended and enlarged to any degree, provided the objects described as part of the thought are homogeneous, and make one picture or sense. Unity, therefore, condemns heterogeneousness. In order to effect this unity the student shoiUd avail himself of the following hints: — (1) Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no imme- diate connection. (2) Tho principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most VM) C'OMrOhlTlOX. I V ii n u h'. promiuciit; and tli*' kailing noniinativo bhouM, if possible, bo the subject of every clause. (3) Avoid the introduction of parentlieses, except when a lively remark may bo thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of what goes before. 3. Strength. — This gives to every word, and every member, its duo importance. Therefore, in order to gain it, — (1) Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and members. In the following sentences, the word printed in italics should be omitteA:— Being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained sub- mission. The universal esteem and love of all men. The trifling minutiic of style. (2) Avoid the use of too many particles. Their general tendency is to weaken the style of composition. Unless minuteness rather than energy be aimed at, the frequent use of * and ' should be avoided. Upon this same principle a careful writer will reject such expressions as, There are /ejw , ho the a lively sense of r, its duo ncnibers. liould be ned sub- trijlbig tendency M rather avoided, preseiona in italics licli they lay stand le end of nd, wlien ! the Con- nies last, mount of at power st justice 1, or any ntroduc- led with ural and must be icntal. are con- Llence in !o, valor iddreaft,* •ate the co:mposition". m greatness of Lis genius in the same manner as bodies appear more ivgantk on account of their hdnrj disproportioned and mis-shapen,' [say, 'We overrate the greatness of bodies that arc.'] An unprac- tised writer seeks diversity, when the strength of the style requires eameness. 4. Harmony. — This has reference to rhytlim. It makes words ' a concord of sweet sounds,' and when not destructive of clearness and force, adds to the beauty of composition. A few mechanicid rul.jsj may be laid down. (1) In choice of words avoid harsh, grating, difficult combinations, w liether of vowels or of consonants, and recurring letters. (2) In combining words avoid closely connected aspirates, the un- melodious repetition of like sounds, whether at the end of one word and the beginning of the next, or at the end or the beginning of dif- ferent words in any part of the same sentence. (3) In arranging clauses of sentences, and sentences in paragraphs, special attention must be paid to their length and due proportion. III. PARAGRAPHS. A paragraph is a combination of sentences intended to explain, or illustrate, or prove, or apply some truth ; or to give tlie history of events during any defhiite portion of time, or in relation to any one subject of thought. Paragraphs require the element of unity as much as sentences do, but it is of a more comprehensive kind. When sentences are combined into paragraphs it becomes important to con- bider tl»eir variations of length and form. Creat care, therefore, should be taken with the structure and balancing of periotls. Eng- lish style possesses the advantage of admitting both brevity and ful- ness — brief sentences give force and clearness; full sentences add impressiveness and weight. One great beauty of the English lan- guage is the variety of style to be met with among the prose writers. Every writer must study his own taste and powers. In any of thes<^ styles it is possible to excel ^ and excellence will be most easily gained by each in that style which he finds most natural. A person's style, according as it is influenced by taste and imagination, may be dry, 'plain, neat, elegant, florid, or turgid. The most common faulty style is that which may be described as being stiff, cramped, labored, heavy, and tiresome; its opposite is tlie easy, flowing, graceful, sprightly, and interesting style. One of the greatest beauties of stylo, one too little regarded, is simplicity or naturalness ; that easy, unaffected, earnest, and highly impressive language which indicates a total ignorance, or rather, innocence, of ;dl the trickery of ait. It i !l' I U' ■fli i? I ., w ! t V * mi mi i '1' ^ . ] • '! 1 ^ !• t''c lll '; ;, i i, '. 1*)S COMPOSITION. seema to consist of the pure promptings of nature ; though, in most instances, it is not so much a natural gift as it is the perfection of art. TRANSPOSITION OP WORDS. This has been already touched upon in the Grammar, (Sec. 226,) but as a part of composition may be again introduced. It is an exercise that may be pursued with advantage, in order that the student may see in liow many different ways the same thought or sentiment may be expressed. It will give him a command of language, and prove, at the same time, a source of considerable mental cultivation. It is often neces- sary to give an entirely new turn to an expression, before a sentence can be rendered elegant, or even perspicuous. How effected. — There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing a thought may be varied: — 1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an active verb ; as, The sun dissolves the snow. The snow is dissolved by the sun. 2. By inversions or transpositions, wliich consist in changing the order in which the words stand in a sentence ; as, Competence may be acquired by industry. By industry competence may be acquired. 3. By olianging an affirmative into a negative, or a negative into an affirmative, of an entirely contrary character; as, \'irtue x^roniotes happiness. Virtue does not promote misery, 4. By cither a partial or an entire change of the words employed to express any sentiment ; as, Diligence and application are the best means of improvement. Nothmg promotes improvement like dili- gence and application. [The paraphrasing of poetry will give the pupil a command of language, as it will furnish him with ideas which he will be required to express in prose.] EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION. The Roman state evidently declined in proportion to the increase of luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided it can be done "U'ith safety. A good man has respect to the feelings of others in all that he says or does. Bravely to contend for a good cause is noble; silently to suffer for it is heroic. EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION. The Roman state evidently declined in proportion to the increase of luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury the Roman state I'vidently declined. Tlu» Roman state, in proportion to tlie increase of luxury, evidently declinod. ^* roMrosiTioN. hni 1, ill most ion of art. 226,) but n exercise ;derit may neiit may the same en neces- i sentence 3 mode of an active ^ed by the iiging the ence may acquired. itive into promotes employed ! the best like dili- imand of required increase it can be of others cause is increase (lan state increase EXEBCISES ON VABIETY OF EXPRESSION. His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is ])ettor to be moved by false glory than not to be moved at all. I shall at- tend the meeting if I can do it witli convenience. lie who improves in modesty as he improves in knowledge has an midoubttd claim to greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion breathes ^'entleness and affability. EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. His sister's conduct was more praiseworthy than his. His sister's mode of acting was entitled to more praise tha»- his. His conduct was loss entitled to praise than that of his sister, &c. Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for com- position, consists in giving tlie pupil, especially if very young, a list of words, with directions to form from them such sentences as shall contain these words. In commencing with this kind of composition it will be advisable to use simple words, and then proceed to those more difficult. LETTERS. One of the simplest and yet most useful species of composition is letter writmg. This species of composition may l)e practised either by way of real correspondence between those pursuing the same studies, or it may consist of letters written to imaginary correspon- dents. The following arc a few topics adapted to composition of this latter kind: — Letter 1. — Write to a friend at -.\, distance. State to him the object of your writing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, and how you like them. Mention how yourself and friends are. Give an account of some of the alterations which have been lately made, or are now making in your neighborhood ; and conclude by expressing your desire either to see him or hear from him soon. Letter 2. — Write to a com}>aiiion. an account of a long walk whieii you lately had. Tell him whether you wei(> alone or in company. Mention what particular things struck you by the way ; and enu- merate all tlie incidents that occurred of any monRiit. Letter 3,— Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent you a present of books, and thank him for sucli kindness. Tell him the uhc you intend to make of them ; and inform liim to what particular books you are most partial. Conclude by giving some account of those you have been lately reading, and liow you liked them. REPRODUCTION. Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in composition consists in reading some simple story or narrative, till such time as they are acquainted with the facts, and then directing them to ex- press these in tlieir own words. A still further, and perhaps even a V ; '"^i' .i;1^ ': M •ll' i' ! I ;^ » 200 COM POSITION. niinpler method, in, to take advantage of a young person's having given some aecotmt oi M'liat lie lias either seen, heard, or read, and desire him to commit t« writing what he has stated orally. THEMES. 1. The next step in composition is the writing of regular themes. The subject, however, should always be such as is not above the rapacity of the person who is desired to compose, for if it is, thu M hole benefit resulting from the exercise will be nullified. 2. A theme is a regular, set subject, upon which a person is re- quired to write ; or the dissertation that has been written upon such ji subject. Some of the simplest subjects for themes are those drawn from natural history, or natural philosophy. At all events they should not, in the first instance, be drawn from subjects of an abstruse and abstract character. 8. The following may serve ap specimens in this department: — Theme 1. — The Horsk— (1) Describe what sort of animal the horse is. (2) Tell some of the different kinds. (.'{) Mention tlie various ways in which this nol>le animal is serviceable to man. (4) State what would be the consequence of wanting him. (5) Mention tlie treatment to which he is entitled, and the cruelty of ill-using such a creature. Write themes upon the coio, the dor/, the sheep, jiouUi'y; and follow the same plan as that followed in writing upon the horse. Theme 2.— The Si:n.— (1) Begin by stating what the sun is. (2) Tell :tll you know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth. (3) Men- tion the effect it has upon the earth, and the benefits we derive from it. (4) State what would ])e the consequence if the sun were extin- guished ; and what our feelings ought to be to'.vard the Supreme Being lor such an object. Write themes upon the 7)?oo«, the stars, fire, oh; and \rater; and in all follow the same plan. Theme 3.— Day and Night. —(1) Tell what you mean by day and night. (2) State whether they are always alike long, and what is the advantage arising from their length being different at different seasons. (3) Mention the different purposes to which they are adapted. (4) Say of what the continued succession of day and night is fitted to remind us, and how this should lead us to act. Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains, rivers, and the tides of the sea; and follow a similar plan in the whole. Note. — These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upon which the student who has acquired a knowledge of grammar may be required to write. The prudent and skilful teacher will be enabled to multiply and vary them at pleasure to any extent. n s having read, and ar themes. ahovo tlie ' it is, tho rson is re- upon such lose drawn vents they m abstruse ment: — il the horse he various (4) Stato ention the ing such a- and follow ^3. (2) Tell (3) Men- erive from vere extin- reuie Being er; aud in )y day and id what is t different le adapted, is fitted to tins, rivers, whole. le subjects ,inmar may be enabled rOMTOSlTIOX. L.)l Another aid mIU ])0 afforded the young jiiipil by placing bcforo him what may be termed a skeleton, or outlini; of the subject, and requiring him to fill up tho }>lanks. Among the exercise on analysis, pages 43, 57, &c., short specimens may be found, a few more are in- serted here, simply as a guide for the t-acher and the pupil. EXERCISES IN THE COMPOSITION OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. Complete the following complex sentences by supplying (1) Noun, {2) Adjective, (3) Adverbial, (4) Principal Sentences :— (1) Young people too often imagine . I promise to 02 COMPOSITION. •listaiico from ua. Notwithstumlin^ the rapidity Mitli which time Hies -. Before the sturin came on . When men are pressed by want . Though honesty may 8ometin)e8 appear to be against our interest . Tli;\t no peraou is free from tlie cares and sorrows of life . EXERCISES IN THE COMBINATION OF SENTENCES. Combine the simple sentences in each of the following paragraphs into compoimd and complex sentences where it is necessary, so us t > l>roduce a correctly composed and continuous nanativc : -- EXAMPLE. Tin; Lton. The lion is found in Africa. The lion is found hi Asia. During the day the lion slumbers in liis retreat. Night sets in. The lion then louses himself from his luir. The lion then begins to prowl. In general the lion waits in ambush. Tlie lion sonu'times creeps towards his victim. The lion seizes his victim v ith his powerfid claws. Combined thus : The lion is found in Africa and Asia. During the day he slumbers in his retreat ; but when night sets in ho rouses himself from his lair and begins to prowl. In general, he waits in ambush. Sometiuies, however, he creeps toM'ards his victim, and seizes it with his power- ful claw s. The BLA(.'Ki;iiii). 1. The blackbird is a bird oi .song. The blackbird is al)out ten inches long. The plumage of the nude is (piite black. 'J'he plumage of the female is of a dark brown colour. Blackbirds pair early. Jilackbirds are among the earliest songsters of the grove. They build in bushes. They build in low trees. They lay four or five eggs. The eggs are of a bluish green colour. They are marked irregularly with dusky spots. The young are easily ttimed. Jlic young may be taught to whistle a variety of tunes. Tea. 2. Tea is the dried leaf of a shrub. This shrub grows chiefly in (Jhina. It is an evergreen. It grows to the height of from four to six feet. It bears pretty white flowers. These flowers resemble w ihl roses. In China there are many tea farms. These arc gener.illy of small extent. They are situated in the upper valleys. They are situattfT on the sloping sides of the hills. In these places tlie soil is light. It is rich. It is well drained. The plants are rai.sed from seed. They are generally allowed to remain three years in the grouinl. A crop of leaves is then taken from tliem. The leaves are carefully picked by the hand. The Battle of Hastinos. 'A. The battle of Hastings was fought between Harold of England and William of Normandy. Harold took up his position on a line of hills. He fortified it with a rampart of stakes. The EnL'lisli standard . Tt was ])ound to a rude car. It wa.s adorned vitli Iht an« icnt lianncrs ot three Saxon saints. The Scots rushed to the onset. They t)ore back the English van. The llank.s too, yieldeil. Hound tlic Standard the English .spears still formed an unbroken froiil I'm twenL tlcir strength i'l vain. The dragon-tlag ol Scotland was ;it la^t liiu'ric«l from the Held The Scots M-cre dcf(>atcd. More tlian Il'.cou ot' them \Acre .slaiu. EXERCISES ON ELLIPSIS. Supply ai)pi'o]>riate m"o1(1s in the lollowinu elliptic.il jiassau'es: I. -K INC .loilN ••! l-'i; \\( 1;. John, king ot l'"i'ani'e. taken in l'\ I'.dward the Black IVin<'c, and to England. Aftvr t Im i< in eaptiyits fottr . he wa.s to return to liisdwii . that he might to prevail upon his subjects to (o ;i |.r,ice |iid|iosed l)y the of En;:,'land. The oi' the Kiigli'
  • dVect. \\'h< n King .lolni that his would not pay the iiioiie\ for his lihiity. lie did not, as would have (lone. 1m ,'stM\ in France, lie immediately to return to . and his pers(Hi one.' inoi. into the of King Kdwai'd. Sonie of liis eouncillor.s Jiim against this /but he was not l>y their councils. 'If faith and loyalty," said he. -'were froui the rest of tlu' world, they ought still to enshrined in the of kings." He accordingly to England — bceame again a - ami soot* after in London. II. — Willi. AM \M' M.v.nv. When William and Mary wcii' to the throne, tliey fnimd i which ouly internal tjuiet for its in all those arts which a people strong, wealthy, and . It has been held mI remark, that the L'ivcu to commerce is ;i Ml. < u I I I I 11 ■ i 204 ro^irosTTiox. by Elizaliotli, and on throncth tli(> of James, in spite of tlie commotions which muler the reign of Charles and the Commonwealth, and continncd to its in- ll nonce notwithstandmg the laxity and oorniption of Charles II., and the of James II. Roads hnd l)ccn , rivers navigable, foreign trade greatly with the East, and tnido was created with the American Banks were already Many nseful manufactnres were on foot. The woollen cloth had long flourished, but linen was of date ; silk was a scarcity, and Manchester, now the of the cotton , at that time only rugs and friezes. Hardware, for tlie of wfiich l']ngland is now so , was then in a comparatively poor , and the porcelain manufacture had not yet When, therefore, it is how dear good clothing must have been, and how households must have been in all those utensils which nrc now , it will ]>o that the fouditiou of the would, as comfori:, bear no with what it is at present. TiiK Difference between Animals and Plants-:. l)etweeu animals and vegetables is so that we III.- Th') can readily them distinction is the from place to place, wliicii sensible distinction is the in a or less degro' tliird difference is tlic by means of proper aliment wdiich. is witliout choico, to for want. By of the earth ; y absorb the system. The in the vegetable a greater on the surface of witlj each other tlio slightest observation. The most which animals possess of do not enjoy. Another very of perception, which aninials have but which is not coinnion to . A in which tliey are . Animals, have the power of that kind of to their nature ; whilst plants are .such as the earth and water offer them, or of vessels they iml)i]je the succulent and their leaves, likewise with vessels. of tlie atmosphere, which through their of species is much greater in the thaii : amongst insects, oven, there ai*e perhaps of cliisscs than there are species ot knowi^ the . Animals have conformity tliai. liave, which tliom more diti.- cult to classify. 1'lie mechanical rules which have been given to aid in composition are useful so far as they enable a writer to avoid mistakes ; but a knowledge of them will not necessarily make a good writer. Then' arc certain mental qualities required, without which it will be vain to hope to succeed. These are clear thought, a defuiite purpose, an earnest heart, reasoning j)Ower, facility of illustration, and so much of literary taste as is required to appreciate the qualities of stylo. All these may be fostered by a judicious selection of models for imita- tion, and by a careful study of them, not as 'servile copyists,' but ratlier as persona who would catcli their .''pirit, appreciate, and, if possible, rival their excellence. fUJMl'USlTlON. 205 the reign of its in- irlcsll., and rers it, and trade ady roollen clotii date; sill^ F the cotton Hardware, was then in ifactnre had cod clothing e been in all that or!:, hear no that MO The most 1 of nother very ninials have . Animals, that kind of s are (Ter them, or 10 saccule I it ivith vessels. iroiigh tlieir than ai'e perliaps knowi^ conforioity I more diti.- These few hints upon composition maybe appropriately closed with the following remarks from Angus' Hand-Book of tlie English Tongue, to which the compiler acknowledges his indebtedness for many valu- able hints both in this and other portions of the Grammar :—" After all, practice is the grand secret of efiectiveness in this as in every otlier art. Write much ; write frequently; most add write quickly; and polish afterwards ; and you will be sure to succeed. The last two rules are Johnson's. He strongly advises young composers t(. train their minds to start promptly, for it h easier to improve in accuracy than in speed, Robert Hall's experience confirms this rule. He used to lament that his progress in composition was so slow and laborious that he could write comparatively little, while what he wrote had an air of stillness, from which his spoken style was free. Whether these last rules are acted upon or not, the two former are absolute. Excellence in composition is a great power, and its lowest price— for mo%t—i9 patient tolV composition akes ; but a iter. There will be vain I purpose, an and so much ;ies of style, els for imita- opyists,' but iate, and, if 206 it): EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. The following exercises contain examples of false syntax, whicli the ])npil must correct, giving his reason for the correction. RULE I. Him uxkI me are ol the name age, .Suppose you and me go. Them are excellent. Whom do you think has arrived? Them that seek \\ isdom will tind it. You and us enjoy many privileges. John is older than me. You are as tall as her. Who has a knife? — Me. Who came iu? — Her and liim. You can write as well as me. That is the boy wlxom we think deserves the prize. Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, yet men are so constituted as to respect genuine merit. RULE II. It hi me. Lt wixn mc m ho wrote the letter, and liim who carried it to the post-office. V am sure it could not have been her. It is them, you said, who deserve most blame. Y'^ou would probably do the .same thing if you were him. I understood it to be he. It may have })oen him, but there is no ])roof of it. If I were him, I would go abroad at once. T little thought it had been him. It is not mc you are in love witli. .Art thou proud yet? Ay. and that I am not thee. RULE III. I'lease give tiuit book to my brother William, he who stands by the window. The gentleman has arrived, him whom I mentioned before. Do you spea,k so to me, I who have so often befriended you ? I speak of Virgil, lie who MTote the .-Eneid. RULE IV. Me being absent, the business was neglected. He made as wise proverbs as anybody, him only excepted. All enjoyed themselves very much, us excepted. Whom being dead, we .shall come, Whose gray top Shall tremble, him descending. T'he bleating sheep with my complaint^i agree : Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. Her quick relapsing to her former state. Then all thy gifts and graces wo display. Thee, only thee, directhig all om- w.iy. EXERCISES IN SYNTAX, 207 ijf false s reason i». Tlit'iu that seek John is life?— Me. ne. That lowever it to respect ) carried it It is them, bly do the may have I would go lot me you nnottacc. stands hy mentioned nded you r le as wisi; hemselves le. RULES VI. AND VII. Virtues reward. One mans loss is often anotlicr mans gain. Mans cliief end is to glorify God. My ancestors vii'tue is not mine. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natui'cs gifts for mans advantage. On eagles wings. For Christ sake. For ten sake. Which dictionary do yon i)rcfer — Webster, Walker, or Jolmson? Asa his heart Avas perfect. Jolm Thompson liis hook. Lucy Jones her book. That landscape is a picture of my father. The work you speak of is one of Irving. (Jravitation was a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. That is a ring of my mother. The world's government is u^b left to chance. The tree is known by the fruit of it. The commons' vote was against the measure, but the lords' vote was in its favor. The weekly return of the day of the Lord is a blessing to man. The representatives liouse is now in session. The extent of the prerogative of the king of England is well understood. John'.s brother's wife's mother is sick. The severity of the sickness of the son of the king caused great alarm. Your brothers servant's situa- tion is critical. William's and Mary's reign. Cain and Abels sacri- fice were not the same. David and Solomon's reign were prosperous. John and William's wife are cousins. Men, women, and childrens shoes for sale. He cared for his father and also for his mothers interest. Tlie Betsy and Speedwells cargoes were both saved. Messrs. Fratt's, Woodford's, & Co.'s bookstore is in New York. Tliompson's & Company's office was on fire. Jack's the Cii ant-killer's wonderful exploits. The bishop's of London's charge to his clergy. The Grand Sultan's Mahomet's palace. The secretary's of war report. Call at Smith the bookseller and stationer's. The parcel was left at Johnson, a merchant in Broadway's. He emulated Ctesar the greatest general of antiquity's bravery. That house is Smith tlie poor' man's friend. We spent an agreeable hour at Wilson, the governor's deputy. Tlie coach stopped at Mr. Brown, Henry'.s father. James father arrived yesterday. Charles books are com- pletely spoiled. King James translators merely revised former translations. For consciences sake. For righteousness' s sake. All men have talents committed to their charges. It is the duty of Christians to submit to their lots. We protest against this eour.se, in our own names and in the names of our constituents. A fjithers and mother's loves to their children are very tender. The gcntle- mans and ladys healths are unproving. RULE VIII. He >ves I. He and they we knew, but wh.» art thou V Site that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Yc only have 1 known. 208 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. i?;: m Ee who committed the offence thou shouldst correct, not I who am innocent. They that honor me I will honor. Who do you think I saw yesterday ? Who did he marry ? She who we met at the Springs last summer. Who, having not seen, we love. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend ? Who dost thou take to be such a coward ? You will have reason enough to repent yon of your foolish conduct. They did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject. Go, flee thee away into the land of Judca. Hasten thee homo. Sit thee down and rest thee. Change the following into the regular form, and give a reason for the change: — I was promised a pension. He was offered a pardon. She would not accept the situation, though she was offered it. I was paid a dollar for my services. I was given a book of great Vidue. The commissioner was denied access. Becket could not better discover, than by attacking so powerful an interest, his resolution to maintain his right. The troops pursued, without waiting to rest, the enemy to their gates. To who will you give that pen ? That is a small matter between you and I. Ho came along with .Tames and I. He gave the book to some one, I know not who. Who does it belong to ? The book which I read that story in is lost. The nature of tlie undertaking was such as to render the progress very slow of the work. Beyond this period the arts can not be traced of civil society. BULE IX. These kind of books can hardly be got. I have not been from home this ten days. We walked two mile in half-an-hour. I ordered six ton of coal, and these makes the third that has been delivered. This lake is six fathom deep. The garden wall is five rod long ; I measured it with a ten-foot pole. Twenty heads of cattle passed along the road. It is said that a fleet of six sails has just entered the bay. That three pair of gloves cost twelve shilling. A man who is prudent and industi'ious, will, by that means, increase his fortune. Charles formed expensive habits, and by those means became poor. If you are fond of those sort of things you may have them. There was a blot on the first or second pages. The first and second verse iiro better than the third and fourth. Come quick and do not hinder lis. Time passe swift though it appears to move slow. We got home safely before dark, and found our friends sitting comfortably around the fire. The boat glides smooth over the lake. Magnesia feels smoothly. Open the door widely. The door is painted greenly. That merchant is the wealthiest of all his neighbors. China has a greater population than any nation on earth. That ship is larger I who am )U think I he Springs lid I meet io be such our foolish e subject, lomo. Sit reason for She would ^as paid d long; I tie passed ntered the lan vi^ho is s fortune, ime poor, riiere was verse are liinder us. got home ly around icsia feels greenly. ina has a is larger EXERCISES IX SYNTAX. • i 201) than any of its class. There is more gold in California than in any part of North America. The birds of Brazil are more beautiful than any in South America. Philadelphia is the most regular of any city in Europe. Israel loved Joseph more than all his children. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. A more worthier man you cannot find. The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. A worser evil yet awaits ns. The rumor has not spread so universally as we supposed. Draw that lino more perpendicular. This figure is a more perfect circle than that is. He is far from being so perfect as he thinks he is. A life of the modern soldier is ill represented by heroic fiction. Earth existed at first in the state of chaos. An age of chivalry is gone. A crowd at the door was so great that we could not enter. The lire, the air, the earth, and the water, are four elements of the philosophers. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. A man was made to mourn. The gold is corrupting. A lion is generous, a cat is treacherous, a dog is faith- ful. A horse-leech cries, "Give, give," and a grave is never satisfied. The war has means of destruction more dreadful than a cannon or a sword. A man may be a mechanic, or farmer, or lawyer, and be use- ful and respected ; but idler or spendthrift can never be either. We should ever pay attention to graceful and becoming. The memory of just is blessed; but the name of wicked shall rot. Best men are often those who say least. Herod Great was distinguished for his cruelty ; Pliny younger for gentleness and benignity. A red and a white flag was the only one displayed from the tower. A beautiful stream flows between the old and new mansion. A hot and cold spring were found in the 3ame neighborhood. The young and old man seem to be on good terms. The first and second book are difii- cult. Thomson the watchmaker and the jeweller made one of the partj\ A man may bo a better soldier than a logician. There is much truth in the saymg that fire is a better servant than a master. He is not so good a poet as an historian. It is always necessary to pay little attention to business. A little respect should be paid to those who deserve none. Let the damsel abide with us few days. Arc not my days a few? A few men cf his age enjoy so good health. RULE X. A person's success in life depends on their exertions ; if they shall aim at nothing, they shall certainly achieve nothing. Extremes are not in its nature favorable to happiness. A man's recollections of tlie past regidate their anticipations of the future. Let every boy answer for themselves. Each of us had more than we wanted. Every one of you should attend to your own husines". Discontent and sorrow ■ -i I ^■'i > I I, If si 11 i r 210 EXERCISES IX SYNTAX. manifested itself in his countenance. Both cold and licat have its extremes. You and your friend should take care of themselves. You and I must be diligent in your studies. John or James will favor us with their company. One or other must relinquish their ilaim. Neither wealth nor honor confers happiness on their votari«^s. Kvovy plant and every flower proclaims their Maker's praise. Each day and each hour brings their changes. Poverty and wealth have each their own temptations. No thought, no word, no action, how- ever secret, can escape in the judgment, whether they be good or evil. If any boy or girl shall neglect her duty, they shall forfeit their place, No lady or gentleman would do a thing so unworthy of them. A teacher should always consult the interest of her pupils. A parent's care for her children is not always requited. Every one should con- sider their own frailties. The assembly held their meetings in thy. Your iay. His to he. If •ning, you his is the isest kincf jh we saw u am he. The king fore corn- is l)Ut of 5S. Thou 36. Fifty of ability :)f studies jes alters first, has 1. Much dues human pvidu and folly re<|uac »-orrectioii. 'I\. In- ignorant (>t' ';uch things are now inexcuHaLlo. Forty lioad of cattle was sold in one hop.r. I'he horse was sent forward to en^a,t.^o the enemy. Tlu- foot, in the meantime, was preparing for an attack. Vatienee and diligence, like faitii, removes morntains. Anger and impatience is always unrcasonahle. Idleness and ignorance produces many vicis. That able scholar and critic have died, ^'our friend and patron, avIio were here yesterday, liavi; called again to-day. I'lvery leaf, and every twig, and eveiy drop of water, teem with life. Xo wife, no mother, no child, soothe his cares. Either the l)oy or the girl were present. Neither precept nor discipline an- so forcible as example. When sickness, infirmity, or misfortune, alfeet us, the sincerity of friendship is tried. His time, as well as his money and liealth, were lost in the undertaking. He, and not we, are to blame. James, and also his brother, have embarked for tlie gold I'cgion. Books, not i)leasure, occupies his mind. Either ho or f are willing to go. Neither thou nor he art of age, Vou or youi* brother are blamed. Neitlier James nor I has had a letter this week. .Stephens party were entirely broken up. The people often rejoices in that which will prove their ruiu. The British parliament are composed of lords and commons. Never were any nation so infatuated. Many a one have tried to be rich, but in vain. Many a bi'oken .ship have come to land. The letter from which the extract was taken, and came by mail, is lost. It was proposed by the president to fit out an expedition, and lias accomplished it. Our friend lirought two loads to market, and were .sold at a good price. Whom do you think he is? Whom do men say that I am? She is the person who [ understood it to be. Let him be whom ho may. fan you tell whom that man is? Is it not him whom you thought it was? Thomas knew not whom it was that called, though quite certain it was not her wlio we saw yesterday. T'he doctor said that fever always produced thirst. I know the family more than twenty years. My brother was sick four weeks, and is no l)etter. He has been formerly very disorderly. I have been at Lon- don last year, and seen the king last summer. V have once or twice told the story to our friend before he went away. When we finished our lessons wo went out to play. He that was dead sat up and began to speak. We shall welcome him when \xv sliall arrive. As soon as he shall return wo will recommence oiu- studies. From tlic little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have been a man of learning. He was afraid he would have died. Kirstall abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an extensive building. Lyeurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, is said to be born in the nine hundred and twentj- sixth year before Christ. fii ... ^ 1 i i 1 ): 1 i : 1 t. 1 J I- 1 It 1 1 i i 1 '■ 1 ! 212 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. EULE XIV. Tlioy lioiteil for a soon and prosperous issue to the war The then emperor was noted for his cruelty. She walks graceful. She did that M-ork good. Our friends arrived safely. The boat moves rai)id. From hence ! away ! Where art thou gone ? And he said unto me, "Come up here." He drew up a petition, where he represented his own merit. He will never be no taller. He did not say nothing at Jill. I have received no information on the subject, neither from him nor from his friend. Be so kind as to tell me whether he will do it or no. We should not be overcome totally by present events. Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully requires to be con- sulted as well as tlio sense. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. The women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily, to assist the government. By greatness, I do not only mean the bxilk of any single object, but the distinctness of a whole view. Only you liave I known of all the nations of the earth. He read the book onlj', but did not keep it. He only read the book, but not the letter. He chiefly spoke of virtue, not of vice. Scholars should be taught to carefully scrutinize the sentiments advanced in the books they read. To make this sentence perspicuous, it will be necessary to entirely remodel it. RULE XV. This remark is founded with truth. 1 find great difficulty of writ- ing. Every change is not a change to the better. It is important, in times of trial, to have a friend to whom you can confide. You may rely in the truth of what he says. I have no occasion of his services. Favors are not always bestowed to the most deserving. This is very different to that. Virtue and vice diflfer widely with each other. Come in the house. We rode into a carriage with four horses. The boy fell under a deep pit. Such conduct cannot be reconciled to your profession. Go, and be reconciled with thy brother. A man had four sons, and he divided his property between them. I am now engaged with that work. He insists on it that he is right. RULES XVI. AND XVII. He reads and wrote well. Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools. If he understand the subject, and attends to it, he can scarcely fail of success. Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than about shewing it. Be more anxious about acquiring knowledge than to shew it. You and me arc gi^eat friends. This is a small matter between you and I. My EXKnCI?JES TN SYNTAX. 213 The then 1. She did oves rapid, d unto me, esented his nothiug at ir from him 3 ivill do it ents. Not 30. In the to be con- ;ssed alike, intarily, to the btUk of Only you Look onlj', etter. He taught to they read, to entirely fr.ther and him aro very intimato. I do not dtiiy Init he has merit. They were afraid lost you would ho otfoudod. We "were api)reliensi\ o lest some accident had happened to him. It is so clear as I need not explain it. The relations aro so uncertain, as that they require much examination. I must 1)0 so candid to own that I have l.een mistaken. Ho was as angry as lie could not speak. !So astliy days so shall thy strength he. Though lie slay mo so will I trust in him. There is no condition so secure as cainiot admit of change. I'e hr.s little more of the scholar besides the name. V>c ready to succor sucli persons who nce